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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20%22Rocket%22%20Richard%20Trophy
|
Maurice "Rocket" Richard Trophy
|
The Maurice "Rocket" Richard Trophy, also known as the Rocket Richard Trophy, is awarded annually to the leading goal scorer in the National Hockey League (NHL). It was donated to the NHL by the Montreal Canadiens in and is named in honour of legendary Montreal Canadiens right winger Maurice "Rocket" Richard. First won by Teemu Selanne, it is currently held by Auston Matthews, who scored 41 goals during the 2020–21 NHL season.
History
The Maurice "Rocket" Richard Trophy was donated by the Montreal Canadiens to the NHL in 1999, and was first awarded at the end of the . It is one of the newest of the NHL's trophies and is named in honour of the legendary right winger Maurice "Rocket" Richard, who spent his eighteen-season career with the Canadiens. He led the NHL in goal scoring five times and was the first NHL player to reach the 500-goal milestone. In , Richard became the first player in NHL history to score 50 goals in one season, doing so in just 50 games, the latter feat achieved by only four other players since then. However, Richard never finished higher than second in points, his closest miss coming in .
The Art Ross Trophy given to the NHL's leading points scorer often wins the Hart Memorial Trophy as league Most valuable player. However, only Alexander Ovechkin and Corey Perry have won both the Richard and the Hart trophies in the same season; Ovechkin has accomplished this three times, in , , and . Eleven players won the Hart in the same season in which they led the league in goals before the Richard Trophy was first awarded.
Unlike the Art Ross Trophy, there are no tiebreakers for the Richard Trophy. As a result, it is possible for several players to share the award, such as when the season featured a three-way tie between 41-goal scorers Jarome Iginla, Ilya Kovalchuk, and Rick Nash. The second time there was a tie for this award was in the season, when both Sidney Crosby and Steven Stamkos scored 51 goals each to win this award. In the shortened season, there was a tie between Ovechkin and David Pastrnak. However, Ovechkin did so in 2 fewer games, having played 68 to Pastrnak's 70. Rick Nash is the youngest player to have won the trophy, being 19 years old upon receipt.
Alexander Ovechkin is the only player to have won the trophy at least three times; he won his ninth Richard Trophy in . Only four other players (Pavel Bure, Jarome Iginla, Steven Stamkos, and Sidney Crosby with two trophies each) have won it more than once.
Winners
Key
(#) Wins including leading goal scorers prior to the trophy's formal introduction
* Season shortened by the 2012–13 NHL lockout
** Season shortened by the COVID-19 pandemic
See also
List of past NHL scoring leaders)
References
General
Maurice Rocket Richard Trophy info at records.NHL.com
Maurice Richard Trophy winners at NHL.com
Specific
National Hockey League trophies and awards
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendinopathy
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Tendinopathy
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Tendinopathy, a type of tendon disorder that results in pain, swelling, and impaired function. The pain is typically worse with movement. It most commonly occurs around the shoulder (rotator cuff tendinitis, biceps tendinitis), elbow (tennis elbow, golfer's elbow), wrist, hip, knee (jumper's knee, popliteus tendinopathy), or ankle (Achilles tendinitis).
Causes may include an injury or repetitive activities. Groups at risk include people who do manual labor, musicians, and athletes. Less common causes include infection, arthritis, gout, thyroid disease, and diabetes. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms, examination, and occasionally medical imaging. A few weeks following an injury little inflammation remains, with the underlying problem related to weak or disrupted tendon fibrils.
Treatment may include rest, NSAIDs, splinting, and physiotherapy. Less commonly steroid injections or surgery may be done. About 80% of patients recover completely within six months. Tendinopathy is relatively common. Older people are more commonly affected. It results in a large amount of missed work.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms includes tenderness on palpation, swelling, and pain, often when exercising or with a specific movement.
Cause
Causes may include an injury or repetitive activities. Groups at risk include people who do manual labor, musicians, and athletes. Less common causes include infection, arthritis, gout, thyroid disease, and diabetes. Despite the injury of the tendon there is poor healing.
Quinolone antibiotics are associated with increased risk of tendinitis and tendon rupture. A 2013 review found the incidence of tendon injury among those taking fluoroquinolones to be between 0.08 and 0.2%. Fluoroquinolones most frequently affect large load-bearing tendons in the lower limb, especially the Achilles tendon which ruptures in approximately 30 to 40% of cases.
Types
Achilles tendinitis
Calcific tendinitis
Patellar tendinitis (jumper's knee)
Pathophysiology
As of 2016 the pathophysiology of tendinopathy is poorly understood. While inflammation appears to play a role, the relationships among changes to the structure of tissue, the function of tendons, and pain are not understood and there are several competing models, none of which have been fully validated or falsified. Molecular mechanisms involved in inflammation includes release of inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β which reduces the expression of type I collagen mRNA in human tenocytes and causes extracellular matrix degradation in the tendon.
There are multifactorial theories that could include: tensile overload, tenocyte related collagen synthesis disruption, load-induced ischemia, neural sprouting, thermal damage, and adaptive compressive responses. The intratendinous sliding motion of fascicles and shear force at interfaces of fascicles could be an important mechanical factor for the development of tendinopathy and predispose tendons to rupture. Obesity, or more specifically, adiposity or fatness, has also been linked to an increasing incidence of tendinopathy.
The most commonly accepted cause for this condition however is seen to be an overuse syndrome in combination with intrinsic and extrinsic factors leading to what may be seen as a progressive interference or the failing of the innate healing response. Tendinopathy involves cellular apoptosis, matrix disorganization and neovascularization.
Classic characteristics of "tendinosis" include degenerative changes in the collagenous matrix, hypercellularity, hypervascularity, and a lack of inflammatory cells which has challenged the original misnomer "tendinitis".
Histological findings include granulation tissue, microrupture, degenerative changes, and there is no traditional inflammation. As a consequence, "lateral elbow tendinopathy or tendinosis" is used instead of "lateral epicondylitis".
Examination of tennis elbow tissue reveals noninflammatory tissue, so the term "angiofibroblastic tendinosis" is used.
Cultures from tendinopathic tendons contain an increased production of type III collagen.
Longitudinal sonogram of the lateral elbow displays thickening and heterogeneity of the common extensor tendon that is consistent with tendinosis, as the ultrasound reveals calcifications, intrasubstance tears, and marked irregularity of the lateral epicondyle. Although the term "epicondylitis" is frequently used to describe this disorder, most histopathologic findings of studies have displayed no evidence of an acute, or a chronic inflammatory process. Histologic studies have demonstrated that this condition is the result of tendon degeneration, which causes normal tissue to be replaced by a disorganized arrangement of collagen. Therefore, the disorder is more appropriately referred to as "tendinosis" or "tendinopathy" rather than "tendinitis".
Colour Doppler ultrasound reveals structural tendon changes, with vascularity and hypo-echoic areas that correspond to the areas of pain in the extensor origin.
Load-induced non-rupture tendinopathy in humans is associated with an increase in the ratio of collagen III:I proteins, a shift from large to small diameter collagen fibrils, buckling of the collagen fascicles in the tendon extracellular matrix, and buckling of the tenocyte cells and their nuclei.
Diagnosis
Symptoms can vary from aches or pains and local joint stiffness, to a burning that surrounds the whole joint around the inflamed tendon. In some cases, swelling occurs along with heat and redness, and there may be visible knots surrounding the joint. With this condition, the pain is usually worse during and after activity, and the tendon and joint area can become stiff the following day as muscles tighten from the movement of the tendon. Many patients report stressful situations in their life in correlation with the beginnings of pain which may contribute to the symptoms.
Medical imaging
Ultrasound imaging can be used to evaluate tissue strain, as well as other mechanical properties.
Ultrasound-based techniques are becoming more popular because of its affordability, safety, and speed. Ultrasound can be used for imaging tissues, and the sound waves can also provide information about the mechanical state of the tissue.
Treatment
Treatment of tendon injuries is largely conservative. Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), rest, and gradual return to exercise is a common therapy. Resting assists in the prevention of further damage to the tendon. Ice, compression and elevation are also frequently recommended. Physical therapy, occupational therapy, orthotics or braces may also be useful. Initial recovery is typically within 2 to 3 days and full recovery is within 3 to 6 months. Tendinosis occurs as the acute phase of healing has ended (6–8 weeks) but has left the area insufficiently healed. Treatment of tendinitis helps reduce some of the risks of developing tendinosis, which takes longer to heal.
There is tentative evidence that low-level laser therapy may also be beneficial in treating tendinopathy. The effects of deep transverse friction massage for treating tennis elbow and lateral knee tendinitis is unclear.
NSAIDs
NSAIDs may be used to help with pain. They however do not alter long term outcomes. Other types of pain medication, like paracetamol, may be just as useful.
Steroids
Steroid injections have not been shown to have long term benefits but have been shown to be more effective than NSAIDs in the short term. They appear to have little benefit in tendinitis of the rotator cuff. There are some concerns that they may have negative effects.
Other injections
There is insufficient evidence on the routine use of injection therapies (autologous blood, platelet-rich plasma, deproteinised haemodialysate, aprotinin, polysulphated glycosaminoglycan, skin derived fibroblasts etc.) for treating Achilles tendinopathy. As of 2014 there was insufficient evidence to support the use of platelet-rich therapies for treating musculoskeletal soft tissue injuries such as ligament, muscle and tendon tears and tendinopathies.
Prognosis
Initial recovery is usually within 2 to 3 months, and full recovery usually within 3 to 6 months. About 80% of people will fully recover within 12 months.
Epidemiology
Tendon injury and resulting tendinopathy are responsible for up to 30% of consultations to sports doctors and other musculoskeletal health providers. Tendinopathy is most often seen in tendons of athletes either before or after an injury but is becoming more common in non-athletes and sedentary populations. For example, the majority of patients with Achilles tendinopathy in a general population-based study did not associate their condition with a sporting activity. In another study the population incidence of Achilles tendinopathy increased sixfold from 1979-1986 to 1987-1994. The incidence of rotator cuff tendinopathy ranges from 0.3% to 5.5% and annual prevalence from 0.5% to 7.4%.
Terminology
Tendinitis is a very common, but misleading term. By definition, the suffix "-itis" means "inflammation of". Inflammation is the body's local response to tissue damage which involves red blood cells, white blood cells, blood proteins with dilation of blood vessels around the site of injury. Tendons are relatively avascular.
Corticosteroids are drugs that reduce inflammation. Corticosteroids can be useful to relieve chronic tendinopathy pain, improve function, and reduce swelling in the short term. However, there is a greater risk of long-term recurrence. They are typically injected along with a small amount of a numbing drug called lidocaine. Research shows that tendons are weaker following corticosteroid injections. Tendinitis is still a very common diagnosis, though research increasingly documents that what is thought to be tendinitis is usually tendinosis.
Anatomically close but separate conditions are:
Enthesitis, wherein there is inflammation of the entheses, the sites where tendons or ligaments insert into the bone. It is associated with HLA B27 arthropathies such as ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, and reactive arthritis.
Apophysitis, inflammation of the bony attachment, generally associated with overuse among growing children.
Research
The use of a nitric oxide delivery system (glyceryl trinitrate patches) applied over the area of maximal tenderness was found to reduce pain and increase range of motion and strength.
A promising therapy involves eccentric loading exercises involving lengthening muscular contractions.
Other animals
Bowed tendon is a horseman's term for tendinitis (inflammation) and tendinosis (degeneration), most commonly seen in the superficial digital flexor tendon in the front leg of horses.
Mesenchymal stem cells, derived from a horse's bone marrow or fat, are currently being used for tendon repair in horses.
References
External links
Questions and Answers about Bursitis and Tendinitis - US National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
Disorders of fascia
Inflammations
Overuse injuries
Pain
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Johnson
|
Robert L. Johnson
|
Robert Louis Johnson (born April 8, 1946) is an American entrepreneur, media magnate, executive, philanthropist, and investor. He is the co-founder of BET, which was acquired by Viacom in 2001. He also founded RLJ Companies, a holding company that invests in various business sectors. Johnson is the former majority owner of the Charlotte Bobcats. He became the first African-American billionaire in 2001. Johnson's companies have counted among the most prominent African-American businesses in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.
Early life and education
Johnson was born in 1946 in Hickory, Mississippi, the ninth out of ten children to Edna and Archie Johnson. His mother was a schoolteacher and his father was a farmer. His parents moved the family to Freeport, Illinois, when he was a child. He was an honors student in high school. Johnson graduated from the University of Illinois in 1968 with a bachelor's degree in social studies. While at the University of Illinois, Johnson became a member of the Beta chapter of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. He received a master's degree in public affairs from the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University in 1972.
Career
After graduating from Princeton, Johnson found a job in Washington, D.C., that introduced him to the television industry. He served as the public affairs director for the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. In this position is where he learned of the power and untapped potential of television. Around the same time he also worked as the director of communications for the Washington, D.C. office of the National Urban League. Johnson worked as a press secretary for Congressman Walter E. Fauntroy. He later became vice president of government relations at the National Cable and Television Association (NCTA). In 1980, Johnson launched Black Entertainment Television, which became a full-fledged channel in 1983.
Johnson left NCTA in 1979 to create Black Entertainment Television, the first cable television network aimed at African-Americans. When the network launched in 1980, it only aired for two hours on Friday night. BET first turned a profit in 1985 and it became the first black-controlled company listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1991. In 1998, Johnson and Liberty Media bought all outstanding shares of the company. This purchase gave Johnson 42% of the company. Viacom acquired BET in 2001 for a reported $3 billion; Johnson earned over $1 billion from the sale, making him the first black American billionaire. He remained BET CEO until 2006.
Johnson founded The RLJ Companies, a holding company with a diverse portfolio including hotel real estate investment, private equity, financial services, asset management, automobile dealerships, sports and entertainment, and Video lottery terminal gaming. The RLJ Companies is headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland.
By January 2009, Ion Media had another subchannel network, Urban TV, in the works with him targeted to African-Americans.
As of 2013, Johnson was a member of the board of directors for RLJ Lodging Trust, RLJ Entertainment, Inc., KB Home, Lowe's Companies, Inc., Strayer Education, Think Finance, Inc., NBA Board of Governors, The Business Council, and the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of African American History and Culture. Johnson has also served as a member of the board of directors for several other companies and organizations, including US Airways, Hilton Hotels, General Mills, the United Negro College Fund, and Deutsche Bank's Americas Advisory Board.
Johnson became the first African-American majority club owner of a major American sports league team with his 2002 purchase of the Charlotte Bobcats. In 2010, Johnson sold his majority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats to Michael Jordan.
In 2016, Johnson finalized a partnership agreement with AMC Networks through his RLJ Company after launching his own video on demand streaming service Urban Movie Channel in 2014. According to the agreement, AMC will use its programming and distribution clout to benefit Acorn and UMC. Additionally, the RLJ-AMC partnership will allow for greater investment in content from African-American creatives, Johnson emphasized. The agreement called for AMC to provide RLJ with a $60 million loan on a seven-year term and $5 million on a one-year term. AMC has received warrants to purchase at least 20 million shares or the equivalent of 50.1% of the company. The time frame for exercising those warrants is open-ended, AMC said.
Philanthropy
In 2011, Johnson worked with Morgan Freeman to raise funds for hurricane preparedness in the Bahamas. Johnson released a neckwear line in coordination with PVH and The Ella Rose Collection, the RLJ Ella Rose Africa Tie Collection, in 2012 to benefit the charitable organization Malaria No More.
In 2007, Johnson created the Liberia Enterprise Development Fund with a $30 million investment. The fund provides credit for Liberian entrepreneurs.
Political commentary
In January 2008, Johnson became the target of criticism for remarks he made to supporters of presidential candidate Hillary Clinton about another candidate, Senator (and eventual party nominee and election winner) Barack Obama. Johnson said, "As an African-American, I'm frankly insulted that the Obama campaign would imply that we are so stupid that we would think Bill and Hillary Clinton, who have been deeply and emotionally involved in black issues when Barack Obama was doing something in the neighborhood that I won't say what he was doing, [but] he said it in his book." This statement was widely interpreted as a criticism of Obama's acknowledged use of marijuana in his youth. The Clinton campaign denied this, submitting that the comments were referring to Obama's work as a community organizer. In subsequent days, Johnson was roundly criticized for his comments as hypocritical given the prodigious glorification of drug use and sale by artists prominently featured on BET. On January 17, 2008, Johnson sent Obama the following apology:
On April 14, 2008, Johnson made comments to the effect that Obama would not be the Democratic Party's leading candidate if he were not black, in defense of a similar comment made by Geraldine Ferraro. He also went on to say "I make a joke about Obama doing drugs [and it's] 'Oh my God, a black man tearing down another black man.'"
During the 2020 election, Johnson made comments implying that he supported President Trump, stating "[w]here I come out as a businessman, I will take the devil I know over the devil I don't know anytime of the week."
Personal life
Johnson married Sheila Johnson in 1969. They divorced in 2001 and have two children. Johnson began dating Lauren Wooden, who is 33 years his junior, in 2010. As of 2016, Wooden was pursuing an international business-management doctorate in Paris. They married in May 2016; Greg Mathis officiated, and divorced in 2020.
See also
List of African-American firsts
Black billionaires
References
External links
Official website
Johnson Sets Sights on New Urban Cable Network
How I Built This - Live Episode! Black Entertainment Television: Robert Johnson
Interview with Robert Johnson, president and founder of BET, from KUT's In Black America series on the American Archive of Public Broadcasting, April 29, 1986
1946 births
Living people
African-American billionaires
African-American company founders
African-American businesspeople
American company founders
African-American sports executives and administrators
American sports executives and administrators
American billionaires
American mass media owners
American television executives
Businesspeople from Charlotte, North Carolina
Businesspeople from Illinois
Businesspeople from Mississippi
Charlotte Bobcats owners
Charlotte Sting owners
Freeport High School (Illinois) alumni
People from Freeport, Illinois
People from Hickory, Mississippi
People from Kosciusko, Mississippi
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign alumni
Women's National Basketball Association executives
Princeton School of Public and International Affairs alumni
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s%20Elements
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Euclid's Elements
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The Elements ( Stoikheîa) is a mathematical treatise consisting of 13 books attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt 300 BC. It is a collection of definitions, postulates, propositions (theorems and constructions), and mathematical proofs of the propositions. The books cover plane and solid Euclidean geometry, elementary number theory, and incommensurable lines. Elements is the oldest extant large-scale deductive treatment of mathematics. It has proven instrumental in the development of logic and modern science, and its logical rigor was not surpassed until the 19th century.
Euclid's Elements has been referred to as the most successful and influential textbook ever written. It was one of the very earliest mathematical works to be printed after the invention of the printing press and has been estimated to be second only to the Bible in the number of editions published since the first printing in 1482, the number reaching well over one thousand. For centuries, when the quadrivium was included in the curriculum of all university students, knowledge of at least part of Euclid's Elements was required of all students. Not until the 20th century, by which time its content was universally taught through other school textbooks, did it cease to be considered something all educated people had read.
Geometry emerged as an indispensable part of the standard education of the English gentleman in the eighteenth century; by the Victorian period it was also becoming an important part of the education of artisans, children at Board Schools, colonial subjects and, to a rather lesser degree, women. The standard textbook for this purpose was none other than Euclid's The Elements.
History
Basis in earlier work
Scholars believe that the Elements is largely a compilation of propositions based on books by earlier Greek mathematicians.
Proclus (412–485 AD), a Greek mathematician who lived around seven centuries after Euclid, wrote in his commentary on the Elements: "Euclid, who put together the Elements, collecting many of Eudoxus' theorems, perfecting many of Theaetetus', and also bringing to irrefragable demonstration the things which were only somewhat loosely proved by his predecessors".
Pythagoras ( 570–495 BC) was probably the source for most of books I and II, Hippocrates of Chios ( 470–410 BC, not the better known Hippocrates of Kos) for book III, and Eudoxus of Cnidus ( 408–355 BC) for book V, while books IV, VI, XI, and XII probably came from other Pythagorean or Athenian mathematicians. The Elements may have been based on an earlier textbook by Hippocrates of Chios, who also may have originated the use of letters to refer to figures.
Transmission of the text
In the 4th century AD, Theon of Alexandria produced an edition of Euclid which was so widely used that it became the only surviving source until François Peyrard's 1808 discovery at the Vatican of a manuscript not derived from Theon's. This manuscript, the Heiberg manuscript, is from a Byzantine workshop around 900 and is the basis of modern editions. Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 29 is a tiny fragment of an even older manuscript, but only contains the statement of one proposition.
Although Euclid was known to Cicero, for instance, no record exists of the text having been translated into Latin prior to Boethius in the fifth or sixth century. The Arabs received the Elements from the Byzantines around 760; this version was translated into Arabic under Harun al Rashid ( 800). The Byzantine scholar Arethas commissioned the copying of one of the extant Greek manuscripts of Euclid in the late ninth century. Although known in Byzantium, the Elements was lost to Western Europe until about 1120, when the English monk Adelard of Bath translated it into Latin from an Arabic translation.
The first printed edition appeared in 1482 (based on Campanus of Novara's 1260 edition), and since then it has been translated into many languages and published in about a thousand different editions. Theon's Greek edition was recovered in 1533. In 1570, John Dee provided a widely respected "Mathematical Preface", along with copious notes and supplementary material, to the first English edition by Henry Billingsley.
Copies of the Greek text still exist, some of which can be found in the Vatican Library and the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The manuscripts available are of variable quality, and invariably incomplete. By careful analysis of the translations and originals, hypotheses have been made about the contents of the original text (copies of which are no longer available).
Ancient texts which refer to the Elements itself, and to other mathematical theories that were current at the time it was written, are also important in this process. Such analyses are conducted by J. L. Heiberg and Sir Thomas Little Heath in their editions of the text.
Also of importance are the scholia, or annotations to the text. These additions, which often distinguished themselves from the main text (depending on the manuscript), gradually accumulated over time as opinions varied upon what was worthy of explanation or further study.
Influence
The Elements is still considered a masterpiece in the application of logic to mathematics. In historical context, it has proven enormously influential in many areas of science. Scientists Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Albert Einstein and Sir Isaac Newton were all influenced by the Elements, and applied their knowledge of it to their work. Mathematicians and philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, Alfred North Whitehead, and Bertrand Russell, have attempted to create their own foundational "Elements" for their respective disciplines, by adopting the axiomatized deductive structures that Euclid's work introduced.
The austere beauty of Euclidean geometry has been seen by many in western culture as a glimpse of an otherworldly system of perfection and certainty. Abraham Lincoln kept a copy of Euclid in his saddlebag, and studied it late at night by lamplight; he related that he said to himself, "You never can make a lawyer if you do not understand what demonstrate means; and I left my situation in Springfield, went home to my father's house, and stayed there till I could give any proposition in the six books of Euclid at sight". Edna St. Vincent Millay wrote in her sonnet "Euclid alone has looked on Beauty bare", "O blinding hour, O holy, terrible day, When first the shaft into his vision shone Of light anatomized!". Albert Einstein recalled a copy of the Elements and a magnetic compass as two gifts that had a great influence on him as a boy, referring to the Euclid as the "holy little geometry book".
The success of the Elements is due primarily to its logical presentation of most of the mathematical knowledge available to Euclid. Much of the material is not original to him, although many of the proofs are his. However, Euclid's systematic development of his subject, from a small set of axioms to deep results, and the consistency of his approach throughout the Elements, encouraged its use as a textbook for about 2,000 years. The Elements still influences modern geometry books. Furthermore, its logical, axiomatic approach and rigorous proofs remain the cornerstone of mathematics.
In modern mathematics
One of the most notable influences of Euclid on modern mathematics is the discussion of the parallel postulate. In Book I, Euclid lists five postulates, the fifth of which stipulates If a line segment intersects two straight lines forming two interior angles on the same side that sum to less than two right angles, then the two lines, if extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles sum to less than two right angles.
This postulate plagued mathematicians for centuries due to its apparent complexity compared with the other four postulates. Many attempts were made to prove the fifth postulate based on the other four, but they never succeeded. Eventually in 1829, mathematician Nikolai Lobachevsky published a description of acute geometry (or hyperbolic geometry), a geometry which assumed a different form of the parallel postulate. It is in fact possible to create a valid geometry without the fifth postulate entirely, or with different versions of the fifth postulate (elliptic geometry). If one takes the fifth postulate as a given, the result is Euclidean geometry.
Contents
Book 1 contains 5 postulates (including the famous parallel postulate) and 5 common notions, and covers important topics of plane geometry such as the Pythagorean theorem, equality of angles and areas, parallelism, the sum of the angles in a triangle, and the construction of various geometric figures.
Book 2 contains a number of lemmas concerning the equality of rectangles and squares, sometimes referred to as "geometric algebra", and concludes with a construction of the golden ratio and a way of constructing a square equal in area to any rectilineal plane figure.
Book 3 deals with circles and their properties: finding the center, inscribed angles, tangents, the power of a point, Thales' theorem.
Book 4 constructs the incircle and circumcircle of a triangle, as well as regular polygons with 4, 5, 6, and 15 sides.
Book 5, on proportions of magnitudes, gives the highly sophisticated theory of proportion probably developed by Eudoxus, and proves properties such as "alternation" (if a : b :: c : d, then a : c :: b : d).
Book 6 applies proportions to plane geometry, especially the construction and recognition of similar figures.
Book 7 deals with elementary number theory: divisibility, prime numbers and their relation to composite numbers, Euclid's algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor, finding the least common multiple.
Book 8 deals with the construction and existence of geometric sequences of integers.
Book 9 applies the results of the preceding two books and gives the infinitude of prime numbers and the construction of all even perfect numbers.
Book 10 proves the irrationality of the square roots of non-square integers (e.g. ) and classifies the square roots of incommensurable lines into thirteen disjoint categories. Euclid here introduces the term "irrational", which has a different meaning than the modern concept of irrational numbers. He also gives a formula to produce Pythagorean triples.
Book 11 generalizes the results of book 6 to solid figures: perpendicularity, parallelism, volumes and similarity of parallelepipeds.
Book 12 studies the volumes of cones, pyramids, and cylinders in detail by using the method of exhaustion, a precursor to integration, and shows, for example, that the volume of a cone is a third of the volume of the corresponding cylinder. It concludes by showing that the volume of a sphere is proportional to the cube of its radius (in modern language) by approximating its volume by a union of many pyramids.
Book 13 constructs the five regular Platonic solids inscribed in a sphere and compares the ratios of their edges to the radius of the sphere.
Euclid's method and style of presentation
Euclid's axiomatic approach and constructive methods were widely influential.
Many of Euclid's propositions were constructive, demonstrating the existence of some figure by detailing the steps he used to construct the object using a compass and straightedge. His constructive approach appears even in his geometry's postulates, as the first and third postulates stating the existence of a line and circle are constructive. Instead of stating that lines and circles exist per his prior definitions, he states that it is possible to 'construct' a line and circle. It also appears that, for him to use a figure in one of his proofs, he needs to construct it in an earlier proposition. For example, he proves the Pythagorean theorem by first inscribing a square on the sides of a right triangle, but only after constructing a square on a given line one proposition earlier.
As was common in ancient mathematical texts, when a proposition needed proof in several different cases, Euclid often proved only one of them (often the most difficult), leaving the others to the reader. Later editors such as Theon often interpolated their own proofs of these cases.
Euclid's presentation was limited by the mathematical ideas and notations in common currency in his era, and this causes the treatment to seem awkward to the modern reader in some places. For example, there was no notion of an angle greater than two right angles, the number 1 was sometimes treated separately from other positive integers, and as multiplication was treated geometrically he did not use the product of more than 3 different numbers. The geometrical treatment of number theory may have been because the alternative would have been the extremely awkward Alexandrian system of numerals.
The presentation of each result is given in a stylized form, which, although not invented by Euclid, is recognized as typically classical. It has six different parts: First is the 'enunciation', which states the result in general terms (i.e., the statement of the proposition). Then comes the 'setting-out', which gives the figure and denotes particular geometrical objects by letters. Next comes the 'definition' or 'specification', which restates the enunciation in terms of the particular figure. Then the 'construction' or 'machinery' follows. Here, the original figure is extended to forward the proof. Then, the 'proof' itself follows. Finally, the 'conclusion' connects the proof to the enunciation by stating the specific conclusions drawn in the proof, in the general terms of the enunciation.
No indication is given of the method of reasoning that led to the result, although the Data does provide instruction about how to approach the types of problems encountered in the first four books of the Elements. Some scholars have tried to find fault in Euclid's use of figures in his proofs, accusing him of writing proofs that depended on the specific figures drawn rather than the general underlying logic, especially concerning Proposition II of Book I. However, Euclid's original proof of this proposition, is general, valid, and does not depend on the figure used as an example to illustrate one given configuration.
Criticism
Euclid's list of axioms in the Elements was not exhaustive, but represented the principles that were the most important. His proofs often invoke axiomatic notions which were not originally presented in his list of axioms. Later editors have interpolated Euclid's implicit axiomatic assumptions in the list of formal axioms.
For example, in the first construction of Book 1, Euclid used a premise that was neither postulated nor proved: that two circles with centers at the distance of their radius will intersect in two points. Later, in the fourth construction, he used superposition (moving the triangles on top of each other) to prove that if two sides and their angles are equal, then they are congruent; during these considerations he uses some properties of superposition, but these properties are not described explicitly in the treatise. If superposition is to be considered a valid method of geometric proof, all of geometry would be full of such proofs. For example, propositions I.2 and I.3 can be proved trivially by using superposition.
Mathematician and historian W. W. Rouse Ball put the criticisms in perspective, remarking that "the fact that for two thousand years [the Elements] was the usual text-book on the subject raises a strong presumption that it is not unsuitable for that purpose."
Apocrypha
It was not uncommon in ancient times to attribute to celebrated authors works that were not written by them. It is by these means that the apocryphal books XIV and XV of the Elements were sometimes included in the collection. The spurious Book XIV was probably written by Hypsicles on the basis of a treatise by Apollonius. The book continues Euclid's comparison of regular solids inscribed in spheres, with the chief result being that the ratio of the surfaces of the dodecahedron and icosahedron inscribed in the same sphere is the same as the ratio of their volumes, the ratio being
The spurious Book XV was probably written, at least in part, by Isidore of Miletus. This book covers topics such as counting the number of edges and solid angles in the regular solids, and finding the measure of dihedral angles of faces that meet at an edge.
Editions
1460s, Regiomontanus (incomplete)
1482, Erhard Ratdolt (Venice), first printed edition
1533, editio princeps by Simon Grynäus
1557, by Jean Magnien and , reviewed by Stephanus Gracilis (only propositions, no full proofs, includes original Greek and the Latin translation)
1572, Commandinus Latin edition
1574, Christoph Clavius
Translations
1505, (Latin)
1543, Niccolò Tartaglia (Italian)
1557, Jean Magnien and Pierre de Montdoré, reviewed by Stephanus Gracilis (Greek to Latin)
1558, Johann Scheubel (German)
1562, Jacob Kündig (German)
1562, Wilhelm Holtzmann (German)
1564–1566, de Béziers (French)
1570, Henry Billingsley (English)
1572, Commandinus (Latin)
1575, Commandinus (Italian)
1576, Rodrigo de Zamorano (Spanish)
1594, Typographia Medicea (edition of the Arabic translation of The Recension of Euclid's "Elements"
1604, de Bar-le-Duc (French)
1606, Jan Pieterszoon Dou (Dutch)
1607, Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi (Chinese)
1613, Pietro Cataldi (Italian)
1615, Denis Henrion (French)
1617, Frans van Schooten (Dutch)
1637, L. Carduchi (Spanish)
1639, Pierre Hérigone (French)
1651, Heinrich Hoffmann (German)
1651, Thomas Rudd (English)
1660, Isaac Barrow (English)
1661, John Leeke and Geo. Serle (English)
1663, Domenico Magni (Italian from Latin)
1672, Claude François Milliet Dechales (French)
1680, Vitale Giordano (Italian)
1685, William Halifax (English)
1689, Jacob Knesa (Spanish)
1690, Vincenzo Viviani (Italian)
1694, Ant. Ernst Burkh v. Pirckenstein (German)
1695, Claes Jansz Vooght (Dutch)
1697, Samuel Reyher (German)
1702, Hendrik Coets (Dutch)
1705, Charles Scarborough (English)
1708, John Keill (English)
1714, Chr. Schessler (German)
1714, W. Whiston (English)
1720s, Jagannatha Samrat (Sanskrit, based on the Arabic translation of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi)
1731, Guido Grandi (abbreviation to Italian)
1738, Ivan Satarov (Russian from French)
1744, Mårten Strömer (Swedish)
1749, Dechales (Italian)
1745, Ernest Gottlieb Ziegenbalg (Danish)
1752, Leonardo Ximenes (Italian)
1756, Robert Simson (English)
1763, Pibo Steenstra (Dutch)
1768, Angelo Brunelli (Portuguese)
1773, 1781, J. F. Lorenz (German)
1780, Baruch Schick of Shklov (Hebrew)
1781, 1788 James Williamson (English)
1781, William Austin (English)
1789, Pr. Suvoroff nad Yos. Nikitin (Russian from Greek)
1795, John Playfair (English)
1803, H.C. Linderup (Danish)
1804, François Peyrard (French). Peyrard discovered in 1808 the Vaticanus Graecus 190, which enables him to provide a first definitive version in 1814–1818
1807, Józef Czech (Polish based on Greek, Latin and English editions)
1807, J. K. F. Hauff (German)
1818, Vincenzo Flauti (Italian)
1820, Benjamin of Lesbos (Modern Greek)
1826, George Phillips (English)
1828, Joh. Josh and Ign. Hoffmann (German)
1828, Dionysius Lardner (English)
1833, E. S. Unger (German)
1833, Thomas Perronet Thompson (English)
1836, H. Falk (Swedish)
1844, 1845, 1859, P. R. Bråkenhjelm (Swedish)
1850, F. A. A. Lundgren (Swedish)
1850, H. A. Witt and M. E. Areskong (Swedish)
1862, Isaac Todhunter (English)
1865, Sámuel Brassai (Hungarian)
1873, Masakuni Yamada (Japanese)
1880, Vachtchenko-Zakhartchenko (Russian)
1897, Thyra Eibe (Danish)
1901, Max Simon (German)
1907, František Servít (Czech)
1908, Thomas Little Heath (English)
1939, R. Catesby Taliaferro (English)
1999, Maja Hudoletnjak Grgić (Book I-VI) (Croatian)
2009, Irineu Bicudo (Brazilian Portuguese)
2019, Ali Sinan Sertöz (Turkish)
Currently in print
Euclid's Elements – All thirteen books complete in one volume, Based on Heath's translation, Green Lion Press .
The Elements: Books I–XIII – Complete and Unabridged, (2006) Translated by Sir Thomas Heath, Barnes & Noble .
The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements, translation and commentaries by Heath, Thomas L. (1956) in three volumes. Dover Publications. (vol. 1), (vol. 2), (vol. 3)
Free versions
Euclid's Elements Redux, Volume 1, contains books I–III, based on John Casey's translation.
Euclid's Elements Redux, Volume 2, contains books IV–VIII, based on John Casey's translation.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Artmann, Benno: Euclid – The Creation of Mathematics. New York, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer 1999,
Heath's authoritative translation plus extensive historical research and detailed commentary throughout the text.
External links
Clark University Euclid's elements
Multilingual edition of Elementa in the Bibliotheca Polyglotta
In HTML with Java-based interactive figures.
Richard Fitzpatrick's bilingual edition (freely downloadable PDF, typeset in a two-column format with the original Greek beside a modern English translation; also available in print as )
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Euc.+1 Heath's English translation] (HTML, without the figures, public domain) (accessed February 4, 2010)
Heath's English translation and commentary, with the figures (Google Books): vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 3 c. 2
Oliver Byrne's 1847 edition (also hosted at archive.org)– an unusual version by Oliver Byrne who used color rather than labels such as ABC (scanned page images, public domain)
Web adapted version of Byrne’s Euclid designed by Nicholas Rougeux
Video adaptation, animated and explained by Sandy Bultena, contains books I-VII.
The First Six Books of the Elements by John Casey and Euclid scanned by Project Gutenberg.
[http://mysite.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/nugreek/contents.htm Reading Euclid] – a course in how to read Euclid in the original Greek, with English translations and commentaries (HTML with figures)
Sir Thomas More's manuscript
Latin translation by Aethelhard of Bath
[http://www.physics.ntua.gr/~mourmouras/euclid/index.html Euclid Elements – The original Greek text] Greek HTML
Clay Mathematics Institute Historical Archive – The thirteen books of Euclid's Elements copied by Stephen the Clerk for Arethas of Patras, in Constantinople in 888 AD
Kitāb Taḥrīr uṣūl li-Ūqlīdis Arabic translation of the thirteen books of Euclid's Elements by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī. Published by Medici Oriental Press(also, Typographia Medicea). Facsimile hosted by Islamic Heritage Project.
Euclid's Elements Redux, an open textbook based on the Elements
1607 Chinese translations reprinted as part of Siku Quanshu, or "Complete Library of the Four Treasuries."
3rd-century BC books
Mathematics textbooks
Ancient Greek mathematical works
Works by Euclid
History of geometry
Foundations of geometry
Geometry education
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20River%20Rebellion
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Red River Rebellion
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The Red River Rebellion (), also known as the Red River Resistance, Red River uprising, or First Riel Rebellion, was the sequence of events that led up to the 1869 establishment of a provisional government by Métis leader Louis Riel and his followers at the Red River Colony, in the early stages of establishing today's Canadian province of Manitoba. It had earlier been a territory called Rupert's Land and been under control of the Hudson's Bay Company before it was sold.
The events were the first crisis the new federal government faced after Canadian Confederation in 1867. The Canadian government had bought Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869 and appointed an English-speaking governor, William McDougall. He was opposed by the French-speaking mostly-Métis inhabitants of the settlement. Before the land was officially transferred to Canada, McDougall had sent out surveyors to plot the land according to the square township system used in the Public Land Survey System. The Métis, led by Riel, prevented McDougall from entering the territory. McDougall declared that the Hudson's Bay Company was no longer in control of the territory and that Canada had asked for the transfer of sovereignty to be postponed. The Métis created a provisional government to which they invited an equal number of Anglophone representatives. Riel negotiated directly with the Canadian government to establish Manitoba as a Canadian province.
Meanwhile, Riel's men arrested members of a pro-Canadian faction who had resisted the provisional government. They included an Orangeman, Thomas Scott. Riel's government tried and convicted Scott and executed him for insubordination. Canada and the Assiniboia provisional government soon negotiated an agreement. In 1870, the Parliament of Canada passed the Manitoba Act, allowing the Red River Colony to enter Confederation as the province of Manitoba. The Act also incorporated some of Riel's demands, such as the provision of separate French schools for Métis children and the protection of Catholicism.
After reaching an agreement, Canada sent a military expedition to Manitoba to enforce federal authority. Now known as the Wolseley Expedition, or the Red River Expedition, it consisted of Canadian militia and British regular soldiers, led by Colonel Garnet Wolseley. Outrage grew in Ontario over Scott's execution, and many there wanted Wolseley's expedition to arrest Riel for murder and to suppress what they considered to be rebellion.
Riel peacefully withdrew from Fort Garry before the troops could arrive in August 1870. Warned by many that the soldiers would harm him and denied amnesty for his political leadership of the rebellion, Riel fled to the United States. The arrival of troops marked the end of the incident.
Background
In the late 1860s, the Red River Colony of Rupert's Land was changing rapidly. It had developed under the aegis of the Hudson's Bay Company, which had a continent-wide trading and commercial network. It had been confirmed on the territory by Queen Anne, who had evicted King Louis XIV and his subjects from it by the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. Further notice was given in 1763, when King George III dispossessed King Louis XV of nearly all his colonies of North America at the Treaty of Paris.
Historically, the population was mainly francophone Métis, who developed a mixed ethnicity descended of First Nations and French descent and a unique culture during the decades of the fur trade. In the 18th and the 19th centuries, they intermarried; established a tradition of men working as trappers, guides, and interpreters to fur traders; and developed farms. Métis women also were sometimes active in the trade, and among several influential families in Sault Ste. Marie in the early 19th century, the husbands were European. The Métis culture was based on the French language and Roman Catholic religion.
In the late 18th century, English and Scottish men entered the fur trade and also married into the Ojibwe people and other First Nations in this region. Their mixed-race descendants generally spoke English and were sometimes known as the "country born" (also as Anglo-Métis). The third group of settlers to the region was a small number of Presbyterian Scottish settlers. More anglophone Protestants began to settle there from Ontario in the 19th century.
The newer settlers were generally insensitive to Métis culture and hostile to Roman Catholicism, and many advocated Canadian expansionism. Meanwhile, many Americans migrated there, some of whom favouring annexation of the territory by the United States. Against the backdrop of religious, nationalistic, and ethnic tensions, political uncertainty was high. To forestall US expansionism and to bring law and order to the wild, the British and Canadian governments had been for some time negotiating the transfer of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada. The Rupert's Land Act 1868 authorized the transfer. On December 1, 1869, Canada purchased the territory.
In anticipation of the transfer, Public Works Minister William McDougall, who with George-Étienne Cartier had been instrumental in securing Rupert's Land for Canada, ordered a survey party to the Red River Colony. A Catholic bishop, Alexandre-Antonin Taché; the Anglican bishop of Rupert's Land, Robert Machray; and the HBC governor of Assiniboia, William Mactavish, all warned the federal government that such surveys would precipitate unrest.
Headed by Colonel John Stoughton Dennis, the survey party arrived at Fort Garry on August 20, 1869. The Métis were anxious about since they did not possess clear title to their lands but held a tenuous right of occupancy. In addition, the lots had been laid out according to the French seigneurial colonial system, with long narrow lots fronting the river, rather than the square lots that were preferred by the English. The Métis considered the survey to be a forerunner of increased Canadian migration to the territory, which they perceived as a threat to their way of life. More specifically, they feared
a possible confiscation of their farmland by the Canadian government. The Métis were also concerned that Canadian immigrants would not care for their culture and so the Metis wanted to ensure that they could preserve their religious and political rights. Their concerns were motivated in part by the Canadian government's behaviour, as the negotiations that took place had carried out as if the territory were uninhabited.
Emergence of Riel as leader
The Canadian government appointed a notorious francophobe, McDougall, as the designate of the Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Territories on September 28, 1869, in anticipation of a formal transfer to take effect on December 1. That increased tensions among the Métis, who, in July 1869, had become more suspicious after McDougall ordered a survey of the settlement. Emerging as a leader, Louis Riel, who had been formally educated in European-style schools, denounced the survey in a speech delivered in late August from the steps of St. Boniface Cathedral. His lifestyle was very different from those of buffalo-hunting Metis. When Riel returned to the West, it was apparent that MacDonald feared that the United States was negotiating with HBC for the transfer Rupert's Land without consulting the Red River population and the Council of Assiniboia. On October 11, 1869, Riel and other Métis disrupted the survey's work. On October 16 the group organized the "Métis National Committee" to represent Métis interests. Riel was elected secretary, John Bruce as president, and two representatives were elected from each parish.
There were originally two resistance groups in Red River. One was led by Riel, and the other was led by a Metis named William Dease, who expressed Metis values in his opposition. For a long time, they were locked in a power struggle, which on a symbolic level. Both sides offered different perspectives on Métis unity. Riel finally defeated Dease for the leadership of the resistance and consolidated his support system within the French Metis community, and he then felt strong enough to initiate the breach of October 1869.
Because the Hudson's Bay Company's Council of Assiniboia still had authority over the area, its representatives summoned Riel on October 25 to explain the actions of the committee. On October 30, McDougall had reached the border despite the written order from Riel, who declared that any attempt by McDougall to enter the Red River Colony would be blocked unless the Canadians had first negotiated terms with the Métis and with the general population of the settlement.
On November 2, under the command of Ambroise-Dydime Lépine, the Métis turned back McDougall's party near the US border and forced it to retreat to Pembina, Dakota Territory. The number of Riel's followers had grown rapidly. The same day, Riel led about 400, who were recruited from the fur-brigades who had recently returned to the settlement for the season, in seizing Fort Garry without bloodshed. That would come to be known as one of Riel's most brilliant moves, as control of the fort symbolized control of all access to the settlement and the Northwest.
Residents of the Red River Colony disagreed on how to negotiate with Canada. In particular, the French- and English-speaking inhabitants did not agree on how to proceed. In a conciliatory gesture, Riel on November 6 asked the anglophones to select delegates from each of their parishes to attend a convention with the Métis representatives. After little was accomplished at the first meeting, James Ross expressed displeasure at Riel's treatment of McDougall. Riel angrily denied that and stated that he had no intentions of invoking American interventions. Instead, throughout the entire resistance, he insisted that he and the Metis were loyal subjects of Queen Victoria.
On November 16, the Council of Assiniboia made a final attempt to assert its authority when Governor Mactavish issued a proclamation ordering the Métis to lay down their arms. Instead, on November 23, Riel proposed the formation of a provisional government to replace the Council of Assiniboia to enter into direct negotiations with Canada. The anglophone delegates requested an adjournment to discuss matters. They neither succeeded in rallying the English-speaking parishes behind that move nor originally approved of the "List of Rights," which was presented to the convention on December 1, after McDougall's proclamation. Despite his Métis sympathies, Governor Mactavish did not do enough to end the conflict and was imprisoned by Riel shortly afterward.
On December 1, McDougall proclaimed that the HBC was no longer in control of Rupert's Land and that he was the new lieutenant-governor. The proclamation was to later prove problematic, as it effectively ended the authority of the council but failed to establish Canadian authority. McDougall did not know that the transfer had been postponed once news of the unrest had reached Ottawa.
Around mid-December 1869, Riel presented the convention with a list of 14 rights as a condition of union. They included representation in Parliament, a bilingual legislature and chief justice, and recognition of certain land claims. The convention did not adopt the list at the time, but once the list of rights was generally known, most anglophones accepted the majority of the demands as reasonable.
Much of the settlement was moving toward the Métis point of view, but a passionately-pro-Canadian minority became more resistant. It was loosely organized as the Canadian Party and was led by Dr. John Christian Schultz and Charles Mair. Colonel Dennis and Major Charles Boulton also supported it. McDougall appointed Dennis to raise a militia to arrest the Métis, who were occupying Upper Fort Garry. The anglophone settlers largely ignored the call to arms, and Dennis withdrew to Lower Fort Garry. Schultz, however, was emboldened to fortify his house and his store and attracted around 50 recruits.
Riel took the threat seriously and ordered for Schultz's home to be surrounded. The resisters surrendered on December 7 and were imprisoned in Fort Garry. The unrest and the absence of a clear authority made the Métis National Committee declare a provisional government on December 8. Having received notification of the delay in the union until the British government of the HBC could guarantee a peaceful transfer, McDougall and Dennis departed for Ontario on December 18. Major Boulton fled to Portage la Prairie.
Provisional government
In Ottawa, Governor General Lord Lisgar had, at the behest of Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, proclaimed an amnesty on December 6 for all in the Red River area who would lay down their arms. He dispatched Abbé Jean-Baptiste Thibault and Charles-René d'Irumberry de Salaberry on a mission of reconciliation but failed to give them the authority to negotiate on behalf of the government. Macdonald appointed the HBC representative, Donald Alexander Smith, as special commissioner with a greater authority to negotiate.
On December 27, John Bruce resigned as president of the provisional government, and Riel was elected president. The same day, Donald Smith arrived in the settlement, followed shortly by de Salaberry, who joined Thibault, who had arrived on Christmas Day. They met with Riel on January 5, 1870, but reached no conclusions. The next day, Riel and Smith had another meeting. Smith then concluded that negotiation with the committee would be fruitless. He maneuvered to bypass it and to present the Canadian position at a public meeting.
Meetings were held on January 19 and January 20. With Riel acting as translator, Smith assured the large audiences of the Canadian government's goodwill, intention to grant representation, and willingness to extend concessions with respect to land claims. With the settlement now solidly behind him, Riel proposed the formation of a new convention of 40 representatives, divided evenly between French- and English-speaking settlers, to consider Smith's instructions, which was accepted. A committee of six outlined a more comprehensive list of rights, which the convention accepted on February 3. After meetings on February 7 in which the new list of rights were presented to Thibault, Salaberry, and Smith, Smith proposed for a delegation to be sent to Ottawa to engage in direct negotiations with Canada, a suggestion that was eagerly accepted by Riel.
Riel also proposed for the provisional government to be reformed to be more inclusive of both language groups. A constitution enshrining those goals was accepted by the convention on February 10. An elected assembly was established, consisting of 12 representatives from anglophone parishes and an equal number of representatives from francophone parishes.
Canadian resistance and execution of Thomas Scott
Despite the progress on the political front and the inclusion of anglophones within the provisional government, the Canadian contingent was not yet silenced. On January 9, many prisoners escaped from the prison at Fort Garry, including Charles Mair, Thomas Scott and ten others. John Schultz escaped on January 23. By February 15, Riel had freed the remaining prisoners on parole to refrain from engaging in political agitation. Schultz, Mair, and Scott intended to continue to work to depose the Métis from power.
Mair and Scott proceeded to the Canadian settlements surrounding Portage la Prairie, where they met Boulton, and Schultz sought recruits in the Canadian parishes downstream. On February 12, Boulton led a party from Portage la Prairie to rendezvous at Kildonan with Schultz's men. They intended to overthrow the provisional government. Boulton had misgivings and turned the party back. Riel's forces detected the men, and on February 17, Boulton, Scott, and 46 other men were captured near Fort Garry. On hearing the news, Schultz and Mair fled to Ontario.
Riel demanded for an example to be made of Boulton. He was tried and sentenced to death for his interference with the provisional government. Intercessions on his behalf by Donald Smith and others resulted in his pardon but only after Riel had obtained assurances from Smith that he would persuade the English parishes to elect provisional representatives. However, the prisoner Thomas Scott, an Orangeman, interpreted Boulton's pardon as weakness on the part of the Métis, whom he regarded with open contempt. After he had repeatedly quarreled with his guards, they insisted for him to be tried for insubordination. At his trial, which was overseen by Ambroise-Dydime Lépine, he was found guilty of insulting the president, defying the authority of the provisional government, and fighting with his guards. He was sentenced to death although they were not then considered capital crimes. Smith and Boulton asked Riel to commute the sentence, but Smith reported that Riel responded to his pleas by saying, "I have done three good things since I have commenced; I have spared Boulton's life at your instance, I pardoned Gaddy, and now I shall shoot Scott."
Scott was executed by a firing squad on March 4, 1870. Historians have debated Riel's motivations for allowing the execution, as they have considered it his one great political blunder. His own justification was that he felt it necessary to demonstrate to the Canadians that the Métis must be taken seriously.
Creation of Manitoba
Upon receiving news of the unrest, Bishop Taché was recalled from Rome. He arrived back in the colony on March 8, and he conveyed to Riel his mistaken impression that the December amnesty would apply to both Riel and Lépine. On March 15, he read to the elected assembly a telegram from Joseph Howe indicating that the government found the demands in the list of rights to be "in the main satisfactory." After the preparation of a final list of rights, which included new demands such as a general amnesty for all members of the provisional government and provisions for separate francophone schools, the delegates Abbé Joseph-Noël Ritchot, Judge John Black and Alfred Henry Scott departed for Ottawa on March 23 and 24.
Shortly afterward, Mair and Schultz arrived in Toronto, Ontario. Assisted by George Taylor Denison III, they immediately set about inflaming anti-Métis and anti-Catholic sentiment in the editorial pages of the Ontario press over the execution of Scott. However, Macdonald had decided before the provisional government was established, Canada must negotiate with the Métis. Although the delegates were arrested after their arrival in Ottawa on April 11 on charges of abetting murder, they were quickly released. They soon entered into direct talks with Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier, and Ritchot emerged as an effective negotiator. An agreement enshrining many of the demands in the list of rights was soon reached. That formed the basis for the Manitoba Act of May 12, 1870, which admitted Manitoba to the Canadian Confederation on July 15.
The government had to deal with several issues before peace could be made. Fortunately for the government, an agreement was reached. With the creation of Manitoba, the Canadian government would gain control over a new area and not have to worry about the Metis being upset, as they would also be gaining control over the land.
On May 12, 1870, the Metis had been given 200,000 ha of land, which would make up the Province of Manitoba. Thay would allow for the Metis to hunt freely in their land and have some form of government with legitimate powers to run the province and protect Metis rights. Even though the government had created the Province of Manitoba for the Metis, it also allowed the government to have control over the province without being responsible for any events that occurred in it. Manitoba would be the first province created from the Northwest Territories.
Significantly, however, Ritchot could not secure a clarification of the governor-general's amnesty. Anger over Scott's execution was growing rapidly in Ontario, and any such guarantee was not politically expedient. The delegates returned to Manitoba with only a promise of a forthcoming amnesty.
The Wolseley expedition
A military expedition had in any case been decided on as a means of exercising Canadian authority in the Red River settlement and dissuading the Minnesota expansionists. It embarked on May under Colonel Garnet Wolseley and made its way up the Great Lakes. Ontarians especially believed the Wolseley Expedition to be intended to suppress the rebellion, but the government described it as an "errand of peace." Knowing that he would be arrested and charged with criminal acts and believing that members of the Canadian militia in the expedition meant to lynch him, Riel and his followers fled hurriedly when the troops arrived unexpectedly at Fort Garry on August 24 during pouring rain. The arrival of the expedition at Fort Garry marked the effective end of the Red River Rebellion.
Aftermath
The Red River resistance was described as a rebellion only after sentiment grew in Ontario against the execution of Thomas Scott. The historian A. G. Morice suggests that the phrase "Red River Rebellion" owes its persistence to alliteration, a quality that made it attractive for publication in newspaper headlines (Critical History of The Red River Insurrection [1935]).
In 1875, Riel was formally exiled from Canada for five years. Under pressure from Quebec, the government of Sir John A. Macdonald took no more vigorous action. Riel was elected to the Canadian Parliament three times in exile but never took his seat. He returned to Canada in 1885 to lead the ill-fated North-West Rebellion. He was then tried and convicted for high treason and executed by hanging.
In popular culture
Canadian folk singer-writer James Keelaghan wrote a song "Red River Rising" about the Red River Rebellion.
See also
Manitoba Schools Question
Reference Re Manitoba Language Rights
References
Further reading
External links
Winnipeg looking north from near Upper Fort Garry 1870 (showing Schult's Store and residence)
The Canadian Encyclopedia, The Red River Rebellion
Canadian Confederation (The Orange Order)
Political history of Manitoba
History of Winnipeg
Military history of Canada
Métis in Canada
Rebellions in Canada
Red River Colony
Louis Riel
Indigenous conflicts in Canada
Surveying of Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20Jante
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Law of Jante
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The Law of Jante ( ) is a code of conduct created in fiction by the Danish-Norwegian author Aksel Sandemose and has been assumed by some to explain the egalitarian nature of Nordic countries. It characterizes as unworthy and inappropriate any behavior that is not conforming, does things out of the ordinary, or is personally ambitious. The attitudes were first formulated in the form of the ten rules in Sandemose's satirical novel A Fugitive Crosses His Tracks (, 1933), but the actual attitudes themselves are older. Sandemose portrays the fictional small Danish town of Jante, which he modeled upon his native town Nykøbing Mors in the 1930s, where nobody was anonymous, a feature of life typical of small towns.
It is used generally in colloquial speech in the Nordic countries as a sociological term to denote a social attitude of disapproval towards expressions of individuality and personal success.
Definition
There are ten rules in the law as defined by Sandemose, all expressive of variations on a single theme and usually referred to as a homogeneous unit: You are not to think you're anyone special, or that you're better than us.
The ten rules state:
You're not to think you are anything special.
You're not to think you are as good as we are.
You're not to think you are smarter than we are.
You're not to imagine yourself better than we are.
You're not to think you know more than we do.
You're not to think you are more important than we are.
You're not to think you are good at anything.
You're not to laugh at us.
You're not to think anyone cares about you.
You're not to think you can teach us anything.
The Janters who transgress this unwritten 'law' are regarded with suspicion and some hostility, as it goes against the town's communal desire to preserve harmony, social stability, and uniformity.
An eleventh rule recognized in the novel as 'the penal code of Jante' is:
Perhaps you don't think we know a few things about you?
From the chapter "Maybe you don't think I know something about you":
That one sentence (the eleventh rule), which acts as the penal code of Jante, as such was rich in content. It was a charge of all sorts of things, and that it also had to be, because absolutely nothing was allowed. It was also an elaborate indictment, with all kinds of unspecified penalties given to be expected. Furthermore it was useful, depending fully on tone of voice, in financial extortion and enticement into criminal acts, and it could also be the best means of defense.
Sandemose's novel described working-class life in the fictional town of Jante. He wrote in 1955, a bit mischievously, that "Many people have recognized [in Jante] their own hometown - this has happened regularly to people from Arendal [Norway], Tromsø [Norway] and Viborg [Denmark]". Sandemose made no claim to having invented the rules; he simply sought to formulate social norms that had stamped the Danish and Norwegian psyches for centuries.
Sociological effects
Although intended as criticism of society in general, the meaning of the Law of Jante has shifted to refer to personal criticism of people who want to break out of their social groups and reach a higher position.
It is common in Scandinavia to claim the Law of Jante as something quintessentially Danish, Norwegian or Swedish. The rules are treated as a way of behaving in order to fit in and results in dressing similarly and the types of cars that people buy and buying similar products for their homes. It is commonly stated that Jante Law is for people in the provinces, but commentators have suggested that metropolitan areas are also affected.
While the original intention was as satire, Kim Orlin Kantardjiev, a Norwegian politician and educational advisor claims that the Law of Jante is taught in schools as more of a social code to encourage group behavior, and wants to credit it with fueling Nordic countries' high happiness scores. It has also been suggested that contentedness with a humdrum lifestyle is a part of happiness in the Scandinavian countries.
However, in Scandinavia, there have also been journalistic articles which link the Law of Jante to high suicide rates. Backlash has occurred against the rules, and in Norway someone even placed a grave for Jante Laws, declaring them dead in 2005. However, others have questioned whether they will ever go away, as they may be firmly entrenched in society.
Appearance in English-language sources
When interviewed during episode 646 of The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, broadcast November 9, 2018, Swedish actor Alexander Skarsgård explained that although he had recently received an Emmy and a Golden Globe Award for a lauded performance, the inhibitions induced by the Law of Jante prevented him from boasting of the accolade.
In Wisting, a 2019 Norwegian police procedural television series, partially in English, Line says (translated), "The newspaper sales numbers and the Law of Jante are merging."
In Metagame, a documentary about Super Smash Bros. Melee, the Law of Jante is mentioned by the sister of top player Armada.
See also
Crab mentality
Discrimination of excellence
Harrison Bergeron
Hegemony
Lagom
Leveling mechanism
Social model
Tall poppy syndrome
Other cultures
Danish culture
German culture
Norwegian culture
Prussian virtues
Swedish culture
References
Notes
Further reading
Sandemose, Aksel (1933). En flyktning krysser sitt spor. Oslo: Aschehoug (Repr. 2005).
Sandemose, Aksel (1936). A fugitive crosses his tracks. translated by Eugene Gay-Tifft. New York: A.A. Knopf.
Koldau, Linda Maria (2013): Jante Universitet. (Jante University). Vol. 1: Den skønne facade (The Beautiful Facade); Vol. 2: Uddannelseskatastrofen (Educational Disaster); Vol. 3: Totalitære strukturer (Totalitarian Structures). Hamburg: Tredition. (Vol. 1); (Vol. 2); (Vol. 3). In Danish language.
Koldau, Linda Maria (2013): Educational Disaster. The Destruction of Our Universities: The Danish Case. (abridged English version of Jante Universitet containing the most important analyses and a chapter on Jante Law mentality in Danish education). Hamburg: Tredition (forthcoming). . In English language.
Steffen, Juliane (2011): "Hjem til Jante" (Home to Jante), concise analysis of the mechanisms of Jante Law at Danish universities, published in: Linda Maria Koldau: Jante Universitet. Vol. 2: Uddannelseskatastrofen. Hamburg: Tredition, 2013, pp. 464–466. (Vol. 2). In Danish language.
Andersen, Steen: Nye forbindelser. Pejlinger i Aksel Sandemoses forfatterskab. Vordingborg: Attika, 2015. . In Danish Language.
Codes of conduct
Scandinavian culture
Social dynamics
1930s neologisms
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyme%20disease
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Lyme disease
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Lyme disease, also known as Lyme borreliosis, is a vector-borne disease caused by the Borrelia bacterium, which is spread by ticks in the genus Ixodes. The most common sign of infection is an expanding red rash, known as erythema migrans, which appears at the site of the tick bite about a week afterwards. The rash is typically neither itchy nor painful. Approximately 70–80% of infected people develop a rash. Early diagnosis can be difficult. Other early symptoms may include fever, head aches and tiredness. If untreated, symptoms may include loss of the ability to move one or both sides of the face, joint pains, severe headaches with neck stiffness or heart palpitations. Months to years later repeated episodes of joint pain and swelling may occur. Occasionally shooting pains or tingling in the arms and legs may develop. Despite appropriate treatment about 10 to 20% of those affected develop joint pains, memory problems and tiredness for at least six months.
Lyme disease is transmitted to humans by the bites of infected ticks of the genus Ixodes. In the United States ticks of concern are usually of the Ixodes scapularis type and must be attached for at least 36 hours before the bacteria can spread. In Europe Ixodes ricinus ticks may spread the bacteria more quickly. In North America the bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi, B. bissettiae and B. mayonii cause Lyme disease. In Europe and Asia Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia garinii, B. spielmanii and four other species also cause the disease. The disease does not appear to be transmissible between people, by other animals nor through food. Diagnosis is based on a combination of symptoms, history of tick exposure and possibly testing for specific antibodies in the blood. Blood tests are often negative in the early stages of the disease. Testing of individual ticks is not typically useful.
Prevention includes efforts to prevent tick bites by wearing clothing to cover the arms and legs and using DEET or picaridin-based insect repellents. Using pesticides to reduce tick numbers may also be effective. Ticks can be removed using tweezers. If the removed tick is full of blood a single dose of doxycycline may be used to prevent the development of infection but is not generally recommended since the development of infection is rare. If an infection develops, a number of antibiotics are effective, including doxycycline, amoxicillin and cefuroxime. Standard treatment usually lasts for two or three weeks. Some people develop a fever and muscle and joint pains from treatment, which may last for one or two days. In those who develop persistent symptoms, long-term antibiotic therapy has not been found to be useful.
Lyme disease is the most common disease spread by ticks in the Northern Hemisphere. It is estimated to affect 300,000 people a year in the United States and 65,000 people a year in Europe. Infections are most common in the spring and early summer. Lyme disease was diagnosed as a separate condition for the first time in 1975 in Lyme, Connecticut. It was originally mistaken for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. The bacterium involved was first described in 1981 by Willy Burgdorfer. Chronic symptoms following treatment are well described and are known as "post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome" (PTLDS). PTLDS is different from chronic Lyme disease, a term no longer supported by scientists and used in different ways by different groups. Some healthcare providers claim that PTLDS is caused by persistent infection but this is not believed to be true because no evidence of persistent infection can be found after standard treatment. A vaccine for Lyme disease was marketed in the United States between 1998 and 2002 but was withdrawn from the market owing to poor sales. Research is ongoing to develop new vaccines.
Signs and symptoms
Lyme disease can affect several body systems and produce a broad range of symptoms. Not everyone with Lyme disease has all of the symptoms and many of the symptoms are not specific to Lyme disease but can occur with other diseases as well.
The incubation period from infection to the onset of symptoms is usually one to two weeks but can be much shorter (days) or much longer (months to years). Lyme symptoms most often occur from May to September in the northern hemisphere because the nymphal stage of the tick is responsible for most cases. Asymptomatic infection exists but occurs in less than 7% of infected individuals in the United States. Asymptomatic infection may be much more common among those infected in Europe.
Early localized infection
Early localized infection can occur when the infection has not yet spread throughout the body. Only the site where the infection has first come into contact with the skin is affected. The initial sign of about 80% of Lyme infections is an erythema migrans (EM) rash at the site of a tick bite, often near skin folds such as the armpit, groin or back of the knee, on the trunk, under clothing straps, or in children's hair, ears or neck. Most people who get infected do not remember seeing a tick or a bite. The rash appears typically one or two weeks (range 3–32 days) after the bite and expands 2–3 cm per day up to a diameter of 5–70 cm (median 16 cm). The rash is usually circular or oval, red or bluish, and may have an elevated or darker center. In about 79% of cases in Europe but only 19% of cases in endemic areas of the U.S. the rash gradually clears from the center toward the edges, possibly forming a ‘bull's eye’ pattern. The rash may feel warm but usually is not itchy, is rarely tender or painful and takes up to four weeks to resolve if untreated.
The EM rash is often accompanied by symptoms of a viral-like illness, including fatigue, headache, body aches, fever and chills but usually not nausea or upper-respiratory problems. These symptoms may also appear without a rash or linger after the rash has disappeared. Lyme can progress to later stages without these symptoms or a rash.
People with high fever for more than two days or whose other symptoms of viral-like illness do not improve despite antibiotic treatment for Lyme disease, or who have abnormally low levels of white or red cells or platelets in the blood, should be investigated for possible coinfection with other tick-borne diseases such as ehrlichiosis and babesiosis.
Early disseminated infection
Within days to weeks after the onset of local infection the Borrelia bacteria may spread through the lymphatic system or bloodstream. In 10–20% of untreated cases EM rashes develop at sites across the body that bear no relation to the original tick bite. Transient muscle pains and joint pains are also common.
In about 10–15% of untreated people Lyme causes neurological problems known as neuroborreliosis. Early neuroborreliosis typically appears 4–6 weeks (range 1–12 weeks) after the tick bite and involves some combination of lymphocytic meningitis, cranial neuritis, radiculopathy and/or mononeuritis multiplex. Lymphocytic meningitis causes characteristic changes in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and may be accompanied for several weeks by variable headache and, less commonly, usually mild meningitis signs such as inability to flex the neck fully and intolerance to bright lights but typically no or only very low fever. After several months neuroborreliosis can also present otolaryngological symptoms. Up to 76.5% of these otolaryngological present as tinnitus, the most common symptom. Vertigo and dizziness (53.7%) and hearing loss (16.7%) were the next most common symptoms. In children partial loss of vision may also occur. Cranial neuritis is an inflammation of cranial nerves. When due to Lyme it most typically causes facial palsy, impairing blinking, smiling and chewing on one or both sides of the face. It may also cause intermittent double vision. Lyme radiculopathy is an inflammation of spinal nerve roots that often causes pain and less often weakness, numbness, or altered sensation in the areas of the body served by nerves connected to the affected roots, e.g. limb(s) or part(s) of trunk. The pain is often described as unlike any other previously felt, excruciating, migrating, worse at night, rarely symmetrical, and often accompanied by extreme sleep disturbance. Mononeuritis multiplex is an inflammation causing similar symptoms in one or more unrelated peripheral nerves. Rarely, early neuroborreliosis may involve inflammation of the brain or spinal cord, with symptoms such as confusion, abnormal gait, ocular movements, or speech, impaired movement, impaired motor planning, or shaking.
In North America, facial palsy is the typical early neuroborreliosis presentation, occurring in 5–10% of untreated people, in about 75% of cases accompanied by lymphocytic meningitis. Lyme radiculopathy is reported half as frequently, but many cases may be unrecognized. In European adults, the most common presentation is a combination of lymphocytic meningitis and radiculopathy known as Bannwarth syndrome, accompanied in 36-89% of cases by facial palsy. In this syndrome, radicular pain tends to start in the same body region as the initial erythema migrans rash, if there was one, and precedes possible facial palsy and other impaired movement. In extreme cases, permanent impairment of motor or sensory function of the lower limbs may occur. In European children, the most common manifestations are facial palsy (in 55%), other cranial neuritis, and lymphocytic meningitis (in 27%).
In about 4–10% of untreated cases in the U.S. and 0.3–4% of untreated cases in Europe, typically between June and December, about one month (range 4 days-7 months) after the tick bite, the infection may cause heart complications known as Lyme carditis. Symptoms may include heart palpitations (in 69% of people), dizziness, fainting, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Other symptoms of Lyme disease may also be present, such as EM rash, joint aches, facial palsy, headaches, or radicular pain. In some people, however, carditis may be the first manifestation of Lyme disease. Lyme carditis in 19–87% of people adversely impacts the heart's electrical conduction system, causing atrioventricular block that often manifests as heart rhythms that alternate within minutes between abnormally slow and abnormally fast. In 10–15% of people, Lyme causes myocardial complications such as cardiomegaly, left ventricular dysfunction, or congestive heart failure.
Another skin condition, found in Europe but not in North America, is borrelial lymphocytoma, a purplish lump that develops on the ear lobe, nipple, or scrotum.
Late disseminated infection
After several months, untreated or inadequately treated people may go on to develop chronic symptoms that affect many parts of the body, including the joints, nerves, brain, eyes, and heart.
Lyme arthritis occurs in up to 60% of untreated people, typically starting about six months after infection. It usually affects only one or a few joints, often a knee or possibly the hip, other large joints, or the temporomandibular joint. There is usually large joint effusion and swelling, but only mild or moderate pain. Without treatment, swelling and pain typically resolve over time but periodically return. Baker's cysts may form and rupture. In some cases, joint erosion occurs.
Chronic neurologic symptoms occur in up to 5% of untreated people. A peripheral neuropathy or polyneuropathy may develop, causing abnormal sensations such as numbness, tingling or burning starting at the feet or hands and over time possibly moving up the limbs. A test may show reduced sensation of vibrations in the feet. An affected person may feel as if wearing a stocking or glove without actually doing so.
A neurologic syndrome called Lyme encephalopathy is associated with subtle memory and cognitive difficulties, insomnia, a general sense of feeling unwell, and changes in personality. However, problems such as depression and fibromyalgia are as common in people with Lyme disease as in the general population.
Lyme can cause a chronic encephalomyelitis that resembles multiple sclerosis. It may be progressive and can involve cognitive impairment, brain fog, migraines, balance issues, weakness in the legs, awkward gait, facial palsy, bladder problems, vertigo, and back pain. In rare cases, untreated Lyme disease may cause frank psychosis, which has been misdiagnosed as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Panic attacks and anxiety can occur; also, delusional behavior may be seen, including somatoform delusions, sometimes accompanied by a depersonalization or derealization syndrome, where the people begin to feel detached from themselves or from reality.
Acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans (ACA) is a chronic skin disorder observed primarily in Europe among the elderly. ACA begins as a reddish-blue patch of discolored skin, often on the backs of the hands or feet. The lesion slowly atrophies over several weeks or months, with the skin becoming first thin and wrinkled and then, if untreated, completely dry and hairless.
Cause
Lyme disease is caused by spirochetes, spiral bacteria from the genus Borrelia. Spirochetes are surrounded by peptidoglycan and flagella, along with an outer membrane similar to Gram-negative bacteria. Because of their double-membrane envelope, Borrelia bacteria are often mistakenly described as Gram negative despite the considerable differences in their envelope components from Gram-negative bacteria. The Lyme-related Borrelia species are collectively known as Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, and show a great deal of genetic diversity.
B. burgdorferi sensu lato is a species complex made up of 20 accepted and three proposed genospecies. Eight species are known to cause Lyme disease: B. mayonii (found in North America), B. burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. bissettiae (both found in North America and Europe), B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. spielmanii, and B. lusitaniae (all found in Eurasia). Some studies have also proposed that B. valaisiana may sometimes infect humans, but this species does not seem to be important causes of disease.
Tick life cycle
There are three stages in the life cycle of a tick. Larva, nymph, and adult. During the nymph stage, ticks most frequently transmit Lyme disease and are usually most active in late spring and early summer in regions where the climate is mild. During the adult stage, Lyme disease transmission is less common due to the fact that it is less possible for adult ticks to bite humans and because they tend to be larger in size and therefore can be easily seen and removed.
Transmission
Lyme disease is classified as a zoonosis, as it is transmitted to humans from a natural reservoir among small mammals and birds by ticks that feed on both sets of hosts. Hard-bodied ticks of the genus Ixodes are the vectors of Lyme disease (also the vector for Babesia). Most infections are caused by ticks in the nymphal stage, because they are very small and thus may feed for long periods of time undetected. Nymphal ticks are generally the size of a poppy seed and sometimes with a dark head and a translucent body. Or, the nymphal ticks can be darker. (The younger larval ticks are very rarely infected.) Although deer are the preferred hosts of adult deer ticks, and tick populations are much lower in the absence of deer, ticks generally do not acquire Borrelia from deer, instead they obtain them from infected small mammals such as the white-footed mouse, and occasionally birds. Areas where Lyme is common are expanding.
Within the tick midgut, the Borrelias outer surface protein A (OspA) binds to the tick receptor for OspA, known as TROSPA. When the tick feeds, the Borrelia downregulates OspA and upregulates OspC, another surface protein. After the bacteria migrate from the midgut to the salivary glands, OspC binds to Salp15, a tick salivary protein that appears to have immunosuppressive effects that enhance infection. Successful infection of the mammalian host depends on bacterial expression of OspC.
Tick bites often go unnoticed because of the small size of the tick in its nymphal stage, as well as tick secretions that prevent the host from feeling any itch or pain from the bite. However, transmission is quite rare, with only about 1.2 to 1.4 percent of recognized tick bites resulting in Lyme disease.
In Europe, the main vector is Ixodes ricinus, which is also called the sheep tick or castor bean tick. In China, Ixodes persulcatus (the taiga tick) is probably the most important vector. In North America, the black-legged tick or deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) is the main vector on the East Coast.
The lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum), which is found throughout the Southeastern United States as far west as Texas, is unlikely to transmit the Lyme disease spirochetes, though it may be implicated in a related syndrome called southern tick-associated rash illness, which resembles a mild form of Lyme disease.
On the West Coast of the United States, the main vector is the western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus). The tendency of this tick species to feed predominantly on host species such as the Western Fence Lizard that are resistant to Borrelia infection appears to diminish transmission of Lyme disease in the West.
Transmission can occur across the placenta during pregnancy and as with a number of other spirochetal diseases, adverse pregnancy outcomes are possible with untreated infection; prompt treatment with antibiotics reduces or eliminates this risk.
There is no scientific evidence to support Lyme disease transmission via blood transfusion, sexual contact, or breast milk.
Tick-borne coinfections
Ticks that transmit B. burgdorferi to humans can also carry and transmit several other parasites, such as Babesia microti and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, which cause the diseases babesiosis and human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), respectively. Among people with early Lyme disease, depending on their location, 2–12% will also have HGA and 2–40% will have babesiosis. Ticks in certain regions, including the lands along the eastern Baltic Sea, also transmit viruses that cause tick-borne encephalitis.
Coinfections complicate Lyme symptoms, especially diagnosis and treatment. It is possible for a tick to carry and transmit one of the coinfections and not Borrelia, making diagnosis difficult and often elusive. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention studied 100 ticks in rural New Jersey, and found 55% of the ticks were infected with at least one of the pathogens.
Pathophysiology
B. burgdorferi can spread throughout the body during the course of the disease, and has been found in the skin, heart, joints, peripheral nervous system, and central nervous system. Many of the signs and symptoms of Lyme disease are a consequence of the immune response to spirochete in those tissues.
B. burgdorferi is injected into the skin by the bite of an infected Ixodes tick. Tick saliva, which accompanies the spirochete into the skin during the feeding process, contains substances that disrupt the immune response at the site of the bite. This provides a protective environment where the spirochete can establish infection. The spirochetes multiply and migrate outward within the dermis. The host inflammatory response to the bacteria in the skin causes the characteristic circular EM lesion. Neutrophils, however, which are necessary to eliminate the spirochetes from the skin, fail to appear in necessary numbers in the developing EM lesion because tick saliva inhibits neutrophil function. This allows the bacteria to survive and eventually spread throughout the body.
Days to weeks following the tick bite, the spirochetes spread via the bloodstream to joints, heart, nervous system, and distant skin sites, where their presence gives rise to the variety of symptoms of the disseminated disease. The spread of B. burgdorferi is aided by the attachment of the host protease plasmin to the surface of the spirochete.
If untreated, the bacteria may persist in the body for months or even years, despite the production of B. burgdorferi antibodies by the immune system. The spirochetes may avoid the immune response by decreasing expression of surface proteins that are targeted by antibodies, antigenic variation of the VlsE surface protein, inactivating key immune components such as complement, and hiding in the extracellular matrix, which may interfere with the function of immune factors.
In the brain, B. burgdorferi may induce astrocytes to undergo astrogliosis (proliferation followed by apoptosis), which may contribute to neurodysfunction. The spirochetes may also induce host cells to secrete quinolinic acid, which stimulates the NMDA receptor on nerve cells, which may account for the fatigue and malaise observed with Lyme encephalopathy. In addition, diffuse white matter pathology during Lyme encephalopathy may disrupt gray matter connections, and could account for deficits in attention, memory, visuospatial ability, complex cognition, and emotional status. White matter disease may have a greater potential for recovery than gray matter disease, perhaps because neuronal loss is less common. Resolution of MRI white matter hyperintensities after antibiotic treatment has been observed.
Tryptophan, a precursor to serotonin, appears to be reduced within the central nervous system in a number of infectious diseases that affect the brain, including Lyme. Researchers are investigating if this neurohormone secretion is the cause of neuropsychiatric disorders developing in some people with borreliosis.
Immunological studies
Exposure to the Borrelia bacterium during Lyme disease possibly causes a long-lived and damaging inflammatory response, a form of pathogen-induced autoimmune disease. The production of this reaction might be due to a form of molecular mimicry, where Borrelia avoids being killed by the immune system by resembling normal parts of the body's tissues.
Chronic symptoms from an autoimmune reaction could explain why some symptoms persist even after the spirochetes have been eliminated from the body. This hypothesis may explain why chronic arthritis persists after antibiotic therapy, similar to rheumatic fever, but its wider application is controversial.
Diagnosis
Lyme disease is diagnosed based on symptoms, objective physical findings (such as erythema migrans (EM) rash, facial palsy, or arthritis), history of possible exposure to infected ticks, and possibly laboratory tests. People with symptoms of early Lyme disease should have a total body skin examination for EM rashes and asked whether EM-type rashes had manifested within the last 1–2 months. Presence of an EM rash and recent tick exposure (i.e., being outdoors in a likely tick habitat where Lyme is common, within 30 days of the appearance of the rash) are sufficient for Lyme diagnosis; no laboratory confirmation is needed or recommended. Most people who get infected do not remember a tick or a bite, and the EM rash need not look like a bull's eye (most EM rashes in the U.S. do not) or be accompanied by any other symptoms. In the U.S., Lyme is most common in the New England and Mid-Atlantic states and parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota, but it is expanding into other areas. Several bordering areas of Canada also have high Lyme risk.
In the absence of an EM rash or history of tick exposure, Lyme diagnosis depends on laboratory confirmation. The bacteria that cause Lyme disease are difficult to observe directly in body tissues and also difficult and too time-consuming to grow in the laboratory. The most widely used tests look instead for presence of antibodies against those bacteria in the blood. A positive antibody test result does not by itself prove active infection but can confirm an infection that is suspected because of symptoms, objective findings, and history of tick exposure in a person. Because as many as 5–20% of the normal population have antibodies against Lyme, people without history and symptoms suggestive of Lyme disease should not be tested for Lyme antibodies: a positive result would likely be false, possibly causing unnecessary treatment.
In some cases, when history, signs, and symptoms are strongly suggestive of early disseminated Lyme disease, empiric treatment may be started and reevaluated as laboratory test results become available.
Laboratory testing
Tests for antibodies in the blood by ELISA and Western blot is the most widely used method for Lyme diagnosis. A two-tiered protocol is recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): the sensitive ELISA test is performed first, and if it is positive or equivocal, then the more specific Western blot is run. The immune system takes some time to produce antibodies in quantity. After Lyme infection onset, antibodies of types IgM and IgG usually can first be detected respectively at 2–4 weeks and 4–6 weeks, and peak at 6–8 weeks. When an EM rash first appears, detectable antibodies may not be present. Therefore, it is recommended that testing not be performed and diagnosis be based on the presence of the EM rash. Up to 30 days after suspected Lyme infection onset, infection can be confirmed by detection of IgM or IgG antibodies; after that, it is recommended that only IgG antibodies be considered. A positive IgM and negative IgG test result after the first month of infection is generally indicative of a false-positive result. The number of IgM antibodies usually collapses 4–6 months after infection, while IgG antibodies can remain detectable for years.
Other tests may be used in neuroborreliosis cases. In Europe, neuroborreliosis is usually caused by Borrelia garinii and almost always involves lymphocytic pleocytosis, i.e. the densities of lymphocytes (infection-fighting cells) and protein in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) typically rise to characteristically abnormal levels, while glucose level remains normal. Additionally, the immune system produces antibodies against Lyme inside the intrathecal space, which contains the CSF. Demonstration by lumbar puncture and CSF analysis of pleocytosis and intrathecal antibody production are required for definite diagnosis of neuroborreliosis in Europe (except in cases of peripheral neuropathy associated with acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans, which usually is caused by Borrelia afzelii and confirmed by blood antibody tests). In North America, neuroborreliosis is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and may not be accompanied by the same CSF signs; they confirm a diagnosis of central nervous system (CNS) neuroborreliosis if positive, but do not exclude it if negative. American guidelines consider CSF analysis optional when symptoms appear to be confined to the peripheral nervous system (PNS), e.g. facial palsy without overt meningitis symptoms. Unlike blood and intrathecal antibody tests, CSF pleocytosis tests revert to normal after infection ends and therefore can be used as objective markers of treatment success and inform decisions on whether to retreat. In infection involving the PNS, electromyography and nerve conduction studies can be used to monitor objectively the response to treatment.
In Lyme carditis, electrocardiograms are used to evidence heart conduction abnormalities, while echocardiography may show myocardial dysfunction. Biopsy and confirmation of Borrelia cells in myocardial tissue may be used in specific cases but are usually not done because of risk of the procedure.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests for Lyme disease have also been developed to detect the genetic material (DNA) of the Lyme disease spirochete. Culture or PCR are the current means for detecting the presence of the organism, as serologic studies only test for antibodies of Borrelia. PCR has the advantage of being much faster than culture. However, PCR tests are susceptible to false positive results, e.g. by detection of debris of dead Borrelia cells or specimen contamination. Even when properly performed, PCR often shows false-negative results because few Borrelia cells can be found in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during infection. Hence, PCR tests are recommended only in special cases, e.g. diagnosis of Lyme arthritis, because it is a highly sensitive way of detecting ospA DNA in synovial fluid. Although sensitivity of PCR in CSF is low, its use may be considered when intrathecal antibody production test results are suspected of being falsely negative, e.g. in very early (< 6 weeks) neuroborreliosis or in immunosuppressed people.
Several other forms of laboratory testing for Lyme disease are available, some of which have not been adequately validated. OspA antigens, shed by live Borrelia bacteria into urine, are a promising technique being studied. The use of nanotrap particles for their detection is being looked at and the OspA has been linked to active symptoms of Lyme. High titers of either immunoglobulin G (IgG) or immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies to Borrelia antigens indicate disease, but lower titers can be misleading, because the IgM antibodies may remain after the initial infection, and IgG antibodies may remain for years.
The CDC does not recommend urine antigen tests, PCR tests on urine, immunofluorescent staining for cell-wall-deficient forms of B. burgdorferi, and lymphocyte transformation tests.
Imaging
Neuroimaging is controversial in whether it provides specific patterns unique to neuroborreliosis, but may aid in differential diagnosis and in understanding the pathophysiology of the disease. Though controversial, some evidence shows certain neuroimaging tests can provide data that are helpful in the diagnosis of a person. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) are two of the tests that can identify abnormalities in the brain of a person affected with this disease. Neuroimaging findings in an MRI include lesions in the periventricular white matter, as well as enlarged ventricles and cortical atrophy. The findings are considered somewhat unexceptional because the lesions have been found to be reversible following antibiotic treatment. Images produced using SPECT show numerous areas where an insufficient amount of blood is being delivered to the cortex and subcortical white matter. However, SPECT images are known to be nonspecific because they show a heterogeneous pattern in the imaging. The abnormalities seen in the SPECT images are very similar to those seen in people with cerebral vacuities and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, which makes them questionable.
Differential diagnosis
Community clinics have been reported to misdiagnose 23–28% of Erythema migrans (EM) rashes and 83% of other objective manifestations of early Lyme disease. EM rashes are often misdiagnosed as spider bites, cellulitis, or shingles. Many misdiagnoses are credited to the widespread misconception that EM rashes should look like a bull's eye. Actually, the key distinguishing features of the EM rash are the speed and extent to which it expands, respectively up to 2–3 cm/day and a diameter of at least 5 cm, and in 50% of cases more than 16 cm. The rash expands away from its center, which may or may not look different or be separated by ring-like clearing from the rest of the rash. Compared to EM rashes, spider bites are more common in the limbs, tend to be more painful and itchy or become swollen, and some may cause necrosis (sinking dark blue patch of dead skin). Cellulitis most commonly develops around a wound or ulcer, is rarely circular, and is more likely to become swollen and tender. EM rashes often appear at sites that are unusual for cellulitis, such as the armpit, groin, abdomen, or back of knee. Like Lyme, shingles often begins with headache, fever, and fatigue, which are followed by pain or numbness. However, unlike Lyme, in shingles these symptoms are usually followed by appearance of rashes composed of multiple small blisters along with a nerve's dermatome, and shingles can also be confirmed by quick laboratory tests.
Facial palsy caused by Lyme disease (LDFP) is often misdiagnosed as Bell's palsy. Although Bell's palsy is the most common type of one-sided facial palsy (about 70% of cases), LDFP can account for about 25% of cases of facial palsy in areas where Lyme disease is common. Compared to LDFP, Bell's palsy much less frequently affects both sides of the face. Even though LDFP and Bell's palsy have similar symptoms and evolve similarly if untreated, corticosteroid treatment is beneficial for Bell's Palsy, while being detrimental for LDFP. Recent history of exposure to a likely tick habitat during warmer months, EM rash, viral-like symptoms such as headache and fever, and/or palsy in both sides of the face should be evaluated for the likelihood of LDFP; if it is more than minimal, empiric therapy with antibiotics should be initiated, without corticosteroids, and reevaluated upon completion of laboratory tests for Lyme disease.
Unlike viral meningitis, Lyme lymphocytic meningitis tends to not cause fever, last longer, and recur. Lymphocytic meningitis is also characterized by possibly co-occurring with EM rash, facial palsy, or partial vision obstruction and having much lower percentage of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in CSF.
Lyme radiculopathy affecting the limbs is often misdiagnosed as a radiculopathy caused by nerve root compression, such as sciatica. Although most cases of radiculopathy are compressive and resolve with conservative treatment (e.g., rest) within 4–6 weeks, guidelines for managing radiculopathy recommend first evaluating risks of other possible causes that, although less frequent, require immediate diagnosis and treatment, including infections such as Lyme and shingles. A history of outdoor activities in likely tick habitats in the last 3 months possibly followed by a rash or viral-like symptoms, and current headache, other symptoms of lymphocytic meningitis, or facial palsy would lead to suspicion of Lyme disease and recommendation of serological and lumbar puncture tests for confirmation.
Lyme radiculopathy affecting the trunk can be misdiagnosed as myriad other conditions, such as diverticulitis and acute coronary syndrome. Diagnosis of late-stage Lyme disease is often complicated by a multifaceted appearance and nonspecific symptoms, prompting one reviewer to call Lyme the new "great imitator". Lyme disease may be misdiagnosed as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, lupus, Crohn's disease, HIV, or other autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases. As all people with later-stage infection will have a positive antibody test, simple blood tests can exclude Lyme disease as a possible cause of a person's symptoms.
Prevention
Tick bites may be prevented by avoiding or reducing time in likely tick habitats and taking precautions while in and when getting out of one.
Most Lyme human infections are caused by Ixodes nymph bites between April and September. Ticks prefer moist, shaded locations in woodlands, shrubs, tall grasses and leaf litter or wood piles. Tick densities tend to be highest in woodlands, followed by unmaintained edges between woods and lawns (about half as high), ornamental plants and perennial groundcover (about a quarter), and lawns (about 30 times less). Ixodes larvae and nymphs tend to be abundant also where mice nest, such as stone walls and wood logs. Ixodes larvae and nymphs typically wait for potential hosts ("quest") on leaves or grasses close to the ground with forelegs outstretched; when a host brushes against its limbs, the tick rapidly clings and climbs on the host looking for a skin location to bite. In Northeastern United States, 69% of tick bites are estimated to happen in residences, 11% in schools or camps, 9% in parks or recreational areas, 4% at work, 3% while hunting, and 4% in other areas. Activities associated with tick bites around residences include yard work, brush clearing, gardening, playing in the yard, and letting into the house dogs or cats that roam outside in woody or grassy areas. In parks, tick bites often happen while hiking or camping. Walking on a mowed lawn or center of a trail without touching adjacent vegetation is less risky than crawling or sitting on a log or stone wall. Pets should not be allowed to roam freely in likely tick habitats.
As a precaution, CDC recommends soaking or spraying clothes, shoes, and camping gear such as tents, backpacks and sleeping bags with 0.5% permethrin solution and hanging them to dry before use. Permethrin is odorless and safe for humans but highly toxic to ticks. After crawling on permethrin-treated fabric for as few as 10–20 seconds, tick nymphs become irritated and fall off or die. Permethrin-treated closed-toed shoes and socks reduce by 74 times the number of bites from nymphs that make first contact with a shoe of a person also wearing treated shorts (because nymphs usually quest near the ground, this is a typical contact scenario). Better protection can be achieved by tucking permethrin-treated trousers (pants) into treated socks and a treated long-sleeve shirt into the trousers so as to minimize gaps through which a tick might reach the wearer's skin. Light-colored clothing may make it easier to see ticks and remove them before they bite. Military and outdoor workers' uniforms treated with permethrin have been found to reduce the number of bite cases by 80–95%. Permethrin protection lasts several weeks of wear and washings in customer-treated items and up to 70 washings for factory-treated items. Permethrin should not be used on human skin, underwear or cats.
The EPA recommends several tick repellents for use on exposed skin, including DEET, picaridin, IR3535 (a derivative of amino acid beta-alanine), oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE, a natural compound) and OLE's active ingredient para-menthane-diol (PMD). Unlike permethrin, repellents repel but do not kill ticks, protect for only several hours after application, and may be washed off by sweat or water. The most popular repellent is DEET in the U.S. and picaridin in Europe. Unlike DEET, picaridin is odorless and is less likely to irritate the skin or harm fabric or plastics. Repellents with higher concentration may last longer but are not more effective; against ticks, 20% picaridin may work for 8 hours vs. 55–98.11% DEET for 5–6 hours or 30–40% OLE for 6 hours. Repellents should not be used under clothes, on eyes, mouth, wounds or cuts, or on babies younger than 2 months (3 years for OLE or PMD). If sunscreen is used, repellent should be applied on top of it. Repellents should not be sprayed directly on a face, but should instead be sprayed on a hand and then rubbed on the face.
After coming indoors, clothes, gear and pets should be checked for ticks. Clothes can be put into a hot dryer for 10 minutes to kill ticks (just washing or warm dryer are not enough). Showering as soon as possible, looking for ticks over the entire body, and removing them reduce risk of infection. Unfed tick nymphs are the size of a poppy seed, but a day or two after biting and attaching themselves to a person, they look like a small blood blister. The following areas should be checked especially carefully: armpits, between legs, back of knee, bellybutton, trunk, and in children ears, neck and hair.
Tick removal
Attached ticks should be removed promptly. Risk of infection increases with time of attachment, but in North America risk of Lyme disease is small if the tick is removed within 36 hours. CDC recommends inserting a fine-tipped tweezer between the skin and the tick, grasping very firmly, and pulling the closed tweezer straight away from the skin without twisting, jerking, squeezing or crushing the tick. After tick removal, any tick parts remaining in the skin should be removed with a clean tweezer, if possible. The wound and hands should then be cleaned with alcohol or soap and water. The tick may be disposed by placing it in a container with alcohol, sealed bag, tape or flushed down the toilet. The bitten person should write down where and when the bite happened so that this can be informed to a doctor if the person gets a rash or flu-like symptoms in the following several weeks. CDC recommends not using fingers, nail polish, petroleum jelly or heat on the tick to try to remove it.
In Australia, where the Australian paralysis tick is prevalent, the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy recommends not using tweezers to remove ticks, because if the person is allergic, anaphylaxis could result. Instead, a product should be sprayed on the tick to cause it to freeze and then drop off. A doctor would use liquid nitrogen, but products available from chemists for freezing warts can be used instead. Another method originating from Australia consists in using about 20 cm of dental floss or fishing line for slowly tying an overhand knot between the skin and the tick and then pulling it away from the skin.
Preventive antibiotics
The risk of infectious transmission increases with the duration of tick attachment. It requires between 36 and 48 hours of attachment for the bacteria that causes Lyme to travel from within the tick into its saliva. If a deer tick that is sufficiently likely to be carrying Borrelia is found attached to a person and removed, and if the tick has been attached for 36 hours or is engorged, a single dose of doxycycline administered within the 72 hours after removal may reduce the risk of Lyme disease. It is not generally recommended for all people bitten, as development of infection is rare: about 50 bitten people would have to be treated this way to prevent one case of erythema migrans (i.e. the typical rash found in about 70–80% of people infected).
Garden landscaping
Several landscaping practices may reduce risk of tick bites in residential yards. The lawn should be kept mowed, leaf litter and weeds removed and groundcover use avoided. Woodlands, shrubs, stone walls and wood piles should be separated from the lawn by a 3-ft-wide rock or woodchip barrier. Without vegetation on the barrier, ticks will tend not to cross it; acaricides may also be sprayed on it to kill ticks. A sun-exposed tick-safe zone at least 9 ft from the barrier should concentrate human activity on the yard, including any patios, playgrounds and gardening. Materials such as wood decking, concrete, bricks, gravel or woodchips may be used on the ground under patios and playgrounds so as to discourage ticks there. An 8-ft-high fence may be added to keep deer away from the tick-safe zone.
Occupational exposure
Outdoor workers are at risk of Lyme disease if they work at sites with infected ticks. This includes construction, landscaping, forestry, brush clearing, land surveying, farming, railroad work, oil field work, utility line work, park or wildlife management. U.S. workers in the northeastern and north-central states are at highest risk of exposure to infected ticks. Ticks may also transmit other tick-borne diseases to workers in these and other regions of the country. Worksites with woods, bushes, high grass or leaf litter are likely to have more ticks. Outdoor workers should be most careful to protect themselves in the late spring and summer when young ticks are most active.
Host animals
Lyme and other deer tick-borne diseases can sometimes be reduced by greatly reducing the deer population on which the adult ticks depend for feeding and reproduction. Lyme disease cases fell following deer eradication on an island, Monhegan, Maine, and following deer control in Mumford Cove, Connecticut. It is worth noting that eliminating deer may lead to a temporary increase in tick density.
For example, in the U.S., reducing the deer population to levels of 8 to 10 per square mile (from the current levels of 60 or more deer per square mile in the areas of the country with the highest Lyme disease rates) may reduce tick numbers and reduce the spread of Lyme and other tick-borne diseases. However, such a drastic reduction may be very difficult to implement in many areas, and low to moderate densities of deer or other large mammal hosts may continue to feed sufficient adult ticks to maintain larval densities at high levels. Routine veterinary control of ticks of domestic animals, including livestock, by use of acaricides can contribute to reducing exposure of humans to ticks.
In Europe, known reservoirs of Borrelia burgdorferi were 9 small mammals, 7 medium-sized mammals and 16 species of birds (including passerines, sea-birds and pheasants). These animals seem to transmit spirochetes to ticks and thus participate in the natural circulation of B. burgdorferi in Europe. The house mouse is also suspected as well as other species of small rodents, particularly in Eastern Europe and Russia. "The reservoir species that contain the most pathogens are the European roe deer Capreolus capreolus; "it does not appear to serve as a major reservoir of B. burgdorferi" thought Jaenson & al. (1992) (incompetent host for B. burgdorferi and TBE virus) but it is important for feeding the ticks, as red deer and wild boars (Sus scrofa), in which one Rickettsia and three Borrelia species were identified", with high risks of coinfection in roe deer. Nevertheless, in the 2000s, in roe deer in Europe "two species of Rickettsia and two species of Borrelia were identified".
Vaccination
A recombinant vaccine against Lyme disease, based on the outer surface protein A (ospA) of B. burgdorferi, was developed by SmithKline Beecham. In clinical trials involving more than 10,000 people, the vaccine, called LYMErix, was found to confer protective immunity to Borrelia in 76% of adults and 100% of children with only mild or moderate and transient adverse effects. LYMErix was approved on the basis of these trials by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 21 December 1998.
Following approval of the vaccine, its entry into clinical practice was slow for a variety of reasons, including its cost, which was often not reimbursed by insurance companies. Subsequently, hundreds of vaccine recipients reported they had developed autoimmune and other side effects. Supported by some advocacy groups, a number of class-action lawsuits were filed against GlaxoSmithKline, alleging the vaccine had caused these health problems. These claims were investigated by the FDA and the Centers for Disease Control, which found no connection between the vaccine and the autoimmune complaints.
Despite the lack of evidence that the complaints were caused by the vaccine, sales plummeted and LYMErix was withdrawn from the U.S. market by GlaxoSmithKline in February 2002, in the setting of negative media coverage and fears of vaccine side effects. The fate of LYMErix was described in the medical literature as a "cautionary tale"; an editorial in Nature cited the withdrawal of LYMErix as an instance in which "unfounded public fears place pressures on vaccine developers that go beyond reasonable safety considerations." The original developer of the OspA vaccine at the Max Planck Institute told Nature: "This just shows how irrational the world can be ... There was no scientific justification for the first OspA vaccine LYMErix being pulled."
Vaccines have been formulated and approved for the prevention of Lyme disease in dogs. Currently, three Lyme disease vaccines are available. LymeVax, formulated by Fort Dodge Laboratories, contains intact dead spirochetes which expose the host to the organism. Galaxy Lyme, Intervet-Schering-Plough's vaccine, targets proteins OspC and OspA. The OspC antibodies kill any of the bacteria that have not been killed by the OspA antibodies. Canine Recombinant Lyme, formulated by Merial, generates antibodies against the OspA protein so a tick feeding on a vaccinated dog draws in blood full of anti-OspA antibodies, which kill the spirochetes in the tick's gut before they are transmitted to the dog.
A hexavalent (OspA) protein subunit-based vaccine candidate VLA15 developed by Valneva was granted fast track designation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2017 which will allow further study.
A mRNA vaccine designed to cause a strong fast immune response to tick saliva allowed to detect and remove the ticks from test animals before they were able to transmit the infectious bacteria. The vaccine contains mRNAs for the body to build 19 proteins in tick saliva which, by enabling quick development of erythema (itchy redness) at the bite site, protects guinea pigs against Lyme disease. It also protected the test animals if the tick is not removed if only one tick, but not three, remain attached.
Treatment
Antibiotics are the primary treatment. The specific approach to their use is dependent on the individual affected and the stage of the disease. For most people with early localized infection, oral administration of doxycycline is widely recommended as the first choice, as it is effective against not only Borrelia bacteria but also a variety of other illnesses carried by ticks. People taking doxycycline should avoid sun exposure because of higher risk of sunburns. Doxycycline is contraindicated in children younger than eight years of age and women who are pregnant or breastfeeding; alternatives to doxycycline are amoxicillin, cefuroxime axetil, and azithromycin. Azithromycin is recommended only in case of intolerance to the other antibiotics. The standard treatment for cellulitis, cephalexin, is not useful for Lyme disease. When it is unclear if a rash is caused by Lyme or cellulitis, the IDSA recommends treatment with cefuroxime or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, as these are effective against both infections. Individuals with early disseminated or late Lyme infection may have symptomatic cardiac disease, Lyme arthritis, or neurologic symptoms like facial palsy, radiculopathy, meningitis, or peripheral neuropathy. Intravenous administration of ceftriaxone is recommended as the first choice in these cases; cefotaxime and doxycycline are available as alternatives.
Treatment regimens for Lyme disease range from 14 days in early localized disease, to 14–21 days in early disseminated disease to 14–28 days in late disseminated disease. Neurologic complications of Lyme disease may be treated with doxycycline as it can be taken by mouth and has a lower cost, although in North America evidence of efficacy is only indirect. In case of failure, guidelines recommend retreatment with injectable ceftriaxone. Several months after treatment for Lyme arthritis, if joint swelling persists or returns, a second round of antibiotics may be considered; intravenous antibiotics are preferred for retreatment in case of poor response to oral antibiotics. Outside of that, a prolonged antibiotic regimen lasting more than 28 days is not recommended as no evidence shows it to be effective. IgM and IgG antibody levels may be elevated for years even after successful treatment with antibiotics. As antibody levels are not indicative of treatment success, testing for them is not recommended.
Facial palsy may resolve without treatment; however, antibiotic treatment is recommended to stop other Lyme complications. Corticosteroids are not recommended when facial palsy is caused by Lyme disease. In those with facial palsy, frequent use of artificial tears while awake is recommended, along with ointment and a patch or taping the eye closed when sleeping.
About a third of people with Lyme carditis need a temporary pacemaker until their heart conduction abnormality resolves, and 21% need to be hospitalized. Lyme carditis should not be treated with corticosteroids.
People with Lyme arthritis should limit their level of physical activity to avoid damaging affected joints, and in case of limping should use crutches. Pain associated with Lyme disease may be treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Corticosteroid joint injections are not recommended for Lyme arthritis that is being treated with antibiotics. People with Lyme arthritis treated with intravenous antibiotics or two months of oral antibiotics who continue to have joint swelling two months after treatment and have negative PCR test for Borrelia DNA in the synovial fluid are said to have antibiotic-refractory Lyme arthritis; this is more common after infection by certain Borrelia strains in people with certain genetic and immunologic characteristics. Antibiotic-refractory Lyme arthritis may be symptomatically treated with NSAIDs, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), or arthroscopic synovectomy. Physical therapy is recommended for adults after resolution of Lyme arthritis.
People receiving treatment should be advised that reinfection is possible and how to prevent it.
Prognosis
Lyme disease's typical first sign, the erythema migrans (EM) rash, resolves within several weeks even without treatment. However, in untreated people, the infection often disseminates to the nervous system, heart, or joints, possibly causing permanent damage to body tissues.
People who receive recommended antibiotic treatment within several days of appearance of an initial EM rash have the best prospects. Recovery may not be total or immediate. The percentage of people achieving full recovery in the United States increases from about 64–71% at end of treatment for EM rash to about 84–90% after 30 months; higher percentages are reported in Europe. Treatment failure, i.e. persistence of original or appearance of new signs of the disease, occurs only in a few people. Remaining people are considered cured but continue to experience subjective symptoms, e.g. joint or muscle pains or fatigue. These symptoms usually are mild and nondisabling.
People treated only after nervous system manifestations of the disease may end up with objective neurological deficits, in addition to subjective symptoms. In Europe, an average of 32–33 months after initial Lyme symptoms in people treated mostly with doxycycline 200 mg for 14–21 days, the percentage of people with lingering symptoms was much higher among those diagnosed with neuroborreliosis (50%) than among those with only an EM rash (16%). In another European study, 5 years after treatment for neuroborreliosis, lingering symptoms were less common among children (15%) than adults (30%), and in the latter was less common among those treated within 30 days of the first symptom (16%) than among those treated later (39%); among those with lingering symptoms, 54% had daily activities restricted and 19% were on sick leave or incapacitated.
Some data suggest that about 90% of Lyme facial palsies treated with antibiotics recover fully a median of 24 days after appearing and most of the rest recover with only mild abnormality. However, in Europe 41% of people treated for facial palsy had other lingering symptoms at followup up to 6 months later, including 28% with numbness or altered sensation and 14% with fatigue or concentration problems. Palsies in both sides of the face are associated with worse and longer time to recovery. Historical data suggests that untreated people with facial palsies recover at nearly the same rate, but 88% subsequently have Lyme arthritis. Other research shows that synkinesis (involuntary movement of a facial muscle when another one is voluntarily moved) can become evident only 6–12 months after facial palsy appears to be resolved, as damaged nerves regrow and sometimes connect to incorrect muscles. Synkinesis is associated with corticosteroid use. In longer-term follow-up, 16–23% of Lyme facial palsies do not fully recover.
In Europe, about a quarter of people with Bannwarth syndrome (Lyme radiculopathy and lymphocytic meningitis) treated with intravenous ceftriaxone for 14 days an average of 30 days after first symptoms had to be retreated 3–6 months later because of unsatisfactory clinical response or continued objective markers of infection in cerebrospinal fluid; after 12 months, 64% recovered fully, 31% had nondisabling mild or infrequent symptoms that did not require regular use of analgesics, and 5% had symptoms that were disabling or required substantial use of analgesics. The most common lingering nondisabling symptoms were headache, fatigue, altered sensation, joint pains, memory disturbances, malaise, radicular pain, sleep disturbances, muscle pains, and concentration disturbances. Lingering disabling symptoms included facial palsy and other impaired movement.
Recovery from late neuroborreliosis tends to take longer and be less complete than from early neuroborreliosis, probably because of irreversible neurologic damage.
About half the people with Lyme carditis progress to complete heart block, but it usually resolves in a week. Other Lyme heart conduction abnormalities resolve typically within 6 weeks. About 94% of people have full recovery, but 5% need a permanent pacemaker and 1% end up with persistent heart block (the actual percentage may be higher because of unrecognized cases). Lyme myocardial complications usually are mild and self-limiting. However, in some cases Lyme carditis can be fatal.
Recommended antibiotic treatments are effective in about 90% of Lyme arthritis cases, although it can take several months for inflammation to resolve and a second round of antibiotics is often necessary. Antibiotic-refractory Lyme arthritis also eventually resolves, typically within 9–14 months (range 4 months – 4 years); DMARDs or synovectomy can accelerate recovery.
Reinfection is not uncommon. In a U.S. study, 6–11% of people treated for an EM rash had another EM rash within 30 months. The second rash typically is due to infection by a different Borrelia strain.
People who have nonspecific, subjective symptoms such as fatigue, joint and muscle aches, or cognitive difficulties for more than six months after recommended treatment for Lyme disease are said to have post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome (PTLDS). As of 2016 the reason for the lingering symptoms was not known; the condition is generally managed similarly to fibromyalgia or chronic fatigue syndrome.
Epidemiology
Lyme disease occurs regularly in Northern Hemisphere temperate regions.
Africa
In northern Africa, B. burgdorferi sensu lato has been identified in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia.
Lyme disease in sub-Saharan Africa is presently unknown, but evidence indicates it may occur in humans in this region. The abundance of hosts and tick vectors would favor the establishment of Lyme infection in Africa. In East Africa, two cases of Lyme disease have been reported in Kenya.
Asia
B. burgdorferi sensu lato-infested ticks are being found more frequently in Japan, as well as in northwest China, Nepal, Thailand and far eastern Russia. Borrelia has also been isolated in Mongolia.
Europe
In Europe, Lyme disease is caused by infection with one or more pathogenic European genospecies of the spirochaete B. burgdorferi sensu lato, mainly transmitted by the tick Ixodes ricinus. Cases of B. burgdorferi sensu lato-infected ticks are found predominantly in central Europe, particularly in Slovenia and Austria, but have been isolated in almost every country on the continent. Number of cases in southern Europe, such as Italy and Portugal, is much lower. Diagnosed cases in some Western Countries, such as Iceland, are rising.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the number of laboratory confirmed cases of Lyme disease has been rising steadily since voluntary reporting was introduced in 1986 when 68 cases were recorded in the UK and Ireland combined. In the UK there were 23 confirmed cases in 1988 and 19 in 1990, but 973 in 2009 and 953 in 2010. Provisional figures for the first 3 quarters of 2011 show a 26% increase on the same period in 2010.
It is thought, however, that the actual number of cases is significantly higher than suggested by the above figures, with the UK's Health Protection Agency estimating that there are between 2,000 and 3,000 cases per year, (with an average of around 15% of the infections acquired overseas), while Dr Darrel Ho-Yen, Director of the Scottish Toxoplasma Reference Laboratory and National Lyme Disease Testing Service, believes that the number of confirmed cases should be multiplied by 10 "to take account of wrongly diagnosed cases, tests giving false results, sufferers who weren't tested, people who are infected but not showing symptoms, failures to notify and infected individuals who don't consult a doctor."
Despite Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi infection) being a notifiable disease in Scotland since January 1990 which should therefore be reported on the basis of clinical suspicion, it is believed that many GPs are unaware of the requirement. Mandatory reporting, limited to laboratory test results only, was introduced throughout the UK in October 2010, under the Health Protection (Notification) Regulations 2010.
Although there is a greater number of cases of Lyme disease in the New Forest, Salisbury Plain, Exmoor, the South Downs, parts of Wiltshire and Berkshire, Thetford Forest and the West coast and islands of Scotland, infected ticks are widespread, and can even be found in the parks of London. A 1989 report found that 25% of forestry workers in the New Forest were seropositive, as were between 2% and 4–5% of the general local population of the area.
Tests on pet dogs carried out throughout the country in 2009 indicated that around 2.5% of ticks in the UK may be infected, considerably higher than previously thought. It is thought that global warming may lead to an increase in tick activity in the future, as well as an increase in the amount of time that people spend in public parks, thus increasing the risk of infection.
North America
Many studies in North America have examined ecological and environmental correlates of the number of people affected by Lyme disease. A 2005 study using climate suitability modelling of I. scapularis projected that climate change would cause an overall 213% increase in suitable vector habitat by the year 2080, with northward expansions in Canada, increased suitability in the central U.S., and decreased suitable habitat and vector retraction in the southern U.S. A 2008 review of published studies concluded that the presence of forests or forested areas was the only variable that consistently elevated the risk of Lyme disease whereas other environmental variables showed little or no concordance between studies. The authors argued that the factors influencing tick density and human risk between sites are still poorly understood, and that future studies should be conducted over longer time periods, become more standardized across regions, and incorporate existing knowledge of regional Lyme disease ecology.
Canada
The range of ticks able to carry Lyme disease has expanded from a limited area of Ontario to include areas of southern Quebec, Manitoba, northern Ontario, southern New Brunswick, southwest Nova Scotia and limited parts of Saskatchewan and Alberta, as well as British Columbia. Cases have been reported as far east as the island of Newfoundland. A model-based prediction by Leighton et al. (2012) suggests that the range of the I. scapularis tick will expand into Canada by 46 km/year over the next decade, with warming climatic temperatures as the main driver of increased speed of spread.
Mexico
A 2007 study suggests Borrelia burgdorferi infections are endemic to Mexico, from four cases reported between 1999 and 2000.
United States
In 2019, according to the CDC, there were approximately 35,000 confirmed and probable cases in the U.S. with incidences occurring in almost every state. The CDC is currently conducting research on evaluation and diagnostics of the disease and preliminary results suggest the number of new cases to be around 300,000.
Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne disease in North America and Europe, and one of the fastest-growing infectious diseases in the United States. Of cases reported to the United States CDC, the ratio of Lyme disease infection is 7.9 cases for every 100,000 persons. In the ten states where Lyme disease is most common, the average was 31.6 cases for every 100,000 persons for the year 2005.
Although Lyme disease has been reported in all states about 99% of all reported cases are confined to just five geographic areas (New England, Mid-Atlantic, East-North Central, South Atlantic, and West North-Central). New 2011 CDC Lyme case definition guidelines are used to determine confirmed CDC surveillance cases.
Effective January 2008, the CDC gives equal weight to laboratory evidence from 1 a positive culture for B. burgdorferi; 2) two-tier testing (ELISA screening and Western blot confirming); or 3) single-tier IgG (old infection) Western blot. Previously, the CDC only included laboratory evidence based on (1) and (2) in their surveillance case definition. The case definition now includes the use of Western blot without prior ELISA screen.
The number of reported cases of the disease has been increasing, as are endemic regions in North America. For example, B. burgdorferi sensu lato was previously thought to be hindered in its ability to be maintained in an enzootic cycle in California, because it was assumed the large lizard population would dilute the number of people affected by B. burgdorferi in local tick populations; this has since been brought into question, as some evidence has suggested lizards can become infected.
Except for one study in Europe, much of the data implicating lizards is based on DNA detection of the spirochete and has not demonstrated that lizards are able to infect ticks feeding upon them. As some experiments suggest lizards are refractory to infection with Borrelia, it appears likely their involvement in the enzootic cycle is more complex and species-specific.
While B. burgdorferi is most associated with ticks hosted by white-tailed deer and white-footed mice, Borrelia afzelii is most frequently detected in rodent-feeding vector ticks, and Borrelia garinii and Borrelia valaisiana appear to be associated with birds. Both rodents and birds are competent reservoir hosts for B. burgdorferi sensu stricto. The resistance of a genospecies of Lyme disease spirochetes to the bacteriolytic activities of the alternative complement pathway of various host species may determine its reservoir host association.
Several similar but apparently distinct conditions may exist, caused by various species or subspecies of Borrelia in North America. A regionally restricted condition that may be related to Borrelia infection is southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI), also known as Masters disease. Amblyomma americanum, known commonly as the lone-star tick, is recognized as the primary vector for STARI. In some parts of the geographical distribution of STARI, Lyme disease is quite rare (e.g., Arkansas), so people in these regions experiencing Lyme-like symptoms—especially if they follow a bite from a lone-star tick—should consider STARI as a possibility. It is generally a milder condition than Lyme and typically responds well to antibiotic treatment.
In recent years there have been 5 to 10 cases a year of a disease similar to Lyme occurring in Montana. It occurs primarily in pockets along the Yellowstone River in central Montana. People have developed a red bull's-eye rash around a tick bite followed by weeks of fatigue and a fever.
Lyme disease effects are comparable among males and females. A wide range of age groups is affected, though the number of cases is highest among 10- to 19-year-olds. For unknown reasons, Lyme disease is seven times more common among Asians.
South America
In South America, tick-borne disease recognition and occurrence is rising. In Brazil, a Lyme-like disease known as Baggio–Yoshinari syndrome was identified, caused by microorganisms that do not belong to the B. burgdorferi sensu lato complex and transmitted by ticks of the Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus genera. The first reported case of BYS in Brazil was made in 1992 in Cotia, São Paulo.
History
The evolutionary history of Borrelia burgdorferi genetics has been the subject of recent studies. One study has found that prior to the reforestation that accompanied post-colonial farm abandonment in New England and the wholesale migration into the mid-west that occurred during the early 19th century, Lyme disease was present for thousands of years in America and had spread along with its tick hosts from the Northeast to the Midwest.
John Josselyn, who visited New England in 1638 and again from 1663 to 1670, wrote "there be infinite numbers of ticks hanging upon the bushes in summertime that will cleave to man's garments and creep into his breeches, eating themselves in a short time into the very flesh of a man. I have seen the stockings of those that have gone through the woods covered with them."
This is also confirmed by the writings of Peter Kalm, a Swedish botanist who was sent to America by Linnaeus, and who found the forests of New York "abound" with ticks when he visited in 1749. When Kalm's journey was retraced 100 years later, the forests were gone and the Lyme bacterium had probably become isolated to a few pockets along the northeast coast, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
Perhaps the first detailed description of what is now known as Lyme disease appeared in the writings of John Walker after a visit to the island of Jura (Deer Island) off the west coast of Scotland in 1764. He gives a good description both of the symptoms of Lyme disease (with "exquisite pain [in] the interior parts of the limbs") and of the tick vector itself, which he describes as a "worm" with a body which is "of a reddish color and of a compressed shape with a row of feet on each side" that "penetrates the skin". Many people from this area of Great Britain emigrated to North America between 1717 and the end of the 18th century.
The examination of preserved museum specimens has found Borrelia DNA in an infected Ixodes ricinus tick from Germany that dates back to 1884, and from an infected mouse from Cape Cod that died in 1894. The 2010 autopsy of Ötzi the Iceman, a 5,300-year-old mummy, revealed the presence of the DNA sequence of Borrelia burgdorferi making him the earliest known human with Lyme disease.
The early European studies of what is now known as Lyme disease described its skin manifestations. The first study dates to 1883 in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland), where physician Alfred Buchwald described a man who had suffered for 16 years with a degenerative skin disorder now known as acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans.
At a 1909 research conference, Swedish dermatologist Arvid Afzelius presented a study about an expanding, ring-like lesion he had observed in an older woman following the bite of a sheep tick. He named the lesion erythema migrans. The skin condition now known as borrelial lymphocytoma was first described in 1911.
The modern history of medical understanding of the disease, including its cause, diagnosis, and treatment, has been difficult.
Neurological problems following tick bites were recognized starting in the 1920s. French physicians Garin and Bujadoux described a farmer with a painful sensory radiculitis accompanied by mild meningitis following a tick bite. A large, ring-shaped rash was also noted, although the doctors did not relate it to the meningoradiculitis. In 1930, the Swedish dermatologist Sven Hellerström was the first to propose EM and neurological symptoms following a tick bite were related. In the 1940s, German neurologist Alfred Bannwarth described several cases of chronic lymphocytic meningitis and polyradiculoneuritis, some of which were accompanied by erythematous skin lesions.
Carl Lennhoff, who worked at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, believed many skin conditions were caused by spirochetes. In 1948, he used a special stain to microscopically observe what he believed were spirochetes in various types of skin lesions, including EM. Although his conclusions were later shown to be erroneous, interest in the study of spirochetes was sparked. In 1949, Nils Thyresson, who also worked at the Karolinska Institute, was the first to treat ACA with penicillin. In the 1950s, the relationship among tick bite, lymphocytoma, EM and Bannwarth's syndrome was recognized throughout Europe leading to the widespread use of penicillin for treatment in Europe.
In 1970, a dermatologist in Wisconsin named Rudolph Scrimenti recognized an EM lesion in a person after recalling a paper by Hellerström that had been reprinted in an American science journal in 1950. This was the first documented case of EM in the United States. Based on the European literature, he treated the person with penicillin.
The full syndrome now known as Lyme disease was not recognized until a cluster of cases originally thought to be juvenile rheumatoid arthritis was identified in three towns in southeastern Connecticut in 1975, including the towns Lyme and Old Lyme, which gave the disease its popular name. This was investigated by physicians David Snydman and Allen Steere of the Epidemic Intelligence Service, and by others from Yale University, including Stephen Malawista, who is credited as a co-discover of the disease. The recognition that the people in the United States had EM led to the recognition that "Lyme arthritis" was one manifestation of the same tick-borne condition known in Europe.
Before 1976, the elements of B. burgdorferi sensu lato infection were called or known as tick-borne meningopolyneuritis, Garin-Bujadoux syndrome, Bannwarth syndrome, Afzelius's disease, Montauk Knee or sheep tick fever. Since 1976 the disease is most often referred to as Lyme disease, Lyme borreliosis or simply borreliosis.
In 1980, Steere, et al., began to test antibiotic regimens in adults with Lyme disease. In the same year, New York State Health Dept. epidemiologist Jorge Benach provided Willy Burgdorfer, a researcher at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, with collections of I. dammini [scapularis] from Shelter Island, New York, a known Lyme-endemic area as part of an ongoing investigation of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In examining the ticks for rickettsiae, Burgdorfer noticed "poorly stained, rather long, irregularly coiled spirochetes." Further examination revealed spirochetes in 60% of the ticks. Burgdorfer credited his familiarity with the European literature for his realization that the spirochetes might be the "long-sought cause of ECM and Lyme disease." Benach supplied him with more ticks from Shelter Island and sera from people diagnosed with Lyme disease. University of Texas Health Science Center researcher Alan Barbour "offered his expertise to culture and immunochemically characterize the organism." Burgdorfer subsequently confirmed his discovery by isolating, from people with Lyme disease, spirochetes identical to those found in ticks. In June 1982, he published his findings in Science, and the spirochete was named Borrelia burgdorferi in his honor.
After the identification of B. burgdorferi as the causative agent of Lyme disease, antibiotics were selected for testing, guided by in vitro antibiotic sensitivities, including tetracycline antibiotics, amoxicillin, cefuroxime axetil, intravenous and intramuscular penicillin and intravenous ceftriaxone. The mechanism of tick transmission was also the subject of much discussion. B. burgdorferi spirochetes were identified in tick saliva in 1987, confirming the hypothesis that transmission occurred via tick salivary glands.
Society and culture
Urbanization and other anthropogenic factors can be implicated in the spread of Lyme disease to humans. In many areas, expansion of suburban neighborhoods has led to gradual deforestation of surrounding wooded areas and increased border contact between humans and tick-dense areas. Human expansion has also resulted in a reduction of predators that hunt deer as well as mice, chipmunks and other small rodents—the primary reservoirs for Lyme disease. As a consequence of increased human contact with host and vector, the likelihood of transmission of the disease has greatly increased. Researchers are investigating possible links between global warming and the spread of vector-borne diseases, including Lyme disease.
Controversy
The term "chronic Lyme disease" is controversial and not recognized in the medical literature, and most medical authorities advise against long-term antibiotic treatment for Lyme disease. Studies have shown that most people diagnosed with "chronic Lyme disease" either have no objective evidence of previous or current infection with B. burgdorferi or are people who should be classified as having post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome (PTLDS), which is defined as continuing or relapsing non-specific symptoms (such as fatigue, musculoskeletal pain, and cognitive complaints) in a person previously treated for Lyme disease.
The 2008 documentary Under Our Skin is known for promoting conspiracy theories about "chronic Lyme disease".
Other animals
Pets
Prevention of Lyme disease is an important step in keeping dogs safe in endemic areas. Prevention education and a number of preventive measures are available. First, for dog owners who live near or who often frequent tick-infested areas, routine vaccinations of their dogs is an important step.
Another crucial preventive measure is the use of persistent acaricides, such as topical repellents or pesticides that contain triazapentadienes (Amitraz), phenylpyrazoles (Fipronil), or permethrin (pyrethroids). These acaricides target primarily the adult stages of Lyme-carrying ticks and reduce the number of reproductively active ticks in the environment. Formulations of these ingredients are available in a variety of topical forms, including spot-ons, sprays, powders, impregnated collars, solutions, and shampoos.
Examination of a dog for ticks after being in a tick-infested area is an important precautionary measure to take in the prevention of Lyme disease. Key spots to examine include the head, neck, and ears.
In dogs, a serious long-term prognosis may result in glomerular disease, which is a category of kidney damage that may cause chronic kidney disease. Dogs may also experience chronic joint disease if the disease is left untreated. However, the majority of cases of Lyme disease in dogs result in complete recovery with, and sometimes without, treatment with antibiotics. In rare cases, Lyme disease can be fatal to both humans and dogs.
References
Further reading
External links
CDC - Lyme Disease
Lyme Disease Tests – Lab Tests Online
NIH – Lyme Disease
NICE Guidelines – Lyme Disease
Bacterial diseases
Bacterium-related cutaneous conditions
Medical controversies
Neurodegenerative disorders
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate
Tick-borne diseases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorazepam
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Lorazepam
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Lorazepam, sold under the brand name Ativan among others, is a benzodiazepine medication. It is used to treat anxiety disorders, trouble sleeping, severe agitation, active seizures including status epilepticus, alcohol withdrawal, and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. It is also used during surgery to interfere with memory formation and to sedate those who are being mechanically ventilated. It is also used, along with other treatments, for acute coronary syndrome due to cocaine use. It can be given by mouth or as an injection into a muscle or vein. When given by injection onset of effects is between one and thirty minutes and effects last for up to a day.
Common side effects include weakness, sleepiness, low blood pressure, and a decreased effort to breathe. When given intravenously the person should be closely monitored. Among those who are depressed there may be an increased risk of suicide. With long-term use, larger doses may be required for the same effect. Physical dependence and psychological dependence may also occur. If stopped suddenly after long-term use, benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome may occur. Older people more often develop adverse effects. In this age group lorazepam is associated with falls and hip fractures. Due to these concerns, lorazepam use is generally only recommended for up to two to four weeks.
Lorazepam was initially patented in 1963 and went on sale in the United States in 1977. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 69th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 10million prescriptions.
Medical uses
Anxiety
Lorazepam is used in the short-term management of severe anxiety. In the US, the FDA advises against use of benzodiazepines such as lorazepam for longer than four weeks. It is fast acting, and useful in treating fast onset panic anxiety.
Lorazepam can effectively reduce agitation and induce sleep, and the duration of effects from a single dose makes it an appropriate choice for the short-term treatment of insomnia, especially in the presence of severe anxiety or night terrors. It has a fairly short duration of action.
Withdrawal symptoms, including rebound insomnia and rebound anxiety, may occur after seven days' use of lorazepam.
Seizures
Intravenous diazepam or lorazepam are first-line treatments for convulsive status epilepticus. Lorazepam is more effective than diazepam and intravenous phenytoin in the treatment of status epilepticus and has a lower risk of continuing seizures that might require additional medication. However, phenobarbital has a superior success rate compared to lorazepam and other drugs, at least in the elderly.
Lorazepam's anticonvulsant properties and pharmacokinetic profile make intravenous use reliable for terminating acute seizures, but induce prolonged sedation. Oral benzodiazepines, including lorazepam, are occasionally used as long-term prophylactic treatment of resistant absence seizures; because of gradual tolerance to their anti-seizure effects, benzodiazepines such as lorazepam are not considered first-line therapies.
Lorazepam's anticonvulsant and CNS depressant properties are useful for the treatment and prevention of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. In this setting, impaired liver function is not a hazard with lorazepam, since lorazepam does not require oxidation, in the liver or otherwise, for its metabolism.
Sedation
Lorazepam is sometimes used for individuals receiving mechanical ventilation. However, in critically ill people, propofol has been found to be superior to lorazepam both in effectiveness and overall cost; as a result, the use of propofol for this indication is now encouraged, whereas the use of lorazepam is discouraged.
Its relative effectiveness in preventing new memory formation, along with its ability to reduce agitation and anxiety, makes lorazepam useful as premedication. It is given before a general anesthetic to reduce the amount of anesthetic required, or before unpleasant awake procedures, such as in dentistry or endoscopies, to reduce anxiety, to increase compliance, and to induce amnesia for the procedure. Lorazepam by mouth is given 90 to 120 minutes before procedures, and intravenous lorazepam as late as 10 minutes before procedures. Lorazepam is sometimes used as an alternative to midazolam in palliative sedation. In intensive care units lorazepam is sometimes used to produce anxiolysis, hypnosis, and amnesia.
Agitation
Lorazepam is sometimes used as an alternative to haloperidol when there is the need for rapid sedation of violent or agitated individuals, but haloperidol plus promethazine is preferred due to better effectiveness and due to lorazepam's adverse effects on respiratory function. However, adverse effects such as behavioral disinhibition may make benzodiazepines inappropriate for some people who are acutely psychotic . Acute delirium is sometimes treated with lorazepam, but as it can cause paradoxical effects, it is preferably given together with haloperidol. Lorazepam is absorbed relatively slowly if given intramuscularly, a common route in restraint situations.
Other
Catatonia with inability to speak is responsive to lorazepam. Symptoms may recur and treatment for some days may be necessary. Catatonia due to abrupt or overly rapid withdrawal from benzodiazepines, as part of the benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, should also respond to lorazepam treatment. As lorazepam can have paradoxical effects, haloperidol is sometimes given at the same time.
It is sometimes used in chemotherapy in addition to medications used to treat nausea and vomiting, i.e. nausea and vomiting caused or worsened by psychological sensitization to the thought of being sick.
Adverse effects
Many beneficial effects of lorazepam (e.g., sedative, muscle relaxant, anti-anxiety, and amnesic effects) may become adverse effects when unwanted. Adverse effects can include sedation and low blood pressure; the effects of lorazepam are increased in combination with other CNS depressant drugs. Other adverse effects include confusion, ataxia, inhibiting the formation of new memories, pupil constriction and hangover effects. With long-term benzodiazepine use it is unclear whether cognitive impairments fully return to normal after stopping lorazepam use; cognitive deficits persist for at least six months after withdrawal, but longer than six months may be required for recovery of cognitive function. Lorazepam appears to have more profound adverse effects on memory than other benzodiazepines; it impairs both explicit and implicit memory. In the elderly, falls may occur as a result of benzodiazepines. Adverse effects are more common in the elderly, and they appear at lower doses than in younger people. Benzodiazepines can cause or worsen depression. Paradoxical effects can also occur, such as worsening of seizures, or paradoxical excitement; paradoxical excitement is more likely to occur in the elderly, children, those with a history of alcohol abuse, and in people with a history of aggression or anger problems. Lorazepam's effects are dose-dependent, meaning the higher the dose, the stronger the effects (and side effects) will be. Using the smallest dose needed to achieve desired effects lessens the risk of adverse effects. Sedative drugs and sleeping pills, including lorazepam, have been associated with an increased risk of death.
Sedation is the side effect people taking lorazepam most frequently report. In a group of around 3,500 people treated for anxiety, the most common side effects complained of from lorazepam were sedation (15.9%), dizziness (6.9%), weakness (4.2%), and unsteadiness (3.4%). Side effects such as sedation and unsteadiness increased with age. Cognitive impairment, behavioural disinhibition and respiratory depression as well as hypotension may also occur.
Paradoxical effects: In some cases, paradoxical effects can occur with benzodiazepines, such as increased hostility, aggression, angry outbursts, and psychomotor agitation. These effects are seen more commonly with lorazepam than with other benzodiazepines. Paradoxical effects are more likely to occur with higher doses, in people with pre-existing personality disorders and those with a psychiatric illness. Frustrating stimuli may trigger such reactions, though the drug may have been prescribed to help the person cope with such stress and frustration in the first place. As paradoxical effects appear to be dose-related, they usually subside on dose reduction or on complete withdrawal of lorazepam.
Suicidality: Benzodiazepines are associated with increased risk of suicide, possibly due to disinhibition. Higher dosages appear to confer greater risk.
Amnesic effects: Among benzodiazepines, lorazepam has relatively strong amnesic effects, but people soon develop tolerance to this with regular use. To avoid amnesia (or excess sedation) being a problem, the initial total daily lorazepam dose should not exceed 2 mg. This also applies to use for night sedation. Five participants in a sleep study were prescribed lorazepam 4 mg at night, and the next evening, three subjects unexpectedly volunteered memory gaps for parts of that day, an effect that subsided completely after two to three days' use. Amnesic effects cannot be estimated from the degree of sedation present, since the two effects are unrelated.
High-dose or prolonged parenterally administered lorazepam is sometimes associated with propylene glycol poisoning.
In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class.
Contraindications
Lorazepam should be avoided in people with:
Allergy or hypersensitivity – Past hypersensitivity or allergy to lorazepam, to any benzodiazepine, or to any of the ingredients in lorazepam tablets or injections
Respiratory failure – Benzodiazepines, including lorazepam, may depress central nervous system respiratory drive and are contraindicated in severe respiratory failure. An example would be the inappropriate use to relieve anxiety associated with acute severe asthma. The anxiolytic effects may also be detrimental to a person's willingness and ability to fight for breath. However, if mechanical ventilation becomes necessary, lorazepam may be used to facilitate deep sedation.
Acute intoxication – Lorazepam may interact synergistically with the effects of alcohol, narcotics, or other psychoactive substances. It should, therefore, not be administered to a drunk or intoxicated person.
Ataxia – This is a neurological clinical sign, consisting of unsteady and clumsy motion of the limbs and torso, due to the failure of gross muscle movement coordination, most evident on standing and walking. It is the classic way in which acute alcohol intoxication may affect a person. Benzodiazepines should not be administered to people already-ataxic.
Acute narrow-angle glaucoma – Lorazepam has pupil-dilating effects, which may further interfere with the drainage of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber of the eye, thus worsening narrow-angle glaucoma.
Sleep apnea – Sleep apnea may be worsened by lorazepam's central nervous system depressant effects. It may further reduce the person's ability to protect his or her airway during sleep.
Myasthenia gravis – This condition is characterized by muscle weakness, so a muscle relaxant such as lorazepam may exacerbate symptoms.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding – Lorazepam belongs to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) pregnancy category D, which means it is likely to cause harm to the developing baby if taken during the first trimester of pregnancy. The evidence is inconclusive whether lorazepam if taken early in pregnancy results in reduced intelligence, neurodevelopmental problems, physical malformations in cardiac or facial structure, or other malformations in some newborns. Lorazepam given to pregnant women antenatally may cause floppy infant syndrome in the neonate, or respiratory depression necessitating ventilation. Regular lorazepam use during late pregnancy (the third trimester), carries a definite risk of benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome in the neonate. Neonatal benzodiazepine withdrawal may include hypotonia, reluctance to suck, apneic spells, cyanosis, and impaired metabolic responses to cold stress. Symptoms of floppy infant syndrome and the neonatal benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome have been reported to persist from hours to months after birth. Lorazepam may also inhibit fetal liver bilirubin glucuronidation, leading to neonatal jaundice. Lorazepam is present in breast milk, so caution must be exercised about breastfeeding.
Specific groups
Children and the elderly – The safety and effectiveness of lorazepam is not well determined in children under 18 years of age, but it is used to treat acute seizures. Dose requirements have to be individualized, especially in people who are elderly and debilitated in whom the risk of oversedation is greater. Long-term therapy may lead to cognitive deficits, especially in the elderly, which may only be partially reversible. The elderly metabolize benzodiazepines more slowly than younger people and are more sensitive to the adverse effects of benzodiazepines compared to younger individuals even at similar plasma levels. Additionally, the elderly tend to take more drugs which may interact or enhance the effects of benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines, including lorazepam, have been found to increase the risk of falls and fractures in the elderly. As a result, dosage recommendations for the elderly are about half of those used in younger individuals and used for no longer than two weeks. Lorazepam may also be slower to clear in the elderly, leading potentially to accumulation and enhanced effects. Lorazepam, similar to other benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines, causes impairments in body balance and standing steadiness in individuals who wake up at night or the next morning. Falls and hip fractures are frequently reported. The combination with alcohol increases these impairments. Partial, but incomplete, tolerance develops to these impairments.
Liver or kidney failure – Lorazepam may be safer than most benzodiazepines in people with impaired liver function. Like oxazepam, it does not require liver oxidation, but only liver glucuronidation into lorazepam-glucuronide. Therefore, impaired liver function is unlikely to result in lorazepam accumulation to an extent causing adverse reactions. Similarly kidney disease has minimal effects on lorazepam levels.
Surgical premedication – Informed consent given only after receiving lorazepam premedication could have its validity challenged later. Staff must use chaperones to guard against allegations of abuse during treatment. Such allegations may arise because of incomplete amnesia, disinhibition, and impaired ability to process cues. Because of its relatively long duration of residual effects (sedation, ataxia, hypotension, and amnesia), lorazepam premedication is best suited for hospital inpatient use. People should not be discharged from the hospital within 24 hours of receiving lorazepam premedication unless accompanied by a caregiver. They should also not drive, operate machinery, or use alcohol within this period.
Drug and alcohol dependence – The risk of abuse of lorazepam is increased in dependent people.
Comorbid psychiatric disorders also increase the risk of dependence and paradoxical adverse effects.
Tolerance and dependence
Dependence typified by a withdrawal syndrome occurs in about one-third of individuals who are treated for longer than four weeks with a benzodiazepine. Higher doses and longer periods of use increase the risk of developing a benzodiazepine dependence. Potent benzodiazepines with a relatively short half life, such as lorazepam, alprazolam, and triazolam, have the highest risk of causing a dependence. Tolerance to benzodiazepine effects develops with regular use. This is desirable with amnesic and sedative effects but undesirable with anxiolytic, hypnotic, and anticonvulsant effects. People initially experience drastic relief from anxiety and sleeplessness, but symptoms gradually return, relatively soon in the case of insomnia, but more slowly in the case of anxiety symptoms. After four to six months of regular benzodiazepine use, evidence of continued efficacy declines.
If regular treatment is continued for longer than four to six months, dose increases may be necessary to maintain effects, but treatment-resistant symptoms may in fact be benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms. Due to the development of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects, benzodiazepines are generally not recommended for long-term use for the management of epilepsy. Increasing the dose may overcome tolerance, but tolerance may then develop to the higher dose and adverse effects may persist and worsen. The mechanism of tolerance to benzodiazepines is complex and involves GABAA receptor downregulation, alterations to subunit configuration of GABAA receptors, uncoupling and internalisation of the benzodiazepine binding site from the GABAA receptor complex as well as changes in gene expression.
The likelihood of dependence is relatively high with lorazepam compared to other benzodiazepines. Lorazepam's relatively short serum half-life, its confinement mainly to blood, and its inactive metabolite can result in interdose withdrawal phenomena and next-dose cravings, that may reinforce psychological dependence. Because of its high potency, the smallest lorazepam tablet strength of 0.5 mg is also a significant dose. To minimise the risk of physical/psychological dependence, lorazepam is best used only short-term, at the smallest effective dose. If any benzodiazepine has been used long-term, the recommendation is a gradual dose taper over a period of weeks, months or longer, according to dose and duration of use, the degree of dependence and the individual.
Coming off long-term lorazepam use may be more realistically achieved by a gradual switch to an equivalent dose of diazepam and a period of stabilization on this, and only then initiating dose reductions. The advantage of switching to diazepam is that dose reductions are felt less acutely, because of the longer half-lives (20–200 hours) of diazepam and its active metabolites.
Withdrawal
On abrupt or overly rapid discontinuation of lorazepam, anxiety, and signs of physical withdrawal have been observed, similar to those seen on withdrawal from alcohol and barbiturates. Lorazepam, as with other benzodiazepine drugs, can cause physical dependence, addiction, and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. The higher the dose and the longer the drug is taken, the greater the risk of experiencing unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms can, however, occur from standard dosages and also after short-term use. Benzodiazepine treatment should be discontinued as soon as possible via a slow and gradual dose reduction regimen. Rebound effects often resemble the condition being treated, but typically at a more intense level and may be difficult to diagnose. Withdrawal symptoms can range from mild anxiety and insomnia to more severe symptoms such as seizures and psychosis. The risk and severity of withdrawal are increased with long-term use, use of high doses, abrupt or over-rapid reduction, among other factors. Short-acting benzodiazepines such as lorazepam are more likely to cause a more severe withdrawal syndrome compared to longer-acting benzodiazepines.
Withdrawal symptoms can occur after taking therapeutic doses of lorazepam for as little as one week. Withdrawal symptoms include headaches, anxiety, tension, depression, insomnia, restlessness, confusion, irritability, sweating, dysphoria, dizziness, derealization, depersonalization, numbness/tingling of extremities, hypersensitivity to light, sound, and smell, perceptual distortions, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, appetite loss, hallucinations, delirium, seizures, tremor, stomach cramps, myalgia, agitation, palpitations, tachycardia, panic attacks, short-term memory loss, and hyperthermia. It takes about 18–36 hours for the benzodiazepine to be removed from the body. The ease of physical dependence to lorazepam, (Ativan brand was particularly cited), and its withdrawal were brought to the attention of the British public during the early 1980s in Esther Rantzen's BBC TV series That's Life!, in a feature on the drug over a number of episodes.
Interactions
Lorazepam is not usually fatal in overdose, but may cause respiratory depression if taken in overdose with alcohol. The combination also causes greater enhancement of the disinhibitory and amnesic effects of both drugs, with potentially embarrassing or criminal consequences. Some experts advise that people should be warned against drinking alcohol while on lorazepam treatment, but such clear warnings are not universal.
Greater adverse effects may also occur when lorazepam is used with other drugs, such as opioids or other hypnotics. Lorazepam may also interact with rifabutin. Valproate inhibits the metabolism of lorazepam, whereas carbamazepine, lamotrigine, phenobarbital, phenytoin, and rifampin increase its rate of metabolism. Some antidepressants, antiepileptic drugs such as phenobarbital, phenytoin and carbamazepine, sedative antihistamines, opiates, antipsychotics and alcohol, when taken with lorazepam may result in enhanced sedative effects.
Overdose
In cases of a suspected lorazepam overdose, it is important to establish whether the person is a regular user of lorazepam or other benzodiazepines since regular use causes tolerance to develop. Also, one must ascertain whether other substances were also ingested.
Signs of overdose range through mental confusion, dysarthria, paradoxical reactions, drowsiness, hypotonia, ataxia, hypotension, hypnotic state, coma, cardiovascular depression, respiratory depression, and death. However, fatal overdoses on benzodiazepines alone are rare and less common than with barbiturates. Such a difference is largely due to benzodiazepine activity as a neuroreceptor modulator, and not as an activator per se. Lorazepam and similar medication do however act in synergy with alcohol, which increases the risk of overdose.
Early management of people under alert includes emetics, gastric lavage, and activated charcoal. Otherwise, management is by observation, including of vital signs, support and, only if necessary, considering the hazards of doing so, giving intravenous flumazenil.
People are ideally nursed in a kind, frustration-free environment, since, when given or taken in high doses, benzodiazepines are more likely to cause paradoxical reactions. If shown sympathy, even quite crudely feigned, people may respond solicitously, but they may respond with disproportionate aggression to frustrating cues. Opportunistic counseling has limited value here, as the person is unlikely to recall this later, owing to drug-induced anterograde amnesia.
Detection in body fluids
Lorazepam may be quantitated in blood or plasma to confirm poisoning in hospitalized people, provide evidence of an impaired driving arrest or to assist in a medicolegal death investigation. Blood or plasma concentrations are usually in a range of 10–300 μg/l in persons either receiving the drug therapeutically or in those arrested for impaired driving. Approximately 300–1000 μg/l is found in people after acute overdosage. Lorazepam may not be detected by commonly used urine drug screenings for benzodiazepines.
Pharmacology
Lorazepam has anxiolytic, sedative, hypnotic, amnesic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. It is a high-potency and an benzodiazepine, and its uniqueness, advantages, and disadvantages are largely explained by its pharmacokinetic properties (poor water and lipid solubility, high protein binding and anoxidative metabolism to a pharmacologically inactive glucuronide form) and by its high relative potency (lorazepam 1 mg is equal in effect to diazepam 10 mg). The biological half-life of lorazepam is 10–20 hours.
Pharmacokinetics
Lorazepam is highly protein bound and is extensively metabolized into pharmacologically inactive metabolites. Due to its poor lipid solubility, lorazepam is absorbed relatively slowly by mouth and is unsuitable for rectal administration. However, its poor lipid solubility and high degree of protein binding (85–90%) mean its volume of distribution is mainly the vascular compartment, causing relatively prolonged peak effects. This contrasts with the highly lipid-soluble diazepam, which, although rapidly absorbed orally or rectally, soon redistributes from the serum to other parts of the body, in particular, body fat. This explains why one lorazepam dose, despite its shorter serum half-life, has more prolonged peak effects than an equivalent diazepam dose. Lorazepam is rapidly conjugated at its 3-hydroxy group into lorazepam glucuronide which is then excreted in the urine. Lorazepam glucuronide has no demonstrable CNS activity in animals. The plasma levels of lorazepam are proportional to the dose given. There is no evidence of accumulation of lorazepam on administration up to six months. On regular administration, diazepam will accumulate, since it has a longer half-life and active metabolites, these metabolites also have long half-lives.
Clinical example: Diazepam has long been a drug of choice for status epilepticus; its high lipid solubility means it gets absorbed with equal speed whether given orally, or rectally (nonintravenous routes are convenient in outside hospital settings), but diazepam's high lipid solubility also means it does not remain in the vascular space, but soon redistributes into other body tissues. So, it may be necessary to repeat diazepam doses to maintain peak anticonvulsant effects, resulting in excess body accumulation. Lorazepam is a different case; its low lipid solubility makes it relatively slowly absorbed by any route other than intravenously, but once injected, it will not get significantly redistributed beyond the vascular space. Therefore, lorazepam's anticonvulsant effects are more durable, thus reducing the need for repeated doses. If a person is known to usually stop convulsing after only one or two diazepam doses, it may be preferable because sedative after effects will be less than if a single dose of lorazepam is given (diazepam anticonvulsant/sedative effects wear off after 15–30 minutes, but lorazepam effects last 12–24 hours). The prolonged sedation from lorazepam may, however, be an acceptable trade-off for its reliable duration of effects, particularly if the person needs to be transferred to another facility. Although lorazepam is not necessarily better than diazepam at initially terminating seizures, lorazepam is, nevertheless, replacing diazepam as the intravenous agent of choice in status epilepticus.
Lorazepam serum levels are proportional to the dose administered. Giving 2 mg oral lorazepam will result in a peak total serum level of around 20 ng/ml around two hours later, half of which is lorazepam, half its inactive metabolite, lorazepam-glucuronide. A similar lorazepam dose given intravenously will result in an earlier and higher peak serum level, with a higher relative proportion of unmetabolised (active) lorazepam. On regular administration, maximum serum levels are attained after three days. Longer-term use, up to six months, does not result in further accumulation. On discontinuation, lorazepam serum levels become negligible after three days and undetectable after about a week. Lorazepam is metabolized in the liver by conjugation into inactive lorazepam-glucuronide. This metabolism does not involve liver oxidation, so is relatively unaffected by reduced liver function. Lorazepam-glucuronide is more water-soluble than its precursor, so gets more widely distributed in the body, leading to a longer half-life than lorazepam. Lorazepam-glucuronide is eventually excreted by the kidneys, and, because of its tissue accumulation, it remains detectable, particularly in the urine, for substantially longer than lorazepam.
Pharmacodynamics
Relative to other benzodiazepines, lorazepam is thought to have high affinity for GABA receptors, which may also explain its marked amnesic effects. Its main pharmacological effects are the enhancement of the effects of the neurotransmitter GABA at the GABAA receptor. Benzodiazepines, such as lorazepam, enhance the effects of GABA at the GABAA receptor via increasing the frequency of opening of the chloride ion channel on the GABAA receptors; which results in the therapeutic actions of benzodiazepines. They, however, do not on their own activate the GABAA receptors, but require the neurotransmitter GABA to be present. Thus, the effect of benzodiazepines is to enhance the effects of the neurotransmitter GABA.
The magnitude and duration of lorazepam effects are dose-related, meaning larger doses have stronger and longer-lasting effects, because the brain has spare benzodiazepine drug receptor capacity, with single, clinical doses leading only to an occupancy of some 3% of the available receptors.
The anticonvulsant properties of lorazepam and other benzodiazepines may be, in part or entirely, due to binding to voltage-dependent sodium channels rather than benzodiazepine receptors. Sustained repetitive firing seems to get limited, by the benzodiazepine effect of slowing recovery of sodium channels from inactivation to deactivation in mouse spinal cord cell cultures, hence prolonging the refractory period.
Physical properties and formulations
Pure lorazepam is an almost white powder that is nearly insoluble in water and oil. In medicinal form, it is mainly available as tablets and a solution for injection, but, in some locations, it is also available as a skin patch, an oral solution, and a sublingual tablet.
Lorazepam tablets and syrups are administered by mouth only. Lorazepam tablets of the Ativan brand also contain lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, polacrilin, magnesium stearate, and coloring agents (indigo carmine in blue tablets and tartrazine in yellow tablets). Lorazepam for injection formulated with polyethylene glycol 400 in propylene glycol with 2.0% benzyl alcohol as preservative.
Lorazepam injectable solution is administered either by deep intramuscular injection or by intravenous injection. The injectable solution comes in 1 ml ampoules containing 2 or 4 mg of lorazepam. The solvents used are polyethylene glycol 400 and propylene glycol. As a preservative, the injectable solution contains benzyl alcohol. Toxicity from propylene glycol has been reported in the case of a person receiving a continuous lorazepam infusion. Intravenous injections should be given slowly and they should be closely monitored for side effects, such as respiratory depression, hypotension, or loss of airway control.
Peak effects roughly coincide with peak serum levels, which occur 10 minutes after intravenous injection, up to 60 minutes after intramuscular injection, and 90 to 120 minutes after oral administration, but initial effects will be noted before this. A clinically relevant lorazepam dose will normally be effective for six to 12 hours, making it unsuitable for regular once-daily administration, so it is usually prescribed as two to four daily doses when taken regularly, but this may be extended to five or six, especially in the case of elderly people who could not handle large doses at once.
Topical formulations of lorazepam, while used as treatment for nausea especially in people in hospice, ought not be used in this form and for this purpose as they have not been proven effective.
History
Historically, lorazepam is one of the "classical" benzodiazepines. Others include diazepam, clonazepam, oxazepam, nitrazepam, flurazepam, bromazepam, and clorazepate. Lorazepam was first introduced by Wyeth Pharmaceuticals in 1977 under the brand names Ativan and Temesta. The drug was developed by D.J. Richards, president of research. Wyeth's original patent on lorazepam is expired in the United States.
Society and culture
Recreational use
Lorazepam is also used for other purposes, such as recreational use, wherein the drug is taken to achieve a high, or when the drug is continued long-term against medical advice.
A large-scale, nationwide, U.S. government study of pharmaceutical-related emergency department (ED) visits by SAMHSA found sedative-hypnotics are the pharmaceuticals most frequently used outside of their prescribed medical purpose in the United States, with 35% of drug-related emergency department visits involving sedative-hypnotics. In this category, benzodiazepines are most commonly used. Males and females use benzodiazepines for nonmedical purposes equally. Of drugs used in attempted suicide, benzodiazepines are the most commonly used pharmaceutical drugs, with 26% of attempted suicides involving them. Lorazepam was the third-most-common benzodiazepine used outside of prescription in these ER visit statistics.
Legal status
Lorazepam is a Schedule IV drug under the Controlled Substances Act in the U.S. and internationally under the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It is a Schedule IV drug under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act in Canada. In the United Kingdom, it is a Class C, Schedule 4 Controlled Drug under the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001.
Pricing
In 2000, the U.S. drug company Mylan agreed to pay $147 million to settle accusations by the FTC that they had raised the price of generic lorazepam by 2600% and generic clorazepate by 3200% in 1998 after having obtained exclusive licensing agreements for certain ingredients.
References
External links
inchem.org – Lorazepam data sheet
benzo.org.uk – Ashton H. Benzodiazepines: How They Work And How to Withdraw. August 2002 (The "Ashton Manual").
Antiemetics
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Benzodiazepines
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Chemical substances for emergency medicine
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GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
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Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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244119
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androcentrism
|
Androcentrism
|
Androcentrism (Ancient Greek, ἀνήρ, "man, male") is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing a masculine point of view at the center of one's world view, culture, and history, thereby culturally marginalizing femininity. The related adjective is androcentric, while the practice of placing the feminine point of view at the center is gynocentric.
Etymology
The term androcentrism was introduced as an analytic concept by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in a scientific debate. Perkins Gilman described androcentric practices in society and the resulting problems they created in her investigation on The Man-Made World; or, Our Androcentric Culture, published in 1911. Because of this androcentrism can be understood as a societal fixation on masculinity whereby all things originate. Under androcentrism, masculinity is normative and all things outside of masculinity are defined as other. According to Perkins Gilman, masculine patterns of life and masculine mindsets claimed universality while female patterns were considered as deviance.
Education
Some universities such as the University of Oxford consciously practiced a numerus clausus and restricted the number of female undergraduates they accepted.
Literature
Research by Dr. David Anderson and Dr. Mykol Hamilton has documented the under-representation of female characters in a sample of 200 books that included top-selling children's books from 2001 and a seven-year sample of Caldecott award-winning books. There were nearly twice as many male main characters as female main characters, and male characters appeared in illustrations 53 percent more than female characters. Most of the plot-lines centered on the male characters and their experiences of life.
The arts
In 1985 a group of female artists from New York, the Guerrilla Girls, began to protest the under-representation of female artists. According to them, male artists and the male viewpoint continued to dominate the visual art world. In a 1989 poster (displayed on NYC buses) titled "Do women have to be naked to get into the Met. Museum?" they reported that less than 5% of the artists in the Modern Art sections of the Met Museum were women, but 85% of the nudes were female.
Over 20 years later, women were still under-represented in the art world. In 2007, Jerry Saltz (journalist from the New York Times) criticized the Museum of Modern Art for undervaluing work by female artists. Of the 400 works of art he counted in the Museum of Modern Art, only 14 were by women (3.5%). Saltz also found a significant under-representation of female artists in the six other art institutions he studied.
Generic male language
In literature, the use of masculine language to refer to men, women, intersex, and non-binary may indicate a male or androcentric bias in society where men are seen as the 'norm', and women, intersex, and non-binary are seen as the 'other'. Philosophy scholar Jennifer Saul argues that the use of male generic language marginalizes women, intersex, and non-binary people in society. In recent years, some writers have started to use more gender-inclusive language (for instance, using the pronouns they/them and using gender-inclusive words like humankind, person, partner, spouse, businessperson, firefighter, chairperson and police officer).
Many studies have shown that male generic language is not interpreted as truly gender-inclusive. Psychological research has shown that, in comparison to unbiased terms such as "they" and "humankind", masculine terms lead to male-biased mental imagery in the mind of both the listener and the communicator.
Three studies by Mykol Hamilton show that there is not only a male → people bias but also a people → male bias. In other words, a masculine bias remains even when people are exposed to only gender neutral language (although the bias is lessened). In two of her studies, half of the participants (after exposure to gender neutral language) had male-biased imagery but the rest of the participants displayed no gender bias at all. In her third study, only males showed a masculine-bias (after exposure to gender neutral language) – females showed no gender bias. Hamilton asserted that this may be due to the fact that males have grown up being able to think more easily than females of "any person" as generic "he," since "he" applies to them. Further, of the two options for neutral language, neutral language that explicitly names women (e.g., "he or she") reduces androcentrism more effectively than neutral language that makes no mention of gender whatsoever (e.g., "human").
Feminist anthropologist Sally Slocum argues that there has been a longstanding male bias in anthropological thought as evidenced by terminology used when referring to society, culture, and humankind. According to Slocum, "All too often the word 'man' is used in such an ambiguous fashion that it is impossible to decide whether it refers to males or just the human species in general, including both males and females."
Generic male symbols
On the Internet, many avatars are gender-neutral (such as an image of a smiley face). However, when an avatar is human and discernibly gendered, it usually appears to be a man.
See also
Honorary male
Male supremacy
Manosphere
Patriarchy
Phallocentrism
References
Literature
Ginzberg, Ruth (1989), "Uncovering gynocentric science", in
External links
Androcentrism
Epistemology
Feminist philosophy
Feminist terminology
Patriarchy
Philosophy of science
Feminism and society
|
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244124
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldwell
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Caldwell
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Caldwell may refer to:
People
Caldwell (surname)
Caldwell (given name)
Caldwell First Nation, a federally recognized Indian band in southern Ontario, Canada
Places
Great Britain
Caldwell, Derbyshire, a hamlet
Caldwell, East Renfrewshire, an old country estate
Caldwell, North Yorkshire, a village and civil parish
United States
Caldwell Glacier, Alaska
Caldwell, Arkansas, a city
Caldwell, Idaho, a city
Caldwell, Kansas, a city
Caldwell Parish, Louisiana
Caldwell Brook, Minnesota, a stream
The Caldwells, New Jersey, three municipalities all with Caldwell in their name
Caldwell, New Jersey, a borough
Caldwell, New York, a colloquial name for the area roughly bounded by Lake George (town), New York
Caldwell, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, an unincorporated community
Caldwell, Orange County, North Carolina, an unincorporated community
Caldwell, Ohio, a village
Caldwell, Texas, a city
Caldwell Zoo, Texas, in the city of Tyler
Caldwell, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
Caldwell, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Caldwell County (disambiguation)
Caldwell Creek (disambiguation)
Caldwell Township (disambiguation)
Elsewhere
Mount Caldwell, Ellsworth Land, Antarctica
Caldwell Peak, Ross Island (near Antarctica)
Caldwell, New South Wales, Australia, a village community
Caldwell, Cardston County, Alberta, Canada
Caldwell, New Brunswick, Canada
Caldwell, Liberia, a settlement town
Forward Operating Base Caldwell, Iraq, a former U.S. Army base
Buildings
Caldwell, East Renfrewshire, Scotland, a mansion
Uplawmoor (GB&K) railway station, Uplawmoor, East Renfrewshire, Scotland, originally named Caldwell
Caldwell Priory, Bedfordshire, England
Caldwell Block, Ipswitch, Massachusetts, United States, on the National Register of Historic Places
Caldwell Parsonage, Union, New Jersey, United States, on the National Register of Historic Places
Caldwell Hall (disambiguation)
Caldwell House (disambiguation)
Ships
Caldwell-class destroyer, a class of six destroyers
USS Caldwell (DD-69), United States Navy destroyer commissioned in 1917
USS Caldwell (DD-605), United States Navy destroyer commissioned in 1942
Schools
Caldwell University, Caldwell, New Jersey
Caldwell Community College & Technical Institute, Hudson, North Carolina
Caldwell School, Mobile, Alabama, a historic former black school, on the National Register of Historic Places
Caldwell High School (disambiguation)
Caldwell Academy, Greensboro, North Carolina, a private school
Other
Caldwell baronets, an extinct title in the Baronetage of Ireland
Caldwell catalogue, a catalogue of interesting astronomical objects
Caldwell Memorial Hospital, Lenoir, North Carolina, a private, not-for-profit community hospital
Caldwell machine gun, designed in 1915 by Australian Thomas Caldwell
See also
Cadwell (disambiguation)
Calwell (disambiguation)
Cardwell (disambiguation)
Cauldwell (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bossa%20nova
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Bossa nova
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Bossa nova () is a style of samba developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is mainly characterized by a "different beat" that altered the harmonies with the introduction of unconventional chords and an innovative syncopation of traditional samba from a single rhythmic division. The "bossa nova beat" is characteristic of a samba style and not of an autonomous genre.
According to the Brazilian journalist Ruy Castro, the bossa beat – which was created by the drummer Milton Banana – was "an extreme simplification of the beat of the samba school", as if all instruments had been removed and only the tamborim had been preserved. In line with this thesis, musicians such as Baden Powell, Roberto Menescal, and Ronaldo Bôscoli also claim that this beat is related to the tamborim of the samba school. One of the major innovations of bossa nova was the way to synthesize the rhythm of samba on the classical guitar. According to musicologist Gilberto Mendes, the bossa nova was one of the "three rhythmic phases of samba", in which the "bossa beat" had been extracted by João Gilberto from the traditional samba. According to the author Walter Garcia, the synthesis performed by Gilberto's guitar was a reduction of the "batucada" of samba, a stylization produced from one of the percussion instruments: the thumb stylized a surdo; the index, middle and ring fingers phrased like a tamborim.
In 1959, soundtrack to the film "Black Orpheus" (Orpheu Negro) was released, which included the future jazz standard Manhã de Carnaval, "The Morning of the Carnival". The bossa nova wave came to renew samba and to contribute to the modernization of Brazilian music, being a watershed. The style emerged at the time when samba-canção was the dominant rhythm in the Brazilian music scene. Its first appearance was on the album Canção do Amor Demais, in which the singer Elizeth Cardoso recorded two compositions by the duo Antônio Carlos Jobim and Vinicius de Moraes, "Outra Vez" and "Chega de Saudade", which were accompanied by João Gilberto's guitar. It was the first time that the Bahian musician presented the beat of his guitar that would become characteristic of the style. By accompanying Cardoso's voice, Gilberto innovated in the way of pacing the rhythm, accentuating the weak times, in order to carry out a synthesis of the beat of samba to guitar.
In 1959, João Gilberto's bossa album was released, containing the tracks "Chega de Saudade" and "Bim Bom". Considered the landmark of the birth of bossa nova, it also featured Gilberto's innovative way of singing samba, which was inspired by Dorival Caymmi. With the LP Chega de Saudade, released in 1959, Gilberto consolidated the bossa nova as a new style of playing samba. His innovative way of playing and singing samba, combined with the harmonies of Antônio Carlos Jobim and the lyrics of Vinicius de Moraes, found immediate resonance among musicians who were looking for new approaches to samba in Rio de Janeiro, many of them were influenced by American jazz. In 1964 João Gilberto and Stan Getz released "Getz/Gilberto" album. Then, it emerged an artistic movement around Gilberto and others professional artists such as Jobim, Moraes and Baden Powell, among others, which attracted young amateur musicians from the South Zone of Rio – such as Carlos Lyra, Roberto Menescal, Ronaldo Bôscoli and Nara Leão. Jorge Ben wrote "Mas que Nada" in 1963, and Sergio Mendes & Brazil 66 gained bosa rock hit "Mas que Nada" in 1966. It was inducted to the Latin Grammy Hall of Fame. In 1960s, US jazz artists such as Stan Getz, Hank Mobley, Zoot Sims, Paul Winter and Quincy Jones recorded bossa jazz albums.
Etymology
In Brazil, the word "bossa" is old-fashioned slang for something done with particular charm, natural flair or innate ability. As early as 1932, Noel Rosa used the word in a samba:
"O samba, a prontidão e outras bossas são nossas coisas, são coisas nossas." ("Samba, readiness and other bossas are our things, are things from us.")
The phrase bossa nova means literally "new trend" or "new wave". The exact origin of the term "bossa nova" remained unclear for many decades, according to some authors. Within the artistic beach culture of the late 1950s in Rio de Janeiro, the term "bossa" was used to refer to any new "trend" or "fashionable wave". In his book Bossa Nova, Brazilian author Ruy Castro asserts that "bossa" was already in use in the 1950s by musicians as a word to characterize someone's knack for playing or singing idiosyncratically. Castro claims that the term "bossa nova" might have first been used in public for a concert given in 1957 by the Grupo Universitário Hebraico do Brasil (Hebrew University Group of Brazil). The authorship of the term "bossa nova" is attributed to the then-young journalist Moyses Fuks, who was promoting the event. That group consisted of Sylvia Telles, Carlos Lyra, Nara Leão, Luiz Eça, Roberto Menescal, and others. Mr. Fuks's description, fully supported by most of the bossa nova members, simply read "HOJE. SYLVIA TELLES E UM GRUPO BOSSA NOVA" ("Today. Sylvia Telles and a 'Bossa Nova' group"), since Sylvia Telles was the most famous musician in the group at that time. In 1959, Nara Leão also participated in more than one embryonic display of bossa nova. These include the 1st Festival de Samba Session, conducted by the student union of Pontifícia Universidade Católica. This session was chaired by Carlos Diegues (later a prominent Cinema Novo film director), a law student whom Leão ultimately married.
Instruments
Classical guitar
Bossa nova is most commonly performed on the nylon-string classical guitar, played with the fingers rather than with a pick. Its purest form could be considered unaccompanied guitar with vocals, as created, pioneered, and exemplified by João Gilberto. Even in larger, jazz-like arrangements for groups, there is almost always a guitar that plays the underlying rhythm. Gilberto basically took one of the several rhythmic layers from a samba ensemble, specifically the tamborim, and applied it to the picking hand. According to Brazilian musician Paulo Bitencourt, João Gilberto, known for his eccentricity and obsessed by the idea of finding a new way of playing the guitar, sometimes locked himself in the bathroom, where he played one and the same chord for many hours in a row.
Drums and percussion
As in samba, the surdo plays an ostinato figure on the downbeat of beat one, the "ah" of beat one, the downbeat of beat two and the "ah" of beat two. The clave pattern sounds very similar to the two-three or three-two son clave of Cuban styles such as mambo but is dissimilar in that the "two" side of the clave is pushed by an eighth note. Also important in the percussion section for bossa nova is the cabasa, which plays a steady sixteenth-note pattern. These parts are easily adaptable to the drum set, which makes bossa nova a rather popular Brazilian style for drummers.
Structure
Certain other instrumentations and vocals are also part of the structure of bossa nova:
Bossa nova and samba
Bossa nova has at its core a rhythm based on samba. Samba combines the rhythmic patterns and feel originating in former African slave communities. Samba's emphasis on the second beat carries through to bossa nova (to the degree that it is often notated in 2/4 time). However, unlike samba, bossa nova has no dance steps to accompany it. When played on the guitar, in a simple one-bar pattern, the thumb plays the bass notes on 1 and 2, while the fingers pluck the chords in unison on the two eighth notes of beat one, followed by the second sixteenth note of beat two. Two-measure patterns usually contain a syncopation into the second measure. Overall, the rhythm has a "swaying" feel rather than the "swinging" feel of jazz. As bossa nova composer Carlos Lyra describes it in his song "Influência do Jazz", the samba rhythm moves "side to side" while jazz moves "front to back". Bossa nova was also influenced by the blues, but because the most famous bossa novas lack the 12-bar structure characteristic of classic blues, as well as the statement, repetition and rhyming resolution of lyrics typical of the genre, bossa nova's affinity with the blues often passes unnoticed.
Vocals
Aside from the guitar style, João Gilberto's other innovation was the projection of the singing voice. Prior to bossa nova, Brazilian singers employed brassy, almost operatic styles. Now, the characteristic nasal vocal production of bossa nova is a peculiar trait of the caboclo folk tradition of northeastern Brazil.
Themes and lyrics
The lyrical themes found in bossa nova include women, love, longing, homesickness, nature. Bossa Nova was often apolitical. The musical lyrics of the late 1950s depicted the easy life of the middle to upper-class Brazilians, though the majority of the population was in the working class. In conjunction with political developments of the early 1960s (especially the 1964 military coup d'état), the popularity of bossa nova was eclipsed by Música popular brasileira, a musical genre that appeared around the mid-1960s, featuring lyrics that were more politically charged, referring explicitly to working class struggle.
Notable bossa nova recordings
Albums
João Gilberto
Chega de Saudade (recorded 1959)
O Amor, o Sorriso e a Flor (recorded 1960)
Getz/Gilberto with Stan Getz (recorded 18 & 19 March 1963, released 1964)
Luiz Bonfá
Luiz Bonfá Plays and Sings Bossa Nova (recorded December, 1962)
Antônio Carlos Jobim
The Composer of Desafinado Plays (recorded 9 & 10 May 1963)
The Wonderful World of Antônio Carlos Jobim (recorded 1965)
Wave (1967)
Tide (1970)
OST "Black Orpheus(Orpheu Negro)", 1959
Nova — Carlos Lyra — on Phillips, 1960
A Bossa dos Cariocas — Os Cariocas—on Phillips, 1962
Trio — Tamba Trio—on Phillips, 1962
Big Band Bossa Nova — Oscar Castro Neves—on Audio Fidelity, 1962
News from Brazil Bossa Nova — Eliana & Booker Pitman, 1963
A Bossa Muito Moderna de Donato —J oão Donato—on Polydor, 1963
Baden Powell à Vontade — Baden Powell(Brazil)—on Elenco, 1964
Menina Rica — Carlos Lyra and Dulce Nunes—on CBS, 1964
Zimbo Trio — Zimbo Trio—on RGE, 1964
Entre Nós — Walter Wanderley —on Phillips, 1964
Opinião de Nara — Nara Leão —on Phillips, 1964
Milton Banana Trio — Milton Banana Trio— on Odeon, 1965
Elis — Elis Regina — on Phillips, 1966
Songs
Manhã de Carnaval, The morning of the carnival - Luiz Bonfa (1959), From Film "Black Orpheus" (Orpheu Negro)
The Girl From Ipanema - Astrud Gilberto(1963)
Agua de Beber - Astrud Gilberto
So Nice (Summer Samba) - Astrud Gilberto
Wave - Antônio Carlos Jobim
Mas que Nada - Sergio Mendes & Brazil 66(1966)
Summer Samba - Walter Wanderley
One Note Samba - João Gilberto
Felicidade - Antônio Carlos Jobim
Desafinado - João Gilberto
See also
"Blame It on the Bossa Nova" – Eydie Gorme, 1963
Cha-cha-chá
Nat King Cole
Perry Como
Rumba
Tango music
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Castro, Ruy (transl. by Lysa Salsbury). Bossa Nova: The Story of the Brazilian Music That Seduced the World. 2000. 1st English language edition. A Capella Books, an imprint of Chicago Review Press, Inc. First published in Brasil by Companhia das Letras. 1990.
De Stefano, Gildo, Il popolo del samba, La vicenda e i protagonisti della storia della musica popolare brasiliana, Preface by Chico Buarque de Hollanda, Introduction by Gianni Minà, RAI-ERI, Rome 2005,
De Stefano, Gildo, Saudade Bossa Nova: musiche, contaminazioni e ritmi del Brasile, Preface by Chico Buarque, Introduction by Gianni Minà, Logisma Editore, Firenze 2017,
McGowan, Chris and Pessanha, Ricardo. The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova and the Popular Music of Brazil. 1998. 2nd edition. Temple University Press.
Perrone, Charles A. Masters of Contemporary Brazilian Song: MPB 1965–1985. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.
Mei, Giancarlo. Canto Latino: Origine, Evoluzione e Protagonisti della Musica Popolare del Brasile. 2004. Stampa Alternativa-Nuovi Equilibri. Preface by Sergio Bardotti; afterword by Milton Nascimento. (in Italian)
External links
"It's 20 years ago bossa nova was released to the world at Carnegie Hall in New York" by Rénato Sergio, Manchete magazine, 1982 (in Portuguese)
Brazilian music
Brazilian styles of music
Portuguese words and phrases
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Bennett
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Bill Bennett
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William Richards Bennett, (April 14, 1932 – December 3, 2015) was the 27th premier of British Columbia from 1975 to 1986. He was a son of Annie Elizabeth May (Richards) and former Premier, W. A. C. Bennett. He was a 3rd cousin, twice removed, of R.B. Bennett, eleventh Prime Minister of Canada.
Following his father's resignation, Bill Bennett was elected on September 7, 1973, as the British Columbia Social Credit League Member of the British Columbia Legislative Assembly for South Okanagan.
His father was also named William, but was usually called "W.A.C." in the media or "Cece" by his friends. To distinguish the son from his father, he was usually called "Bill." Some in the media referred to the younger Bennett as "Mini-Wac," which was derived from another of his father's nicknames, "Wacky." The nickname was created by his opponents, but also embraced by some supporters.
Leader of Social Credit Party
Bennett was elected the leader of the Socred Party in November 1973, at a convention in Whistler, British Columbia. This convention also changed the name of the party to the British Columbia Social Credit Party. Bennett set about establishing a political organization modelled closely on and using staff lent by Bill Davis's Ontario "Big Blue Machine." Bennett's organization was called the "Baby Blue Machine." He embraced a new coalition of Liberals, social conservatives, and the corporate sector, unlike his father, who had appealed to the populist base.
Premier of British Columbia
He became premier of the province in the 1975 election when his party defeated the New Democratic Party of Premier David Barrett. In the election of May 10, 1979, the Social Credit Party was re-elected with a reduced majority, followed by another one in the 1983 election. He served until August 6, 1986.
In 1978, Bennett was instrumental in establishing the BC Winter Games and BC Summer Games. As a result, an award was named in his honour in which he presented the award in 2008 in his hometown, Kelowna, where the BC Summer Games were being hosted that year.
His cabinet included politicians new to the provincial scene who would soon become some of BC's most prominent political players. They included Pat McGeer, Grace McCarthy, Bill Vander Zalm, Garde Gardom, Rafe Mair, and Jim Nielsen. Inspired by conservative economist Milton Friedman, his government passed a series of laws, known as the "Restraint" program, which slashed social services and gutted labour laws in response to economic woes in 1983, provoking a general strike, which further crippled the economy. To justify massive education cuts, Bennett blamed many of the province's difficulties on public school teachers, an argument that deeply split the electorate. In several television interviews, he labeled those who disagreed with his policies as "bad British Columbians."
On the other hand, his ostensibly-antisocialist government spent hundreds of millions of dollars to bring Expo 86 to Vancouver and related projects including BC Place, the city's SkyTrain rapid transit system, and the Vancouver Trade and Convention Centre. His government also built the Coquihalla Highway at a cost of hundreds of millions of dollars with non-union Kerkhoff Construction Company as the main contractor. It distributed free shares to British Columbians for the British Columbia Resources Investment Corporation (BCRIC). His government also spent over $1 billion on the Northeast coal project to create jobs. Critics noted that by creating only 1,000 jobs, each job cost taxpayers $1 million.
Controversies
In 1996, Bill Bennett was convicted under BC securities laws of insider trading involving the sale of shares in Doman Securities, a Duncan, BC company, ten years after he stepped down as premier. That was known as the Doman Scandal. A British Columbia Securities Commission panel imposed trading sanctions against Russell James Bennett and Harbanse Singh Doman and ordered them along with Bill Bennett to pay the commission $1 million to cover the costs of an insider trading case that spanned 11 years.
British Columbia Resources Investment Corporation (BCRIC or "Brick") (Social Credit Party), a holding company formed under the government of William R. Bennett, was a public boondoggle involving publicly l-distributed and soon-worthless shares of a former Crown Corporation. Shares briefly rallied and then dropped and settled at less than one dollar.
Bennett's tenure also included megaprojects such as the Coquihalla Highway, which cost approximately $848 million.
Retirement
Though still reviled by the left, Bennett remains generally highly respected among conservatives in BC, who view his rule as a "golden era" before compared to the governments of Social Credit premier Bill Vander Zalm and the New Democratic Party premiers who succeeded him. In his later years Bennett advised past BC Premier Gordon Campbell, who openly stated his desire to emulate the policies associated with Bennett's government.
In 2007 Bennett was appointed to the Order of British Columbia, B.C.'s highest award for achievement. The new replacement bridge across Okanagan Lake in Kelowna is named after him.
Illness and death
Bennett was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease around 2007 and in his later years, lived in a long-term care facility. He died on December 3, 2015 at the age of 83.
References
1932 births
2015 deaths
20th-century Canadian legislators
British Columbia Social Credit Party leaders
British Columbia Social Credit Party MLAs
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Members of the Executive Council of British Columbia
Members of the Order of British Columbia
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Members of the United Church of Canada
Neurological disease deaths in British Columbia
People from Kelowna
People of New England Planter descent
Premiers of British Columbia
|
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244131
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.%20A.%20C.%20Bennett
|
W. A. C. Bennett
|
William Andrew Cecil Bennett (September 6, 1900 – February 23, 1979) was a Canadian politician. He was the 25th premier of British Columbia from 1952 to 1972. With just over 20 years in office, Bennett was and remains the longest-serving premier in British Columbia history. He was usually referred to as W. A. C. Bennett, although some referred to him either affectionately or mockingly as "Wacky" Bennett. To his close friends, he was known as "Cece".
Early and family life
Bennett was born in 1900 in Hastings, New Brunswick, Canada, one of five children of Andrew Havelock Bennett and Mary Emma Burns. His father was a third cousin of Richard Bedford Bennett, eleventh Prime Minister of Canada.
Bennett left formal school in grade nine, during the First World War, to take a job in a hardware store. As an adult, he pursued correspondence courses to improve his knowledge and job potential. He joined the Air Force, but the war ended before he saw active duty. At the age of 18, he and his family moved to Edmonton, Alberta, and then to Westlock, Alberta, where Bennett's father operated a hardware store.
In 1927 Bennett married Annie Elizabeth May Richards. In 1930 they moved to Victoria, and then Kelowna with their two children, Anita and R.J. A third child, William ("Bill") was born in 1932. In Kelowna Bennett joined such fraternal organizations as the local Gyro Club, Masonic Lodge, and the Kelowna Club, and was active with his family in the United Church of Canada.
Early business career
Bennett opened a hardware store in 1927, in partnership with another man, and married May Bennett soon afterwards. Bennett was able to sell his interest just before the 1929 Stock Market crash. He decided to leave the tough Alberta economic conditions.
He moved with his family to the Okanagan Valley, in the interior of British Columbia, settling in Kelowna. There he opened his own hardware store, known as Bennett's Hardware. A successful merchant, he served as President of the Kelowna Board of Trade from 1937 to 1939.
In 1932 Bennett, Giuseppe Guezzi, and Pasquale "Cap" Capozzi established a wine-making company to produce wine from the vast surplus of Okanagan apples that were going to waste during the Depression. Three years later Bennett and Capozzi, both teetotalers, concluded that there was no market for their apple wines. They switched to making wines from California grapes. In 1936 they established Calona Wines, the name a phonetic spelling of Kelowna. Bennett departed the company in 1940 to enter politics.
Enters politics
Bennett joined the British Columbia Conservative Party. He ran for the South Okanagan nomination for the 1937 provincial election for the British Columbia Legislative Assembly, but was unsuccessful. In 1941, he won the Conservative Party nomination and the general election. Following that election, the Conservative and Liberal parties voted to govern in coalition, an arrangement formally titled the British Columbia Coalition Organization.
As a coalitionist, Bennett was re-elected in 1945. He resigned the seat in 1948 in order to run as Progressive Conservative candidate in the Yale federal by-election of that year, but did not win. Regaining the Coalition nomination for the South Okanagan seat, Bennett was returned to the British Columbia Legislative Assembly in the 1949 provincial election.
After failing in his bid to become leader of the provincial Progressive Conservative Party in 1951, Bennett left the party to sit as an independent member. In December of that year, he took out a membership in the Social Credit League.
Social Credit leader and premier
Commencing with the 1952 provincial election, the province used an alternative vote system designed by the Conservative and Liberal parties to keep the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation out of power. However, the Liberal and Conservative parties were not at all as popular among voters as expected. The combined Liberal and PC vote total was 120,000 fewer votes than in the previous election, while the Social Credit party received almost 200,000 more votes than in 1949. Even if Liberal and Conservative voters had given their second choices strictly to the other party, the old coalition still would not have taken a majority of seats. Only in eight districts did supporters of the two parties together form majority. In the election, often Liberal and Conservative voters' second preference was marked for Social Credit candidates. As well, the CCF's second preferences were overwhelmingly for Social Credit candidates.
SC won 19 seats of the total of 48, and became the largest party represented in the Assembly and formed a minority government. The Socreds (as they were informally known) convinced an Independent Labour Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) to support them as well.
Not even the Socreds had expected to win the election. They entered the campaign without a full-time leader; their nominal leader was Ernest George Hansell, a federal MP from Alberta. Party president Lyle Wicks convened a meeting of the newly elected MLAs to elect British Columbia's new premier. Bennett, one of only three Socred MLAs who had any previous experience in the legislature, was elected party leader and premier-designate on July 15, 1952. Of the 19 votes cast, Bennett received 10, another candidate received 2, and two more (including Philip Gaglardi) one vote each.
On August 1, Bennett was sworn in as Premier of British Columbia; he was repeatedly reelected and served for 20 years. In order to get a stronger mandate, Bennett deliberately engineered the defeat of his initial minority government; he forced an election for June 1953 based on a school funding proposal. After Social Credit was re-elected with a clear majority, Bennett gained abandonment of preferential voting following his 1953 victory.
The Social Credit Party won seven consecutive elections during W. A. C. Bennett's involvement and leadership: 1952, 1953, 1956, 1960, 1963, 1966, and 1969. The only election Bennett lost as a member of Social Credit was in 1972, the last election in which he was a candidate.
Political ideology
While the Social Credit party was founded to promote the social credit theories of monetary reform, these could not be implemented at the provincial level, as the Alberta Social Credit Party had learned in the 1930s. Bennett quickly converted the provincial party into a populist conservative party. It was devoted to keeping the CCF out of power. But, as leader of the Social Credit Party of Canada's second most powerful provincial branch, Bennett spoke for the party in federal election campaigns. During the 1957 election, he spoke for the party at a rally in Regina, Saskatchewan. In the 1965 election, Bennett and his cabinet ministers toured BC to encourage voters to elect Social Credit MPs to promote BC's interests.
The cabinets of the Bennett governments over 20 years had several memorable ministers, including the flamboyant "Flying Phil" Gaglardi. He oversaw the rapid construction and expansion of highways throughout the province and a similar expansion of BC Ferries.
In 1960, the Bennett government introduced British Columbia's first provincial flag, the first official provincial flag adopted west of Quebec.
Financial policy
A fiscal conservative, Bennett served also as the Minister of Finance, keeping tight control over government spending. He led his province into an era of modernization and prosperity.
His practice of "pay as you go" carefully tracked spending, and transferred debts to other government agencies. In 1959 Bennett announced that the province was debt free.
Government expansion
Bennett's governments nationalized certain industries, creating provincial Crown corporations, including BC Ferries (1960) and BC Hydro (1961). BC Rail, formerly the Pacific Great Eastern Railway and owned by the province since 1918, had a series of major expansions to stimulate development. He also ensured investment in other infrastructure. Minister of Highways, Phil Gaglardi, oversaw major highway expansions and improvements. Major hydro-electric dam-building projects were undertaken on the Columbia and Peace Rivers. Bennett was instrumental in establishing the Bank of British Columbia, in which the government took a 25% ownership.
In 1955 Bennett advocated for a universal medical, dental, hospital, and pharmaceutical insurance coverage. The federal government introduced universal, publicly funded medical and hospital insurance as part of what became known as Medicare. The provincial government introduced a retail sales tax to fund the program.
In the 1960s, there was an expansion of higher education: Post-secondary education institutions were created and expanded. BC gained its second and third degree-granting universities: the University of Victoria in 1963 and Simon Fraser University in 1965.
Columbia River Treaty
In 1961 Canada and the United States signed the Columbia River Treaty to jointly manage this important resource. While the signatories were the federal governments of Canada and the United States, Premier Bennett was reported to have played a major part in the negotiations. Under treaty provisions, the U.S. paid British Columbia C$275 million (plus interest) for the downstream power generation rights over the following 30 years. BC used the money to fund construction of dams on the Columbia River for power generation and flood control.
BC-Canada relations
Bennett proposed that Canada be considered as a group of regions instead of provinces: Atlantic Canada, Quebec, Ontario, Western Canada, and BC. He also proposed that the four western provinces be expanded north, with BC absorbing the Yukon Territory. Although there was no formal reorganization of jurisdictions, the concept of different regions, instead of provinces, has become part of how Canadians discuss the country.
BC hosted the 1971 constitutional conference in Victoria. From this emerged the Victoria Charter, the most far-reaching federal-provincial agreement on constitutional amendment since Confederation. Bennett advocated that BC should have a veto over constitutional amendments, along with Ontario and Quebec.
Post-premiership
Following his party's defeat in the 1972 election by Dave Barrett's revitalized New Democratic Party (the successor to the CCF), he served as Leader of the Opposition until resigning his seat as member for South Okanagan in June 1973.
His son, W.R. "Bill" Bennett, won the South Okanagan by-election in September. W. A. C. Bennett retired as leader of the Social Credit Party on November 15, and his son Bill Bennett was elected leader of the BC Social Credit Party on November 24, 1973. NDP Premier Dave Barrett dropped the writ and sought re-election in the fall of 1975, the Socreds were returned to power with 35 seats in the 55-seat Legislature, and W. A. C.'s son Bill became the new Premier of British Columbia, inheriting his father's mantle of power as well as many of his father's cabinet members.
In 1976, W. A. C. Bennett was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. He died in 1979, and was interred in the Kelowna Municipal Cemetery, in Kelowna, British Columbia.
In 1998, the Government of Canada honoured W. A. C. Bennett with his portrait on a postage stamp of Canada. The W. A. C. Bennett Dam near Hudson's Hope, built under the Two River Policy, is named after him. The library at the Burnaby campus of Simon Fraser University also bears his name. He was featured on the cover of Time Magazine on September 30, 1966.
References
Further reading
W.A.C.: Bennett and the Rise of British Columbia, David J. Mitchell ()
Bowering's B.C.: A Swashbuckling History, by George Bowering, Toronto 1996, Penguin Canada, .
Vintage Canada: The Complete Reference to Canadian Wines, by Tony Asper, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1999.
External links
Jack Wasserman interviewing W. A. C. Bennett about the 1952 election, CBC Archives TV clip
NW Council - Columbia River Treaty
Vancouver Sun cartoon of Bennett, Phil Gaglardi, President Lyndon Johnson, and Prime Minister Lester Pearson by Len Norris
1900 births
1979 deaths
20th-century Canadian legislators
British Columbia Social Credit Party leaders
British Columbia Social Credit Party MLAs
British Columbia Conservative Party MLAs
Finance ministers of British Columbia
Hardware merchants
Members of the Executive Council of British Columbia
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Members of the United Church of Canada
Officers of the Order of Canada
People from Albert County, New Brunswick
People from Kelowna
People of New England Planter descent
Premiers of British Columbia
|
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] |
244133
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campobello
|
Campobello
|
Campobello may refer to:
Campobello, South Carolina
Campobello di Mazara, Sicily, Italy
Campobello di Licata, Sicily, Italy
Campobello Island, New Brunswick
People with the surname
Gloria Campobello (1911–1968), Mexican ballet dancer and choreographer
Nellie Campobello (1900–1986), Mexican writer, ballet dancer and choreographer
See also
Roosevelt Campobello International Park
Sunrise at Campobello
Italian-language surnames
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macclesfield
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Macclesfield
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Macclesfield is a market town and civil parish in Cheshire, England, on the River Bollin in the east of the county on the edge of the Cheshire Plain, with Macclesfield Forest to its east, south of Manchester and east of Chester.
Before the Norman Conquest, Macclesfield was held by Edwin, Earl of Mercia and was assessed at £8. The manor is recorded in the Domesday Book as "Maclesfeld", meaning "Maccel's open country". The medieval town grew up on the hilltop around what is now St Michael's Church. It was granted a charter by Edward I in 1261, before he became king. Macclesfield Grammar School was founded in 1502. The town had a silk-button industry from at least the middle of the 17th century, and became a major silk-manufacturing centre from the mid-18th century. The Macclesfield Canal was constructed in 1826–31. Hovis breadmakers were another Victorian employer. Modern industries include pharmaceuticals. Multiple mill buildings are still standing, and several of the town's museums explore the local silk industry. Other landmarks include Georgian buildings such as the Town Hall and former Sunday School; St Alban's Church, designed by Augustus Pugin; and the Arighi Bianchi furniture shop.
The population of Macclesfield at the 2011 census was 51,482. A person from Macclesfield is sometimes referred to as a "Maxonian". Macclesfield, like many other areas in Cheshire, is a relatively affluent town.
Toponymy
Situated in the ancient Hundred of Hamestan, the town is recorded in the Domesday Book as "Maclesfeld" and in 1183 it was referred to as "Makeslesfeld". The English Place-Name Society gives its name as being derived from the Old English name, Maccel, and field, yielding the meaning "Maccel's open country".
Although "Silk Town" seems to be its preferred nickname, the traditional nickname of Macclesfield is "Treacle Town".
This refers to an historical incident when a horse-drawn wagon overturned and spilt its load of treacle onto the street, after which the poor scooped the treacle off the road.
History
Before the Norman Conquest, Macclesfield was held by Edwin, Earl of Mercia, who also held much of the east of the county. Three crosses survive from this period, originally located in Sutton, and J. D. Bu'Lock speculates that there might have been a Pre-Conquest church. The area was devastated by the Normans in 1070, and had not recovered by 1086; the Domesday Book records the manor as having fallen in value from £8 to 20 shillings. Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester held the manor himself after the Conquest; there was a mill, meadow for oxen, and woodland 6 leagues by 4 leagues. A Norman castle was built at Macclesfield. Macclesfield was granted a borough charter by Ranulf de Blondeville, Earl of Chester, in the early 13th century, and in 1261 a second charter was granted by the future King Edward I, allowing a market, fair and judicial court. The medieval town stood on the hilltop, centred on the parish church of All Saints, which was built in 1278, an extension of a chapel built in approximately 1220. In 1357, a hall was built in the town for the mayor's court and the borough court (portmote). The town lacked industries at this date and was described as poor, remaining a small market town until the end of the 15th century, with a population numbered in the hundreds.
The borough had a weekly market and two annual fairs: the Barnaby fair on St Barnabas day (11 June), the other on the feast of All Souls (2 November). In recent years the Barnaby fair has been reinvented as the Barnaby Festival, a cultural festival in mid-June. The weekly market no longer happens but on the last Sunday of each month the Treacle Market is held, a large market selling locally produced food and handmade items such as clothing, handmade goods and pottery.
Macclesfield was the administrative centre of the Hundred of Macclesfield, which occupied most of east Cheshire. The Earl of Chester's manor of Macclesfield was very large, and its boundary extended to Disley. The manor house was on the edge of the deer park, on the west of the town. In the 14th century, it had a king's chamber and a queen's hall, as well as a large stable, and the manor served as a stud farm for Edward the Black Prince. The Earls of Chester established the Forest of Macclesfield, which was much larger than its present-day namesake. It was used for hunting deer and pasturing sheep and cattle. By the end of the 13th century, large areas of the forest had been ploughed because of the pressure of population growth. In 1356, two trees from the forest were given to archer William Jauderell to repair his home.
Macclesfield Castle was a fortified town house built by John de Macclesfield in the later Middle Ages. Construction began in 1398, and that year an application was made for a licence to crenellate, or fortify, the building. Two chantries were founded in the town: one in 1422 by the Legh family, and one in 1504 by Thomas Savage. In 1502, Macclesfield Grammar School was founded by Sir John Percyvale.
No proof exists that Macclesfield was ever a walled town. When the settlement was first established and for some centuries afterwards there would have certainly been some sort of ditch and palisade round the western side of the town which was not naturally defended. This was necessary in order to keep out undesirable people and stray animals. No physical trace of a ditch remains though measurements and the shape of certain streets suggest where such a ditch could have been and most of the medieval building were within this area. It is unlikely that the ditch and palisade were succeeded by a wall for no record has been found of a murage tax, which would certainly have been levied to keep the wall in repair. The suffix "Gate" in the names of several Macclesfield streets has been taken to indicate the former presence of a gate in the sense of a guarded opening in a wall, however, this is very unlikely as the term 'gate' is derived from 'gata', Scandinavian for road, which became gate in Middle English. Therefore, Chester Gate, the Jordan Gate and the Church Wall Gate (some sources give the name Well Gate for this gate), are simply referring to the road to/from Chester or the road leading from the church to the well. These names are preserved in the names of three streets in the town, Chestergate, Jordangate and Back Wallgate.
A charter of 1595 established a town governing body consisting of the mayor, two aldermen and 24 "capital burgesses", and the powers of this body were increased by a charter of 1684. By the Tudor era, Macclesfield was prospering, with industries including the manufacture of harnesses, gloves and especially buttons, and later ribbons, tapes and fancy ware. Coal was mined from the 16th century. In 1664, the population was around 2,600, making Macclesfield the third-largest town in the county, after Chester and Nantwich, although the town had expanded little from its medieval extent and had fewer large houses than Nantwich and Stockport. By around 1720, the number of households had increased to 925, and this rapid population growth continued throughout the 18th century, reaching 8,743 in 1801.
In the 1580s, Macclesfield was one of the earliest towns in the county to have Puritan preaching "Exercises", and it was also an early centre for the Quakers. By 1718 an estimated 10% of the population was Nonconformist. Towards the end of that century, the town had a large Methodist congregation, and Christ Church was the only Anglican church in the county to invite John Wesley to preach.
During the Civil War, in 1642 the town was occupied for the King by Sir Thomas Aston, a Royalist. In the Jacobite Rising of 1745, Charles Stuart and his army marched through Macclesfield as they attempted to reach London. The mayor was forced to welcome the prince, and the event is commemorated in one of the town's silk tapestries.
The population was 24,137 by 1841.
Armoury Towers was completed in 1858 and the Bridge Street drill hall was completed in 1871.
Industry
Macclesfield was once the world's biggest producer of finished silk. A domestic button industry had been established in the town by the mid-16th century, although the first mention of silk buttons is not until 1649. In the mid-18th century, when metal buttons became fashionable, the silk-button industry transitioned to silk manufacture in mills. Macclesfield's first silk mill was founded by Charles Roe in 1743 or 1744. The mills were initially powered by water, and later by steam. There were 71 silk mills operating in 1832, employing 10,000 people, but a crash occurred in 1851 and many mill-workers emigrated to the American silk town of Paterson, New Jersey. The silk industry remained active in the town in the 1980s, but no longer dominated. Paradise Mill reopened in 1984 as a working mill museum, demonstrating the art of silk throwing and Jacquard weaving. The four Macclesfield Museums display a range of information and products from that period.
A short-lived copper-smelting operation was established by Roe in 1750, processing ore from mines at Alderley Edge and Ecton (Staffordshire), and later from Anglesey. The business switched to copper processing and the manufacture of brass in 1767, before closing after Roe's death in 1781. The industry is reflected in some of the town's street names.
Between 1826 and 1831 the Macclesfield Canal was constructed, linking Macclesfield to Marple to the north and Kidsgrove to the south. The canal was surveyed for its Act of Parliament by the canal and roads engineer Thomas Telford, and built by William Crosley (junior), the Macclesfield Canal Company's engineer. It was the last narrow canal to be completed and had only limited success because within ten years much of the coal and other potential cargo was increasingly being transported by rail.
Macclesfield is the original home of Hovis breadmakers, produced in Publicity Works Mill (commonly referred to as "the Hovis Mill") on the canal close to Buxton Road. It was founded by a Macclesfield businessman and a baker from Stoke-on-Trent. Hovis is said to derive from the Latin "homo-vitalis" (strength for man) as a way of providing a cheap and nutritious food for poor mill workers and was a very dry and dense wholemeal loaf completely different from the modern version.
Waters Green was once home to a nationally known horse market which features in the legend of the Wizard of Alderley Edge.
Waters Green and an area opposite Arighi Bianchi, now hidden under the Silk Road, also held a sheep and cattle market until the 1980s.
Macclesfield is said to be the only mill town to have escaped bombing in World War II. After the war, two pharmaceutical companies opened facilities in Macclesfield, Geigy (now part of Novartis) and the pharmaceutical division of ICI (now AstraZeneca).
Governance
Macclesfield was first represented in Parliament after the Reform Act of 1832, when it was granted two Members of Parliament (MPs). This situation lasted until 1880, when after problems at the general election that year it was decided to declare the election void and suspend the writ of election (so no by-election could take place). In September 1880 a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate further. A report of March 1881 confirmed the allegations of corruption. As a result, the borough constituency was disenfranchised for corruption. The disenfranchisement took effect on 25 June 1885, when the town was transferred to the East Cheshire constituency. However under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 the Macclesfield constituency was recreated with extended boundaries, as a county division, later in 1885. From the 1885 general election it has elected one MP. Macclesfield was for some time considered to be a safe seat for the Conservative Party, having been held by it since the 1918 general election, but the 2017 election showed a significant swing away from the Conservatives.
Currently, Macclesfield is represented by David Rutley, a Conservative and practising Mormon. He was selected for this seat in 2010, when Sir Nicholas Winterton, who had been the incumbent for 38 years, announced his retirement following unfavourable press coverage relating to the claiming of Parliamentary expenses. Sir Nicholas' wife, Ann Winterton, held the neighbouring seat of Congleton.
Macclesfield was governed locally by Macclesfield Municipal Borough (see Macclesfield (borough)) until 1974 when Macclesfield Borough Council was established, a local government district with borough status. Following the establishment of Cheshire East Council in 2009 the borough was abolished and the Mayoralty transferred to charter trustees. Macclesfield Town Council was established in 2015 following a community governance review which established a civil parish. Macclesfield Town Council is controlled by the Labour Party, with 9 councillors. There are 3 Independent councillors, and no Conservatives.
Macclesfield is also represented by 12 councillors on Cheshire East Council: 9 Labour, 3 Independents.
Geography
Macclesfield is in the east of Cheshire, on the River Bollin, a tributary of the River Mersey. It is close to the county borders of Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east and Staffordshire to the south. It is near the towns of Stockport to the north, Buxton to the east, and Congleton to the south. It is 38 miles (60 km) to the east of Chester, the county town of Cheshire.
To the west of the town lies the Cheshire Plain. To the east is Macclesfield Forest, containing Ridgegate and Trentabank Reservoirs which supply the town's drinking water, as well as Tegg's Nose and the Peak District.
The Macclesfield Built-up Area forms an urban area which extends from the town to an area that includes the town of Bollington and the village of Prestbury. The urban area has a population of 63,954.
According to the 2011 census, the gender makeup of the population was 31,266 male and 32,688 female. The ethnic makeup of the whole urban area was under 96.2% white and 2.2% Asian. Other ethnic minorities were 1.6%. The religious make up of the whole area includes: 66.3% Christian, 0.5% Muslim, 24.8% Irreligious and 6.8% not stated.
Climate
Like most of the United Kingdom, Macclesfield has a temperate maritime climate (Köppen: Cfb). Records of the climate extend back to at least 1850. Between 1881 and 2005, the highest temperature has been on 3 August 1990 and the lowest, from at least 1850–2005, on 25 December 1860.
Landmarks
The town is famous for its once thriving silk industry, commemorated in the Silk Museum. The Georgian Town Hall was designed by Francis Goodwin in 1823. Macclesfield is home to an Augustus Pugin church, St Alban's on Chester Road.
Economy
Macclesfield is the manufacturing home to AstraZeneca, one of the world's largest pharmaceutical companies. The furniture store Arighi Bianchi was founded in 1829. Other industries include textiles, light engineering, paper and plastics.
Transport
Rail services
Macclesfield station is on the Stafford to Manchester section of the West Coast Main Line and has frequent services to Manchester Piccadilly (20 minutes away), Stoke-on-Trent and London Euston (1 hour 47 minutes) by Avanti West Coast, and to Birmingham New Street and beyond provided by CrossCountry. Northern's stopping service between Manchester and Stoke-on-Trent calls at Macclesfield.
A railway station was first opened at Beech Lane by the LNWR on 19 June 1849, which was replaced a month later by Hibel Road station. The current station dates from the modernisation of the West Coast Main Line in the 1960s, when the old station buildings were demolished to make way for new buildings.
On 26 July 1971, an electric multiple unit departed from Macclesfield station against signals and was derailed by trap points.
Bus services
Macclesfield has a bus station in the town centre, which is currently served by around 15 bus routes operated by 4 companies, the main two being Arriva North West and D&G Buses.
Most of the buses run every hour with circular being every half an hour.
Bus Services:
2 – Thornton Square Circular
3 – Weston Estate Circular
4 – Upton Priory Circular
5 – Upton Priory and Weston Circular
6 – Weston and Upton Priory Circular
9 – Moss Rose Estate Circular
10 – Bollington via Tytherington
14 – Langley via Sutton
19 – Prestbury via Whirley
21 – Hurdsfield Estate Circular
38 – Crewe via Congleton
58 – Buxton via Burbage
60 – Hayfield via New Mills
88 – Altrincham via Knutsford
130 – Wythenshawe via Wilmslow
391 – Stockport via Kerridge
392 – Stockport via Bollington
Roads
Macclesfield is served by good road links from the north, south and west, but has fewer roads going east due to the terrain of the Peak District. From the south, access from Congleton and the Potteries is from the A536, and via the A523 from Leek. From the north, the main access to the town is the A523 from Manchester, Hazel Grove and Poynton. The main west–east road is the A537 Knutsford to Buxton road. At various points around the town centre, some of these roads combine, such as the A537 / A523 on the Silk Road section, giving rise to traffic congestion, especially at peak times. The A538 provides access to Prestbury, Wilmslow and Manchester Airport, with the B5470 being the only other eastbound route from the town, heading to Whaley Bridge and Chapel-en-le-Frith.
Culture
Macclesfield has been accused of having few cultural amenities. In 2004, research was published in The Times naming Macclesfield and its borough the most uncultured town in Britain, based on its lack of theatres, cinemas and other cultural facilities.
The Northern Chamber Orchestra, the oldest professional chamber ensemble in the North West, has its home at the Macclesfield Heritage Centre and presents a series of eight concerts a year, attracting international guest soloists. The Silk Opera Company was created to perform 'The Monkey Run' at Barnaby.
Macclesfield has four museums including the Silk Museum, a former silk mill, and West Park Museum, which houses Ancient Egyptian artefacts, as well as a number of art galleries.
The Macclesfield Model Railway Group is nationally recognised as a leading railway modelling club, famous for many layouts since its foundation in 1957.
The Macclesfield Literary and Philosophical Society was formed in 2006, partly in response to The Times 2004 article.
The Red Willow Pub in Macclesfield has played host to two meetups of members from the popular internet forum, USH.net with a third planned in 2022. The events, affectionately known as 'Red Willow, 2PM, Let's talk about it' have been widely regarded as an unmitigated success and that is 100% confirmed despite several locals suggesting that the group descending upon the town was "concerning, very concerning indeed".
Local newspapers include the Macclesfield Express and the Community News. Macclesfield residents have access to Macclesfield Forum, an online message board, for informal discussion of local news and issues. The town is also served by two locally based radio stations: Canalside Community Radio based at the Clarence Mill in Bollington, just north of Macclesfield, and Silk FM, a commercial independent radio station with studios in the town. Local information websites include Visit Macclesfield and the local what's on guide, Canalside's The Thread.
The last remaining commercial cinema in Macclesfield closed in 1997. Discussions have taken place regarding the possibility of building a multiplex cinema, but attempts to build a cinema have thus far been unsuccessful. In 2005 a small-scale cinema, Cinemac, was set up in the Heritage Centre, which has since become well established; also based in the Heritage Centre is the Silk Screen arts cinema, which gives fortnightly screenings of art-house films.
Amateur dramatics is well represented in the town: the Macclesfield Amateur Dramatic Society has existed since 1947 and performs in its own theatre on Lord Street. The Macclesfield Majestic Theatre Group has been producing musicals since its inception in 1971, initially at the Majestic Theatre (hence the title), but latterly at various other locations after the theatre was converted into a public house by the new tenants. Most recently, shows have been produced at the Heritage Centre, the Evans Theatre in Wilmslow and MADS Theatre on Lord Street. Several members of this society have progressed to the professional stage, most notably Marshall Lancaster and Jonathan Morris.
Gawsworth Hall hosts an annual Shakespeare festival as well as many arts and music events throughout the year.
Macclesfield has appeared in film: it was used as the location for Sir John Mills's film So Well Remembered in 1947. Some of the locations are still recognisable, such as Hibel Road. A fictionalised version of Macclesfield's railway station appeared in the 2005 football hooliganism film Green Street. It was also the location of Control (2007), a film about Ian Curtis, the lead singer of Joy Division.
Macclesfield was the home town of Ian Curtis and Stephen Morris of Joy Division, and Gillian Gilbert, who along with Stephen Morris was a member of New Order. A memorial to Curtis is located in Macclesfield Crematorium. Other Macclesfield acts to have gained recognition include The Macc Lads and Marion. Silk Brass Band, the Macclesfield-based brass band, won the National Championship of Great Britain Third Section Final in 2002. Having been promoted from the third section in 2002, they have since consistently competed in the Second, First and Championship sections of the UK's brass band grading system. The blues singer John Mayall was born here in 1933. More recently, local band the Virginmarys has achieved national and international success. Chart-topping UK band The 1975 come from Macclesfield.
In literature, Macclesfield is the second principal location of the fantasy novels The Weirdstone of Brisingamen and The Moon of Gomrath by Alan Garner.
In 2008, the borough was named as the fifth happiest of 273 districts in Britain by researchers from the universities of Sheffield and Manchester, who used information on self-reported personal well-being from the British Household Panel Survey.
Education
Macclesfield is served by four state-funded academies (previously state high schools); Tytherington School, The Macclesfield Academy, Fallibroome Academy and All Hallows Catholic College.
There are also two independent schools, The King's School which dates from the 16th century and Beech Hall School.
Macclesfield Academy is made up of pupils from the former school Henbury High School, and also took in the pupils left over when Ryles Park secondary school closed in 2004. Ryles Park had been in turn an amalgamation of Ryles Park girls school and the oldest state school in the town, Macclesfield Central boys school, which closed in 1975. It is on the site of Macclesfield College and Park Lane Special School as part of the Macclesfield 'Learning Zone', which was opened in 2007. Macclesfield High School was the name originally given to the girls grammar school on Fence Avenue now forming part of the King's School.
Religion
The hilltop church of St Michael and All Angels has views of nearby Kerridge Hill. The church is approached from Waters Green by a flight of 108 steps, which themselves are a local landmark.
Macclesfield Sunday School started in 1796 as a non-denominational Sunday School in Pickford Street, which catered for 40 children. It was founded by John Whitaker whose objective was "to lessen the sum of human wretchedness by diffusing religious knowledge and useful learning among the lower classes of society". Though chapels set up their denominational schools, the Sunday School committee in 1812 elected to erect a purpose-built school on Roe Street. The Big Sunday School had 1,127 boys and 1,324 girls on its books when it opened.
St Alban's Church in Chester Road is an active Roman Catholic parish church. The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building. It was designed by A. W. N. Pugin.
Christ Church is a brick-built redundant Anglican church, located on Great King Street. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building, and is under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust. The church was in use until 1981. It remains consecrated and is used occasionally for services.
There is a Mormon church located on Victoria Road.
Other churches of architectural merit include:
King Edward Street Chapel, Macclesfield
St George's Church, Macclesfield
St Paul's Church, Macclesfield
St Peter's Church, Macclesfield
Holy Trinity Church, Hurdsfield
Macclesfield United Reformed Church
Sport and leisure
Football
Macclesfield's professional football club, Macclesfield Town, first gained league status in 1997 as Football Conference Champions; they had won that title two years earlier but were denied promotion as their Moss Rose stadium in the south of the town failed to meet Football League stadium capacity requirements. At the end of the 2019–20 season, the Silkmen were relegated from EFL League Two. In September 2020, Macclesfield Town Football Club was wound up in the High Court over debts totalling more than £500,000.
Macclesfield F.C.
On 13 October 2020, the Official Receiver confirmed that the assets of Macclesfield Town had been sold to Macc Football Club Limited. Local businessman (and owner of 10th tier Stockport Town) Robert Smethurst had purchased the assets, intending to rebrand the club as Macclesfield F.C. and enter the North West Counties Football League in the 2021–22 campaign. Former Wales international Robbie Savage, now a Stockport Town player, is to join the club's board, and former Town manager Danny Whittaker is to be team manager.
Other football clubs
Youth football teams include Macclesfield Juniors FC, Macclesfield Saints JFC, Moss Rose Juniors FC and Tytherington Juniors.
Other sports
Macclesfield RUFC, the town's rugby union club, plays in National League 1, following promotion from National League 2 North in the 2013–14 season.
Macclesfield Chess Club is one of the oldest chess clubs in the country having been founded in 1886.
Macclesfield's cycling club Macclesfield Wheelers is a local club for all cycling activities, from pleasure riding to racing. World-famous cyclist Reg Harris produced "Reg Harris" bikes in Macclesfield for three years during the 1960s. The local cycling campaign group is known as MaccBUG (Macclesfield Borough Bicycle Users Group). Formed in 1999, it campaigns for better cycling provision for leisure and utility cyclists.
Macclesfield Harriers & Athletic Club is an active club with over 500 members. The club caters for all abilities and ages. There are sections for road running, track & field, fell running and cross country.
Macclesfield Hockey Club is a community club with 8 senior teams and a thriving junior section. They cater for players of all abilities from the age of 5 upwards. At the first team level, the Ladies play in the Regional North Leagues and the men in the North West Hockey Premier League.
In December 2006, Sport England published a survey which revealed that residents of Macclesfield were the third-most active in England in sports and other fitness activities; 29.3% of the population participate at least three times a week for 30 minutes.
Macclesfield parkrun, a free weekly timed 5k run, takes place in South Park every Saturday morning at 9.00am.
Notable people
Politicians
John Brocklehurst DL, MP (1788–1870) Head of a family of silk producers, banker and MP for Macclesfield for 36 years from 1832 to 1868.
William Coare Brocklehurst (1818–1900) English Liberal Party politician. Son of John and his successor as MP (1868–80). Unseated after a complaint of bribery during the 1880 election which caused the borough to lose its representation in Westminster; son William (1851–1933)
David Chadwick (1821–1895) English accountant and Liberal Party politician. One of two MP's for Macclesfield from 1868 to 1880 when unseated and then convicted of bribery and of making a false return of election expenses
William Brocklehurst Brocklehurst (1851–1929) businessman and Liberal Party MP for Macclesfield from 1906 to 1918
Sir Walter Bromley-Davenport TD DL, Kt. (1903–1989) Conservative MP for Knutsford from 1945 until 1970
Sir Nicholas Winterton (born 1938) retired Conservative politician, MP for Macclesfield from 1971 until 2010
Public service
Blessed John Shert (c.1544–1582) English Catholic priest and martyr, executed during the reign of Elizabeth I, beatified in 1889.
Rev David Simpson, M.A. (1745–1799) Anglican priest who spent most of his career in Macclesfield
William Buckley, (1780–1856) escaped convict, survived among Australian aborigines between 1803 and 1835, raised here.
John Charles Ryle (1816–1900) was the first Anglican Bishop of Liverpool
Thomas Mottershead (c.1825 – 1884) British trade unionist and socialist activist
Herbert Philips (c.1835–1905) philanthropist and justice of the peace
Sir Samuel Rowe KCMG (1835–1888) doctor and colonial administrator of Sierra Leone, the Gambia and Gold Coast
Arthur Smith Woodward, (1864–1944) palaeontologist specialising in fossil fish, was born and educated here
Richard Crosse DSO & Bar (1888–1970) distinguished British Army officer
Vera Brittain (1893–1970) nurse, writer, feminist and pacifist, lived in Macclesfield as a child
Edward Brittain MC (1895 in Macclesfield – 1918) British Army officer, fought and died in WW1 and was immortalised by his sister Vera Brittain in Testament of Youth
Percy Wragg Brian FRS FRSE CBE (1910–1979) British botanist and mycologist, developed natural antibiotics
Alec Stokes, (1919–2003) scientist worked on X-ray crystallography and DNA was born here.
Christine Mary Tacon CBE (born 1959) the United Kingdom's Groceries Code Adjudicator
Tony Pollard (born 1965) archaeologist, specialising in the archaeology of conflict
Commerce
Charles Roe (1715–1781) industrialist, helped establish the silk industry in Macclesfield
James Pigot (1769–1843) British publisher of directories, and a pioneering publisher of trade directories
John Birchenough JP (1825–1895) silk manufacturer in the town and local politiciand
Sir Thomas Wardle (1831–1909) businessman, known for his innovations in silk dyeing and printing on silk
William Ryle II (1834–1881) silk manufacturer
Sir John Henry Birchenough, 1st Baronet, GCMG (1853–1937) English businessman and public servant.
Peter Gaddum (1902–1986) was the sole provider of raw silk to the UK during much of World War II
The Arts
Alfred Gatley (1816–1863) was an English sculptor
John William Wadsworth (1879–1955), ceramics designer for Mintons, born in Macclesfield
Mabel Frances Layng (1881–1937) English landscape and figure painter
Charles Tunnicliffe OBE, RA (1901–1979) naturalistic painter of British birds and other wildlife; born in the village of Langley
Kika Markham (born 1940) English actress, widow of Corin Redgrave
Sarah Burton OBE (born 1974) fashion designer, creative director of fashion brand Alexander McQueen
Helen Marten, (born 1985) sculptor who won the Turner Prize and the inaugural Hepworth Prize
Journalists and writers
Hester Rogers (1756–1794) British Methodist writer and role model for women Methodists
Sui Sin Far (born Edith Maude Eaton; 1865–1914) author, wrote about Chinese people in North America
Joseph McCabe, (1867–1955) rationalist writer and critic of religion, was born here
Brian Redhead, (1929–1993) Manchester Guardian journalist and BBC Radio 4 Today anchorman, lived in the town
Sir Andreas Whittam Smith, CBE (born 1937) financial journalist, founded and edited The Independent newspaper in 1986
Michael Jackson (born 1958) television producer and executive, was Controller of both BBC One and BBC Two and Chief Executive of Channel 4, between 1997 and 2001
Peter Stanford (born 1961) writer, editor, journalist, presenter, known for biographies and writings on religion and ethics
Nick Robinson, (born 1963) was political editor for the BBC, now presenter of the Today programme
Stuart Evers (born 1976) novelist, short story writer and critic.
Music
Forbes Robinson (1926–1987) bass, known for his performances in works by Mozart, Verdi, and Britten.
John Mayall OBE (born 1933) blues musician and bandleader, influential in the British blues movement
Noddy Holder (born 1946) lead singer of Slade, lives in the town.
Ian Curtis (1956–1980) lead singer of Joy Division, lived and died there. He is buried in the Macclesfield cemetery.
Stephen Morris (born 1957) drummer in the bands Joy Division, New Order, The Other Two & Bad Lieutenant
Gillian Gilbert (born 1961) musician, keyboardist, guitarist, singer, member of New Order, founding member of The Other Two
Andy Carthy (born 1972) known by his stage name Mr. Scruff, record producer and DJ
Phil Cunningham (born 1974 in Macclesfield) guitarist, member of the bands Marion, New Order and Bad Lieutenant
Jim Moray (born 1981) folk musician, born in Macclesfield
The Macc Lads (active 1981 – present) rock band
The Other Two (active 1990–2011) an English dance act consisting of Stephen Morris and Gillian Gilbert of New Order
Marion (formed in 1993) Brit-Pop band
Hatty Keane (born 1994) r&b and pop singer
The Virginmarys (formed in 2009) rock band.
TV personalities
David Dickinson (born 1941) antiques expert and television presenter.
Robert Longden (born 1951) composer, librettist, director, film, stage and television actor
Michael Jackson (born 1958) is a British television producer and executive
Mr Methane (born 1963 in Macclesfield) as Paul Oldfield, the world's only currently performing flatulist
Dominic Brunt (born 1970) actor, played vet Paddy Kirk in ITV's Emmerdale
Geoff Lloyd (born 1973) radio DJ, also known as the Geoff half of Pete And Geoff; Hometime show on Absolute Radio.
Marshall Lancaster (born 1974) actor, played DC Chris Skelton in the BBC dramas Life on Mars and Ashes to Ashes
Sport
Joseph Hawcridge (1863 in Macclesfield – 1905) a rugby union footballer
Linton Hope (1863–1920) sailor, competed at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Meulan, France
Reg Harris OBE (1920–1992) track cyclist, active in the 1940s, 1950s and 1970s.
Bobbie van de Graaf (born 1944 in Macclesfield) retired Dutch rower, bronze medalist in the 1964 Summer Olympics
Chris Nicholl (born 1946) former Northern Ireland international footballer, over 600 pro appearances, coach and manager
Jonathan Agnew MBE (born 1960) cricketer and cricket commentator
Peter Moores (born 1962) former England Cricket Coach, born and schooled in Macclesfield.
Stuart Brown (born 1972) thirteen-time British National Sidecarcross Champion.
Steven Mellor (born 1973) swimmer, competed in the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona
Jamie Donaldson (born 1975) golfer, born in and plays for Wales, was raised and currently lives in the town
Sir Ben Ainslie CBE (born 1977) Olympic gold medal-winning yachtsman, born in the town
Peter Crouch (born 1981) Burnley F.C. and England international football player.
Vicky Jepson, association football manager
Izzy Christiansen (born 1991) English women footballer
Matthew Nottingham (born 1992) badminton player
Emily Whitlock (born 1994) a professional squash player, world No. 12 in 2017.
Twin towns
Macclesfield has no twin towns. Until 2010, Macclesfield had an informal bond with Eckernförde in Germany in the aftermath of World War II when the townsfolk sent aid to Eckernförde.
Freedom of the Town
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Town of Macclesfield.
Individuals
John Askey: 9 August 2018.
See also
Listed buildings in Macclesfield
Cat and Fiddle Road
Macclesfield Castle
Armoury Towers
List of textile mills in Cheshire
Duke's Court (Macclesfield)
Macclesfield group power stations
Notes and references
Footnotes
Notes
Bibliography
Beck, J. (1969). Tudor Cheshire. A History of Cheshire Vol. 7 (J. J. Bagley, ed.) (Cheshire Community Council)
Bu'Lock, J. D. (1972). Pre-Conquest Cheshire: 383–1066. A History of Cheshire Vol. 3 (J. J. Bagley, ed.) (Cheshire Community Council)
Driver, J. T. (1971). Cheshire in the Later Middle Ages. A History of Cheshire Vol. 6 (J. J. Bagley, ed.) (Cheshire Community Council)
Hartwell C., Hyde M., Hubbard E., Pevsner N. (2011). The Buildings of England: Cheshire (2nd edn) (Yale University Press) ()
Hewitt, H. J. (1967). Cheshire under the Three Edwards. A History of Cheshire Vol. 5 (J. J. Bagley, ed.) (Cheshire Community Council)
Hodson, J. H. (1978). Cheshire, 1660–1780: Restoration to Industrial Revolution. A History of Cheshire Vol. 9 (J. J. Bagley, ed.) (Cheshire Community Council) ()
Husain, B. M. C. (1973). Cheshire under the Norman Earls: 1066–1237. A History of Cheshire Vol. 4 (J. J. Bagley, ed.) (Cheshire Community Council)
Tigwell R. E. (1985). Cheshire in the Twentieth Century. A History of Cheshire Vol. 12 (J. J. Bagley, ed.) (Cheshire Community Council) ()
Market towns in Cheshire
Towns and villages of the Peak District
Towns in Cheshire
|
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244146
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earlsdon
|
Earlsdon
|
Earlsdon is a residential suburb and electoral ward of Coventry, England. It lies approximately one mile to the southwest of Coventry City Centre. It is the birthplace of aviation pioneer Frank Whittle.
Amenities
Most shops and restaurants are laid out on Earlsdon Street, the suburban high street. Earlsdon Library is one of the largest libraries of the local authority libraries outside of the city centre.
In major sports, Earlsdon has its own rugby, golf and tennis clubs. Recreation grounds for football also are in Earlsdon.
History
In the mid-19th century, Earlsdon was a hub of activity for the rising watch-making trade. Even as the industry began to decline, Earlsdon continued to grow and was incorporated into the city of Coventry in 1890. The watch-making trade is represented by the clock on the roundabout at the bottom of the high street, where Earlsdon Avenue North and South join.
In 1897, the opening of Albany Road, named after Princess Helena, Duchess of Albany, who visited Coventry in November the following year, allowed for far greater access to and from the rest of the city and development in Earlsdon quickly increased. By 1918, the area was fully developed as it is today, but has seen some redevelopment in recent years.
Today, Earlsdon is a large residential suburb associated with Wainsbody ward to the south. Many academics and students from Coventry University and the University of Warwick live in both wards as they are closest to Coventry University and have streets of upmarket Edwardian homes for industry owners and, increasingly, on the expansion of higher education centres, researchers and lecturers.
In August 2006 following a torrential downpour of rain, the main street of Earlsdon suffered from serious flooding. Many businesses were affected, and some were forced to close for a time.
Places of interest
The hub of Earlsdon is what is locally referred to as the "Earlsdon High Street", in reality Earlsdon Street. This is a strip of commercial units that includes a number of restaurants and pubs. The area surrounding Earlsdon Street consists of rows of terraced houses and a few small shops. In the south of the locality is the large civic landscaped War Memorial Park, the north abuts Hearsall Common, and Canley Ford abuts the west.
Frank Whittle
Sir Frank Whittle (1907–96), the jet engine pioneer, was born in Earlsdon in a terraced house on Newcombe Road, which is marked out by a small grey commemorative plaque. He attended a school in Earlsdon, and he was inspired to pursue a career in engineering after allegedly seeing an aircraft land on Hearsall Common. At the age of nine he moved to Leamington Spa with his family when his father started an engineering factory there.
Arts and culture
Earlsdon has its own theatre, the Criterion Theatre, that puts on six main house performances a year, as well as numerous visiting companies and workshop productions. ECHO (Earlsdon, Chapelfields Hearsall Opinion) is the longest running independent community newspaper in the country (http://www.echonews.org.uk). There is an annual "Earlsdon Festival", that takes place in Earlsdon Street and other locations nearby during the May Day bank holiday. The annual Godiva Festival takes place within the War Memorial Park usually during one week-end in July.
Demography
Politics
Earlsdon has long covered Canley Gardens but also covers Styvechale as well as the westernmost mainstay marked as Earlsdon on most maps.
As of December 2009 the ward is represented by 3 local councillors who sit on Coventry City Council: Allan Andrews (C), Becky Gittins (Lab) and Kindy Sandhu (Lab).
Parts of Earlsdon also fall under Whoberley Ward and St Michael's Ward.
Gallery
See also
St Barbara's Church, Earlsdon
References
Suburbs of Coventry
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater%20East%20Asia%20Co-Prosperity%20Sphere
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Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
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The , or the GEACPS, was an imperialist concept which was developed in the Empire of Japan and propagated to Asian populations which were occupied by it from 1931 to 1945. It extended across the Asia-Pacific and promoted the cultural and economic unity of East Asians, Southeast Asians, South Asians and Oceanians. It also declared the intention to create a self-sufficient bloc of Asian nations which would be led by the Japanese and be free from the rule of Western powers. The idea was first announced on 1 August 1940 in a radio address delivered by Foreign Minister Yōsuke Matsuoka.
The intent and practical implementation of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere varied widely depending on the group and government department involved. Policy theorists who conceived it, as well as the vast majority of the Japanese population at large, saw it for its pan-Asian ideals of freedom and independence from Western colonial rule. In practice, however, it was frequently used by militarists and nationalists, who saw an effective policy vehicle through which to strengthen Japan's position and advance its dominance within Asia. The latter approach was reflected in a document released by Japan's Ministry of Health and Welfare, An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus, which laid out the central position of Japan within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, and promoted the idea of Japanese superiority over other Asians. Japanese spokesmen openly described the Great East Asia Co-Prosperity as a device for the "development of the Japanese race." When World War II ended, the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere became a source of criticism and scorn.
Development of the concept
An earlier, influential concept was the geographically smaller version of the co-prosperity sphere which was called , which was announced by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe on 3 November 1938 and was limited to East Asia only.
The original concept was an idealistic wish to liberate Asia from the rule of European colonial powers, however, some Japanese nationalists believed it could be used to gain resources which would be used to ensure that Japan would continue to be a modern power, and militarists believed that resource-rich Western colonies contained abundant supplies of raw materials which could be used to wage wars. Many Japanese nationalists were drawn to it as an ideal. Many of them remained convinced, throughout the war, that the Sphere was idealistic, offering slogans in a newspaper competition, praising the sphere for constructive efforts and peace.
Prior to the invasion of Southeast Asia, Konoe planned the Sphere in 1940 in an attempt to create a Great East Asia, comprising Japan, Manchukuo, China, and parts of Southeast Asia, that would, according to imperial propaganda, establish a new international order seeking "co-prosperity" for Asian countries which would share prosperity and peace, free from Western colonialism and domination of the White man. Military goals of this expansion included naval operations in the Indian Ocean and the isolation of Australia. This would enable the principle of hakkō ichiu.
This was just one of a number of slogans and concepts which were used to justify Japanese aggression in East Asia from the 1930s through the end of World War II. The term "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" is largely remembered by Western scholars, as a front for the Japanese control of occupied countries during World War II, in which puppet governments manipulated local populations and economies for the benefit of Imperial Japan.
To combat the protectionist dollar and sterling zones, Japanese economic planners called for a "yen bloc".
Japan's experiment with such financial imperialism encompassed both official and semi-official colonies. In the period between 1895 (when Japan annexed Taiwan) and 1937 (the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War), monetary specialists in Tokyo directed and managed programs of coordinated monetary reforms in Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria, and the peripheral Japanese-controlled islands in the Pacific. These reforms aimed to foster a network of linked political and economic relationships. These efforts foundered in the eventual debacle of the Greater East-Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
History
The concept of a unified East Asia was developed by Hachirō Arita, who served as Minister for Foreign Affairs from 1936 to 1940. The Japanese Army said that the new Japanese empire was the Asian equivalent of the Monroe Doctrine, especially with the Roosevelt Corollary. The regions of Asia, it was argued, were as essential to Japan as Latin America was to the United States.
The Japanese Foreign Minister Yōsuke Matsuoka formally announced the idea of the Co-Prosperity Sphere on 1 August 1940, in a press interview, but it had existed in other forms for many years. Leaders in Japan had long had an interest in the idea. The outbreak of World War II fighting in Europe had given the Japanese an opportunity to demand the withdrawal of support from China in the name of "Asia for Asiatics", with the European powers unable to effectively retaliate. Many of the other nations within the boundaries of the sphere were under colonial rule and elements of their population were sympathetic to Japan (as in the case of Indonesia), occupied by Japan in the early phases of the war and reformed under puppet governments, or already under Japan's control at the outset (as in the case of Manchukuo). These factors helped make the formation of the sphere, while lacking any real authority or joint power, come together without much difficulty.
After Japan's advancements into Indochina in 1940, knowing that Japan was completely dependent on other countries for natural resources, President Roosevelt ordered a trade embargo on steel and oil, raw materials that were vital to Japan's war effort. Without steel and oil imports, Japan's military could not fight for long. As a result of the embargo, Japan decided to attack the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia, seizing the raw materials needed for the war effort. On 1 August 1940, Foreign Minister Matsuoka Yōsuke announced the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere; on 7 December 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor; and on 19 December 1941, after the Japanese invasions of the Philippines, Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, in a radio broadcast Japanese politician Kishi Nobusuke announced the vast resources available for Japanese use in the newly conquered territories.
As part of its war drive, Japanese propaganda included phrases like "Asia for the Asiatics!" and talked about the need to liberate Asian colonies from the control of Western powers. The Japanese failure to bring the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War to a swift conclusion was blamed in part on the lack of resources; Japanese propaganda claimed this was due to the refusal by Western powers to supply Japan's military. Although invading Japanese forces sometimes received rapturous welcomes throughout Western colonies in Asia that they had recently captured, the subsequent brutality of the Japanese military led many of the inhabitants of those regions to regard Japan as being worse than their former colonial rulers. The Japanese government directed that economies of occupied territories be managed strictly for the production of raw materials for the Japanese war effort; a cabinet member declared, "There are no restrictions. They are enemy possessions. We can take them, do anything we want". For example, according to estimates, under Japanese occupation, about 100,000 Burmese and Malay Indian laborers died while constructing the Burma-Siam Railway.
An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus – a secret document completed in 1943 for high-ranking government use – laid out that Japan, as the originators and strongest military power within the region, would naturally take the superior position within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, with the other nations under Japan's umbrella of protection.
The booklet Read This and the War is Won—for the Japanese army—presented colonialism as an oppressive group of colonists living in luxury by burdening Asians. According to Japan, since racial ties of blood connected other Asians to the Japanese, and Asians had been weakened by colonialism, it was Japan's self-appointed role to "make men of them again" and liberate them from their Western oppressors.
According to Foreign Minister Shigenori Tōgō (in office 1941–1942 and 1945), should Japan be successful in creating this sphere, it would emerge as the leader of Eastern Asia, and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere would be synonymous with the Japanese Empire.
Greater East Asia Conference
The took place in Tokyo on 5–6 November 1943: Japan hosted the heads of state of various component members of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The conference was also referred to as the Tokyo Conference. The common language used by the delegates during the conference was English. The conference was mainly used as propaganda.
At the conference Tojo greeted them with a speech praising the "spiritual essence" of Asia, as opposed to the "materialistic civilization" of the West. Their meeting was characterized by praise of solidarity and condemnation of Western colonialism but without practical plans for either economic development or integration. Because of a lack of military representatives at the conference, the conference served little military value.
With the simultaneous use of Wilsonian and Pan-Asianism rhetoric, the goals of the conference were to solidify the commitment of certain Asian countries to Japan's war effort and to improve Japan's world image; however, the representatives of the other attending countries were neither independent nor treated as equals by Japan, and as a result, Asian countries were violently used to achieve Japan's imperialist ambitions.
The following dignitaries attended:
Hideki Tojo, Prime Minister of the Empire of Japan
Zhang Jinghui, Prime Minister of the Empire of Manchuria
Wang Jingwei, President of the Republic of China (Nanjing)
Ba Maw, Head of State of the State of Burma
Subhas Chandra Bose, Head of State of the Provisional Government of Free India
José P. Laurel, President of the Republic of the Philippines
Prince Wan Waithayakon, envoy from the Kingdom of Thailand
Members of the Sphere
Member countries and the year in which they joined the sphere:
(30 November 1940)
(30 November 1940)
Republic of China (Nanjing) (30 November 1940)
(21 December 1941)
State of Burma (1 August 1943)
(14 October 1943)
Provisional Government of Free India (21 October 1943)
Kingdom of Kampuchea (9 March 1945)
Empire of Vietnam (11 March 1945)
Kingdom of Luang Phrabang (8 April 1945)
Imperial rule
The ideology of the Japanese colonial empire, as it expanded dramatically during the war, contained two contradictory impulses. On the one hand, it preached the unity of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, a coalition of Asian races, directed by Japan, against Western imperialism in Asia. This approach celebrated the spiritual values of the East in opposition to the "crass materialism" of the West. In practice, however, the Japanese installed organizationally-minded bureaucrats and engineers to run their new empire, and they believed in ideals of efficiency, modernization, and engineering solutions to social problems. Japanese was the official language of the bureaucracy in all of the areas and was taught at schools as a national language.
Japan set up puppet regimes in Manchuria and China; they vanished at the end of the war. The Imperial Army operated ruthless administrations in most of the conquered areas, but paid more favorable attention to the Dutch East Indies. The main goal was to obtain oil. The Dutch colonial government destroyed the oil wells, however, the Japanese were able to repair and reopen them within a few months of their conquest. However most of the tankers transporting oil to Japan were sunk by U.S. Navy submarines, so Japan's oil shortage became increasingly acute. Japan sponsored an Indonesian nationalist movement under Sukarno. Sukarno finally came to power in the late 1940s after several years of battling the Dutch.
Philippines
With a view of building up the economic base of the Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese Army envisioned using the Philippine islands as a source of agricultural products needed by its industry. For example, Japan had a surplus of sugar from Taiwan, and a severe shortage of cotton, so they tried to grow cotton on sugar lands with disastrous results. They lacked the seeds, pesticides, and technical skills to grow cotton. Jobless farm workers flocked to the cities, where there was minimal relief and few jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane sugar for fuel, castor beans and copra for oil, Derris for quinine, cotton for uniforms, and abacá for rope. The plans were very difficult to implement in the face of limited skills, collapsed international markets, bad weather, and transportation shortages. The program was a failure that gave very little help to Japanese industry, and diverted resources needed for food production. As Karnow reports, Filipinos "rapidly learned as well that 'co-prosperity' meant servitude to Japan's economic requirements".
Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines during the war. Transportation between the islands was difficult because of a lack of fuel. Food was in very short supply, with sporadic famines and epidemic diseases that killed hundreds of thousands of people. In October 1943, Japan declared the Philippines an independent republic. The Japanese-sponsored Second Philippine Republic headed by President José P. Laurel proved to be ineffective and unpopular as Japan maintained very tight controls.
Failure
The Co-Prosperity Sphere collapsed with Japan's surrender to the Allies in September 1945. Dr. Ba Maw, wartime President of Burma under the Japanese, blamed the Japanese military:
In other words, the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere operated not for the betterment of all the Asian countries, but rather for Japan's own interests, and thus the Japanese failed to gather support in other Asian countries. Nationalist movements did appear in these Asian countries during this period and these nationalists did, to some extent, cooperate with the Japanese. However, Willard Elsbree, professor emeritus of political science at Ohio University, claims that the Japanese government and these nationalist leaders never developed "a real unity of interests between the two parties, [and] there was no overwhelming despair on the part of the Asians at Japan's defeat".
The failure of Japan to understand the goals and interests of the other countries involved in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere led to a weak association of countries bound to Japan only in theory and not in spirit. Dr. Ba Maw argues that Japan could have engineered a very different outcome if the Japanese had only managed to act in accord with the declared aims of "Asia for the Asiatics". He argues that if Japan had proclaimed this maxim at the beginning of the war, and if the Japanese had actually acted on that idea,
Propaganda efforts
Pamphlets were dropped by airplane on the Philippines, Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, Singapore, and Indonesia, urging them to join this movement. Mutual cultural societies were founded in all conquered nations to ingratiate with the natives and try to supplant English with Japanese as the commonly used language. Multi-lingual pamphlets depicted many Asians marching or working together in happy unity, with the flags of all the nations and a map depicting the intended sphere. Others proclaimed that they had given independent governments to the countries they occupied, a claim undermined by the lack of power given these puppet governments.
In Thailand, a street was built to demonstrate it, to be filled with modern buildings and shops, but of it consisted of false fronts. A network of Japanese-sponsored film production, distribution, and exhibition companies extended across the Japanese Empire and was collectively referred to as the Greater East Asian Film Sphere. These film centers mass-produced shorts, newsreels, and feature films to encourage Japanese language acquisition as well as cooperation with Japanese colonial authorities.
Projected territorial extent
Prior to the escalation of World War II to the Pacific and East Asia, the Japanese planners regarded it as self-evident that the conquests secured in Japan's earlier wars with Russia (South Sakhalin and Kwantung), Germany (South Seas Mandate) and China (Manchuria) would be retained, as well as Korea (Chōsen), Taiwan (Formosa), the recently seized additional portions of China and occupied French Indochina.
The Land Disposal Plan
A reasonably accurate indication as to the geographic dimensions of the Co-Prosperity Sphere are elaborated on in a Japanese wartime document prepared in December 1941 by the Research Department of the Imperial Ministry of War. Known as the "Land Disposal Plan in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" () it was put together with the consent of and according to the directions of the Minister of War (later Prime Minister) Hideki Tōjō. It assumed that the already established puppet governments of Manchukuo, Mengjiang, and the Wang Jingwei regime in Japanese-occupied China would continue to function in these areas. Beyond these contemporary parts of Japan's sphere of influence it also envisaged the conquest of a vast range of territories covering virtually all of East Asia, the Pacific Ocean, and even sizable portions of the Western Hemisphere, including in locations as far removed from Japan as South America and the eastern Caribbean.
Although the projected extension of the Co-Prosperity Sphere was extremely ambitious, the Japanese goal during the "Greater East Asia War" was not to acquire all the territory designated in the plan at once, but to prepare for a future decisive war some 20 years later by conquering the Asian colonies of the defeated European powers, as well as the Philippines from the United States. When Tōjō spoke on the plan to the House of Peers he was vague about the long-term prospects, but insinuated that the Philippines and Burma might be allowed independence, although vital territories such as Hong Kong would remain under Japanese rule.
The Micronesian islands that had been seized from Germany in World War I and which were assigned to Japan as C-Class Mandates, namely the Marianas, Carolines, Marshall Islands, and several others do not figure in this project. They were the subject of earlier negotiations with the Germans and were expected to be officially ceded to Japan in return for economic and monetary compensations.
The plan divided Japan's future empire into two different groups. The first group of territories were expected to become either part of Japan or otherwise be under its direct administration. Second were those territories that would fall under the control of a number of tightly controlled pro-Japanese vassal states based on the model of Manchukuo, as nominally "independent" members of the Greater East Asian alliance.
Parts of the plan depended on successful negotiations with Nazi Germany and a global victory by the Axis powers. After Germany and Italy declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941, Japan presented the Germans with a drafted military convention that would specifically delimit the Asian continent by a dividing line along the 70th meridian east longitude. This line, running southwards through the Ob River's Arctic estuary, southwards to just east of Khost in Afghanistan and heading into the Indian Ocean just west of Rajkot in India, would have split Germany's Lebensraum and Italy's spazio vitale territories to the west of it, and Japan's Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and its other areas to the east of it. The plan of the Third Reich for fortifying its own Lebensraum territory's eastern limits, beyond which the Co-Prosperity Sphere's northwestern frontier areas would exist in East Asia, involved the creation of a "living wall" of Wehrbauer "soldier-peasant" communities defending it. However, it is unknown if the Axis powers ever formally negotiated a possible, complementary second demarcation line that would have divided the Western Hemisphere.
Japanese-governed
Government-General of Formosa
Hong Kong, the Philippines, Portuguese Macau (to be purchased from Portugal), the Paracel Islands, and Hainan Island (to be purchased from the Chinese puppet regime). Contrary to its name it was not intended to include the island of Formosa (Taiwan).
South Seas Government Office
Guam, Nauru, Ocean Island, the Gilbert Islands and Wake Island.
Melanesian Region Government-General or South Pacific Government-General
British New Guinea, Australian New Guinea, the Admiralties, New Britain, New Ireland, the Solomon Islands, the Santa Cruz Archipelago, the Ellice Islands, the Fiji Islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, the Loyalty Islands, and the Chesterfield Islands.
Eastern Pacific Government-General
Hawaii Territory, Howland Island, Baker Island, the Phoenix Islands, the Rain Islands, the Marquesas and Tuamotu Islands, the Society Islands, the Cook and Austral Islands, all of the Samoan Islands and Tonga. The possibility of re-establishing the defunct Kingdom of Hawaii was also considered, based on the model of Manchukuo. Those favoring annexation of Hawaii (on the model of Karafuto) intended to use the local Japanese community, which had constituted 43% (c. 160,000) of Hawaii's population in the 1920s, as a leverage. Hawaii was to become self-sufficient in food production, while the Big Five corporations of sugar and pineapple processing were to be broken up. No decision was ever reached regarding whether Hawaii would be annexed to Japan, become a puppet kingdom, or be used as a bargaining chip for leverage against the US.
Australian Government-General
All of Australia including Tasmania. Australia and New Zealand were to accommodate up to two million Japanese settlers. However, there are indications that the Japanese were also looking for a separate peace with Australia, and a satellite rather than colony status similar to that of Burma and the Philippines.
New Zealand Government-General
The New Zealand North and South Islands, Macquarie Island, as well as the rest of the Southwest Pacific.
Ceylon Government-General
All of India below a line running approximately from Portuguese Goa to the coastline of the Bay of Bengal.
Alaska Government-General
The Alaska Territory, the Yukon Territory, the western portion of the Northwest Territories, Alberta, British Columbia, and Washington. There were also plans to make the American West Coast (comprising California and Oregon) a semi-autonomous satellite state. This latter plan was not seriously considered; it depended upon a global victory of Axis forces.
Government-General of Central America
Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, British Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, the Maracaibo (western) portion of Venezuela, Ecuador, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. In addition, if either Mexico, Peru or Chile were to enter the war against Japan, substantial parts of these states would also be ceded to Japan. Events that transpired between May 22, 1942, when Mexico declared war on the Axis, through Peru's declaration of war on February 12, 1944, and concluding with Chile only declaring war on Japan by April 11, 1945 (as Nazi Germany was nearly defeated at that time), brought all three of these southeast Pacific Rim nations of the Western Hemisphere's Pacific coast into conflict with Japan by the war's end. The future of Trinidad, British and Dutch Guiana, and the British and French possessions in the Leeward Islands at the hands of Imperial Japan were meant to be left open for negotiations with Nazi Germany had the Axis forces been victorious.
Asian puppet states
East Indies Kingdom
Dutch East Indies, British Borneo, the Christmas Islands, Cocos Islands, Andaman, Nicobar Islands and Portuguese Timor (to be purchased from Portugal).
Kingdom of Burma
Burma proper, Assam (a province of the British Raj) and a large part of Bengal.
Kingdom of Malaya
Remainder of the Malay states.
Kingdom of Annam
Annam, Laos and Tonkin.
Kingdom of Cambodia
Cambodia and French Cochinchina.
Puppet states which already existed at the time, the Land Disposal Plan has been drafted, were:
Empire of Manchuria
Chinese Manchuria.
Republic of China
Other parts of China occupied by Japan
Mengjiang
Inner Mongolia territories west of Manchuria, since 1940 officially a part of the Republic of China. It was meant as a starting point for a regime which would cover all of Mongolia.
Contrary to the plan Japan installed a puppet state on the Philippines instead of exerting direct control. In the former French Indochina, the Empire of Vietnam, Kingdom of Kampuchea and Kingdom of Luang Phrabang were founded. The Empire of Vietnam, despite being pro-Japan, attempted to work for independence and made some progressive reforms. The State of Burma did not become a Kingdom.
Political parties and movements with Japanese support
Azad Hind (Indian nationalist movement)
Indian Independence League (Indian nationalist movement)
Indonesian Nationalist Party (Indonesian nationalist movement)
Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas (Philippine nationalist ruling party of the Second Philippine Republic)
Kesatuan Melayu Muda (Malayan nationalist movement)
Khmer Issarak (Cambodian-Khmer nationalist group)
Dobama Asiayone (We Burmans Association) (Burmese nationalist association)
See also
Hachirō Arita: an Army thinker who thought up the Greater East Asian concept
Axis power negotiations on the division of Asia
East Asia Development Board
Flying geese paradigm
Greater East Asia Conference (November 1943)
Imperial Rule Assistance Association
Greater Germanic Reich
Hakkō ichiu
Japanese nationalism
Jewish settlement in the Japanese Empire
Ikki Kita: a Japanese nationalist who developed a similar pan-Asian concept
List of East Asian leaders in the Japanese sphere of influence (1931–1945)
Ministry of Greater East Asia
Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II
Racial Equality Proposal
Satō Nobuhiro: the alleged developer of the Greater East Asia concept
References
Citations
Further reading
Dower, John W. (1986). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon Books. ;
Fisher, Charles A. (1950) "The Expansion of Japan: A Study in Oriental Geopolitics: Part II. The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere." The Geographical Journal (1950): 179–193.
Iriye, Akira. (1999). Pearl Harbor and the coming of the Pacific War :a Brief History with Documents and Essays. Boston: St. Martin's Press. ;
Lebra, Joyce C. (ed.) (1975). Japan's Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in World War II: Selected Readings and Documents. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ;
Levine, Alan J. (1995). The Pacific War:Japan versus the allies (Greenwood Publishing Group, )
Myers, Ramon Hawley and Mark R. Peattie. (1984) The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Peattie, Mark R. (1988). "The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945," in The Cambridge History of Japan: the Twentieth Century (editor, Peter Duus). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swan, William L. (1996) in JSTOR "Japan's Intentions for Its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere as Indicated in Its Policy Plans for Thailand" Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27#1 (1996) pp. 139–149
Ugaki, Matome. (1991). Fading Victory: The Diary of Ugaki Matome, 1941-1945. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Vande Walle, Willy et al. The 'money doctors' from Japan: finance, imperialism, and the building of the Yen Bloc, 1894–1937 (abstract). FRIS/Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2007–2010.
Yellen, Jeremy A. (2019). The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere: When Total Empire Met Total War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
External links
Foreign Office Files for Japan and the Far East
WW2DB: Greater East Asia Conference
Shōwa Statism
Japanese colonial empire
Japanese military occupations
Japan in World War II
Military history of Japan during World War II
Japanese nationalism
Pan-Asianism
Politics of World War II
British Malaya in World War II
China in World War II
Hong Kong in World War II
Indonesia in World War II
Manchukuo
Papua New Guinea in World War II
Philippines in World War II
South Seas Mandate in World War II
Taiwan in World War II
Thailand in World War II
Vietnam in World War II
Axis powers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Pucher
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Johann Pucher
|
Johann Augustin Pucher ( or Ivan Pucher; August 26, 1814 – August 7, 1864) was a Slovene priest, scientist, photographer, artist, and poet who invented an unusual process for making photographs on glass.
Although his were not the first glass photographs, Pucher's process was unique. It was the only 19th-century photography technique that was not based on expensive silver halide chemistry but was still sensitive enough to use in a camera, with exposure times comparable to those of the daguerreotype and calotype. (Other non-silver processes, such as the cyanotype, were practical only for making prints or photograms in direct sunlight.) Modern testing of Pucher's photographs has confirmed their chemically unusual nature. However, his process was never commercialized, and attempts to recreate it based on published information have been unsuccessful.
Biography
Pucher was born on August 26, 1814 in Kranj in the Duchy of Carniola in the Austrian Empire (now Slovenia). He was the son of Joseph Pucher and Maria Lebar Pucher, and he was baptized Augustin Johann Pucher.
As a schoolchild, Pucher was interested in art, languages, and the natural sciences, especially chemistry and physics. He wanted to study art, but obeyed his mother's wish and became a Catholic priest. However, he continued to experiment in photography, art, and music. When the French Academy of Sciences announced the invention of the daguerreotype on 19 August 1839, Pucher quickly mastered the process, but it was too expensive, so he developed his own way of making photographs. On April 19, 1842, he invented a photographic process on glass that he called the hyalotype, or "svetlopis" in Slovene. His photos are also called puharotypes, in his honor. The first report about his invention was published in the newspaper Carniolia in 1841.
While living in Bled, Pucher met a French viscount, Louis de Dax, who wrote about him in the Parisian magazine La Lumière. The church then moved Pucher to a small village, Cerklje, where his contacts abroad lessened. Ultimately, he became sick from the harmful substances used in his experiments and died at the age of 49.
Hyalotype process
According to Pucher's records of his photographic process, he coated a small glass plate with a layer of light-sensitive sulfur, exposed it to iodine vapors, and inserted the prepared plate into a camera. He then poured mercury into a metal container, placed the mercury at the bottom of the camera, and heated it from below. He exposed the prepared plate to light for 15 seconds, and mercury vapors coated the exposed places on the picture. Pucher strengthened the picture with bromine steam and fixed it by wrapping it with alcohol. Finally, he preserved the photo with varnish.
The advantages of Pucher's procedure included a shorter exposure time (15 seconds, which allowed him to make portraits), a positive image, and the possibility of reproduction.
Pucher was not the first to try to create photos on glass: A Frenchman, Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor, reported his own invention to the French Academy of Sciences in 1847. It was not until January 1851 that the Austrian Academy of Sciences published a report on Pucher's method.
Surviving work
Known photos by Pucher, mostly kept in the National Museum of Slovenia and in the Museum of Architecture and Design in Ljubljana, are:
Self-portrait, reproduction of a lost original, National Museum
Self-portrait, original on glass, 10 × 12 cm, National Museum
Portrait of a man, original on glass, 9.4 × 11.5 cm, National Museum
Portrait of a woman, original on glass, 10.3 × 12.1 cm, National Museum
Andrej Vavken in Cerklje na Gorenjskem, original on glass, 6.7 × 8.4 cm, Museum of Architecture and Design
Portrait of the composer Andrej Vavken and the painter Ivan Franke, original on glass, 9.7 × 11.5 cm, private collection
Reproductions
Bled island, colored photo reproduction of a graphic motif on paper, 6.5 × 5.1 cm, National Museum
Last Supper, colored photo reproduction of a graphic motif on paper, 7.8 × 6 cm, National Museum
Gregor Rihar in a boat in Bled, photo reproduction of a drawing on paper, 9.1 × 6.3 cm, National Museum
Lost photos
Most of Pucher's photos have been lost, including:
2 sent to a scientific assembly in Ljubljana in 1849
4 sent to Viscount Louis de Dax
Photographs sent to the Austrian Academy of Sciences
Photographs presented at world exhibitions in London, New York, and Paris
Portraits of relatives destroyed during World War II
Poetry
Pucher wrote at least 15 poems in Slovene and 4 in German. Some of them were set to music by prominent composers.
Awards and honors
In recognition of Pucher's contribution to the Slovene national identity and the development of photographic science, Slovenia declared 2014 to be Pucher's Year. The honorary patronage of the jubilee was approved by President Borut Pahor. A yearlong program of events in Slovenia and abroad was organized in cooperation with many municipalities and institutions to celebrate the 200th anniversary of his birth.
Several items and locations are named after Pucher:
Janez Pucher Award, given by the Photographic Federation of Slovenia (Slovene: Fotografska zveza Slovenije) for exceptional achievement in photography
Puharotype, Pucher’s photo procedure
Puharjeva ulica, a street in Ljubljana
Puharjeva ulica, a street in Kranj
Pucher Prize, given by the Janez Puhar Photo Society in Kranj (Slovene: Fotografsko društvo Janez Puhar Kranj)
Pucher Medal, given by the Janez Puhar Photo Society in Kranj for the best portrait at International Federation of Photographic Art (FIAP) exhibitions
Notes
References
External links
Puhar.si A site dedicated to Pucher.
1814 births
1864 deaths
Artists from Kranj
Carniolan Roman Catholic priests
Carniolan photographers
19th-century Austrian photographers
Carniolan painters
Carniolan Catholic poets
Carniolan inventors
19th-century poets
19th-century painters
19th-century Carniolan writers
19th-century Roman Catholic priests
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusef%20Komunyakaa
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Yusef Komunyakaa
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Yusef Komunyakaa (born James William Brown; April 29, 1941) is an American poet who teaches at New York University and is a member of the Fellowship of Southern Writers. Komunyakaa is a recipient of the 1994 Kingsley Tufts Poetry Award, for Neon Vernacular and the 1994 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry. He also received the Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize. Komunyakaa received the 2007 Louisiana Writer Award for his enduring contribution to poetry.
His subject matter ranges from the black experience through rural Southern life before the Civil Rights era and his experience as a soldier during the Vietnam War.
Life and career
According to public records, Komunyakaa was born in 1947 and given the name James William Brown. (His former wife said in her memoir that he was born in 1941.) He was the eldest of five children of James William Brown, a carpenter, and his wife. He grew up in the small town of Bogalusa, Louisiana. As an adult, he reclaimed the name Komunyakaa, said to be his grandfather's African name. He said that his grandfather had reached the United States as a stowaway in a ship from Trinidad.
Brown served in the US Army, serving one tour of duty in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. According to his former wife, Mandy Sayer, he was discharged on 14 December 1966. He worked as a specialist for the military paper, Southern Cross, covering actions and stories, interviewing fellow soldiers, and publishing articles on Vietnamese history, which earned him a Bronze Star.
After his service, he attended college at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, where he was an editor for the campus arts and literature publication, riverrun, to which he also contributed. He began to write poetry in 1973 and took the name Yusef Komunyakaa. He earned his M.A. in Writing from Colorado State University in 1978, and an M.F.A. in Creative Writing from the University of California, Irvine, in 1980. After receiving his M.F.A., Komunyakaa began teaching poetry in the New Orleans public school system and creative writing at the University of New Orleans.
Komunyakaa taught at Indiana University until the fall of 1997, when he became an English professor at Princeton University. Yusef Komunyakaa is a professor in the Creative Writing Program at New York University.
Poetry
Komunyakaa's collection Copacetic fuses jazz rhythms and syncopation with hip colloquialism and the unique, arresting poetic imagery that has since become his trademark. It also outlines an abiding desire in his work to articulate cultural truths that remain unspoken in daily discourse, in the hope that they will bring a sort of redemption: "How can love heal / the mouth shut this way... / Say something that resuscitates / us, behind the masks."
Komunyakaa's I Apologize for the Eyes in My Head, published in 1986, won the San Francisco Poetry Prize. More attention came with the publication of Dien Cai Dau (Vietnamese for "crazy in the head"), published in 1988, which focused on his experiences in Vietnam and won the Dark Room Poetry Prize. Included was the poem "Facing It", in which the speaker of the poems visits the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C.:
He's lost his right arm
inside the stone. In the black mirror
a woman's trying to erase names
No, she's brushing a boy's hair.
— from "Facing It"
Komunyakaa many other published collections of poetry, include Taboo: The Wishbone Trilogy, Part I (2004), Pleasure Dome: New and Collected Poems, 1975–1999 (2001), Talking Dirty to the Gods (2000), Thieves of Paradise (1998), Neon Vernacular (1994), and Magic City (1992).
In 2004, Komunyakaa began a collaboration with dramaturge and theater producer Chad Gracia on a dramatic adaptation of The Epic of Gilgamesh. The play was published in October 2006 by Wesleyan University Press. In spring 2008, New York's 92nd Street Y staged a one-night performance by director Robert Scanlon. In May 2013 it received a full production by the Constellation Theatre Company in Washington, D.C.
Komunyakaa's work has influenced many later American poets. He views his own work as an indirectness, an "insinuation":
Poetry is a kind of distilled insinuation. It’s a way of expanding and talking around an idea or a question. Sometimes, more actually gets said through such a technique than a full frontal assault.
Marriage and family
Komunyakaa married Australian novelist Mandy Sayer in 1985. That year, he was hired as an associate professor at Indiana University in Bloomington. He also held the Ruth Lilly Professorship for two years from 1989 to 1990. He and Sayer were married for ten years.
He later had a relationship with India-born poet Reetika Vazirani, and they had a son Jehan together. Vazirani killed the two-year-old boy and committed suicide in 2003.
Interviews
Over the years, Komunyakaa has taken part in many interviews on his life and works. In a 2018 interview titled "The Complexity of Being Human," Komunyakaa addresses the careful use of language and influences of some of his most famous works such as "Facing It." He compares his work to that of a painter or carpenter. He states that poetry is vastly different from journalism in that his work is more violent, much like nature.
In his interview "The Singing Underneath," Komunyakaa describes the biblical influences in his work. He recalls reading the Bible in his youth and discovering what he believed to be underlying poetic elements. Komunyakaa also pays his respects to early influences such as Langston Hughes, Paul Laurence Dunbar, and Phillis Wheatley.
In a 2010 interview by Tufts Observer, Komunyakaa when asked to list the individuals who most influenced him, he names Robert Hayden, Bishop, Pablo Neruda, and Walt Whitman.
Below are a few of his most popular interviews:
Interview: Paul Muldoon & Yusef Komunyakaa
An Interview with Yusef Komunyakaa
Still Negotiating with the Images: An Interview with Yusef Komunyakaa
Yusef Komunyakaa: The Willow Springs Interview
A Conversation Between Yusef Komunyakaa and Alan Fox, November 28, 1997
Bibliography
Poetry
Collections and selected poems
Below is a chronological table of Komunyakaa's poetry collections, as well as selected works published in each collection
Anthologies
Ghost Fishing: An Eco-Justice Poetry Anthology, University of Georgia Press, 2018.
Essays
Condition Red: Essays, Interviews, and Commentaries, edited by Radiclani Clytus (University of Michigan Press, 2017, ).
Blue Notes: Essays, Interviews, and Commentaries, edited by Radiclani Clytus (Michigan, 2000, ).
Notes
References
External links
The Chameleon Couch by Yusef Komunyakaa (2011)
Profile and poems of Yusef Komunyakaa, including audio files, at the Poetry Foundation.
Biography at ibiblio
Views on Poetry
Biography
Profile and poems at Poets.org
Video of Yusef's reading, 3/09/09, at the Boston Court Theatre in Pasadena, CA, as featured on Poetry.LA
Yusef Komunyakaa Papers. James Weldon Johnson Collection in the Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/yusef-komunyakaa
1941 births
Living people
American male poets
Colorado State University alumni
People from Bogalusa, Louisiana
Poets from Louisiana
Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners
The New Yorker people
University of Colorado Colorado Springs alumni
University of New Orleans faculty
Writers of American Southern literature
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
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244158
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy%20Birthday%2C%20Cookie%20Monster
|
Happy Birthday, Cookie Monster
|
Happy Birthday, Cookie Monster () is a children's book by Felice Haus, with illustrations by Carol Nicklaus, published in 1986 by Random House. The book features Cookie Monster, a character from the PBS children's television series Sesame Street. The book was honoured as an International Reading Association Children's Choice.
The book was reissued as part of the Step into Reading series, in Step 1, meant for 4- to 8-year-old children. Cookie Monster's birthday is November 2.
The plot is that Cookie finds himself sad on his birthday after eating all his birthday cake before his party. He doesn't know what he will feed his guests. When his guests arrive, they all bring a cake. In the end, they all have a good time, especially Cookie Monster.
The plot summary on the back of this book reads: "It is Cookie Monster's birthday. He bakes a yummy cake. But he eats it all before the party begins! Now he has no cake to give his friends. What will he do? Find out in this funny story."
References
1986 children's books
American children's books
American picture books
Comedy books
Sesame Street books
English-language books
Cookies in popular culture
Fiction about monsters
Media about cakes
Birthdays in fiction
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Hawaii
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Music of Hawaii
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The music of Hawaii includes an array of traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock and hip hop. Styles like slack-key guitar are well known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar. In addition, the music which began to be played by Puerto Ricans in Hawaii in the early 1900s is called cachi cachi music, on the islands of Hawaii.
Music of Hawaiian people is largely religious in nature, and includes chanting and dance music. Hawaiian music has had a notable impact on the music of other Polynesian islands; Peter Manuel called the influence of Hawaiian music a "unifying factor in the development of modern Pacific musics".
Music festivals and venues
Major music festivals in Hawaii include the Merrie Monarch Hula Festival, which brings together hula groups from across the world, as well as a number of slack-key and steel guitar festivals: Big Island Slack Key Guitar Festival, Steel Guitar Association Festival and the Gabby Pahinui/Atta Isaacs Slack Key Festival. April's Aloha Week is a popular tourist attraction, as is the Moloka'i Music Festival held around Labor Day. There was also a Hawaii International Jazz Festival, which ran from 1993 until 2007. The annual Pacific Rim Jazz Festival occurs in mid-autumn at the Hawaii Convention Center. The annual Manoa Jazz & Heritage Festival takes place in early autumn at the Andrews Amphitheatre on the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa campus.
Hawaii is home to numerous hotels, many of which feature music in the afternoon or evening; some of the more prominent ones include the Kahala Hilton, the Sheraton Moana Hotel, the Sheraton Waikiki, the Halekulani, Casanova's and the King Kamehameha Hotel. Large music venues in Hawaii include the University of Hawaii at Hilo Performing Arts Center, which has 600 seats and is the largest venue on the Big Island. A 560-seat venue and cultural exhibition center on Kauai is the Kauai Community College Performing Arts Center. In Honolulu, the Neal S. Blaisdell Center Arena, Concert Hall, and Exhibition Hall are three of the largest venues in the state. Other venues for Hawaiian music on Oahu include the Waikiki Shell, an establishment used primarily for concerts and entertainment purposes. Over the years many local, as well as international artists, have graced the stage there. It is a unique outdoor theater located in Kapiolani Park. This venue seats 2,400 persons, with the capacity to hold up to 6,000 more on the lawn area. Concerts, graduation ceremonies, and hula shows are very popular at this site, as well as Kennedy Theatre and Andrews Amphitheatre on the campus of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the Blaisdell Center Concert Hall, the Hawaii Theatre in downtown Honolulu, the Red Elephant (a performance space and recording studio in downtown Honolulu), Paliku Theatre on the campus of Windward Community College and the Leeward Community College Theatre. The historic Lanai Theatre is a cultural landmark on Lanai, dating back to the 1930s.
Music institutions and industry
Hawaii is home to a number of renowned music institutions in several fields. The Honolulu Symphony Orchestra is an important part of the state's musical history, and is the oldest orchestra in the United States west of the Rocky Mountains, founded in 1900. The Orchestra has collaborated with other local institutions, like the Hawaii Opera Theatre and the Oʻahu Choral Society, which sponsors the Honolulu Symphony Chorus and the Honolulu Chamber Choir.
Numerous businesses have been created supporting the special musical styles and instruments suited to the Hawaiian musical tradition. The Guitar and Lute Workshop was an early manufacturer and proponent of specialty slack-key guitars in the early 1970s, and the Kamaka Ukulele company was established as key manufacturer of ukuleles for Hawaiian musical acts.
Folk music
Hawaiian folk music includes several varieties of chanting (mele) and music meant for highly ritualized dance (hula). Traditional Hawaiian music and dance was functional, used to express praise, communicate genealogy and mythology, and accompany games, festivals and other secular events. The Hawaiian language has no word that translates precisely as music, but a diverse vocabulary exists to describe rhythms, instruments, styles and elements of voice production. Hawaiian folk music is simple in melody and rhythm, but is "complex and rich" in the "poetry, accompanying mimetic dance (hula), and subtleties of vocal styles... even in the attenuated forms in which they survive today".
The chant (mele) is typically accompanied by an ipu heke (a double gourd) and/or pahu (sharkskin covered drum). Some dances require dancers to utilize hula implements such as an ipu (single gourd), iliili (waterworn lava stone castanets),uliuli (feathered gourd rattles), pu`ili (split bamboo sticks) or kalaau (rhythm sticks). The older, formal kind of hula is called kahiko, while the modern version is auana. There are also religious chants called oli; when accompanied by dancing and drums, it is called mele hula pahu.
In the pre-contact Hawaiian language, the word mele referred to any kind of poetic expression, though it now translates as song. The two kinds of Hawaiian chanting were mele oli and mele hula. The first were a cappella individual songs, while the latter were accompanied dance music performed by a group. The chanters were known as haku mele and were highly trained composers and performers. Some kinds of chants express emotions like angst and affection, or request a favor from another person. Other chants are for specific purposes like naming, (mele inoa), prayer (mele pule), surfing (mele he'e nalu) and genealogical recitations (mele koihonua). Mele chants were governed by strict rules, and were performed in a number of styles include the rapid kepakepa and the enunciate koihonua.
Music history
Historical documentation of Hawaiian music does not extend prior to the late 18th century, when non-Hawaiians (haoles) arrived on the island. From 1778 onward, Hawaii began a period of acculturation with the introduction of numerous styles of European music, including the hymns (himeni) introduced by Protestant missionary choirs. Spanish-speaking Mexican cowboys (paniolos), were particularly influential immigrants in the field of music, introducing string instruments such as the guitar and possibly also the technique of falsetto singing, while Portuguese immigrants brought the ukulele-like braguinha. also immigrants from all over the world had brought their own instruments along with them to the islands.
Elizabeth Tatar divided Hawaiian music history into seven periods, beginning with the initial arrival of Europeans and their musical cultures, spanning approximately from 1820 to 1872. The subsequent period lasted to the beginning of the 20th century, and was marked by the creation of an acculturated yet characteristically Hawaiian modern style, while European instruments spread across the islands. Tatar's third period, from 1900 to about 1915, saw the integration of Hawaiian music into the broader field of American popular music, with the invention of hapa haole songs, which use the English language and only superficial elements of Hawaiian music; the beginning of the Hawaiian recording industry was in 1906, when the Victor Talking Machine Company made the first 53 recordings in the territory. By 1912, recorded Hawaiian music had found an audience on the American mainland. Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes in 1899. The devastation caused a worldwide shortage in sugar and a huge demand for the product from Hawaii. Hawaiian sugarcane plantation owners began to recruit the jobless, but experienced, laborers in Puerto Rico. They took with them their music and in the early 1900s introduced what is known as Cachi Cachi music, on the islands of Hawaii.
From 1915 to 1930, mainstream audiences outside of Hawaii became increasingly enamored of Hawaiian music, though by this time the songs marketed as Hawaiian had only peripheral aspects of actual Hawaiian music. Tahitian and Samoan music had an influence on Hawaiian music during this period, especially in their swifter and more intricate rhythms. The following era, from about 1930 to 1960, has been called the "Golden Age of Hawaiian music". National radio host Webley Edwards, broadcasting from Honolulu, first introduced most Americans to authentic and adapted for orchestra and big band styles through his popular hour-long radio show Hawaii Calls. Hawaiian performers like Lani McIntire, John Kameaaloha Almeida and Sol Hoʻopiʻi became mainstream stars as regulars on the show and through live performances. In the 1960s, Hawaiian-style music declined in popularity amid an influx of rock, soul and pop acts from the American mainland. This trend reversed itself in the final period of Hawaiian music history, the modern period beginning with the Hawaiian Renaissance in the 1970s and continuing with the foundation of a variety of modern music scenes in fields like indie rock, Hawaiian Rap (Na mele paleoleo) and Jawaiian.
Liliʻuokalani and Henri Berger
Queen Liliʻuokalani was the last Queen of Hawaii before the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown. She was also a musician and prolific composer who wrote many musical works. She was best known for Aloha 'Oe. A compilation of her works, titled "The Queen's Songbook", was published in 1999 by The Queen Lili'uokalani Trust.
Lili'uokalani was one of many members of the Hawaiian royal family with musical inclinations. They studied under a Prussian military bandleader, Henri Berger, who was sent by the Kaiser at the request of Kamehameha V. Berger became fascinated by Hawaiian folk music, and wrote much documentation on it. However, he also brought his own musical background in German music, and heavily guided the Hawaiian musicians and composers he worked with.
King Kamehameha V also, in 1847, sent to Germany for a "band Leader" for "The Kings Own Band", now the Royal Hawaiian Band, William Mersberg, from Weimar, Germany. He is Henry Kaleialoha Allen's great grandfather. Henry Kaleialoha Allen is "one of Hawaii's Living Treasures of Hawaiian Music" and a master music educator and has been honored many times on the Senate Floor and by the Legislature for such.
Guitar innovations
Guitars could have come to Hawaii from several sources: sailors, missionaries, or travelers to and from California. The most frequently told story is that it accompanied the Mexican cowboys (vaqueros) brought by King Kamehameha III in 1832 in order to teach the natives how to control an overpopulation of cattle. The Hawaiian cowboys (paniolo) used guitars in their traditional folk music. The Portuguese introduced an instrument called the braguinha, a small, four-stringed Madeira variant of the cavaquinho; this instrument was a precursor to the `ukulele.
Steel-string guitars also arrived with the Portuguese in the 1860s and slack-key had spread across the chain by the late 1880s. A ship called the Ravenscrag arrived in Honolulu on August 23, 1879, bringing Portuguese field workers from Madeira. Legend has it that one of the men, João Fernandes, later a popular musician, tried to impress the Hawaiians by playing folk music with a friend's braguinha; it is also said that the Hawaiians called the instrument `ukulele (jumping flea) in reference to the man's swift fingers. Others have claimed the word means gift that came here or a corruption of ukeke lele (dancing ukeke, a three-string bow).
The popularity throughout the 1920s of Hawaiian music, with its unique slide-style of guitar playing, prompted the invention of the electric guitar in 1931, as a lap steel guitar, the "frying pan", by George Beauchamp. Electric amplification allowed the Hawaiian-style guitar to be heard in performances of larger popular bands.
Late 19th and early 20th century
In the 1880s and 90s, King David Kalakaua promoted Hawaiian culture and also encouraged the addition of new instruments, such as the ukulele and possibly steel guitar; Kalakaua died in 1891, and so it is highly unlikely he would have heard it. Kalakaua's successor, his sister Lili'uokalani, was also a prolific composer and wrote several songs, like "Aloha 'Oe", which remain popular. During this period, Hawaiian music evolved into a "new distinctive" style, using the derivatives of European instruments; aside from the widespread string instruments, brass bands like the Royal Hawaiian Band performed Hawaiian songs as well as popular marches and ragtimes.
In about 1889, Joseph Kekuku began sliding a piece of steel across the strings of a guitar, thus inventing steel guitar (kika kila); at about the same time, traditional Hawaiian music with English lyrics became popular. Vocals predominated in Hawaiian music until the 20th century, when instrumentation took a lead role. Much of modern slack-key guitar has become entirely instrumental.
From about 1895 to 1915, Hawaiian music dance bands became in demand more and more. These were typically string quintets. Ragtime music influenced the music, and English words were commonly used in the lyrics. This type of Hawaiian music, influenced by popular music and with lyrics being a combination of English and Hawaiian (or wholly English), is called hapa haole (literally: half white) music. In 1903, Albert "Sonny" Cunha composed My Waikiki Mermaid, arguably the first popular hapa haole song (The earliest known hapa haole song, "Eating of the Poi", was published in Ka Buke o na Leo Mele Hawaii...o na Home Hawaii in Honolulu in 1888 [See Kanahele, George S., Hawaiian Music and Musicians pp 71–72]).
In 1927, Rose Moe (1908–1999), a Hawaiian singer, with her husband Tau Moe (1908–2004), a Samoan guitarist, began touring with Madame Riviere's Hawaiians. In 1929 they recorded eight songs in Tokyo. Rose and Tau continued touring for over fifty years, living in countries such as Germany, Lebanon and India. They even performed in Germany as late as 1938 when the Nazi racism was on the rise and people of a darker color were regarded as inferior people; it is said that they even performed for Adolf Hitler himself. With their children, the Tau Moe family did much to spread the sound of Hawaiian folk music and hapa haole music throughout the world. In 1988, the Tau Moe family re-recorded the 1929 sessions with the help of musician and ethnomusicologist Bob Brozman.
The 1920s also saw the development of a uniquely Hawaiian style of jazz, innovated by performers at the Moana and Royal Hawaiian Hotels.
Slack key guitar
Slack-key guitar (kī ho`alu in Hawaiian) is a fingerpicked playing style, named for the fact that the strings are most often "slacked" or loosened to create an open (unfingered) chord, either a major chord (the most common is G, which is called "taro patch" tuning) or a major 7th (called a "wahine" tuning). A tuning might be invented to play a particular song or facilitate a particular effect, and as late as the 1960s they were often treated as family secrets and passed from generation to generation. By the time of the Hawaiian Renaissance, though, the example of players such as Auntie Alice Namakelua, Leonard Kwan, Raymond Kane, and Keola Beamer had encouraged the sharing of the tunings and techniques and probably saved the style from extinction. Playing techniques include "hammering-on", "pulling-off", "chimes" (harmonics), and "slides," and these effects frequently mimic the falsettos and vocal breaks common in Hawaiian singing.
The guitar entered Hawaiian culture from a number of directions—sailors, settlers, contract workers. One important source of the style was Mexican cowboys hired to work on the Big Island of Hawaii in the first half of the 19th century. These paniolo brought their guitars and their music, and when they left, the Hawaiians developed their own style of playing the instrument.
Slack key guitar evolved to accompany the rhythms of Hawaiian dancing and the melodies of Hawaiian chant. Hawaiian music in general, which was promoted under the reign of King David Kalakaua as a matter of national pride and cultural revival, drew rhythms from traditional Hawaiian beats and European military marches, and drew its melodies from Christian hymns and the cosmopolitan peoples of the islands (although principally American).
Popularization
In the early 20th century Hawaiians began touring the United States, often in small bands. A Broadway show called Bird of Paradise introduced Hawaiian music to many Americans in 1912 and the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco followed in 1915; one year later, recordings of indigenous Hawaiian music outsold all other U.S. musical genres.
The increasing popularization of Hawaiian music influenced blues and country musicians; this connection can still be heard in modern country. In reverse, musicians like Bennie Nawahi began incorporating jazz into his steel guitar, ukulele and mandolin music, while the Kalama Quartet introduced a style of group falsetto singing.
The musician Sol Hoʻopiʻi arose during this time, playing both Hawaiian music and jazz, Western swing and country, and developing the pedal steel guitar; his recordings helped establish the Nashville sound of popular country music. Lani McIntire was another musician who infused a Hawaiian guitar sound into mainstream American popular music through his recordings with Jimmie Rodgers and Bing Crosby.
In the 1920s and 30s, Hawaiian music became an integral part of local tourism, with most hotels and attractions incorporating music in one form or another. Among the earliest and most popular musical attractions was the Kodak Hula Show, sponsored by Kodak, in which a tourist purchased Kodak film and took photographs of dancers and musicians. The show ran from 1937 through 2002. Several vinyl LPs featuring music from the Kodak Hula Show were released by Waikiki Records, with full color photographs of the show's performers.
In the first half of the 20th century, the mostly young men who hung around the Honolulu beaches, swimming and surfing, came to be known as the Waikiki Beachboys and their parties became famous across Hawaii and abroad; most of them played the ukulele all day long, sitting on the beach and eventually began working for hotels to entertain tourists.
Popular Hawaiian music with English verse (hapa haole) can be described in a narrow sense. Generally, songs are sung to the ukulele or steel guitar. A steel string guitar sometimes accompanies. Melodies often feature an intervallic leap, such as a perfect fourth or octave. Falsetto vocals are suited for such leaps and are common in Hawaiian singing, as is the use of microtones. Rhythm is mostly in duple meter. A musical scale that is unique to Hawaiian music imbues it with its distinct feel, and so is aptly named the Hawaiian scale.
The Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco in 1915 introduced Hawaiian steel guitar to mainland country music artists, and by the 1930s country stars Hoot Gibson and Jimmy Davis were making records with Hawaiian musicians.
The influx of thousands of American servicemen into Hawaii during World War II created a demand for both popular swing rhythm and country sounds. The western swing style, popular on the mainland since the 1930s, employed the steel guitar as a key element and was therefore a natural evolution. Beginning in 1945, the Bell Record Company of Honolulu responded to the demand with a series of releases by the western swing band Fiddling Sam and his Hawaiian Buckaroos (led by fiddler Homer H. Spivey, and including Lloyd C. Moore, Tiny Barton, Al Hittle, Calvert Duke, Tolbert E. Stinnett and Raymond "Blackie" Barnes). Between 1945 and 1950 Bell released some 40 sides by the Hawaiian Buckaroos, including a set of square dance numbers.
Modern music
In recent decades, traditional Hawaiian music has undergone a renaissance, with renewed interest from both ethnic Hawaiians and others. The islands have also produced a number of well-regarded rock, pop, hip hop (na mele paleoleo), dubstep, soul and reggae performers, and many local musicians in the clubs of Waikiki and Honolulu play outside the various "Hawaiian" genres. Hawaii has its own regional music industry, with several distinctive styles of recorded popular music. Hawaiian popular music is largely based on American popular music, but does have distinctive retentions from traditional Hawaiian music.
Hawaiian Renaissance
The Hawaiian Renaissance was a resurgence in interest in Hawaiian music, especially slack-key, among ethnic Hawaiians. Long-standing performers like Gabby Pahinui found their careers revitalized; Pahinui, who had begun recording in 1947, finally reached mainstream audiences across the United States when sessions on which Ry Cooder played with him and his family were released as The Gabby Pahinui Hawaiian Band, Vol. 1 on a major mainland label. Pahinui inspired a legion of followers who played a mix of slack-key, reggae, country, rock and other styles. The more traditional players included Leland "Atta" Isaacs, Sr., Sonny Chillingworth, Ray Kane, Leonard Kwan, Ledward Ka`apana, Dennis Pavao, while Keola Beamer and Peter Moon have been more eclectic in their approach. The Emerson brothers rekindled the classic sound of Sol Ho'opi'i with the National steel guitar on their vintage 1920s stylings. George Kanahele's Hawaiian National Music Foundation did much to spread slack-key and other forms of Hawaiian music, especially after a major 1972 concert.
Don Ho (1930–2007), originally from the small Honolulu neighborhood of Kaka'ako, was the most widely known Hawaiian entertainer of the last decades of the 20th century. Although he did not play "traditional" Hawaiian music, Ho became an unofficial ambassador of Hawaiian culture throughout the world as well as on the American mainland. Ho's style often combined traditional Hawaiian elements and older 1950s and 1960s-style crooner music with an easy listening touch.
Loyal Garner also embraced Hawaiian elements in her Vegas-style lounge act and in the songs she recorded. A third notable performer, Myra English, became known as the "Champagne Lady" after recording the song "Drinking Champagne" by Bill Mack in 1963 became her signature song in Hawaii, and she achieved considerable commercial success both locally and abroad.
Jawaiian
Jawaiian is a Hawaiian style of reggae music. Reggae music is a genre that evolved in the late 1960s and earlier in Jamaica. It has become popular across the world, especially among ethnic groups and races that have been historically oppressed, such as Native Americans, Pacific Islanders, and Australian Aborigines. In Hawaii, ethnic Hawaiians and others in the state began playing a mixture of reggae and local music in the early 1980s, although it was not until the late 1980s that it became recognized as a new genre in local music. The band Simplisity has been credited by Quiet Storm Records as originators of the Jawaiian style. By the end of the 1980s, Jawaiian came to dominate the local music scene, as well as spawning a backlash that the Honolulu Star-Bulletin compared to the "disco sucks" movement of the late 1970s.
Reggae culture as a whole began to dominate Hawaii, as many locals can be seen sporting Bob Marley memorabilia, and much local merchandise and souvenirs have been emblazoned with the red, yellow, and green colors of the Hawaiian sovereignty as well as the Lion of Judah flag, a known symbol of the Rastafari movement. The Rasta colors have also become a symbol of local pride.
Rock and roll
Rock and roll music has long been popular in Hawaii - numerous rock and roll artists spent their developmental years in Hawaii (i.e. members of The Association, The Electric Prunes, 7th Order, Vicious Rumors, as well as guitarists Marty Friedman and Charlie "Icarus" Johnson), and its local popularity dates back to the earliest days of rock music. Elvis Presley's career included several Hawaii-related performances and records: a March 1961 live performance to raise money for the construction of the USS Arizona Memorial at the Pearl Harbor Bloch Arena in March 1961, his Aloha from Hawaii Via Satellite "comeback" record and concert in 1973, and three of his movies were based in Hawaii (Blue Hawaii, Girls! Girls! Girls!, and Paradise, Hawaiian Style).
Through the 1960s and 1970s, rock concerts were frequently held at venues like the Honolulu International Center and The Waikiki Shell by artists like Jimi Hendrix, Led Zeppelin, The Rolling Stones, The Doors, Eric Clapton, Deep Purple, Jeff Beck and many other top rock artists.
The three-day-long Crater Festivals (held over the New Years and July 4 holidays) at Diamond Head in the 1960s and 1970s were well attended through the era, and frequently featured popular bands like Fleetwood Mac, Journey and Santana (Carlos Santana and Buddy Miles actually released their 1972 Crater Festival performance on the LP Carlos Santana & Buddy Miles! Live!).
Jazz
Musicians
Some notable current and retired jazz musicians in Hawaii include Gabe Baltazar (saxophone), Martin Denny (piano), Arthur Lyman (vibraphone and marimba), Henry Allen (guitar), vonBaron (drums), David Choy (saxophone), Rich Crandall (piano), Dan Del Negro (keyboards), Pierre Grill (piano/keyboards/trombone), Bruce Hamada (bass), DeShannon Higa (trumpet), Jim Howard (piano), Steve Jones (bass), John Kolivas (bass), Noel Okimoto (drums/percussion/vibes), Michael Paulo (reeds), Rene Paulo (acoustic grand piano) was a forerunner of recording Hawaiian music in the jazz venue in the early 1960s and is one of Hawaii's legendary music greats, Robert Shinoda (guitar), Arex Ikehara (bass), Phil Bennett (drums), Aron Nelson (piano), Tennyson Stephens (piano), Dean Taba (bass), Betty Loo Taylor (piano), Tim Tsukiyama (saxophone), Reggie Padilla (saxophone) and Abe Lagrimas Jr. (drums/ukulele/vibes).
Notable jazz vocalists in Hawaii, both current and retired include Jimmy Borges, Rachel Gonzales, Azure McCall, Dana Land, Joy Woode and I. Mihana Souza. Although Hawaiian vocalist Melveen Leed is known primarily for singing Hawaiian and "Hawaiian country" music, she has also earned good reviews as a jazz singer.
There are frequent performances by the University of Hawaii jazz bands.
Ukulele
The ukulele was introduced to Hawaii by Madeiran immigrants near the close of the 19th century. The Portuguese brought a small guitar-like instrument, known as the machete. The instrument became a very popular one in Hawaiian culture, and a majority of Hawaiian songs involve the ukulele. In Hawaiian, ukulele literally means "flea (uku) jumping (lele)." It was named as such because when plucked, the high pitch of the strings brings to mind the image of a jumping flea. There are currently four sizes of ukulele; soprano, concert, tenor and baritone.
Queen Liliuokalani, the last Hawaiian Queen, believed that the name for the ukulele means "The gift that came here". She believed this because of the Hawaiian words "uku" which means "gift or reward" and "lele" which means "to come."
The ukulele can be played with simple or elaborate strums, as well as fingerpicking.
Koa wood is one of the higher quality woods which creates a deep and also clear sound for the ukulele. This makes Koa ukuleles very distinguishable by sound. Because of this, koa wood is known as a revered wood to create an ukulele. Not only are koa ukuleles distinguishable by sound, but also by looks. They have a very unique grain pattern and color that allows them to stand out more than the average wood.
‘Ūkēkē
The Ukeke is a Hawaiian musical bow played with the mouth. It is the only stringed instrument indigenous to Hawaii.
'Ohe hano ihu
The 'ohe hano ihu, (Hawaiian: `ohe = bamboo +hano = breath + ihu = nose) or Traditional Hawaiian Nose Flute in English, is another type of Hawaiian instrument that has cultural and musical importance. It is made from a single bamboo section. According to Arts and Crafts of Hawai`i by Te Rangi Hiroa, old flutes in the Bishop Museum collection have a hole at the node area for the breath, and two or three fingering holes. In the three-finger-hole specimen, one fingering hole is placed near the breath hole. Lengths range from 10 to 21 inches (250–530 mm). Oral tradition in various families states that numbers of fingering holes ranged from one to four, and location of the holes varied depending on the musical taste of the player.
Though primarily a courting instrument played privately and for personal enjoyment, it also could be used in conjunction with chants, song, and hula. Kumu hula (dance masters), were said to be able to either make the flute sound as though it were chanting, or to chant as they played. Kumu hula Leilehua Yuen is one of the few contemporary Hawaiian musicians to perform with the nose flute in this manner.
Into the 19th and early 20th centuries, young men still used the 'ohe hano ihu as a way to win the affection and love of a woman. Today, the `ohe hano ihu is enjoying a resurgence of popularity.
Two different oral traditions explain the use of the nose for playing the `ohe hano ihu. According to one, the `ohe hano ihu is played with air from the nose rather than from the mouth because a person's hā, breath, is expressive of the person's inner being. As the hā travels from the na`ao, or gut, through the mouth, the hā can be used to lie. When the hā travels through the nose, it cannot lie. Therefore, if a young man loves a woman, that love will be expressed in the music he plays with his `ohe hano ihu. According to the other tradition, the instrument is played with the nose to enable the player to softly sing or chant while playing.
Modern folklore says that the Hawaiian flute expresses "aloha" because to hear the flute one must come close to the alo, "face" or "presence" of the player to hear the hā, "divine breath" and so the listener experiences "being in one another's presence sharing the divine breath." While useful as a way to remember the contemplative and personal nature of the traditional Hawaiian flute, there is no actual etymological evidence, nor is there evidence in traditional chants or stories, to support this etymology. In the Hawaiian language, hā, breath, is unrelated to the word ha, a causative prefix. a search of cognate words in related languages also reveals no such etymologies for the word "aloha".
According to the book `Ohe, by Leilehua Yuen, the instrument was popularized in the 1970s by members of the Beamer family who played it during performances on tour in North America, as well as in the Hawaiian Islands. Segments of the children's educational TV show, Sesame Street, showing Keola Beamer and Mr. Snuffalupagus, one of the large puppet characters, playing `ohe hano ihu brought the instrument to national attention. Winona Beamer, Keola Beamer's mother, a noted kumu hula, also taught the use of the `ohe hano ihu in hula. Her hānai daughter, Maile Beamer Loo, continues to preserve and teach that legacy, and document such important aspects of Hawaiian musical and performing heritage through the Hula Preservation Society.
Notable late 20th Century and early 21st Century musicians of the`ohe hano ihu include Mahi Beamer, Nona Beamer, Keola Beamer, Kapono Beamer, Calvin Hoe, Nelson Kaai, Anthony Natividad, and Manu Josiah.
Other
Bruno Mars from Honolulu has 8 #1 Billboard Hot 100 hits, including "Uptown Funk" in 2015.
Glenn Medeiros had a #1 Hot 100 hit in 1990 with "She Ain't Worth It" ft. Bobby Brown.
Bette Midler, also from Honolulu, had a #1 Hot 100 hit with "Wind Beneath My Wings" in 1989.
Tane Cain, who was raised in Hawaii, had a #37 Hot 100 hit with "Holdin' On" in 1982.
Yvonne Elliman, from Honolulu, had a #1 Hot 100 hit with the disco song "If I Can't Have You" from Saturday Night Fever in 1978.
See also
Cachi Cachi music
Hawaii Calls
Hawaiian Music Hall of Fame
Kanikapila
Na Hoku Hanohano Awards
Notes
References
Indie blog, 2008: "Country music musicians were drawn to Hawaiian music when they first heard the Hawaiian steel guitar at the San Francisco Pan Pacific Exposition in 1915. Soon, artists such as Hoot Gibson and Jimmie Davis were recording with Hawaiians. Hawaii’s love affair with country music dates back to World War II, the result of the influx of great numbers of military personnel from the mainland USA. Local record labels scrambled to release “hillbilly music” to satisfy the new interest. Bell Records released recordings in 1945 by Fiddling Sam & his Hawaiian Buckaroos.
Rockwell, T. Malcolm, Hawaiian & Hawaiian Guitar Records 1891 - 1960 (Mahina Piha Press © 2007) - ref. 78data.com
External links
Hawaii Academy of Recording Arts (HARA) home of the Na Hoku Awards.
Live Ukulele: A collection of contemporary and traditional hawaiian songs and tabs.
Hapa Haole Songs, Island songs written in English
Territorial Airwaves - Your Source For The History of Hawaiian Music
Hawaii Music Awards The "People's Choice" awards.
Hawaiian Music Hall of Fame
Huapala, Hawaiian Music and Hula Archives
Taro Patch, An internet and international Slack Key community
University of Hawaii Ethnomusicology Ensembles
http://www.midweek.com/for-the-love-of-nose-flutes/
Hawaii
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244167
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communal%20reinforcement
|
Communal reinforcement
|
Communal reinforcement is a social phenomenon in which a concept or idea is repeatedly asserted in a community, regardless of whether sufficient empirical evidence has been presented to support it. Over time, the concept or idea is reinforced to become a strong belief in many people's minds, and may be regarded by the members of the community as fact. Often, the concept or idea may be further reinforced by publications in the mass media, books, or other means of communication. The phrase "millions of people can't all be wrong" is indicative of the common tendency to accept a communally reinforced idea without question, which often aids in the widespread acceptance of factoids. A very similar term to this term is community-reinforcement, which is a behavioral method to stop drug addiction.
In addiction treatment
The community-reinforcement approach (CRA) is a behaviourist alcoholism treatment approach that aims to achieve abstinence by eliminating positive reinforcement for drinking and enhancing positive reinforcement for sobriety. CRA integrates several treatment components, including building the client's motivation to quit drinking, helping the client initiate sobriety, analyzing the client's drinking pattern, increasing positive reinforcement, learning new coping behaviors, and involving significant others in the recovery process. These components can be adjusted to the individual client's needs to achieve optimal treatment outcome. In addition, treatment outcome can be influenced by factors such as therapist style and initial treatment intensity. Several studies have provided evidence for CRA's effectiveness in achieving abstinence. Furthermore, CRA has been successfully integrated with a variety of other treatment approaches, such as family therapy and motivational interviewing, and has been tested in the treatment of other drug abuse. Community reinforcement and family training (CRAFT) is an adaptation of CRA that is aimed at giving the Concerned Significant Others (CSOs) of alcoholics skills to help them get the alcoholic into treatment.
In other applications
In Chris E. Stout's book The Psychology of Terrorism: Theoretical Understandings and Perspective, Stout explains how community reinforcement is present in the psychotic state of terrorists. "The individual would feel less charged, validated, courageous, sanctified, and zealous, and would feel exposed as an individual." It is believed that the group mentality of a terrorist organization solidifies the mission of the group through communal reinforcement. Members are more likely to stay dedicated and follow through with the event of terror if they receive support from fellow terrorist members. An individual might abandon the mission in terror, but with the reinforcement of his peers, a member is more likely to stay involved.
See also
References
Belief
Community
Conformity
Group processes
Social phenomena
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973%20oil%20crisis
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1973 oil crisis
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The 1973 oil crisis or first oil crisis began in October 1973 when the members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries led by Saudi Arabia proclaimed an oil embargo. The embargo was targeted at nations that had supported Israel during the Yom Kippur War. The initial nations targeted were Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States with the embargo also later extended to Portugal, Rhodesia and South Africa.
By the end of the embargo in March 1974, the price of oil had risen nearly 300%, from US to nearly globally; US prices were significantly higher. The embargo caused an oil crisis, or "shock", with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy. It was later called the "first oil shock", followed by the 1979 oil crisis, termed the "second oil shock".
Background
American production decline
By 1969, American domestic output of oil was peaking and could not keep pace with increasing demand from vehicles. The U.S. was importing per year by the late 1950s, mostly from Venezuela and Canada. Because of transportation costs and tariffs, it never purchased much oil from the Middle East. In 1973, US production had declined to 16% of global output. Eisenhower imposed quotas on foreign oil that would stay in place between 1959 and 1973. Critics called it the "drain America first" policy. Some scholars believe the policy contributed to the decline of domestic US oil production in the early 1970s.
When Richard Nixon became president in 1969, he assigned George Shultz to head a committee to review the Eisenhower-era quota program. Shultz's committee recommended that the quotas be abolished and replaced with tariffs but Nixon decided to keep the quotas due to vigorous political opposition. Nixon imposed a price ceiling on oil in 1971 as demand for oil was increasing and production was declining, which increased dependence on foreign oil imports as consumption was bolstered by low prices. In 1973, Nixon announced the end of the quota system. Between 1970 and 1973 US imports of crude oil had nearly doubled, reaching 6.2 million barrels per day in 1973. Until 1973, an abundance of oil supply had kept the market price of oil lower than the posted price.
OPEC
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), was founded by five oil producing countries at a Baghdad conference on September 14, 1960. The five founding members of OPEC were Venezuela, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Kuwait. OPEC was organized after the oil companies slashed the posted price of oil, but the posted price of oil remained consistently higher than the market price of oil between 1961 and 1972.
In 1963, the Seven Sisters controlled 86% of the oil produced by OPEC countries, but by 1970 the rise of "independent oil companies" had decreased their share to 77%. The entry of three new oil producers—Algeria, Libya and Nigeria—meant that by 1970, 81 oil companies were doing business in the Middle East.
In the early 1960s Libya, Indonesia and Qatar joined OPEC. OPEC was generally regarded as ineffective until political turbulence in Libya and Iraq strengthened their position in 1970. Additionally, increasing Soviet influence provided oil producing countries with alternative means of transporting oil to markets.
Under the Tehran Price Agreement of 1971, the posted price of oil was increased and, due to a decline in the value of the US dollar relative to gold, certain anti-inflationary measures were enacted.
In September 1973, President Nixon said, "Oil without a market, as Mr. Mossadegh learned many, many years ago, does not do a country much good", referring to the 1951 nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, but between October 1973 and February 1974 the OPEC countries raised by posted price fourfold to nearly $12.
Because oil was priced in dollars, oil producers' real income decreased when the dollar started to float free of the old link to gold. In September 1971, OPEC issued a joint communiqué stating that from then on, they would price oil in terms of a fixed amount of gold.
This contributed to the "oil shock". After 1971, OPEC was slow to readjust prices to reflect this depreciation. From 1947 to 1967, the dollar price of oil had risen by less than two percent per year. Until the oil shock, the price had also remained fairly stable versus other currencies and commodities. OPEC ministers had not developed institutional mechanisms to update prices in sync with changing market conditions, so their real incomes lagged. The substantial price increases of 1973–1974 largely returned their prices and corresponding incomes to Bretton Woods levels in terms of commodities such as gold.
The "oil weapon"
Arab oil producing countries had attempted to use oil as leverage to influence political events on two prior occasions—the first was the Suez Crisis in 1956 when the United Kingdom, France and Israel invaded Egypt. During the conflict the Syrians sabotaged both the Trans-Arabian Pipeline and the Iraq–Baniyas pipeline, which disrupted the supply of oil to Western Europe. The second instance was when war broke out between Egypt and Israel in 1967, but despite continued Egyptian and Syrian enmity against Israel, the embargo lasted only a few months. Most scholars agree that the 1967 embargo was ineffective.
Although some members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) supported the use of oil as a weapon to influence the political outcome of the Arab–Israeli conflict, Saudi Arabia had traditionally been the strongest supporter of separating oil from politics. The Saudis were wary of the tactic due to the availability of oil from non-Arab oil producing countries, and in the decades leading up to the crisis, the region's conservative monarchies had grown dependent on Western support to ensure their continued survival as Nasserism gained traction. On the other hand, Algeria, Iraq and Libya had strongly supported the use of oil as a weapon in the conflict. Arab newspapers like the Egyptian Al-Ahram, Lebanese An-Nahar and Iraqi Al-Thawra had historically been supportive of the use of oil as a weapon.
In 1971, the US had information that the Arab states were willing to implement another embargo.
On October 6, 1973, Egypt attacked the Bar Lev Line in the Sinai Peninsula and Syria launched an offensive in the Golan Heights, both of which had been occupied by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War. On October 12, 1973, US president Richard Nixon authorized Operation Nickel Grass, a strategic airlift to deliver weapons and supplies to Israel in order to replace its materiel losses, after the Soviet Union began sending arms to Syria and Egypt. The following day, on October 17, Arab oil producers cut production by 5% and instituted an oil embargo against Israel's allies: the United States, the Netherlands, Rhodesia, South Africa, and Portugal. Saudi Arabia only consented to the embargo after Nixon's promise of $2.2 billion in military aid to Israel. The embargo was accompanied by gradual monthly production cuts—by December, production had been cut to 25% of September levels. This contributed to a global recession and increased tension between the United States and several of its European allies, who faulted the US for provoking an embargo by providing what many viewed as unconditional assistance to Israel. OAPEC demanded a complete Israeli withdrawal from all territories beyond the 1949 Armistice border.
Effectiveness of embargo
The embargo lasted from October 1973 to March 1974. Since Israeli forces did not withdraw to the 1949 Armistice Line, the majority of scholars believe that the embargo was a failure. Roy Licklieder, in his 1988 book Political Power and the Arab Oil Weapon, concluded that the embargo was a failure because the countries that were targeted by the embargo did not change their policies on the Arab–Israeli conflict. Licklieder believed that any long term changes were caused by the OPEC increase in the posted price of oil, and not the OAPEC embargo. Daniel Yergin, on the other hand, has said that the embargo "remade the international economy".
Over the long term, the oil embargo changed the nature of policy in the West towards increased exploration, alternative energy research, energy conservation and more restrictive monetary policy to better fight inflation.
Chronology
For further details see the "Energy crisis" series by Facts on File.
January 1973—The 1973–74 stock market crash commences as a result of inflation pressure and the collapsing monetary system.
August 23, 1973—In preparation for the Yom Kippur War, Saudi King Faisal and Egyptian president Anwar Sadat meet in Riyadh and secretly negotiate an accord whereby the Arabs will use the "oil weapon" as part of the military conflict.
October 6—Egypt and Syria attack Israeli positions on Yom Kippur, starting the 1973 Arab–Israeli War.
Night of October 8—Israel goes on full nuclear alert. Kissinger is notified on the morning of October 9. United States begins to resupply Israel.
October 8–10—OPEC negotiations with major oil companies to revise the 1971 Tehran price agreement fail.
October 12—The United States initiates Operation Nickel Grass, a strategic airlift to provide replacement weapons and supplies to Israel. This followed similar Soviet moves to supply the Arab side.
October 16—Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Abu Dhabi, Kuwait and Qatar raise posted prices by 17% to $3.65 per barrel and announce production cuts.
October 17—OAPEC oil ministers agree to use oil to influence the West's support of Israel. They recommended an embargo against non-complying states and mandated export cuts.
October 19—Nixon requests Congress to appropriate $2.2 billion in emergency aid to Israel, which triggers a collective Arab response. Libya immediately proclaims an embargo on oil exports to the US. Saudi Arabia and other Arab oil-producing states follow the next day.
October 26—The Yom Kippur War ends.
November 5—Arab producers announce a 25% output cut. A further 5% cut is threatened.
November 23—The Arab embargo is extended to Portugal, Rhodesia and South Africa.
November 27—Nixon signs the Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act authorizing price, production, allocation and marketing controls.
December 9—Arab oil ministers agree to another five percent production cut for non-friendly countries in January 1974.
December 25—Arab oil ministers cancel the January output cut. Saudi oil minister Ahmed Zaki Yamani promises a ten percent OPEC production rise.
January 7–9, 1974—OPEC decides to freeze prices until April 1.
January 18—Israel signs a withdrawal agreement to pull back to the east side of the Suez Canal.
February 11—Kissinger unveils the Project Independence plan for US energy independence.
February 12–14—Progress in Arab-Israeli disengagement triggers discussion of oil strategy among the heads of state of Algeria, Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia.
March 5—Israel withdraws the last of its troops from the west side of the Suez Canal.
March 17—Arab oil ministers, with the exception of Libya, announce the end of the US embargo.
May 31—Diplomacy by Kissinger produces a disengagement agreement on the Syrian front.
December 1974—The U.S. stock market recovers.
Effects
The effects of the embargo were immediate. OPEC forced oil companies to increase payments drastically. The price of oil quadrupled by 1974 from US$3 to nearly US$12 per 42 gallon barrel ($75 per cubic meter), equivalent in 2018 dollars to a price rise from $ to $ per barrel.
The crisis eased when the embargo was lifted in March 1974 after negotiations at the Washington Oil Summit, but the effects lingered throughout the 1970s. The dollar price of energy increased again the following year, amid the weakening competitive position of the dollar in world markets.
Impact on oil exporting nations
This price increase had a dramatic effect on oil exporting nations, for the countries of the Middle East who had long been dominated by the industrial powers were seen to have taken control of a vital commodity. The oil-exporting nations began to accumulate vast wealth.
Some of the income was dispensed in the form of aid to other underdeveloped nations whose economies had been caught between higher oil prices and lower prices for their own export commodities, amid shrinking Western demand. Much went for arms purchases that exacerbated political tensions, particularly in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia spent over 100 billion dollars in the ensuing decades for helping spread its fundamentalist interpretation of Islam, known as Wahhabism, throughout the world, via religious charities such as the al-Haramain Foundation, which often also distributed funds to violent Sunni extremist groups such as Al-Qaeda and the Taliban.
OPEC-member states raised the prospect of nationalization of oil company holdings. Most notably, Saudi Arabia nationalized Aramco in 1980 under the leadership of Saudi oil minister Ahmed Zaki Yamani. As other OPEC nations followed suit, the cartel's income soared. Saudi Arabia undertook a series of ambitious five-year development plans. The biggest began in 1980, funded at $250 billion. Other cartel members also undertook major economic development programs.
Oil weapon
Control of oil became known as the "oil weapon". It came in the form of an embargo and production cutbacks from the Arab states. The weapon was aimed at the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Japan and the Netherlands. These target governments perceived that the intent was to push them towards a more pro-Arab position. Production was eventually cut by 25%. However, the affected countries did not undertake dramatic policy changes.
The risk that the Middle East could become another superpower confrontation with the USSR was of more concern to Washington than oil. Further, interest groups and government agencies more worried about energy were no match for Kissinger's dominance.
Impact on United States
In the US production, distribution and price disruptions "have been held responsible for recessions, periods of excessive inflation, reduced productivity, and lower economic growth." Some researchers regard the 1973 "oil price shock" and the accompanying 1973–74 stock market crash as the first discrete event since the Great Depression to have a persistent effect on the US economy.
The embargo had a negative influence on the US economy by causing immediate demands to address the threats to U.S. energy security. On an international level, the price increases changed competitive positions in many industries, such as automobiles. Macroeconomic problems consisted of both inflationary and deflationary impacts. The embargo left oil companies searching for new ways to increase oil supplies, even in rugged terrain such as the Arctic. Finding oil and developing new fields usually required five to 10 years before significant production.
The average US retail price of a gallon of regular gasoline rose 43% from 38.5¢ in May 1973 to 55.1¢ in June 1974. State governments asked citizens not to put up Christmas lights. Oregon banned Christmas and commercial lighting altogether. Politicians called for a national gasoline rationing program. Nixon asked gasoline retailers to voluntarily not sell gasoline on Saturday nights or Sundays; 90% of gas station owners complied, which produced long lines of motorists wanting to fill up their cars while they still could.
Impact on Western Europe
The embargo was not uniform across Western Europe. The UK, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Norway banned flying, driving and boating on Sundays. Sweden rationed gasoline and heating oil. The Netherlands imposed prison sentences for those who used more than their ration of electricity.
Of the nine members of the European Economic Community (EEC), the Netherlands faced a complete embargo. By contrast Britain and France received almost uninterrupted supplies. That was their reward for refusing to allow the US to use their airfields and stopping arms and supplies to both the Arabs and the Israelis. The other six EEC nations faced partial cutbacks. The UK had traditionally been an ally of Israel, and Harold Wilson's government supported the Israelis during the Six-Day War. His successor, Ted Heath, reversed this policy in 1970, calling for Israel to withdraw to its pre-1967 borders.
The EEC was unable to achieve a common policy during the first month of the embargo. It issued a statement on November 6, after the embargo and price rises had begun. It was widely viewed as pro-Arab, supporting the Franco-British line on the war. OPEC duly lifted its embargo from all EEC members. The price rises had a much greater impact in Europe than the embargo.
Impact on United Kingdom
Despite being little affected by the embargo, the UK nonetheless faced an energy crisis of its own—a series of strikes by coal miners and railroad workers over the winter of 1973–74 became a major factor in the defeat of the Labour government. The new Conservative government told the British to heat only one room in their houses over the winter.
Impact on Japan
Japan was hard hit since it imported 90% of its oil from the Middle East. It had a stockpile good for 55 days, and another 20-day supply was en route. Facing its most serious crisis since 1945 the government ordered a 10% cut in the consumption of industrial oil and electricity. In December it ordered an immediate 20% cut in oil use and electric power to Japan's major industries, and cutbacks in leisure automobile usage. Economist predicted the growth rate would plunge from 5% annually down to zero or even negative territory. Inflation hit 9%. Seeking to take advantage of the crisis, Japanese business called on the government to relax its controls on air pollution and water pollution. The government refused. Moscow tried to take advantage by promising energy assistance if Japan returned the Kurile islands. Tokyo refused. Instead it made $3.3 billion of dollars in loans to the Arab states and called on Israel to step back. Japan's defensive strategy was explained to Kissinger when he met with top leaders in Tokyo in November 1973. In the long run Japan never wavered in its determination to maintain very strong close ties to the United States, while in self-defense briefly providing the Arab powers with the rhetoric they demanded in return for resuming oil shipments in early 1974.
To assure future oil flows, Japan added suppliers outside of the Middle East; invested in nuclear power; imposed conservation measures; and provided funding for Arab governments and the Palestinians. The crisis was a major factor in the long-run shift of Japan's economy away from oil-intensive industries. Investment shifted to electronics. Japanese auto makers also benefited from the crisis. The jump in gasoline prices helped their small, fuel-efficient models to gain market share from the "gas-guzzling" Detroit competition. This triggered a drop in American sales of American brands that lasted into the 1980s.
Price controls and rationing
United States
Price controls exacerbated the crisis in the US. The system limited the price of "old oil" (that which had already been discovered) while allowing newly discovered oil to be sold at a higher price to encourage investment. Predictably, old oil was withdrawn from the market, creating greater scarcity. The rule also discouraged development of alternative energies. The rule had been intended to promote oil exploration. Scarcity was addressed by rationing (as in many countries). Motorists faced long lines at gas stations beginning in summer 1972 and increasing by summer 1973.
In 1973, Nixon named William E. Simon as the first Administrator of the Federal Energy Office, a short-term organization created to coordinate the response to the embargo. Simon allocated states the same amount of domestic oil for 1974 that each had consumed in 1972, which worked for states whose populations were not increasing. In other states, lines at gasoline stations were common. The American Automobile Association reported that in the last week of February 1974, 20% of American gasoline stations had no fuel.
Odd–even rationing allowed vehicles with license plates having an odd number as the last digit (or a vanity license plate) to buy gas only on odd-numbered days of the month, while others could buy only on even-numbered days.
In some states, a three-color flag system was used to denote gasoline availability at service stations—green for unrationed availability, yellow for restricted/rationed sales and red for out of stock.
Rationing led to violent incidents, when truck drivers chose to strike for two days in December 1973 over the limited supplies that Simon had allocated for their industry. In Pennsylvania and Ohio, non-striking truckers were shot at by striking truckers, and in Arkansas, trucks of non-strikers were attacked with bombs.
America had controlled the price of natural gas since the 1950s. With the inflation of the 1970s, the price was too low to encourage the search for new reserves. America's natural gas reserves dwindled from 237 trillion in 1974 to 203 trillion in 1978. The price controls were not changed, despite president Gerald Ford's repeated requests to Congress.
Conservation and reduction in demand
United States
To help reduce consumption, in 1974 a national maximum speed limit of 55 mph (89 km/h) was imposed through the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act. Development of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve began in 1975, and in 1977 the cabinet-level Department of Energy was created, followed by the National Energy Act of 1978. On November 28, 1995, President Bill Clinton signed the National Highway Designation Act, ending the federal 55 mph speed limit which allowed states to restore their prior maximum speed limit. Year-round daylight saving time was implemented from January 6, 1974, to October 27, 1975, with a break between October 27, 1974, and February 23, 1975, when the country observed standard time. Parents complained loudly that it forced many children to travel to school before sunrise. The prior rules were restored in 1976.
The crisis prompted a call to conserve energy, most notably a campaign by the Advertising Council using the tagline "Don't Be Fuelish". Many newspapers carried advertisements featuring cut-outs that could be attached to light switches, reading "Last Out, Lights Out: Don't Be Fuelish".
Although not regulated by the new legislation, auto racing groups voluntarily began conserving. In 1974, NASCAR reduced all race distances by 10%; the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 12 Hours of Sebring race were cancelled.
In 1975, the Energy Policy and Conservation Act was passed, leading to the creation of the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards that required improved fuel economy for cars and light trucks.
In 1976, Congress created the Weatherization Assistance Program to help low-income homeowners and renters reduce their demand for heating and cooling through better insulation.
By 1980, domestic luxury cars with a wheelbase and gross weights averaging 4,500 pounds (2,041 kg) were no longer made. The automakers had begun phasing out the traditional front engine/rear wheel drive layout in compact cars in favor of lighter front engine/front wheel drive designs. A higher percentage of cars offered more efficient four-cylinder engines. Domestic auto makers also began offering more fuel efficient diesel powered passenger cars as well.
Alternative energy sources
The energy crisis led to greater interest in renewable energy, nuclear power and domestic fossil fuels. According to Peter Grossman, American energy policies since the crisis have been dominated by crisis-mentality thinking, promoting expensive quick fixes and single-shot solutions that ignore market and technology realities. He wrote that instead of providing stable rules that support basic research while leaving plenty of scope for entrepreneurship and innovation, Congresses and presidents have repeatedly backed policies which promise solutions that are politically expedient, but whose prospects are doubtful.
The Brazilian government implemented its "Proálcool" (pro-alcohol) project in 1975 that mixed ethanol with gasoline for automotive fuel.
Israel was one of the few countries unaffected by the embargo, since it could extract sufficient oil from the Sinai. But to supplement Israel's over-taxed power grid, Harry Zvi Tabor, the father of Israel's solar industry, developed the prototype for a solar water heater now used in over 90% of Israeli homes.
Macroeconomy
Western central banks decided to sharply cut interest rates to encourage growth, deciding that inflation was a secondary concern. Although this was the orthodox macroeconomic prescription at the time, the resulting stagflation surprised economists and central bankers. The policy is now considered by some to have deepened and lengthened the adverse effects of the embargo. Recent research claims that in the period after 1985 the economy became more resilient to energy price increases.
The price shock created large current account deficits in oil-importing economies. A petrodollar recycling mechanism was created, through which OPEC surplus funds were channeled through the capital markets to the West to finance the current account deficits. The functioning of this mechanism required the relaxation of capital controls in oil-importing economies. It marked the beginning of an exponential growth of Western capital markets.
In the United States in 1974, seven of the 15 top Fortune 500 companies were oil companies, falling to four in 2014.
International relations
The crisis had a major impact on international relations and created a rift within NATO. Some European nations and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from United States foreign policy in the Middle East to avoid being targeted by the boycott. Arab oil producers linked any future policy changes to peace between the belligerents. To address this, the Nixon Administration began multilateral negotiations with the combatants. They arranged for Israel to pull back from the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. By January 18, 1974, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had negotiated an Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai Peninsula. The promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was enough to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974. and again during the 1979 energy crisis.
United States
America's Cold War policies suffered a major blow from the embargo. They had focused on China and the Soviet Union, but the latent challenge to US hegemony coming from the Third World became evident.
In 2004, declassified documents revealed that the US was so distraught by the rise in oil prices and being challenged by under-developed countries that they briefly considered military action to forcibly seize Middle Eastern oilfields in late 1973. Although no explicit plan was mentioned, a conversation between U.S. Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger and British Ambassador to the United States Lord Cromer revealed Schlesinger had told him that "it was no longer obvious to him that the U.S. could not use force." British Prime Minister Edward Heath was so worried by this prospect that he ordered a British intelligence estimate of US intentions, which concluded that America "might consider it could not tolerate a situation in which the U.S. and its allies were at the mercy of a small group of unreasonable countries", and that they would prefer a rapid operation to seize oilfields in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, and possibly Abu Dhabi if military action was decided upon. Although the Soviet response to such an act would likely not involve force, intelligence warned "the American occupation would need to last 10 years as the West developed alternative energy sources, and would result in the 'total alienation' of the Arabs and much of the rest of the Third World."
NATO
Western Europe began switching from pro-Israel to more pro-Arab policies. This change strained the Western alliance. The US, which imported only 12% of its oil from the Middle East (compared with 80% for the Europeans and over 90% for Japan), remained staunchly committed to Israel. The percentage of US oil which comes from the nations bordering the Persian Gulf remained steady over the decades, with a figure of a little more than 10% in 2008.
With the embargo in place, many developed countries altered their policies regarding the Arab-Israeli conflict. These included the UK, which refused to allow the United States to use British bases and Cyprus to airlift resupplies to Israel, along with the rest of the members of the European Community.
Canada shifted towards a more pro-Arab position after displeasure was expressed towards Canada's mostly neutral position. "On the other hand, after the embargo the Canadian government moved quickly indeed toward the Arab position, despite its low dependence on Middle Eastern oil".
Japan
Although lacking historical connections to the Middle East, Japan was the country most dependent on Arab oil. 71% of its imported oil came from the Middle East in 1970. On November 7, 1973, the Saudi and Kuwaiti governments declared Japan a "nonfriendly" country to encourage it to change its noninvolvement policy. It received a 5% production cut in December, causing a panic. On November 22, Japan issued a statement "asserting that Israel should withdraw from all of the 1967 territories, advocating Palestinian self-determination, and threatening to reconsider its policy toward Israel if Israel refused to accept these preconditions". By December 25, Japan was considered an Arab-friendly state.
Nonaligned nations
The oil embargo was announced roughly one month after a right-wing military coup in Chile led by General Augusto Pinochet toppled socialist president Salvador Allende on September 11, 1973. The response of the Nixon administration was to propose doubling arms sales. As a consequence, an opposing Latin American bloc was organized and financed in part by Venezuelan oil revenues, which quadrupled between 1970 and 1975.
A year after the start of the embargo, the UN's nonaligned bloc passed a resolution demanding the creation of a "New International Economic Order" under which nations within the global South would receive a greater share of benefits derived from the exploitation of southern resources and greater control over their self-development.
Arab states
Prior to the embargo, the geo-political competition between the Soviet Union and the United States, in combination with low oil prices that hindered the necessity and feasibility of alternative energy sources, presented the Arab States with financial security, moderate economic growth, and disproportionate international bargaining power.
The oil shock disrupted the status quo relationships between Arab countries and the US and USSR. At the time, Egypt, Syria and Iraq were allied with the USSR, while Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Iran (plus Israel) aligned with the US. Vacillations in alignment often resulted in greater support from the respective superpowers.
When Anwar Sadat became president of Egypt in 1970, he dismissed Soviet specialists in Egypt and reoriented towards the US. Concerns over economic domination from increased Soviet oil production turned into fears of military aggression after the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, turning the Persian Gulf states towards the US for security guarantees against Soviet military action.
The USSR's invasion of Afghanistan was only one sign of insecurity in the region, also marked by increased American weapons sales, technology, and outright military presence. Saudi Arabia and Iran became increasingly dependent on American security assurances to manage both external and internal threats, including increased military competition between them over increased oil revenues. Both states were competing for preeminence in the Persian Gulf and using increased revenues to fund expanded militaries. By 1979, Saudi arms purchases from the US exceeded five times Israel's.
In the wake of the 1979 Iranian Revolution the Saudis were forced to deal with the prospect of internal destabilization via the radicalism of Islamism, a reality which would quickly be revealed in the Grand Mosque seizure in Mecca by Wahhabi extremists during November 1979, and a Shiite Muslim revolt in the oil rich Al-Hasa region of Saudi Arabia in December of the same year, which was known as the 1979 Qatif Uprising. Saudi Arabia is a near-absolute monarchy, an Arabic speaking country, and has a Sunni Muslim majority, while Persian speaking Iran since 1979 is an Islamist theocracy with a Shiite Muslim majority, which explains the current hostility between Saudi Arabia and Iran.
Automobile industry
The oil crisis sent a signal to the auto industry globally, which changed many aspects of production and usage for decades to come.
Western Europe
After World War II, most West European countries taxed motor fuel to limit imports, and as a result most cars made in Europe were smaller and more economical than their American counterparts. By the late 1960s, increasing incomes supported rising car sizes.
The oil crisis pushed West European car buyers away from larger, less economical cars. The most notable result of this transition was the rise in popularity of compact hatchbacks. The only notable small hatchbacks built in Western Europe before the oil crisis were the Peugeot 104, Renault 5 and Fiat 127. By the end of the decade, the market had expanded with the introduction of the Ford Fiesta, Opel Kadett (sold as the Vauxhall Astra in Great Britain), Chrysler Sunbeam and Citroën Visa.
Buyers looking for larger cars were increasingly drawn to medium-sized hatchbacks. Virtually unknown in Europe in 1973, by the end of the decade they were gradually replacing sedans as the mainstay of this sector. Between 1973 and 1980, medium-sized hatchbacks were launched across Europe: the Chrysler/Simca Horizon, Fiat Ritmo (Strada in the UK), Ford Escort MK3, Renault 14, Volvo 340 / 360, Opel Kadett, and Volkswagen Golf.
These cars were considerably more economical than the traditional saloons they were replacing, and attracted buyers who traditionally bought larger vehicles. Some 15 years after the oil crisis, hatchbacks dominated most European small and medium car markets, and had gained a substantial share of the large family car market.
United States
Before the energy crisis, large, heavy, and powerful cars were popular. By 1971, the standard engine in a Chevrolet Caprice was a 400-cubic inch (6.5 liter) V8. The wheelbase of this car was , and Motor Trend's 1972 road test of the similar Chevrolet Impala achieved no more than 15 highway miles per gallon. In the 15 years prior to the 1973 oil crisis, gasoline prices in the U.S. had lagged well behind inflation.
The crisis reduced the demand for large cars. Japanese imports, primarily the Toyota Corona, the Toyota Corolla, the Datsun B210, the Datsun 510, the Honda Civic, the Mitsubishi Galant (a captive import from Chrysler sold as the Dodge Colt), the Subaru DL, and later the Honda Accord all had four cylinder engines that were more fuel efficient than the typical American V8 and six cylinder engines. Japanese imports became mass-market leaders with unibody construction and front-wheel drive, which became de facto standards.
From Europe, the Volkswagen Beetle, the Volkswagen Fastback, the Renault 8, the Renault LeCar, and the Fiat Brava were successful. Detroit responded with the Ford Pinto, the Ford Maverick, the Chevrolet Vega, the Chevrolet Nova, the Plymouth Valiant and the Plymouth Volaré. American Motors sold its homegrown Gremlin, Hornet and Pacer models.
Some buyers lamented the small size of the first Japanese compacts, and both Toyota and Nissan (then known as Datsun) introduced larger cars such as the Toyota Corona Mark II, the Toyota Cressida, the Mazda 616 and Datsun 810, which added passenger space and amenities such as air conditioning, power steering, AM-FM radios, and even power windows and central locking without increasing the price of the vehicle. A decade after the 1973 oil crisis, Honda, Toyota and Nissan, affected by the 1981 voluntary export restraints, opened US assembly plants and established their luxury divisions (Acura, Lexus and Infiniti, respectively) to distinguish themselves from their mass-market brands.
Compact trucks were introduced, such as the Toyota Hilux and the Datsun Truck, followed by the Mazda Truck (sold as the Ford Courier), and the Isuzu-built Chevrolet LUV. Mitsubishi rebranded its Forte as the Dodge D-50 a few years after the oil crisis. Mazda, Mitsubishi and Isuzu had joint partnerships with Ford, Chrysler, and GM, respectively. Later, the American makers introduced their domestic replacements (Ford Ranger, Dodge Dakota and the Chevrolet S10/GMC S-15), ending their captive import policy.
An increase in imported cars into North America forced General Motors, Ford and Chrysler to introduce smaller and fuel-efficient models for domestic sales. The Dodge Omni / Plymouth Horizon from Chrysler, the Ford Fiesta and the Chevrolet Chevette all had four-cylinder engines and room for at least four passengers by the late 1970s. By 1985, the average American vehicle moved 17.4 miles per gallon, compared to 13.5 in 1970. The improvements stayed, even though the price of a barrel of oil remained constant at $12 from 1974 to 1979.
Sales of large sedans for most makes (except Chrysler products) recovered within two model years of the 1973 crisis. The Cadillac DeVille and Fleetwood, Buick Electra, Oldsmobile 98, Lincoln Continental, Mercury Marquis, and various other luxury oriented sedans became popular again in the mid-1970s. The only full-size models that did not recover were lower price models such as the Chevrolet Bel Air and Ford Galaxie 500. Slightly smaller models such as the Oldsmobile Cutlass, Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Ford Thunderbird and various others sold well.
Economical imports succeeded alongside heavy, expensive vehicles. In 1976, Toyota sold 346,920 cars (average weight around 2,100 lbs), while Cadillac sold 309,139 cars (average weight around 5,000 lbs).
Federal safety standards, such as NHTSA Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 215 (pertaining to safety bumpers), and compacts like the 1974 Mustang I were a prelude to the DOT "downsize" revision of vehicle categories. By 1977, GM's full-sized cars reflected the crisis. By 1979, virtually all "full-size" American cars had shrunk, featuring smaller engines and smaller outside dimensions. Chrysler ended production of their full-sized luxury sedans at the end of the 1981 model year, moving instead to a full front-wheel drive lineup for 1982 (except for the M-body Dodge Diplomat/Plymouth Gran Fury and Chrysler New Yorker Fifth Avenue sedans).
Consequences
Decline of OPEC
OPEC soon lost its preeminent position, and in 1981, its production was surpassed by that of other countries. Additionally, its own member nations were divided. Saudi Arabia, trying to recover market share, increased production, pushing prices down, shrinking or eliminating profits for high-cost producers. The world price, which had peaked during the 1979 energy crisis at nearly $40 per barrel, decreased during the 1980s to less than $10 per barrel. Adjusted for inflation, oil briefly fell back to pre-1973 levels. This "sale" price was a windfall for oil-importing nations, both developing and developed.
Oil sources diversification
The embargo encouraged new venues for energy exploration, including Alaska, the North Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus. Exploration in the Caspian Basin and Siberia became profitable. Cooperation changed into a far more adversarial relationship as the USSR increased its production. By 1980, the Soviet Union had become the world's largest producer.
Part of the decline in prices and economic and geopolitical power of OPEC came from the move to alternative energy sources. OPEC had relied on price inelasticity to maintain high consumption, but had underestimated the extent to which conservation and other sources of supply would eventually reduce demand. Electricity generation from nuclear power and natural gas, home heating from natural gas, and ethanol-blended gasoline all reduced the demand for oil.
Economic impact
The drop in prices presented a serious problem for oil-exporting countries in northern Europe and the Persian Gulf. Heavily populated, impoverished countries, whose economies were largely dependent on oil—including Mexico, Nigeria, Algeria, and Libya—did not prepare for a market reversal that left them in sometimes desperate situations.
When reduced demand and increased production glutted the world market in the mid-1980s, oil prices plummeted and the cartel lost its unity. Mexico (a non-member), Nigeria, and Venezuela, whose economies had expanded in the 1970s, faced near-bankruptcy, and even Saudi Arabian economic power was significantly weakened. The divisions within OPEC made concerted action more difficult. , OPEC has never approached its earlier dominance.
Graphs and charts
See also
1967 oil embargo
1970s energy crisis
1990 oil price shock
2000s energy crisis
Hubbert peak theory
Olduvai theory
Supply shock
Petrodollar recycling
"Energy Crisis '74"
References
Further reading
Blinder, Alan S. (1979). Economic Policy and the Great Stagflation. New York: Academic Press.
Bromley, Simon. (1991). American Hegemony and World Oil: The Industry, the State System, and the World Economy (Pennsylvania State UP)
Eckstein, Otto (1979). The Great Recession. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Johnson, Ronald A. "The impact of rising oil prices on the major foreign industrial countries." Federal Reserve Bulletin 66 (1980): 817–824.
Lesch, David W. 1979: The Year That Shaped The Modern Middle East (2019) excerpt
Odell, Peter R. Oil and gas: crises and controversies 1961-2000 (2001) online
Odell, Peter R. Oil and world power : background to the oil crisis (1974) online
Painter, David S. (2014) "Oil and geopolitics: The oil crises of the 1970s and the cold war." Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung (2014): 186–208. online
Randall, Stephen J. United States foreign oil policy since World War I: For profits and security (Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2005).
Rybczynski, T.M. ed. The Economics of the Oil Crisis (Palgrave Macmillan, 1976)
Sobel, Lester A. "Energy crisis, 1969--1973. Volume I. (Facts on File, 1974). online
Stern, Roger J. (2016) "Oil Scarcity Ideology in US Foreign Policy, 1908–97." Security Studies 25.2 (2016): 214–257. online
Venn, Fiona. The oil crisis (Routledge, 2016). excerpt
Venn, Fiona. Oil Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (Palgrave, 1986) online
online; very detailed coverage
Primary sources
Kissinger, Henry. Years of Upheaval (1982).
External links
Hakes, Jay (2008). 35 Years After the Arab Oil Embargo, Journal of Energy Security.
Morgan, Oliver; Islam, Faisal (2001). Saudi dove in the oil slick, The Guardian. Sheikh Ahmed Zaki Yamani, former oil minister of Saudi Arabia, gives his personal account of the 1973 energy crisis.
Oppenheim, V.H. (1976). Why Oil Prices Go Up: The Past: We Pushed Them, Foreign Policy''.
US Energy Information Administration (1998). 25th Anniversary of the 1973 Oil Embargo
Oil Crisis, 1973
Oil Crisis
Arab–Israeli conflict
Embargoes
Energy crises
Gold standard
History of the petroleum industry
Inflation
Natural resource conflicts
Peak oil
Petroleum economics
Petroleum politics
Presidency of Richard Nixon
Scarcity
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244181
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tory%20Dent
|
Tory Dent
|
Victorine "Tory" Dent (January 1, 1958 – December 30, 2005) was an American poet, art critic, and commentator on the AIDS crisis.
Life
Dent was born in 1958 in Wilmington, Delaware. She graduated from Barnard College in 1981. She was diagnosed with HIV when she was 30 years old. Dent spent most of her adult life in New York City and Maine. She married writer Sean Harvey in 1999. Throughout her adult life she produced poetry, often about her struggles and experiences living with HIV. She died on December 30, 2005, in her apartment on the Lower East Side of Manhattan of the AIDS-associated infection PML.
Career
Dent was the author of Black Milk (Sheep Meadow Press, 2005); HIV, Mon Amour (Sheep Meadow Press, 1999), which won the 1999 James Laughlin Award and was a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award; and What Silence Equals (Persea Books, 1993). Her honors include grants from the Guggenheim Foundation, the Whiting Foundation, the New York Foundation for the Arts and the Money for Women/Barbara Deming Memorial Fund; the Rona Jaffe Foundation Writers' Award and three PEN American Center Grants for Writers with AIDS. Her poetry appeared in periodicals such as AGNI, Antioch Review, Kalliope, Kenyon Review, Paris Review, Partisan Review, Pequod, Ploughshares, and Fence. Dent had also written art criticism for magazines including Arts, Flash Art, and Parachute, as well as catalog essays for art exhibitions.
Bibliography
"What Silence Equals", Persea Books 1993,
"HIV, Mon Amour", Sheep Meadow Press 1999,
"Black Milk", Sheep Meadow Press 2005,
Anthologies
Life Sentences (1994)
The Exact Change Yearbook (1995)
In the Company of my Solitude (1995)
Things Shaped in Passing (1997)
References
External links
Dent's Academy Of American Poets page
"Tory Dent, Poet Who Wrote of Living With H.I.V., Dies at 47" (NY Times/ January 3, 2006)
Library of Congress Webcast Interview with Tory Dent
2005 deaths
1958 births
Barnard College alumni
American art critics
AIDS-related deaths in New York (state)
American women poets
American women essayists
American women critics
Rona Jaffe Foundation Writers' Award winners
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American essayists
21st-century American women
|
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244188
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarion
|
Clarion
|
Clarion may refer to:
Music
Clarion (instrument), a type of trumpet used in the Middle Ages
The register of a clarinet that ranges from B4 to C6
A trumpet organ stop that usually plays an octave above unison pitch
"Clarion" (song), a 2008 single by multinational band Guillemots
Places
Mexico
Clarion Island (Isla Clarión), Colima
United States
Clarion, Illinois
Clarion, Iowa
Clarion, Utah, a ghost town settled as a Jewish farming colony
Pennsylvania
Clarion County, Pennsylvania
Clarion, Pennsylvania, a borough in and the county seat of Clarion County
Clarion Township, Clarion County, Pennsylvania
Clarion River, Pennsylvania, a tributary of the Allegheny River
Clarion University of Pennsylvania, a public university located in Clarion, Pennsylvania
Publishing
Peninsula Clarion, a regional newspaper published in Kenai, Alaska, U.S.
Clarion Herald, the official newspaper of the Archdiocese of New Orleans in the U.S. state of Louisiana
Clarion (magazine), a literary magazine published in Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.
The Clarion-Ledger, a daily newspaper in the U.S. state of Mississippi, and the second oldest company in that state
Clarion Workshop, a science fiction and fantasy workshop based in San Diego, California, U.S.
Clarion West Writers Workshop, a science fiction and fantasy workshop based in Seattle, Washington, U.S.
The Clarion, a defunct weekly socialist newspaper that was published in the United Kingdom
Western Clarion, a defunct newspaper that served as the official organ of the Socialist Party of Canada from 1903 to 1925
The Clarion, a defunct quarterly magazine published by the American Folk Art Museum from 1971 until 1992
Clarion Books, a young adult publishing imprint of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
The Clarion (Canadian newspaper), the Canadian newspaper started by Carrie Best in 1946
Computing
CLARION (cognitive architecture)
Clarion (programming language)
CLARiiON, an EMC disk array
Animals
Clarion nightsnake (Hypsiglena unaocularis), a small colubrid snake
Clarion snake eel (Myrichthys pantostigmius), a tropical, marine eel
Clarión wren (Troglodytes tanneri), a species of bird
Proud Clarion, an American Thoroughbred racehorse, winner of the 1967 Kentucky Derby
Clarion angelfish (Holacanthus clarionensis), a species of saltwater angelfish
Companies and organizations
Clarion (company), a Japanese automotive and consumer electronics manufacturer
Clarion Project, a nonprofit organization based in Washington D.C., USA
Clarion Hotel, a hotel brand in the United States
Clarion Hotel Limerick, a hotel in Limerick, Ireland
Clarion Housing Group, a British housing association
National Clarion Cycling Club, a cycling club with some 29 member sections in the UK
Other uses
Clarion Award, an honor for excellence in communications from the Association for Women in Communications
Clarion (heraldry), a charge or bearing in heraldry
Operation Clarion, an extensive Allied campaign of strategic bombing during World War II against Nazi Germany
Clarion University of Pennsylvania, a university located in Clarion, PA
See also
Clarin (disambiguation)
|
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] |
244189
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrowsmith%20Country%20Life
|
Harrowsmith Country Life
|
Harrowsmith Country Life was a magazine that explored and showcased country living. Originally called Harrowsmith, the magazine was heralded as a back-to-the-land and environmental issues platform. In 1976, founder James M. Lawrence cut and paste the first issues together on a kitchen table in the tiny village of Camden East (pop. 256) in Ontario, Canada. Within two years, the magazine had over 100,000 subscribers and eventually became Canada's 8th largest magazine. Camden House Publishing Inc. was created in 1977 as the parent company for the Harrowsmith and Equinox magazines and later for many books.
In 1988, Lawrence sold Harrowsmith to the Canadian media giant Telemedia, where it remained until 1996. Telemedia launched an American edition, and the words "Country Life" were tacked onto Harrowsmith's title. The American edition reached a paid circulation of 225,000 but folded as Telemedia began making changes to their publishing business.
Editor Tom Cruickshank took the helm of Harrowsmith Country Life in 1996, after Telemedia sold Harrowsmith Country Life, and its sister publication Equinox, to Malcolm Publishing, a Montreal, company. Equinox ceased publishing in 2000 and its mailing list was sold to Canadian Geographic. Harrowsmith went on to celebrate 30 years of publishing in 2006.
Harrowsmith TV exists as re-runs and Harrowsmith books can still be found. Some titles, such as the Harrowsmith Cookbook (three volumes) are still available through Amazon and Firefly Books. Telemedia no longer exists and many of its assets were sold to Transcontinental Media in 2000.
In 2011, Harrowsmith Country Life published a single issue in March, and in August 2011 the magazine announced that it would cease publication just short of its 35th anniversary issue. It failed to notify subscribers that the magazine would suspend publishing and those subscribers who had paid for their magazines in advance did not have their money refunded.
In the fall of 2012, after obtaining the licensing rights to Harrowsmith, Yolanda Thornton, a former employee, revived Harrowsmith magazine starting with its sister publication: Harrowsmith's Truly Canadian Almanac for 2013. Moongate Inc. (Toronto, ON) which is also owned by Yolanda Thornton assumed the publishing for Harrowsmith.
In the spring of 2013, a second issue was added: Harrowsmith's Gardening Digest. In 2015 the addition of two more titles saw the release of four issues that year: Harrowsmith's Gardening Digest, Harrowsmith's My Kind of Town, Harrowsmith's Homes and the annual 2015 Harrowsmith's Almanac. For the 2015 annual fall almanac edition (published September 2014), the title was shortened to Harrowsmith's Almanac.
In 2015 and 2016, Harrowsmith embraced the digital market and reached a wider audience with a new format. Two print issues were published (spring and fall) and two online editions (summer and winter) were included in annual subscriptions. "Country Life" was dropped from the title.
In 2017, Harrowsmith redesigned their website to create a virtual community beyond the magazine's pages. They released their first full-size magazine Winter edition in response to reader demand.
References
External links
Ryerson Review of Journalism article "The Laird of Harrowsmith"
Harrowsmith Magazine website
Harrowsmith Country Life website as cached on the Internet Archive
Cultural magazines published in Canada
Lifestyle magazines published in Canada
Magazines established in 1976
Magazines published in Ontario
Simple living
|
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] |
244202
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Speight
|
George Speight
|
George Speight is a leader of the 2000 Fijian coup d'état.
Fiji coup of 2000
Speight's partner, Torika Rawlinson, told the student newspaper Wansolwara that the original intention had been to execute members of the deposed government the night before the coup actually took place. She denied others' reports that Indo-Fijian businessmen had been involved.
As of 2006 he is serving his sentence at the Naboro Maximum Security Prison.
A spokesman for deposed Prime Minister Mahendra Chaudhry said that he would be prepared to meet with Speight in principle.
References
Living people
I-Taukei Fijian members of the House of Representatives (Fiji)
Fijian rebels
Anti-Indian sentiment
Andrews University alumni
People convicted of treason
Fijian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
2000 Fijian coup d'état
Place of birth missing (living people)
Conservative Alliance-Matanitu Vanua politicians
Fijian expatriates in Australia
Fijian nationalists
Fijian businesspeople
Politicians from Tailevu Province
People expelled from public office
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Fiji
Year of birth missing (living people)
|
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] |
244203
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaham
|
Zaham
|
In the Hebrew Bible, Zaham, meaning "loathing", was the son of Rehoboam, king of Judah, and Mahalath. He was a grandson of Solomon.
notes that all of Rehoboam's sons were appointed to positions within the fortified cities of the kingdom.
References
10th-century BCE Hebrew people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Futurological%20Congress
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The Futurological Congress
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The Futurological Congress () is a 1971 black humour science fiction novel by Polish author Stanisław Lem. It details the exploits of the hero of a number of his stories, Ijon Tichy, as he visits the Eighth World Futurological Congress at a Hilton Hotel in Costa Rica. The book is Lem's take on the science fictional trope of an apparently Utopian future that turns out to be an illusion.
Overview
The book opens at the eponymous congress. A riot breaks out, and the hero, Ijon Tichy, is hit by various psychoactive drugs that were put into the drinking water supply lines by the government to pacify the riots. Ijon and a few others escape to the safety of a sewer beneath the Hilton where the congress was being held, and in the sewer he goes through a series of hallucinations and false awakenings, which cause him to be confused about whether or not what's happening around him is real. Finally, he believes that he falls asleep and wakes up many years later. The main part of the book follows Ijon's adventures in the future world — a world where everyone takes hallucinogenic drugs, and hallucinations have replaced reality.
Plot summary
Ijon Tichy is sent to the Eighth World Futurological Congress in Costa Rica by professor Tarantoga. The conference is set to focus on the world's overpopulation crisis and ways of dealing with it. It is held at the Costa Rica Hilton in Nounas, which is 164 stories tall. Lem is fiercely satirical from the start, and absurdities abound at the Hilton with its guaranteed "BOMB-FREE" rooms and the extravagances of Tichy's suite, which include a palm grove and an "all-girl orchestra [that] played Bach while performing a cleverly choreographed striptease".
The conference itself is no less absurd. Papers and presenters are too numerous to allow for full presentations. Instead, papers are distributed in hard copy and speakers call out paragraph numbers to call attention to their most salient points.
In the middle of his first night at the conference, Tichy drinks some tap water in his hotel room, and his wild hallucinogenic trip begins, though it never becomes any more or less absurd than the brief glimpse of reality Lem presents in the beginning of the book (if indeed the congress is meant to be reality). He realizes the next day that the government has drugged the public water supply with "benignimizers", a drug that makes the victim helplessly benevolent. Events spiral out of control at the Hilton, which was already so chaotic that charred corpses from bombing attacks would be covered with tarps where they lay while guests went about their business.
The government ends up bombing the hotel, and Tichy escapes into the sewer, where rats walk around on their hind legs. Tichy is evacuated from the scene by the military: first he escapes by jetpack, only to realise he is hallucinating (falling in the sewer water to find he never left). After returning to reality, he is rescued again and this time evacuated by helicopter, but during his rescue the helicopter crashes, and he awakes in the hospital, where he finds that his brain has been transplanted into the body of an attractive young black woman.
Protesters attack the hospital, and Tichy is nearly killed again. This time when he wakes up, he finds that he has been transplanted into the body of an overweight, red-haired man, however this too is an illusion (again, broken when Tichy falls into the sewer water). When the military once again arrive to rescue everyone in the sewer Tichy refuses to move, believing that it is another illusion. He is then found by counter-revolutionaries, who shoot him. Awaking in another hospital, Tichy's mental state grows increasingly fragile as he cannot distinguish reality from hallucination (giving the staff inane nicknames, such as "Hallucinathan" and "Hallucinda"), and the medical staff make the decision to freeze him until a time when medicine can help his condition.
He awakes in the year 2039, and at this point, the novel adopts the format of a journal that Tichy keeps to chronicle his experience in this new world. His future shock is so great that he finds he is being introduced to the world in small stages by the medical staff.
In most regards, this future society is Utopian. Money is no object. One can simply go to the bank and request any sum and borrow it interest-free. There is no effort made to collect the debt, either, as most people take a drug that instills a sense of pride and work-ethic, which would disallow defaulting on the debt.
Tichy learns that there is an inherent bias against defrostees, and that there are a great deal of words that he does not understand. Like cityspeak, and many other sci-fi futuristic languages, it is a mishmash of words with clear enough English roots, though Tichy is mystified by it. Also, mood is highly regulated by drugs. Tichy gets involved with a woman, and during an argument, she deliberately takes a drug called recriminol to make her more combative, which prolongs the tiff.
Following their break-up, Tichy becomes deeply disillusioned with the "psychem" mentality, wherein drugs regulate every waking moment of the day. He resolves to stop taking any drugs and confides to his friend, professor Trottelreiner, that he can't stand this new world. Trottelreiner explains that the everyday drugs that Tichy is tired of are only the tip of the iceberg. Narcotics and hallucinogens are trifles compared to "mascons", which are so powerful that they mask whole swaths of reality.
Trottelreiner explains, "mascon" derives from mask, masquerade, mascara: "By introducing properly prepared mascons to the brain, one can mask any object in the outside world behind a fictitious image—superimposed—and with such dexterity, that the psychemasconated subject cannot tell which of his perceptions have been altered, and which have not. If but for a single instant you could see this world of ours the way it really is—undoctored, unadulterated, uncensored—you would drop in your tracks!"
The professor then gives Tichy a flask of "up'n'at'm, one of the vigilanimides, a powerful countersomniac and antipsychem agent. A derivative of dimethylethylhexabutylpeptopeyotine". With his first sniff of up'n'at'm, Tichy watches as the gilded surroundings of the five-star restaurant they are in evaporates into a dingy concrete bunker, and his stuffed pheasant turns into "the most unappetizing gray-brown gruel, which stuck in globs to my tin — no longer silver — fork".
But this first dose is just the beginning of Tichy's journey. He sees that people do not drive cars or ride in elevators, but they run in the streets and climb the walls of empty elevator shafts, which explains why everyone in this new world is so out of breath. Robots whip people in the street and protect order. Through successive doses of more and more powerful types of up'n'at'm, Tichy sees increasingly horrible visions of the world, climaxing in a frozen horrorscape where people sleep blissfully in the snow, and the police robots are revealed to be people who are convinced that they are robots. The frozen state of the world explains why he has always found the new world to be so cold.
In a state of panic, Tichy realizes that he is "no longer safely inside the illusion, but shipwrecked in reality", and he desperately seeks the seat of power. He ascends in a skyscraper to encounter his acquaintance George P. Symington Esquire, who sits in a modest office and explains to Tichy that he and a few others employ mascons as a way of maintaining order:
"The year is 2098 ... with 69 billion inhabitants legally registered and approximately another 26 billion in hiding. The average annual temperature has fallen four degrees. In fifteen or twenty years there will be glaciers here. We have no way of averting or halting their advance — we can only keep them secret."
"I always thought there would be ice in hell," I said.
Tichy realizes his only course of action and tackles Symington, pushing them both out of the window. They plummet to the earth, but instead of colliding with the frozen ground, Tichy splashes into the black, stinking waters of the sewer beneath the Costa Rica Hilton, revealing that his suspicions were right all along: the whole future world he experienced was an illusion. He realizes that it is now the second day of the Eighth World Futurological Congress.
Cultural influence
Director Andrzej Wajda wished to adapt the novel into a film, but failed to obtain funding for his project.
Ari Folman's film The Congress is partially based on the novel Futurological Congress. Like Ijon Tichy, the female protagonist is split between delusional and real mental states.
The title of the book was used for one episode of the German TV show Ijon Tichy: Raumpilot, which itself was rather based on the story "The Eighth Voyage" from Lem's The Star Diaries.
References
Further reading
Bernd Böttcher, "Die Illusion der Wirklichkeit in Stanisław Lems „Der futurologische Kongreß“", Quarber Merkur, vol. 102, 2005, pp. 89–104. (in German)
External links
The Futurological Congress book page on Stanislaw Lem's official site
Review at challengingdestiny.com
1971 novels
Novels by Stanisław Lem
Comic science fiction novels
1971 science fiction novels
Overpopulation fiction
Novels set in hotels
Novels set in Central America
Polish novels adapted into films
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripper
|
Stripper
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A stripper or exotic dancer is a person whose occupation involves performing striptease in a public adult entertainment venue such as a strip club. At times, a stripper may be hired to perform at a bachelor party or other private event.
Modern Americanized forms of stripping minimize interaction by strippers with customers, reducing the importance of tease in the performance in favor of speed to undress (strip). Not every stripper will end a performance completely nude, though full nudity is common where not prohibited by law. The integration of the burlesque pole as a nearly ubiquitous prop has shifted the emphasis in the performance toward a more acrobatic, explicit expression compared to the slow-developing burlesque style. Most strippers work in strip clubs. A "house dancer" works for a particular club or franchise, while a "feature dancer" tends to have her own celebrity, touring a club circuit making appearances. Entertainers (dancers) are often not actual employees of the club itself but perform as independent contractors.
Until the 1970s, strippers in Western cultures were almost invariably female, performing to male audiences. Since then, male strippers have also become common, but strippers are still overwhelmingly female. Certain male and female strippers also perform for LGBT audiences as well as for all genders in bisexual contexts. Before the 1970s, dancers of all genders appeared largely in underground clubs or as part of a theatre experience, but the practice eventually became common enough on its own. Performances are usually fully choreographed, involve dance routines and a costume of some sort. The term "male stripper" has gone down in use in books in the 21st century.
Work environment
Strippers perform striptease for a number of reasons, predominantly to make money. The physical attractiveness and sex appeal of the dancer determines the business the stripper tends to generate. There are no job prerequisites; formal training is minimal, primarily on the job and provided by more senior dancers. Dancers learn a set of rules, such as: never leave money unattended; never leave the club with a customer; and never refuse a table dance. As long as she can "sell" herself, she is capable of becoming an exotic dancer. The image of strippers as known today evolved through the late 1960s and 1970s in the U.S. and international cultures. By the 1980s, the pole dancing and highly-explicit imagery associated with today's performers was widely accepted and frequently portrayed in film, television, and theater. In a bikini performance, both breasts and genital areas typically remain covered by revealing attire while dancers provide services and entertainment. Go-go dancers will retain their tops and bottoms for the duration of their performance. A stripper whose upper body is exposed but the genital areas remain obscured during a performance is said to be topless.
Touching of strippers is not permitted in many localities. However, some dancers and clubs allow touching of dancers during private dances. If permitted, during a lap dance the dancer may dance sitting in the customers lap, clothed or topless. In parts of the USA, there are laws forbidding the exposure of female nipples, which have to be covered by pasties by the dancer. Due to the common practice of hiring strippers as contractors, not as full-time employees, strippers must deal with extreme job insecurity, unstable pay, no health benefits, and the requirement of paying fees to the club for technically renting their stage. This precarious employment is accepted because of the stigma associated with exotic dancing. Dancers use props such as make-up, clothing, costumes, and appealing fragrances to complete their character and maintain their "front".
Inside the club
Strippers, when working, are most likely to be found at strip clubs. An essential draw of the strip club is the live entertainment, which the vast majority of the time are the strippers. Dancers effectively entertaining customers are the key to generating revenue by keeping the customers on site and enticing them to be repeat visitors. House dancers work for a particular club or franchise. Feature dancers tend to have their own celebrity, touring a club circuit and making appearances. Porn stars will often become feature dancers to earn extra income and build their fan base. High-profile adult film performers Jenna Haze and Teagan Presley among others have participated in feature shows through the USA, as did now-retired stars such as Jenna Jameson. Entertainers (dancers) are often not actual employees of the club itself but allowed to perform as independent contractors for a predetermined house fee.
During each set of one or more songs, the current performer will dance on stage in exchange for tips. Where legal (or legal restrictions are ignored), dancers may offer additional services such as lap dances or a trip to the champagne room for a set fee rather than a tip. Strippers can be contracted for performances outside the strip club environment. Some strippers will only strip for private engagements and do not have a regular affiliation with a strip club. Much like activities inside the club, different dancers have different comfort levels for services they will provide during a private party. Aside from advertising for striptease services outside the club, an unknown percentage of strippers also work in other aspects of the sex industry. This can include erotic and nude modeling, pornography, escorting, and in some cases prostitution. Outside the U.S., the use of strip clubs to facilitate sex for hire is much more common, and stripping is viewed in those settings as advertising for sexually oriented services performed in private areas of the club or off premises.
Stage performance
Most clubs have a dancer rotation where each dancer in turn will perform for one or more songs in a fixed sequence which repeats during a shift. More informal clubs will have dancers take turns when a stage becomes empty or have a free flow of entertainers where the stage has any number of entertainers who wander off and on at will. Feature entertainers are not usually part of the rotation, and have set times where they will perform that are advertised throughout the shift. If a DJ is present, they will emcee the rotation and typically announce the current dancer(s) on stage and possibly whom to expect in future sets.
Tip collection
During each set of one or more songs, the current performer will dance on stage in exchange for tips. Dancers collect tips from customers either while on stage or after the dancer has finished a stage show and is mingling with the audience. A customary tip (where customers can do so at the stage) is a dollar bill folded lengthwise and placed in the dancer's garter from the tip rail. Other common tip methods are to insert the dollar into the stripper's cleavage from the hand or mouth, or to simply place it or toss it onto the stage. Tipping during a stage performance is prohibited by some clubs due to restrictions in local ordinance or past incidents on the premises. Each club and dancer will have individual tolerance levels for customer interaction including tipping. Some clubs will have multiple stages on the premises that dancers will move between, but typically the dancer would collect for her time on the main stage during a rotation. Tips can also be collected during private dances.
Private dance
Where legal (or legal restrictions are ignored), dancers may offer additional services such as lap dances or a trip to the champagne room for a set fee rather than a tip. This fee will typically include a set fee for the room, for a set amount of time. Private dances in the main club areas most often take the form of table dances, lap and couch dances, and bed dances among others. An air dance is a particular form of private dance where little to no contact between the dancer and customer occurs. This class of dance spans the different categories above, and some dancers can perform air dances when more contact-heavy forms of dance were expected and paid for.
Table dances are distinguished from other forms of dances in that they can be performed where the customer is seated on the main floor. Table dances also refer to a form of minimal touch private dance where the performer is physically located on a small table in front of the customer(s). Table dances should not be confused with table stages, where the stripper is at or above eye level on a platform surrounded by chairs and usually enough table surface for customers to place drinks and tip money. These stages are configured for close viewing of the striptease and are known for dancers lowering themselves from the stage onto customers during their set.
Lap dances can be (and are) performed in all manner of seating, ranging from plain stools and kitchen-grade chairs to plush leather armchairs. They can also be performed with the customer standing in these designated areas. A service provided by many clubs is for a customer to be placed on stage with one or more dancers for a public lap dance. Occasions for this type of performance are bachelor parties and birthdays in the club among others. Bed dances are designed for the customer to be lying down with the entertainer(s) positioned on top of them. Bed dances are the least common of the three, and in many clubs, these are a more expensive option than a lap dance because of the novelty and increased level of contact between customer and service provider.
A champagne room (also called a champagne lounge or champagne court) is a specialized VIP Room service offered by gentleman's clubs where a customer can purchase time (usually in half-hour increments) with an exotic dancer in a private room on the premises. Depending on the quality of the club, the room, which is away from the hustle and bustle of the main club, is well decorated and usually has its own bar. Clubs sell champagne by the glass or by the bottle for both the dancer and the customer.
Outside the club
Strippers can be contracted for performances outside the strip club environment. Some strippers will only strip for private engagements and do not have a regular affiliation with a strip club.
Bachelor and bachelorette parties
A bachelor party may involve activities beyond the usual party and social-gathering ingredients (often drinking alcohol and gambling), such as going to a strip club or hiring a stripper to perform in a private setting like a home or hotel. In some traditions, more hazing-like tests and pranks at the future groom's expense, which shows the whole thing is also a rite of passage from bachelorhood (associated with an adolescent lifestyle, often in the common past of most participants, e.g., in their student years) to "more responsible" marital life. These pranks can involve a stripper if the entertainer is willing. Bachelor parties have come to symbolize the last time when the groom is free of the influence of his new wife. Some women also participate in a similar party to be held for the bride-to-be. This is known as a bachelorette party or Hen party. Some also chose instead to hold a so-called Stag and Doe party in the US or a hag party or hag do in the UK ("hag" being a portmanteau "hen" and "stag"), in which both the bride and groom attend. The female equivalent of a stag party in Canada is often known as a "stagette", "doe", or "bachelorette".
Private parties
Private parties are popular events for which to hire strippers. There are many entertainment businesses that have strippers contracted for private performances. Some of these companies have a national presence, with strippers contracted in multiple states and some who work regionally over a multi-state area. Strippers will also do side work and handle their own agreements and payment arrangements. Written agreements are atypical in this type of transaction unless a formal, registered business is involved. They could also travel over significant (i.e. flight required) distances for private events and appointments, most of the time passing the cost of travel and accommodations onto the customer. Patrons at the clubs in which the strippers work are a primary source of customers for their work outside the club. Much like activities inside the club, different dancers have different comfort levels for services they will provide during a private party.
Other activities
Aside from advertising for striptease services outside the club, an unknown percentage of strippers also work in other aspects of the sex industry. This can include erotic and nude modeling, pornography, escorting, and in some cases prostitution (which is now illegal in all states other than Nevada within the U.S.). These activities are not mutually exclusive, meaning that a stripper who models on the side would be a stripper and a model.
Adult industry trade shows often have strippers working, though many of them are affiliated with individual companies and not necessarily freelancers. More traditional industries have made use of go-go dancers to provide entertainment and act as bargirls or hostesses. The lack of explicit nudity makes go-go dancers more socially acceptable than topless and nude performers in public areas. There are also exhibitions, festivals, and competitions where independent strippers are more likely to be performing. Nudes-A-Poppin' is a popular festival scheduled annually which features both female and male dancers competing in erotic dance. Outside the U.S., the use of strip clubs to facilitate sex for hire is much more common, and stripping is viewed in those settings as advertising for sexually oriented services performed in private areas of the club or off premises.
Performance
While working, a stripper is not necessarily required to remove all of her or his clothing. Regardless of size, name, or location in the world, strip clubs can be full nude, topless or bikini. For any type of strip club there are exceptions based on the individual dancer and management, and clubs are classified based on typical performances, zoning, and advertised services.
Style of dress
In some localities, strippers are required to obtain permits to work in adult entertainment. During a bikini performance, both breasts and genital areas typically remain covered by revealing attire, while dancers provide services and entertainment. Go-go dancers will retain their tops and bottoms for the duration of their performance. A female stripper whose upper body is exposed, but whose genital areas remain obscured during a performance, is said to be topless. Strippers who uncover the genital areas along with other clothing during a performance are said to be dancing fully nude. The fully nude practice is banned in many jurisdictions, but many dancers work around these constraints by selective uncovering of the vulva, anus, or both, for short periods of time, followed by immediate replacement of the clothing. Not all strippers are comfortable dancing topless or fully nude.
Bikini (Go-Go)
In a bikini performance, both breasts and genital areas typically remain covered by revealing attire while providing services and entertainment. Go-go dancers will retain their tops and bottoms for the duration of their performance. What differentiates a bikini dancer from other types of performers is the degree to which her body is exposed.
The stripper, in the case of a bikini performance, may begin with layers of clothing worn over the bikini which then would be removed during the course of the dance set. When a bikini performance is being performed, many dancers will forgo a garter because they can accept tips at various points in their outfit (typically at the waist or hip or over their ribcage). A bikini performance is far more likely to be performed by a female than a male given social norms throughout the world. It has been debated whether or not bikini clubs and performances should count as striptease, but there is little contention over its classification as exotic dance. The phrase Go-Go was adopted by bars in the 1960s in Tokyo, Japan. It was of lesser reputation until it was appropriated by American burlesque and striptease establishments, which in turn became known as go-go bars and the women working there known as Go-Go dancers.
In many clubs, while a stripper is walking the floor she will be required to wear her full bikini top and bottom. When a stripper performs personal services (such as lap or bed dances) where she comes into contact with a customer, she would also be required to remain in her bikini in more restrictive club environments. Private dances in particular are scrutinized to ensure that no club policies or local ordinances are being violated during the performance. The additional clothing also acts as a deterrent to prevent a customer from exceeding the boundaries set by a particular dancer. On 19 June 1964, Carol Doda began go-go dancing topless at the Condor Club on Broadway and Columbus in the North Beach neighborhood of San Francisco. She became the world's most famous go-go dancer, and a prototype for the modern stripper, while dancing at the Condor for 22 years.
Topless
Women are at times employed in adult-only venues to perform or pose topless in forms of commercial erotic entertainment. Such venues can range from downmarket strip clubs to upmarket cabarets, such as the Moulin Rouge. A stripper whose upper body is exposed but the genital areas remain obscured during a performance is said to be topless. Topless entertainment may also include competitions such as wet T-shirt contests in which women display their breasts through translucent wet fabric—and may end up removing their T-shirts before the audience. Strippers can engage in these alternate topless activities at sanctioned times inside the club or as independent contractors at outside venues. Not all strippers are comfortable dancing topless. In areas where choice in formats exist, exotic dancers express concern that the more they offer in their performance (nudity included) the more they stand to profit.
Even the dancers that will go topless have been known to stay covered during a dance during slow periods in the club with few customers. This is particularly true if the customers do not appear to be engaged or actively tipping because they are not being compensated for their time on stage. The practice of topless dancing is banned in many jurisdictions, but strippers have been known to work around the constraints by selectively uncovering her breasts "peek-a-boo" style for short periods of time then replacing the clothing. For a male dancer, a bare chest is not considered in the same light and does not face the same legal restrictions. During a show where customer tipping is permitted, most strip clubs limit contact with a dancer's breasts to one way—from dancer to customer. Many clubs do not allow any breast contact, and some go so far as to place markers on stage that a dancer is not permitted to cross while nude. This physical separation enforces compliance with the no-touch policy.
Full nudity
Strippers who uncover the genital areas along with other clothing during a performance are said to be dancing fully nude. The practice is banned in many jurisdictions, but many dancers will work around the constraints by selectively uncovering her vulva, anus, or both for short periods of time then replacing the clothing. For a male dancer, exposing the penis or anus is equivalent. Many dancers prefer to leave their clothing on their bodies once they have shifted them from their private areas. In some cases this disguises blemishes or areas of their figure they are not comfortable with, or could simply be to prevent those parts of the outfit from being misplaced.
Not all strippers are comfortable dancing fully nude. If viewed as a continuum, fewer dancers will dance topless than go-go and fewer still would dance fully nude. It has been reported when in direct competition with more conservative offerings, fully nude formats are seen by customers as a superior enough substitute for them to switch clubs. In areas where choice in formats exist, exotic dancers express concern that the more they offer in their performance (nudity included) the more they stand to profit. Still, strippers have been known to dance only at topless clubs because of their desire not to strip completely nude. Some clubs permit both nude stage dancing and fully nude lap dances. Where nude private dances are allowed with contact, some dancers choose to place some type of barrier (cloth or occasionally plastic) over the customer's lap as a precautionary measure.
Customer interaction
Strippers are focused on making money from customers. How dancers go about maximizing revenue varies. For customers they do not already know, dancers use factors such as clothing, shoes, age, and race to determine whom they wish to interact with. Dancers are the primary enablers to encourage potential patrons to spend time in strip clubs. The dancers continually interact with the customers in the club by walking around and attempting to solicit drinks and lap dances, usually scanning the floor of a club to find the most lucrative customer to target.
While clubs can generate revenue through means such as cover charges and drink fees, dancers make most of their profit from giving lap dances or VIP dances where regulations allow. Otherwise, customer tips to dancers from a stage set are their primary form of payment per shift. The dancer qualifies a customer by sizing up their appearance and personal characteristics. Once the dancer identifies her mark, she approaches and attempts to create social relationship with her customer using tactical interactions and manipulations. Alternatively, customers can make the first move and engage the dancer directly. Strippers appeal to masculine desires, but they can adapt to fit the needs of female patrons to view them as customers. Adapting the experience to the customer is an integral part of exotic dancing.
Mainstreaming
In the 21st century, as adult themes and work are becoming more commonplace, more of the population is attracted to this type of work. For example, a University of Leeds study, published by the British Journal of Sociology of Education, revealed that as many as one third of "strip club dancers are students, with many using the cash earned to support themselves throughout their studies" and likely to come from middle class backgrounds. The study also stated that "students were now a 'core supply group into the sex industries', with clubs even targeting freshers' week events with recruitment leaflets." This is supported by a 2014 story in the New York Daily News regarding San Francisco strip clubs taking out recruitment ads in the university newspaper for the University of California at Berkeley, The Daily Californian. One distinction made is that many view working as a strip club dancer as a short-term means to address financial needs, while others view it as a profession and go on to other types of sex work such as performing in adult films.
Gender roles
Male strippers
Until the 1970s, strippers in Western cultures were almost invariably female, performing to male audiences. Male and female strippers also perform for gay and lesbian audiences respectively, as well as for both sexes in pansexual contexts.
The modern male stripper show usually involves full nudity, although sometimes they may retain underwear, especially g-strings, bikini briefs or thongs throughout the show, or only remove all clothing for a brief time. Performances are usually fully choreographed, involve dance routines and a costume of some sort. Prominent male strip groups include the Dreamboys in the UK & Chippendales in the US.
A male stripper will likely perform at club, bar, workplace or private home with private advanced bookings or ladies nights being prevalent over strip clubs which is the norm for female strippers. This is different from the Chippendales scene that emerged to prominence in the 1980s with today's norm being one sole performer, or a series of individual performers rather than a group of strippers.
Tewksbury argues that male strippers 'masculinise' the role; thus are not disempowered in the way that, he asserts, female strippers are.
Sexuality and gender bias
Ethnographic research has observed that strippers, regardless of sexual orientation, have a tendency to treat female customers differently than males. Because of the non-physical motivations ascribed to female intimacy, dancers select women to approach who are smiling and sitting comfortably with open body language such as uncrossed arms, actively participating with the crowd, laughing and engaging with fellow customers, and applauding for dancers at the main stage also increase the likelihood they will be approached. Dancers tend to avoid women with unfriendly facial expressions or visibly hostile body language, again regardless of sexual orientation. In order to become approached, men must indicate financial potential through their appearance. Women must demonstrate their good attitude and willingness to participate in club activities. At that point, a woman's perceived profitability is also a factor in a dancer's decision to approach a female patron. The presence of male companionship has been cited in research as an indicator used by dancers to gauge the profitability of a female once she is perceived to be a customer.
In popular culture
The image of strippers as known today evolved through the late 1960s and 1970s in the U.S. and international cultures which embraced Americanized striptease, introduced into popular culture by the genre-defining performances of Carol Doda at the Condor Club in San Francisco, California.
Film, television, and theater
By the 1980s pole-dancing had become popular in America, and the highly sexual imagery associated with the period's performers was widely accepted and frequently portrayed in film, television, and theater.
1980s–1990s
In addition to lesser-known videos, the 1980s also featured mainstream films involving strippers and their work as part of the central narrative. These included Flashdance (1983), which told the story of blue-collar worker Alexandra "Alex" Owens (Jennifer Beals), who works as an exotic dancer in a Pittsburgh bar at night and at a steel mill as a welder during the day. Blaze (1989) features Lolita Davidovitch as notorious stripper Blaze Starr. Starr herself appears in the film in a cameo role. Exotica (1994), directed by Atom Egoyan, is set in a Canadian lap-dance club, and portrays a man's (Bruce Greenwood) obsession with a schoolgirl stripper named Christina (Mia Kirshner). Showgirls (1995) was directed by Paul Verhoeven and starred Elizabeth Berkley and Gina Gershon. Striptease (1996), was an adaptation of the novel starring Demi Moore. The Players Club (1998) starred LisaRaye McCoy as a girl who becomes a stripper to earn enough money to enter college and study journalism.
In Jekyll and Hyde (1997), the character of Lucy Harris (originally portrayed by Linda Eder) works as a prostitute and stripper in a small London club called The Red Rat, where she meets a multi-dimension man named Doctor Henry Jekyll, who turns into his evil persona Mr. Edward Hyde. Lucy performs the song "Bring on the Men" during a show at The Red Rat (which was later replaced with "Good 'n' Evil" in the Broadway production, some claiming "Bring on the Men" was too "risqué"). In Neighbours (1985), the character of Daphne is originally a stripper at Des's bucks party, and eventually goes on to marry him. Married... with Children (1987–97) often featured Al Bundy, Jefferson D'Arcy, and the NO MA'AM crew spending a night at the Nudie Bar. In The Sopranos (1999–2007) business was often conducted at the Bada Bing strip club.
2000s–present
Dancing at the Blue Iguana (2000) is a feature film starring Sandra Oh and Daryl Hannah. The female cast of the film researched the film by dancing at strip clubs and created their parts and their storylines to be as realistic as possible. Stripsearch (2001–), an ongoing Australian reality television show which centers around the training of male strippers. The Hot Chick (2002) stars Rachel McAdams, in her film debut, as a high school cheerleader who, after switching bodies with a small time criminal (Rob Schneider), starts working at a strip club called Pole Cat. The Raymond Revuebar: The Art of Striptease (2002) is a documentary, directed by Simon Weitzman. Los Debutantes (2003) is a Chilean film set in a strip club in Santiago. In Closer (2004), Natalie Portman plays Alice Ayres aka Jane Jones, a young American stripper who arrives in London, England. Portman won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture for her performance. Rob Zombie's 2007 Halloween remake features Michael Myers' mother Deborah (played by Zombie's wife Sheri Moon Zombie), dancing to "Love Hurts" by Nazareth.
I Know Who Killed Me (2007) stars Lindsay Lohan as Dakota Moss, an alluring stripper involved in the machinations of a serial killer, and features a long striptease sequence at a strip club. In Planet Terror (2007), Rose McGowan plays go-go dancer Cherry Darling who, after having her leg eaten by a zombie, uses an assault rifle as a prosthetic leg. In the two-part season 6 finale of Degrassi: The Next Generation, Alex Nunez resorts to stripping after she and her mother do not have enough money to pay the rent on their apartment. Darren Aronofsky's 2008 drama film The Wrestler features Marisa Tomei playing a stripper and single mother who is romantically pursued by professional wrestler Randy "The Ram" Robinson (Mickey Rourke). Tomei received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. Zombie Strippers (2008) chronicles a zombie virus that makes its way to a strip club. Barely Phyllis is a play on Phyllis Dixey which was first staged at the Pomegranate Theatre, Chesterfield in 2009. The Hangover (2009) features Heather Graham as a Las Vegas stripper and escort who marries Stu (Ed Helms) despite his plan to propose to his controlling girlfriend (Rachael Harris). She reprised her role in the sequel The Hangover III.
The seventh episode of season 6 of the CBS crime drama Criminal Minds focuses on the BAU team tracking down a trio of young men, one of whom is revealed to be the son of the sheriff leading the investigation, who kidnap, rape, and murder several exotic dancers in Indiana. The 2012 film Magic Mike and 2015 sequel Magic Mike XXL are fictionalized stories of the lives of several male performers. In We're the Millers (2013), Jennifer Aniston plays a stripper who is hired by her drug dealer neighbor to pose as his wife in order to smuggle marijuana from Mexico into America. Lap Dance (2014), which stars Briana Evigan and Carmen Electra, focuses on an aspiring actress who makes a pact with her husband to take a job as an exotic dancer so she can make money to care for her cancer-stricken father. It is based on the true story of the film's director Greg Carter. Dixieland (2015) involves Riley Keough as a stripper making money to support her sick mother and is also being abused by her manager. In the TV series La que se avecina, Lola Reynolds (played by Macarena Gómez), changes her job and works as a stripper after know she will earn more money.
Music and spoken word
Strippers have been the inspiration for a number of musical artists, with several of the songs resulting in hit singles. An instrumental, "The Stripper", was a No. 1 hit on the U.S. pop singles charts for David Rose and His Orchestra in 1962. That song pre-dated the opening of what is considered to be the first modern strip club, Condor Club on Broadway in the U.S. city of San Francisco, California. "Private Dancer" by Tina Turner was an international hit and her second highest charting single reaching No. 7 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Girls, Girls, Girls" by Mötley Crüe was also a Top 20 hit on the U.S. charts.
T-Pain had a No. 5 hit on the Billboard chats with "I'm 'n Luv (Wit a Stripper)" in 2006. Hip hop artist Flo Rida had two No. 1 hits in the U.S. in the 2000s with "Right Round" and "Low". For both hip-hop artists, the depictions of strippers and expressions of lust are far more explicit than in songs released in earlier music eras. This is not limited to hip-hop, with contemporary songs in other styles of music sharing similar traits. "Worked Up So Sexual" by The Faint is graphic in its depiction of dancer rivalry (older dancers gag at what new talent seems to mean, smaller tits and younger limbs) and customers longing to bed them. Public acceptance of the music has not faltered, and many dancers perform to these and other songs depicting women in subjectively negative ways while on stage.
Video games
Duke Nukem 3D, released in 1996, became the original pioneer video game for the inclusion of strippers. Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (2004) was the first video game of the saga to include strippers. Grand Theft Auto IV (2008) includes a strip club where the player can mingle with the strippers. In Grand Theft Auto V (2013) the character can visit Vanila Unicorn and takes lap dances with the strippers. In the online version, the player can flirt with the stripper by using their voice on the microphone.
Legal issues
From ancient times to the present day, striptease has been considered a form of public nudity and subject to legal and cultural prohibitions on moral and decency grounds.
Laws and court cases
Many U.S. jurisdictions have specific laws on the books related to striptease, with more being added increasing both complexity of enforcement and impact. For example, the classification of dancers as independent contractors has been challenged in court, successfully in Massachusetts in 2009. One of the more notorious local ordinances is San Diego Municipal Code 33.3610, specific and strict in response to allegations of corruption among local officials which included contacts in the nude entertainment industry. Among its provisions is the "six foot rule", copied by other municipalities in requiring that dancers maintain a six-foot distance while performing.
Touching of performers is illegal in many U.S. states. However, some dancers and some clubs condone touching of dancers during private dances. This touching often includes the fondling of breasts, buttocks, and in rare cases the vaginal region. In some locales, dancers may give a customer a "lap dance", whereby the dancer grinds against the customer's crotch while they are fully clothed in an attempt to arouse them or bring them to climax. Other rules forbid "full nudity". In some parts of the USA, there are laws forbidding the exposure of female nipples, which have thus to be covered by pasties by the dancer (though not applied to the exposure of male nipples). In early 2010, the U.S. city of Detroit, Michigan banned fully exposed breasts in its strip clubs, following the example of Houston, Texas who began enforcing a similar ordinance in 2008. The Detroit city council has since softened the rules eliminating the requirement for pasties but kept other restrictions. Both municipalities were reputed to have rampant occurrences of illicit activity including prostitution linked to its striptease establishments within their city limits.
In Britain in the 1930s, when the Windmill Theatre, London, began to present nude shows, British law prohibited performers moving whilst in a state of nudity. To get around that rule, models appeared naked in stationary tableaux vivants. To keep within the law, sometimes devices were used which rotated the models without them moving themselves. Fan dances were another device used to keep performances within the law. These allowed a naked dancer's body to be concealed by her fans or those of her attendants, until the end of an act, when she posed naked for a brief interval whilst standing stock still, and the lights went out or the curtain dropped to allow her to leave the stage.
In 2010, Iceland outlawed striptease. Johanna Sigurðardottir, Iceland's prime minister, said: "The Nordic countries are leading the way on women's equality, recognizing women as equal citizens rather than commodities for sale." The politician behind the bill, Kolbrún Halldórsdóttir, said: "It is not acceptable that women or people in general are a product to be sold."
Collective bargaining
As the sex industry has grown and become a more established sector of national economies, sex workers—strippers included—have mobilized to negotiate or demand workplace rights. One means of collectivization pursued by strippers is the formation of labor unions, which involves formal membership. These strippers' unions have tended to focus on economic and workers' rights rather than civil rights, which constitutes a significant departure from the advocacy groups for prostitutes' rights that began in the 1970s and 1980s. The stigma attached to sex work also creates another obstacle to organization because many strippers and other types of sex workers are uncomfortable with declaring their profession publicly, even in a movement to improve their work environment and benefits.
One potential critique of the organization of strippers and sex workers of other types is that people in management positions in these industries, who are in a position to perpetuate the exploitation that sex workers face, can infiltrate these labor organizations and lobby for the maintenance of a status quo.
Australia
The Striptease Artists of Australia formed in 2002. The SAA successfully negotiated an industrial award with the AIRC in 2006. Despite this establishment of an industry-wide minimum standard for labor rights, changes to employment legislature under a Conservative government enabled employers to utilize loopholes such as employing strippers as sub-contractors.
Another group, the Scarlet Alliance has been involved in advocacy and projects geared towards improving the standing of sex workers since its inception in 1989. While labor rights are an important part of this group's agenda, it is not a labor union.
Britain
The International Union of Sex Workers is a branch of the GMB, a major general union in Great Britain.
Canada
In the 1980s, the Vancouver Exotic Dancers Alliance formed and was active for about a decade. The Canadian Guild for Erotic Labour was established in 2004.
United States
The Lusty Lady of San Francisco is a notable example of collectivization of strippers in the U.S. When the strippers of the establishment successfully unionized in 1996 through the Erotic Dancers' Alliance, the owners of the club closed it. In response, the strippers formed a cooperative in 2003 to run the club themselves, now renamed the Looking Glass Collective.
See also
References
Further reading
Details.
External links
Erotic dancers
Human sexuality
Nudity
Sex industry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius%20Sulpicius%20Galba%20Maximus
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Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus
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Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus (fl. late 3rd to early 2nd century BC) was a Roman military officer and Senator who was elected Roman consul twice, and appointed dictator once. He fought in the Second Punic War and the First and Second Macedonian Wars.
First consulship and the First Macedonian War
A member of the Patrician gens Sulpicia, Sulpicius Galba was the son of Servius Sulpicius Galba. Although he had held no previous curule magistracy, the crisis of the Second Punic War saw him elected consul in 211 BC, alongside Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus Maximus. Entering his office on the Ides of March, both consuls defended the city of Rome against a surprise attack by the Carthaginian general Hannibal.
Once the immediate crisis abated, and Hannibal retreated back to the south of Italy, provinces were allotted to the consuls. Although both were assigned to Apulia, the Senate, believing that Hannibal no longer posed a grave threat, decreed that one of the consuls only should remain in Apulia, and that the other should be assigned Macedonia for his province. When lots were drawn as to who was to leave Apulia, Sulpicius Galba was appointed proconsul in Macedonia, succeeding Marcus Valerius Laevinus. There he continued fighting the First Macedonian War against Philip V of Macedon.
In early 210 BC, at the end of his consulship, his imperium was prolonged for another year, but due to the exaggerated reports which Laevinus had made of his own achievements during his proconsulship, Sulpicius Galba was ordered to disband his army, and retained the command of only one legion and of the socii navales (or the local fleet), and he was given a sum of money to ensure his troops were well supplied and provisioned. Given the size of his forces, Sulpicius Galba could not do much in 210 BC, but he did achieve the feat of leading the first Roman fleet into the Aegean Sea and capturing Aegina, which was plundered and given to the Aetolians, who were allied with the Romans. That same year he unsuccessfully tried to relieve Echinus, which was besieged by Philip of Macedon.
For the following year (209 BC), his imperium was again prolonged, with Macedonia and Greece as his provinces. Besides allying themselves with the Aetolian League, the Romans also allied themselves with Attalus I of Pergamon against Philip. Galba provided 1,000 Romans to help the Aetolians in the First Battle of Lamia, while he himself was stationed at Naupactus. When Philip appeared at Dyme on his march against Elis, Galba had landed with fifteen of his ships on the northern coast of the Peloponnesus, where his soldiers were ravaging and plundering the country. However, Philip's sudden arrival forced them to return to their camp at Naupactus. When Philip was forced to return to Macedon, which was threatened with an invasion by some neighbouring tribes, Galba sailed to Aegina, where he joined the fleet of Attalus, and where both took up their winter quarters.
In the spring of 208 BC, Galba and Attalus united their fleets of sixty ships in a joint operation, sailed to Lemnos, while Philip pulled together all of his resources to prepare for the expected assault. Attalus attacked Peparethus, and then crossed with Galba over to Nicaea. From there they moved to Euboea, to attack the town of Oreus, which was occupied by a Macedonian garrison, but was betrayed from within and surrendered to Galba. Encouraged by this easy conquest, he also made an attempt to take Chalcis, but found it was too difficult a task. He therefore sailed to Kynos, a port town of Locris. With Attalus being driven back to Asia Minor, Galba returned to Aegina, and remained in Greece for the remainder of his proconsulship, during which time he gave little further assistance to the Aetolian League in their war against Philip. In 205 BC, he was replaced as proconsul in Greece by Publius Sempronius Tuditanus.
Dictatorship, second consulship and the Second Macedonian War
In 203 BC, Sulpicius Galba was appointed Dictator, with Marcus Servilius Pulex Geminus appointed his Master of the Horse. Galba was given the task of holding the comitia elections and to possibly prevent the consul Gnaeus Servilius Caepio from crossing over to Africa to confront Hannibal. He also spent the rest of the year investigating cities and prominent individuals who had been alienated by the war with Carthage.
In 200 BC, Sulpicius Galba was elected consul for a second time, this time with Gaius Aurelius Cotta as his colleague. During his consulship, he pushed to secure a renewal of the war against Philip V of Macedon. The people at Rome were very unhappy with a fresh war being undertaken before they had been able to recover from the ravages of the Second Punic War. When the prospect of war was proposed to the Roman assembly, it was rejected. However, Sulpicius reconvened the Assembly and made a speech warning the Roman people against ignoring the threat of Philip V. Fearing that Philip would come to invade Italy like Pyrrhus or Hannibal, the Assembly gave their assent and the Second Macedonian War against Philip was launched. When the consuls drew their lots for their consular commands, Galba once again obtained Macedonia as his province.
Galba was permitted to recruit from the army which Scipio Africanus had brought back from Africa any that were willing to serve again, but none of those veterans were to be compelled. After having selected his men and his ships, he sailed from Brundisium and landed at Apollonia, as per the plan to invade Macedonia from the west. On his arrival he met some Athenian ambassadors, who asked for his protection against the Macedonians, and he at once sent Gaius Claudius Centho with 20 ships and 1,000 men to their assistance. However, as the autumn was approaching when Galba arrived in his province, he took up his winter quarters in the vicinity of Apollonia.
In the spring of 199 BC, Sulpicius Galba advanced with his army through the lands of the Dassaretii, where all the towns and villages along his route surrendered to him, with only a few being taken by force. Both Philip and Galba were ignorant of each other's movements, until Macedonian and Roman scouting parties encountered each other by accident, during which a skirmish took place. Near the passes of Eordaia the two armies set up camp some distance from each other, and several minor engagements took place, in one of which the Romans sustained considerable losses. This was followed by a cavalry engagement, in which the Romans were again beaten, but the Macedonians, who were too eager in their pursuit of the enemy, suddenly found themselves attacked on their flanks, and were forced to retreat, during which Philip nearly lost his life.
Immediately after this defeat Philip sent a messenger to Galba to ask for a truce; the Roman commander deferred his decision till the next day, but during the night Philip and his army secretly left the camp, without the Romans knowing in which direction Philip had gone. After having stayed for a few days longer, Galba marched towards Pluvina, and then set up his camp on the banks of the river Osphagus, not far from the place where Philip had established his camp. Here Galba spent his time securing the territory and taking a number of towns, but did not directly engage Philip in battle. In the autumn Galba went back with his army to Apollonia. Although the campaign was considered only a minor military success, it did convince the Aetolians to ally with Rome.
In 198 BC, Sulpicius Galba was replaced in Macedonia by Publius Villius Tappulus, whereupon he returned to Rome. Then in 197 BC, both he and Villius Tappulus were appointed legates under Titus Quinctius Flamininus in Macedonia. In the next year (196 BC), when it was decreed at Rome that ten senatorial commissioners should be sent to help Flamininus settle political issues in Greece, as well as arrange a treaty between Rome and Macedonia, Galba and Tappulus were ordered to act as two of those commissioners. In 195 BC, he may have accompanied Tappulus on his mission to report on the aggressive movements of Antiochus III the Great.
In 193 BC, Galba was sent as an ambassador to Antiochus III along with Villius Tappulus. They first stopped to have discussions with Eumenes II of Pergamon, as they had been ordered, where the king urged the Romans to attack Antiochus at once. While staying at Pergamon, Galba fell ill. Once he had recovered, he and Tappulus travelled to Ephesus, where, instead of Antiochus, they met with Minion, whom the king had granted with full power to negotiate with the Romans. After futile negotiations, Galba returned to Rome, whereupon the Senate decided to declare war against Antiochus III, launching the Roman-Syrian War.
Sources
Broughton, T. Robert S., The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol I (1951)
Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol. II (1867)
Livy, "History of Rome"
References
3rd-century BC births
2nd-century BC deaths
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Ancient Roman dictators
Ancient Roman generals
3rd-century BC Roman consuls
Senators of the Roman Republic
2nd-century BC Roman consuls
Maximus, Publius
First Macedonian War
Second Macedonian War
2nd-century BC diplomats
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20Domesticity
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Culture of Domesticity
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The Culture of Domesticity (often shortened to Cult of Domesticity) or Cult of True Womanhood is a term used by historians to describe what they consider to have been a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the 19th century in the United States. This value system emphasized new ideas of femininity, the woman's role within the home and the dynamics of work and family. "True women", according to this idea, were supposed to possess four cardinal virtues: piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness. The idea revolved around the woman being the center of the family; she was considered "the light of the home".
The women and men who most actively promoted these standards were generally white and Protestant; the most prominent of them lived in New England and the Northeastern United States. Although all women were supposed to emulate this ideal of femininity, black, working class, and immigrant women were often excluded from the definition of "true women" because of social prejudice.
Since the idea was first advanced by Barbara Welter in 1966, many historians have argued that the subject is far more complex and nuanced than terms such as "Cult of Domesticity" or "True Womanhood" suggest, and that the roles played by and expected of women within the middle-class, 19th-century context were quite varied and often contradictory. For example, it has been argued that much of what has been considered as anti-feminist in the past, in fact, helped lead to feminism.
Virtues
Part of the separate spheres ideology, the "Cult of Domesticity" identified the home as a woman's "proper sphere". Women were supposed to inhabit the private sphere, running the household and production of food (including servants), rearing the children, and taking care of the husband. According to Barbara Welter (1966), "True Women" were to hold and practice the four cardinal virtues:
Piety – Religion was valued because—unlike intellectual pursuits—it did not take a woman away from her "proper sphere," the home, and because it controlled women's longings.
Purity – Virginity, a woman's greatest treasure, must not be lost until her marriage night, and a married woman had to remain committed only to her husband.
Submission – True women were required to be as submissive and obedient "as little children" because men were regarded as women's superiors "by God's appointment".
Domesticity – A woman's proper place was in the home and her role as a wife was to create a refuge for her husband and children. Cooking, needlework, making beds, and tending flowers were considered naturally feminine activities, whereas reading anything other than religious biographies was discouraged.
According to Welter, an ideal True Woman was "frail", too mentally and physically weak to leave her home. The care of her home supposedly made her feminine, and she depended on men to protect her within the shelter of it. Wilma Mankiller agrees, claiming that a "True Woman" was expected to be delicate, soft, and weak. She should not engage in strenuous physical activity that would damage her “much more delicate nervous system."
Frances B. Cogan, however, described an overlapping but competing ideology that she called the ideal of "Real Womanhood," in which women were encouraged to be physically fit and active, involved in their communities, well educated, and artistically accomplished, although usually within the broader idea that women were best suited to the domestic sphere. The conflation of "Domesticity" and "True Womanhood" can be misleading in that dedication to the domestic sphere did not necessarily imply purity, submission, or weakness.
The characteristics of "True Womanhood" were described in sermons, books, and religious texts as well as women's magazines. Prescriptive literature advised women on how to transform their homes into domestic sanctuaries for their husbands and children. Fashion was also stressed because a woman had to stay up to date in order to please her husband. Instructions for seamstresses were often included in magazines. Magazines which promoted the values of the "Cult of Domesticity" fared better financially than those competing magazines which offered a more progressive view in terms of women's roles. In the United States, Peterson's Magazine and Godey's Lady's Book were the most widely circulated women's magazines and were popular among both women and men. With a circulation of 150,000 by 1860, Godey's reflected and supported some of the ideals of the "Cult of True Womanhood." The magazine's paintings and pictures illustrated the four virtues, often showing women with children or behind husbands. It also equated womanhood with motherhood and being a wife, declaring that the "perfection of womanhood (...) is the wife and mother". The magazine presented motherhood as a woman's natural and most satisfying role and encouraged women to find their fulfillment and their contributions to society mainly within the home. At the same time, the long-time editor of Godey's, Sarah Josepha Hale, encouraged women to improve themselves intellectually, to write, and to take action that would improve the moral character of their communities and their nation. Hale promoted Vassar College, advocated for female physicians, and published many of the most important female writers of the 19th century. Frances B. Cogan argued that Godey's supported "Real Womanhood" more than "True Womanhood." Reflecting the ideals of both "True Womanhood" and "Real Womanhood," Godey's considered mothers as crucial in preserving the memory of the American Revolution and in securing its legacy by raising the next generation of citizens.
Influence on society
The Cult of Domesticity affected married women's labor market participation in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. "True Women" were supposed to devote themselves to unpaid domestic labor and refrain from paid, market-oriented work. Consequently, in 1890, 4.5% of all married women were "gainfully employed," compared with 40.5% of single women. Women's complete financial dependence upon their husbands proved disastrous, however, when wives lost their husbands through death or desertion and were forced to fend for themselves and their children. This division between the domestic and public spheres had effects on women's power and status. In the society as a whole, particularly in political and economic arenas, women's power declined. Within the home, however, they gained symbolic power.
The legal implications of this ideology included the passage of protective labor laws, which also limited women's employment opportunities outside the home. These laws, as well as subsequent Supreme Court rulings such as Muller v. Oregon, were based on the assumption that women's primary role was that of mother and wife, and that women's non-domestic work should not interfere with their primary function. As a result, women's working hours were limited and night work for women was prohibited, essentially costing many female workers their jobs and excluding them from many occupations.
The Cult of Domesticity "privatized" women's options for work, for education, for voicing opinions, or for supporting reform. Arguments of significant biological differences between the sexes (and often of female inferiority) led to pronouncements that women were incapable of effectively participating in the realms of politics, commerce, or public service. Women were seen as better suited to parenting. Also, because of the expected behaviors, women were assumed to make better teachers of younger children. Catharine Beecher, who proselytised about the importance of education and parenting, once said, "Woman's great mission is to train immature, weak, and ignorant creatures [children] to obey the laws of God...first in the family, then in the school, then in the neighborhood, then in the nation, then in the world...." One of the first public jobs for women was teaching. One estimate says that, with the growth of public education in the northern tier of states, one-quarter of all native-born Massachusetts women in the years between 1825 and 1860 were schoolteachers at some point in their lives.
Connection to the women's movement
Women's rights advocates of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Frances Wright, and Harriet Martineau, were widely accused of disrupting the natural order of things and condemned as unfeminine. "They are only semi-women, mental hermaphrodites," wrote Henry F. Harrington in the Ladies' Companion. However, after the Jacksonian era (1812 to 1850) saw the expansion of voting rights to virtually all white males in the United States, many women believed it was their opportunity for increased civil liberties. Early feminist opposition to many of the values promoted by the Cult of Domesticity (especially concerning women's suffrage, political activism, and legal independence) culminated in the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.
Susan M. Cruea postulated that although the "Cult of True Womanhood" set many societal restrictions that took away women's working rights and freedom, it nonetheless laid the groundwork for the later development of feminism by crediting women with a moral authority which implicitly empowered them to extend their moral influence outside the home. The ideal woman was expected to act as a status symbol for men and reflect her husband's wealth and success, and was to create babies and care for them so that her husband's legacy of success would continue, but she was also seen as the "Angel in the House" whose purpose was to guide her family morally. Because of the perceived importance of the role, this ideology was imprinted on girls at a very young age; these girls were taught to value their virginity as the "'pearl of great price' which was her greatest asset" and to develop the skills to manage a household and rear children, but they were also taught to see themselves as "a pillar of strength and virtue" who was key not only in providing her husband a proper image but in raising boys who would later have a direct impact on the success of the nation.
During the Progressive Era, the ideal of the New Woman emerged as a response to the Cult of True Womanhood. The New Woman, frequently associated with the suffrage movement, represented an ideal of femininity which was strongly opposed to the values of the Cult of True Womanhood. With demands expressed in the Declaration of Sentiments, written at the Seneca Falls convention in 1848, women finally gained ratification of a constitutional amendment and the right to vote in 1920. After emancipation, these New Women could be identified by as "cigarette-smoking, lipsticked and rouged, jazz-dancing, birth-control-using types known as 'modern girls' or flappers."
The Second World War brought about a restructuring of the labor market as women stepped into the war effort on the home front. In the era after the end of the Second World War, many of the ideas of the "Cult of Domesticity" were stressed again as American society sought to integrate veterans and emphasize the revival of family life. Once the troops returned home, men were encouraged to embrace family life and enter companionship marriages. Veterans returned home to be the head of the family and women who had been involved in high-paying and high-skilled wartime jobs were pushed back into the home. The remaking of the private life was central to this era. Anti-communist sentiments structured much of the American life, emphasizing the free enterprise system which brought about a period of economic prosperity and a consumer culture.
In the 1950s, American television shows often presented series that depicted fictional families in which the mother's primary work was to raise the children and run the household. Men's and women's spheres were increasingly separated as many families lived in suburban settings, from which men commuted to other cities for work. However, this image of separate spheres disguised the reality that all groups of women continued to work for pay; many did not stop working after the men returned home from the war, they were instead forced into lower-paying jobs. Wages were low and there was little room for advancement. Women that did enter into professional fields were under intense scrutiny for going against the feminine domestic ideal. Despite neo-domestic ideals, many middle-class mothers were burdened by women's double shift of working in the home and also a job. At the same time, women had independent lives during the day and were often active in volunteer and community activities, particularly around issues of education, health, children, and welfare. The "Cult of Domesticity" paved the way for the nuclear family. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique summed up the expectations of female nature of this time, with a focus on "consumerism, sexualized marriage, and civic activism." Opposition to those ideas influenced the second wave of feminism.
Domesticity representation in media
Domesticity and media have always been interconnected. One of the first films ever shown was a family centered piece entitled, or "Baby's Meal". This 1895 Lumière brothers film depicted a French couple feeding their infant breakfast. Older content including domestic themes, often served to represent white, nuclear, families and female-centered tropes, the "women's weepie" being one common trope, in which mothers sacrificed their own personal identity and well being in order to provide for their children. This is a drastic difference from the "femme fatale" trope which demonstrates a rejection of domestic life and family connection in favor of romance, sexuality, danger, and drama. There are more inclusive representations of domesticity in today's media versus the more limited, heteronormative examples of the past.
Domesticity has long served as a home base for discussions on polarizing subjects. Sexuality, politics, gender, race, all are seen in domestic centric content. It is also seen across every genre. Comedy, drama, talk, reality, horror, all are well represented. Family life, relationships, in addition to other domestic themes are amongst the most popular with consumers as well. Proven by programming such as Modern Family, which was one of the highest grossing shows during its run on air. Media of the mid-20th century produced shows such as Leave It to Beaver, which presented a cliché example of the nuclear family.
With the entrance of women into the workforce, the increase of divorce rates, and rise of single parents, themes of typical domesticity became less widely applicable. Shows like The Fosters, which highlighted blended families, became more common.
With lowering societal expectations of the nuclear family being the common end goal of most people, Western media made way for the depiction of "chosen families", or non-biological groups who provide support in a familial way. These groups are commonly, but not limited, to LGBTQ+ centered programming. Examples include the central friendship group of Friends or even the science fiction show The Mandalorian, where the main character takes in a foreign creature as his own. The genre of science fiction is far from removed from including its own domestic themes; an example would be Buffy the Vampire Slayer, where the main character of Buffy is framed as a tough, strong, action hero who also values the domestic feminity of being a young woman.
In another contrast from the outdated nuclear family structure, there is much more representation of people of color in modern domestic media content, though this is often limited and stereotypical in presentation, particularly for women of color. Today, more powerful, successful, black families are at the core of some of the most popular modern programs such as Empire.
LGBTQ+ themes are also expanding the present media displays of domesticity. Programming such as Queer Eye demonstrate this through a blend of typical domestic representation such as home design, self presentation, and interracial queer representation.
The heteronormative qualities displayed in early domestic values were also challenged in the show Transparent, where one parent reveals they are transgender and decides to transition whilst managing a family life. Representation of transgender identities are becoming more frequent in media. Even family lifestyle network, TLC airs a popular show, I Am Jazz about a transgender teenager and her family. Though the introduction of a transgender lead may be a relatively new idea, the themes discussed are no different than seen in most family programming, such as dating, crushes, school, and dealing with sibling relationships.
Workplaces are another common setting in which similar themes are seen. Coworkers often behave in a familial manner and have unique interpersonal connections. This interpretation of domesticity has become permanently embedded into popular culture with cult favorites like The Office, Parks and Recreation, Grey’s Anatomy, Mad Men. With households working more combined hours than ever before, workplaces sometimes serve as social support, especially when home life is less than ideal. Classic domestic themes like relationship disputes or love do not have to be limited to the biological family.
In a large departure from the traditional domestic value of purity, modern media has shone a light upon the traditionally taboo topic of teen pregnancy. The emergence of this theme was seen in films such as Juno, or the controversial MTV series 16 and Pregnant; which, amongst the topic of teen pregnancy, also discussed safe sex and adoption. The show, whilst modern in its nature, also connects to traditional domestic themes such as purity. It promotes the importance of young women patrolling their bodies and the notion of being a good mother as most important over education or social activities.
Within the intersection of domesticity and media, traditional domestic values are not erased, but rather expanded to include modern representations. Home life, sexuality, and independence are now being reflected by the diversity in media rather than restricted to limited representation.
See also
Father Knows Best
Gender role
Girl next door
Glass ceiling
Good Wife, Wise Mother
Home economics
Ideal womanhood
Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl
Kinder, Küche, Kirche
María Clara
Martha Stewart
Molly Mormon
Motherhood
New Woman
Separate Spheres
The Angel in the House
The Feminine Mystique
The Stepford Wives
Yamato nadeshiko
References
Notes
<li>The home and the idea of domesticity were so important in 19th-century culture that historians speak of the "cult" of domesticity. The phrase "True Womanhood" was used by mid-19th-century authors who wrote about the subject of women.
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Catherine Lavender, "Notes on The Cult of Domesticity and True Womanhood"
PBS: Cult of True Womanhood
National Humanities Center sources on the Cult of Domesticity
Women's rights in Europe
Women's rights in the Americas
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapeshifting
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Shapeshifting
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In mythology, folklore and speculative fiction, shapeshifting is the ability to physically transform oneself through an inherently superhuman ability, divine intervention, demonic manipulation, sorcery, spells or having inherited the ability. The idea of shapeshifting is in the oldest forms of totemism and shamanism, as well as the oldest existent literature and epic poems such as the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Iliad. The concept remains a common literary device in modern fantasy, children's literature and popular culture.
Folklore and mythology
Popular shapeshifting creatures in folklore are werewolves and vampires (mostly of European, Canadian, and Native American/early American origin), the huli jing of East Asia (including the Japanese kitsune and Korean kumiho), and the gods, goddesses, and demons of numerous mythologies, such as the Norse Loki or the Greek Proteus. Shapeshifting to the form of a gray wolf is specifically known as lycanthropy, and such creatures who undergo such change are called lycanthropes. Therianthropy is the more general term for human-animal shifts, but it is rarely used in that capacity. It was also common for deities to transform mortals into animals and plants.
Other terms for shapeshifters include metamorph, the Navajo skin-walker, mimic, and therianthrope. The prefix "were-", coming from the Old English word for "man" (masculine rather than generic), is also used to designate shapeshifters; despite its root, it is used to indicate female shapeshifters as well.
While the popular idea of a shapeshifter is of a human being who turns into something else, there are numerous stories about animals that can transform themselves as well.
Greco-Roman
Examples of shapeshifting in classical literature include many examples in Ovid's Metamorphoses, Circe's transforming of Odysseus' men to pigs in Homer's The Odyssey, and Apuleius's Lucius becoming a donkey in The Golden Ass. Proteus was noted among the gods for his shapeshifting; both Menelaus and Aristaeus seized him to win information from him, and succeeded only because they held on during his various changes. Nereus told Heracles where to find the Apples of the Hesperides for the same reason.
The Titan Metis, the first wife of Zeus and the mother of the goddess Athena, was believed to be able to change her appearance into anything she wanted. In one story, she was so proud, that her husband, Zeus, tricked her into changing into a fly. He then swallowed her because he feared that he and Metis would have a son who would be more powerful than Zeus himself. Metis, however, was already pregnant. She stayed alive inside his head and built armor for her daughter. The banging of her metalworking made Zeus have a headache, so Hephaestus clove his head with an axe. Athena sprang from her father's head, fully grown, and in battle armor.
In Greek mythology, the transformation is often a punishment from the gods to humans who crossed them.
Zeus transformed King Lycaon and his children into wolves (hence lycanthropy) as a punishment for either killing Zeus' children or serving him the flesh of Lycaon's own murdered son Nyctimus, depending on the exact version of the myth.
Ares assigned Alectryon to keep watch for the other gods during his affair with Aphrodite, but Alectryon fell asleep, leading to their discovery and humiliation that morning. Ares turned Alectryon into a rooster, which always crows to signal the morning.
Demeter transformed Ascalabus into a lizard for mocking her sorrow and thirst during her search for her daughter Persephone. She also turned King Lyncus into a lynx for trying to murder her prophet Triptolemus.
Athena transformed Arachne into a spider for challenging her as a weaver and/or weaving a tapestry that insulted the gods. She also turned Nyctimene into an owl, though in this case it was an act of mercy, as the girl wished to hide from the daylight out of shame from being raped by her father.
Artemis transformed Actaeon into a stag for spying on her bathing, and he was later devoured by his own hunting dogs.
Galanthis was transformed into a weasel or cat after interfering in Hera's plans to hinder the birth of Heracles.
Atalanta and Hippomenes were turned into lions after making love in a temple dedicated to Zeus or Cybele.
Io was a priestess of Hera in Argos, a nymph who was raped by Zeus, who changed her into a heifer to escape detection.
Hera punished young Tiresias by transforming him into a woman and, seven years later, back into a man.
King Tereus, his wife Procne and her sister Philomela were all turned into birds (a hoopoe, a swallow and a nightingale respectively), after Tereus raped Philomela and cut out her tongue, and in revenge she and Procne served him the flesh of his murdered son Itys (who in some variants is resurrected as a goldfinch).
While the Greek gods could use transformation punitively – such as Medusa, turned to a monster for having sexual intercourse (raped in Ovid's version) with Poseidon in Athena's temple – even more frequently, the tales using it are of amorous adventure. Zeus repeatedly transformed himself to approach mortals as a means of gaining access:
Danaë as a shower of gold
Europa as a bull
Leda as a swan
Ganymede, as an eagle
Alcmene as her husband Amphitryon
Hera as a cuckoo
Leto as a quail
Semele as a mortal shepherd
Io, as a cloud
Nemesis (Goddess of retribution) transformed into a goose to escape Zeus' advances, but he turned into a swan. She later bore the egg in which Helen of Troy was found.
Vertumnus transformed himself into an old woman to gain entry to Pomona's orchard; there, he persuaded her to marry him.
In other tales, the woman appealed to other gods to protect her from rape, and was transformed (Daphne into laurel, Cornix into a crow). Unlike Zeus and other gods' shapeshifting, these women were permanently metamorphosed.
In one tale, Demeter transformed herself into a mare to escape Poseidon, but Poseidon counter-transformed himself into a stallion to pursue her, and succeeded in the rape. Caenis, having been raped by Poseidon, demanded of him that she be changed to a man. He agreed, and she became Caeneus, a form he never lost, except, in some versions, upon death.
As a final reward from the gods for their hospitality, Baucis and Philemon were transformed, at their deaths, into a pair of trees.
In some variants of the tale of Narcissus, he is turned into a narcissus flower.
Sometimes metamorphoses transformed objects into humans. In the myths of both Jason and Cadmus, one task set to the hero was to sow dragon's teeth; on being sown, they would metamorphose into belligerent warriors, and both heroes had to throw a rock to trick them into fighting each other to survive. Deucalion and Pyrrha repopulated the world after a flood by throwing stones behind them; they were transformed into people. Cadmus is also often known to have transformed into a dragon or serpent towards the end of his life. Pygmalion fell in love with Galatea, a statue he had made. Aphrodite had pity on him and transformed the stone to a living woman.
British and Irish
Fairies, witches, and wizards were all noted for their shapeshifting ability. Not all fairies could shapeshift, some having only the appearance of shapeshifting, through their power, called "glamour," to create illusions, and some were limited to changing their size, as with the spriggans, and others to a few forms. But others, such as the Hedley Kow, could change to many forms, and both human and supernatural wizards were capable of both such changes, and inflicting them on others.
Witches could turn into hares and in that form steal milk and butter.
Many British fairy tales, such as Jack the Giant Killer and The Black Bull of Norroway, feature shapeshifting.
Celtic mythology
Pwyll was transformed by Arawn into Arawn's own shape, and Arawn transformed himself into Pwyll's, so that they could trade places for a year and a day.
Llwyd ap Cil Coed transformed his wife and attendants into mice to attack a crop in revenge; when his wife is captured, he turned himself into three clergymen in succession to try to pay a ransom.
Math fab Mathonwy and Gwydion transform flowers into a woman named Blodeuwedd, and when she betrays her husband Lleu Llaw Gyffes, who is transformed into an eagle, they transform her again, into an owl.
Gilfaethwy committed rape on Goewin, Math fab Mathonwy's virgin footholder, with help from his brother Gwydion. Both were transformed into animals, for one year each. Gwydion was transformed into a stag, sow and wolf, and Gilfaethwy into a hind, boar and she-wolf. Each year, they had a child. Math turned the three young animals into boys.
Gwion, having accidentally taken some of the wisdom potion that Ceridwen was brewing for her son, fled from her through a succession of changes that she answered with changes of her own, ending with his being eaten, a grain of corn, by her as a hen. She became pregnant, and he was reborn in a new form, as Taliesin.
Tales abound about the selkie, a seal that can remove its skin to make contact with humans for only a short amount of time before it must return to the sea. Clan MacColdrum of Uist's foundation myths include a union between the founder of the clan and a shapeshifting selkie. Another such creature is the Scottish selkie, which needs its sealskin to regain its form. In The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry the (male) selkie seduces a human woman. Such stories surrounding these creatures are usually romantic tragedies.
Scottish mythology features shapeshifters, which allows the various creatures to trick, deceive, hunt, and kill humans. Water spirits such as the each-uisge, which inhabit lochs and waterways in Scotland, were said to appear as a horse or a young man. Other tales include kelpies who emerge from lochs and rivers in the disguise of a horse or woman in order to ensnare and kill weary travelers. Tam Lin, a man captured by the Queen of the Fairies is changed into all manner of beasts before being rescued. He finally turned into a burning coal and was thrown into a well, whereupon he reappeared in his human form. The motif of capturing a person by holding him through all forms of transformation is a common thread in folktales.
Perhaps the best-known Irish myth is that of Aoife who turned her stepchildren, the Children of Lir, into swans to be rid of them. Likewise, in the Tochmarc Étaíne, Fuamnach jealously turns Étaín into a butterfly. The most dramatic example of shapeshifting in Irish myth is that of Tuan mac Cairill, the only survivor of Partholón's settlement of Ireland. In his centuries long life he became successively a stag, a wild boar, a hawk and finally a salmon prior to being eaten and (as in the Wooing of Étaín) reborn as a human.
The Púca is a Celtic faery, and also a deft shapeshifter. He can transform into many different, terrifying forms.
Sadhbh, the wife of the famous hero Fionn mac Cumhaill, was changed into a deer by the druid Fer Doirich when she spurned his amorous interests.
Norse
There is a significant amount of literature about shapeshifters that appear in a variety of Norse tales.
In the Lokasenna, Odin and Loki taunt each other with having taken the form of females and nursing offspring to which they had given birth. A 13th-century Edda relates Loki taking the form of a mare to bear Odin's steed Sleipnir which was the fastest horse ever to exist, and also the form of a she-wolf to bear Fenrir.
Svipdagr angered Odin, who turned him into a dragon. Despite his monstrous appearance, his lover, the goddess Freyja, refused to leave his side. When the warrior Hadding found and slew Svipdagr, Freyja cursed him to be tormented by a tempest and shunned like the plague wherever he went. In the Hyndluljóð, Freyja transformed her protégé Óttar into a boar to conceal him. She also possessed a cloak of falcon feathers that allowed her to transform into a falcon, which Loki borrowed on occasion.
The Volsunga saga contains many shapeshifting characters. Siggeir's mother changed into a wolf to help torture his defeated brothers-in-law with slow and ignominious deaths. When one, Sigmund, survived, he and his nephew and son Sinfjötli killed men wearing wolfskins; when they donned the skins themselves, they were cursed to become werewolves.
The dwarf Andvari is described as being able to magically turn into a pike. Alberich, his counterpart in Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen, using the Tarnhelm, takes on many forms, including a giant serpent and a toad, in a failed attempt to impress or intimidate Loki and Odin/Wotan.
Fafnir was originally a dwarf, a giant or even a human, depending on the exact myth, but in all variants he transformed into a dragon—a symbol of greed—while guarding his ill-gotten hoard. His brother, Ótr, enjoyed spending time as an otter, which led to his accidental slaying by Loki.
In Scandinavia, there existed, for example, the famous race of she-werewolves known with a name of Maras, women who took on the appearance of huge half-human and half-wolf monsters that stalked the night in search of human or animal prey. If a woman gives birth at midnight and stretches the membrane which envelopes the child when it is brought forth, between four sticks and creeps through it, naked, she will bear children without pain; but all the boys will be shamans, and all the girls Maras.
The Nisse is sometimes said to be a shapeshifter. This trait also is attributed to Hulder.
Gunnhild, Mother of Kings (Gunnhild konungamóðir) (c. 910 – c. 980), a quasi-historical figure who appears in the Icelandic Sagas, according to which she was the wife of Eric Bloodaxe, was credited with magic powers – including the power of shapeshifting
and turning at will into a bird. She is the central character of the novel Mother of Kings by Poul Anderson, which considerably elaborates on her shapeshifting abilities.
Other lore
Armenian
In Armenian mythology, shapeshifters include the Nhang, a serpentine river monster than can transform itself into a woman or seal, and will drown humans and then drink their blood; or the beneficial Shahapet, a guardian spirit that can appear either as a man or a snake.
Indian
Ancient Indian mythology tells of Nāga, snakes that can sometimes assume human form. Scriptures describe shapeshifting Rakshasa (demons) assuming animal forms to deceive humans. The Ramayana also includes the Vanara, a group of apelike humanoids who possessed supernatural powers and could change their shapes.
Yoginis were associated with the power of shapeshifting into female animals.
In the Indian fable The Dog Bride from Folklore of the Santal Parganas by Cecil Henry Bompas, a buffalo herder falls in love with a dog that has the power to turn into a woman when she bathes.
In Kerala, there was a legend about the Odiyan clan, who in Kerala folklore are men believed to possess shapeshifting abilities and can assume animal forms. Odiyans are said to have inhabited the Malabar region of Kerala before the widespread use of electricity.
Philippines
Philippine mythology includes the Aswang, a vampiric monster capable of transforming into a bat, a large black dog, a black cat, a black boar or some other form in order to stalk humans at night. The folklore also mentions other beings such as the Kapre, the Tikbalang and the Engkanto, which change their appearances to woo beautiful maidens. Also, talismans (called "anting-anting" or "birtud" in the local dialect), can give their owners the ability to shapeshift. In one tale, Chonguita the Monkey Wife, a woman is turned into a monkey, only becoming human again if she can marry a handsome man.
Tatar
Tatar folklore includes Yuxa, a hundred-year-old snake that can transform itself into a beautiful young woman, and seeks to marry men in order to have children.
Chinese
Chinese mythology contains many tales of animal shapeshifters, capable of taking on human form. The most common such shapeshifter is the huli jing, a fox spirit which usually appears as a beautiful young woman; most are dangerous, but some feature as the heroines of love stories. Madame White Snake is one such legend; a snake falls in love with a man, and the story recounts the trials that she and her husband faced.
Japanese
In Japanese folklore ōbake are a type of yōkai with the ability to shapeshift. The fox, or kitsune is among the most commonly known, but other such creatures include the bakeneko, the mujina and the tanuki.
Korean
Korean mythology also contains a fox with the ability to shapeshift. Unlike its Chinese and Japanese counterparts, the kumiho is always malevolent. Usually its form is of a beautiful young woman; one tale recounts a man, a would-be seducer, revealed as a kumiho. The kumiho has nine tails and as she desires to be a full human, she uses her beauty to seduce men and eat their hearts (or in some cases livers where the belief is that 100 livers would turn her into a real human).
Somali
In Somali mythology Qori ismaris ("One who rubs himself with a stick") was a man who could transform himself into a "Hyena-man" by rubbing himself with a magic stick at nightfall and by repeating this process could return to his human state before dawn.
Southern Africa
ǀKaggen is Mantis, a demi-urge and folk hero of the ǀXam people of southern Africa. He is a trickster god who can shape shift, usually taking the form of a praying mantis but also a bull eland, a louse, a snake, and a caterpillar.
Trinidad and Tobago
The Ligahoo or loup-garou is the shapeshifter of Trinidad and Tobago's folklore. This unique ability is believed to be handed down in some old creole families, and is usually associated with witch-doctors and practitioners of African magic.
Mapuche (Argentina and Chile)
The name of the Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina derives from the toponym of its major island in Mapudungun (Mapuche language): "Island of the Jaguar (or Puma)", from nahuel, "puma (or jaguar)", and huapí, "island". There is, however, more to the word "Nahuel" – it can also signify "a man who by sorcery has been transformed into a puma" (or jaguar).
Slavic Mythology
In Slavic Mythology, one of the main gods Veles was a shapeshifting god of animals, magic and the underworld. He was often represented as a bear, wolf, snake or owl. He also became a dragon while fighting Perun, the Slavic storm god.
Folktales
In the Finnish tale The Magic Bird, three young sorceresses attempt to murder a man who keeps reviving. His revenge is to turn them into three black mares and have them harnessed to heavy loads until he is satisfied.
In The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh, a Northumbrian legend from about the thirteenth century, Princess Margaret of Bamburgh is transformed into a dragon by her stepmother; her motive sprung, like Snow White's stepmother's, from the comparison of their beauty.
In Child ballad 35, "Allison Gross", the title witch turns a man into a wyrm for refusing to be her lover. This is a motif found in many legends and folktales.
In the German tale The Frog's Bridegroom, recorded by folklorist and ethnographer Gustav Jungbauer, the third of three sons of a farmer, Hansl, is forced to marry a frog, which eventually turns out to be a beautiful woman transformed by a spell.
In some variants of the fairy tales, both The Frog Prince or more commonly The Frog Princess and Beast, of Beauty and the Beast, are transformed as a form of punishment for some transgression. Both are restored to their true forms after earning a human's love despite their appearance.
In the most famous Lithuanian folk tale Eglė the Queen of Serpents, Eglė irreversibly transforms her children and herself into trees as a punishment for betrayal while her husband is able to reversibly morph into a serpent at will.
In East of the Sun and West of the Moon, the hero is transformed into a bear by his wicked stepmother, who wishes to force him to marry her daughter.
In The Marmot Queen by Italo Calvino, a Spanish queen is turned into a rodent by Morgan le Fay.
In The Mare of the Necromancer, a Turin Italian tale by Guido Gozzano, the Princess of Corelandia is turned into a horse by the baron necromancer for refusing to marry him. Only the love and intelligence of Candido save the princess from the spell.
The Deer in The Wood, a Neapolitan tale written by Giambattista Basile, describes the transformation of Princess Desiderata into a doe by a jealous fairy.
From a Croatian book of tales, Sixty Folk-Tales from Exclusively Slavonic Sources by A. H. Wratislaw, the fable entitled "The she-wolf" tells of a huge she-wolf with a habit of turning into a woman from time to time by taking off her skin. One day a man witnesses the transformation, steals her pelt and marries her.
The Merchant's Sons is a Finnish story of two brothers, one of whom tries to win the hand of the tsar's wicked daughter. The girl does not like her suitor and endeavors to have him killed, but he turns her into a beautiful mare which he and his brother ride. In the end he turns her back into a girl and marries her.
In Dapplegrim if the youth found the transformed princess twice, and hid from her twice, they would marry.
In literary fairy tale The Beggar Princess, in order to save her beloved prince, Princess Yvonne fulfills the tasks of cruel king Ironheart and is changed into an old woman.
Themes
Shapeshifting may be used as a plot device, such as when Puss in Boots in the fairy tales tricks the ogre into becoming a mouse to be eaten. Shapeshifting may also include symbolic significance, like the Beast's transformation in Beauty and the Beast indicates Belle's ability to accept him despite his appearance.
When a form is taken on involuntarily, the thematic effect can be one of confinement and restraint; the person is bound to the new form. In extreme cases, such as petrifaction, the character is entirely disabled. On the other hand, voluntary shapeshifting can be a means of escape and liberation. Even when the form is not undertaken to resemble a literal escape, the abilities specific to the form allow the character to act in a manner that was previously impossible.
Examples of this are in fairy tales. A prince who is forced into a bear's shape (as in East of the Sun and West of the Moon) is a prisoner, but a princess who takes on a bear's shape voluntarily to flee a situation (as in The She-Bear) escapes with her new shape. In the Earthsea books, Ursula K. Le Guin depicts an animal form as slowly transforming the wizard's mind, so that the dolphin, bear or other creature forgets it was human, making it impossible to change back. This makes an example for a voluntary shapeshifting becoming an imprisoning metamorphosis.
Beyond this, the uses of shapeshifting, transformation, and metamorphosis in fiction are as protean as the forms the characters take on. Some are rare, such as Italo Calvino's "The Canary Prince" is a Rapunzel variant in which shapeshifting is used to gain access to the tower.
Punitive changes
In many cases, imposed forms are punitive in nature. This may be a just punishment, the nature of the transformation matching the crime for which it occurs; in other cases, the form is unjustly imposed by an angry and powerful person. In fairy tales, such transformations are usually temporary, but they commonly appear as the resolution of myths (as in many of the Metamorphoses) or produce origin myths.
Transformation chase
In many fairy tales and ballads, as in Child Ballad #44, The Twa Magicians or Farmer Weathersky, a magical chase occurs where the pursued endlessly takes on forms in an effort to shake off the pursuer, and the pursuer answers with shapeshifting, as, a dove is answered with a hawk, and a hare with a greyhound. The pursued may finally succeed in escape or the pursuer in capturing.
The Grimm Brothers fairy tale Foundling-Bird contains this as the bulk of the plot. In the Italian Campania Fables collection of Pentamerone by Gianbattista Basile, tells of a Neapolitan princess who, to escape from her father who had imprisoned her, becomes a huge she-bear. The magic happens due to a potion given to her by an old witch. The girl, once gone, can regain her human aspect.
In other variants, the pursued may transform various objects into obstacles, as in the fairy tale "The Master Maid", where the Master Maid transforms a wooden comb into a forest, a lump of salt into a mountain, and a flask of water into a sea. In these tales, the pursued normally escapes after overcoming three obstacles. This obstacle chase is literally found worldwide, in many variants in every region.
In fairy tales of the Aarne–Thompson type 313A, The Girl Helps the Hero Flee, such a chase is an integral part of the tale. It can be either a transformation chase (as in The Grateful Prince, King Kojata, Foundling-Bird, Jean, the Soldier, and Eulalie, the Devil's Daughter, or The Two Kings' Children) or an obstacle chase (as in The Battle of the Birds, The White Dove, or The Master Maid).
In a similar effect, a captive may shapeshift in order to break a hold on him. Proteus and Nereus's shapeshifting was to prevent heroes such as Menelaus and Heracles from forcing information from them. Tam Lin, once seized by Janet, was transformed by the faeries to keep Janet from taking him, but as he had advised her, she did not let go, and so freed him. The motif of capturing a person by holding him through many transformations is found in folktales throughout Europe, and Patricia A. McKillip references it in her Riddle-Master trilogy: a shapeshifting Earthmaster finally wins its freedom by startling the man holding it.
Powers
One motif is a shape change in order to obtain abilities in the new form. Berserkers were held to change into wolves and bears in order to fight more effectively. In many cultures, evil magicians could transform into animal shapes and thus skulk about.
In many fairy tales, the hero's talking animal helper proves to be a shapeshifted human being, able to help him in its animal form. In one variation, featured in The Three Enchanted Princes and The Death of Koschei the Deathless, the hero's three sisters have been married to animals. These prove to be shapeshifted men, who aid their brother-in-law in a variant of tale types.
In an early Mayan text, the Shapeshifter, or Mestaclocan, has the ability to change his appearance and to manipulate the minds of animals. In one tale, the Mestaclocan finds a dying eagle. Changing into the form of an eagle, he convinces the dying bird that it is, in fact, not dying. As the story goes they both soar into the heavens, and lived together for eternity.
Bildungsroman
Beauty and the Beast has been interpreted as a young woman's coming-of-age, in which she changes from being repulsed by sexual activity and regarding a husband therefore bestial, to a mature woman who can marry.
Needed items
Some shapeshifters are able to change form only if they have some item, usually an article of clothing. In Bisclavret by Marie de France, a werewolf cannot regain human form without his clothing, but in wolf form does no harm to anyone. The most common use of this motif, however, is in tales where a man steals the article and forces the shapeshifter, trapped in human form, to become his bride. This lasts until she discovers where he has hidden the article, and she can flee. Selkies feature in these tales. Others include swan maidens and the Japanese tennin.
Swedish writer Selma Lagerlöf, in The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, included a version of the story with the typical elements (fisherman sees mermaids dancing on an island and steals the sealskin of one of them, preventing her from becoming a seal again so that he could marry her) and linked it to the founding of the city of Stockholm
Inner conflict
The power to externally transform can symbolize an internal savagery; a central theme in many strands of werewolf mythology, and the inversion of the "liberation" theme, as in Dr Jekyll's transformation into Mr. Hyde.
Usurpation
Some transformations are performed to remove the victim from his place, so that the transformer can usurp it. Bisclaveret's wife steals his clothing and traps him in wolf form because she has a lover. A witch, in The Wonderful Birch, changed a mother into a sheep to take her place, and had the mother slaughtered; when her stepdaughter married the king, the witch transformed her into a reindeer so as to put her daughter in the queen's place. In the Korean Transformation of the Kumiho, a kumiho, a fox with magical powers, transformed itself into an image of the bride, only being detected when her clothing is removed. In Brother and Sister, when two children flee from their cruel stepmother, she enchants the streams along the way to transform them. While the brother refrains from the first two, which threaten to turn them into tigers and wolves, he is too thirsty at the third, which turns him into a deer. The Six Swans are transformed into swans by their stepmother, as are the Children of Lir in Irish mythology.
Ill-advised wishes
Many fairy-tale characters have expressed ill-advised wishes to have any child at all, even one that has another form, and had such children born to them. At the end of the fairy tale, normally after marriage, such children metamorphose into human form. Hans My Hedgehog was born when his father wished for a child, even a hedgehog. Even stranger forms are possible: Giambattista Basile included in his Pentamerone the tale of a girl born as a sprig of myrtle, and Italo Calvino, in his Italian Folktales, a girl born as an apple.
Sometimes, the parent who wishes for a child is told how to gain one, but does not obey the directions perfectly, resulting in the transformed birth. In Prince Lindworm, the woman eats two onions, but does not peel one, resulting in her first child being a lindworm. In Tatterhood, a woman magically produces two flowers, but disobeys the directions to eat only the beautiful one, resulting her having a beautiful and sweet daughter, but only after a disgusting and hideous one.
Less commonly, ill-advised wishes can transform a person after birth. The Seven Ravens are transformed when their father thinks his sons are playing instead of fetching water to christen their newborn and sickly sister, and curses them. In Puddocky, when three princes start to quarrel over the beautiful heroine, a witch curses her because of the noise.
Monstrous bride/bridegroom
Such wished-for children may become monstrous brides or bridegrooms. These tales have often been interpreted as symbolically representing arranged marriages; the bride's revulsion to marrying a stranger being symbolized by his bestial form.
The heroine must fall in love with the transformed groom. The hero or heroine must marry, as promised, and the monstrous form is removed by the wedding. Sir Gawain thus transformed the Loathly lady; although he was told that this was half-way, she could at his choice be beautiful by day and hideous by night, or vice versa, he told her that he would choose what she preferred, which broke the spell entirely. In Tatterhood, Tatterhood is transformed by her asking her bridegroom why he didn't ask her why she rode a goat, why she carried a spoon, and why she was so ugly, and when he asked her, denying it and therefore transforming her goat into a horse, her spoon into a fan, and herself into a beauty. Puddocky is transformed when her prince, after she had helped him with two other tasks, tells him that his father has sent him for a bride. A similar effect is found in Child ballad 34, Kemp Owyne, where the hero can transform a dragon back into a maiden by kissing her three times.
Sometimes the bridegroom removes his animal skin for the wedding night, whereupon it can be burned. Hans My Hedgehog, The Donkey and The Pig King fall under this grouping. At an extreme, in Prince Lindworm, the bride who avoids being eaten by the lindworm bridegroom arrives at her wedding wearing every gown she owns, and she tells the bridegroom she will remove one of hers if he removes one of his; only when her last gown comes off has he removed his last skin, and become a white shape that she can form into a man.
In some tales, the hero or heroine must obey a prohibition; the bride must spend a period of time not seeing the transformed groom in human shape (as in East of the Sun and West of the Moon), or the bridegroom must not burn the animals' skins. In The Brown Bear of Norway, The Golden Crab, The Enchanted Snake and some variants of The Frog Princess, burning the skin is a catastrophe, putting the transformed bride or bridegroom in danger. In these tales, the prohibition is broken, invariably, resulting in a separation and a search by one spouse for the other.
Death
Ghosts sometimes appear in animal form. In The Famous Flower of Serving-Men, the heroine's murdered husband appears to the king as a white dove, lamenting her fate over his own grave. In The White and the Black Bride and The Three Little Men in the Wood, the murdered – drowned – true bride reappears as a white duck. In The Rose Tree and The Juniper Tree, the murdered children become birds who avenge their own deaths. There are African folk tales of murder victims avenging themselves in the form of crocodiles that can shapeshift into human form.
In some fairy tales, the character can reveal himself in every new form, and so a usurper repeatedly kills the victim in every new form, as in Beauty and Pock Face, A String of Pearls Twined with Golden Flowers, and The Boys with the Golden Stars. This eventually leads to a form in which the character (or characters) can reveal the truth to someone able to stop the villain.
Similarly, the transformation back may be acts that would be fatal. In The Wounded Lion, the prescription for turning the lion back into a prince was to kill him, chop him to pieces, burn the pieces, and throw the ash into water. Less drastic but no less apparently fatal, the fox in The Golden Bird, the foals in The Seven Foals, and the cats in Lord Peter and The White Cat tell the heroes of those stories to cut off their heads; this restores them to human shape. In the Greek tale of Scylla, Scylla's father Nisus turns into an eagle after death and drowns her daughter for betraying her father.
Modern
Fiction
In George MacDonald's The Princess and Curdie (1883) Curdie is informed that many human beings, by their acts, are slowly turning into beasts. Curdie is given the power to detect the transformation before it is visible, and is assisted by beasts that had been transformed and are working their way back to humanity.
L. Frank Baum concluded The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904) with the revelation that Princess Ozma, sought by the protagonists, had been turned into a boy as a baby, and that Tip (who had been searching for her) is that boy. He agrees to have the transformation reversed, but Glinda the Good disapproves of shapeshifting magic, so it is done by the evil witch Mombi.
The science fiction short story "Who Goes There?" written by John W. Campbell (later adapted to film as The Thing from Another World and The Thing) concerns a shapeshifting alien lifeform that can assume the form and memories of any creature it absorbs.
T. H. White, in the 1938 book The Sword in the Stone, has Merlin and Madam Mim fight a wizards' duel, in which the duelists would endlessly transform until one was in a form that could destroy the other. He also had Merlin transform Arthur into various animals as an educational experience.
In C. S. Lewis' The Chronicles of Narnia, Eustace Scrubb transforms into a dragon, and the war-monger Rabadash into a donkey. Eustace's transformation is not strictly a punishment – the change simply reveals the truth of his selfishness. It is reversed after he repents and his moral nature changes. Rabadash is allowed to reverse his transformation, providing he does so in a public place, so that his former followers will know that he had been a donkey. He is warned that, if he ever leaves his capital city again, he will become a donkey permanently, and this prevents him leading further military campaigns.
Both the Earthmasters and their opponents in Patricia A. McKillip's 1976 The Riddle-Master of Hed trilogy make extensive use of their shapeshifting abilities for the powers of their new forms.
James A. Hetley's contemporary fantasy books Dragon's Eye and Dragon's Teeth centers on the Morgan family of Stonefort, Maine – present-day Americans who are secretly able to turn themselves into seals at will (and making extensive use of that ability in their fighting with various other characters).
In Sean Catt's Between States series the principle character Jake Palmer is a cougar shapeshifter. Palmer, kidnapped off the street in his mid twenties, is forced to work as an albeit reluctant asset (assassin) for a covert CIA Black Ops unit that uses feline shapeshifters for the extrajudicial killing of selected targets. The CIA believing that being killed by a big cat could only ever be seen as a tragic accident.
Popular culture
The X-Files features a species known as the Colonists who are infiltrating Earth in order to colonize the planet.
In David Icke's works, reptilian shapeshifters secretly control many aspects of human society by taking on human form and gaining political power to manipulate humanity.
In the Doctor Who episode "Terror of the Zygons" (1975), the main antagonists, called the Zygons, can shapeshift into humans and other animals (such as horses). However, they need to keep the copied person or animal alive in order to be able to change back into their natural form.
The X-Men comics and films feature Mystique a shapeshifter who can look like any other person.
The DC Comics universe features a wide range of shapeshifters, the most prominent being Plastic Man, Martian Manhunter and the Clayfaces.
Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991) featured a shapeshifting female prisoner who was involved in nearly killing James Kirk, but was killed herself.
In Thunderheart (1992), starring Val Kilmer, the character Jimmy Looks Twice evades capture by shape-shifting at well into a series of animals.
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine features a species known as the Changelings, the race of psionically powerful shapeshifters who founded the Dominion.
The Twilight Saga also features shapeshifters that can transform into wolves and have inhuman strength, speed, body temperature and aging process.
In Star Wars: Episode II - Attack of the Clones (2002), Zam Wesell attempts to assassinate Padme Amidala. when Zam flees, Anakin pursues her and discovers she is a shapeshifter. Zam Wesell reverts to her natural form when her employer assassinates her.
American band Nahr Alhumam 's debut album is named Transmogrification, contains themes around physical and spiritual shapeshifting of the earth as a planet.
In Supernatural, the shapeshifters are recurring creatures of the series. Shapeshifter first appeared in Season 1, Episode 6 titled "Skin".
See also
Marvel Comics' Skrull extraterrestrial beings (1962–present)
Resizing (fiction)
Skin-walker
Soul eater (folklore)
The Thing (1982 film)
Maricha
Kindama
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Kachuba, John B. 2019. Shapeshifters: A History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wood, Felicity. "The Shape-Shifter on the Borderlands: A Comparative Study of the Trickster Figure in African Orality and in Oral Narratives Concerning one South African Trickster, Khotso Sethuntsa." English in Africa (2010): 71–90.
Zaytoun, Kelli D. "“Now Let Us Shift” the Subject: Tracing the Path and Posthumanist Implications of La Naguala/The Shapeshifter in the Works of Gloria Anzaldúa." MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States 40.4 (2015): 69–88.
External links
Real Shapeshifters Website Dedicated to the study of shapeshifting phenomena (realshapeshifters.com)
Shapeshifters in Love – A series of articles about shapeshifting characters in romance and speculative fiction.
Fantasy tropes
Mythological powers
Science fiction themes
Supernatural legends
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] |
244222
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chardon
|
Chardon
|
Chardon may refer to:
Places
Chardon, Kansas
Chardon, Ohio
Chardon Township, Geauga County, Ohio
People
Carlos E. Chardón (born 1897), Puerto Rican mycologist and Chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico
Carlos Fernando Chardón (born 1907), former Secretary of State of Puerto Rico and Puerto Rico Adjuntant General
Carlos A. Chardón López (born 1939), former Secretary (Commissioner) of Education of the Puerto Rico Department of Education
Jean-Baptiste Chardon, a French Jesuit missionary in New France
Other
The Chardon Polka Band, a polka band from Chardon, Ohio
See also
Chadron (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakon%20Nakhon%20province
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Sakon Nakhon province
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Sakon Nakhon (, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat) lies in upper northeastern Thailand also called Isan. Neighboring provinces are (from north clockwise) Nong Khai, Bueng Kan, Nakhon Phanom, Mukdahan, Kalasin, and Udon Thani. The capital is Sakon Nakhon.
Toponymy
The word sakon originates from the Sanskrit word sakala (Devanagari: सकल) meaning 'entire', 'whole', or 'total', and the word nakhon from Sanskrit nagara (Devanagari: नगर) meaning 'town' or 'city'. Hence the name of the province literally means "city of cities".
Geography
The province is on the Khorat Plateau, not far from the Mekong. The Nong Han lake, the biggest natural lake of northeast Thailand, near the city of Sakon Nakhon, is a popular resort. The Phu Phan Mountains delimit the province to the south. The total forest area is or 17.7 percent of provincial area.
History
The history of Sakon Nakhon dates back to about three thousand years. Local legend says that Mueang Nong Han Luang, or presently Sakhon Nakhon, was built in the 11th century when the Khmer ruled this region. When the Khmer lost its power, the town was under the rule of Lan Xang or Lao Kingdom. It was renamed into "Mueang Chiang Mai Nong Han". When the town was under Siam, it was renamed again into "Sakhon Thawapi" in 1830, during King Rama III's reign, it was renamed "Sakon Nakhon".
Phu Phan Mountains in the area of Sakon Nakhon, especially Sawang Daen Din, formerly a stronghold of the Communist Party of Thailand.
Ethnic group
The Ethnic group of Sakon Nakhon are Chinese and Vietnamese with Tai Dam as well as Nyaw.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows the Phrathat Choeng Chum, a Lao-style chedi built during the Ayutthaya period over a Khmer-style prang.
The provincial tree is the banaba or Queen's Crape Myrtle (Lagerstroemia speciosa). Black sharkminnow (Labeo chrysophekadion) is the provincial fish.
Economy
Fish and rice are two of the major products of the region.
Kho Khun Pon Yang Kham is branded as Thailand's best-quality beef, produced by Pon Yang Kham Breeding Cooperatives, which was incorporated in 1980 in Ban Pon Yang Kham in Mueang Sankhon Nakhon. It has created a great reputation for the province. Kho Khun Pon Yang Kham is regarded as "Thai Kobe beef".
Transportation
Rail
Sakon Nakhon does not have a train service yet. People who want to travel to Sakon Nakhon by train can get off at Udon Thani Railway Station in neighboring province Udon Thani. Then take a local bus to Sakon Nakhon, the distance is approximately 156 km.
Roads
Route 22 leads north to Udon Thani, 160 km distant, and east to Nakhon Phanom (91 km) and the border with Laos. Route 223 leads south to That Phanom (76 km). Route 213 leads
west to Kalasin (131 km).
Air
There is a regional airport, Sakon Nakhon Airport, on the north side of the city.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 18 districts (amphoes). The districts are further divided into 125 subdistricts (tambons) and 1,323 villages (mubans).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Sakon Nakhon Provincial Administration Organisation () and 66 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Sakon Nakhon has city (thesaban nakhon) status. Further 65 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 74 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Important places
Sakon Nakhon is a location of many important places, apart from Nong Han and Phu Phan Mountains, include
Phu Phan National Park
Phu Pha Yon National Park
Phu Pha Lek National Park
Nam Un Dam
Wat Phra That Choeng Chum
Phu Phan Rajanivet Palace
Events and festivals
Prasat Pueng Procession: held during the 12th-15th day of waxing moon in October to mark the end of Buddhist Lent. On the night of 13thday, people will join hands in decoration Prasat Pueng (wax castle) at Ming Mueang Field. The 14thday, wax castel from various temples will join the procession, roaming the municipality to Wat Phra That Choeng Chum. Isan people believe that the wax will welcome Buddha who comes back from the heaven to help all creatures on earth.
Regatta: held synchronically with the Prasat Pueng Procession, the ancient regatta will be held at Phang Thong Pond or Tha Nang Ap, Ban Tha Wat.
Tha Rae Star Procession: is a tradition unique to the world and has been held annually during Christmas Eve since 1982, the celebrations and procession will take place at Ban Tha Rae, home to Thailand's largest Roman Catholic community, in Mueang Sakhon Nakhon.
Notable people
Born in Sakhon Nakhon
Dusit Chalermsan: professional footballer, football coach
Suree Sukha: professional footballer
Surat Sukha: professional footballer
Sinthaweechai Hathairattanakool: professional footballer
Poonsawat Kratingdaenggym: a world-class professional boxer
See also
Khit cloth
Gallery
References
External links
Provincial page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand
Website of province (Thai only)
Provinces of Thailand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Leinster
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Duke of Leinster
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Duke of Leinster (; ) is a title in the Peerage of Ireland and the premier dukedom in that peerage. The subsidiary titles of the Duke of Leinster are: Marquess of Kildare (1761), Earl of Kildare (1316), Earl of Offaly (1761), Viscount Leinster, of Taplow in the County of Buckingham (1747), Baron of Offaly (c. 1193), Baron Offaly (1620) and Baron Kildare, of Kildare in the County of Kildare (1870). The viscounty of Leinster is in the Peerage of Great Britain, the barony of Kildare in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, and all other titles in the Peerage of Ireland. The courtesy title of the eldest son and heir of the Duke of Leinster is Marquess of Kildare. The Duke of Leinster is the head of the House of Kildare.
General The 3rd Duke of Schomberg, K.G. (1641-1719), was created The 1st Duke of Leinster in 1691. However, that creation became extinct upon Schomberg's death in July 1719.
The family seat of the current Duke of Leinster is now Oakley Park, near Abingdon, Oxfordshire.
Earls of Kildare from 1316
This branch of the Cambro Norman FitzGerald/FitzMaurice dynasty, which came to Ireland in 1169, were initially created Earls of Kildare. The earldom was created in 1316 for John FitzGerald. Two senior FitzGeralds, Garret Mór FitzGerald and his son, Garret Óg FitzGerald served as Lords Deputy of Ireland, the representative of the Lord of Ireland (the King of England) in Ireland. The tenth earl, Thomas FitzGerald, known as Silken Thomas, was attainted and his honours were forfeit in 1537. In 1554, Thomas's half-brother and only male heir, Gerald FitzGerald, was created Earl of Kildare in the Peerage of Ireland. He was subsequently restored to the original letters patent in 1569, as 11th earl. The second (1554-created) earldom became extinct in 1599, although the original earldom survived.
Dukes of Leinster from 1766
The family was originally based in Maynooth Castle in Maynooth in County Kildare. In later centuries the family owned estates in Waterford with their country residence being a Georgian house called Carton House which had replaced the castle in County Kildare. In Dublin, the Earl built a large townhouse residence on the southside of Dublin called Kildare House. When the Earl was awarded a dukedom and became Duke of Leinster, the house was renamed Leinster House. One of its occupants was Lord Edward FitzGerald, who became an icon for Irish nationalism through his involvement with the Irish Rebellion of 1798, which ultimately cost him his life.
Leinster House was sold by the Leinsters in 1815. After nearly a century as the headquarters of the Royal Dublin Society, which held its famed Spring Show and Horse Show in its grounds, Oireachtas Éireann, the two chamber parliament of the new Irish Free State, rented Leinster House in 1922 to be its temporary parliament house. In 1924 it bought the building for parliamentary use. It has remained the parliament house of the Irish state.
The Dukes of Leinster had by the early 20th century lost all their property and wealth. Their Carton House seat was sold (though one of Ireland's most historic buildings with perfectly preserved 18th century grounds, it was controversially turned into a hotel and golf course in the late 1990s by the current owner in an act condemned by environmentalists), as later on was their other residence in Waterford. The family now live in a smaller property in Ramsden, Oxfordshire.
Title dispute
A controversial claim by claimants who say they are descended from the 5th Duke, which is reported to have been largely debunked by Michael Estorick in 1981, was made in 2006 and subsequently failed.
In 2005, a lawsuit was filed with HMG's Department of Constitutional Affairs by Theresa Pamella Caudill, daughter of Eleanor and Maurice F. “Desmond” FitzGerald, on behalf of her nephew, a California builder, Paul FitzGerald, as claimant to be the rightful Duke of Leinster. FitzGerald was claimed to be the grandson of Major Lord Desmond FitzGerald (1888–1916), the second son of The 5th Duke of Leinster, who was recorded as having been killed in action during the First World War, while serving with the Irish Guards. When Maurice, 6th Duke of Leinster, died, mad and childless, in February 1922, the Leinster dukedom and its considerable wealth and estates devolved upon his youngest brother, Lord Edward FitzGerald, who succeeded as 7th Duke. However, Paul FitzGerald’s supporters claim that Lord Desmond faked his death and emigrated to California, by way of Winnipeg, Canada, where he lived until his death in 1967. It was further claimed by Mrs Caudill that a package of documents, witnessed by Edward, Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII), Sir Edgar Vincent, and Lord Feversham, had been lodged by her father with the Crown Office of the House of Lords in 1929, and the family had been denied access to them. Mrs Caudill believed the documents included evidence that her father agreed to relinquish the title for one generation but made it clear it was to be passed down to his son, her brother Leonard FitzGerald. Instead, it was passed down through her father's brother's family. It was alleged that an archivist had acknowledged the package had once existed, but the official line was that it was now lost.
In February 2006, Lord Falconer of Thoroton, Lord Chancellor (2003–2007), and Harriet Harman, Minister of State in the Department for Constitutional Affairs, considered this claim. The claim was dismissed by Lord Falconer of Thoroton, despite a 30-year campaign by Paul FitzGerald's family reputedly costing £1.3 million. The Lord Chancellor adjudicated that the title was to remain with the existing holder, Maurice FitzGerald. Paul FitzGerald has a right of appeal against the Lord Chancellor's verdict by petitioning Queen Elizabeth II.
In 2010, however, DNA evidence was presented that indicates that Paul FitzGerald is related to the wife of the 5th Duke, the former Lady Hermione Duncombe. As reported in The Scotsman,
With the help of Dunfermline-based genealogist Lloyd Pitcairn, Mrs FitzGerald Caudill [Paul FitzGerald's aunt] traced Maud Crawford, the grand-daughter of Lady Hermione's younger sister Urica Duncombe.
The results of the tests found that it was "41 times more probable" that Ms Crawford and Paul FitzGerald were extremely closely related than were from different families. The proof that Paul FitzGerald is related to the titled family is the first DNA evidence ever produced in the case, and it strongly supports Mrs Fitz-Gerald Caudhill's long-held claim suggesting that her mysterious father was the son of Lady Hermione, the wife of the fifth Duke of Leinster.
Theresa Pamella Caudill died in 2016.
It had also previously been alleged that Edward FitzGerald, who succeeded as 7th Duke, was the biological son of The 11th Earl of Wemyss (1857–1937). Were this to be established, then neither the present Duke nor any other descendant of his grandfather, the 7th Duke, would be a legitimate heir of The 1st Duke of Leinster.
Earls of Kildare (1316)
Other titles: Baron of Offaly (c. 1193)
John FitzGerald, 1st Earl of Kildare (1250–1316), already 4th Baron of Offaly, was rewarded for serving Edward I of England in Scotland
Thomas FitzGerald, 2nd Earl of Kildare (died 1328), younger (only surviving) son of the 1st Earl
John FitzGerald (1314–1323), eldest son of the 2nd Earl, died in childhood
Richard FitzGerald, 3rd Earl of Kildare (1317–1329), second son of the 2nd Earl, died unmarried
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare (1318–1390), third and youngest son of the 2nd Earl
Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Earl of Kildare (died 1432), a son of the 4th Earl
The 5th Earl had at least one son Thomas, who predeceased him
John FitzGerald, 6th Earl of Kildare (de jure; d.c.1434), a younger son of the 4th Earl; he was forced to dispute his right to the title with a son-in-law of the 5th Earl
Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Kildare (died 1478), son of the 6th Earl
Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare (c. 1456–1513), eldest son of the 7th Earl (Gearóid Mór FitzGerald)
Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare (1487–1534), eldest son of the 8th Earl (Gearóid Óg Fitzgerald)
Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare (died 1537), "Silken Thomas", eldest son of the 9th Earl, led an insurrection in Ireland and his honours were forfeit, and he died unmarried
Other titles (11th–13th Earls): Earl of Kildare and Baron of Offaly (1554)
Gerald FitzGerald, 11th Earl of Kildare (1525–1585), second son of the 9th Earl, was given a new creation in 1554 then restored to his brother's honours in 1569
Gerald (Garrett) FitzGerald, Lord Offaly (1559–1580), eldest son of the 11th Earl, predeceased his father without male issue
Henry FitzGerald, 12th Earl of Kildare (1562–1597), second son of the 11th Earl, died without male issue
William FitzGerald, 13th Earl of Kildare (died 1599), third and youngest son of the 11th Earl, died unmarried
Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Kildare (died 1612), elder son of Edward, himself third and youngest son of the 9th Earl
Gerald FitzGerald, 15th Earl of Kildare (1611–1620), only son of the 14th Earl, died in childhood
George FitzGerald, 16th Earl of Kildare (1612–1660), also 2nd Baron Offaly from 1658, a son of Thomas, himself younger brother of the 14th Earl, and the 1st Baroness Offaly
Wentworth FitzGerald, 17th Earl of Kildare (1634–1664), elder son of the 16th Earl
John FitzGerald, 18th Earl of Kildare (1661–1707), only son of the 17th Earl, died without surviving issue
Henry FitzGerald, Lord Offaly (1683–1684), only son of the 18th Earl, died in infancy
Robert FitzGerald, 19th Earl of Kildare (1675–1744), only son of Robert, himself younger son of the 16th Earl
Other titles (20th Earl): Viscount Leinster, of Taplow in the County of Buckingham (GB 1747)
James FitzGerald, 20th Earl of Kildare (1722–1773) was created Marquess of Kildare in 1761
Marquesses of Kildare (1761)
Other titles: Earl of Kildare (1316), Earl of Offaly (1761), Viscount Leinster, of Taplow in the County of Buckingham (GB 1747) and Baron of Offaly (c. 1193)
James FitzGerald, 1st Marquess of Kildare (1722–1773) was created Duke of Leinster in 1766
George FitzGerald, Earl of Offaly (1748–1765), eldest son of the 1st Marquess
Dukes of Leinster, second creation (1766)
Other titles: Marquesse of Kildare (1761), Earl of Kildare (1316), Earl of Offaly (1761), Viscount Leinster, of Taplow in the County of Buckingham (GB 1747), Baron Offaly (1620) and Baron of Offaly (c. 1193)
James FitzGerald, 1st Duke of Leinster (1722–1773), elder son of the 19th Earl
William Robert FitzGerald, 2nd Duke of Leinster (1749–1804), second son of the 1st Duke
George FitzGerald, Marquess of Kildare (1783–1784), eldest son of the 2nd Duke, died in infancy
Augustus Frederick FitzGerald, 3rd Duke of Leinster (1791–1874), second son of the 2nd Duke
Other titles (4th Duke onwards): Baron Kildare, of Kildare in the County of Kildare (UK 1870)
Charles William FitzGerald, 4th Duke of Leinster (1819–1887), eldest son of the 3rd Duke
Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Duke of Leinster (1851–1893), eldest son of the 4th Duke
Maurice FitzGerald, 6th Duke of Leinster (1887–1922), eldest son of the 5th Duke, died unmarried
Edward FitzGerald, 7th Duke of Leinster (1892–1976), third and youngest son of the 5th Duke
Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Duke of Leinster (1914–2004), only legitimate son of the 7th Duke
Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Duke of Leinster (born 1948), elder son of the 8th Duke
Thomas FitzGerald, Earl of Offaly (1974–1997), only son of the 9th Duke, died unmarried in a road traffic collision
The heir presumptive is the present holder's nephew Edward FitzGerald (born 1988), only son of Lord John FitzGerald (1952–2015)
Line of succession
Charles FitzGerald, 4th Duke of Leinster (1819–1897)
Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Duke of Leinster (1851–1893)
Edward FitzGerald, 7th Duke of Leinster (1892–1976)
Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Duke of Leinster (1914–2004)
Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Duke of Leinster (b. 1948)
Lord John FitzGerald (1952–2015)
(1) Edward FitzGerald (b. 1988)
Lord Charles FitzGerald (1859–1928)
Rupert FitzGerald (1900–1969)
(2) Peter FitzGerald (b. 1925)
(3) Stephen FitzGerald (b. 1953)
Family tree
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of the Dukes of Leinster derives from the legend that John FitzGerald, 1st Earl of Kildare, as a baby in Woodstock Castle, was trapped in a fire when a pet monkey rescued him. The FitzGeralds then adopted a monkey as their crest (and later supporters) and occasionally use the additional motto Non immemor beneficii (Not forgetful of a helping hand). The motto "Crom A Boo" comes from the medieval Croom Castle and "Abu", meaning "up" in Irish; Crom Abu was the FitzGeralds' medieval warcry. Crom (Croom) and Shanet (Shanid) were two castles about 16 miles apart in County Limerick, one being the seat of the Geraldines of Kildare, and the other that of the Geraldines of Desmond, whose distinctive war cries were accordingly “Crom-a-boo” and “Shanet-a-boo.” In 1495 an Act of Parliament was passed (10 Hen. VII. C. 20) “to abolish the words Crom-a-boo and Butler-a-boo.” The word “Abu” or “Aboo,” an exclamation of defiance, was the usual termination of the war cries in Ireland, as in a' buaidh, "to victory!" Saint Patrick's Saltire, a red saltire on a white field, may have been adapted from the Duke's arms on the 1783 creation of the Order of Saint Patrick, of which The 2nd Duke of Leinster was the senior founder knight.
Escutcheon: Argent a saltire gules.
Crest: A monkey statant proper environed about the middle with a plain collar and chained or.
Supporters: Two monkeys, environed and chained as in the crest.
Motto: Crom a boo (Now it would be spelt "Crom Abu". In English, "Up Croom", or "Croom to victory."
Further reading
See also
Irish nobility
Baron Offaly
Baron Lecale
Baron Rayleigh
Baron de Ros
Earl of Desmond
References
Dukedoms in the Peerage of Ireland
Leinster
Leinster
Lists of dukes in Ireland
Noble titles created in 1691
Noble titles created in 1766
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244230
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More%20Irish%20than%20the%20Irish%20themselves
|
More Irish than the Irish themselves
|
"More Irish than the Irish themselves" (, ) is a phrase used in Irish historiography to describe a phenomenon of cultural assimilation in late medieval Norman Ireland.
History
The descendants of Anglo-Norman lords who had settled in Ireland in the 12th century had been significantly Gaelicised
by the end of the Middle Ages, forming septs and clans after the indigenous Gaelic pattern, and became known as the Gall or "Old English" (contrasting with the "New English" arriving with the Tudor conquest of Ireland). The Statutes of Kilkenny, 1366, complained that
" ... now many English of the said land, forsaking the English language, manners, mode of riding, laws and usages, live and govern themselves according to the manners, fashion, and language of the Irish enemies".
The phrase (in Latin) was used by the Irish priest and historian John Lynch (c1599–1677) in his work Cambrensis Eversus. He was strongly influenced by the writings of the historian Geoffrey Keating (1569 – c. 1644), whose History of Ireland he translated into Latin. Cambrensis Eversus was translated from the Latin, with notes and observations, by Theophilus O'Flanagan, Dublin, 1795.
Eighteenth-century use
John Henry Wilson, in his Sketch of Jonathan Swift (1804), wrote that Swift used the phrase (Hiberniores Hibernis ipsis) in a discussion with his landlord.
Nineteenth-century use
The phrase remained in use by romantic nineteenth-century nationalists to promote the common Irishness of 'Planter and Gael'. An example is found in the 1844 poem by the Young Irelander, Thomas Davis called 'The Geraldines', which concerns the FitzGerald dynasty:
Modern use
The phrase remains in common use, both colloquially and in the media, in reference to recent immigration and assimilation in Ireland, and to some degree about some of the Irish diaspora (for example in The Irish Times, Senator Jim Walsh, Liam Twomey, or Irish Emigrant) or in conversation discussing the relationship between the cultural heritage of the Irish diaspora and the Irish in Ireland. While still echoing its original meaning, contemporary usage of the phrase usually takes a more open interpretation of assimilation or, in the case of the diaspora, the maintenance of Irish heritage.
Debates of the Oireachtas demonstrate the age and range of contemporary applications of the phrase. Either when discussing the diaspora:
Or, more light-heartedly, on assimilation:
However, S. J. Connolly has written, "The descendants of the English conquerors, it was confidently proclaimed, had become 'more Irish than the Irish themselves'. Today it is recognized that the supposedly contemporary phrase dates only from the late eighteenth century, the Latin form (Hiberniores ipsis Hibernis) sometimes used to give it an authentic medieval ring from later still."
See also
More German than the Germans
Plastic Paddy
West Brit – a somewhat opposite expression
Notes
Lordship of Ireland
Irish culture
Cultural assimilation
English phrases
Historiography of Ireland
17th-century neologisms
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Lanois
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Daniel Lanois
|
Daniel Roland Lanois ( , ; born September 19, 1951) is a Canadian record producer, guitarist, vocalist, and songwriter.
He has produced albums by artists including Spoons, Bob Dylan, Neil Young, Peter Gabriel, Robbie Robertson, Emmylou Harris, Willie Nelson, and Brandon Flowers. He collaborated with Brian Eno to produce several albums for U2, including The Joshua Tree (1987) and Achtung Baby (1991). Three albums produced or co-produced by Lanois have won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. Four other albums received Grammy nominations.
Lanois has released several solo albums. He wrote and performed the music for the 1996 film Sling Blade.
Biography
Early life and career
Lanois was born in Hull, Quebec. Lanois started his production career when he was 17 recording local artists including Simply Saucer with his brother Bob Lanois in a studio in the basement of their mother's home in Ancaster, Ontario. Later, Lanois started Grant Avenue Studios in an old house which he purchased in Hamilton, Ontario. He worked with a number of local bands, including Martha and the Muffins (for whom his sister Jocelyne played bass), Ray Materick, Spoons, and the Canadian children's singer Raffi. Lanois attended Ancaster High School.
Producer
In 1981 Lanois played on and produced the album This Is the Ice Age by Martha and the Muffins. In 1985 he and two members of the band earned a CASBY award for their work on the band's (by then going by "M + M") 1984 album Mystery Walk.
Lanois worked collaboratively with Brian Eno on some of Eno's own projects, one of which was the "Prophecy Theme" for David Lynch's film adaptation of Frank Herbert's Dune. Eno invited him to co-produce U2's album The Unforgettable Fire. Along with Eno, he went on to produce U2's The Joshua Tree, the 1987 Grammy Award for Album of the Year winner, and some of the band's other works including Achtung Baby and All That You Can't Leave Behind, both of which were nominated for the same award but did not win. Lanois once again collaborated with U2 and Brian Eno on the band's 2009 album, No Line on the Horizon. He was involved in the songwriting process as well as mixing and production.
Lanois' early work with U2 led to him being hired to produce albums for other top-selling artists. He collaborated with Peter Gabriel on his album Birdy (1985), the soundtrack to Alan Parker's film of the same name, and then spent most of 1985 co-producing Gabriel's album So. The album was released in 1986 and became his best-selling release, earning multi-platinum sales and a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year. Lanois later co-produced Gabriel's follow-up, Us which was released in 1992 and also went platinum.
Bono recommended Lanois to Bob Dylan in the late 1980s; in 1989 Lanois produced Dylan's Oh Mercy. Eight years later, Dylan and Lanois worked together on Time Out of Mind, which won another Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1997. In his autobiographical Chronicles, Vol. 1, Dylan describes in depth the contentious but rewarding working relationship he developed with Lanois.
Wrecking Ball, his 1995 collaboration with Emmylou Harris, won a 1996 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album. In 1998, he produced and appeared on Willie Nelson's album Teatro.
Lanois was working on Neil Young's record Le Noise in June 2010 when he was hospitalized after suffering multiple injuries in a motorcycle crash in the Silver Lake area of Los Angeles.
He has since recovered.
Lanois' production is recognizable and notable for its 'big' and 'live' drum sound, atmospheric guitars and ambient reverb.
Rolling Stone called Lanois the "most important record producer to emerge in the Eighties."
On July 12, 2019, Lakeshore Records released the official soundtrack of Red Dead Redemption 2 computer game, and Lanois was given credit for producing; additionally he was given seven composition credits, including one for the song "Table Top", which was released in the days before the soundtrack's release, next to collaborator Rocco DeLuca's song "Crash of Worlds" to promote the upcoming release.
Recording artist
As well as being a producer, Lanois is a songwriter, musician and recording artist. He has released several solo albums and film scores; his first album, Acadie was released in 1989. A number of Lanois' songs have been covered by other artists, including Dave Matthews, Jerry Garcia Band, Willie Nelson, Tea Party, Anna Beljin, Isabelle Boulay, and Emmylou Harris. His albums have had some success, particularly in Canada. Lanois plays the guitar, pedal steel, and drums. Belladonna, an instrumental album released in 2005 was nominated for a Grammy.
Lanois' song "Sonho Dourado" was included in the 2004 Billy Bob Thornton film, Friday Night Lights. In 2005 with the re-release of his first solo album, Acadie, a late-1980s version of the song appears on the additional tracks called "Early Dourado Sketch". Lanois had performed the song numerous times in the intervening years, including on a Toronto television program in 1993 where it was credited as "Irish Melody" on a recording of the performance. Though the melody does indeed feel Irish, the title is Portuguese and means golden dream.
Lanois also provided an instrumental score for LOUDquietLOUD, a 2006 documentary about the Pixies.
Lanois premiered a documentary entitled Here Is What Is at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2007. The film chronicles the recording of his album of the same name and includes footage of the actual recording. The album Here Is What Is was released, first by download, then on compact disc, in late 2007 and early 2008. Soon after that, Lanois released a three-disc recording called Omni.
In October 2009, Lanois started a project called Black Dub which features Lanois on guitar, Brian Blade on drums, and Daryl Johnson on bass, along with multi-instrumentalist/singer Trixie Whitley. They released a self-titled album in 2010. In 2014, Lanois played with Emmylou Harris as a sideman and opening act on a tour focused on the Wrecking Ball material he produced.
Solo career
On October 28, 2014, Lanois released an album titled Flesh and Machine on ANTI- Records, based on Brian Eno's ambient albums. The instrumental album consists primarily of original atmospheric and process-based sounds, blending pedal steel guitar and a variety of digital and analog sound processing devices. He was assisted by the drummer Brian Blade. In 2016, he released the album Goodbye to Language with Rocco DeLuca.
The collaborative album Venetian Snares x Daniel Lanois was released on Venetian Snares' label Timesig in May 2018.
Lanois also contributed to the composition and production of the soundtrack for the 2018 video game Red Dead Redemption 2, released by Rockstar Games.
Awards
Lanois was invested in the Order of Canada in 2018.
Lanois won a Juno Award in 1990 as most promising artist.
Lanois has received seven Grammy Awards for his work with various artists, including Bob Dylan, U2, Emmylou Harris and Neil Young.
In 2005, he was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. In June 2013, he received a lifetime achievement award at the Governor General's Performing Arts Awards.
Discography
Videography
Production credits
Demo – Simply Saucer, 1974 (not released commercially until 1989, on the album Cyborgs Revisited)
Blues and Sentimental – Jackie Washington, 1976 (As "Dan Lanois")
Hobo's Taunt- Willie P. Bennett, 1977 (Engineered, as "Dan Lanois", with Bob Lanois)
More Singable Songs – Raffi, 1977 (Recording credit as "Dan Lanois")
Can't Wait For Summer – Ron Neilson, 1978
Choice Cuts – Crackers, 1978 (As "Dan Lanois")
Desperate Cosmetics – Scott Merritt, 1979
Millionaires, 1980 EP (As "Danny Lanois") (included two members of Teenage Head)
This is the Ice Age – Martha and the Muffins, 1981
Dream Away – Bernie LaBarge, 1981
Mama Quilla, KKK, Angry Young Woman – 3-song 12" Album- 1982, Mama Quilla II
Dance After Curfew – Nash the Slash, 1982
Danseparc – Martha and the Muffins, 1983
Ambient 4/On Land – Brian Eno, 1982 (Engineer's credit as "Danny Lanois")
Parachute Club – Parachute Club, 1983
Apollo: Atmospheres and Soundtracks – Brian Eno, 1983
The Pearl – Harold Budd and Brian Eno, 1984
Mystery Walk – M + M, 1984
The Unforgettable Fire – U2, 1984
Secrets and Sins – Luba, 1984
Thursday Afternoon – Brian Eno, 1985
Hybrid – Michael Brook, 1985
Birdy – Peter Gabriel, 1985
Voices – Roger Eno, 1985
Power Spot – Jon Hassell, 1986
So – Peter Gabriel, 1986
The Joshua Tree – U2, 1987
Robbie Robertson – Robbie Robertson, 1987
Acadie – Daniel Lanois, 1989
Oh Mercy – Bob Dylan, 1989
Yellow Moon – Neville Brothers, 1989
Home – Hothouse Flowers, 1990
Achtung Baby – U2, 1991
Flash of the Spirit – Jon Hassell and Farafina, 1992
Us – Peter Gabriel, 1992
The Last of the Mohicans – movie soundtrack, 1992
For the Beauty of Wynona – Daniel Lanois, 1993
Ron Sexsmith – Ron Sexsmith, 1994
Wrecking Ball – Emmylou Harris, 1995
Night to Night – Geoffrey Oryema, 1996
Fever In Fever Out – Luscious Jackson, 1996
Time Out of Mind – Bob Dylan, 1997
Brian Blade Fellowship – Brian Blade, 1998
12 Bar Blues – Scott Weiland, 1998
Teatro – Willie Nelson, 1998
The Million Dollar Hotel: Music from the Motion Picture – movie soundtrack, 2000
All That You Can't Leave Behind – U2, 2000
La Bella Vista - Harold Budd, 2003 (secretly recorded in Lanois Los Angeles living room)
How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb – U2, 2004 (track "Love and Peace or Else")
Dusk & Summer – Dashboard Confessional, 2006 (also produced by Don Gilmore)
loudQUIETloud – movie soundtrack, 2006
Back Where You Belong – Sinéad O'Connor, 2007.
Let It Go - Mother Superior, 2007.
Snake Road – Bob Lanois, 2006.
No Line on the Horizon – U2, 2009 (plus songwriting credits).
"Mind Games" & "Night Nurse" – Sinéad O'Connor, 2009.
Mercy – Rocco DeLuca and the Burden, 2009.
Flamingo – Brandon Flowers, 2010.
Le Noise – Neil Young, 2010.
Honest Mistake - Jim Wilson, 2012.
Battle Born – The Killers, 2012 (co-writer on tracks "The Way It Was", "Heart of a Girl", and "Be Still").
Rocco Deluca – Rocco Deluca, 2014.
Red Dead Redemption 2 - video game soundtrack, made by various artists, produced at Lakeshore Records, 2019
Collaborations
So - Peter Gabriel (1986)
Robbie Robertson - Robbie Robertson (1987)
Oh Mercy - Bob Dylan (1989)
Us - Peter Gabriel (1992)
Wrecking Ball - Emmylou Harris (1995)
Ron Sexsmith - Ron Sexsmith (1995)
Time Out of Mind - Bob Dylan (1997)
A Painter Passing Through - Gordon Lightfoot (1998)
Ophelia - Natalie Merchant (1998)
Fuse - Joe Henry (1999)
Up - Peter Gabriel (2002)
Don't Give Up on Me - Solomon Burke (2002)
Stumble into Grace - Emmylou Harris (2003)
Flamingo - Brandon Flowers (2010)
Thanks for the Dance - Leonard Cohen (2019)
See also
Canadian Music Hall of Fame
List of ambient music artists
Music of Canada
References
External links
Entry at discogs.com
1951 births
Canadian folk singer-songwriters
Canadian rock singers
Canadian folk guitarists
Canadian male guitarists
Canadian rock guitarists
Canadian ambient musicians
Canadian male singer-songwriters
Canadian record producers
Canadian Music Hall of Fame inductees
Musicians from Gatineau
Musicians from Hamilton, Ontario
French Quebecers
Canadian people of Acadian descent
Living people
Canadian audio engineers
Pedal steel guitarists
Juno Award for Instrumental Album of the Year winners
Grammy Award winners
All Saints Records artists
Governor General's Performing Arts Award winners
Warner Records artists
Juno Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year winners
Jack Richardson Producer of the Year Award winners
Anti- (record label) artists
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezina%20Trophy
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Vezina Trophy
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The Vezina Trophy is awarded annually to the National Hockey League's (NHL) goaltender who is "adjudged to be the best at this position". At the end of each season, the thirty-two NHL general managers vote to determine the winner. It is named in honour of Georges Vezina, goaltender of the Montreal Canadiens from 1910 until 1925, who died in 1926 of tuberculosis. The trophy was first awarded after the 1926–27 NHL season and was awarded to the top goaltender. From to , the trophy went to the goaltender(s) of the team allowing the fewest goals during the regular season; now, the William M. Jennings Trophy is awarded for this.
The most recent winner is Marc-Andre Fleury of the Vegas Golden Knights in the 2020–21 season.
History
The Vezina Trophy was named in honor of Georges Vezina, an exceptional goaltender with the Montreal Canadiens. Vezina collapsed during a game in 1925 and was diagnosed as having tuberculosis, of which he died in 1926. Upon Vezina's death, the trophy was donated to the League by the Canadiens' owners, Leo Dandurand, Louis Letourneau and Joe Cattarinich to honour Vezina permanently. It was first awarded at the end of the 1926–27 NHL season to George Hainsworth who had come to Montreal to succeed Vezina.
The trophy was accepted by the league at its May 15, 1927 meeting in Montreal. The criteria for winning was variously reported. The Montreal Gazette and The Globe and Mail reported that it was 'to be awarded each year to the goaltender in the National Hockey League having the best (goals against) average,' while the Toronto Star reported that the trophy went to the 'most valuable' goaltender in the league. When Hainsworth won his third Vezina at the end of the 1928–29 NHL season, the trophy was reported to be for the 'most outstanding' goaltender in the league. However, later reports state that the trophy was based on the lowest goals against average (GAA).
The Vezina Trophy was quite prestigious, as it was one of the three major personal awards given out by the National Hockey League at the time, along with the Hart Trophy and the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy. The hockey media closely follow a tight "Vezina Trophy race," such as in , when Frank Brimsek, Turk Broda, and Johnny Mowers were separated by only three goals entering the final weekend of the season.
1946 to 1981
In February 1946, the NHL stated that the trophy was to go to the team that allowed the fewest goals during the regular season. The goaltender playing the most games for that team would be awarded the trophy. Manager Tommy Gorman of the Montreal Canadiens stated that if the trophy was awarded to his team, management would decide which of the Habs' two goaltenders (Paul Bibeault and Bill Durnan) would receive the trophy. However, at a banquet that October, NHL President Clarence Campbell indicated that while the league was considering changing the voting methods of the Calder, Hart, and Lady Byng Trophies, the criteria for the Vezina were not changing.
Since it was common for goaltenders to start every game before 1950, the Vezina usually went to the goaltender with the lowest personal goals against average in the league; however, there were two notable exceptions. George Hainsworth was awarded the inaugural trophy, while Clint Benedict had the lowest GAA in . Hainsworth's Canadiens allowed fewer goals as a team than Benedict's Senators. Wilf Cude had the lowest GAA in in 30 games split between the Detroit Red Wings and Canadiens, but the Vezina was awarded to Charlie Gardiner, who started all 48 games for the Chicago Black Hawks, the team that allowed the fewest goals.
The National Hockey League lengthened the schedule to 70 games starting in . Before then, it was very common for a goaltender to play every minute of his team's season, and only two Vezina winners — Frank Brimsek in both (43 of 48 games) and (47 of 48 games) and Bill Durnan in (40 of 50 games) — failed to start every game for their respective clubs.
As teams started to use more than one goaltender in a season regularly, it became increasingly common for the goaltender with the lowest GAA not to be a member of the team that allowed the fewest goals. The Vezina continued to be awarded to the goaltender who started the most games for the team that allowed the fewest goals, but the Vezina winners of , , and did not have the lowest GAAs.
The National Hockey League began allowing teammates to split the Vezina Trophy following the 1964–65 NHL season. The Toronto Maple Leafs allowed 173 goals against (0 empty net goals), barely beating out Detroit's 175 goals against (3 empty net goals), and Chicago's 176 goals against (3 empty net goals). Toronto Terry Sawchuk played 36 games for the Leafs with a GAA of 2.56, while his teammate Johnny Bower played 34 games with a league-leading GAA of 2.38, but Sawchuk was to be the sole winner under the old criteria. During the season, the two agreed to split the $1000 prize money that came with the trophy if either of them won. At the end of the season, Sawchuk publicly stated that he would refuse the trophy if Bower would not also have his name inscribed. The NHL subsequently changed the rule to allow any goaltender on the team who allowed the fewest goals against to qualify for the Vezina if he played at least 25 games, and applied this rule retroactively to Sawchuk and Bower. Under this criterion, Turk Broda would have shared the Vezina that Al Rollins won in . This criterion was in place until .
The Vezina criteria had the trophy going to the goaltender(s) of the team that was best at preventing goals, not necessarily the best individual goaltender of the year. The best goaltender, as voted by the media, was the NHL First Team All-Star. These often differed, such as in when Don Edwards and Bob Sauve shared the Vezina while Tony Esposito was named to the First Team. During the 1973–74 NHL season, the Chicago Black Hawks and Philadelphia Flyers finished tied for the fewest goals against; therefore their respective goaltenders, Tony Esposito and Bernie Parent, were both awarded the trophy, the only time that it would be shared between two players from different teams. For 1973–74 the media voted Parent a First Team All-Star and Esposito a Second Team All-Star. Glenn Hall, who played for Detroit, Chicago and St. Louis during his career, was voted the First Team All-Star goaltender the most times of any goaltender, seven times, but only won the Vezina Trophy as the goaltender on the team allowing the fewest goals against three times. By contrast, Jacques Plante, was awarded the Vezina Trophy seven times, six of those when with the very dominant Montreal Canadiens of the 1950s and 1960s, but was voted as the First Team All-Star only three times. Plante's seventh Vezina Trophy was shared with Hall as they shared goaltending duties for the St. Louis Blues in 1968–69 when that team allowed the fewest goals in the league; Hall was voted as the First Team All-Star that year.
1981 to the present
As of the 1981–82 NHL season, the Vezina Trophy has been given to the most outstanding goaltender as voted by the general managers of the NHL teams. Billy Smith of the New York Islanders was the first winner of the Vezina under the current system. The William M. Jennings Trophy, given to the goaltender(s) who play(s) a minimum of 25 games for the team that allows the fewest goals, serves the function of the old Vezina.
The voting is conducted at the end of the regular season by the 31 general managers of the teams in the National Hockey League, with all individual voters ranking their top three candidates on a 5–3–1 points system. Three finalists are named and the trophy is awarded at the NHL Awards ceremony after the playoffs.
Records and distinctions
Jacques Plante holds the record for winning the most Vezinas with seven, followed by Bill Durnan and Dominik Hasek, who have won six each. Hasek has won the most awards under the current criterion of voting for the best individual goalie. Players for the Montreal Canadiens have won the Vezina 29 times.
Only four players have won both the Vezina and Hart Memorial Trophy for the same season: Jacques Plante for ; Dominik Hasek twice, for and ; Jose Theodore for ; and Carey Price for . Two other goaltenders have won the Vezina and Hart trophies in separate seasons: Roy Worters (Hart , Vezina ) and Al Rollins (Vezina , Hart ). Chuck Rayner is the only goaltender who has won the Hart Memorial Trophy (which he did in ) but never won the Vezina Trophy.
Winners
1927–81
When introduced, the Vezina Trophy was awarded to the top goaltender in the league. Several winners, including Hainsworth in 1927 and Gardiner in 1934, did not have the lowest goals-against average. In 1946, the NHL Governors further clarified the criteria for winning. It was to go to the team with the fewest goals scored against it during the season. The goalie playing the most games for the team was awarded the trophy. In 1965, the NHL Governors began allowing teammates to share the Vezina Trophy. From 1965 to 1981, the Vezina was awarded to any goaltenders who played 25 or more games for the team allowing the fewest goals against.
1981–present
The NHL adopted the current criteria for the Vezina Trophy beginning in 1981–82. The William M. Jennings Trophy was created as a new award for the goaltender(s) playing 25 or more games for the team allowing the fewest goals against.
See also
List of National Hockey League awards
List of NHL players
List of NHL statistical leaders
William M. Jennings Trophy
References
General
Vezina Trophy history at Legends of Hockey.net
Vezina Trophy at NHL.com
Vezina Trophy voting history at The Goaltender Home Page - complete voting history from 1981 to 1982 (when the award switched to a voting criterion) to present.
Specific
National Hockey League trophies and awards
Awards established in 1926
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon%20Country%20Fair
|
Oregon Country Fair
|
The Oregon Country Fair (OCF) is a nonprofit organization and an annual three-day art and music fair held outside the city limits of Veneta, Oregon, United States. Located in the Willamette Valley, the site is about west of Eugene along the Long Tom River near the unincorporated community of Elmira. Annual attendance is approximately 35,000, and the fair has around 960 craft and food booths each year. The event is known as an outgrowth of the counter-culture movement and for using environmentally-friendly practices during the fair.
The Oregon Country Fair begins on the Friday of the second weekend in July every year (i.e. as early as July 7 and as late as July 13). The fair is a non-profit organization and as such has a board of directors. Additionally, the management structure of the Oregon Country Fair is typically composed of an Executive Director, an Operations Manager, a Site and Facilities Manager, and a team of volunteer Back Up Managers, otherwise known as BUMS, who serve as representation for the fair's paid management staff for the duration of the event.
History
The first fair was held in Eugene over the weekend of November 1–2, 1969. It was promoted with the tagline, "come in costume".
The fair began as a craft fair to raise funds for an alternative school, the Children's Community School.
The event moved to its current location in Veneta, about 13 miles west of Eugene, for the fall fair in October, 1970, after having had a May Fair the same year on Crow Road about halfway between Eugene and Veneta.
In August 1972 and August 1982, OCF hosted concerts headlined by the Grateful Dead. Known as "Field Trips", the first concert was held as a benefit for the Springfield Creamery, which is owned by members of Ken Kesey's family.
Until 1977, the fair was known as the Oregon Renaissance Faire.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, no fair has been held since 2019.
Entertainment
During open hours (11 am to 7 pm) there are 22 stages featuring a wide variety of musical, comedic, theatrical, juggling, daredevil, and vaudeville performances.
The stages are: Main Stage, Daredevil Palace, Shady Grove Stage, Kesey Stage, Caravan Stage, W.C. Fields Stage, Dance Pavilion, Flow Zone, WorkItShop, Spirit Tower, Rabbit Hole, Front Porch, Blue Moon Stage, Stage Left, Chez Ray's Next Stage, Monkey Palace, Might Tiny Puppet Stage, Hoarse Chorale, Morningwood Odditorium, Community Village, and Youth Stage. The Ritz, which has showering facilities and two saunas, also includes a stage.
Musical acts incorporate many styles, including: folk, rock, jazz, blues, bluegrass, Latin, reggae, slam poetry and spoken word. There are also numerous musicians engaged in busking along the pathways as well as parades and walking performers throughout the entire fair site, including a marching band, giant puppets, and stilt walkers.
There is also a drum circle at the Drum Tower which is open to all willing participants who bring their musical instruments.
Tickets and transportation
Tickets and passes are required to attend the Oregon Country Fair. All tickets sold to the public are sold in advance at TicketsWest outlets and other retail centers throughout the Northwest. All tickets must be purchased off-site; no tickets are sold at the fair site. Discount tickets are available for people who qualify for disability or senior discounts. There is no fee for children who are under the age of ten and come with a paying adult. Public transportation, in the form of bus shuttle, provides a park and ride service between Eugene and the OCF grounds non-stop throughout the days of the fair.
Culture
The fair is a family event with face painting, puppet shows, and music for children. Toplessness is permitted while full nudity is not allowed during public hours in public areas. No alcohol is allowed, and smoking is limited to designated areas. The fair has its own water and communications systems, recycling service, emergency medical team, traffic control, and security team. Since 1997 there has been a strong effort to make it a drug-free event.
Infrastructure
The fair is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization. It is governed by an elected ten-member Board of Directors (with 2 elected alternates). There are seven staff positions within the organization. Staff positions traditionally include a General Manager, an Operations Manager, an Assistant Manager, A Site and Facilities Manager, a Residential Caretaker, a Groundskeeper, and an Administrative Assistant. Currently the fair does not have a General Manager. Until a full-time General Manager is hired by the Board of Directors, the Site and Facilities Manager and Operations Manager share management responsibilities and authority within the organization.
Alter-abled access is available at the Oregon Country Fair, including wheelchairs (there is a battery re-charging station for electric wheelchairs), helpers, sign language interpreters, folding chairs, rest areas, maps, and other information. To obtain these services, or more information about them, event participants can go to the following locations on the event site: the Alter-Abled Access Advocates(4A)Center (located near Admissions as well as at the Bus Stop), Community Village, Solutions, and all Information booths.
From June 1 through August 31 there are no dogs (except service dogs) allowed on the event site.
Publications
The Oregon Country Fair publishes a newsletter, the Fair Family News, eleven times a year. As well as an event paper, the Peach Pit, once a year for the three-day event.
Volunteer crews
The Oregon Country Fair has a large volunteer network. This volunteer network is the base for all operational needs of the event. While some working volunteers receive food vouchers, which can be used to buy meals from vendors during the event, many volunteers do not. Volunteer crews are separated into "Pre-fair Crews" and "During Fair Crews." Pre-fair crews work from the site's opening in early June until the event officially opens to the public on the second weekend in July. Pre-fair crews are responsible for setting up the site's physical infrastructure and preparing the site both for the festival and for the increase in people on the land with the aim of reducing impact and preserving natural flora and fauna. Preservation and restoration efforts are led by the Site and Facilities Manager year round, and are largely carried out by the Residential Caretaker with the help of a special crew known as Site Crew who report directly to the Caretaker and Site and Facilities Manager.
All volunteers agree to the Oregon Country Fair Guidelines and Code of Conduct. The Code of Conduct of The Oregon Country Fair is:
History of the land
The Willamette Valley has been continuously occupied by humans, to some extent, for at least the last 9,000-10,000 years (this timeline is based on the archaeological evidence gathered from 34 archaeological sites in the Upper Willamette Valley).
The Oregon Country Fair property includes archaeological sites protected by state law. It is thought to have previously been a gathering place for the Kalapuya tribe of Native Americans. All ground disturbing activities on the fair property must be approved by the archaeology and construction crews.
The Kalapuya lived in permanent winter homes and migrated throughout the Willamette Valley of Oregon during the summers. Subsistence was based on fishing, hunting, and gathering wild plant foods.
Based on the translation of Kalapuya texts, strong historical aspects of the Kalapuya culture include: the dream, the dream spirit-power, death, wealth, prestige, sexual division of labor (men hunt, women gather), sex, acculturation, and language. The dream spirit-power was observed to be the strongest. The dream power was constantly referred to in matters of courage and bravery, of sickness and resisting disease, gambling, hunting, wealth, casting spells, power over natural phenomena and becoming a shaman.
Much of the fair site is a wetland and the Long Tom River floods much of the fair property each winter.
Educational areas
Some of the Oregon Country Fair's areas are organized to be information and workshop resources.
The Kids Loop is a children's play area, Yes You Canopy is a pavilion dedicated to the teaching of juggling, Energy Park is an area with displays and demonstrations on alternative energy, alternative transportation, organic agriculture and recycling, and Community Village has booths from non-profit organizations dedicated to education, information access, plants and gardening, including a display by the Oregon State University/Lane County Extension Master Gardeners, and other forms of progressive social change.
Archaeology Park ("Ark Park") is the home of the fair's archaeology crew, and includes replica cedar houses like those used by Pacific Northwest Native American tribes, displays of artifacts and photos of archaeological digs from the fair site, and hands-on demonstrations of flintknapping, firemaking, basket weaving and other Native American skills.
Philanthropy
The OCF organization maintains close ties with the Eugene-area community and supports many other nonprofit organizations through its philanthropic programs.
Fairgoers, fair working volunteers, and the OCF organization alike contribute to non-profit groups through The Jill Heiman Vision Fund. This fund grants funds to tax-exempt organizations in Lane County. Donations are provided to projects and programs related to improving the environment and fostering sustainability.
The OCF Board has created The Bill Wooten Endowment Fund to assist arts, environmental, and social justice projects. The Board of Directors also offers donations to various groups and activities that share its values of living artfully and authentically on the earth.
See also
Renaissance fair#History in the United States
Sunshine Daydream
Veneta, Oregon, 8/27/72
References
External links
Oregon Country Fair (official website)
1969 establishments in Oregon
Annual events in Oregon
Annual fairs
Counterculture festivals
Fairs in Oregon
Festivals in Oregon
Hippie movement
Music festivals in Oregon
Recurring events established in 1969
Tourist attractions in Lane County, Oregon
State fairs
July observances
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Germain%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Sackville
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George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville
|
George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville, PC (26 January 1716 – 26 August 1785), styled The Honourable George Sackville until 1720, Lord George Sackville from 1720 to 1770 and Lord George Germain from 1770 to 1782, was a British soldier and politician who was Secretary of State for America in Lord North's cabinet during the American War of Independence.
His ministry received much of the blame for Britain's loss of thirteen American colonies. His issuance of detailed instructions in military matters, coupled with his failure to understand either the geography of the colonies or the determination of the colonists, may justify this conclusion. He had two careers. His military career had distinction, but ended with a court martial. Sackville served in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, including at the decisive Battle of Minden. His political career ended with the fall of the North government in March 1782.
Background and education
Sackville was the third son of Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset, and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Lieutenant-General Walter Philip Colyear. His Godfather George I attended his baptism. He was educated at Westminster School in London and graduated from Trinity College in Dublin in 1737. Between 1730 and 1737 and again from 1750 to 1755, his father held the post of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. While in Dublin he befriended the celebrated writer Jonathan Swift. He also encountered Lord Ligonier who would later assist his career in the military.
He then entered the army. Sackville was elected Grandmaster of the Grand Lodge of Ireland in 1751, serving in this post for the next two years.
Family
He married Diana Sambrooke, daughter of John Sambrooke and Elizabeth Forester, on 3 September 1754. They had two sons and three daughters, including:
Diana Sackville (8 July 1756 – 29 August 1814).
Charles Sackville (27 August 1767 – 29 July 1843), later changed his name to Charles Sackville-Germain.
George Sackville (7 December 1770 – 31 May 1836)
Elizabeth, married Henry Herbert, MP
Early military career
Sackville started as a captain in the 7th Horse (later the 6th Dragoon Guards). In 1740, he transferred to the Gloucestershire Regiment of Foot as a lieutenant colonel. The regiment was sent to Germany to participate in the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1743. Sackville was advanced to brevet colonel.
Battle of Fontenoy
He saw his first battle, leading the charge of the Duke of Cumberland's infantry in the Battle of Fontenoy in 1745. He led his regiment so deep into the French lines that when he was wounded and captured he was taken to the tent of Louis XV. When he was released and returned home, it was to duty in Scotland as the Colonel of the 20th Foot Regiment.
In 1747 and 1748, he again joined the Duke of Cumberland. He became colonel of the 7th Irish horse and served in Holland. There was a break in his military career between wars (1750-1755) when he served as first secretary to his father.
During the Seven Years' War, Sackville returned to active military service. He had been considered for the post of Commander-in-Chief in North America, which eventually went to Edward Braddock who led his force to disaster during the Braddock Campaign. In 1755, he was promoted to major general and returned to active service to oversee ordnance. In 1758, he was given a fourth regiment and joined the Duke of Marlborough as a lieutenant general. He was sworn of the Privy Council in January 1758.
Raid on St Malo
In June 1758 Sackville was second in command of a British expedition led by Marlborough which attempted an amphibious Raid on St Malo. While it failed to take the town as instructed, the raid was still considered to have been largely successful as a diversion. Follow-up raids were considered against Le Havre, Caen and other targets in Normandy but no further landings were attempted and the force returned home.
Later in 1758 they joined the allied forces of Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick in Germany, with the first detachment of British troops sent to the Continent. When Marlborough died, Sackville became Commander of the British contingent of the army, although still under the overall command of the Duke of Brunswick.
Battle of Minden
In the Battle of Minden on 1 August 1759, British and Hanoverian infantry of the centre made an advance on the French cavalry and artillery in that sector. They apparently went in without orders and their attacking line formation even repulsed repeated French cavalry charges, holding until the last moment then firing a massive volley when the charge came within ten yards. As the disrupted French began to fall back on Minden, Ferdinand called for a British cavalry charge to complete the victory, but Sackville withheld permission for their advance. Ferdinand sent his order several times, but Sackville was estranged from Lord Granby, the force commander. He continued to withhold permission for Granby to "gain glory" through an attack. For this action, he was cashiered and sent home. Granby replaced him as commander of the British contingent for the remainder of the war.
Court martial
Sackville refused to accept responsibility for refusing to obey orders. Back in England, he demanded a court martial, and made it a large enough issue that he obtained his demand in 1760. The court found him guilty, and imposed one of the strangest and strongest verdicts ever rendered against a general officer. The court's verdict not only upheld his discharge, but ruled that he was "...unfit to serve His Majesty in any military Capacity whatever", then ordered that their verdict be read to and entered in the orderly book of every regiment in the army. The king had his name struck from the Privy Council rolls.
Early political career
Sackville had been a Member of Parliament at intervals since 1733. He had served terms in both the Dublin and the Westminster bodies, sometimes simultaneously, but had not taken sides in political wrangles.
Between 1750 and 1755 he served as Chief Secretary for Ireland, during his father's second term as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
When George III took the throne in 1760, Sackville began his political rehabilitation. There did not seem to be negative repercussions to the European stalemate of the Seven Years' War. The victories over the French within the colonial empire provided a chance for events of the war to be forgotten. The difficulty of repaying the debts incurred to fight the war caused a period of unstable ministries and shifting political alliances. In 1765, King George quietly returned him to the rolls of the Privy Council.
Initially he was a follower of George Grenville's faction but he increasingly lined up as a supporter of Lord North and, in 1769, he made this alliance formal. Then, in 1769, Lady Elizabeth Germain died without natural heirs, and left her estates, including Drayton, Northamptonshire, to him. This not only improved his finances, it also gave him the chance to take that name formally. After 1770, he was known as Lord George Germain.
Secretary of State
Appointment
On 10 November 1775, Germain was appointed Secretary of State for the American Department replacing Lord Dartmouth in the post. At that time, North's cabinet had three secretaries of state; one each for Europe (the Northern Department), America, and the rest of the world (the Southern Department). Besides international relations, these secretaries were responsible for a great deal of Colonial administration and for military operations within their area. This made Germain the primary minister responsible for suppressing the rebellion that had broken out in 1775 in the colonies. He promoted or relieved Generals, took care of provisions and supplies, and became involved with the strategic planning of the war.
American War of Independence
Sackville and Lord North made three assumptions about the war they were about to face: firstly, the American forces could not withstand the assaults of the British; secondly, the war would be similar to wars they had fought successfully in Europe; and lastly, their victory would bring about their goal of having the colonies' allegiance. All of their assumptions proved to be false, with the limited and unhelpful exception of the first, in that the American forces usually could not withstand the assaults of the British in open battle but instead adopted other, more successful, tactics.
In 1776 he worked with General Burgoyne to plan, support and issue orders for the Saratoga campaign. However, his unclear orders to General Howe contributed to the campaign's failure. Following the entry of France, Spain and the Dutch Republic into the conflict, British emphasis shifted to focus increasingly on a global war. British troops were withdrawn from Philadelphia and reinforcements were sent to the valuable sugar-producing West Indies. In 1779 one of Germain's associates, Richard Cumberland was sent to Madrid for talks designed to reach a separate peace settlement with Spain, but this attempt failed.
Yorktown
In 1781, the confusion involving orders sent to Cornwallis from Clinton contributed to the loss at Yorktown.
The news of Yorktown reached London on 25 November 1781 and the messenger went first to Germain's residence at Pall Mall. Germain then went to tell other ministers. Together they went to Lord North who reportedly cried out "Oh God - It's all over". It was agreed that Germain, rather than North, should take the news to the King who was at Kew. The King's Speech two days later had to be re-written in light of Yorktown. News of the surrender galvanised the Opposition and government majorities began to shrink over the following months with calls for resignations of senior ministers. Germain drew up a plan to continue the war using the existing British bases in Charleston, New York, Savannah and Canada to harass the American coastline and frontiers. He also advocated re-occupying Newport in Rhode Island to give a foothold in New England.
Departure from office
Germain became a target for the opposition, and was eventually persuaded to step down in exchange for a peerage, and in February 1782 he was made Baron Bolebrooke, in the County of Sussex, and Viscount Sackville, of Drayton in the County of Northampton. This was considered essential if the North government was to survive by bringing in factions of the opposition, to whom Germain was personally objectionable. He was replaced by Welbore Ellis. In spite of Germain's departure, the North government fell shortly afterwards in February 1782 and was followed by a period of political instability. Shortly after the fall of the North government, news arrived of the decisive British naval victory at the Battle of the Saintes in the Caribbean, which would have boosted the government had it still been in power. The Shelburne government agreed to the Peace of Paris, bringing an end to the war in 1783 and recognising the independence of the United States.
Later life
The controversy over Lord Sackville's handling of the war continued. Some members were opposed to his taking a seat in the House of Lords, an almost unprecedented incident. In spite of this he was admitted to the Lords, where he was staunchly defended by Lord Thurlow, and his declining health soon made the issue irrelevant. He retired to his country home at Stoneland Lodge and died there in 1785. He maintained to his dying day that he had not been a coward at Minden. Following his death, a defence of Sackville's reputation, The character of the late Viscount Sackville, was written by Richard Cumberland. A trove of the subject's letters were published by the Historical Records Commission beginning in 1904 under the title Report on the manuscripts of Mrs. Stopford-Sackville, of Drayton House, Northhamptonshire / with a new introduction and preface by George Athan Billias.
The Drayton House estate passed to his son Charles, who later became the 5th (and last) Duke of Dorset. The Stoneland estate (or Buckhurst Park as it came to be known) passed via the wife of the late 3rd Duke of Dorset to her daughter Countess de la Warr on the Dowager Duchess's death in 1825.
Legacy
Namesake of Fort Sackville (Nova Scotia), Canada
Lower Sackville, Nova Scotia and Upper Sackville, Nova Scotia
Germain Street, Saint John, New Brunswick
Sackville, New South Wales
Town of Sackville, New Brunswick. Established in 1762 by settlers ("New England planters") from Rhode Island and southern Massachusetts, the Sackville Township, named for Viscount Sackville, was formally created in 1765; by 1772 it was sufficiently populated to send a representative to the Nova Scotia House of Assembly. (Wikipedia) It became part of the Province of New Brunswick in 1784. The Town was incorporated in 1903.
References
Further reading
Brown, Gerald S. "The Court Martial of Lord George Sackville, Whipping Boy of the Revolutionary War." William and Mary Quarterly (1952): 317-337 online.
Clark, Jane. "Responsibility for the Failure of the Burgoyne Campaign." American Historical Review (1930): 542-559 online.
Guttridge, George H. "Lord George Germain in Office, 1775-1782." American Historical Review 33.1 (1927): 23-43. online
Gruber, Ira D. "Lord Howe and Lord George Germain, British Politics and the Winning of American Independence." William and Mary Quarterly (1965): 225–243. in JSTOR
Jones, Robert W. "9 “Unfit to Serve”: Honour, Masculinity, and the Fate of Lord George Sackville." in The Culture of the Seven Years' War: Empire, Identity, and the Arts in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (2014): 213+ online
Kyte, George W. "Plans for Reconquest of the Rebellious Colonies in America." Historian 10.2 (1948): 101–117.
Mackesy, Piers. Coward of Minden: The Affair of Lord George Sackville (1979).
Nelson, Paul David. "British Conduct of the American Revolutionary War: A Review of Interpretations." Journal of American History 65.3 (1978): 623-653. online
O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (Yale UP, 2014).
Robson, Eric. "Lord George Germain and the American Colonies." History Today (Feb 1953) 3#2 pp 115–121.
Valentine, Alan, Lord George Germain (1962), full biography that casts heavy blame on him for all British failures; reviews call it an unreliable book; online review
Weddle, Kevin J. "A Change of Both Men and Measures": British Reassessment of Military Strategy after Saratoga, 1777–1778." Journal of Military History 77.3 (2013).
Willcox, William B. "British Strategy in America, 1778." Journal of Modern History (1947): 97-121. in JSTOR
|-
1716 births
1785 deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste%20Jourdan
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Jean-Baptiste Jourdan
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Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, 1st Count Jourdan (29 April 1762 – 23 November 1833), was a French military commander who served during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was made a Marshal of the Empire by Emperor Napoleon I in 1804. He was also a Jacobin politician during the Directory phase of the French Revolution, serving as member of the Council of Five Hundred between 1797 and 1799.
One of the most successful commanders of the French Revolutionary Army, Jourdan is best rembered in the Revolution for leading the French to a decisive victory over the First Coalition at the Battle of Fleurus, during the Flanders campaign. Under the Empire he was rewarded by Napoleon with the title of Marshal and continued to hold military assignments, but suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Vitoria, which resulted in the Empire's permanent loss of Spain. In 1815 he became reconciled with the Bourbon Restoration, and later supported the July Revolution and served in his last years as governor of the Hôtel des Invalides.
Early life
Jourdan was born in Limoges, in the province of Limousin, on 29 April 1762. He was the only surviving child of Roch Jourdan, a surgeon originally from Meyrargues, and Jeanne Foreau-Franciquet. His mother died at childbirth when he was two years old, and after being raised by his father for a few years, Jourdan was put under the care of an uncle, the Abbé Laurent Jourdan, a parish priest who ran a boarding school in Beaurecueil, in Provence. His father died when he was nine years old, at around 1771, leaving Jourdan as an impoverished orphan.
After finishing his basic education at the school in Beaurecueil, at fifteen years old Jourdan was sent to the care of another uncle, Jean-François Jourdan, a cloth merchant in Lyon and disciplinarian employer. Working as an apprentice clerk at the clothing shop, Jourdan endured for about a year in Lyon before enlisting in the Royal army in 1778, joining the regiment of Auxerrois stationed in the Île de Ré, which was destined for service in the American War of Independence.
American Revolutionary War
Jourdan spent the rest of the year with the regiment in Île de Ré before it departed for the war in America. He first saw action at the capture of Granada in mid-1779. A few months later the Auxerrois regiment was put under the command of the Comte d'Estaing, and in this assignment Jourdan soon participated in the ill-fated assault at the Siege of Savannah, in October 1779. Through the next years he served in the West Indies. He took part in the successful defense of the recently captured island of Saint Vincent, in 1780, and in the invasion of Tobago in 1781.
During his duty in the West Indies, Jourdan fell ill with what was officially diagnosed as hernia, though it was likely an intestinal disease, and bouts of illness troubled him for the rest of his military career. Due to this period of poor health he missed most of the campaigns of 1782, only returning to the army at the end of the year.
Return to Limoges
In June 1784, Jourdan was demobilized from the Royal army in Verdun, and, after a period of unemployment, returned to his native Limoges and found work at a cloth merchant's shop, where he proved to be an excellent employee. He married Jeanne Nicolas Avanturier, the sister of his boss, in Limoges on 22 January 1788, and the couple had six children.
War of the First Coalition
Jourdan welcomed the French Revolution with enthusiasm. He was appointed lieutenant of the chasseurs of the National Guard in 1790, and when the National Assembly asked for volunteers, Jourdan was elected commander of the 9th battalion of volunteers from Haute-Vienne. He led his troops in the French victory at the Battle of Jemappes on 6 November 1792 and in the defeat at the Battle of Neerwinden on 18 March 1793. Jourdan's leadership skills were noticed and led to his promotion to Brigade general on 27 May 1793 and to general of division two months later. On 8 September, he led his division at the Battle of Hondschoote, in which he was wounded in the chest. On 22 September, he was named to lead the Army of the North. Three of his predecessors, Nicolas Luckner, Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine, and Jean Nicolas Houchard were under arrest and later executed by guillotine.
Jourdan's first assignment was to relieve General Jacques Ferrand's 20,000-man garrison of Maubeuge which was besieged by an Austrian-Dutch army commanded by Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. The Committee of Public Safety felt that this mission was so important that it dispatched Lazare Carnot to oversee the operation. Jourdan defeated Coburg on 15–16 October at the Battle of Wattignies and broke the siege. Carnot claimed that it was his own intervention that won the victory. Historian Michael Glover writes that the first day's attack was a failure because of Carnot's interference, while the second day's success resulted from Jourdan using his own tactical judgment. In any case, only Carnot's account reached Paris.
On 10 January 1794, after refusing to carry out an impossible order, Jourdan was brought before the Committee of Public Safety. Carnot presented Jourdan's arrest warrant, which was signed by Maximilien de Robespierre, Bertrand Barère, and Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois. Jourdan was saved from certain execution when an eyewitness, representative on mission Ernest Joseph Duquesnoy rose and contradicted Carnot's version of events at Wattignies. Spared from arrest, Jourdan was nevertheless dismissed from the army and sent home.
The government soon recalled Jourdan to lead the Army of the Moselle. In May, he was ordered north with the left wing of the Army of the Moselle. This force was combined with the Army of the Ardennes and the right wing of the Army of the North to form an army which did not officially become the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse until 29 June 1794. With 70,000 soldiers of the new army, Jourdan laid siege to Charleroi on 12 June. A 41,000-man Austrian-Dutch army under the Prince of Orange defeated the French at the Battle of Lambusart on 16 June and drove them south of the Sambre River. Casualties numbered 3,000 for each army. Undeterred, Jourdan immediately marched on Namur to the east-northeast of Charleroi. Instead of attacking Namur, he suddenly swung west and appeared to the north of Charleroi. After a brief siege, the 3,000-man Austrian garrison of Charleroi surrendered on 25 June. Military strategist B. H. Liddell Hart cited Jourdan's maneuver as an example of the indirect approach, even though it was probably inadvertent on the French general's part. Too late to save Charlerloi, Coburg's 46,000-strong army attacked Jourdan's 75,000 French on 26 June. The Battle of Fleurus proved to be a strategic French victory when Coburg called off his attacks and retreated. During the battle, the Allied attacks pushed back both French flanks, but Jourdan stubbornly fought it out and was saved when General François Joseph Lefebvre's division held its ground in the center.
After Fleurus, the Allied position in the Austrian Netherlands collapsed. The Austrian Army evacuated Belgium and the Dutch Republic was dissolved by the advancing French armies in 1795. On 7 June 1795, Jourdan's army concluded the long but successful Siege of Luxembourg. Operations east of the Rhine were less successful that year, with the French capturing, then losing Mannheim.
In the Rhine campaign of 1796, Jourdan's Army of Sambre-et-Meuse formed the left wing of the advance into Bavaria. The whole of the French forces were ordered to advance on Vienna, Jourdan on the extreme left, General Jean Victor Marie Moreau in the centre by the Danube valley, and Napoleon on the right in Italy. The campaign began brilliantly, with the Austrians under Archduke Charles being driven back by Moreau and Jourdan almost to the Austrian frontier. But Charles, slipping away from Moreau, threw his whole weight on Jourdan, who was defeated at the Battle of Amberg in August. Jourdan failed to salvage the situation at the Battle of Würzburg and was forced over the Rhine after the Battle of Limburg, which cost the life of General François Séverin Marceau. Moreau had to fall back in turn, and the operations of the year in Germany were a failure. The chief cause of defeat was the plan of campaign imposed upon the generals by their government. Jourdan was nevertheless made the scapegoat and was not employed for two years. In those years he became prominent as a politician and above all as the framer of the famous conscription law of 1798, which came to be known as the Jourdan law.
War of the Second Coalition
When war was renewed in 1799, Jourdan was at the head of the army on the Rhine, but again suffered defeat at the hands of Archduke Charles at the battles of Ostrach and Stockach in late March. Disappointed and broken in health, he handed over command to General André Masséna. He resumed his political duties and was a prominent opponent of the Coup of 18 Brumaire, after which he was expelled from the Council of Five Hundred. Soon, however, he became formally reconciled to the new régime, and accepted from Napoleon fresh military and civil employment. In 1800, Jourdan became inspector-general of cavalry and infantry and representative of French interests in the Cisalpine Republic.
Napoleonic Wars
In 1804, Napoleon appointed Jourdan as a Marshal of the Empire. He remained in the newly created Kingdom of Italy until 1806, when Joseph Bonaparte, whom his brother made King of Naples that year, selected Jourdan as his military adviser. He followed Joseph into Spain in 1808; but Joseph's throne had to be maintained by the French Army, and throughout the Peninsular War, the other marshals, who depended directly upon Napoleon, paid little heed either to Joseph or to Jourdan. Jourdan was blamed for the defeat at the Battle of Talavera in 1809 and replaced by Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult. He was reinstated as Joseph's chief of staff in September 1811 but given few troops. After the disastrous French defeat at the Battle of Salamanca in July 1812, Joseph and Jourdan were forced to abandon Madrid and retreat to Valencia. Joining with Soult's army, which evacuated Andalusia, the French were able to recapture Madrid during the Siege of Burgos and push Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese army back to Portugal.
The following year, Wellington advanced again with a large, well-organized army. Repeatedly outmaneuvering the French, the Anglo-Allied army forced Joseph and Jourdan to fight at the Battle of Vitoria on 21 June 1813, during which Jourdan's marshal's baton was captured by the British. After the French decisive defeat, which resulted in the permanent loss of Spain, Jourdan held no important commands up to the fall of the French Empire. He adhered to the first Bourbon Restoration, in 1814, but joined Napoleon on his return to power during the Hundred Days and was appointed commander of Besançon.
Later life
Jourdan submitted to the Bourbons again after the final French defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Afterwards he refused to be a member of the court which sentenced Marshal Michel Ney to death. He was made a count, a Peer of France in 1819, and governor of Grenoble in 1816. In politics, Jourdan was a prominent opponent of the royalist reactionaries and supported the Revolution of 1830. After this event, he held the portfolio of foreign affairs for a few days and then became governor of the Hôtel des Invalides, a post he held until his death. Jourdan died in Paris on 23 November 1833 and was buried in Les Invalides.
While in exile on Saint Helena, Napoleon admitted, I certainly used that man very ill ... I have learned with pleasure that since my fall he invariably acted in the best manner. He has thus afforded an example of that praiseworthy elevation of mind which distinguishes men one from another. Jourdan is a true patriot; and that is the answer to many things that have been said of him.
Jourdan wrote Opérations de l'armée du Danube ("Operations of the Army of the Danube", 1799), Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire sur la campagne de 1796 ("Memoirs to serve history of the campaign of 1796", 1819), and unpublished personal memoirs.
Footnotes
References
Glover, Michael. "Jourdan: The True Patriot". Chandler, David (ed.). Napoleon's Marshals. New York: Macmillan, 1987.
Liddell Hart, B. H. Strategy. NY: Praeger Publishers, 1967.
Smith, Digby. The Napoleonic Wars Data Book. London: Greenhill, 1998.
External links
Further reading
Connelly, Owen, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns SR Books, 1999, .
Elting, John R. Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armée Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997, .
Humble, Richard Napoleon's Peninsular marshals;: A reassessment Taplinger Pub., 1975, .
Macdonell, A. G. Napoleon and His Marshals Prion, 1997, .
1762 births
1833 deaths
Counts Jourdan
French military personnel of the American Revolutionary War
French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
Marshals of the First French Empire
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the Bourbon Restoration
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the Hundred Days
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy
Members of the Council of Five Hundred
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
People from Limoges
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas%20Billaud-Varenne
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Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne
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Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne (, 23 April 17563 June 1819), also known as Jean Nicolas, was a French personality of the Revolutionary period. Though not one of the most well known figures of the French Revolution, Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne was an instrumental figure of the period known as the Reign of Terror. Billaud-Varenne climbed his way up the ladder of power during that period, becoming one of the most militant members of the Committee of Public Safety. He was recognized and worked with French Revolution figures Georges Danton and Maximilien Robespierre, and is often considered one of the key architects of The Terror. "No, we will not step backward, our zeal will only be smothered in the tomb; either the Revolution will triumph or we will all die."
Biography
Early life
Billaud-Varenne was born in La Rochelle as the son of a lawyer to the parlement of Paris. Since both his grandfather and father were lawyers, and he was the first son in his direct family, Varenne was guaranteed a solid education and the same profession. Billaud-Varenne was educated at the College of Oratorians of Niort and took Philosophy at La Rochelle. His education at Niort was particularly important in shaping his character because its methods of teaching were uncommon to the revolution. At Niort, modernity and tolerance were emphasized, as opposed to overbearing and possibly obstructive religious instruction present in most other schools of the time. Billaud-Varenne was also sent to Oratory school at Juilly, where he later became a professor when he felt dissatisfied with practicing law. Here he remained for a short while, until his writing of a comédie strained his relationship with those who ran the school and he was obliged to leave in 1785, the Oratorian college where he was Hall prefect of studies. He then went to Paris, married and bought a position as lawyer in the parlement. In early 1789 he published at Amsterdam a three-volume work on the Despotisme des ministres de la France as well as a well received anti-clerical text titled "The Last Blow Against Prejudice and Superstition." As events moved closer towards Bastille Day, he adopted with enthusiasm the principles of the Revolution. An example of his beliefs regarding the Church can be found in this text:
"However painful an amputation may be, when a member is gangrened it must be sacrificed if we wish to save the body."
Early activism
Joining the Jacobin Club, Billaud-Varenne became, from 1790, one of the most violent anti-Royalist orators, closely linked to Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois. After the flight to Varennes of King Louis XVI, he published a pamphlet, L'Acéphocratie, in which he demanded the establishment of a federal republic.
On 1 July, in another speech at the Jacobin Club, he spoke of a republic, arousing the derision of partisans of the constitutional monarchy. But when he repeated his demand for a republic a fortnight later, the speech was printed and sent to the Jacobin branch societies throughout France.
On the night of 10 August 1792 (during the attack on the Tuileries Palace) he met with Danton, Desmoulins, and other members of the Insurrectionary Commune during the critical hours before the overthrow of the monarchy. Later that day, he was elected one of the deputy-commissioners of the sections who shortly afterwards became the general council of the Paris Commune. He was accused of having been an accomplice in the September Massacres in the Abbaye prison.
Projects in the Convention
Elected, like Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton, and Collot d'Herbois, a deputy of Paris to the National Convention, he spoke in favour of the immediate abolition of the Bourbon monarchy, and the next day demanded that all acts be dated from the Year I of the French Republic (a measure adopted a little over a year later in the form of the French Revolutionary Calendar).
At the trial of Louis XVI he added new charges to the accusation, proposed to refuse counsel to the king, and voted for death "within 24 hours". On 2 June 1793, in the context of Jean-Paul Marat's anti-Girondist instigations, he proposed a decree of accusation against the Girondists; a week later, at the Jacobin Club, he outlined a programme which the Convention was to fulfil soon after: the expulsion of foreigners, the establishment of a tax on the rich, the deprivation of the rights of citizenship of all "anti-social" men, the creation of a French Revolutionary Army, the monitoring of all officers and ci-devant nobles (i.e.: those of aristocratic families who no longer held status after the abolition of feudalism), and the death penalty for unsuccessful generals fighting in the French Revolutionary Wars.
Mission and Reign of Terror
On 15 July he made a violent speech in the Convention in accusation of the Girondists. Sent in August as representative on mission to the départements of the Nord and of Pas-de-Calais, he showed himself inexorable to all suspects.
On his return, the calamities of the summer of 1793 caused the Paris Commune to begin to organize an insurrection - an insurrection that would lead to Billaud-Varenne's ascension to the most powerful body in all of France. When the popular uprising did come on 5 September and the Commune marched on the National Convention, Billaud-Varenne was one of the chief speakers agitating for change in leadership. He called for a new war plan from the Ministry of War and that a new Committee be created to oversee the whole government - thus superseding the existing Committee of Public Safety. To mollify the insurrectionists, that night Billaud-Varenne was named President of the National Convention for a special two week session, followed by him being named to the Committee of Public Safety the next day. Along with Collot d'Herbois, who was named the same day, his addition was seen as a way to co-opt the Paris Commune. Once added to Committee of Public Safety, he then played a major role in defending it - calling for unity instead of change - on 25 October when the National Convention complained about the Committee and then officially sanctioned them. He was included in the Reign of Terror's Committee of Public Safety, which had decreed the mass arrest of all suspects and the establishment of a revolutionary army, caused the extraordinary criminal tribunal to be named officially "Revolutionary Tribunal" (on 29 October 1793), demanded the execution of Marie Antoinette, and then attacked Jacques René Hébert and Danton. Meanwhile, he published Les Éléments du républicanisme, in which he demanded a division of property among the citizens.
Once named to the Committee, Billaud-Varenne became a vocal defender of that body. Based in Paris during much of this year, Billaud-Varenne and Barère worked to develop the administrative apparatus and consolidate the power of the Committee. To that end, in early December he proposed a radical centralization of authority, a law that became known as the Law of 14 Frimaire. This law brought surveillance, economic requisition, the dispatch of legislative news, local administrators, and representatives on mission under the control of the Committee. He was also instrumental in defending the Terror: when a measure was passed into law in mid November 1793 allowing the accused the right of defense, Billaud-Varenne uttered his famous words in defense of the Terror:
"No, we will not step backward, our zeal will only be smothered in the tomb; either the revolution will triumph or we will all die." The law enabling right of defense was overturned the next day.
Thermidor and exile
As 1794 progressed, Robespierre began to speak out against over zealous factions: he believed both pro-Terror and indulgent positions were dangerous to the well-being of the Revolution. Robespierre saw danger in members of the Revolution, like Billaud-Varenne, Collot d'Herbois, and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier who had been too committed to attacks on Church property or had been too vigorous in their pursuit of revolutionary justice (such as Collot at Lyon). The deChristianization program was seen as divisive and unnecessary by some in the Convention. Furthermore, the law of 22 Prairial had isolated the police wing of the Convention: the Committee of General Security, a body that was extremely anti-clerical, had seen their power severely diminished by the law. The law of 22 Prairial reduced the right of defense to simply an appearance before court, while greatly expanding the list of crimes punishable by death. This is what led directly to the Great Terror, in which more were killed by the Revolutionary Tribunal in Paris in those seven weeks than in the preceding fourteen months. Though Billaud-Varenne publicly defended it in the Convention, this law was a driving factor in the eventual reprisal against the Committee. Serious arguments began to fracture the Committee, with Billaud-Varenne and Collot d'Herbois pitted against Robespierre and Saint-Just. On 26 June, they argued over the imposition of a new prosecutor to the Revolutionary Tribunal. On 29 June, an argument once again broke out between members of the Committee of Public Safety. Though it could have been about the Catherine Théot affair or the law of 22 Prairial, it led to Billaud-Varenne branding Robespierre a dictator and the latter storming out of the Committee headquarters and ceasing to attend meetings. With tensions being heightened and more guillotined every day - the rate of executions per day in Paris rose from five a day in Germinal to twenty-six a day in Messidor - Billaud-Varenne and Collot d'Herbois began to fear for their safety.
Throughout the early days of Thermidor, Bertrand Barère attempted to forge compromise between the splintering Committee. However, Robespierre was still convinced that the Convention needed further purging, and on 8 Thermidor he rose before that body to give a speech that would spark the Thermidorian Reaction. Speaking of "monsters" that threatened the Republic with conspiracy, his speech was pointed enough to serve as a warning while being vague enough to worry many in the body. When he was asked for the names of those in the conspiracy, Robespierre declined to provide them, and he was charged with indicting members of the Convention en masse without a hearing.
That night, Robespierre retreated to the Jacobin Club, where he gave the same speech to rousing applause. Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, as members who the speech may have been aimed at, attempted to defend themselves but were shouted down and expelled from the club as cries for "la guillotine," rained down upon them. They returned to the Committee of Public Safety where they found Saint-Just, the protege of Robespierre, working on a speech he intended to deliver the next day. As one of the chief messengers of the terror, Collot and Billaud-Varenne both assumed that Saint-Just was writing their denunciation. At this moment the last argument of the Committee erupted, with Collot, Billaud-Varenne, and Barère attacking Saint-Just for "dividing the nation." After sometime, they departed the Committee and organized the last elements of the Thermidorian Reaction.
The next day, 9 Thermidor, Billaud-Varenne would play a critical role in the final stroke against Robespierre and his allies. As Saint-Just delivered his speech, he was interrupted near the beginning by another conspirator, Jean-Lambert Tallien. Billaud-Varenne was next to speak, with Collot d'Herbois controlling the debates from the President's Chair, and in an eloquent planned denunciation directly accused Robespierre of a conspiracy against the Republic. This speech and others were warmly received, and after continued debate arrest warrants were issued for Robespierre, Saint-Just, and their allies. After a brief armed standoff, the conspirators would carry the day, and Robespierre and his allies would be executed the next day.
However, after 9 Thermidor, Billaud-Varenne was soon enough to find himself in prison. Too closely associated with the excesses of the Reign of Terror, he was shortly attacked himself in the Convention for his ruthlessness, and a commission was appointed to examine his conduct and that of some other members of the former Committee of Public Safety. Billaud-Varenne was arrested, and as a result of the Jacobin-led insurrection of 12 Germinal of the Year III (1 April 1795), the Convention decreed his immediate deportation to French Guiana, along with Collot d'Herbois and Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac, where he picked up farming and married a black ex-slave girl. After Napoleon Bonaparte's 18 Brumaire coup, he refused the pardon offered by the French Consulate. In 1816 he left Guiana, went to New York City for a few months, and finally moved to Port-au-Prince (Haiti), where he became advisor and counsellor to the high court before dying of dysentery in 1819.
Works
("Despotism of the ministers of France, combatted by the rights of the Nation, by the fundamental laws, by the ordinances…"), Paris, 1789.
Mémoires écrits au Port-au-Prince en 1818, contenant la relation de ses voyages et aventures dans le Mexique, depuis 1815 jusqu'en 1817. ("Memoirs written in Port-au-Prince in 1818, containing the relation of his voyages and adventures in Mexico, from 1815 to 1817"), Paris, 1821 [probably forgeries].
("Billaud Varenne, member of the Committee of Public Safety: Unpublished memoirs and correspondence. Accompanied by biographical notes on Billaud Varenne and Collot d'Herbois"), Paris, Librairie de la Nouvelle Revue, 1893 (edited by Alfred Begis).
References
Attribution
In turn, it gives the following references:
Billaud-Varenne's autobiographical sketch of his youth, Tableau du prémier age, composed in 1786 - published in 1888 in the review La Révolution française.
François Victor Alphonse Aulard, Les Orateurs de la législative et de la convention (2nd ed., 1906).
Sources
Arthur Conte, Billaud Varenne : Géant de la Révolution, Paris, Editions Orban, 1989
Jacques Guilaine, Billaud-Varenne : l'ascète de la Révolution (1756–1819), Paris, Fayard, 1969
Auguste Kuscinski: Dictionnaire des conventionnels, Paris, Société de l'Histoire de la Révolution française, F. Rieder, 1916 <New edition: Brueil-en-Vexin, Editions du Vexin français, 1973>
Robert R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled : The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1941 <New edition: Princeton Classic Editions, 2005. – >
Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), 809, 840.
Levitine, George. Culture and Revolution: Cultural Ramifications of the French Revolution (College Park, Maryland: Department of Art History, 1989), 70-79.
Tom Malone: "Billaud-Varenne - Anwalt des Terrors". BOD, Hamburg 2014, .
1756 births
1819 deaths
People from La Rochelle
Jacobins
Thermidorians
Presidents of the National Convention
Deputies to the French National Convention
People on the Committee of Public Safety
People of the French Revolution
Regicides of Louis XVI
French male essayists
French lawyers
French political writers
People of the Reign of Terror
Infectious disease deaths in Haiti
Deaths from dysentery
18th-century French memoirists
19th-century French memoirists
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244279
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read%27s%20Island
|
Read's Island
|
Read's Island is an island situated just outside the Ancholme sluice, on the Humber Estuary in England. The Lincolnshire Trust suggest it is an artificial island, and a report from 1979 says that it was reclaimed. However, the site was for many years a large sandbank going by the name of "Old Warp" and is shown on the 1734 Customs Map of the Humber where Read's Island now lays, and extending further downstream.
A local history website about Barton-Upon-Humber indicates that both are true. It says that two wrecks, including one which locals deliberately scuttled, helped to form the island off South Ferriby. The scuttling was to protect the banks on the southern shore.
In 1872, it was described as being 300 acres, in 1886 it was 491 acres whilst in 2008 it was 200 acres. Flooding in 2007 left the island depleted of areas for Avocets to breed, so a programme of rebuilding was instituted.
History
The Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales suggests that Read's Island was 'formed of Pudding-Pie sand' and that it 'took its name from Mr Read of Burton Stather'.
Grass was then seen growing on Old Warp by the end of the 18th century and cattle were put onto the island to graze. With the Humber Estuary being a drain for a large part of the Midlands, including the River Trent and all of its tributaries, and the River Ouse draining a major part of Yorkshire, England, and being very tidal, it was a simple task and a matter of waiting a few years for some strategically placed piles of bricks and concrete (Warping) to start off this island by allowing the rich silt to build up. It was certainly protected and further land reclaimed from the Humber as its island status grew, and by the 1861 census there was one wooden cottage on the island, with a fresh water well.
Military history
German prisoners of war rebuilt the brick flood walls during the 1914–1918 war and on the 21 May 1942, an Airspeed Oxford of No 15 PAFU from RAF Kirmington crashed into the east side of the island. On 24 December 1944, a V1 rocket crashed into the mud by Read's Island. It was part of a synchronized attack on Manchester by Heinkel 111 aircraft. The rockets were launched from aircraft to improve their range.
Agriculture and human history
In 1871, the Humber Conservancy agreed to buy the island from the Crown Estate for a sum of £1434.4s.3d(equivalent to £935,000 in 2015) and the land was rented out to the tenant farmers. The major part of Read's Island is in the parish of Winteringham despite the closest village being South Ferriby. It has been occupied at times in the past, at one point as a farm with cattle roaming along it, and when there are particularly high spring tides, at low water, it was possible for the cattle to reach solid ground by walking across the mud at low tide. In the 1930s cattle had to be transported by barge. The island then extended to some and was used for summer grazing. It was locally famous for wildlife and hares.
Hydrometry
Historically, there is an approximate 20-year cycle whereby the main shipping channel alternates from just north of Read's Island to the South Channel, between the Island and the shoreline in South Ferriby and Winteringham parishes.
Currently, as the Humber continues to change, the island is in decline. Current thinking suggests that the main (undredged) shipping channel upstream will vary between the island and the north shore and the island and the Humber's Lincolnshire shore. This has been attributed to the flow of the freshwater coming down the estuary.
Ecology
Read's Island is an RSPB reserve due to its importance for birdlife. Species that migrate or live year-round on the island include ground-nesting avocets (10% of the entire UK population), greylag goose, pink-footed goose, marsh harrier, lapwing, wigeon, curlew, golden plover and fallow deer.
Toponymy confusion
Note that Read's Island is the spelling used by the Ordnance Survey and other maps, whilst some spell it Reads Island, and others even Reed's or Reeds Island. An ABPmer document even spells it as Reed's and Read's in the same paragraph. The Read brothers of Burton upon Stather are believed to be the first to graze cattle on the island.
Notes
References
External links
RSPB Read's Island
Winteringham – Read's Island history
ABP's Estuary photographs of South Ferriby and Read's Island
Calculate from Pounds, Shillings and Pence into sterling in 2000
Artificial islands of England
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds reserves in England
Landforms of Lincolnshire
Islands of England
Islands of the Humber
Nature reserves in Lincolnshire
|
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] |
244283
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20compound
|
English compound
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A compound is a word composed of more than one free morpheme. The English language, like many others, uses compounds frequently. English compounds may be classified in several ways, such as the word classes or the semantic relationship of their components.
History
English inherits the ability to form compounds from its parent the Proto-Indo-European language and expands on it. Close to two-thirds of the words in the Old English poem Beowulf are found to be compounds. Of all the types of word-formation in English, compounding is said to be the most productive.
Compound nouns
Most English compound nouns are noun phrases (i.e. nominal phrases) that include a noun modified by adjectives or noun adjuncts. Due to the English tendency towards conversion, the two classes are not always easily distinguished. Most English compound nouns that consist of more than two words can be constructed recursively by combining two words at a time. Combining "science" and "fiction", and then combining the resulting compound with "writer", for example, can construct the compound "science-fiction writer". Some compounds, such as salt and pepper or mother-of-pearl, cannot be constructed in this way, however.
Types of compound nouns
Since English is a mostly analytic language, unlike most other Germanic languages, it creates compounds by concatenating words without case markers. As in other Germanic languages, the compounds may be arbitrarily long. However, this is obscured by the fact that the written representation of long compounds always contains spaces. Short compounds may be written in three different ways, which do not correspond to different pronunciations, though:
The "solid" or "closed" forms in which two usually moderately short words appear together as one. Solid compounds most likely consist of short (monosyllabic) units that often have been established in the language for a long time. Examples are housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, basketball.
The hyphenated form in which two or more words are connected by a hyphen. Compounds that contain affixes, such as house-build(er) and single-mind(ed)(ness), as well as adjective–adjective compounds and verb–verb compounds, such as blue-green and freeze-dried, are often hyphenated. Compounds that contain articles, prepositions or conjunctions, such as rent-a-cop, mother-of-pearl and salt-and-pepper, are also often hyphenated.
The open or spaced form consisting of newer combinations of usually longer words, such as distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis.
Usage in the US and in the UK differs and often depends on the individual choice of the writer rather than on a hard-and-fast rule; therefore, open, hyphenated, and closed forms may be encountered for the same compound noun, such as the triplets container ship/container-ship/containership and particle board/particle-board/particleboard.
In addition to this native English compounding, there is the neo-classical type, which consists of words derived from Latin, as horticulture, and those of Greek origin, such as photography, the components of which are in bound form (connected by connecting vowels, which are most often -i- and -o- in Latin and Greek respectively) and cannot stand alone.
Analyzability (transparency)
In general, the meaning of a compound noun is a specialization of the meaning of its head. The modifier limits the meaning of the head. This is most obvious in descriptive compounds (known as karmadharaya compounds in the Sanskrit tradition), in which the modifier is used in an attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard is a particular kind of board, which is (generally) black, for instance.
In determinative compounds, however, the relationship is not attributive. For example, a footstool is not a particular type of stool that is like a foot. Rather, it is a stool for one's foot or feet. (It can be used for sitting on, but that is not its primary purpose.) In a similar manner, an office manager is the manager of an office, an armchair is a chair with arms, and a raincoat is a coat against the rain. These relationships, which are expressed by prepositions in English, would be expressed by grammatical case in other languages. (Compounds of this type are known as tatpurusha in the Sanskrit tradition.)
Both of the above types of compounds are called endocentric compounds because the semantic head is contained within the compound itself—a blackboard is a type of board, for example, and a footstool is a type of stool.
However, in another common type of compound, the exocentric (known as a bahuvrihi compound in the Sanskrit tradition), the semantic head is not explicitly expressed. A redhead, for example, is not a kind of head, but is a person with red hair. Similarly, a blockhead is also not a head, but a person with a head that is as hard and unreceptive as a block (i.e. stupid). And a lionheart is not a type of heart, but a person with a heart like a lion (in its bravery, courage, fearlessness, etc.).
There is a general way to tell the two apart. In a compound "[X . Y]":
Can one substitute Y with a noun that is a Y, or a verb that does Y? This is an endocentric compound.
Can one substitute Y with a noun that is with Y? This is an exocentric compound.
Exocentric compounds occur more often in adjectives than nouns. A V-8 car is a car with a V-8 engine rather than a car that is a V-8, and a twenty-five-dollar car is a car with a worth of $25, not a car that is $25. The compounds shown here are bare, but more commonly, a suffixal morpheme is added, such as -ed: a two-legged person is a person with two legs, and this is exocentric.
On the other hand, endocentric adjectives are also frequently formed, using the suffixal morphemes -ing or -er/or. A people-carrier is a clear endocentric determinative compound: it is a thing that is a carrier of people. The related adjective, car-carrying, is also endocentric: it refers to an object which is a carrying-thing (or equivalently, which does carry).
These types account for most compound nouns, but there are other, rarer types as well. Coordinative, copulative or dvandva compounds combine elements with a similar meaning, and the compound meaning may be a generalization instead of a specialization. Bosnia-Herzegovina, for example, is the combined area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but a fighter-bomber is an aircraft that is both a fighter and a bomber. Iterative or amredita compounds repeat a single element, to express repetition or as an emphasis. Day by day and go-go are examples of this type of compound, which has more than one head.
Analyzability may be further limited by cranberry morphemes and semantic changes. For instance, the word butterfly, commonly thought to be a metathesis for flutter by, which the bugs do, is actually based on an old wives' tale that butterflies are small witches that steal butter from window sills. Cranberry is a part translation from Low German, which is why we cannot recognize the element cran (from the Low German kraan or kroon, "crane"). The ladybird or ladybug was named after the Christian expression "our Lady, the Virgin Mary".
In the case of verb+noun compounds, the noun may be either the subject or the object of the verb. In playboy, for example, the noun is the subject of the verb (the boy plays), whereas it is the object in callgirl (someone calls the girl).
Sound patterns
Stress patterns may distinguish a compound word from a noun phrase consisting of the same component words. For example, a black board, adjective plus noun, is any board that is black, and has equal stress on both elements. The compound blackboard, on the other hand, though it may have started out historically as black board, now is stressed on only the first element, black. Thus a compound such as the White House normally has a falling intonation which a phrase such as a white house does not.
Compound modifiers
English compound modifiers are constructed in a very similar way to the compound noun. Blackboard Jungle, leftover ingredients, gunmetal sheen, and green monkey disease are only a few examples.
A compound modifier is a sequence of modifiers of a noun that function as a single unit. It consists of two or more words (adjectives, gerunds, or nouns) of which the left-hand component modifies the right-hand one, as in "the dark-green dress": dark modifies the green that modifies dress.
Solid compound modifiers
There are some well-established permanent compound modifiers that have become solid over a longer period, especially in American usage: earsplitting, eyecatching, and downtown.
However, in British usage, these, apart from downtown, are more likely written with a hyphen: ear-splitting, eye-catching.
Other solid compound modifiers are for example:
Numbers that are spelled out and have the suffix -fold added: "fifteenfold", "sixfold".
Points of the compass: northwest, northwestern, northwesterly, northwestwards. In British usage, the hyphenated and open versions are more common: north-western, north-westerly, north west, north-westwards.
Hyphenated compound modifiers
Major style guides advise consulting a dictionary to determine whether a compound modifier should be hyphenated; the dictionary's hyphenation should be followed even when the compound modifier follows a noun (that is, regardless of whether in attributive or predicative position), because they are permanent compounds (whereas the general rule with temporary compounds is that hyphens are omitted in the predicative position because they are used only when necessary to prevent misreading, which is usually only in the attributive position, and even there, only on a case-by-case basis).
Generally, a compound modifier is hyphenated if the hyphen helps the reader differentiate a compound modifier from two adjacent modifiers that modify the noun independently. Compare the following examples:
"small appliance industry": a small industry producing appliances
"small-appliance industry": an industry producing small appliances
The hyphen is unneeded when capitalization or italicization makes grouping clear:
"old English scholar": an old person who is English and a scholar, or an old scholar who studies English
"Old English scholar": a scholar of Old English.
"De facto proceedings" (not "de-facto")
If, however, there is no risk of ambiguities, it may be written without a hyphen: Sunday morning walk (a "walk on Sunday morning" is practically the same as a "morning walk on Sunday").
Hyphenated compound modifiers may have been formed originally by an adjective preceding a noun, when this phrase in turn precedes another noun:
"Round table" → "round-table discussion"
"Blue sky" → "blue-sky law"
"Red light" → "red-light district"
"Four wheels" → "four-wheel drive" (historically, the singular or root is used, not the plural)
Others may have originated with a verb preceding an adjective or adverb:
"Feel good" → "feel-good factor"
"Buy now, pay later" → "buy-now pay-later purchase"
Yet others are created with an original verb preceding a preposition.
"Stick on" → "stick-on label"
"Walk on" → "walk-on part"
"Stand by" → "stand-by fare"
"Roll on, roll off" → "roll-on roll-off ferry"
The following compound modifiers are always hyphenated when they are not written as one word:
An adjective preceding a noun to which -d or -ed has been added as a past-participle construction, used before a noun:
"loud-mouthed hooligan"
"middle-aged lady"
"rose-tinted glasses"
A noun, adjective, or adverb preceding a present participle:
"an awe-inspiring personality"
"a long-lasting affair"
"a far-reaching decision"
Numbers, whether or not spelled out, that precede a noun:
"seven-year itch"
"five-sided polygon"
"20th-century poem"
"30-piece band"
"tenth-storey window"
"a 20-year-old man" (as a compound modifier) and "the 20-year-old" (as a compound noun)—but "a man, who is 20 years old"
A numeral with the affix -fold has a hyphen (15-fold), but when spelled out takes a solid construction (fifteenfold).
Numbers, spelled out or not, with added -odd: sixteen-odd, 70-odd.
Compound modifiers with high- or low-: "high-level discussion", "low-price markup".
Colours in compounds:
"a dark-blue sweater"
"a reddish-orange dress".
Fractions as modifiers are hyphenated: "two-thirds majority", but if numerator or denominator are already hyphenated, the fraction itself does not take a hyphen: "a thirty-three thousandth part". (Fractions used as nouns have no hyphens: "I ate two thirds of the pie.")
Comparatives and superlatives in compound adjectives also take hyphens:
"the highest-placed competitor"
"a shorter-term loan"
However, a construction with most is not hyphenated:
"the most respected member".
Compounds including two geographical modifiers:
"Afro-Cuban"
"African-American" (sometimes)
"Anglo-Indian"
But not
"Central American", which refers to people from a specific geographical region
The following compound modifiers are not normally hyphenated:
Compound modifiers that are not hyphenated in the relevant dictionary or that are unambiguous without a hyphen.
Where there is no risk of ambiguity:
"a Sunday morning walk"
Left-hand components of a compound modifier that end in -ly and that modify right-hand components that are past participles (ending in -ed):
"a hotly disputed subject"
"a greatly improved scheme"
"a distantly related celebrity"
Compound modifiers that include comparatives and superlatives with more, most, less or least:
"a more recent development"
"the most respected member"
"a less opportune moment"
"the least expected event"
Ordinarily hyphenated compounds with intensive adverbs in front of adjectives:
"very much admired classicist"
"really well accepted proposal"
Using a group of compound nouns containing the same "head"
Special rules apply when multiple compound nouns with the same "head" are used together, often with a conjunction (and with hyphens and commas if they are needed).
The third- and fourth-grade teachers met with the parents.
Both full- and part-time employees will get raises this year.
We don't see many 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children around here.
Compound verbs
A compound verb is usually composed of an adverb and a verb, although other combinations also exist. The term compound verb was first used in publication in Grattan and Gurrey's Our Living Language (1925).
Some compound verbs are difficult to analyze morphologically because several derivations are plausible. Blacklist, for instance, might be analyzed as an adjective+verb compound, or as an adjective+noun compound that becomes a verb through zero derivation. Most compound verbs originally have the collective meaning of both components, but some of them later gain additional meanings that may supersede the original, emergent sense. Therefore, sometimes the resultant meanings are seemingly barely related to the original contributors.
Compound verbs composed of a noun and verb are comparatively rare, and the noun is generally not the direct object of the verb.
Examples of compound verbs following the pattern of indirect-object+verb include "hand wash" (eg "you wash it by hand" ~> "you handwash it"), and "breastfeed" (eg "she feeds the baby with/by/from her breast" ~> "she breastfeeds the baby").
Examples of non-existent direct-object+verb compound verbs would be *"bread-bake" (eg "they bake bread" ~> *"they bread-bake") and *"car-drive" (eg "they drive a car" ~> *"they car-drive").
Note the example of a compound like "foxhunt": although this matches the direct-object+verb pattern, it is not grammatically used in a sentence as a verb, but rather as a noun (eg "they're hunting foxes tomorrow" ~> "they're going on a foxhunt tomorrow", but "not" *"they're foxhunting tomorrow").
Hyphenation
Compound verbs with single-syllable modifiers are often solid, or unhyphenated. Those with longer modifiers may originally be hyphenated, but as they became established, they became solid, e.g.
overhang (English origin)
counterattack (Latin origin)
There was a tendency in the 18th century to use hyphens excessively, that is, to hyphenate all previously established solid compound verbs. American English, however, has diminished the use of hyphens, while British English is more conservative.
Phrasal verbs
English syntax distinguishes between phrasal verbs and adverbial adjuncts. Consider the following sentences:
I held up my hand implies that I raised my hand.
I held up the negotiations implies that I delayed the negotiations.
I held up the bank to the highest standard implies that I demanded model behavior regarding the bank.
I held up the bank implies either (a) that I robbed the bank or (b) that I lifted upward a bank [either literally, as for a toy bank, or figuratively, as in putting a bank forward as an example of something (although usually then the sentence would end with ... as an exemplar. or similar)].
Each of the foregoing sentences implies a contextually distinguishable meaning of the word, "up," but the fourth sentence may differ syntactically, depending on whether it intends meaning (a) or (b). Specifically, the first three sentences render held up as a phrasal verb that expresses an idiomatic, figurative, or metaphorical sense that depends on the contextual meaning of the particle, "up." The fourth sentence, however, ambiguously renders up either as (a) a particle that complements "held," or as (b) an adverb that modifies "held." The ambiguity is minimized by rewording and providing more context to the sentences under discussion:
I held my hand up implies that I raised my hand.
I held the negotiations up implies that I delayed the negotiations.
I held the bank up to the highest standard implies that I expect model behavior regarding the bank.
I held the bank up upstairs implies that I robbed the upstairs bank.
I held the bank up the stairs implies that I lifted a (toy) bank along an upstairs route.
Thus, the fifth sentence renders "up" as the head word of an adverbial prepositional phrase that modifies, the verb, held. The first four sentences remain phrasal verbs.
The Oxford English Grammar () distinguishes seven types of phrasal verbs in English:
intransitive phrasal verbs (e.g. give in)
transitive phrasal verbs (e.g. find out [discover])
monotransitive prepositional verbs (e.g. look after [care for])
doubly transitive prepositional verbs (e.g. blame [something] on [someone])
copular prepositional verbs. (e.g. serve as)
monotransitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. look up to [respect])
doubly transitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. put [something] down to [someone] [attribute to])
English has a number of other kinds of compound verb idioms. There are compound verbs with two verbs (e.g. make do). These too can take idiomatic prepositions (e.g. get rid of). There are also idiomatic combinations of verb and adjective (e.g. come true, run amok) and verb and adverb (make sure), verb and fixed noun (e.g. go ape); and these, too, may have fixed idiomatic prepositions (e.g. take place on).
Misuses of the term
"Compound verb" is often used in place of:
"complex verb", a type of complex phrase. But this usage is not accepted in linguistics, because "compound" and "complex" are not synonymous.
"verb phrase" or "verbal phrase". This is a partially, but not entirely, incorrect use. A phrasal verb can be a one-word verb, of which compound verb is a type. However, many phrasal verbs are multi-word.
"phrasal verb". A sub-type of verb phrase, which have a particle as a word before or after the verb.
See also
Metaphor
Phrasal verb
Portmanteau
Syllabic abbreviations
Morphology
Notes
References
Bibliography
Compound
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity%20Church%20%28Manhattan%29
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Trinity Church (Manhattan)
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Trinity Church is a historic parish church in the Episcopal Diocese of New York, at the intersection of Wall Street and Broadway in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. Known for its history, location, architecture and endowment, Trinity is a traditional high church, with an active parish centered around the Episcopal Church and the worldwide Anglican Communion in missionary, outreach, and fellowship. In addition to its main facility, Trinity operates two chapels: St. Paul's Chapel, and the Chapel of St. Cornelius the Centurion on Governors Island. The Church of the Intercession, the Trinity Chapel Complex and many other of Anglican congregations in Manhattan were part of Trinity at one point.
The current building is the third constructed for Trinity Church, and was designed by Richard Upjohn in the Gothic Revival style. The first Trinity Church building was a single-story rectangular structure facing the Hudson River, which was constructed in 1698 and destroyed in the Great New York City Fire of 1776. The second Trinity Church was built facing Wall Street and was consecrated in 1790. The current church building was erected from 1839 to 1846 and was the tallest building in the United States until 1869, as well as the tallest in New York City until 1890. In 1876–1877 a reredos and altar were erected in memory of William Backhouse Astor Sr., to the designs of architect Frederick Clarke Withers.
The church building is adjacent to the Trinity Churchyard, one of three used by the church. Besides its building, Trinity manages real estate properties with a combined worth of over $6 billion . Trinity's main building is a National Historic Landmark as well as a New York City designated landmark. It is also a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a NRHP district created in 2007.
History
In 1696, Governor Benjamin Fletcher approved the purchase of land in Lower Manhattan by the Church of England community for construction of a new church. The parish received its charter from King William III on May 6, 1697. Its land grant specified an annual rent of 60 bushels of wheat. The first rector was William Vesey (for whom nearby Vesey Street is named), a protege of Increase Mather, who served for 49 years until his death in 1746.
First Trinity Church
The first Trinity Church building, a modest rectangular structure with a gambrel roof and small porch, was constructed in 1698, on Wall Street, facing the Hudson River. The land on which it was built was formerly a formal garden and then a burial ground. It was built because in 1696, members of the Church of England (Anglicans) protested to obtain a "charter granting the church legal status" in New York City. According to historical records, Captain William Kidd lent the runner and tackle from his ship for hoisting the stones.
Anne, Queen of Great Britain, increased the parish's land holdings to in 1705. Later, in 1709, William Huddleston founded Trinity School as the Charity School of the church, and classes were originally held in the steeple of the church. In 1754, King's College (now Columbia University) was chartered by King George II of Great Britain, and instruction began with eight students in a school building near the church.
During the American Revolutionary War the city became the British military and political base of operations in North America, following the departure of General George Washington and the Continental Army shortly after Battle of Long Island and subsequent local defeats. Under British occupation clergy were required to be Loyalists, while the parishioners included some members of the revolutionary New York Provincial Congress, as well as the First and Second Continental Congresses.
The church was destroyed in the Great New York City Fire of 1776, which started in the Fighting Cocks Tavern, destroying between 400 and 500 buildings and houses, and leaving thousands of New Yorkers homeless. Six days later, most of the city's volunteer firemen followed General Washington north. Rev. Charles Inglis served throughout the war and then to Nova Scotia on evacuation with the whole congregation of Trinity Church.
The Rev. Samuel Provoost was appointed Rector of Trinity (1784–1800) in 1784, and the New York State Legislature ratified the charter of Trinity Church, deleting the provision that asserted its loyalty to the King of England. Whig patriots were appointed as vestrymen. In 1787, Provoost was consecrated as the first Bishop of the newly formed Diocese of New York. Following his 1789 inauguration at Federal Hall, George Washington attended Thanksgiving service, presided over by Bishop Provoost, at St. Paul's Chapel, a chapel of the Parish of Trinity Church. He continued to attend services there until the second Trinity Church was finished in 1790. St. Paul's Chapel is currently part of the Parish of Trinity Church and is the oldest public building in continuous use in New York City.
Second Trinity Church
Construction on the second Trinity Church building began in 1788; it was consecrated in 1790. St. Paul's Chapel was used while the second Trinity Church was being built.
The second Trinity Church was built facing Wall Street; it was 200 feet tall, and longer and wider than its predecessor. Building a bigger church was beneficial because the population of New York City was expanding. The church was torn down after being weakened by severe snows during the winter of 1838–39.
The second Trinity Church was politically significant because President Washington and members of his government often worshiped there. Additional notable parishioners included John Jay and Alexander Hamilton.
Third Trinity Church
The third and current Trinity Church began construction in 1839 and was finished in 1846. When the Episcopal Bishop of New York consecrated Trinity Church on Ascension Day (May 1) 1846, its soaring Gothic Revival spire, surmounted by a gilded cross, dominated the skyline of lower Manhattan. Trinity was a welcoming beacon for ships sailing into New York Harbor.
In 1843, Trinity Church's expanding parish was divided due to the burgeoning cityscape and to better serve the needs of its parishioners. The newly formed parish would build Grace Church, to the north on Broadway at 10th street, while the original parish would re-build Trinity Church, the structure that stands today. Both Grace and Trinity Churches were completed and consecrated in 1846.
Trinity Church held the title of tallest building in the United States until 1869, when it was surpassed by St. Michael's Church, Old Town, Chicago. Trinity continued to be the tallest in New York City, with its spire and cross, until it was surpassed in 1890 by the New York World Building.
In 1876–1877, a reredos and altar were erected in memory of William Backhouse Astor, Sr., to the designs of architect Frederick Clarke Withers.
Late 20th and early 21st centuries
On July 9, 1976, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, visited Trinity Church. Vestrymen presented the Queen with a symbolic "back rent" of 279 peppercorns.
Since 1993, Trinity Church has hosted the graduation ceremonies of the High School of Economics and Finance. The school is located on Trinity Place, a few blocks away from the church. Guided tours of the church are offered daily at 2p.m.
In 2015 Mark Francisco Bozzuti-Jones, a priest at Trinity Church, commissioned Mark Dukes to create the icon Our Lady of Ferguson.
September 11, 2001
During the September 11 attacks, people took refuge inside the church from the massive debris cloud produced by the first World Trade Center tower collapse. Some of the chapel pew's paint was rubbed off from the people taking refuge. The pews were later replaced, but one still exists at the back of the chapel for remembrance of the events on 9/11. Falling wreckage knocked over a giant sycamore tree that had stood for nearly a century in the churchyard of St. Paul's Chapel, part of Trinity Church's parish, located several blocks north of Trinity Church. Sculptor Steve Tobin used its roots as the base for a bronze sculpture titled Trinity Root, which stood in front of the church at the corner of Wall Street and Broadway until December 2015, when it was moved by the church to its conference center in Connecticut. The move was controversial as it damaged the sculpture, which was later repaired, and the artist objected to its relocation.
Occupy Wall Street
Trinity is located near Zuccotti Park, the location of the Occupy Wall Street protests. It offered both moral and practical support to the demonstrators but balked when protesters demanded an encampment on church-owned land called LentSpace, adjoining Juan Pablo Duarte Square in the neighborhood of Hudson Square. The church hierarchy were criticized by others within the Anglican movement, most notably Archbishop Desmond Tutu. On December 17, 2011, occupiers and a few clergy attempted to occupy LentSpace, which is surrounded by a chain-link fence. After demonstrating in Duarte Park and marching on the streets surrounding the park, occupiers climbed over and under the fence. Police responded by arresting about 50 demonstrators, including at least three Episcopal clergymen and a Roman Catholic nun.
Architecture
Architectural historians consider the third and present Trinity Church building, built in 1846 and designed by architect Richard Upjohn, the first and finest example of Gothic Revival architecture. In 1976, the United States Department of the Interior designated Trinity Church a National Historic Landmark because of its architectural significance and its place within the history of New York City.
Bells
The tower of Trinity Church currently contains 23 bells, the heaviest of which weighs 27 U.S. hundredweight ().
Eight of these bells were cast for the tower of the second church building and were hung for ringing in the English change ringing style. Three more bells were added later. In 1946 these bells were adapted for swing chiming and sounded by electric motors.
A project to install a new ring of 12 additional change ringing bells was initially proposed in 2001 but put on hold in the aftermath of the September attacks, which took place three blocks north of the church. This project came to fruition in 2006, thanks to funding from the Dill Faulkes Educational Trust. These new bells form the first ring of 12 change-ringing bells ever installed in a church in the United States. The installation work was carried out by Taylors, Eayre and Smith of Loughborough, England, in September 2006.
In late 2006, the ringing of the bells for bell practice and tuning caused much concern to local residents, some of whose windows and residences are less than at eye level from the bell tower. The church then built a plywood deck right over the bells and placed shutters on the inside of the bell chamber's lancet windows. With the shutters and the plywood deck closed, the sound of the bells outside the tower is minimal. The shutters, and hatches in the plywood deck, are opened for public ringing.
Public ringing takes place before and after 11:15 a.m. Sunday service and on special occasions, such as 9/11 commemorations, weddings, and ticker-tape parades. Details of the individual bells can be found at "Dove's Guide for Church Bellringers".
Doors
Trinity Church has three sets of impressive bronze doors, donated by William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor in memory of his father, John Jacob Astor III. Conceived by Richard Morris Hunt, they date from 1893 and were produced by Karl Bitter (east door), J. Massey Rhind (south door), and Charles Henry Niehaus (north door). The north and east doors each consists of six panels from Church history or the Bible, and the south door depicts the history of New York in its six panels.
Burial grounds
There are three burial grounds closely associated with Trinity Church:
Trinity Churchyard, surrounding the church at Wall Street and Broadway, is where Alexander Hamilton, Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, Angelica Schuyler Church, Philip Hamilton, William Bradford, Franklin Wharton, Robert Fulton, Captain James Lawrence, William Alexander, Lord Stirling, Francis Lewis, Albert Gallatin, and Hercules Mulligan are buried.
Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum on Riverside Drive at 155th Street, formerly the location of John James Audubon's estate, is where John James Audubon, Alfred Tennyson Dickens, John Jacob Astor, Clement Clarke Moore, and Ed Koch are buried. It is the only active cemetery remaining in the borough of Manhattan.
The Churchyard of St. Paul's Chapel is where memorials to the United Irishmen Addis Emmet and Dr. William MacNeven are located.
Services
Trinity Church, as an Episcopal parish in the Anglican Communion, offers a full schedule of Daily Prayer and Eucharist services throughout the week, and based on the Book of Common Prayer; it is also available for special occasions, such as weddings and baptisms. In addition to daily worship, Trinity Church provides Christian fellowship and outreach to the community.
Sunday
8am: St. Paul's Chapel, Low Eucharist
9am: Trinity Church, Holy Eucharist
9:15am: Trinity Commons Parish Hall, Family Eucharist with music (Webcast)
11:15am: Trinity Church, Holy Eucharist (Webcast)
8pm: Trinity Church, Compline by Candlelight
Monday–Friday
8:15am: Morning Prayer
12:05pm: Holy Eucharist (Webcast)
5:15pm: Evening Prayer
Rectors of Trinity Church
William Vesey (1697–1746)
Henry Barclay (1746–1764)
Samuel Auchmuty (1764–1777)
Charles Inglis (1777–1783)
Samuel Provoost (1784–1800)
Benjamin Moore (1800–1816)
John Henry Hobart (1816–1830)
William Berrian (1830–1862)
Morgan Dix (1862–1908)
William Thomas Manning (1908–1921)
Caleb Rochford Stetson (1921–1932)
Frederic Sydney Fleming (1932–1951)
John Heuss (1952–1966)
John Vernon Butler, Jr. (1966–1972)
Robert Parks (1972–1987)
Daniel Paul Matthews (1987-2004)
James H. Cooper (2004-2015)
William Lupfer (2015-2020)
Phillip A. Jackson, (2022-Present; Priest-in-Charge 2020-2022)
Music and arts
Trinity Church has a rich music program. Concerts at One has been providing live professional classical and contemporary music for the Wall Street community since 1969, and the church has several organized choirs, featured Sunday mornings on WQXR 105.9 FM in New York City. Trinity presents world-class music programs both in New York City and around the world via high definition video streaming.
The mainstay of Trinity's music program is The Choir of Trinity Wall Street, a professional ensemble that leads liturgical music at Trinity Church and St. Paul's Chapel, presents new-music concerts in New York City, produces recordings, and performs in international tours. The Choir is often joined by the Trinity Baroque Orchestra, Trinity's ensemble of period instrumentalists, and NOVUS NY, Trinity's contemporary music orchestra.
Trinity is also home to a Youth Chorus, Youth Orchestra, Family Choir, Downtown Voices, change bell ringers, and a wide variety of arts programming through Congregational Arts. Visiting choirs from around the world perform at Trinity weekly. The entire music program is under the leadership of Julian Wachner, Director of Music and the Arts, a renowned conductor, composer, and keyboard artist.
Property holdings
Beginning in the 1780s, the church's claim on 62 acres of Queen Anne's 1705 grant was contested in the courts by descendants of a 17th-century Dutchwoman, Anneke Jans Bogardus, who, it was claimed, held original title to that property. The basis of the lawsuits was that only five of Bogardus' six heirs had conveyed the land to the English crown in 1671. Numerous times over the course of six decades, the claimants asserted themselves in court, losing each time. The attempt was even revived in the 20th century. In 1959, the Internal Revenue Service sued over the compensation of the church's property manager, but the church prevailed in Stanton v. United States.
Disclosure resulting from a lawsuit filed by a parishioner revealed total assets of about $2 billion as of 2011. Although Trinity Church has sold off much of the land that was part of the royal grant from Queen Anne, it is still one of the largest landowners in New York City with 14 acres of Manhattan real estate including of commercial space in Hudson Square. The parish's annual revenue from its real estate holdings was $158 million in 2011 with net income of $38 million, making it perhaps one of the richest individual parishes in the world. , Trinity's investment portfolio was worth over $6 billion, At the end of 2018, the church's total equity was $8.3 billion, and it had $0.6 million in liabilities.
The institution also owns the Trinity Court Building property, where it formerly housed its offices and preschool. That building was demolished in 2015, and a replacement at 76 Trinity Place was completed in 2020. The church was connected to 76 Trinity Place by a footbridge.
See also
List of Anglican churches
List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street
National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street
Charlotte Temple
References
External links
Trinity Wall Street.org – Trinity Church Official Website
Trinity Real Estate – Official website for Trinity Church's real estate holdings
1698 establishments in New York
19th-century Episcopal church buildings
Anglican Communion
Broadway (Manhattan)
Churches completed in 1846
Churches in Manhattan
Episcopal Church (United States)
Episcopal church buildings in New York City
Financial District, Manhattan
Gothic Revival church buildings in New York City
Museums in Manhattan
National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Religious organizations established in the 1690s
Richard Upjohn church buildings
Stone churches in New York City
Wall Street
Historic district contributing properties in Manhattan
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in New York (state)
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] |
244305
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contention%20free%20pollable
|
Contention free pollable
|
Contention-free pollable (CF-Pollable) is a state of operation for wireless networking nodes. The condition is saying that the node is able to use the Point Coordination Function, as opposed to the Distributed Coordination Function, within a wireless LAN.
A device that is able to use point coordination function is one that is able to participate in a method to provide limited Quality of service (for time sensitive data) within the network.
See also
Contention (telecommunications)
References
Wireless networking
|
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244309
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dion
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Dion
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Dion may refer to:
People
Ancient
Dion (mythology), a king in Laconia and husband of Iphitea, the daughter of Prognaus
Dion of Syracuse (408–354 BC), ancient Greek politician
Dio of Alexandria, first century BC, ancient Greek philosopher
Dion of Naples, an ancient Greek mathematician cited by Augustine of Hippo along with Adrastus of Cyzicus
Dio Chrysostom, also known as Dion Chrysostomos (c. 40 – c. 115), a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian
Cassius Dio, also known as Dion Kassios (c. AD 155 – 235), a Roman consul
Modern
Dion Bakker (born 1981) Dutch Youtuber and artist
Dion Boucicault (1820–1890), Irish actor and playwright
Dion Boucicault Jr. (1859–1929), American actor and stage director
Dion Dawkins (born 1994), American football player
Dion DiMucci (born 1939), American singer/songwriter known professionally as "Dion"
Dion Dublin (born 1969), English footballer
Dion Fortune (1890–1946), British occultist
Dion Ignacio (born 1986), Filipino actor
Dion Jenkins (born 1979), American singer-songwriter and producer called "Dion"
Dion Lambert (born 1969), American football player
Dion Lee (born 1985), Australian fashion designer
Dion Lewis (born 1990), American football player
Dion Nash (born 1971), New Zealand cricketer
Dion O'Banion, American mobster
Dion Phaneuf (born 1985), Canadian ice hockey player
Dion Titheradge (1889–1934), Australian actor and playwright
Dion Waiters (born 1991), American basketball player
Celine Dion (born 1968), Canadian singer
Colleen Dion (born 1964), American actress
Josh Dion Band, American music group led by singer/drummer Josh Dion
Olivier Dion (born 1991), Canadian pop singer
Pascal Dion (born 1994), Canadian short track speed skater
Stéphane Dion (born 1955), Canadian academic and politician
Places
Dion, Archaeological Park, the ancient site of the religious center of Macedonia
Dion, Archaeological Museum, the finds of the ancient site are exhibited here
Dion, Pieria, the great "sacred place" of the Ancient Macedonians, ancient city and archaeological site, and a modern town
Dion (Chalcidice), a town of ancient Chalcidice
Dion (Coele-Syria), a town of ancient Coele-Syria, in the Decapolis of the Roman Empire
Dion (Crete), a town of ancient Crete
Dion (Euboea), a town of ancient Euboea
Dium (Pisidia) or Dion, a town of ancient Pisidia
Dion (Thessaly), a town of ancient Thessaly
Dion, part of the municipality of Beauraing, province of Namur, Belgium
Dion Islands, Antarctica
Other uses
Dion (geometry), one-dimension polytope
Dion (skipper), a genus of butterflies in the grass skippers family
Mitsubishi Dion, a compact MPV produced by Mitsubishi Motors
Dion (Transformers), a character from the Transformers franchise
Dion Blaster, a character in 1080° Snowboarding
Dion (album), a 1968 album by Dion DiMucci
See also
Deon, given name
Deion, given name
Dio (disambiguation)
Dione (disambiguation)
Dionne (disambiguation)
Dionne (name)
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20Air%20Force%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Italian Air Force (disambiguation)
|
The Italian Air Force has gone under different names in different periods:
Regia Aeronautica (Royal Air Force), from 1923 to June 1946
Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana, the air force of Italian Social Republic during World War II
Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force, formed in October 1943 whose pilots flew with the Allies
Aeronautica Militare, after World War II
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] |
244315
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE%20802.11e-2005
|
IEEE 802.11e-2005
|
IEEE 802.11e-2005 or 802.11e is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard that defines a set of quality of service (QoS) enhancements for wireless LAN applications through modifications to the media access control (MAC) layer. The standard is considered of critical importance for delay-sensitive applications, such as Voice over Wireless LAN and streaming multimedia. The amendment has been incorporated into the published IEEE 802.11-2007 standard.
Original 802.11 MAC
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
The basic 802.11 MAC layer uses the distributed coordination function (DCF) to share the medium between multiple stations. (DCF) relies on CSMA/CA and optional 802.11 RTS/CTS to share the medium between stations. This has several limitations:
if many stations attempt to communicate at the same time, many collisions will occur which will lower the available bandwidth and possibly lead to congestive collapse.
there are no Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees. In particular, there is no notion of high or low priority traffic.
Point Coordination Function (PCF)
The original 802.11 MAC defines another coordination function called the point coordination function (PCF). This is available only in "infrastructure" mode, where stations are connected to the network through an Access Point (AP). This mode is optional, and only very few APs or Wi-Fi adapters actually implement it. APs send beacon frames at regular intervals (usually every 100 TU or 0.1024 second). Between these beacon frames, PCF defines two periods: the Contention Free Period (CFP) and the Contention Period (CP). In the CP, DCF is used. In the CFP, the AP sends Contention-Free-Poll (CF-Poll) packets to each station, one at a time, to give them the right to send a packet. The AP is the coordinator. Although this allows for a better management of QoS, PCF does not define classes of traffic as is common with other QoS systems (e.g. 802.1p and DiffServ).
802.11e MAC protocol operation
The 802.11e enhances the DCF and the PCF, through a new coordination function: the hybrid coordination function (HCF). Within the HCF, there are two methods of channel accessed, similar to those defined in the legacy 802.11 MAC: HCF Controlled Channel Access (HCCA) and Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA). Both EDCA and HCCA define Traffic Categories (TC). For example, emails could be assigned to a low priority class, and Voice over Wireless LAN (VoWLAN) could be assigned to a high priority class.
Enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA)
With EDCA, high-priority traffic has a higher chance of being sent than low-priority traffic: a station with high priority traffic waits a little less before it sends its packet, on average, than a station with low priority traffic. This is accomplished through the TCMA protocol, which is a variation of CSMA/CA using a shorter arbitration inter-frame space (AIFS) for higher priority packets. The exact values depend on the physical layer that is used to transmit the data. In addition, EDCA provides contention-free access to the channel for a period called a Transmit Opportunity (TXOP). A TXOP is a bounded time interval during which a station can send as many frames as possible (as long as the duration of the transmissions does not extend beyond the maximum duration of the TXOP). If a frame is too large to be transmitted in a single TXOP, it should be fragmented into smaller frames. The use of TXOPs reduces the problem of low rate stations gaining an inordinate amount of channel time in the legacy 802.11 DCF MAC. A TXOP time interval of 0 means it is limited to a single MAC service data unit (MSDU) or MAC management protocol data unit (MMPDU).
The levels of priority in EDCA are called access categories (ACs). The contention window (CW) can be set according to the traffic expected in each access category, with a wider window needed for categories with heavier traffic. The CWmin and CWmax values are calculated from aCWmin and aCWmax values, respectively, that are defined for each physical layer supported by 802.11e.
For a typical of aCWmin=15 and aCWmax=1023, as used, for example, by OFDM (802.11a) and MIMO (802.11n), the resulting values are as following:
ACs map directly from Ethernet-level class of service (CoS) priority levels:
The primary purpose of QoS is to protect high priority data from low priority data. There are also scenarios in which the data needs to be protected from other data of the same class. Admission Control in EDCA address these type of problems. The AP publishes the available bandwidth in beacons. Clients can check the available bandwidth before adding more traffic.
Wi-Fi Multimedia (WMM) is the Wi-Fi Alliance specification which is a subset of IEEE 802.11e. Certified APs must be enabled for EDCA and TXOP. All other enhancements of 802.11e are optional.
HCF Controlled Channel Access (HCCA)
The HCF (hybrid coordination function) controlled channel access (HCCA) works a lot like PCF. However, in contrast to PCF, in which the interval between two beacon frames is divided into two periods of CFP and CP, the HCCA allows for CFPs being initiated at almost anytime during a CP. This kind of CFP is called a Controlled Access Phase (CAP) in 802.11e. A CAP is initiated by the AP whenever it wants to send a frame to a station or receive a frame from a station in a contention-free manner. In fact, the CFP is a CAP too. During a CAP, the Hybrid Coordinator (HC)—which is also the AP—controls the access to the medium. During the CP, all stations function in EDCA. The other difference with the PCF is that Traffic Class (TC) and Traffic Streams (TS) are defined. This means that the HC is not limited to per-station queuing and can provide a kind of per-session service. Also, the HC can coordinate these streams or sessions in any fashion it chooses (not just round-robin). Moreover, the stations give info about the lengths of their queues for each Traffic Class (TC). The HC can use this info to give priority to one station over another, or better adjust its scheduling mechanism. Another difference is that stations are given a TXOP: they may send multiple packets in a row, for a given time period selected by the HC. During the CFP, the HC allows stations to send data by sending CF-Poll frames.
HCCA is generally considered the most advanced (and complex) coordination function. With the HCCA, QoS can be configured with great precision. QoS-enabled stations have the ability to request specific transmission parameters (data rate, jitter, etc.) which should allow advanced applications like VoIP and video streaming to work more effectively on a Wi-Fi network.
HCCA support is not mandatory for 802.11e APs. In fact, few (if any) APs currently available are enabled for HCCA. Implementing the HCCA on end stations uses the existing DCF mechanism for channel access (no change to DCF or EDCA operation is needed). Stations only need to be able to respond to poll messages. On the AP side, a scheduler and queuing mechanism is needed.
Other 802.11e specifications
In addition to HCCA, EDCA and TXOP, 802.11e specifies additional optional protocols for enhanced 802.11 MAC layer QoS:
Automatic power save delivery
In addition to the Power Save Polling mechanism, which was available pre-802.11e, new power save delivery and notification mechanisms have been introduced in 802.11e. APSD (automatic power save delivery) provides two ways to start delivery: ‘scheduled APSD’ (S-APSD) and ‘unscheduled APSD’ (U-APSD). With APSD, multiple frames may be transmitted together by the access point to a power-saving device during a service period. After the end of a service period, the device enters a doze state until next service period. With S-APSD, service periods start according to a predetermined schedule known to the power-saving device, thus allowing the Access Point to transmit its buffered traffic without the need for any signaling. With U-APSD, whenever a frame is sent to the Access Point, a service period is triggered, which allows the access point to send buffered frames in the other direction. U-APSD can take a ‘full’ U-APSD or ‘hybrid’ U-APSD form. With Full U-APSD, all types of frames use U-APSD independently of their priority. With Hybrid U-APSD, either U-APSD or the legacy Power Save Polling mechanism is used, depending on the access category. S-APSD is available for both channel access mechanisms, EDCA and HCCA, while U-APSD is available only for EDCA.
APSD is a more efficient power management method than legacy 802.11 Power Save Polling, leading to lower power consumption, as it reduces both the signaling traffic that would otherwise be needed for delivery of buffered frames to power-saving devices by an AP and the collision rate among power-save polls, typically transmitted immediately after the beacon TIM. S-APSD is more efficient than U-APSD because scheduled service periods reduce contention and because transmission between the access point and a power-saving device starts without the need for any signaling. A power-saving device using U-APSD must generate signaling frames to retrieve buffered traffic in the absence of uplink traffic, as for instance in the case of audio, video, or best effort traffic applications found in today's smartphones. U-APSD is attractive for VoIP phones, as data rates are roughly the same in both directions, thus requiring no extra signaling—an uplink voice frame can trigger a service period for the transmission of a downlink voice frame. Hybrid U-APSD is less efficient than Full U-APSD because the Power Save Polling mechanism it employs for some access categories is less efficient than APSD, as explained above. The relative advantages of the various power-save mechanisms have been confirmed independently by simulations.
Block acknowledgments
Block acknowledgments allow an entire TXOP to be acknowledged in a single frame. This will provide less protocol overhead when longer TXOPs are specified.
NoAck
In QoS mode, service class for frames to send can have two values: QosAck and QosNoAck. Frames with QosNoAck are not acknowledged. This avoids retransmission of highly time-critical data.
Direct Link Setup
Direct Link Setup allows direct station-to-station frame transfer within a basic service set. This is designed primarily for consumer use, where station-to-station transfer is more commonly used. For example, when streaming video to a television across the living room, or printing to a wireless printer in the same room, it can be more efficient to send Wi-Fi frames directly between the two communicating devices, instead of using the standard technique of always sending everything via the AP, which involves two radio hops instead of one. Also, If the AP is far away in some distant part of the home, sending all the frames to the AP and back may require them to be sent at a lower transmission rate. However, DLS requires participation from the AP to facilitate the more efficient direct communication, and few, if any, APs have the necessary support for this. Tunnelled Direct Link Setup was published as 802.11z (TDLS), allowing devices to perform more efficient direct station-to-station frame transfers without support from the AP. Both DLS and TLDS require that stations be associated with the same AP. Both DLS and TLDS improve the speed and efficiency of communications between members of a basic service set, but they do not facilitate communication between devices that are near to each other but not associated with the same AP.
Nearby communication between devices not associated with the same AP can be performed using technologies like Wi-Fi Direct, but so far Wi-Fi Direct has not seen widespread adoption.
Microsoft's Virtual Wi-Fi initiative was designed to accomplish the same goal as DLS. Virtual Wi-Fi allows gamers to connect wireless while accessing the Internet through an AP by allowing station adapters to have multiple MAC addresses.
References
External links
Approval from the IEEE RevCom
802.11e TGe Status (finished)
802.11e Amendment
QoX: What is It Really
E
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20Air%20Force
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Italian Air Force
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The Italian Air Force (; AM, ) is the air force of the Italian Republic. The Italian Air Force was founded as an independent service arm on 28 March 1923 by King Victor Emmanuel III as the ("Royal Air Force"). After World War II, when Italy became a republic following a referendum, the was given its current name. Since its formation, the service has held a prominent role in modern Italian military history. The acrobatic display team is the .
History
Early history and World War I
Italy was among the earliest adopters of military aviation. Its air arm dates back to 1884, when the Italian Royal Army () was authorised to acquire its own air component. The Air Service () operated balloons based near Rome.
In 1911, reconnaissance and bombing sorties during the Italo-Turkish War by the Servizio Aeronautico represented the first use of heavier-than-air aircraft in armed conflict.
The and World War II
On 28 March 1923, the Italian Air Force was founded as an independent service by King Vittorio Emanuele III of the Kingdom of Italy. This air force was known as the (Royal Air Force). During the 1930s, the fledgling was involved in its first military operations, first in Ethiopia in 1935, and later in the Spanish Civil War between 1936 and 1939. After a period of neutrality, Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940 alongside Germany. The Regia Aeronautica could deploy more than 3,000 aircraft, although fewer than 60% were serviceable. It fought from the icy steppes of Russia to the sands of the North African desert, losing men and machines.
After the armistice of 8 September 1943, Italy was divided into two sides, and the same fate befell the . The Air Force was split into the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force in the south aligned with the Allies, and the pro-Axis in the north until the end of the war. On 8 May 1945, the hostilities ended, beginning the rebirth of military aviation in Italy.
The birth of and the Cold War
A popular vote by the people resulted in the end of the Kingdom of Italy and the establishment of the Italian Republic on 18 June 1946. Hence the lost its "Royal" designation, and it became the , a name that it has continued to hold ever since.
The Peace Treaty of Paris of 1947 placed severe restrictions on all of the Italian armed forces, but the establishment of NATO in 1949 with Italy as a founding member brought about the necessity for the modernization of all of the Italian armed forces, including the Italian Air Force. American military aid sent by the Mutual Defense Assistance Program brought about the introduction of American-made P-47 Thunderbolt and P-51 Mustang propeller-driven fighter planes. In 1952, the Italian Air Force was granted jet fighters for the first time, American F-84G Thunderjets and F-86D Sabres, together with over 200 licence-built British de Havilland Vampires; these were followed by Republic F-84F Thunderstreak fighters and C-119 Flying Boxcar transport planes from the United States. The reborn Italian aviation industry also began to develop and produce a few ingenious aircraft designs of its own, such as the Fiat G91, the Aermacchi MB-326, the Piaggio Aero P.166 and the line of Agusta-Bell helicopters.
The first supersonic fighters added to the Italian Air Force were American-designed F-104 Starfighters that were produced by a group of several European aircraft companies, including Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, Dornier, Fiat, Fokker and SABCA. During the 1970s, the Air Force acquired the Italian Aeritalia G222 and the modern American C-130 Hercules tactical transport planes, capable of carrying cargo or paratroopers. It also received the new Aeritalia F-104S Starfighter Starfighter fighters for ground attack and air-defence purposes.
A push to expand the Italian aircraft industry led Italy into the huge trilateral project that developed the Panavia Tornado fighter-bomber and air-defence fighters along with West Germany and the United Kingdom. Tornado fighters were still in service with all three countries, plus a few more, as of 2019. Italian companies worked with the Embraer Company of Brazil in a smaller project to develop and produce the AMX International AMX aircraft.
From the end of the Cold War to present day
In 1990, after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, Italy joined the coalition forces, and for the first time in 45 years Italian pilots and aircraft were assigned to combat operations. Needing to replace the obsolete F-104 Starfighters, Italy joined with Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom in the development of the Eurofighter Typhoon, which was expected to enter the Italian Air Force in 2000. In 1994, with the Typhoon still some years from introduction to service, 24 Panavia Tornado Air Defense Variant (ADV) interceptors were leased from the United Kingdom for a period of 10 years. The ADV Tornados served as fighter-interceptors to supplement and then to replace the old F-104 Starfighters. However, delays in the production of the Typhoon forced the Italians to seek a supplement, and then replacement, for the leased Tornado ADVs.
With the UK lease due to expire in 2004, the Italian government wished to avoid a costly lease extension and instead opted to lease 34 F-16 Fighting Falcon multi-role fighter planes on multi-year leases from the US. The last of these fighters was returned to the United States in May 2012, following the Italian Air Force's acquisition of a sufficient number of Typhoons over a period of several years. The Typhoons are intended to replace all of the F-104, Tornado ADV and F-16 aircraft. The last of the Italian F-104s was withdrawn from service in 2004.
Armed conflicts in Somalia, Mozambique and the nearby Balkans led to the Italian Air Force becoming a participant in multinational air forces, such as that of NATO over the former Yugoslavia, just a few minutes flying time east of the Italian peninsula. The commanders of the Italian Air Force soon saw the need to improve the Italian air defences.
The capability of the Italian Air Force as a transportation unit has been improved with the acquisition of 22 American C-130J tactical transports and 12 Alenia C-27J Spartans, which have replaced all of the G222s. In 2003, the Italian Air Force extended its capabilities to small-scale land warfare by small special-forces units. This was accomplished by forming the 17º Stormo Incursori ("17th Special Operations Wing"), also known as RIAM (, "Air Force Raiders Group"), a unit that is primarily responsible for raids on land-based aeronautical compounds, forward air control missions and combat search and rescue operations.
Equipment
As of 2014, the Italian Air Force operates a total active fleet of 557 aerial vehicles, including 209 manned and 12 unmanned combat aircraft, with eight more Eurofighter Typhoon on order and 75 more F-35s planned.
Organisation
Rank structure
Officers
Enlisted
See also
Italian Armed Forces
Carabinieri
Guardia di Finanza
Italian Army
Italian Navy
International Flight Training School
Uniforms of the Italian Armed Forces
Centro Sportivo Aeronautica Militare
List of aircraft used by Italian Air Force
List of Regia Aeronautica aircraft used in World War II
List of World War I Entente aircraft
References
Sources
Malizia, Nicola. F-47D "Thunderbolt" (Aviolibri Records n.6) (Bilingual Italian/English). Rome, Italy: IBN Editore, 2005. .
Mattioli, Marco. Lockheed P-38 Lightning in Italian Service, 1943–1955 (Aviolibri Records n.4) (Bilingual Italian/English). Rome, Italia: IBN Editore, 2004. .
External links
Aeronautica Militare web page
Military units and formations established in 1923
Aeronautica Militare
1923 establishments in Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matroid
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Matroid
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In combinatorics, a branch of mathematics, a matroid is a structure that abstracts and generalizes the notion of linear independence in vector spaces. There are many equivalent ways to define a matroid axiomatically, the most significant being in terms of: independent sets; bases or circuits; rank functions; closure operators; and closed sets or flats. In the language of partially ordered sets, a finite matroid is equivalent to a geometric lattice.
Matroid theory borrows extensively from the terminology of linear algebra and graph theory, largely because it is the abstraction of various notions of central importance in these fields. Matroids have found applications in geometry, topology, combinatorial optimization, network theory and coding theory.
Definition
There are many equivalent (cryptomorphic) ways to define a (finite) matroid.
Independent sets
In terms of independence, a finite matroid is a pair , where is a finite set (called the ground set) and is a family of subsets of (called the independent sets) with the following properties:
(I1) The empty set is independent, i.e., . Alternatively, at least one subset of is independent, i.e., .
(I2) Every subset of an independent set is independent, i.e., for each , if then . This is sometimes called the hereditary property, or the downward-closed property.
(I3) If and are two independent sets (i.e., each set is independent) and has more elements than , then there exists such that is in . This is sometimes called the augmentation property or the independent set exchange property.
The first two properties define a combinatorial structure known as an independence system (or abstract simplicial complex).
Bases and circuits
A subset of the ground set that is not independent is called dependent. A maximal independent set—that is, an independent set that becomes dependent upon adding any element of —is called a basis for the matroid. A circuit in a matroid is a minimal dependent subset of —that is, a dependent set whose proper subsets are all independent. The terminology arises because the circuits of graphic matroids are cycles in the corresponding graphs.
The dependent sets, the bases, or the circuits of a matroid characterize the matroid completely: a set is independent if and only if it is not dependent, if and only if it is a subset of a basis, and if and only if it does not contain a circuit. The collections of dependent sets, of bases, and of circuits each have simple properties that may be taken as axioms for a matroid. For instance, one may define a matroid to be a pair , where is a finite set as before and is a collection of subsets of , called "bases", with the following properties:
(B1) is nonempty.
(B2) If and are distinct members of and , then there exists an element such that . This property is called the basis exchange property.
It follows from the basis exchange property that no member of can be a proper subset of another.
Rank functions
It is a basic result of matroid theory, directly analogous to a similar theorem of bases in linear algebra, that any two bases of a matroid have the same number of elements. This number is called the rank of . If is a matroid on , and is a subset of , then a matroid on can be defined by considering a subset of to be independent if and only if it is independent in . This allows us to talk about submatroids and about the rank of any subset of . The rank of a subset is given by the rank function of the matroid, which has the following properties:
(R1) The value of the rank function is always a non-negative integer.
(R2) For any subset , we have .
(R3) For any two subsets , we have: . That is, the rank is a submodular function.
(R4) For any set and element , we have: . From the first inequality it follows more generally that, if , then . That is, rank is a monotonic function.
These properties can be used as one of the alternative definitions of a finite matroid: if satisfies these properties, then the independent sets of a matroid over can be defined as those subsets of with . In the language of partially ordered sets, such a matroid structure is equivalent to the geometric lattice whose elements are the subsets , partially ordered by inclusion.
The difference is called the nullity of the subset . It is the minimum number of elements that must be removed from to obtain an independent set. The nullity of in is called the nullity of . The difference is sometimes called the corank of the subset .
Closure operators
Let be a matroid on a finite set , with rank function as above. The closure (or span) of a subset of is the set
.
This defines a closure operator where denotes the power set, with the following properties:
(C1) For all subsets of , .
(C2) For all subsets of , .
(C3) For all subsets and of with , .
(C4) For all elements , and of and all subsets of , if then .
The first three of these properties are the defining properties of a closure operator. The fourth is sometimes called the Mac Lane–Steinitz exchange property. These properties may be taken as another definition of matroid: every function that obeys these properties determines a matroid.
Flats
A set whose closure equals itself is said to be closed, or a flat or subspace of the matroid. A set is closed if it is maximal for its rank, meaning that the addition of any other element to the set would increase the rank. The closed sets of a matroid are characterized by a covering partition property:
(F1) The whole point set is closed.
(F2) If and are flats, then is a flat.
(F3) If is a flat, then each element of is in precisely one of the flats that cover (meaning that properly contains but there is no flat between and ).
The class of all flats, partially ordered by set inclusion, forms a matroid lattice. Conversely, every matroid lattice forms a matroid over its set of atoms under the following closure operator: for a set of atoms with join ,
.
The flats of this matroid correspond one-for-one with the elements of the lattice; the flat corresponding to lattice element is the set
.
Thus, the lattice of flats of this matroid is naturally isomorphic to .
Hyperplanes
In a matroid of rank , a flat of rank is called a hyperplane. (Hyperplanes are also called coatoms or copoints.) These are the maximal proper flats; that is, the only superset of a hyperplane that is also a flat is the set of all the elements of the matroid. An equivalent definition is that a coatom is a subset of E that does not span M, but such that adding any other element to it does make a spanning set.
The family of hyperplanes of a matroid has the following properties, which may be taken as yet another axiomatization of matroids:
(H1) There do not exist distinct sets and in with . That is, the hyperplanes form a Sperner family.
(H2) For every and distinct with , there exists with .
Graphoids
Minty (1966) defined a graphoid as a triple in which and are classes of nonempty subsets of such that
(G1) no element of (called a "circuit") contains another,
(G2) no element of (called a "cocircuit") contains another,
(G3) no set in and set in intersect in exactly one element, and
(G4) whenever is represented as the disjoint union of subsets with (a singleton set), then either an exists such that or a exists such that
He proved that there is a matroid for which is the class of circuits and is the class of cocircuits. Conversely, if and are the circuit and cocircuit classes of a matroid with ground set , then is a graphoid. Thus, graphoids give a self-dual cryptomorphic axiomatization of matroids.
Examples
Free matroid
Let be a finite set. The set of all subsets of satisfies the definition of a matroid. It is called the free matroid over .
Uniform matroids
Let be a finite set and a natural number. One may define a matroid on by taking every -element subset of to be a basis. This is known as the uniform matroid of rank . A uniform matroid with rank and with elements is denoted . All uniform matroids of rank at least 2 are simple (see ) . The uniform matroid of rank 2 on points is called the -point line. A matroid is uniform if and only if it has no circuits of size less than one plus the rank of the matroid. The direct sums of uniform matroids are called partition matroids.
In the uniform matroid , every element is a loop (an element that does not belong to any independent set), and in the uniform matroid , every element is a coloop (an element that belongs to all bases). The direct sum of matroids of these two types is a partition matroid in which every element is a loop or a coloop; it is called a discrete matroid. An equivalent definition of a discrete matroid is a matroid in which every proper, non-empty subset of the ground set is a separator.
Matroids from linear algebra
Matroid theory developed mainly out of a deep examination of the properties of independence and dimension in vector spaces. There are two ways to present the matroids defined in this way:
If is any finite subset of a vector space , then we can define a matroid on by taking the independent sets of to be the linearly independent subsets of . The validity of the independent-set axioms for this matroid follows from the Steinitz exchange lemma. If is a matroid that can be defined in this way, we say the set represents . Matroids of this kind are called vector matroids. An important example of a matroid defined in this way is the Fano matroid, a rank-three matroid derived from the Fano plane, a finite geometry with seven points (the seven elements of the matroid) and seven lines (the proper nontrivial flats of the matroid). It is a linear matroid whose elements may be described as the seven nonzero points in a three-dimensional vector space over the finite field GF(2). However, it is not possible to provide a similar representation for the Fano matroid using the real numbers in place of GF(2).
A matrix with entries in a field gives rise to a matroid on its set of columns. The dependent sets of columns in the matroid are those that are linearly dependent as vectors. This matroid is called the column matroid of , and is said to represent . For instance, the Fano matroid can be represented in this way as a 3 × 7 (0,1)-matrix. Column matroids are just vector matroids under another name, but there are often reasons to favor the matrix representation. (There is one technical difference: a column matroid can have distinct elements that are the same vector, but a vector matroid as defined above cannot. Usually this difference is insignificant and can be ignored, but by letting be a multiset of vectors one brings the two definitions into complete agreement.)
A matroid that is equivalent to a vector matroid, although it may be presented differently, is called representable or linear. If is equivalent to a vector matroid over a field , then we say is representable over in particular, is real-representable if it is representable over the real numbers. For instance, although a graphic matroid (see below) is presented in terms of a graph, it is also representable by vectors over any field. A basic problem in matroid theory is to characterize the matroids that may be represented over a given field ; Rota's conjecture describes a possible characterization for every finite field. The main results so far are characterizations of binary matroids (those representable over GF(2)) due to Tutte (1950s), of ternary matroids (representable over the 3-element field) due to Reid and Bixby, and separately to Seymour (1970s), and of quaternary matroids (representable over the 4-element field) due to Geelen, Gerards, and Kapoor (2000). This is very much an open area.
A regular matroid is a matroid that is representable over all possible fields. The Vámos matroid is the simplest example of a matroid that is not representable over any field.
Matroids from graph theory
A second original source for the theory of matroids is graph theory.
Every finite graph (or multigraph) gives rise to a matroid as follows: take as the set of all edges in and consider a set of edges independent if and only if it is a forest; that is, if it does not contain a simple cycle. Then is called a cycle matroid. Matroids derived in this way are graphic matroids. Not every matroid is graphic, but all matroids on three elements are graphic. Every graphic matroid is regular.
Other matroids on graphs were discovered subsequently:
The bicircular matroid of a graph is defined by calling a set of edges independent if every connected subset contains at most one cycle.
In any directed or undirected graph let and be two distinguished sets of vertices. In the set , define a subset to be independent if there are || vertex-disjoint paths from onto . This defines a matroid on called a gammoid: a strict gammoid is one for which the set is the whole vertex set of .
In a bipartite graph , one may form a matroid in which the elements are vertices on one side of the bipartition, and the independent subsets are sets of endpoints of matchings of the graph. This is called a transversal matroid, and it is a special case of a gammoid. The transversal matroids are the dual matroids to the strict gammoids.
Graphic matroids have been generalized to matroids from signed graphs, gain graphs, and biased graphs. A graph with a distinguished linear class of cycles, known as a "biased graph" , has two matroids, known as the frame matroid and the lift matroid of the biased graph. If every cycle belongs to the distinguished class, these matroids coincide with the cycle matroid of . If no cycle is distinguished, the frame matroid is the bicircular matroid of . A signed graph, whose edges are labeled by signs, and a gain graph, which is a graph whose edges are labeled orientably from a group, each give rise to a biased graph and therefore have frame and lift matroids.
The Laman graphs form the bases of the two-dimensional rigidity matroid, a matroid defined in the theory of structural rigidity.
Let be a connected graph and be its edge set. Let be the collection of subsets of such that is still connected. Then , whose element set is and with as its class of independent sets, is a matroid called the bond matroid of . The rank function is the cyclomatic number of the subgraph induced on the edge subset , which equals the number of edges outside a maximal forest of that subgraph, and also the number of independent cycles in it.
Matroids from field extensions
A third original source of matroid theory is field theory.
An extension of a field gives rise to a matroid. Suppose and are fields with containing . Let be any finite subset of . Define a subset of to be algebraically independent if the extension field has transcendence degree equal to .
A matroid that is equivalent to a matroid of this kind is called an algebraic matroid. The problem of characterizing algebraic matroids is extremely difficult; little is known about it. The Vámos matroid provides an example of a matroid that is not algebraic.
Basic constructions
There are some standard ways to make new matroids out of old ones.
Duality
If M is a finite matroid, we can define the orthogonal or dual matroid M* by taking the same underlying set and calling a set a basis in M* if and only if its complement is a basis in M. It is not difficult to verify that M* is a matroid and that the dual of M* is M.
The dual can be described equally well in terms of other ways to define a matroid. For instance:
A set is independent in M* if and only if its complement spans M.
A set is a circuit of M* if and only if its complement is a coatom in M.
The rank function of the dual is .
According to a matroid version of Kuratowski's theorem, the dual of a graphic matroid M is a graphic matroid if and only if M is the matroid of a planar graph. In this case, the dual of M is the matroid of the dual graph of G. The dual of a vector matroid representable over a particular field F is also representable over F. The dual of a transversal matroid is a strict gammoid and vice versa.
Example
The cycle matroid of a graph is the dual matroid of its bond matroid.
Minors
If M is a matroid with element set E, and S is a subset of E, the restriction of M to S, written M |S, is the matroid on the set S whose independent sets are the independent sets of M that are contained in S. Its circuits are the circuits of M that are contained in S and its rank function is that of M restricted to subsets of S. In linear algebra, this corresponds to restricting to the subspace generated by the vectors in S. Equivalently if T = M−S this may be termed the deletion of T, written M\T or M−T. The submatroids of M are precisely the results of a sequence of deletions: the order is irrelevant.
The dual operation of restriction is contraction. If T is a subset of E, the contraction of M by T, written M/T, is the matroid on the underlying set E − T whose rank function is In linear algebra, this corresponds to looking at the quotient space by the linear space generated by the vectors in T, together with the images of the vectors in E - T.
A matroid N that is obtained from M by a sequence of restriction and contraction operations is called a minor of M. We say M contains N as a minor. Many important families of matroids may be characterized by the minor-minimal matroids that do not belong to the family; these are called forbidden or excluded minors.
Sums and unions
Let M be a matroid with an underlying set of elements E, and let N be another matroid on an underlying set F.
The direct sum of matroids M and N is the matroid whose underlying set is the disjoint union of E and F, and whose independent sets are the disjoint unions of an independent set of M with an independent set of N.
The union of M and N is the matroid whose underlying set is the union (not the disjoint union) of E and F, and whose independent sets are those subsets that are the union of an independent set in M and one in N. Usually the term "union" is applied when E = F, but that assumption is not essential. If E and F are disjoint, the union is the direct sum.
Additional terminology
Let M be a matroid with an underlying set of elements E.
E may be called the ground set of M. Its elements may be called the points of M.
A subset of E spans M if its closure is E. A set is said to span a closed set K if its closure is K.
The girth of a matroid is the size of its smallest circuit or dependent set.
An element that forms a single-element circuit of M is called a loop. Equivalently, an element is a loop if it belongs to no basis.
An element that belongs to no circuit is called a coloop or isthmus. Equivalently, an element is a coloop if it belongs to every basis. Loop and coloops are mutually dual.
If a two-element set {f, g} is a circuit of M, then f and g are parallel in M.
A matroid is called simple if it has no circuits consisting of 1 or 2 elements. That is, it has no loops and no parallel elements. The term combinatorial geometry is also used. A simple matroid obtained from another matroid M by deleting all loops and deleting one element from each 2-element circuit until no 2-element circuits remain is called a simplification of M. A matroid is co-simple if its dual matroid is simple.
A union of circuits is sometimes called a cycle of M. A cycle is therefore the complement of a flat of the dual matroid. (This usage conflicts with the common meaning of "cycle" in graph theory.)
A separator of M is a subset S of E such that . A proper or non-trivial separator is a separator that is neither E nor the empty set. An irreducible separator is a separator that contains no other non-empty separator. The irreducible separators partition the ground set E.
A matroid that cannot be written as the direct sum of two nonempty matroids, or equivalently that has no proper separators, is called connected or irreducible. A matroid is connected if and only if its dual is connected.
A maximal irreducible submatroid of M is called a component of M. A component is the restriction of M to an irreducible separator, and contrariwise, the restriction of M to an irreducible separator is a component. A separator is a union of components.
A matroid M is called a frame matroid if it, or a matroid that contains it, has a basis such that all the points of M are contained in the lines that join pairs of basis elements.
A matroid is called a paving matroid if all of its circuits have size at least equal to its rank.
The matroid polytope is the convex hull of the indicator vectors of the bases of .
Algorithms
Greedy algorithm
A weighted matroid is a matroid together with a function from its elements to the nonnegative real numbers. The weight of a subset of elements is defined to be the sum of the weights of the elements in the subset. The greedy algorithm can be used to find a maximum-weight basis of the matroid, by starting from the empty set and repeatedly adding one element at a time, at each step choosing a maximum-weight element among the elements whose addition would preserve the independence of the augmented set. This algorithm does not need to know anything about the details of the matroid's definition, as long as it has access to the matroid through an independence oracle, a subroutine for testing whether a set is independent.
This optimization algorithm may be used to characterize matroids: if a family F of sets, closed under taking subsets, has the property that, no matter how the sets are weighted, the greedy algorithm finds a maximum-weight set in the family, then F must be the family of independent sets of a matroid.
The notion of matroid has been generalized to allow for other types of sets on which a greedy algorithm gives optimal solutions; see greedoid and matroid embedding for more information.
Matroid partitioning
The matroid partitioning problem is to partition the elements of a matroid into as few independent sets as possible, and the matroid packing problem is to find as many disjoint spanning sets as possible. Both can be solved in polynomial time, and can be generalized to the problem of computing the rank or finding an independent set in a matroid sum.
Matroid intersection
The intersection of two or more matroids is the family of sets that are simultaneously independent in each of the matroids. The problem of finding the largest set, or the maximum weighted set, in the intersection of two matroids can be found in polynomial time, and provides a solution to many other important combinatorial optimization problems. For instance, maximum matching in bipartite graphs can be expressed as a problem of intersecting two partition matroids. However, finding the largest set in an intersection of three or more matroids is NP-complete.
Matroid software
Two standalone systems for calculations with matroids are Kingan's Oid and Hlineny's Macek. Both of them are open sourced packages. "Oid" is an interactive, extensible software system for experimenting with matroids. "Macek" is a specialized software system with tools and routines for reasonably efficient combinatorial computations with representable matroids.
Both open source mathematics software systems SAGE and Macaulay2 contain matroid packages.
Polynomial invariants
There are two especially significant polynomials associated to a finite matroid M on the ground set E. Each is a matroid invariant, which means that isomorphic matroids have the same polynomial.
Characteristic polynomial
The characteristic polynomial of M (which is sometimes called the chromatic polynomial, although it does not count colorings), is defined to be
or equivalently (as long as the empty set is closed in M) as
where μ denotes the Möbius function of the geometric lattice of the matroid and the sum is taken over all the flats A of the matroid.
When M is the cycle matroid M(G) of a graph G, the characteristic polynomial is a slight transformation of the chromatic polynomial, which is given by χG (λ) = λcpM(G) (λ), where c is the number of connected components of G.
When M is the bond matroid M*(G) of a graph G, the characteristic polynomial equals the flow polynomial of G.
When M is the matroid M(A) of an arrangement A of linear hyperplanes in Rn (or Fn where F is any field), the characteristic polynomial of the arrangement is given by pA (λ) = λn−r(M)pM(A) (λ).
Beta invariant
The beta invariant of a matroid, introduced by Crapo (1967), may be expressed in terms of the characteristic polynomial p as an evaluation of the derivative
or directly as
The beta invariant is non-negative, and is zero if and only if M is disconnected, or empty, or a loop. Otherwise it depends only on the lattice of flats of M. If M has no loops and coloops then β(M) = β(M∗).
Tutte polynomial
The Tutte polynomial of a matroid, TM (x,y), generalizes the characteristic polynomial to two variables. This gives it more combinatorial interpretations, and also gives it the duality property
which implies a number of dualities between properties of M and properties of M *. One definition of the Tutte polynomial is
This expresses the Tutte polynomial as an evaluation of the corank-nullity or rank generating polynomial,
From this definition it is easy to see that the characteristic polynomial is, up to a simple factor, an evaluation of TM, specifically,
Another definition is in terms of internal and external activities and a sum over bases, reflecting the fact that T(1,1) is the number of bases. This, which sums over fewer subsets but has more complicated terms, was Tutte's original definition.
There is a further definition in terms of recursion by deletion and contraction. The deletion-contraction identity is
when is neither a loop nor a coloop.
An invariant of matroids (i.e., a function that takes the same value on isomorphic matroids) satisfying this recursion and the multiplicative condition
is said to be a Tutte-Grothendieck invariant. The Tutte polynomial is the most general such invariant; that is, the Tutte polynomial is a Tutte-Grothendieck invariant and every such invariant is an evaluation of the Tutte polynomial.
The Tutte polynomial TG of a graph is the Tutte polynomial TM(G) of its cycle matroid.
Infinite matroids
The theory of infinite matroids is much more complicated than that of finite matroids and forms a subject of its own. For a long time, one of the difficulties has been that there were many reasonable and useful definitions, none of which appeared to capture all the important aspects of finite matroid theory. For instance, it seemed to be hard to have bases, circuits, and duality together in one notion of infinite matroids.
The simplest definition of an infinite matroid is to require finite rank; that is, the rank of E is finite. This theory is similar to that of finite matroids except for the failure of duality due to the fact that the dual of an infinite matroid of finite rank does not have finite rank. Finite-rank matroids include any subsets of finite-dimensional vector spaces and of field extensions of finite transcendence degree.
The next simplest infinite generalization is finitary matroids. A matroid is finitary if it has the property that
Equivalently, every dependent set contains a finite dependent set.
Examples are linear dependence of arbitrary subsets of infinite-dimensional vector spaces (but not infinite dependencies as in Hilbert and Banach spaces), and algebraic dependence in arbitrary subsets of field extensions of possibly infinite transcendence degree. Again, the class of finitary matroid is not self-dual, because the dual of a finitary matroid is not finitary.
Finitary infinite matroids are studied in model theory, a branch of mathematical logic with strong ties to algebra.
In the late 1960s matroid theorists asked for a more general notion that shares the different aspects of finite matroids and generalizes their duality. Many notions of infinite matroids were defined in response to this challenge, but the question remained open. One of the approaches examined by D.A. Higgs became known as B-matroids and was studied by Higgs, Oxley and others in the 1960s and 1970s. According to a recent result by , it solves the problem: Arriving at the same notion independently, they provided five equivalent systems of axiom—in terms of independence, bases, circuits, closure and rank. The duality of B-matroids generalizes dualities that can be observed in infinite graphs.
The independence axioms are as follows:
The empty set is independent.
Every subset of an independent set is independent.
For every nonmaximal (under set inclusion) independent set I and maximal independent set J, there is such that is independent.
For every subset X of the base space, every independent subset I of X can be extended to a maximal independent subset of X.
With these axioms, every matroid has a dual.
History
Matroid theory was introduced by . It was also independently discovered by Takeo Nakasawa, whose work was forgotten for many years .
In his seminal paper, Whitney provided two axioms for independence, and defined any structure adhering to these axioms to be "matroids".
(Although it was perhaps implied, he did not include an axiom requiring at least one subset to be independent.)
His key observation was that these axioms provide an abstraction of "independence" that is common to both graphs and matrices.
Because of this, many of the terms used in matroid theory resemble the terms for their analogous concepts in linear algebra or graph theory.
Almost immediately after Whitney first wrote about matroids, an important article was written by on the relation of matroids to projective geometry. A year later, noted similarities between algebraic and linear dependence in his classic textbook on Modern Algebra.
In the 1940s Richard Rado developed further theory under the name "independence systems" with an eye towards transversal theory, where his name for the subject is still sometimes used.
In the 1950s W. T. Tutte became the foremost figure in matroid theory, a position he retained for many years. His contributions were plentiful, including the characterization of binary, regular, and graphic matroids by excluded minors; the regular-matroid representability theorem; the theory of chain groups and their matroids; and the tools he used to prove many of his results, the "Path theorem" and "Tutte homotopy theorem" (see, e.g., ), which are so complex that later theorists have gone to great trouble to eliminate the necessity of using them in proofs. (A fine example is A. M. H. Gerards' short proof (1989) of Tutte's characterization of regular matroids.)
and generalized to matroids Tutte's "dichromate", a graphic polynomial now known as the Tutte polynomial (named by Crapo). Their work has recently (especially in the 2000s) been followed by a flood of papers—though not as many as on the Tutte polynomial of a graph.
In 1976 Dominic Welsh published the first comprehensive book on matroid theory.
Paul Seymour's decomposition theorem for regular matroids (1980) was the most significant and influential work of the late 1970s and the 1980s.
Another fundamental contribution, by , showed why projective geometries and Dowling geometries play such an important role in matroid theory.
By this time there were many other important contributors, but one should not omit to mention Geoff Whittle's extension to ternary matroids of Tutte's characterization of binary matroids that are representable over the rationals , perhaps the biggest single contribution of the 1990s. In the current period (since around 2000) the Matroid Minors Project of Jim Geelen, Gerards, Whittle, and others, which attempts to duplicate for matroids that are representable over a finite field the success of the Robertson–Seymour Graph Minors Project (see Robertson–Seymour theorem), has produced substantial advances in the structure theory of matroids. Many others have also contributed to that part of matroid theory, which (in the first and second decades of the 21st century) is flourishing.
Researchers
Mathematicians who pioneered the study of matroids include Takeo Nakasawa, Saunders Mac Lane, Richard Rado, W. T. Tutte, B. L. van der Waerden, and Hassler Whitney.
Other major contributors include Jack Edmonds, Jim Geelen, Eugene Lawler, László Lovász, Gian-Carlo Rota, P. D. Seymour, and Dominic Welsh.
See also
Antimatroid
Coxeter matroid
Oriented matroid
Pregeometry (model theory)
Polymatroid
Greedoid
Notes
References
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. Reprinted in , pp. 55–79.
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External links
Kingan, Sandra : Matroid theory. A large bibliography of matroid papers, matroid software, and links.
Locke, S. C. : Greedy Algorithms.
Pagano, Steven R. : Matroids and Signed Graphs.
Mark Hubenthal: A Brief Look At Matroids (PDF) (contain proofs for statements of this article)
James Oxley : What is a matroid? (PDF)
Neil White : Matroid Applications
Closure operators
Set families
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improper%20rotation
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Improper rotation
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In geometry, an improper rotation, also called rotation-reflection, rotoreflection, rotary reflection, or rotoinversion is an isometry in Euclidean space that is a combination of a rotation about an axis and a reflection in a plane perpendicular to that axis. Reflection and inversion are each special case of improper rotation. Any improper rotation is an affine transformation and, in cases that keep the coordinate origin fixed, a linear transformation.
It is used as a symmetry operation in the context of geometric symmetry, molecular symmetry and crystallography, where an object that is unchanged by a combination of rotation and reflection is said to have improper rotation symmetry.
Three dimensions
In 3 dimensions, improper rotation is equivalently defined as a combination of rotation about an axis and inversion in a point on the axis. For this reason it is also called a rotoinversion or rotary inversion. The two definitions are equivalent because rotation by an angle θ followed by reflection is the same transformation as rotation by θ + 180° followed by inversion (taking the point of inversion to be in the plane of reflection). In both definitions, the operations commute.
A three-dimensional symmetry that has only one fixed point is necessarily an improper rotation.
An improper rotation of an object thus produces a rotation of its mirror image. The axis is called the rotation-reflection axis. This is called an n-fold improper rotation if the angle of rotation, before or after reflexion, is 360°/n (where n must be even). There are several different systems for naming individual improper rotations:
In the Schoenflies notation the symbol Sn (German, , for mirror), where n must be even, denotes the symmetry group generated by an n-fold improper rotation. For example, the symmetry operation S6 is the combination of a rotation of (360°/6)=60° and a mirror plane reflection. (This should not to be confused with the same notation for symmetric groups).
In Hermann–Mauguin notation the symbol is used for an n-fold rotoinversion; i.e., rotation by an angle of rotation of 360°/n with inversion. If n is even it must be divisible by 4. (Note that would be simply a reflection, and is normally denoted "m", for "mirror".) When n is odd this corresponds to a 2n-fold improper rotation (or rotary reflexion).
The Coxeter notation for S2n is [2n+,2+] and , as an index 4 subgroup of [2n,2], , generated as the product of 3 reflections.
The Orbifold notation is n×, order 2n.
Subgroups
The direct subgroup of S2n is Cn, order n, index 2, being the rotoreflection generator applied twice.
For odd n, S2n contains an inversion, denoted Ci or S2. S2n is the direct product: S2n = Cn × S2, if n is odd.
For any n, if odd p is a divisor of n, then S2n/p is a subgroup of S2n, index p. For example S4 is a subgroup of S12, index 3.
As an indirect isometry
In a wider sense, an improper rotation may be defined as any indirect isometry; i.e., an element of E(3)\E+(3): thus it can also be a pure reflection in a plane, or have a glide plane. An indirect isometry is an affine transformation with an orthogonal matrix that has a determinant of −1.
A proper rotation is an ordinary rotation. In the wider sense, a proper rotation is defined as a direct isometry; i.e., an element of E+(3): it can also be the identity, a rotation with a translation along the axis, or a pure translation. A direct isometry is an affine transformation with an orthogonal matrix that has a determinant of 1.
In either the narrower or the wider senses, the composition of two improper rotations is a proper rotation, and the composition of an improper and a proper rotation is an improper rotation.
Physical systems
When studying the symmetry of a physical system under an improper rotation (e.g., if a system has a mirror symmetry plane), it is important to distinguish between vectors and pseudovectors (as well as scalars and pseudoscalars, and in general between tensors and pseudotensors), since the latter transform differently under proper and improper rotations (in 3 dimensions, pseudovectors are invariant under inversion).
See also
Isometry
Orthogonal group
References
Euclidean symmetries
Lie groups
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favela
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Favela
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A favela () is a type of slum in Brazil that has experienced historical governmental neglect. The first favela, now known as Providência in the center of Rio de Janeiro, appeared in the late 19th century, built by soldiers who had lived under the favela trees in Bahia and had nowhere to live following the Canudos War. Some of the first settlements were called bairros africanos (African neighborhoods). Over the years, many former enslaved Africans moved in. Even before the first favela came into being, poor citizens were pushed away from the city and forced to live in the far suburbs. Most modern favelas appeared in the 1970s due to rural exodus, when many people left rural areas of Brazil and moved to cities. Unable to find places to live, many people found themselves in favelas. Census data released in December 2011 by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) showed that in 2010, about 6 percent of the Brazilian population lived in favelas and other slums. Favelas are located in 323 of the 5,565 Brazilian municipalities.
History
The term favela dates back to the late 1800s. At the time, soldiers were brought from the War of Canudos, in the northeastern state of Bahia, to Rio de Janeiro and left with no place to live. When they served in Bahia, those soldiers had been familiar with Canudos' Morro da Favela ("Favela Hill") – a name referring to favela, a skin-irritating tree in the spurge family (Cnidoscolus quercifolius) indigenous to Bahia. When they settled on the Providência [Providence] hill in Rio de Janeiro, they nicknamed the place Favela hill."
The favelas were formed prior to the dense occupation of cities and the domination of real estate interests. Following the end of slavery and increased urbanization into Latin America cities, a lot of people from the Brazilian countryside moved to Rio. These new migrants sought work in the city but with little to no money, they could not afford urban housing. In the 1920s the favelas grew to such an extent that they were perceived as a problem for the whole society. At the same time the term favela underwent a first institutionalization by becoming a local category for the settlements of the urban poor on hills. However, it was not until 1937 that the favela actually became central to public attention, when the Building Code (Código de Obras) first recognized their very existence in an official document and thus marked the beginning of explicit favela policies. The housing crisis of the 1940s forced the urban poor to erect hundreds of shantytowns in the suburbs, when favelas replaced tenements as the main type of residence for destitute Cariocas (residents of Rio). The explosive era of favela growth dates from the 1940s, when Getúlio Vargas's industrialization drive pulled hundreds of thousands of migrants into the former Federal District, to the 1970s, when shantytowns expanded beyond urban Rio and into the metropolitan periphery.
Urbanization in the 1950s provoked mass migration from the countryside to the cities throughout Brazil by those hoping to take advantage of the economic opportunities urban life provided. Those who moved to Rio de Janeiro chose an inopportune time. The change of Brazil's capital from Rio to Brasília in 1960 marked a slow but steady decline for the former, as industry and employment options began to dry up. Unable to find work, and therefore unable to afford housing within the city limits, these new migrants remained in the favelas. Despite their proximity to urban Rio de Janeiro, the city did not extend sanitation, electricity, or other services to the favelas. They soon became associated with extreme poverty and were considered a headache to many citizens and politicians within Rio. In the 1970s, Brazil's military dictatorship pioneered a favela eradication policy, which forced the displacement of hundreds of thousands of residents. During Carlos Lacerda's administration, many were moved to public housing projects such as Cidade de Deus ("City of God"), later popularized in a wildly popular feature film of the same name. Poor public planning and insufficient investment by the government led to the disintegration of these projects into new favelas. By the 1980s, worries about eviction and eradication were beginning to give way to violence associated with the burgeoning drug trade. Changing routes of production and consumption meant that Rio de Janeiro found itself as a transit point for cocaine destined for Europe. Although drugs brought in money, they also accompanied the rise of the small arms trade and of gangs competing for dominance.
While there are Rio favelas which are still essentially ruled by organized crime groups like drug traffickers or by organized crime groups called milícias (Brazilian police militias), all of the favelas in Rio's South Zone and key favelas in the North Zone are now managed by Pacifying Police Units, known as UPPs. While drug dealing, sporadic gun fights, and residual control from drug lords remain in certain areas, Rio's political leaders point out that the UPP is a new paradigm after decades without a government presence in these areas.
Most of the current favelas really expanded in the 1970s, as a construction boom in the more affluent districts of Rio de Janeiro initiated a rural exodus of workers from poorer states in Brazil. Since then, favelas have been created under different terms but with similar results.
Communities form in favelas over time and often develop an array of social and religious organizations and forming associations to obtain such services as running water and electricity. Sometimes the residents manage to gain title to the land and then are able to improve their homes. Because of crowding, unsanitary conditions, poor nutrition and pollution, disease is rampant in the poorer favelas and infant mortality rates are high. In addition, favelas situated on hillsides are often at risk from flooding and landslides.
Public policy towards favelas
In the late 19th century, the state gave regulatory impetus for the creation of Rio de Janeiro's first squatter settlement. The soldiers from the War of Canudos (1896-7) were granted permission by Ministry of War to settle on the Providência hill, located between the seaside and centre of the city (Pino 1997). The arrival of former black slaves expanded this settlement and the hill became known as Morro de Providência (Pino 1997). The first wave of formal government intervention was in direct response to the overcrowding and outbreak of disease in Providência and the surrounding slums that had begun to appear through internal migration (Oliveira 1996). The simultaneous immigration of White Europeans to the city in this period generated strong demand for housing near the water and the government responded by "razing" the slums and relocating the slum dwellers to Rio's north and south zones (Oliveira 1996, pp. 74). This was the beginning of almost a century of aggressive eradication policies that characterised state-sanctioned interventions.
Favelas in the early twentieth century were considered breeding grounds for anti-social behavior and spreading of disease. The issue of honor pertaining to legal issues was not even considered for residents of the favelas. After a series of comments and events in the neighborhood of Morro da Cyprianna, during which a local woman Elvira Rodrigues Marques was slandered, the Marques family took it to court. This is a significant change in what the public considered the norm for favela residents, who the upper classes considered devoid of honor all together.
Following the initial forced relocation, favelas were left largely untouched by the government until the 1940s. During this period politicians, under the auspice of national industrialisation and poverty alleviation, pushed for high density public housing as an alternative to the favelas (Skidmore 2010). The "Parque Proletário" program relocated favelados to nearby temporary housing while land was cleared for the construction of permanent housing units (Skidmore 2010). In spite of the political assertions of Rio's Mayor Henrique Dodsworth, the new public housing estates were never built and the once-temporary housing alternatives began to grow into new and larger favelas (Oliveira 1996). Skidmore (2010) argues that "Parque Proletário" was the basis for the intensified eradication policy of the 1960s and 1970s.
The mass urban migration to Rio de Janeiro in the 1950s resulted in the proliferation of favelas across the urban terrain. In order to deal with the "favela problem" (Portes 1979, pp. 5), the state implemented a full-scale favela removal program in the 1960s and 1970s that resettled favelados to the periphery of the city (Oliveira 1996). According to Anthony (2013), some of the most brutal favela removals in Rio de Janeiro's history occurred during this period. The military regime of the time provided limited resources to support the transition and favelados struggled to adapt to their new environments that were effectively ostracised communities of poorly built housing, inadequate infrastructure and lacking in public transport connections (Portes 1979). Perlman (2006) points to the state's failure in appropriately managing the favelas as the main reason for the rampant violence, drugs and gang problems that ensued in the communities in the following years. The creation of BOPE (Special Police Operations Battalion) in 1978 was the government's response to this violence (Pino 1997). BOPE, in their all black military ensemble and weaponry, was Rio's attempt to confront violence with an equally opposing entity.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, public policy shifted from eradication to preservation and upgrading of the favelas. The "Favela-Bairro" program, launched in 1993, sought to improve living standards for the favelados (Pamuk and Cavallieri 1998). The program provided basic sanitation services and social services, connected favelas to the formal urban community through a series of street connections and public spaces and legalised land tenure (Pamuk and Cavallieri 1998). Aggressive intervention, however, did not entirely disappear from the public agenda. Stray-bullet killings, drug gangs and general violence were escalating in the favelas and from 1995 to mid-1995, the state approved a joint army-police intervention called "Operação Rio" (Human Rights Watch 1996). "Operação Rio" was the state's attempt to regain control of the favelas from the drug factions that were consolidating the social and political vacuum left by previously unsuccessful state policies and interventions (Perlman 2006).
Since 2009, Rio de Janeiro has had walls separating the rich neighborhoods from the favelas, officially to protect the natural environment, but critics charge that the barriers are for economic segregation.
Pacifying police units
Beginning in 2008, Pacifying Police Units (, also translated as Police Pacification Unit), abbreviated UPP, began to be implemented within various favelas in the city of Rio de Janeiro. The UPP is a law enforcement and social services program aimed at reclaiming territories controlled by drug traffickers. The program was spearheaded by State Public Security Secretary José Mariano Beltrame with the backing of Rio Governor Sérgio Cabral.
Rio de Janeiro's state governor, Sérgio Cabral, traveled to Colombia in 2007 in order to observe public security improvements enacted in the country under Colombian President Álvaro Uribe since 2000. Following his return, he secured US$1.7 billion for the express purpose of security improvement in Rio, particularly in the favelas. In 2008, the state government unveiled a new police force whose rough translation is Pacifying Police Unit (UPP). Recruits receive special training as well as a US$300 monthly bonus. By October 2012, UPPs have been established in 28 favelas, with the stated goal of Rio's government to install 40 UPPs by 2014.
The establishment of a UPP within a favela is initially spearheaded by Rio de Janeiro's elite police battalion, BOPE, in order to arrest or drive out gang leaders. After generally securing an area of heavy weapons and large drug caches, and establishing a presence over several weeks to several months, the BOPE are then replaced by a new Pacifying Police Unit composed of hundreds of newly trained policemen, who work within a given favela as a permanent presence aimed at community policing.
Suspicion toward the police force is widespread in the favelas, so working from within is a more effective and efficient means of enacting change. Rio's Security Chief, José Mariano Beltrame, has stated that the main purpose of the UPPs is more toward stopping armed men from ruling the streets than to put an end to drug trafficking. A 2010 report by the World Organization Against Torture (OMCT) did note the drop in the homicide rate within Rio de Janeiro's favelas. The report also pointed to the importance of initiatives that combine public security with intra-favela initiatives.
Journalists within Rio studying ballot results from the 2012 municipal elections observed that those living within favelas administered by UPPs distributed their votes among a wider spectrum of candidates compared to areas controlled by drug lords or other organized crime groups such as milícias.
Community policing was at the cornerstone of public policy during the early 2000s and its combination with participatory planning characterised the most recent rounds of state policy. Seeking to build on ‘Favela-Bairro’, the informally coined ‘Favela Chic’ program was aimed at bringing favelas into the formal social fabric of the city while simultaneously empowering favelados to act as key agents in their communities (Navarro-Sertich 2011). Media outlets have been critical of this change in policy and believe its only reflective of the government's concerns of the large media attention Rio attracted during the 2014 FIFA World Cup (McLoughlin 2011) and the 2016 Olympic Games (Griffin 2016). Anthony (2013) was equally as critical of the policy and said that while rhetoric asserted the government's best intention, the reality was more in line with aggressive policies of the past. He points to the announcement in 2010 from Rio's Mayor Eduardo Paes concerning the removal of two inner-city favelas, Morro de Prazeres and Laboriaux, and the forced relocation of its residents.
There have been significant shifts in favela policy in the last century. In 2013, there were an estimated 600 favelas in Rio de Janeiro, all of variable sizes (Anthony 2013). Due to the large scale and complexities of these informal settlements, academic interest into this field remains high.
Formation of favela society and culture
The people who live in favelas are known as favelados ("inhabitants of favela"). Favelas are associated with poverty. Brazil's favelas are thought to be the result of the unequal distribution of wealth in the country. Brazil is one of the most economically unequal countries in the world, with the top 10 percent of its population earning 50 percent of the national income and about 8.5 percent of all people living below the poverty line. As a result, residents of favelas are often discriminated against for living in these communities and often experience inequality and exploitation. This stigma that is associated with people living in favelas can lead to difficulty finding jobs.
The Brazilian government has made several attempts in the 20th century to improve the nation's problem of urban poverty. One way was by the eradication of the favelas and favela dwellers that occurred during the 1970s while Brazil was under military governance. These favela eradication programs forcibly removed over 100,000 residents and placed them in public housing projects or back to the rural areas that many emigrated from. Another attempt to deal with urban poverty came by way of gentrification. The government sought to upgrade the favelas and integrate them into the inner city with the newly urbanized upper-middle class. As these "upgraded favelas" became more stable, they began to attract members of the lower-middle class pushing the former favela dwellers onto the streets or outside of the urban center and into the suburbs further away from opportunity and economic advancement. For example: in Rio de Janeiro, the vast majority of the homeless population is black, and part of that can be attributed to favela gentrification and displacement of those in extreme poverty.
Drugs in the favelas
The cocaine trade has affected Brazil and in turn its favelas, which tend to be ruled by drug lords. Regular shoot-outs between traffickers and police and other criminals, as well as assorted illegal activities, lead to murder rates in excess of 40 per 100,000 inhabitants in the city of Rio and much higher rates in some Rio favelas. Traffickers ensure that individual residents can guarantee their own safety through their actions and political connections to them. They do this by maintaining order in the favela and giving and receiving reciprocity and respect, thus creating an environment in which critical segments of the local population feel safe despite continuing high levels of violence.
Drug use is highly concentrated in these areas run by local gangs in each highly populated favela. Drug sales run rampant at night when many favelas host their own baile, or dance party, where many different social classes can be found. These drug sales make up a business that in some of the occupied areas rakes in as much as US$150 million per month, according to official estimates released by the Rio media.
Growth and removal of the favelas
Despite attempts to remove favelas from Brazil's major cities like Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, the poor population grew at a rapid pace as well as the modern favelas that house them in the end of last century. This is a phenomenon called "favelização" ("favela growth" or "favelisation"). In 1969, there were approximately 300 favelas in Rio de Janeiro; today there are twice as many.
In 1950, only 7 percent of Rio de Janeiro's population lived in favelas; in the present day this number has grown to 19 percent or about one in five people living in a favela. According to national census data, from 1980 to 1990, the overall growth rate of Rio de Janeiro dropped by 8 percent, but the favela population increased by 41 percent. After 1990, the city's growth rate leveled off at 7 percent, but the favela population increased by 24 percent. A report released in 2010 by the United Nations, however, shows that Brazil has reduced its slum population by 16%, now corresponding to about 6% of the overall population of the nation.
Religion
A number of religious traditions exist in the favelas. Historically, Catholicism was the most prominent religion of the area, but over the past few decades there has been a shift toward Evangelicalism, including Pentecostalism. While there has been an increase in the number of converts to Evangelicalism, there are also an increasing number of people who claim to be non-religious.
Music
Popular types of music in favelas include funk, hip-hop, and Samba. Recently, funk carioca, a type of music popularized in the favelas has also become popular in other parts of the world. This type of music often features samples from other songs. Popular funk artists include MC Naldo and Buchecha Bailes funk are forms of dance parties that play this type of funk music and were popularized in favelas. Popular hip hop artist MV Bill is from Cidade de Deus in Rio de Janeiro. Favela Brass is a free music school set up in Pereirão in Rio, which aims to give children opportunities through musical performance.
Popularization of favela culture
Media representations of favelas also serve to spread knowledge of favelas, contributing to the growing interest in favelas as tourist locations. In recent years, favela culture has gained popularity as inspiration for art in other parts of the world. Fascination with favela life can be seen in many paintings, photography, and reproductions of favela dwellings. There have also been instances of European nightclubs inspired by favelas.
Tourism
Since the mid-1990s, a new form of tourism has emerged in globalizing cities of several so-called developing countries or emerging nations. Visits to the most disadvantaged parts of the city are essential features of this form of tourism. It is mainly composed of guided tours, marketed and operated by professional companies, through these disadvantaged areas. This new form of tourism has often been referred to as slum tourism which can also be seen in areas of South Africa and India.
In Brazil, this new growing market of tourism has evolved in a few particular favelas mostly in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, with the largest and most visited favela being Rocinha. This new touristic phenomena has developed into a major segment of touristic exploration.
There are conflicting views on whether or not favela tourism is an ethical practice. These tours draw awareness to the needs of the underprivileged population living in these favelas, while giving tourists access to a side of Rio that often lurks in the shadows. The tours are viewed as a spectacular alternative to mainstream Rio de Janeiro attractions, such as Sugarloaf Mountain and Christ the Redeemer. They offer a brief portrayal of Rio's hillside communities that are far more than the habitats often misrepresented by drug lords and criminals. For instance there are tours of the large favela of Rocinha. Directed by trained guides, tourists are driven up the favela in vans, and then explore the community's hillside by foot. Guides walk their groups down main streets and point out local hot spots. Most tours stop by a community center or school, which are often funded in part by the tour's profits. Tourists are given the opportunity to interact with local members of the community, leaders, and area officials, adding to their impressions of favela life. Depending on the tour, some companies will allow pictures to be taken in predetermined areas, while others prohibit picture-taking completely.
The tour guides emphasised the following:
Explanations regarding the mechanisms of socio-geographic differentiation and spatial disparities within a favela (especially rent and property market, unemployment)
Information regarding modern infrastructural equipment (such as wireless LAN, health services) and up-to-date shopping and services infrastructures (e.g. fashion stores, banks, cafés)
Meetings with voluntary workers on social or cultural projects and/or visits to such projects
Visit to or tours of schools, kindergartens or other institutions serving children and adolescents
Impressions of private residences, communication with their inhabitants
Visit to a restaurant or café
The Brazilian federal government views favela tourism with high regard. The administration of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva initiated a program to further implement tourism into the structure of favela economies. The Rio Top Tour Project, inaugurated in August 2010, promotes tourism throughout the favelas of Rio de Janeiro. Beginning in Santa Marta, a favela of approximately 5,000 Cariocas, federal aid was administered in order to invigorate the tourism industry. The federal government has dedicated 230 thousand Reais (US$145 thousand) to the project efforts in Santa Marta. English signs indicating the location of attractions are posted throughout the community, samba schools are open, and viewing stations have been constructed so tourists can take advantage of Rio de Janeiro's vista. Federal and state officials are carrying out marketing strategies and constructing information booths for visitors. Residents have also been trained to serve as tour guides, following the lead of pre-existing favela tour programs. Recently, favelas have been featured in multiple forms of media including movies and video games. The media representation of favelas has increased peoples' interest in favelas as tourist locations.
In popular culture
The 1959 movie Black Orpheus is set in an unnamed Rio favela.
In his 1995 music video for the song "They Don't Care About Us" from his HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I album, Michael Jackson featured a favela prominently in the video.
In the 2002 video game Jet Set Radio Future, some of the locations take place in favela style housing, particularly Rokkaku-dai Heights and Kibogaoka Hill.
The 2002 film City of God (Portuguese: "Cidade de Deus") takes place in the favela Cidade de Deus in Rio de Janeiro from the late 1960s to the early 1980s.
Living in and escaping favela life is a theme of Antônia (2006).
The 2007 movie Elite Squad (Portuguese: "Tropa de Elite") is a semi-fictional account of the BOPE (Portuguese: Batalhão de Operações Policiais Especiais), the Special Police Operations Battalion of the Rio de Janeiro Military Police, with main action taking place in Rio's favelas. The 2010 sequel was Elite Squad: The Enemy Within (Portuguese: "Tropa de Elite 2")
The 2008 anime series Michiko & Hatchin is variously set in South America, including Brazil, featuring favelas.
The 2008 movie The Incredible Hulk features footage shot in Rocinha.
The 2011 movie Fast Five features the characters living in Rio's favelas after escaping custody by American forces. Most of Fast Five was filmed in Puerto Rico, only a few scenes were filmed in Rio
The second level in the 2011 video game F.3.A.R. takes place in a favela as the main character must make his escape from pursuing enemy forces.
In the 2011 movie Rio, some of the scenes take place in the favela. It features the main characters (Blu and Jewel) being kidnapped for illegal wildlife trade and kept deep in one of the many houses in Rio's favelas.
In the 2012 video game Papo & Yo, the game takes place in an unspecified Brazilian favela which the player has to navigate.
In the 2012 video game Max Payne 3, some of the levels take place in the favelas of São Paulo, with large portions of the game taking place in Brazil.
In the video for the 2012 song "Let's Go" by Calvin Harris, featuring Ne-Yo, a boy wakes up in a favela in Rio.
A favela is featured in the Call of Duty franchise in the 2009 game Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. It appears in the missions "Takedown" and "The Hornet's Nest" as well as a Multiplayer map. The multiplayer map reappears in the 2014 "Invasion" DLC for Call of Duty: Ghosts.
A favela is featured as a bomb scenario map in the game Counter-Strike.
In the Tom Clancy game, Rainbow Six: Siege, the Operation Skull Rain DLC comes with two Brazilian operators and a map which is a Brazilian favela.
The 2016 Netflix original series 3% features a Brazilian dystopian thriller web television set in a fictional favela, filmed in São Paulo.
The 2019 Netflix original series Sintonia is mainly set in a favela in São Paulo.
See also
Abahlali baseMjondolo
Barrio
Bidonville
Cantegril
Class conflict
Colonia
Cortiço
Gecekondu
Ghetto
Kibera
Komboni
Pueblos jóvenes
Shanty town
Slum
Township (South Africa)
Villa miseria
Favelas
List of favelas in Brazil
Heliópolis
Rocinha
References
Notes
Further Reading
Davies, Mike (2006) Planet of Slums (New York: Verso).
Janice Perlman (2010) Favela: Four Decades of Living on the Edge in Rio de Janeiro (New York: Oxford University Press)
Ana Rosa Chagas Cavalcanti (2018). Housing Shaped by Labour: The Architecture of Scarcity in Informal Settlements.'' (Berlin: Jovis Press).
External links
Poverty in Brazil
Housing in Brazil
Human habitats
Welfare in Brazil
Squatting in Brazil
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244327
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Basehart
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Richard Basehart
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John Richard Basehart (August 31, 1914 – September 17, 1984) was an American actor. He starred as Admiral Harriman Nelson in the television science-fiction drama Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (1964–68). He also portrayed Wilton Knight in the pilot episode of the TV series Knight Rider (1982), and provided the narration that was heard during the opening credits throughout the entire series.
Basehart was equally active in cinema, receiving National Board of Review Awards for his performances in Fourteen Hours (1951) and Moby Dick (1956). He was further nominated for a BAFTA Award for his role in Time Limit (1957), the only film directed by Karl Malden.
Career
One of his most notable film roles was the acrobat and clown known as "the Fool" in the acclaimed Italian film La Strada (1954), directed by Federico Fellini. He also appeared as the killer in the film noir classic He Walked by Night (1948), as a psychotic member of the Hatfield clan in Roseanna McCoy (1949), as a timid husband in Tension (1950), as Ishmael in Moby Dick (1956), in the drama Decision Before Dawn (1951), and as Ivan in The Brothers Karamazov (1958). He portrayed a high priest in Kings of the Sun (1963). From 1964 to 1968, Basehart played the lead role, Admiral Harriman Nelson, on Irwin Allen's first foray into science-fiction television, Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea.
Basehart narrated a wide range of television and movie projects. In 1964, he narrated the David Wolper documentary about the Kennedy assassination, Four Days in November. In 1980, Basehart narrated the miniseries written by Peter Arnett called Vietnam: The Ten Thousand Day War that covered Vietnam and its battles from the Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945, to the final American embassy evacuation on April 30, 1975.
Basehart appeared in the pilot episode of the television series Knight Rider as billionaire Wilton Knight. He is the narrator at the beginning of the show's credits. He accepted the lead role in the 1962 film Hitler. He appeared in "Probe 7, Over and Out", an episode of The Twilight Zone, Hawaii Five-O, and as Hannibal Applewood, an abusive schoolteacher in Little House on the Prairie in 1976. In 1972, Basehart appeared in the Columbo episode "Dagger of the Mind", in which Honor Blackman and he played a husband-and-wife theatrical team who accidentally kill Sir Roger Haversham, the producer of their rendition of Macbeth.
Basehart played a supporting role as a doctor in the feature film Rage (1972), a theatrical feature starring and directed by George C. Scott. Basehart made a few TV movies, including Sole Survivor (1970) and The Birdmen (1971). Both were based on true stories during World War II. Also in the 1970s, he co-starred in Chato's Land (1972) and The Island of Dr. Moreau (1977). In 1979, he appeared as a Russian diplomat with Peter Sellers in Being There.
One month before his death, Basehart narrated a poem during the extinguishing of the flame at the closing ceremonies of the 1984 Summer Olympics.
Personal life
Basehart was born in Zanesville, Ohio, the son of Mae (née Wetherald) and Harry T. Basehart. He was married three times. After the death of his first wife Stephanie Klein, he married Italian Academy Award-nominated actress Valentina Cortese, with whom he had one son, actor Jackie Basehart; the couple divorced in 1960. In 1962, he married his third wife, Diana Lotery, with whom he had two children and remained married until his death in 1984.
Death
Basehart died in Los Angeles on September 17, 1984, following a series of strokes. He was 70 years old. His body was cremated, and the ashes interred at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles. He died eight days before Walter Pidgeon, his film counterpart in Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea.
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
Notes
References
External links
1914 births
1984 deaths
People from Zanesville, Ohio
Male actors from Ohio
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
20th Century Fox contract players
20th-century American male actors
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Perishers
|
The Perishers
|
The Perishers was a long-running British comic strip about a group of neighbourhood children and a dog. It was printed in the Daily Mirror as a daily strip and first appeared on 19 October 1959. For most of its life it was written by Maurice Dodd (25 October 1922 – 31 December 2005), and was drawn by Dennis Collins until his retirement in 1983, after which it was drawn by Dodd and later by Bill Mevin. When Dodd died, the strip continued with several weeks' backlog of unpublished strips and some reprints until 10 June 2006. The strip then returned to the Daily Mirror, again as reprints, on 22 February 2010, replacing Pooch Café.
Many Perishers strips are polyptychs—a single continuous background image is divided into three or four panels and the characters move across it from panel to panel. The story is set in the fairly drab fictional town of Croynge (sometimes spelled Crunge), which is apparently a South London borough. The name is a portmanteau of Croydon and Penge. The location as depicted often resembles an industrial Northern town and may have its roots in how Croydon appeared in the 1950s. Collins's artwork in particular gives the town detailed, realistic architecture and a consistent geography.
Thematically, the strip draws upon nostalgia for childhood experiences and often has a static, almost limbo-like atmosphere, in a similar manner to its companion strip in the Daily Mirror, Andy Capp. The main characters largely exist independently of 'the real world' and adults are only rarely seen; for example, every year the Perishers go on holiday but always get thrown off the train home, forcing them to walk and arrive home several weeks late (a joke on how a short scene in comic book time can take several weeks when told in daily instalments), yet with seemingly no repercussions.
Main characters
Wellington
An orphan boy who lives alone with his large dog, Boot. In the early days of the strip they lived in an approximately 10-foot (3 m) diameter concrete pipe section in a seemingly abandoned builder's yard. In 1966 he and Boot moved into a small railway station that had been closed by the Beeching Axe, and they have lived there ever since. Wellington takes his nickname from his trademark wellington boots – he cannot afford proper shoes. He named his dog Boot to go with Wellington.
Wellington is quite a solemn intellectual and given to philosophical trains of thought. He can also be quite resourceful – he appears to support himself by selling handmade wooden buggies and pilfering food from sympathetic local shops, or convoluted schemes to create sudden crowds in order to celebrate his birthday on 25 October (which also happened to be Maurice Dodd's Birthday). Wellington can also be something of a worrier, always concerned that the world is going to rack an' rooney (rack and ruin). Over the years he has worried that the world is becoming clogged up with dirt, that people might get crushed by the weight of air above their heads, and that each new year might be the same old year recycled to save money. Actually there might be something in that; Wellington (unlike any other comic character) has actually noticed that he and his friends never seem to get any older. On those rare occasions when he cheers up, a small raincloud usually appears to dampen his spirits.
Boot
An Old English Sheepdog who lives with his boy, Wellington. Boot is a generally affable and mellow character, given to flights of fancy and daydreaming. In this respect, Boot is the UK equivalent of Snoopy from Charles M. Schulz's Peanuts strip. Boot is also convinced that he is in fact an 18th-century English lord enchanted into a dog by a gypsy wench (as he puts it, I knew I should have bought those damn clothespegs!) – the strip gives occasional hints that this is actually true as opposed to another fantasy. As a lord, he demands to be treated with respect, and often tells Wellington so to his face. Unfortunately Wellington only hears barking. Wellington thinks Boot is lazy and should help out with the household chores, but Boot usually manages to find some way to "accidentally" mess things up in the hope that he won't be asked again. He hates taking baths, and his bathtime struggles with Wellington usually turn into epic battles. Boot's favourite food appears to be links of sausages, and his attempts to consume these in advance of Wellington provide the basis of many episodes.
Boot was originally drawn with a short tail (on one occasion he met a bob-tailed sheepdog, and on hearing the name decided to call his own tail Fred), but Maurice Dodd later discovered that real Old English Sheepdogs' tails are docked, and so over the course of several years Collins drew his tail shorter and shorter until it vanished altogether – Boot still appears completely white, rare for the breed.
"Who is the Mother of Boot?" was a long-running mystery until a reader informed Wellington that Boot's dam was named "Cherry Blossom." ("Cherry Blossom" happens to be a well-known brand of shoe and boot polish).
Marlon
Marlon is amiable but he is not very bright. This has not dampened his ambitions; he is enthusiastic and often tries his hand at inventing. The fact that most of his inventions – fire, the wheel, the horse and cart and so forth – had already been invented did not deter him, because he felt he was slowly catching up. He also claimed to have invented a "micro-stetho-deeposcope" – supposedly a high-tech instrument for probing deeply below the earth's surface, but which actually turned out to be a piece of broken mirror tied to a chair leg.
One of his culinary inventions did make a splash – literally: the inch-thick ketchup sandwich (subsequently renamed the 2.5 cm-thick ketchup sandwich when Marlon decided to go metric). The splash in question occurred whenever he bit into one, caused by a huge dollop of ketchup hitting whoever happened to be standing nearby. The ketchup sandwich is used as a recurring gag, occasionally replaced with other types of filling for variety.
Marlon also dreams of becoming either a brain surgeon (which is spelt brane surgeon in his speech balloons), or "a bloke wot goes down sewers in big rubber boots" – he considers either career to be equally prestigious. In the meantime he spends his pocket money on Wellington's buggies, which usually results in a battle between Wellington's persuasive skills and Maisie's desire for him to spend the money on her.
Maisie
An adorable little girl – at least, according to her. In fact she is domineering and a bully, with a tendency to become violent if she doesn't get her own way, and a scream that can stun woodworm. She is scared of insects and spiders; on one occasion, when Wellington tells her that the field they are walking through may contain thousands of hidden insects, she is too terrified to move.
She has convinced herself she is in love with Marlon and continues to pursue him despite his continual resistance – their relationship has been described as a one sided love triangle. She imagines herself and Marlon as the heroine and hero of a romantic novel – he bold as a hawk, she soft as a dove. In reality, of course, she is tough as nails and he is thick as a plank.
Another character trait of hers is a fondness for paper bags (and the contents thereof). It is usually Wellington who has just managed to scrape together enough money for sweets or fish and chips, which he has then to hide lest a rustle attract Maisie, who will appear, as if from nowhere, to inquire: "Need any help with that paper bag?"
Maisie bears a resemblance to Lucy van Pelt in Charles Schulz's Peanuts strip. The British actress Maisie Williams was christened Margaret but has always been known as Maisie, after the character.
Baby Grumpling
A toddler, possibly named after the "Baby Dumpling" character in the US comic strip Blondie. In the early days of the strip he did not speak, because he knew that once he started he would be expected to keep talking all the time. When he finally began to speak he did so in entirely in lower-case letters.
In the early days of the strip he was not related to the other characters, but was later revealed to be Maisie's little brother (a retcon – in an earlier strip Maisie had referred to Baby Grumpling's parents as if they were not her own). He used to think that school was a prison from which the older Perishers were temporarily released each evening. He digs a lot of holes, which he always blames on worms (a significant part of his diet) or moles. He enjoys creating mischief with his space hopper, or by putting insects into Maisie's underwear drawer, when he isn't embarking on some improbable business venture or other (usually worm-related; he invented the wormburger, for instance, though nobody but Wellington ever bought one, and Wellington didn't initially believe it had real worms in it).
He often discusses philosophy with the new baby (an unseen character in a pram). He is also frequently seen questioning the plausibility of fairy tales or nursery rhymes read out by Maisie, while at the same time vandalising an alarm clock or other household item. His teddy bear Gladly (short for "Gladly, my cross-eyed bear") puts in occasional appearances.
Recurring characters
Not all of these characters appeared during the same time periods
The Crabs: The crustacean inhabitants of a seaside rock pool, visited by Boot every year during the Perishers' summer holiday. Some of the crabs believe that Boot's eyes peering down at them annually are a mystical visitation – "The Eyeballs in the Sky" – and this belief is exploited by a preacher crab who uses their appearance as an excuse to extort money from his congregation. His efforts are always opposed by a scientist crab who continually attempts to invent a device to break through the surface of the pool and investigate what the "Eyeballs" really are, despite the preacher's protests that he will "rend the fabric of the pooliverse". The conflict usually ends up in a full-scale crab fight, and Boot is left none the wiser as to crustacean behaviour. Usually, one of the crabs claims that something is "bad fer y'r 'ealth".
Plain Jane: a friend of Maisie's, often seen selling potions and tonics from a home-made stall.
Fiscal Yere: a millionaire's son who always complains about the problems of being rich, whilst maintaining his chocolate cigar habit to the others' chagrin.
Fred Beetle and the Caterpillar: a pair of insects often encountered by Boot. Fred is a socialist who seems to be modelled on Fred Kite from I'm All Right Jack. The Caterpillar's chain-smoking habit has stunted his growth and prevented his metamorphosis into a butterfly. This is just as well since he doesn't like heights.
Adolf Kilroy: a tortoise shaped like a World War 2 German helmet. He thinks he is the reincarnation of Adolf Hitler and speaks in Fraktur. He sometimes teams up with Fred Beetle and Caterpillar in an attempt to overthrow Boot, but the fact that Boot is much bigger always defeats them. This character last appeared in the summer of 1983 and it is said upon his 1984 take-over of the Daily Mirror that Robert Maxwell, a Czech whose family had been murdered by Nazi German troops during the war, objected to the Kilroy character appearing in the strip.
B. H. (Calcutta) Failed: a kindly Indian bloodhound who lost his sense of smell in an unfortunate incident involving an elephant filled with curry which exploded in the noonday sun. B. H. literally bumped into Boot one day, and they have been good friends ever since, despite B. H.'s frequent attempts to steal Boot's meat bones. One of the strip's odder elements is B.H.'s claim to be a reporter for "The West Crunge Clarion and Dubious Advertiser", a low budget and downmarket local newspaper. He has a journalist's ear for an attention-grabbing headline, but his career may be held back by his inability to remember how to make the letter "b".
Tatty Oldbitt (the Sailors' Friend): an over-amorous female basset hound who likes to chase sailors – although just what she intends to do if she catches one is probably best left unexplored. She also chases Boot from time to time, but since he considers himself a lord she never gets very far with him, and often ends up going off with B. H. instead.
Dirty McSquirty: the dirtiest boy in town, always accompanied by a cloud of flies. He resembles Pig-Pen in Charles Schultz's Peanuts strip.
Cousin Worsoff: an unseen character. Dirty McSquirty's cousin, he is the proverbial "person who is worse off than you". He lives in the sewer, and Dirty speaks to him through drain covers.
Poor girl: a girl who harasses Wellington with constant tales of poverty, despite wearing an impressive fur coat and claiming to have a household full of equally impoverished staff.
Beryl Bogey: a large and physically intimidating girl, or possibly gorilla, whose presence on Maisie's netball team gives them the ability to break down the opposition, literally. Her idol is King Kong.
The cat: an unnamed cat recently adopted by Wellington, much to Boot's annoyance. The cat and Boot are engaged in a permanent battle of wits.
The goldfish: another new pet of Wellington's. Contemplates philosophy while swimming around in his tiny bowl.
The water-snail: the most recent arrival, bought by Wellington to clean the goldfish's bowl. The snail considers this a degrading job.
Catch phrases
This is a partial list of the phrases coined or made popular by the Perishers.
"Go-faster stripes" — Wellington's big selling-point on the buggies he tries to persuade Marlon to buy. It has become a way of describing any useless or frivolous addition to a product.
"GRONFF!!" — The sound of Boot gobbling up something tasty, often something meant for another character, once the contents of a bird table. Also used sometimes when other characters eat.
" Parasite ! Trotskyite ! Marmite !" — Insults hurled at each other by the Beetle and the Caterpillar whenever they brawl, which is frequently. Marmite is, of course, not exactly a valid insult, but does end in "-ite".
"Vilson Kepple und Betty!" — Kilroy the Tortoise's favourite exclamation. It derives from the music hall stage act Wilson, Keppel and Betty.
"Need any help with that paper bag ?" — Maisie can detect the opening of a bag of crisps from far away, appearing almost instantly to help with the consumption of the contents, uttering this phrase as soon as she arrives.
"Yeuk!!" — Marlon's reaction to Maisie's perennial romantic advances. He responds to her in this way so often that Maisie has actually asked Marlon, "Is 'yeuk' the only word you know?"
"Ratbag" — The kids' favourite insult. Absent from the very early days of the strip, it quickly became a staple. Maisie is particularly fond of the word, and constantly uses it to refer to Marlon.
"Berk" - New Baby's final response to anything said to it by Baby Grumpling. Might be construed as calling him a berk, but is intended as baby noise.
Final strip and editorial comment
A final, specially drawn strip appeared on the Daily Mirror'''s comic page on Saturday 10 June 2006. The strip depicts the silhouetted figures of Maisie, Baby Grumpling, Wellington, Boot and Marlon walking down a street into the sunset. Wellington says, "Well, dear readers, it's taken almost fifty years for you to see the back of us. In sayin' goodbye we hope that you remember us with the affecshun we feel for you." The tone of the strip is reminiscent of Charles M. Schulz's final Peanuts strip, from which the Perishers strip took its inspiration.
The strip was initially replaced by the short-lived Ronaldinho, during the then-ongoing World Cup. After the tournament, the American Pooch Cafe appeared as a more permanent replacement.
Annuals
Regular collections of the strip were published in book form. The first Perishers book was issued in the UK in 1963, often referred to as 'Meet the Perishers' but was in fact just titled 'The Perishers'. The second issue, 'The Perishers Strike Again', was published two years later in 1965. Further issues were then mostly published at the rate of two per year, commencing in 1968 (exceptions being three issued in 1972, and one in 1974, 1975, 1976 and 1977). A total of 27 annuals were released, the last being published in 1981.
In 1974, in addition to the regular book, an omnibus collection of previously published strips was issued, followed by two further omnibus collections in 1975 and 1976.
Reprints
After a gap of nearly four years, the original cartoon strip returned to the Daily Mirror as reprints, on 22 February 2010 due to popular demand.
Animation
In 1979, 20 5-minute animated shorts featuring the strip's characters were made by Bill Melendez Productions (coincidentally, the same studio behind the Peanuts animated specials) for the BBC.
LP record
Around 1980 an LP record album entitled THE PERISHERS SING! (WELL SORT OF) was issued by Response Records. The lyrics written by Maurice Dodd and the music by Trevor Evan Jones. An instrumental version of the final track "It's Great to be a Kid" was also the theme music for the animated TV version. Dodd's official website claims 12 songs were penned, but the finished album only contained 10 tracks. It featured narration by Bernard Cribbins, and also credits Nicky James and Barbara Sexton with vocals.
Track list
Side 1:
Ole Boot and Me (Wellington)
Battle of Vindaloo (B.H. Calcutta)*
Pervided I Get My Way (Maisie)
Eyeballs in the Sky (the Crabs)*
Dreaming (Wellington)
Side 2:
Boot (Boot)*
At Least We've Got Each Other (Wellington)
Speed Demon (Marlon)
Für Adolf (Adolf Kilroy)
It's Great to be a Kid (all the kids)
Lyrics for the three (*) noted songs can be found on Dodd's official website under "The Battle of Vindaloo", "A Crabby Lament" and "The song of Boot".
Compilations, annuals, and books
References
External links
An unofficial Perishers page – This has some useful descriptive material, but poor quality images.
The Perishers comic strips at Mirror Online''
The Authentic Perishers archived at Archive.org. Best overview with a message from Dodd's son
British comic strips
1959 comics debuts
2006 comics endings
Comics characters introduced in 1959
Child characters in comics
British comics characters
Gag-a-day comics
Comics adapted into animated series
1979 British television series debuts
1979 British television series endings
Daily Mirror
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin%20Chapman
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Colin Chapman
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Anthony Colin Bruce Chapman (19 May 1928 – 16 December 1982) was an English design engineer, inventor, and builder in the automotive industry, and founder of Lotus Cars.
In 1952 he founded the sports car company Lotus Cars. Chapman initially ran Lotus in his spare time, assisted by a group of enthusiasts. His knowledge of the latest aeronautical engineering techniques would prove vital towards achieving the major automotive technical advances for which he is remembered. His design philosophy focused on cars with light weight and fine handling instead of bulking up on horsepower and spring rates, which he famously summarised as "Adding power makes you faster on the straights. Subtracting weight makes you faster everywhere."
Under his direction, Team Lotus won seven Formula One Constructors' titles, six Drivers' Championships, and the Indianapolis 500 in the United States, between 1962 and 1978. The production side of Lotus Cars has built tens of thousands of relatively affordable, cutting edge sports cars. Lotus is one of but a handful of English performance car builders still in business after the industrial decline of the 1970s.
Chapman suffered a fatal heart attack in 1982, aged 54.
Early life
Colin Chapman was born on 19 May 1928 and brought up at 44, Beech Drive N2, on the border of Muswell Hill, London. His father ran The Railway Hotel on Tottenham Lane next to Hornsey Railway Station. Chapman attended the Stationers' Company's School in Mayfield Road.
Education
Chapman studied structural engineering at University College London, joined the University of London Air Squadron and learned to fly. Chapman left UCL without a degree in 1948, resitting his final Mathematics paper in 1949 and obtaining his degree a year late.
He briefly joined the Royal Air Force in 1948, being offered a permanent commission but turning this down in favour of a swift return to civilian life. After a couple of false starts Chapman joined the British Aluminium company, using his civil engineering skills to attempt to sell aluminium as a viable structural material for buildings.
Career
In 1948, Chapman designed the Mk1, a modified Austin 7, which he entered privately into local racing events. He named the car "Lotus"; he never confirmed the reason, but one of several theories is that it was after his then-girlfriend (later wife) Hazel, whom he nicknamed "Lotus blossom". With the prize money, he developed the Lotus Mk2. Around this time, Chapman began to show his ability to think of ways to become more competitive while remaining within the rules. One early car had a 6 port head with 4 exhaust and two inlet ports. Chapman realised that better flow characteristics (and therefore more power) could be achieved with an 8 port head, but lacking the resources to have one made, he reversed the port functions and de-siamesed the old inlet ports. With appropriate manifolds and a new camshaft, his engine outclassed the opposition until the rules were changed to outlaw the specific changes he had made. With continuing success on through the Lotus 6, he began to sell kits of these cars. Over 100 were sold through 1956. It was with the Lotus 7 in 1957 that things really took off, and indeed Caterham Cars still manufacture a version of that car today – the Caterham 7; there have been over 90 different Lotus 7 clones, replicas and derivatives offered to the public by a variety of makers.
In the 1950s, Chapman progressed through the motor racing formulae, designing and building a series of racing cars, sometimes to the point of maintaining limited production as they were so successful and highly sought after, until he arrived in Formula One. Besides his engineering work, he also piloted a Vanwall F1-car in 1956 but crashed into his teammate Mike Hawthorn during practice for the French Grand Prix at Reims, ending his career as a race driver and focusing him on the technical side. Along with John Cooper, he revolutionised the premier motor sport. Their small, lightweight mid-engined vehicles gave away much in terms of power, but superior handling meant their competing cars often beat the all-conquering front engined Ferraris and Maseratis. Eventually, with driver Jim Clark at the wheel of his race cars, Team Lotus appeared as though they could win whenever they pleased. With Clark driving the Lotus 25, Team Lotus won its first F1 World Championship in 1963. It was Clark, driving a Lotus 38 at the Indianapolis 500 in 1965, who drove the first-ever mid-engined car to victory at the "Brickyard". Clark and Chapman became particularly close and Clark's death in 1968 devastated Chapman, who publicly stated that he had lost his best friend.
Among a number of automotive figures who have been Lotus employees over the years were Mike Costin and Keith Duckworth, founders of Cosworth. Graham Hill worked at Lotus as a mechanic as a means of earning drives.
Chapman, whose father was a successful publican, was also a businessman who introduced major advertising sponsorship into auto racing; beginning the process which transformed Formula One from a pastime of rich gentlemen to a multi-million pound high technology enterprise. It was Chapman who in 1966 persuaded the Ford Motor Company to sponsor Cosworth's development of what would become the DFV race engine.
Innovations and legacy
Many of Chapman's ideas can still be seen in Formula One and other top-level motor sport (such as IndyCars) today.
He pioneered the use of struts as a rear suspension device. Even today, struts used in the rear of a vehicle are known as Chapman struts, while virtually identical suspension struts for the front are known as MacPherson struts that were invented 10 years earlier in 1949.
Chapman's next major innovation was popularising monocoque chassis construction within automobile racing, with the revolutionary 1962 Lotus 25 Formula One car. The technique resulted in a body that was both lighter and stronger, and also provided better driver protection in the event of a crash. Although a previously little-used concept in the world of motorsport, the first vehicle to feature such a chassis was the road-going 1922 Lancia Lambda. Lotus had been an early adopter of this technology with the 1958 Lotus Elite. The modified monocoque body of the car was made of fibreglass, making it also one of the first production cars made of composite materials.
When American Formula One driver Dan Gurney first saw the Lotus 25 at the Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort, he was so struck by the advanced design that he invited Chapman to the 1962 Indianapolis 500, where Gurney made his Indy début at the wheel of a space-frame rear engined car designed by John Crosthwaite (who had previously worked for Chapman) and built by American hot-rodder Mickey Thompson. Following the race, Chapman prepared a proposal to Ford Motor Company for an aluminium monocoque Indianapolis car using a 4.2-litre aluminium V-8 Ford passenger car engine. Ford accepted the proposal. The Lotus 29 debuted at Indianapolis in 1963, with Jim Clark finishing second. This design concept fairly quickly replaced what had been for many decades the standard design formula in racing-cars, the tube-frame chassis. Although the material has changed from sheet aluminium to carbon fibre, this remains today the standard technique for building top-level racing cars.
Inspired by Jim Hall, Chapman was among those who helped introduce aerodynamics into Formula One car design. Lotus used the concept of positive aerodynamic downforce, through the addition of wings, at a Tasman Formula race in early 1968, although Ferrari and Brabham were the first to use them in a Formula One race at the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix. Early versions, in 1968 and 1969, were mounted or so above the car, to operate in 'clean air' (air that would not otherwise be disturbed by the passage of the car). The underdesigned wings and struts failed regularly, however, compelling the FIA to require the wing mounting hardware to be attached directly to the sprung chassis. Chapman also originated the movement of radiators away from the front of the car to the sides, to decrease frontal area (lowering aerodynamic drag) and centralising weight distribution. These concepts remain features of virtually all high performance racing cars today.
Chapman was also an innovator in the business end of racing. He was among the first entrants in Formula One to turn their cars into rolling billboards for non-automotive products, initially with the cigarette brands Gold Leaf and, most famously, John Player Special.
Chapman, working with Tony Rudd and Peter Wright, pioneered the first Formula One use of "ground effect", where a low pressure was created under the car by use of venturis, generating suction (downforce) which held it securely to the road whilst cornering. Early designs utilized sliding "skirts" which made contact with the ground to keep the area of low pressure isolated.
Chapman next planned a car that generated all of its downforce through ground effect, eliminating the need for wings and the resulting drag that reduces a car's speed. The culmination of his efforts, the Lotus 79, dominated the championship. However, skirts were eventually banned because they were susceptible to damage, for example from driving over a kerb, whereafter downforce would be lost and the car could then become unstable. The FIA made moves to eliminate ground effect in Formula One by raising the minimum ride height of the cars from and requiring flat bottom cars from . Car designers have managed to claw back much of that downforce through other means, aided by extensive wind tunnel testing.
One of his last major technical innovations was a dual-chassis Formula One car, the Lotus 88 in . For ground effect of that era to function most efficiently, the aerodynamic surfaces needed to be precisely located and this led to the chassis being very stiffly sprung. However, this was very punishing to the driver, resulting in driver fatigue. To get around this, Chapman introduced a car with two chassis. One chassis (where the driver would sit) was softly sprung. The other chassis (where the skirts and such were located) was stiffly sprung. Although the car passed scrutineering at a couple of races, other teams protested, and it was never allowed to race. The car was never developed further.
DeLorean scandal
From 1978 until his death, Chapman was involved with the American tycoon, John DeLorean, in his development of a stainless steel sports car, to be built in a factory in Northern Ireland which was majority-funded by the UK Government. The original concept design was for a mid-engine sports car, however difficulty in securing the original Wankel engine rights and design complications led to the rear-engine mount design.
On 19 October 1982, John DeLorean was charged with trafficking cocaine by the US Government, following a videotaped sting operation at a hotel in Los Angeles, in which he was recorded by undercover FBI agents agreeing to bankroll a cocaine smuggling operation. DeLorean Motor Cars subsequently collapsed, during which administrators discovered that £10,000,000 of British taxpayers' money (approximately equivalent to £ million in ) had gone missing.
Lotus Group's 1981 accounts were overdue before Chapman's death, but released after his death disclosed that Lotus had been paid for engineering work by DeLorean via a Swiss-based Panamanian company run by a DeLorean distributor, despite Chapman's previous protestations that neither he nor the company had been paid via Panama. Chapman died before the full deceit unravelled, but at the subsequent trial of Lotus Group accountant Fred Bushell who had funnelled £5m to himself in the fraud, the trial judge opinionated, that had Chapman himself been in the dock, he would have received a sentence "of at least 10 years". The car's engineering concept was later sold by the UK Government appointed Administrators to Toyota, who used it to develop the AW11 MR2. The Liquidators also recovered around £20m from Swiss Bank accounts controlled by Chapman and John DeLorean.
Death
The night before he died, Chapman watched a performance by his long-time friend and Lotus customer Chris Barber, the noted jazz trombonist, and his band. On 16 December 1982, Team Lotus tested the first Formula One car with active suspension, which eventually made its début with the Lotus 99T in . Chapman suffered a fatal heart attack on the same day at his home in Norwich, and died at the age of 54.
Personal life
Chapman was married to Hazel (1927–2021). He had two daughters and one son, Clive Chapman, who currently runs Classic Team Lotus, offering restoration, maintenance and operation of historic Team Lotus Formula One cars.
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)
Awards
He was awarded "Mike's Mug" by the Royal Aero Club in 1961.
He was voted The Guardian 'Young Businessman of the Year' in 1970.
He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1970 New Year Honours for services to Exports.
He was inducted in the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1994.
He was inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1997.
References
Further reading
Gérard ('Jabby') Crombac, Colin Chapman: The Man and His Cars (Patrick Stephens, Wellingborough, 1986)
Hugh Haskell, Colin Chapman Lotus Engineering (Osprey Publishing, 1993)
Mike Lawrence, Colin Chapman Wayward Genius (Breedon Books Publishing, 2003)
Karl Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman: Inside the Innovator (Haynes Publishing, 2010)
External links
Colin Chapman biography by Dennis David
Picture of Colin Chapman, Long Beach F-1
The Colin Chapman Museum and Education Centre
Alumni of University College London
1928 births
1982 deaths
English Formula One drivers
Vanwall Formula One drivers
Formula One team owners
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
Formula One designers
British automobile designers
British founders of automobile manufacturers
International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees
Lotus Cars
People from Norfolk
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
British automotive pioneers
World Sportscar Championship drivers
People from Hornsey
British motorsport designers
IndyCar Series team owners
Automotive businesspeople
20th-century British businesspeople
|
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244335
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay%20Berwanger
|
Jay Berwanger
|
John Jacob "Jay" Berwanger (March 19, 1914 – June 26, 2002) was an American college football player and referee. He was the first winner of the Downtown Athletic Club Trophy in 1935 (the following year the award was renamed the Heisman Trophy); the trophy is awarded annually to the nation's most outstanding college football player. Berwanger was a star halfback for the Chicago Maroons football team of the University of Chicago, where he was known as the "one man football team". In 1936, Berwanger became the first player drafted into the National Football League (NFL) in its inaugural 1936 NFL Draft, although he did not play professionally.
College career
In a 1934 game against the Michigan Wolverines, Berwanger left his mark on Michigan center Gerald Ford in the form of a distinctive scar beneath the future U.S. President's left eye. In 1935, Berwanger became the first recipient of the Downtown Athletic Club Trophy, renamed the Heisman Trophy the following year. He received 84 votes, finishing ahead of Army's Monk Meyer, Notre Dame's William Shakespeare, and Princeton's Pepper Constable. He was also awarded the Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the most valuable player in the Big Ten Conference and earned unanimous All-America honors. Berwanger also competed in track and field for Chicago, setting a school decathlon record in 1936 that stood until 2007. In college, he was also a brother of the Psi Upsilon fraternity.
After college
In 1936, Berwanger was the first player ever drafted into the National Football League in its inaugural 1936 NFL draft. The Philadelphia Eagles selected him, but did not think they would be able to meet his reported salary demands of $1,000 per game. They traded his negotiating rights to the Chicago Bears for tackle Art Buss.
Berwanger initially chose not to sign with the Bears in part to preserve his amateur status so that he could compete for a spot on the U.S. team for the 1936 Summer Olympics in the decathlon.
After he missed the Olympics cut, Berwanger and Bears' owner George Halas were unable to reach an agreement on salary; Berwanger was requesting $15,000 and Halas' final offer was $13,500. Instead, he took a job with a Chicago rubber company and also became a part-time coach at the University of Chicago. Berwanger later expressed regret that he did not accept Halas' offer.
Later life and honors
After graduating, Berwanger worked briefly as a sportswriter and later became a manufacturer of plastic car parts. He was very modest about the Heisman Trophy; unsure what to do with the trophy, he left it with his aunt Gussie, who used it as a doorstop. The trophy was later bequeathed to the University of Chicago Athletic Hall of Fame, where it is on display. There is also a replica of the Heisman on display in the trophy case in the Nora Gymnasium at Dubuque Senior High School. He is a member of both the Iowa Sports Hall of Fame and Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame.
Berwanger died after a lengthy battle with lung cancer at his home in Oak Brook, Illinois, on June 26, 2002, at the age of 88. Berwanger was of German descent.
References
External links
1914 births
2002 deaths
American football halfbacks
Chicago Maroons football players
Philadelphia Eagles
All-American college football players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Heisman Trophy winners
National Football League first overall draft picks
Sportspeople from Dubuque, Iowa
People from Oak Brook, Illinois
Players of American football from Iowa
American people of German descent
Deaths from cancer in Illinois
Deaths from lung cancer
|
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] |
244336
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShapeShifter
|
ShapeShifter
|
ShapeShifter is an Application Enhancer (APE) plugin for Mac OS X developed by Unsanity that allows the user to make system-wide modifications to the appearance of the operating system's graphical interface by applying GUI skins through "injection" into running code and without modifying system files, very much like Kaleidoscope or WindowBlinds. It uses GUIKit files (called "themes") which can contain interface elements, desktop backgrounds and icons. GUIKit files are most often edited using a program called ThemePark.
Like many APE modules, it does not work with 10.5 or 10.6, due to major changes in the way they draw interface elements as compared with earlier versions of OS X. Development on ShapeShifter has ceased, with the rationale from ShapeShifter's primary developer being that he feels the fashions in which 10.5 and 10.6 draw graphics are stopgap measures in place of a new Core UI API, and so is waiting to rewrite ShapeShifter until OS X's GUI subsystem has restabilized.
Notes
Mighty Mouse with Some Theme Sauce
External links
ShapeShifter Homepage
2003 software
MacOS-only software
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-1000
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T-1000
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The T-1000 is a fictional character in the Terminator franchise. A shapeshifting android assassin, the T-1000 is the main antagonist of Terminator 2: Judgment Day, as well as a minor antagonist in Terminator Genisys and the theme park attraction T2 3-D: Battle Across Time. A similar Terminator, referred to as a T-1001, appears in the Fox television series, Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles.
In the films, the T-1000 was created by the franchise's main antagonist, Skynet, a machine artificial intelligence that directs its robotic creations against the Human Resistance in an all-out war. The T-1000 is described in Terminator 2 as being composed of liquid metal, or a mimetic polyalloy (nanorobotics) that it can manipulate to assume various forms. Aside from being able to camouflage itself by assuming the appearance of a nondescript object or take on the likeness of other humans that it terminates in pursuit of its goals, the T-1000's shapeshifting abilities enable it to form its hands into stabbing blades, slip through physical openings by oozing its liquid form, and instantly reform itself from any physical damage. It is further explained in the prologue of the film's novelization that the T-1000 was created through nanotechnology, and is a "Nanomorph", able to scan the molecular structure of whatever it is touching and visually mimic it.
In Terminator 2, the T-1000's default form is portrayed by Robert Patrick, and in Terminator Genisys, by Lee Byung-hun, while other actors portray the T-1000 in the disguise of specific characters. In Terminator 2 and T2: 3-D Battle Across Time, the T-1000 is presented as a technological leap over the T-800 Terminator (Arnold Schwarzenegger), also known as a Model 101. Described by AllMovie as "one of the most memorable roles in one of the most memorable films of the decade", Patrick's portrayal of the T-1000 earned him nominations for Best Villain and Best Supporting Actor at the 1992 MTV and Saturn Awards. The T-1000 was ranked #39 in the Online Film Critics Society's 2002 list of the "Top 100 Villains of All Time", and #19 in Empires 2018 recounting of the best cinematic villains.
Creation
Teaser trailers for Terminator 2 deliberately withheld that the T-1000 character was the villain and the T-800 was now the protector. A tagline for the film was "This time there are two. Terminator 2."
Writer/director James Cameron stated that his original intention for the sequel was that both Terminators sent to the past would be T-800s like the one played by Arnold Schwarzenegger, with one being stripped down to a metal endoskeleton like the one from the original film, The Terminator. Once Cameron actually started working on the script, in 1990, he figured a better way was to turn the evil Terminator into a more advanced model.
Cameron's original pick to play the T-1000 was rock musician Billy Idol, and storyboards had the android resembling him, but a serious motorcycle accident prevented Idol from accepting the role. Blackie Lawless, the lead singer of W.A.S.P., was also considered for the role but he was deemed too tall. Then, Cameron thought of casting actor Michael Biehn, who played Kyle Reese in The Terminator, in the role with the explanation that Skynet managed to acquire Reese's DNA and use it for a new Terminator. Cameron ultimately dropped this idea after deciding the audience would find it too confusing. Eventually, casting came down to Robert Patrick, as a deliberate contrast to the original Terminator: Cameron stated "I wanted to find someone who would be a good contrast to Arnold. If the 800 series is a kind of human Panzer tank, then the 1000 series had to be a Porsche." For a more machine-like performance, Patrick had to learn how to both fire a pistol without flinching (or blinking) and run effortlessly without heavy breathing or signs of exhaustion.
The development of computer-generated imagery (CGI) by Industrial Light & Magic to manipulate, re-create, and "morph" the image of an actor was used in the creation of the T-1000 character in the film. The computer graphics composed 6 of the 15 minutes that the T-1000 displays its morphing and healing abilities. The other 9 were achieved in camera with the use of advanced animatronic puppets and prosthetic effects created by Stan Winston and his team, who were also responsible for the metal skeleton effects of the T-800. The visual effects used in Terminator 2 to create the T-1000 won the Academy Award for Visual Effects.
In Terminator Genisys, the effects of the T-1000 were made by British effects company Double Negative, also responsible for the T-3000 and T-5000 terminators. The animation was mostly similar to how it was done in Terminator 2, only with more advanced fluid simulations. To properly depict the liquid metal being dissolved by acid, Double Negative's artists studied acid burning through aluminum, and had its final distorted forms inspired by The Thing.
Appearance and abilities
In the Terminator 2 storyline, the T-1000 is made of liquid metal. The T-800 explains that the T-1000 is a more advanced Terminator, composed entirely of a "mimetic polyalloy", rendering it capable of rapid shape shifting, near-perfect mimicry and recovery from damage. Furthermore, it can use its ability to liquify and assume alternative forms such as fitting through narrow openings, morphing its arms into solid metal tools or bladed weapons, walking through prison bars, flattening itself and imitating the pattern and texture of the ground to hide or ambush targets.
The T-1000 can change its surface color and texture to convincingly simulate flesh, clothing, and other nonmetallic materials. It is capable of accurately mimicking voices as well, including the ability to extrapolate a relatively small voice sample to generate a wider array of words or inflections as required. However, its morphing abilities are limited by complexity, mass, and volume: it cannot transform into complex machines with mechanical moving parts or chemical fuels (such as guns or bombs), limiting it to stabbing weapons, and its volume prevents it from taking the form of a smaller object like a pack of cigarettes, although it is capable of impersonating larger people - the novelization states that mimicking an obese security guard "strained its ability".
Like all Terminators, the T-1000 possesses superhuman strength, greater than that of the T-800. Thanks to its morphing abilities and resistance to mechanical damage, it is shown to be capable of overpowering the T-800 in hand-to-hand combat, despite its more slender frame and smaller stature compared to its predecessor. It can also run fast enough to catch up to a police car accelerating away from it.
Due to its fluid nature, the T-1000 has a much higher tolerance to damage from small arms and blunt trauma than the T-800, high-kinetic impacts from shotgun blasts or a large explosion will knock it out for a few moments before it can recover. When separated from the host each liquid form cell is programmed to detect and seek out larger groups of cells within a range of 29 kilometers.
The T-1000's weaknesses are extreme temperatures, as shown in Terminator 2. Liquid nitrogen freezes it solid, and after being shot by the T-800 it shatters into pieces which then melt and reform. The Special Edition DVD release of Terminator 2 shows that the freezing, shattering and thawing causes severe damage to the nanotechnology, and the T-1000 begins malfunctioning - unable to fully control morphing, which allows John Connor to see through one of its disguises. After the Terminator shoots it with a grenade launcher, it is so distorted and off-balance from the gap in its torso that it slips and falls into a molten steel vat. It then shapeshifts uncontrollably into its previous human disguises/victims, and it turns itself inside-out to try to shield itself from the molten steel and is then permanently destroyed when the searing heat disassembles its nanotechnological "cells" on a microscopic level. It is also susceptible to chemical damage as shown in Terminator Genisys where Sarah tricks it into entering a room filled with sprinklers that rain down acidic chemicals. The T-1000 is also not specifically designed to encounter other Terminators and has little knowledge of their diagnostics. This allows the T-800 to take it by surprise. The T-1000 had previously shut the T-800 down, but did not know of the older model's emergency reboot power mode.
The T-1000 is apparently capable of espionage and detective skills, as it often attempts to accomplish its goals by subterfuge instead of brute force and extreme violence as the earlier T-800 resorted to. Its main disguise for the duration of Terminator 2 is as a police officer, allowing it to gain trust, access information, and provide a benign, friendly appearance. It also imitates John Connor's foster mother, Janelle Voight, to try to gain John's confidence. In fact, the T-1000 is able to pass as human, possessing a larger repertoire of behavioral expression and interpersonal skills than earlier Terminator models. While the earlier T-800 also had some non-violent interactions and used a phone book to track Sarah Connor, T-1000 uses a variety of deceptions and is much more human-like.
It is also capable of exploiting the emotions of its targets, as in the steel foundry when it tortures Sarah Connor to call out for her son, anticipating that she would respond accordingly. A T-1000 demonstrates annoyance when dealing with the T-800, in Terminator 2 and another T-1000 demonstrates annoyance with Kyle Reese in Terminator: Genisys, and tilts its head in salute to Sarah when she devises a method to distinguish it from the person it mimics. Additionally, it is able to express fear and pain, as demonstrated in Terminator 2 when the T-1000 gives a brief look of shock after the T-800 shoots a grenade into its stomach, and when it writhes in agony after falling into a vat of molten metal. The same is shown in Genisys, when the Guardian holds it under a hydrochloric acid shower and it frantically struggles to get free before it is destroyed.
In Genisys, it is also shown that the T-1000 has the ability to repair damaged machines and use its own body as independent weapons and gadgets, such as a spear or a tracking device. It severs its own arm and hurls it as a javelin to impale the Guardian to a wall, reactivates a broken T-800 by infusing it with some polyalloy and it latches a piece of itself onto a lock in order to track the Guardian's truck.
Films
Terminator 2: Judgment Day
In Terminator 2: Judgment Day, the T-1000 (Patrick) is sent by Skynet back in time to kill a young John Connor (Edward Furlong), the future leader of the Human Resistance against Skynet. The T-1000 ambushes a Los Angeles Police Department police officer on arrival and takes on his identity, tracking down John Connor through the police cruiser's on-board computer and eventually confronting him in a shopping mall. As it prepares to kill John, a T-800 Model 101 sent by the Resistance to protect John shows up to engage it. Following a brief scuffle and a lengthy car chase, the T-800 and John escape from the T-1000. It returns to John's foster home and takes the place of his foster mother, Janelle Voight (Jenette Goldstein), intending to wait for John to return, but John calls ahead and the T-800 is able to confirm that the T-1000 has infiltrated the house when it incorrectly names John's dog.
After learning of the deception and killing John's foster father (Xander Berkeley), the T-1000 is thwarted again at Pescadero State Hospital, where John and the T-800 rescue John's mother, Sarah Connor (Linda Hamilton) before the T-1000 can copy and terminate her, and again escape from it. After tracking the Connors and the T-800 to Cyberdyne Systems Corporation headquarters, it gives chase and crashes a truck carrying liquid nitrogen into a steel mill.
The T-1000 is frozen solid by leaking liquid nitrogen, allowing the T-800 to shatter it with a single pistol round. After the T-1000 reforms (but its shapeshifting capability malfunctions) the T-800 engages it in hand-to-hand combat, to buy time for Sarah and John, but is defeated and shut down in the process. The T-1000 then continues the hunt for John, unaware that the T-800 has rerouted power and reactivated itself.
The T-1000 copies Sarah's form and confronts John but is stopped by the real Sarah. It survives Sarah's shotgun blasts but is finally done in by the T-800 who fires his last grenade, which detonates inside the T-1000. While attempting to reform, it stumbles and falls backwards into a vat of molten steel. Unable to stand the high temperature, it is melted and consumed.
Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines
Despite failing to eliminate John Connor (Nick Stahl), it is later revealed in Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines that the T-1000 inadvertently interfered with the development of his relationships with Kate Brewster (Claire Danes), with whom he attended junior high school, and her father, Robert (David Andrews), who is overseeing the development of Skynet in the third film.
The T-1000's successor is the T-X, designed to not only terminate humans but also rogue Terminators reprogrammed by the Resistance, an "anti-terminator terminator" as stated by John Connor. The T-X is a composite of the T-800 and T-1000, combining the former's solid endoskeleton covered with the latter's liquid metal "mimetic polyalloy", allowing it to take the shape of any humanoid it touches. Because it is only coated in this material, it is possible to remove it from the endoskeleton using immensely strong magnetic force, such as that from a cyclic particle accelerator. Having a solid endoskeleton did solve some of the T-1000's problems, namely being deformed by temperature extremes and explosives while also lacking built-in ranged weaponry. However, the endoskeleton makes the T-X less flexible than its T-1000 predecessor, in that the T-X does not have the ability to liquefy and assume forms in innovative and surprising ways, including fitting through narrow openings, morphing its arms into solid metal tools or bladed weapons, walking through prison bars and narrow openings, or flattening itself. As a result, the T-X is eventually defeated when its legs are lost after a helicopter crashes into it and its main body destroyed when the T-101 sent back to fight it triggers its own internal power cell to explode while in close proximity to its opponent.
Terminator Genisys
South Korean actor Lee Byung-hun portrays a T-1000 in Terminator Genisys. In the film, it is revealed that Skynet sent the T-1000 to kill Sarah Connor (portrayed by Willa Taylor as a child) at Big Bear Lake in 1973. It killed her parents but she escaped and was subsequently, found by a reprogrammed T-800 whom she refers to as "Pops," (credited as "Guardian") sent by an unknown party to be her guardian. The subsequent arrivals of the two machines effectively alters the course of Sarah's life. Eleven years later, in the form of an Asian American LAPD police officer, the T-1000 intercepts Kyle Reese (Jai Courtney) after Kyle arrives from 2029. As Kyle has no experience battling a T-1000, he is unable to defeat it. The T-1000 chases Reese into an adjacent clothing store, where Reese steals clothing only to be accosted by two police officers, Garber and O'Brien, who handcuff him. The T-1000 attacks, killing Garber, and almost killing O'Brien and Reese before it is interrupted by the arrival of Sarah Connor (Emilia Clarke) and the Guardian (Schwarzenegger) in an armored truck. By latching a piece of itself onto the truck's back door handle by, the T-1000 tails the three to the Guardian's warehouse base and attacks them again. It uses pieces of itself to pin the Guardian to a wall and to reactivate Skynet's T-800 to chase Kyle Reese while pursuing Sarah. It masquerades as Reese in an attempt to fool Sarah, but Sarah sees through the ruse and lures the T-1000 into a shower of hydrochloric acid, severely destabilizing its molecular structure and weakening it. Despite this, it tries to kill Sarah, but the Guardian grabs it and holds it under the acid shower until it disintegrates completely, destroying it.
After Sarah and Reese travel to the year 2017, they are recognized by an older O'Brien, whose experience with the T-1000 leads him to believe their story about Skynet and Genisys and free them from custody so they can stop Judgment Day from happening. In the film's climactic battle between the Guardian and John Connor, the latter having been transformed by Skynet into the malicious T-3000, the damaged Guardian is thrown into Cyberdyne's vat of liquid metal to be used for the creation of T-1000s which restores it and gives it the shapeshifting abilities of a T-1000.
Original draft
McG, the director of Terminator Salvation, previously mentioned that the T-1000 would be reintroduced in what was to be his concept of the fifth film: "I like the idea and the perspective for the next picture that you meet Robert Patrick the way he looks today, and he's a scientist that's working on, you know, improving cell replication so we can stay healthier and we can cure diabetes and do all these things that sound like good ideas, and to once again live as idealized expressions as ourselves." He also said the origin story they had in mind for the T-1000 would satirize the world's "obsession" with youth and aging.
This concept, however, was scrapped when the series was rebooted with Terminator Genisys, in which the T-1000 was portrayed by Lee Byung-hun.
Terminator: Dark Fate
In Terminator: Dark Fate, Gabriel Luna portrays the Rev-9, an advanced combination of both the T-800 and the T-1000. The Rev-9 originated from another A.I. called Legion, and is able to split into two separate units: an endoskeleton and a liquid-metal unit. Like the T-1000, it can take on the physical appearance of anyone it touches, while at the same time, it can transform its liquid metal exterior into firearms.
Non-Terminator films
Robert Patrick as the T-1000 briefly appeared in the 1992 film Wayne's World. In a scene where Wayne is pulled over for speeding, the T-1000 - dressed in a police uniform - pulls out a picture of John Connor and asks Wayne if he has seen him, in the same manner he did in Terminator 2. This results in Wayne screaming in terror and driving away.
Robert Patrick as the T-1000 also briefly appeared in the 1993 film Last Action Hero as it was seen walking out the same building that Danny and Jack Slater (played by Schwarzenegger) were entering. Danny tries to tell Jack about the T-1000 he just saw, but Jack ignores him completely.
Attraction
T2-3D: Battle Across Time
Patrick reprised his role as the T-1000 in T2-3D: Battle Across Time, a Universal Studios theme park movie ride. In this short film, The Terminator (Schwarzenegger) takes John Connor (Furlong) to the year 2029 to aid him in destroying Skynet once and for all. On their way, the T-1000 chases after John and the Terminator while they are on a motorcycle. They lose its pursuit after the Terminator shoots at it with a shotgun several times.
Television
Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles
A T-1001 Terminator, a second liquid metal prototype, is introduced in the 2008 television series, Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles at the start of the show's second season (though sometimes misidentified as a T-1000 by reviewers). It masquerades as Catherine Weaver (Shirley Manson), the co-founder and current CEO of ZeiraCorp. "Weaver" often has mixed results when socially interacting both with subordinates at ZeiraCorp and Weaver's daughter Savannah (portrayed by Mackenzie Smith), but was written with an improved ability to adapt to and sustain itself in changing situations more adeptly than prior Terminators. It was unable to make convincing smiles or relate to people, despite being more advanced than the T-1000, which seemed to be better at social interaction. However, the T-1001 was able to successfully lead a company and use literary allegories.
The T-1001's mission remains unclear throughout the television series, but diverts from the single-minded attempts to assassinate the Connors, as seen in the prior films. Through most of the TV series, the T-1001, as well as Sarah Connor and her allies, did not appear to be aware of each other's existence. As the head of ZeiraCorp, the T-1001 diverts that company's resources into developing an artificial intelligence, titled "Project Babylon", which appeared sufficient to combat Skynet's development. Catherine Weaver is first seen in the second season opener when she purchases the late Andy Goode's Turk computer system for $300,000 from an associate and then introduces this new computer system to her department heads to reveal her plans to create a new artificial intelligence computer system. Towards this end, Catherine Weaver recruits FBI Special Agent James Ellison to find and capture a Terminator in order to reverse engineer it using a variety of deceptions. Until the end of the series, Ellison is never aware of Weaver's true nature. Ellison delivers a T-888 Terminator's body to Weaver after it was critically damaged by Connor's Terminator bodyguard. The T-1001 advocates learning more about the 'robots' in order to prevent Judgment Day. With Ellison's initial mission complete, it assigns him to act as tutor/mentor to the nascent AI now connected to the T-888's body, which Weaver nicknames "John Henry".
John Henry quickly identifies Weaver as a machine, albeit different from itself, but obeys Weaver's instruction not to share that information with anyone, assuring him that everything done at ZeiraCorp is for John Henry's benefit. At one point, Weaver reveals a clue to the nature of its mission when it tells Ellison that Savannah's future safety is dependent upon John Henry, but that the reverse is not the case. This appears to be in contradiction to the assumption that Weaver was coordinating the efforts to develop Skynet to eradicate humanity.
In the television series, the true nature of the T-1001's entire mission is never revealed, and much of what Weaver does in furtherance of it seems contradictory. In one of the episodes that shifts between the present day and post-Judgment Day, it is learned that the leader of the resistance, John Connor, asked a liquid metal Terminator to join him, and the Terminator refused. In the series finale, by way of introduction, the T-1001 asks (using the same phrase) the same of Connor (and his bodyguard Cameron, who was privy to the aforementioned events in the future) through Ellison, sent as intermediary.
Also in the season/series finale, when Sarah Connor and John Connor finally meet Catherine Weaver face-to-face at her office, Ellison, Sarah, and John all discover Weaver's true nature when she uses her Terminator liquid metal abilities to form a shield to protect them from a flying Kaliba Corp drone which crash-dives into the ZeiraCorp building. When Sarah Connor discovers that ZeiraCorp possesses Andy Goode's Turk, she assumes that Weaver is constructing Skynet but Weaver corrects her by stating that she is "building something to fight it," and implies that she is not originated from Skynet, but its rival: the Turk's future self. Upon entering the basement, the four discover that John Henry has transported himself to the future with Cameron's chip, leaving Cameron's empty body. When Ellison and Sarah Connor decline to jump forward in time with Weaver and John Connor, Weaver instructs Ellison to pick up Savannah from gymnastics.
Weaver then transports itself and John Connor to a post-Judgment Day future in which John Connor is not known to the human resistance. Though Connor and the T-1001 arrived naked, the T-1001 forms "clothing" a moment later. After briefly talking to John, the Terminator slips away when the human resistance encounters John, thus leaving its whereabouts unknown.
Comics
Terminator 2: Judgment Day – Nuclear Twilight
In the Terminator 2: Judgment Day – Nuclear Twilight comic published by Malibu Comics in 1996, an injured Tech-Com soldier named "Griffith" is abducted by a troop of T-800 Terminators and brought back to Skynet. He is drugged and, while in a delirious state (believing he has died and gone to Heaven), questioned by Skynet about Tech-Com's acquisition of a T-800 unit. After he has supplied all the information he is aware of, two T-1000 Terminators enter the room and assume his appearance before killing him. One is sent to infiltrate the human resistance, the other sent through time to kill John Connor as outlined in the Terminator 2 movie. In the simultaneously published Terminator 2: Judgment Day – Cybernetic Dawn, set just after the film, a female T-1000 and two T-800s come to the present to make sure the creation of Skynet happens as planned.
Terminator/RoboCop: Kill Human
In the second crossover between Terminator and RoboCop, the T-1000 plays a fairly significant role. It is the same model as from Terminator 2: Judgment Day. His role is not changed, he still intends to kill John Connor, but this time he must confront RoboCop as well to get to John Connor. RoboCop manages to save John and Sarah because he came from the future to stop the downfall of humanity, which even with the resistance fighting back, the war was lost for humanity. RoboCop shows no interest in keeping John and Sarah safe however, all he wants to do is prevent the future from happening. The T-1000 finds his targets on a naval base, set up by RoboCop. He gets in, but the vessel they are on begins to sink, but even with some help from the re-activated T-800 unit, John Connor is dead and the vessel sinks to the bottom of the sea, with everyone on board possibly drowning in the fight. Even the two Terminators and RoboCop are destroyed by a chemical compound designed to destroy metals, which has seeped into the waters.
References
External links
Terminator (franchise) characters
Action film villains
Characters created by James Cameron
Fictional amorphous creatures
Fictional androids
Fictional assassins
Fictional aviators
Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Fictional characters who can stretch themselves
Fictional characters with accelerated healing
Fictional characters with superhuman strength
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional shapeshifters
Fictional super soldiers
Film characters introduced in 1991
Nanotechnology in fiction
Science fiction weapons
Time travelers
Film supervillains
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] |
244344
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Smith
|
Margaret Smith
|
Margaret Smith or Maggie Smith may refer to:
Margaret Smith Court, known as Margaret Court (born 1942), Australian tennis player
Margaret A. Smith, superintendent of Volusia County Schools
Margaret Bayard Smith (1778–1844), American author
Margaret Charles Smith (1906–2004), African-American midwife
Margaret Chase Smith (1897–1995), United States Senator from Maine
Margaret Gladys Smith (1896–1970), American pathologist
Maggie Gordon-Smith, British track cyclist
Margaret Kiever Smith (1856–1934), American psychological and educational researcher
Margaret Mary Smith (1916–1986), ichthyologist, fish illustrator and academic
Maggie Rainey-Smith (born 1950), New Zealander writer
Margaret Smith (author) (1884–1970), wrote Muslim Women Mystics
Maggie Smith (born 1934), British actress
Margaret Smith (Scottish politician) (born 1961), Liberal Democrat Member of the Scottish Parliament for Edinburgh West
Margaret Smith (West Virginia politician) (born 1952), member of the West Virginia House of Delegates
Maggie Smith (ceramist) (born 1950), American artist
Margaret Smith (poet) (born 1958), American poet and artist
Maggie Smith (poet) (born 1977), American writer
Margaret Smith (bodybuilder) (born 1979), American professional female bodybuilder
Margaret Smith (comedian), American standup comic, actress, writer and producer
Margaret Taylor (born Margaret Mackall Smith, 1788-1852), former first lady of the United States
Margaret Taylor Smith, American author and social activist
Margaret Smith, a character from Regular Show
See also
MV Margaret Smith, Empire ship originally named Empire Reaper
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Court
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Margaret Court
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Margaret Court (née Smith; born 16 July 1942), also known as Margaret Smith Court, is an Australian retired tennis player and former world No. 1. She won 24 Grand Slam women's singles titles, 19 Grand Slam women's doubles titles, and 21 Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Her 24 Grand Slam singles titles and her total of 64 Grand Slam titles are the most in tennis history. She is considered one of the greatest tennis players of all time. She is currently a Christian minister in Perth, Western Australia.
In 1970, Court became the first woman during the Open Era (the second woman in history after Maureen Connolly) to win the singles Grand Slam (all four major tournaments in the same calendar year). Her all-surfaces (hard, clay, grass and carpet) singles career-winning percentage of 91.74 is the best of all time according to the Sporteology website. Her Open era singles career winning percentage of 91.02% (608–60) is unequalled, as is her Open era winning percentage of 91.67% (11–1) in Grand Slam singles finals. Her win–loss performance in all Grand Slam singles tournaments was 90.00% (207–23). She was 95.24% (60–3) at the Australian Open, 89.80% (44–5) at the French Open, 85.00% (51–9) at Wimbledon, and 89.66% (52–6) at the US Open. She also shares the Open era record for most Grand Slam singles titles as a mother (3) with Kim Clijsters. In 1973, Court set the record for most singles titles won in a single Grand Slam event, with 11 Australian Open wins. This record was surpassed by Rafael Nadal in 2019 when he won his 12th French Open title, but remains a women's record.
Court is one of only three players in history (all women) to have won the "Grand Slam Boxed Set", consisting of every Grand Slam title (the singles, doubles and mixed doubles). Court, however, is the only one in tennis history to complete a Multiple Grand Slam set, twice, in all three disciplines. Uniquely, she won all 12 as an amateur and then after a period of retirement, returned as a professional to win all 12 again. Court is also one of only six tennis players ever to win a Multiple Grand Slam set in two disciplines, matching Roy Emerson, Martina Navratilova, Frank Sedgman, Doris Hart, and Serena Williams.
The International Tennis Hall of Fame states "For sheer strength of performance and accomplishment there has never been a tennis player to match (her)." In 2010, the Herald Sun called her the greatest female tennis player of all time, a view supported by Evonne Goolagong Cawley.
Having grown up as a Roman Catholic, Court became associated with Pentecostalism in the 1970s and became a Christian minister in that tradition in 1991. She later founded Margaret Court Ministries.
Tennis career
Court was born in Albury, New South Wales, the youngest of four children of Lawrence Smith and Catherine Beaufort. She has two older brothers, Kevin and Vincent, and an older sister, June Shanahan. A natural left-hander, she was persuaded to change to a right-hand grip. She began playing tennis when she was eight years old and was 18 in 1960 when she won the first of seven consecutive singles titles at the Australian Championships.
She became the first Australian woman to win a Grand Slam tournament abroad when she won the French and US Championships in 1962. The next year, she became the first Australian woman to win Wimbledon. Across singles, doubles and mixed doubles, she has won a remarkable 64 Grand Slams.
After the tournament in Munich, Germany in August 1966, Court temporarily retired from tennis. In 1967, she married Barry Court, whose father, Charles Court, and brother, Richard Court, were premiers of Western Australia. She returned to tennis in November 1967, and in 1970 won all four Grand Slam singles titles. The next year, she lost the Wimbledon singles final to Evonne Goolagong Cawley while pregnant with her first child, Daniel, who was born in March 1972. She made a comeback that year, playing in the US Open and throughout 1973. Her second child, Marika, was born in 1974. She started playing again in November of that year. After missing most of 1976 after having her third child, she returned to the tour in early 1977 but retired permanently that year when she learned she was expecting her fourth child. Her last Grand Slam tournament singles appearance was in the 1975 US Open. Her last Grand Slam tournament appearance overall was in the 1976 Australian Open in women's doubles.
Court is one of only three players to achieve a career "boxed set" of Grand Slam titles, winning every possible Grand Slam title—singles, women's doubles and mixed doubles—at all four Grand Slam events. The others are Doris Hart and Martina Navratilova. However, Court is the only person to win all 12 Grand Slam events at least twice. She also is unique in having completed "boxed sets" both before the Open Era and after it began.
Court lost a heavily publicised and U.S.–televised challenge match to a former world No. 1 male tennis player, the 55-year-old Bobby Riggs, on 13 May 1973, in Ramona, California. Court was the top-ranked women's player at the time, and the New York Times claimed that she did not take the match seriously because it was a mere exhibition. Using a mixture of lobs and drop shots, Riggs beat her 6–2, 6–1. Four months later, Billie Jean King beat Riggs in the Battle of the Sexes match in the Houston Astrodome.
In January 2003, Show Court One at the sports and entertainment complex Melbourne Park was renamed Margaret Court Arena. Since 2012, the arena has attracted calls for its name to be changed on the basis of Court's statements against gay and lesbian rights.
Playing style, Grand Slam titles and world rankings
During the 1960s, Court was considered to have a very long reach which added a new dimension to women's volleying. With a height and reach advantage and being extremely strong, she was very formidable at the net and had an effective overhead shot. She was considered unusually mobile for her size and played an all attack, serve and volley style which, when added to her big serve, dominated conservative defensive players. Part of what helped her win was her commitment to fitness training. Court was dubbed "The Aussie Amazon" because she did weights, circuit training and running along sandy hillsides. This training helped keep her relatively injury-free through most of her career.
Court won a record 64 Grand Slam tournament titles, including a record 24 singles titles, 19 women's doubles titles and a record 21 mixed doubles titles. The total includes two shared titles at the Australian Championships/Open in 1965 and 1969. The mixed doubles finals of those years were not played because of bad weather and the titles are shared by both of the finalist pairs.
Court won 62 of the 85 Grand Slam tournament finals (72.9%) she played, including 24–5 (82.8%) in singles finals, 19–14 (57.6%) in women's doubles finals and 19–4 (82.6%) in mixed doubles finals.
Court reached the final in 29, the semifinals in 36 and the quarterfinals in 43 of the 47 Grand Slams singles tournaments she played. She won 11 of the 16 Grand Slam singles tournaments she entered, beginning with the 1969 Australian Open and ending with the 1973 US Open. She also won 11 of the 17 Grand Slam singles tournaments she entered, beginning with the 1962 Australian Championships and ending with the 1966 Australian Championships. She was 146–2 (98.6%) against unseeded players in Grand Slam singles tournaments.
Court is the only player to have won the Grand Slam in both singles and mixed doubles. She won the singles Grand Slam in 1970, the mixed doubles Grand Slam in 1963 with fellow Australian Ken Fletcher and the mixed doubles Grand Slam in 1965 with three different partners (Fletcher, John Newcombe and Fred Stolle).
Court won more than half of all the Grand Slam contests held in 1963 (8 of 12), 1964 (7 of 12), 1965 (9 of 12), 1969 (8 of 12), 1970 (7 of 11) and 1973 (6 of 11).
According to the end-of-year rankings compiled by London's Daily Telegraph from 1914 to 1972, Court was ranked world No. 1 six times: 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1969 and 1970. She was also ranked No. 1 for 1973 when the official rankings were produced by the Women's Tennis Association.
Career timeline
1959 – Competed at the Australian Championships for the first time losing in the second round against eventual tournament winner Mary Reitano.
1960 – Won her first singles title at the Australian Championships, but lost the junior girls final there to Lesley Turner Bowrey.
1962 – Won three of the four Grand Slam singles tournaments.
1963 – Became the first Australian woman to win a singles title at Wimbledon. She and Ken Fletcher became the only team to win all four Grand Slam mixed-doubles titles during the same calendar year.
1964 – Won three of the four Grand Slam mixed doubles tournaments. Her women's doubles title at Wimbledon completed her career "boxed set" of Grand Slam titles.
1965 – Won three of the four Grand Slam singles tournaments and all four Grand Slam mixed-doubles titles, with three different partners.
1966 – After losing in August to Vlasta Kodesova in the quarterfinals of a tournament in Munich, Germany, Court temporarily retired.
1968 - Returned to match play in November 1967 at the New South Wales Championships. She resumed playing a full schedule in 1968, where at the beginning of the season, she lost to Billie Jean King in the finals of the Western Australia Championships and the Australian National Championships.
1969 – Won three of the four Grand Slam singles and mixed doubles tournaments.
1970 – Won all four Grand Slam singles tournaments, defeating Kerry Melville Reid in the Australian Open final, Helga Niessen Masthoff in the French Open final, Billie Jean King in the Wimbledon final, and Rosemary Casals in the US Open final. Maureen Connolly in 1953 and Steffi Graf in 1988 are the only other women who have won all four Grand Slam singles tournaments during the same calendar year.
1971 – Won the Australian Championship for the 10th time. After losing in mid-July to Billie Jean King in the semifinals of a tournament in West Kirby, England, Court left the tour to prepare for the March 1972 birth of her first child.
1972 – Returned to the tour in late July. Lost to Billie Jean King in the semifinals of the US Open.
1973 – Won three of the four Grand Slam singles and women's doubles tournaments. Became the first mother in the Open Era to win the Australian, French, and US Open championships. Lost her match with Bobby Riggs. Her women's doubles title at the US Open completed a "boxed set" of Grand Slam titles won exclusively after the start of the Open Era in 1968.
1974 – Absent from the game until November because of the birth of her second child. Won the Western Australian Championships on her playing return and reached the final of the New South Wales Championships the following week.
1975 – Played the final Grand Slam singles match of her career, losing to Martina Navratilova in a quarterfinal of the US Open 6–2, 6–4. At her final Australian championships (played in December 1974), she suffered only her second defeat in the singles prior to the final in all her appearances at the event, losing to Navratilova in a quarterfinal. Having won the mixed doubles at her last Wimbledon (partnering Marty Riessen), she partnered with Virginia Wade at the US Open to win her 62nd Grand Slam title and 19th Grand Slam women's doubles title, defeating King and Casals in the final. This was Court's last Grand Slam title. Her last tournament of the year was in late September in Tokyo where she won the title.
1976 – Court was absent from the game until late September due to the birth of her third child. Tokyo was her first tournament after returning to the tour, where she lost the final to Betty Stöve. She finished the year by defeating Sue Barker in the singles final in Melbourne, Australia
1977 – Played the final singles match of her career, defeating Greer Stevens in the third round of the Virginia Slims Championships of Detroit 5–7, 7–6, 6–3. Court defaulted the quarterfinal to Françoise Dürr upon learning that she was pregnant with her fourth child.
Honours
On 1 January 1967, she was made Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE), for her services to sport and international relations.
In 1963 and 1970, she became winner of the ABC Sportsman of the Year Award.
In 1970 she also won a Western Australian honour, the Walter Lindrum Award.
In 1979, Court was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame.
In 1985, Court was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame and then elevated to Legend status in 1998.
In 1993 in Melbourne, she was inducted into the Australian Tennis Hall of Fame.
In 2000, Court was awarded the Australian Sports Medal for her impressive tennis career.
In 2001, she was awarded the Centenary Medal for her service to Australian tennis.
In 2001, she was inducted onto the Victorian Honour Roll of Women.
In 2003 Court became the recipient of the 2003 Australia Post Australian Legends Award. Australia Post honoured her, together with fellow Australian tennis player Rod Laver by featuring her on postage stamp.
In 2006, she was awarded the International Tennis Federation's (ITF) accolade, the Philippe Chatrier Award.
In 2007, she was made an Officer of the Order of Australia (AO), for her services to tennis, as a mentor and to the community.
In 2021, she was advanced to a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC), for "eminent service to tennis as an internationally acclaimed player and record-holding grand slam champion, and as a mentor of young sportspersons".
Ministry
Court was raised as a Roman Catholic but became involved with Pentecostalism in the mid-1970s. In 1983, she gained a theological qualification from the Rhema Bible Training Centre, and in 1991 was ordained as an independent Pentecostal minister and so speaks publicly about her faith. She subsequently founded a ministry known as Margaret Court Ministries. In 1995, she founded a Pentecostal church known as the Victory Life Centre in Perth. She still serves as its senior pastor. Her television show, A Life of Victory, airs on Sundays on the Australian Christian Channel and locally in Perth on community television station West TV. She has generally embraced teachings associated with the Word of Faith movement and teaches her view of biblical doctrine.
In 1997, Court established Victory Life Community Services, later rebranded as Margaret Court Community Outreach (MCCO). In 2014 it was described by The West Australian as "one of WA's biggest stand-alone food charities", supplying around 25 tonnes of food each week.
Since 2010, she has been the president of Victory Life International, a network of like-minded churches, and is a long-standing patron of the Australian Family Association and Drug Free Australia.
Controversy
Court has been a consistent critic of LGBT rights and same-sex marriage in Australia. In 2012, she opposed proposed same-sex marriage reforms. Court has been criticised for such statements by openly gay tennis players Billie Jean King, Rennae Stubbs and Martina Navratilova, and in 2012, an LGBT rights protest group called for the renaming of Margaret Court Arena.
Court was strongly criticised in May 2017 after writing a letter to The West Australian decrying Qantas for being a corporate supporter of same-sex marriage and saying that she would boycott the airline. The letter, and further follow-up interviews, again led to calls from some Australians and tennis players to rename the Margaret Court Arena. Some politicians, including Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull, rejected calls for the change of name, saying the name celebrates Margaret Court as a tennis player. Writing in the wake of this incident, Russell Jackson noted that Court had always held controversial views, which he described as "stubbornly immovable", citing her support for apartheid in 1970 ("South Africans have this thing better organised than any other country, particularly America") and her criticisms of Navratilova in 1990 ("a great player but I'd like someone at the top who the younger players can look up to. It's very sad for children to be exposed to homosexuality") as examples. He added that this and the similar incident from 2012 are calculated provocations, allowing Court to portray herself as the victim and use the publicity to her advantage, and show that "for better or worse, Court is now the principal architect of her own image".
On 23 January 2019, Anna Wintour, in her keynote address for the Australian Open's Inspirational Series, renewed calls for the arena's renaming. Court responded by saying she was "disappointed" that someone "coming from America" was "unable to tolerate views that were not in line with her own" and "[is] telling us in this nation what to do". Later in the year, Court called on Tennis Australia to honour her and the 50th anniversary of her 1970 Grand Slam in the same way as it honoured Rod Laver earlier in 2019, arguing that the organisation should disregard her views on same-sex marriage as her tennis achievements are from "a different phase of my life from where I am now and if we are not big enough as a nation and a game to face those challenges there is something wrong." Tennis Australia issued a statement that it "recognises the tennis achievements of Margaret Court, although her views do not align with our values of equality, diversity and inclusion" and asserted that it is "in the process of working through" how Court's milestone might be included at the 2020 Australian Open. During the tournament, however, high-profile guests Martina Navratilova and John McEnroe paraded a banner calling for the Margaret Court Arena to be renamed in honour of four-time Australian Open champion Evonne Goolagong.
In 2020, her Margaret Court Community Outreach charity was denied a Lotterywest grant for a freezer truck on the basis of her public statements on gay people. She subsequently announced she would lodge a complaint with the Equal Opportunity Commission of Western Australia.
Portrayal in film
Jacqueline McKenzie portrayed Court in the 2001 TV movie When Billie Beat Bobby.
Jessica McNamee portrayed Court in the 2017 Hollywood film Battle of the Sexes.
Grand Slam tournament performance timelines
Singles
Women's doubles
Records
Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements.
All-time Grand Slam records
These are standing records for all time period in tennis history.
Grand Slam records per tournament
Career tournament records
See also
List of female tennis players
List of Grand Slam related tennis records
List of tennis rivalries
List of tennis tournaments
List of WTA number 1 ranked players
Tennis records of the Open Era – Women's Singles
World number 1 women tennis players from 1883–present
Performance timelines for all female tennis players who reached at least one Grand Slam final
WTA Tour records
References
External links
Margaret Court at the Australian Women's Register
Margaret Jean Court in The Encyclopedia of Women and Leadership in Twentieth-Century Australia
Margaret Court Biofile Interview at Tennis-Prose.com
Reverend Margaret Court AO, MBE at Victory Life Centre
1942 births
Living people
Anti-same-sex-marriage activists
Australian female tennis players
Australian Championships (tennis) champions
Australian Open (tennis) champions
Australian Pentecostal pastors
Companions of the Order of Australia
Converts to Pentecostal denominations
Converts to evangelical Christianity from Roman Catholicism
Female Christian clergy
French Championships (tennis) champions
French Open champions
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
Australian Members of the Order of the British Empire
People from Albury, New South Wales
Recipients of the Australian Sports Medal
Recipients of the Centenary Medal
Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees
Sportswomen from New South Wales
Sportswomen from Western Australia
Tennis people from New South Wales
United States National champions (tennis)
US Open (tennis) champions
Western Australian Sports Star of the Year winners
Wimbledon champions
Wimbledon champions (pre-Open Era)
World No. 1 tennis players
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles
Tennis players from Perth, Western Australia
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244346
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle%20of%20Willis
|
Circle of Willis
|
The circle of Willis (also called Willis' circle, loop of Willis, cerebral arterial circle, and Willis polygon) is a circulatory anastomosis that supplies blood to the brain and surrounding structures in reptiles, birds and mammals, including humans. It is named after Thomas Willis (1621–1675), an English physician.
Structure
The circle of Willis is a part of the cerebral circulation and is composed of the following arteries:
Anterior cerebral artery (left and right)
Anterior communicating artery
Internal carotid artery (left and right)
Posterior cerebral artery (left and right)
Posterior communicating artery (left and right)
The middle cerebral arteries, supplying the brain, are not considered part of the circle of Willis.
Origin of arteries
The left and right internal carotid arteries arise from the left and right common carotid arteries.
The posterior communicating artery is given off as a branch of the internal carotid artery just before it divides into its terminal branches - the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. The anterior cerebral artery forms the anterolateral portion of the circle of Willis, while the middle cerebral artery does not contribute to the circle.
The right and left posterior cerebral arteries arise from the basilar artery, which is formed by the left and right vertebral arteries. The vertebral arteries arise from the subclavian arteries.
The anterior communicating artery connects the two anterior cerebral arteries and could be said to arise from either the left or right side.
All arteries involved give off cortical and central branches. The central branches supply the interior of the circle of Willis, more specifically, the Interpeduncular fossa. The cortical branches are named for the area they supply. Since they do not directly affect the circle of Willis, they are not dealt with here.
Variation
Considerable anatomic variation exists in the circle of Willis. Based on a study of 1413 brains, the classic anatomy of the circle is only seen in 34.5% of cases.
In one common variation the proximal part of the posterior cerebral artery is narrow and its ipsilateral posterior communicating artery is large, so the internal carotid artery supplies the posterior cerebrum; this is known as a fetal posterior communicating cerebral artery. In another variation the anterior communicating artery is a large vessel, such that a single internal carotid supplies both anterior cerebral arteries; this is known as an azygos anterior cerebral artery.
Function
The arrangement of the brain's arteries into the circle of Willis is believed to create redundancy (analogous to engineered redundancy) for collateral circulation in the cerebral circulation. If one part of the circle becomes blocked or narrowed (stenosed) or one of the arteries supplying the circle is blocked or narrowed, blood flow from the other blood vessels can often preserve the cerebral perfusion well enough to avoid the symptoms of ischemia.
However, considering that the circle of Willis is present in many non-human species (reptiles, birds and mammals), and that arterial narrowing is mostly associated with old age and the human lifestyle, more generally applicable explanations of its functions have been suggested, such as dampening of pulse pressure waves within the brain and involvement in forebrain sensing of water loss.
Clinical significance
Aneurysms
Subclavian steal syndrome
The adaptive flow that the circle of Willis introduces can also lead to reduced cerebral perfusion. In subclavian steal syndrome, blood is "stolen" from the vertebral artery on the affected side to preserve blood flow to the upper limb. Subclavian steal syndrome results from a proximal stenosis (narrowing) of the subclavian artery, one of arteries originating off of the aortic arch. Subclavian steal syndrome has potential to effect flow in the circle of Willis.
Additional images
See also
Cerebral circulation
Leptomeningeal collateral circulation
References
External links
Arteries of the head and neck
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20O%27Connor%20%28cardinal%29
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John O'Connor (cardinal)
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John Joseph O'Connor (January 15, 1920 – May 3, 2000) was an American prelate of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of New York from 1984 until his death in 2000, and was made a cardinal in 1985. He previously served as a U.S. Navy chaplain (1952–1979, including four years as Chief), auxiliary bishop of the Military Vicariate of the United States (1979–1983), and Bishop of Scranton (1983–1984).
Early life, education, and military career
O'Connor was born in Philadelphia, the fourth of five children of Thomas J. O'Connor, and Dorothy Magdalene (née Gomple) O'Connor (1886–1971), daughter of Gustave Gumpel, a kosher butcher and Jewish rabbi. In 2014, his sister Mary O'Connor Ward discovered through genealogical research that their mother was born Jewish and was baptized as a Roman Catholic at age 19. John's parents were wed the following year.
O'Connor attended public schools until his junior year of high school, when he enrolled in West Philadelphia Catholic High School for Boys. He then enrolled at St. Charles Borromeo Seminary, and upon graduating was ordained a priest for the Archdiocese of Philadelphia on December 15, 1945, by Hugh L. Lamb, then an auxiliary bishop of the archdiocese. He initially taught at St. James High School in Chester, Pennsylvania.
O'Connor joined the United States Navy Chaplain Corps in 1952 during the Korean War, and rose through the ranks to become a rear admiral and Chief of Chaplains of the Navy. He served as Chief of Chaplains from 1975, for a period of four years, retiring in 1979. He obtained approval for the establishment of the RP [Religious Program Specialist] Enlisted Rating, and oversaw the process of standing up this rating, initially accepting transfers from other enlisted rates. The RP rating provided chaplains with a dedicated enlisted community, instead of yeomen transferred to assist a chaplain for a period before returning to their nominal yeoman rate. During this period, he was made an Honorary Prelate of His Holiness, with the title of Right Reverend Monsignor, on October 27, 1966.
O'Connor obtained a master's degree in advanced ethics from Villanova University and a doctorate in political science from Georgetown University, where he studied under the United States' future Ambassador to the United Nations Jeane Kirkpatrick. Kirkpatrick said of O'Connor that he was "... surely one of the two or three smartest graduate students I've ever had."
Bishop
On April 24, 1979, Pope John Paul II appointed O'Connor as auxiliary bishop of the Military Vicariate for the United States, subsequently reorganized as the Archdiocese for the Military Services in 1985, and titular bishop of Cursola. He was consecrated to the episcopate on May 27, 1979, at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome by John Paul himself, with Cardinals Duraisamy Simon Lourdusamy and Eduardo Martínez Somalo as co-consecrators.
On May 6, 1983, John Paul II named O'Connor Bishop of Scranton, and he was installed in that position on the following June 29.
Archbishop of New York
On January 26, 1984, after the death of Cardinal Terence Cooke three months earlier, O'Connor was appointed Archbishop of New York and administrator of the Military Vicariate of the United States, and installed on March 19. He was elevated to cardinal in the consistory of May 25, 1985, with the titular church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo in Rome (the traditional one for the Archbishop of New York from 1946 to 2009).
As archbishop, O'Connor skillfully used the power and prestige of his office to bear witness to traditional Catholic doctrine. Upon his death, The New York Times called O'Connor "a familiar and towering presence, a leader whose views and personality were forcefully injected into the great civic debates of his time, a man who considered himself a conciliator, but who never hesitated to be a combatant", and one of the Catholic Church's "most powerful symbols on moral and political issues."
At the same time, he was often criticized for large budget deficits and a lack of financial discipline, which had to be remedied after his tenure. In the words of his friend and co-author, Mayor Ed Koch: "Cardinal O'Connor was a great man, but he was like the Pentagon. He was incapable of saving money."
Sanctity of all life
O'Connor believed in protecting all human life and was a forceful opponent of abortion, human cloning, capital punishment, human trafficking, and unjust war. He assailed what he called the "horror of euthanasia", asking rhetorically, "What makes us think that permitted lawful suicide will not become obligated suicide?"
In 2000, O'Connor called for a "major overhaul" of the punitive Rockefeller drug laws, which he believed produced "grave injustices".
Critiques of US military actions
Despite his years spent as a naval chaplain and admiral, O'Connor offered severe critiques of some United States military policies. In the 1980s, he condemned US support for counterrevolutionary guerrilla forces in Central America, opposed the U.S. mining of the waters off Nicaragua, questioned spending on new weapons systems, and preached caution in regard to American military actions abroad.
In 1998, O'Connor questioned whether the United States' cruise missile strikes on Afghanistan and Sudan were morally justifiable. In 1999, during the Kosovo War, he used his weekly column in the archdiocesan newspaper, Catholic New York, to challenge repeatedly the morality of NATO's bombing campaign of Yugoslavia, suggesting that it did not meet the Catholic Church's criteria for a Just War, and going so far as to ask, "Does the relentless bombing of Yugoslavia prove the power of the Western world or its weakness?" Three years before the 9/11 attacks on New York City, O'Connor insisted that the traditional Just War principles must be applied to evaluate the morality of military responses to unconventional warfare and terrorism.
Relations with organized labor
O'Connor's father had been a lifelong union member and O'Connor was a passionate defender of organized labor, as well as an advocate for the poor and the homeless.
Early in his New York tenure, O'Connor set a pro-labor direction for the archdiocese. During a strike in 1984 by SEIU 1199, the largest health care workers union in New York, O'Connor strongly criticized the League of Voluntary Hospitals, of which the archdiocese was a member, for threatening to fire striking union members who refused to return to work, calling it "strikebreaking" and vowing that no Catholic hospital would do so. The following year, when a contract with 1199 still had not been reached, he threatened to break with the league and settle with the union unilaterally to reach an agreement "that gives justice to the workers".
In his homily during a Labor Day Mass at St. Patrick's in 1986, O'Connor expressed his strong commitment to organized labor: "[S]o many of our freedoms in this country, so much of the building up of society, is precisely attributable to the union movement, a movement that I personally will defend despite the weakness of some of its members, despite the corruption with which we are all familiar that pervades all society, a movement that I personally will defend with my life."
In 1987, when the television broadcast employees' union was on strike against NBC, a non-union crew from NBC appeared at the cardinal's residence to cover one of O'Connor's press conferences. O'Connor declined to admit them, directing his secretary to "tell them they're not invited."
Following his death, SEIU 1199 published a 12-page tribute to O'Connor, calling him "the patron saint of working people". It described his support for low-wage and other workers, his efforts in helping the limousine drivers unionize, his helping end a strike at The Daily News, and his pushing for fringe benefits for minimum-wage home health care workers.
Relations with the Jewish community
O'Connor played an active role in Catholic–Jewish relations. He strongly denounced anti-Semitism, declaring that one "cannot be a faithful Christian and an anti-Semite. They are incompatible, because anti-Semitism is a sin." He wrote an apology to Jewish leaders in New York City for past harm done to the Jewish community.
O'Connor criticized Swiss banks' failure to compensate victims of the Holocaust, which he called "a human rights issue, an issue of the human race." Even when disagreeing with him over political questions, Jewish leaders acknowledged that O'Connor was "a friend, a powerful voice against anti-Semitism".
The Jewish Council for Public Affairs called him, "a true friend and champion of Catholic–Jewish relations, [and] a humanitarian who used the power of his pulpit to advocate for disadvantaged people throughout the world and in his own community." Holocaust survivor and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel called O'Connor, "a good Christian" and a man "who understands our pain."
Relations with the gay community
O'Connor adhered to the Catholic teaching that homosexual acts are never permissible, while homosexual desires are disordered but not in themselves sinful. Following a 1989 protest at the Cathedral where ACT UP members disrupted Mass and desecrated the Eucharist, O'Connor made an effort to minister to 1,000 people dying of AIDS and their families, following up on other AIDS patients he had ministered to. He visited Saint Vincent's Catholic Medical Center, where he cleaned the sores and emptied the bedpans of more than 1,100 patients. He was very popular with the patients, many of whom did not know he was the archbishop, and was supportive of other priests who ministered to gay men and others with AIDS. He personally led the 1990 funeral Mass for James Zappalorti, a Navy veteran who was murdered on Staten Island for being gay. In the years after this event, O'Connor endorsed a statewide hate crime law that included crimes motivated by sexual orientation, which passed shortly after his own death in 2000.
O'Connor actively opposed Executive Order 50, a mayoral order issued in 1980 by Mayor Ed Koch, which required all city contractors, including religious entities, to provide services on a non-discriminatory basis with respect to race, creed, age, sex, handicap, as well as "sexual orientation or preference". After the Salvation Army received a warning from the city that its contracts for child care services would be canceled for refusing to comply with the executive order's provisions regarding sexual orientation, the Archdiocese of New York and Agudath Israel, an Orthodox Jewish organization, threatened to cancel their contracts with the city if forced to comply. O'Connor maintained that the executive order would cause the Catholic Church to appear to condone homosexual activity. Writing in Catholic New York in January 1985, O'Connor characterized the order as "an exceedingly dangerous precedent [that would] invite unacceptable governmental intrusion into and excessive entanglement with the Church's conducting of its own internal affairs." Drawing the traditional Catholic distinction between homosexual "inclinations" and "behavior", he stated that "we do not believe that homosexual behavior ... should be elevated to a protected category."
We do not believe that religious agencies should be required to employ those engaging in or advocating homosexual behavior. We are willing to consider on a case-by-case basis the employment of individuals who have engaged in or may at some future time engage in homosexual behavior. We approach those who have engaged in or may engage in what the Church considers illicit heterosexual behavior the same way. ...We believe, however, that only a religious agency itself can properly determine the requirements of any particular job within that agency, and whether or not a particular individual meets or is reasonably likely to meet such requirements.
Subsequently, the Salvation Army, the archdiocese, and Agudath Israel, together with the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, brought suit against the City of New York to overturn the executive order on the grounds that the mayor had exceeded his executive authority in issuing it. In September 1984, the New York Supreme Court agreed with the religious entities and struck down that part of the executive order that prohibited discrimination based upon "sexual orientation or affectational preference" on the grounds that the mayor had exceeded his authority. In June 1985, New York's highest court upheld the lower court's decision striking down the executive order.
O'Connor vigorously and actively opposed city and state legislation guaranteeing the civil rights of homosexual persons, including legislation (supported by then-Mayors Ed Koch, David Dinkins, and Rudy Giuliani) prohibiting discrimination based upon sexual orientation in housing, public accommodations and employment.
O'Connor also supported the decision by the Ancient Order of Hibernians to exclude the Irish Lesbian and Gay Organization from marching under its own banner in New York City's St. Patrick's Day parade. The Hibernians argued that their decision as to which organizations may march in the parade, which honors Saint Patrick, a Catholic saint, was protected by the First Amendment and that they could not be compelled to admit a group whose beliefs conflicted with theirs. In 1992, in a decision criticized by the New York Civil Liberties Union, the City of New York ordered the Hibernians to admit the gay organization to march in the parade. The city subsequently denied the Hibernians a permit for the parade until, in 1993, a federal judge in New York held that the city's permit denial was "patently unconstitutional" because the parade was private, not public, and constituted "a pristine form of speech" as to which the parade sponsor had a right to control the content and tone.
In 1987, O'Connor prohibited DignityUSA, an organization of gay Catholics, from holding Masses in parishes in the archdiocese. After eight years of protests by the group, O'Connor started meeting with the group twice a year.
HIV and condom controversy
O'Connor opposed condom distribution as an AIDS-prevention measure, viewing it as being contrary to the Catholic Church's teaching that contraception is immoral and its use a sin. O'Connor rejected the argument that condoms distributed to gay men are not contraceptives. O'Connor's response was that using an "evil act" was not justified by good intentions, and that the church should not be seen as encouraging sinful acts among others (other fertile heterosexual couples who might wrongly interpret his narrow support as license for their own contraception). He also claimed that sexual abstinence is a sure way to prevent infection, claiming condoms were only 50% effective against HIV transmission. HIV activist group ACT UP was appalled by the cardinal's apparent opinion that it was sinful for an HIV-positive person to use a condom to prevent transmission of HIV to his HIV-negative partner, an opinion they believe would translate directly into more deaths. This caused many of the confrontations between the group and the cardinal.
Early on in the AIDS epidemic, O'Connor approved the opening of a specialized AIDS unit to provide medical care for the sick and dying in the former St. Clare's Hospital in Manhattan, the first of its kind in the state. He often nurtured and ministered to dying AIDS patients, many of whom were homosexual. Even though he condemned homosexual acts, he would not allow his moral differences to interfere with ministering to patients. Some members of ACT UP protested in front of St. Patrick's Cathedral, holding placards such as "Cardinal O'Connor Loves Gay People ... If They Are Dying of AIDS."
In 1987, Ronald Reagan appointed O'Connor to the President's Commission on the HIV Epidemic, also known as the Watkins Commission. O'Connor served with 12 other members, few of whom were AIDS experts, including James D. Watkins, Richard DeVos, and Penny Pullen. The commission was initially controversial among HIV researchers and activists as lacking expertise on the disease and as being in disarray. The Watkins Commission surprised many of its critics, however, by issuing a final report in 1988 that lent conservative support for antibias laws to protect HIV-positive people, on-demand treatment for drug addicts, and the speeding of AIDS-related research. The New York Times praised the commission's "remarkable strides" and its proposed $2 billion campaign against AIDS among drug addicts. The Watkins Commission's recommendations were similar to the recommendations subsequently made by a committee of HIV experts appointed by the National Academy of Sciences.
On December 10, 1989, 4,500 members of ACT UP (AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power) and Women's Health Action and Mobilization (WHAM) held a demonstration at St. Patrick's Cathedral to voice their opposition to the cardinal's positions on AIDS education, the distribution of condoms in public schools, and abortion. The protest resulted in 43 arrests inside the cathedral. At the time, it was the largest demonstration against the Catholic Church in history, and remained so until Pope Benedict XVI's visit in 2010 to the United Kingdom spurred protests by approximately 20,000 people.
Clergy sex abuse
O'Connor was involved at several points with the career of Theodore McCarrick, a prominent figure in the American hierarchy who was long the subject of rumors he had sexually abused seminarians; McCarrick resigned from the College of Cardinals in 2018 and was laicized in 2019. O'Connor grew more skeptical of McCarrick over the years.
In April 1986, O'Connor strongly endorsed making McCarrick Archbishop of Newark. In 1992 and 1993 he received several anonymous letters accusing McCarrick of sexually abusing seminarians, and he shared them with McCarrick. In 1994, on behalf of the Apostolic Nuncio to the U.S., who was concerned about a potential scandal, he arranged for an investigation into rumors McCarrick, then Archbishop of Newark, had engaged in inappropriate sexual behavior with seminarians and he concluded that there were "no impediments" to including Newark on a planned papal visit to the U.S.
In October 1996, though two psychiatrists found a priest's charge of sexual abuse by McCarrick credible, O'Connor remained skeptical. That same month, however, he intervened to prevent a priest "too closely identified" with McCarrick from becoming an auxiliary bishop citing "a rather unsettled climate of opinion about certain issues" in Newark.
In October 1999, when McCarrick was under consideration for transfer to a more important see than Newark, O'Connor wrote a letter to the Apostolic Nuncio to the U.S. and the Congregation for Bishops—a letter that Pope John Paul read—that summarized the charges against McCarrick, especially his repeatedly arranging for seminarians and other men to share his bed. O'Connor concluded: "I regret that I would have to recommend very strongly against such promotion." McCarrick learned about this letter from contacts in the Curia and in August 2000, several months after O'Connor's death, wrote a rebuttal that convinced Pope John Paul to appoint him archbishop of Washington.
Illness and death
When O'Connor reached the retirement age for bishops of 75 years in January 1995, he submitted his resignation to Pope John Paul II as required by canon law, but the Pope did not accept it. He was diagnosed in 1999 as having a brain tumor, from which he eventually died. He continued to serve as Archbishop of New York until his death.
O'Connor died in the archbishop's residence on May 3, 2000, and was interred in the crypt beneath the main altar of St. Patrick's Cathedral. Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Clinton, Vice President Al Gore, Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, former President George H. W. Bush, Texas Governor George W. Bush, New York Governor George Pataki, New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani, former New York City Mayors Ed Koch, and David Dinkins were among the dignitaries who attended his funeral, which was presided over by the Cardinal Secretary of State Angelo Sodano. At O'Connor's request, the homily was delivered by Cardinal Bernard F. Law and the eulogy was delivered by Cardinal William W. Baum.
Legacy
O'Connor was posthumously awarded the Jackie Robinson Empire State Medal of Freedom by New York Governor George Pataki on December 21, 2000. On March 7, 2000, O'Connor was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal by unanimous support in the United States Senate and only one vote against - Rep. Ron Paul - the resolution in the United States House of Representatives.
The John Cardinal O'Connor Pavilion in Riverdale, Bronx, a residence for retired priests, opened in 2003. The John Cardinal O'Connor School in Irvington, New York, for students with learning differences, opened in 2009. The largest student-run pro-life conference in the United States is also named in his honor. It is held annually at Georgetown University the day after the annual March for Life.
References
Citations
Cited works
Further reading
External links
1920 births
2000 deaths
Clergy from Philadelphia
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
Villanova University alumni
St. Charles Borromeo Seminary alumni
Korean War chaplains
United States Navy chaplains
Walsh School of Foreign Service alumni
United States Navy rear admirals (upper half)
Chiefs of Chaplains of the United States Navy
People from Scranton, Pennsylvania
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
20th-century American cardinals
American people of Jewish descent
American anti-abortion activists
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Founders of Catholic religious communities
Knights of Malta
Cardinals created by Pope John Paul II
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Deaths from brain tumor
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
Catholics from Pennsylvania
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackanory
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Jackanory
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Jackanory is a BBC children's television series which was originally broadcast between 1965 and 1996. It was designed to stimulate an interest in reading. The show was first transmitted on 13 December 1965, and the first story was the fairy-tale "Cap-o'-Rushes" read by Lee Montague. Jackanory continued to be broadcast until 1996, with around 3,500 episodes in its 30-year run. The final story, The House at Pooh Corner by A. A. Milne, was read by Alan Bennett and broadcast on 24 March 1996. The show was briefly revived on 27 November 2006 for two one-off stories, and the format was revived as Jackanory Junior on CBeebies between 2007 and 2009.
The show's format, which varied little over the decades, involved an actor reading from children's novels or folk tales, usually while seated in an armchair. From time to time the scene being read would be illustrated by a specially commissioned still drawing, often by Quentin Blake. In 1983, Illustrator Malou Bonicos was commissioned to provide Illustrations for one Jackanory story. Usually a single book would occupy five daily fifteen-minute episodes, from Monday to Friday.
A spin-off series was Jackanory Playhouse (1972–85), which was a series of thirty-minute dramatisations. These included a dramatisation by Philip Glassborow of the comical A. A. Milne story "The Princess Who Couldn't Laugh".
Title
The show's title comes from an old English nursery rhyme:
I'll tell you a story
About Jack a Nory,
And now my story's begun;
I'll tell you another
Of Jack and his brother,
And now my story is done.
The rhyme was first recorded in the publication The Top Book of All, for little Masters and Misses, which appeared about 1760.
Revival
In November 2006 Jackanory briefly returned with comedian John Sessions as the revived programme's first narrator reading the Lord of the Rings parody Muddle Earth, written by Paul Stewart (and illustrator Chris Riddell). The second narrator was Sir Ben Kingsley, reading The Magician of Samarkand by Alan Temperley. They were broadcast in three 15-minute slots on CBBC and BBC One and later repeated in their entirety on BBC One on consecutive Sundays. The readings of Muddle Earth were heavily accompanied by animation and featured John Sessions speaking the lines of all the animated characters (and occasionally reading those of Joe whenever he was not on-screen), leading to criticism that the spirit of the original programme, a single voice telling a tale with minimal distractions, had been lost. (The original series had occasionally included dramatised material, in e.g. 1984's Starstormers by Nicholas Fisk, and increasingly so towards the end of its run in the mid-1990s.) The Magician of Samarkand was a similar production, albeit without the actors speaking additional lines; Ben Kingsley read both the story and the lines of all the characters. Both of these stories were produced and directed by Nick Willing.
Both stories were released on DVD in their entirety with added bonus features (galleries with images from the stories and a behind-the-scenes film for Muddle Earth).
Jackanory Junior
A version of Jackanory for younger children—called Jackanory Junior—was shown on CBeebies between 2007 and 2009. The CBeebies Bedtime Stories strand continues the tradition of well-known actors and personalities reading stories directly to camera.
Stories
See List of Jackanory episodes for the stories broadcast from 13 December 1965 to 9 March 1984.
Subsequent stories included:
The Lightkeepers (1983), read by Andrew Burt
The Dangerous Journey (1983), read by Andrew Burt
The Wheel on the School, written by Meindert DeJong, read by Peter Settelen
Arabel's Tree House, written by Joan Aiken, read by Bernard Cribbins
The Hundred and One Dalmatians, written by Dodie Smith, read by Sarah Greene
Matilda, written by Roald Dahl, read by Victoria Wood
List of readers
Joss Ackland (5 programmes reading Danny, the Champion of the World)
Tom Baker
Floella Benjamin
Alan Bennett
George Benson
Ed Bishop
James Bolam
Helena Bonham Carter (5 programmes reading Philippa Pearce's The Way to Sattin Shore stories)
Richard Briers
Kathy Burke
Andrew Burt
Earl Cameron
Brian Cant
Matthew Corbett
Bernard Cribbins (114 programmes)
Peter Davison
Angus Deayton
Judi Dench
Denholm Elliott
Rupert Everett
Penelope Keith
Harry Fowler
Edward Fox
Jan Francis
Clement Freud
Ann George
John Grant (55 programmes reading his Littlenose stories)
Joyce Grenfell
Sheila Hancock
Susanne Hart
Lenny Henry
John Hurt
Wendy Hiller
Michael Hordern
Jeremy Irons
Roy Kinnear
Martin Jarvis
Stratford Johns
James Robertson Justice
Arthur Lowe
Joanna Lumley
Art Malik
Alfred Marks
Alex Marshall (1969–1974)
Trevor Martin
Rik Mayall (Reading George's Marvellous Medicine)
Sylvester McCoy
Geraldine McEwan
Paul McGann
Ian McKellen
George Melly
Paul Merton
Spike Milligan
Hayley Mills
Lee Montague
Patrick Moore
Liam Neeson
Michael Palin
Jon Pertwee
Alison Prince
Ted Ray
Miranda Richardson
Bob Roberts
Tony Robinson
Gordon Rollings
Patsy Rowlands
Willie Rushton
Alan Rickman
Rosalind Knight
Margaret Rutherford
Prunella Scales
Elaine Smith
Maggie Smith
Patrick Stewart
John Stride
Elaine Stritch
Mollie Sugden
H. E. Todd
Patrick Troughton
Ann Way
Mary Webster
Billie Whitelaw
Kenneth Williams (69 programmes)
Victoria Wood (reading the Ten in a Bed story and Matilda by Roald Dahl)
Wendy Wood (Auntie Gwen)
Prince Charles (reading his own book; The Old Man of Lochnagar).
Ben Kingsley (The Magician of Samarkand)
John Sessions
Cultural influence
Philip Glenister, in character as Gene Hunt, made an appearance on Jackanory as the guest reader in the Ashes to Ashes series 2 finale, set in 1982, which Alex Drake (Keeley Hawes) imagines being transmitted to her television set.
"Jackanory, jackanory" said by someone in the sing-song tones of the theme tune indicates that they think that someone else is making up or "stretching" a story, i.e. lying.
In 2013 the UK TV Network Dave launched Crackanory as an adult version Jackanory. Each Crackanory episode features two 15-minute tales narrated by contemporary comedians and actors, containing a mix of live action and animation as per the original.
References
External links
British Film Institute Screen Online analysis and listings (incomplete)
The Mausoleum Club full listings 1965–69 and 1970–74
Stop Messin' About: The Kenneth Williams Website via archive.org
New Chapter Opening for Jackanory: BBC News report
Jackanory at bbc.co.uk
The new Jackanory at CBBC
1965 British television series debuts
1996 British television series endings
1960s British children's television series
1970s British children's television series
1980s British children's television series
1990s British children's television series
1960s British anthology television series
1970s British anthology television series
1980s British anthology television series
1990s British anthology television series
British children's fantasy television series
BBC children's television shows
Television series by BBC Studios
Lost BBC episodes
English-language television shows
2000s British children's television series
Storytelling television shows
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korematsu%20v.%20United%20States
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Korematsu v. United States
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Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944), was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States to uphold the exclusion of Japanese Americans from the West Coast Military Area during World War II. The decision has been widely criticized, with some scholars describing it as "an odious and discredited artifact of popular bigotry" and as "a stain on American jurisprudence". Chief Justice John Roberts explicitly repudiated the Korematsu decision in his majority opinion in the 2018 case of Trump v. Hawaii. The case is often cited as one of the worst Supreme Court decisions of all time.
In the aftermath of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing the War Department to create military areas from which any or all Americans might be excluded. Subsequently, the Western Defense Command, a United States Army military command charged with coordinating the defense of the West Coast of the United States, ordered "all persons of Japanese ancestry, including aliens and non-aliens" to relocate to internment camps. However, a 23-year-old Japanese-American man, Fred Korematsu, refused to leave the exclusion zone and instead challenged the order on the grounds that it violated the Fifth Amendment.
In a majority opinion joined by five other justices, Associate Justice Hugo Black held that the need to protect against espionage by Japan outweighed the rights of Americans of Japanese descent. Black wrote that: "Korematsu was not excluded from the Military Area because of hostility to him or his race", but rather "because the properly constituted military authorities ... decided that the military urgency of the situation demanded that all citizens of Japanese ancestry be segregated from the West Coast" during the war against Japan. Dissenting justices Frank Murphy, Robert H. Jackson, and Owen J. Roberts all criticized the exclusion as racially discriminatory; Murphy wrote that the exclusion of Japanese "falls into the ugly abyss of racism" and resembled "the abhorrent and despicable treatment of minority groups by the dictatorial tyrannies which this nation is now pledged to destroy."
The Korematsu opinion was the first instance in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard of review to racial discrimination by the government; it is one of only a handful of cases in which the Court held that the government met that standard. Korematsu's conviction was voided by a California district court in 1983 on the grounds that Solicitor General Charles H. Fahy had suppressed a report from the Office of Naval Intelligence that held that there was no evidence that Japanese Americans were acting as spies for Japan. The Japanese-Americans who were interned were later granted reparations through the Civil Liberties Act of 1988.
Background
In the wake of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the report of the First Roberts Commission, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing the War Department to create military areas from which any or all Americans might be excluded, and to provide for the necessary transport, lodging, and feeding of persons displaced from such areas. On March 2, 1942, the U.S. Army Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, commander of the Western Defense Command, issued Public Proclamation No. 1, demarcating western military areas and the exclusion zones therein, and directing any "Japanese, German, or Italian aliens" and any person of Japanese descent to inform the U.S. Postal Service of any changes of residence. Further military areas and zones were demarcated in Public Proclamation No. 2.
In the meantime, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson mailed to Senator Robert Rice Reynolds and U.S. House Speaker Sam Rayburn draft legislation authorizing the enforcement of Executive Order 9066. By March 21, Congress had enacted the proposed legislation, which Roosevelt signed into law. On March 24, 1942, Western Defense Command began issuing Civilian Exclusion orders, commanding that "all persons of Japanese ancestry, including aliens and non-aliens" report to designated assembly points. With the issuance of Civilian Restrictive Order No. 1 on May 19, 1942, Japanese Americans were forced to move into relocation camps.
Meanwhile, Fred Korematsu was a 23-year-old Japanese-American man who decided to stay at his residence in San Leandro, California, instead of obeying the order to relocate. However, he knowingly violated Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34 of the U.S. Army, even undergoing plastic surgery in an attempt to conceal his identity. Korematsu argued that Executive Order 9066 was unconstitutional and that it violated the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Fifth Amendment was selected over the Fourteenth Amendment due to the lack of federal protections in the Fourteenth Amendment. He was arrested and convicted. No question was raised as to Korematsu's loyalty to the United States. The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit eventually affirmed his conviction, and the Supreme Court granted certiorari.
Decision
Black's majority opinion
The decision of the case, written by Justice Hugo Black, found the case largely indistinguishable from the previous year's Hirabayashi v. United States decision, and rested largely on the same principle: deference to Congress and the military authorities, particularly in light of the uncertainty following Pearl Harbor. Justice Black further denied that the case had anything to do with racial prejudice: Korematsu was not excluded from the Military Area because of hostility to him or his race. He was excluded because we are at war with the Japanese Empire, because the properly constituted military authorities feared an invasion of our West Coast and felt constrained to take proper security measures, because they decided that the military urgency of the situation demanded that all citizens of Japanese ancestry be segregated from the West Coast temporarily, and, finally, because Congress, reposing its confidence in this time of war in our military leaders—as inevitably it must—determined that they should have the power to do just this.
In his diaries, Justice Felix Frankfurter reported that Justice Black told the justices as reason for deferring to the executive branch: "Somebody must run this war. It is either Roosevelt or us. And we cannot."
While Korematsu is regularly described as upholding the internment of Japanese Americans, the majority opinion expressly declined to reach the issue of internment on the ground that Korematsu's conviction did not present that issue, which it said raised different questions. The Court cross-referenced its decision the same day in Ex Parte Endo, 323 U.S. 283 (1944), in which the Court ruled that a loyal Japanese American must be released from detention.
Frankfurter's concurrence
Justice Frankfurter's concurrence reads in its entirety:
According to my reading of Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34, it was an offense for Korematsu to be found in Military Area No. 1, the territory wherein he was previously living, except within the bounds of the established Assembly Center of that area. Even though the various orders issued by General DeWitt be deemed a comprehensive code of instructions, their tenor is clear, and not contradictory. They put upon Korematsu the obligation to leave Military Area No. 1, but only by the method prescribed in the instructions, i.e., by reporting to the Assembly Center. I am unable to see how the legal considerations that led to the decision in Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, fail to sustain the military order which made the conduct now in controversy a crime. And so I join in the opinion of the Court, but should like to add a few words of my own.
The provisions of the Constitution which confer on the Congress and the President powers to enable this country to wage war are as much part of the Constitution as provisions looking to a nation at peace. And we have had recent occasion to quote approvingly the statement of former Chief Justice Hughes that the war power of the Government is "the power to wage war successfully". Hirabayashi v. United States, supra, at 93, and see Home Bldg. & L. Assn. v. Blaisdell, 290 U.S. 398, 426. Therefore, the validity of action under the war power must be judged wholly in the context of war. That action is not to be stigmatized as lawless because like action in times of peace would be lawless. To talk about a military order that expresses an allowable judgment of war needs by those entrusted with the duty of conducting war as "an [p. 225] unconstitutional order" is to suffuse a part of the Constitution with an atmosphere of unconstitutionality. The respective spheres of action of military authorities and of judges are, of course, very different. But, within their sphere, military authorities are no more outside the bounds of obedience to the Constitution than are judges within theirs. "The war power of the United States, like its other powers... is subject to applicable constitutional limitations", Hamilton v. Kentucky Distilleries Co., 251 U.S. 146, 156. To recognize that military orders are "reasonably expedient military precautions" in time of war, and yet to deny them constitutional legitimacy, makes of the Constitution an instrument for dialectic subtleties not reasonably to be attributed to the hard-headed Framers, of whom a majority had had actual participation in war. If a military order such as that under review does not transcend the means appropriate for conducting war, such action by the military is as constitutional as would be any authorized action by the Interstate Commerce Commission within the limits of the constitutional power to regulate commerce. And, being an exercise of the war power explicitly granted by the Constitution for safeguarding the national life by prosecuting war effectively, I find nothing in the Constitution which denies to Congress the power to enforce such a valid military order by making its violation an offense triable in the civil courts. Compare Interstate Commerce Commission v. Brimson, 154 U.S. 447; 155 U.S. 3, and Monongahela Bridge Co. v. United States, 216 U.S. 177. To find that the Constitution does not forbid the military measures now complained of does not carry with it approval of that which Congress and the Executive did. That is their business, not ours.
Murphy's dissent
Justice Frank Murphy issued a vehement dissent, saying that the exclusion of Japanese "falls into the ugly abyss of racism", and resembles "the abhorrent and despicable treatment of minority groups by the dictatorial tyrannies which this nation is now pledged to destroy." Murphy argued that collective punishment for Japanese Americans was an unconstitutional response to any disloyalty that might have been found in a minority of their cohort. He also compared the treatment of Japanese Americans with the treatment of Americans of German and Italian ancestry, as evidence that race, and not emergency alone, led to the exclusion order which Korematsu was convicted of violating: I dissent, therefore, from this legalization of racism. Racial discrimination in any form and in any degree has no justifiable part whatever in our democratic way of life. It is unattractive in any setting, but it is utterly revolting among a free people who have embraced the principles set forth in the Constitution of the United States. All residents of this nation are kin in some way by blood or culture to a foreign land. Yet they are primarily and necessarily a part of the new and distinct civilization of the United States. They must, accordingly, be treated at all times as the heirs of the American experiment, and as entitled to all the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution.
Justice Murphy's two uses of the term "racism" in this opinion, along with two additional uses in his concurrence in Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railway Co., decided the same day, are among the first appearances of the word "racism" in a United States Supreme Court opinion. The first appearance was in Justice Murphy's concurrence in . The term was also used in other cases, such as and . It then disappeared from the court's lexicon for 18 years—it reappeared in . It did not appear in , even though that case did talk about racial discrimination and interracial marriages.
Justice Murphy's dissent is considered the strongest of the three dissenting opinions and, since the 1980s, has been cited as part of modern jurisprudence's categorical rejection of the majority opinion.
Roberts's dissent
Justice Roberts's dissent also acknowledges the racism inherent in the case although he does not use the word. He recognized that the defendant was being punished based solely upon his ancestry: This is not a case of keeping people off the streets at night, as was Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, [p. 226] nor a case of temporary exclusion of a citizen from an area for his own safety or that of the community, nor a case of offering him an opportunity to go temporarily out of an area where his presence might cause danger to himself or to his fellows. On the contrary, it is the case of convicting a citizen as a punishment for not submitting to imprisonment in a concentration camp, based on his ancestry, and solely because of his ancestry, without evidence or inquiry concerning his loyalty and good disposition towards the United States. If this be a correct statement of the facts disclosed by this record, and facts of which we take judicial notice, I need hardly labor the conclusion that Constitutional rights have been violated.
Jackson's dissent
By contrast, Justice Robert Jackson's dissent argued that "defense measures will not, and often should not, be held within the limits that bind civil authority in peace", and that it would perhaps be unreasonable to hold the military, who issued the exclusion order, to the same standards of constitutionality that apply to the rest of the government. "In the very nature of things", he wrote, "military decisions are not susceptible of intelligent judicial appraisal." He acknowledged the Court's powerlessness in that regard, writing that "courts can never have any real alternative to accepting the mere declaration of the authority that issued the order that it was reasonably necessary from a military viewpoint."
He nonetheless dissented, writing that, even if the courts should not be put in the position of second-guessing or interfering with the orders of military commanders, that does not mean that they should have to ratify or enforce those orders if they are unconstitutional. Jackson writes, "I do not think [the civil courts] may be asked to execute a military expedient that has no place in law under the Constitution. I would reverse the judgment and discharge the prisoner." Indeed, he warns that the precedent of Korematsu might last well beyond the war and the internment: A military order, however unconstitutional, is not apt to last longer than the military emergency. Even during that period, a succeeding commander may revoke it all. But once a judicial opinion rationalizes such an order to show that it conforms to the Constitution, or rather rationalizes the Constitution to show that the Constitution sanctions such an order, the Court for all time has validated the principle of racial discrimination in criminal procedure and of transplanting American citizens. The principle then lies about like a loaded weapon, ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claim of an urgent need. Every repetition imbeds that principle more deeply in our law and thinking and expands it to new purposes.
Jackson further warned: Of course the existence of a military power resting on force, so vagrant, so centralized, so necessarily heedless of the individual, is an inherent threat to liberty. But I would not lead people to rely on this Court for a review that seems to me wholly delusive. The military reasonableness of these orders can only be determined by military superiors. If the people ever let command of the war power fall into irresponsible and unscrupulous hands, the courts wield no power equal to its restraint. The chief restraint upon those who command the physical forces of the country, in the future as in the past, must be their responsibility to the political judgments of their contemporaries and to the moral judgments of history.
Jackson acknowledged the racial issues at hand, writing: Korematsu was born on our soil, of parents born in Japan. The Constitution makes him a citizen of the United States by nativity and a citizen of California by residence. No claim is made that he is not loyal to this country. There is no suggestion that apart from the matter involved here he is not law abiding and well disposed. Korematsu, however, has been convicted of an act not commonly a crime. It consists merely of being present in the state whereof he is a citizen, near the place where he was born, and where all his life he has lived. [...] [H]is crime would result, not from anything he did, said, or thought, different than they, but only in that he was born of different racial stock. Now, if any fundamental assumption underlies our system, it is that guilt is personal and not inheritable. Even if all of one's antecedents had been convicted of treason, the Constitution forbids its penalties to be visited upon him. But here is an attempt to make an otherwise innocent act a crime merely because this prisoner is the son of parents as to whom he had no choice, and belongs to a race from which there is no way to resign. If Congress in peace-time legislation should enact such a criminal law, I should suppose this Court would refuse to enforce it.
Subsequent history
Congressional Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians
In 1980, Congress established a commission to evaluate the events leading up to the issuance of Executive Order 9066 and accompanying military directives and their impact on citizens and resident aliens, charging the commission with recommending remedies. Discussing the Korematsu decision in their 1982 report entitled Personal Justice Denied, this Congressional Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CCWRIC) concluded that "each part of the decision, questions of both factual review and legal principles, has been discredited or abandoned," and that, "Today the decision in Korematsu lies overruled in the court of history."
Conviction overturned
Korematsu challenged his conviction in 1983 by filing before the United States District Court for the Northern District of California a writ of coram nobis, which asserted that the original conviction was so flawed as to represent a grave injustice that should be reversed. As evidence, he submitted the conclusions of the CCWRIC report as well as newly-discovered internal Justice Department communications demonstrating that evidence contradicting the military necessity for the Executive Order 9066 had been knowingly withheld from the Supreme Court. Specifically, he said Solicitor General Charles H. Fahy had kept from the Court a wartime finding by the Office of Naval Intelligence, the Ringle Report, that concluded very few Japanese represented a risk and that almost all of those who did were already in custody when the Executive Order was enacted. While not admitting error, the government submitted a counter-motion asking the court to vacate the conviction without a finding of fact on its merits. Judge Marilyn Hall Patel denied the government's petition, and concluded that the Supreme Court had indeed been given a selective record, representing a compelling circumstance sufficient to overturn the original conviction. She granted the writ, thereby voiding Korematsu's conviction, while pointing out that since this decision was based on prosecutorial misconduct and not an error of law, any legal precedent established by the case remained in force.
2011 DOJ admission of error
On May 20, 2011, Acting Solicitor General Neal Katyal released an unusual statement denouncing one of his predecessors, Solicitor General Charles H. Fahy. He faulted Fahy for having "suppressed critical evidence" in the Hirabayashi and Korematsu cases before the Supreme Court during World War II, specifically the Ringle Report's conclusion that there was no indication Japanese Americans were acting as spies or sending signals to enemy submarines. The rulings in the 1980s that overturned the convictions of Korematsu and Hirabayashi concluded that failure to disclose the Ringle Report, along with an initial report by General De Witt that demonstrated racist motivations behind the military orders, represented a fatal flaw in the prosecution of their cases before the Supreme Court. Katyal noted that Justice Department attorneys had actually alerted Fahy that failing to disclose the Ringle Report's existence in the briefs or argument in the Supreme Court "might approximate the suppression of evidence". Thus, Katyal concluded that Fahy "did not inform the Court that a key set of allegations used to justify the internment" had been doubted, if not fully discredited, within the government's own agencies.
Katyal therefore announced his office's filing of a formal "admission of error". He reaffirmed the extraordinary duty of the Solicitor General to address the Court with "absolute candor," due to the "special credence" the Court explicitly grants to his court submissions.
21st century reactions
Eleven lawyers who had represented Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi, and Minoru Yasui in successful efforts in lower federal courts to nullify their convictions for violating military curfew and exclusion orders sent a letter dated January 13, 2014, to Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr. In light of the appeal proceedings before the U.S. Supreme Court in Hedges v. Obama, the lawyers asked Verrilli to ask the Supreme Court to overrule its decisions in Korematsu, Hirabayashi (1943) and Yasui (1943). If the Solicitor General shouldn't do this, they asked that the United States government to "make clear" that the federal government "does not consider the internment decisions as valid precedent for governmental or military detention of individuals or groups without due process of law [...]."
On February 3, 2014, Justice Antonin Scalia, during a discussion with law students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa William S. Richardson School of Law, said that "the Supreme Court's Korematsu decision upholding the internment of Japanese Americans was wrong, but it could happen again in war time." In October 2015 at Santa Clara University, Scalia told law students that Justice Jackson's dissenting opinion in Korematsu was the past court opinion he admired most, adding "It was nice to know that at least somebody on the court realized that that was wrong."
Donald Trump's Presidential election led Kansas Secretary of State Kris Kobach to advocate for Trump to implement immigration controls like the National Security Entry-Exit Registration System. One Trump supporter, Carl Higbie, said that Jimmy Carter's 1980 restriction on Iranian immigration, as well as the Korematsu decision, gives legal precedent for a registry of immigrants. Critics of Higbie argued that Korematsu should not be referenced as precedent. Constitutional lawyer Bruce Fein argued that the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 granting reparations to the Japanese Americans who were interned amounts to Korematsu having been overturned by history—outside of a potential formal Supreme Court overrule. Another critic of Higbie described Korematsu as a "stain on American jurisprudence".
According to Harvard University's Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law Noah Feldman, "a decision can be wrong at the very moment it was decided—and therefore should not be followed subsequently." Justice Anthony Kennedy applied this approach in Lawrence v. Texas to overturn Bowers v. Hardwick and thereby strike down anti-sodomy laws in 14 states. The implication is that decisions which are wrong when decided should not be followed even before the Court reverses itself, and Korematsu has probably the greatest claim to being wrong when decided of any case which still stood. Legal scholar Richard Primus applied the term "Anti-Canon" to cases which are "universally assailed as wrong, immoral, and unconstitutional" and have become exemplars of faulty legal reasoning. Plessy v. Ferguson is one such example, and Korematsu has joined this group—as Feldman then put it, "Korematsu's uniquely bad legal status means it's not precedent even though it hasn't been overturned."
Rejection in Trump v. Hawaii
Chief Justice Roberts, in writing the majority opinion of the Supreme Court in Trump v. Hawaii, stated that Korematsu v. United States was wrongly decided, essentially disavowing the decision and indicating that a majority of the court no longer finds Korematsu persuasive. Quoting Justice Robert H. Jackson's dissent from Korematsu, the Chief Justice stated:
Roberts also added: "The forcible relocation of U.S. citizens to concentration camps, solely and explicitly on the basis of race, is objectively unlawful and outside the scope of Presidential authority."
See also
Anticanon
Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians
Ex parte Endo
Hirabayashi v. United States
Fred Korematsu Day
Fred T. Korematsu Institute for Civil Rights and Education
Japanese American redress and court cases
Mochizuki v. United States
Trail of tears
Yasui v. United States
References
Further reading
External links
Of Civil Wrongs and Rights, official site (2001 P.O.V. documentary on the 1983 coram nobis case)
A documentary on Korematsu v. United States
"Supreme Court Landmark Case Korematsu v. United States" from C-SPAN's Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions
"Civil Liberties in Times of Crisis: Japanese American Internment and America Today" with Karen Korematsu and Kermit Roosevelt, from the National Constitution Center.
Japanese Relocation (1943 FILM- viewable for free at not-for profit- The Internet Archive)
1944 in United States case law
20th-century American trials
Internment of Japanese Americans
United States equal protection case law
American Civil Liberties Union litigation
History of San Leandro, California
1944 in California
United States Supreme Court cases of the Stone Court
Overruled United States Supreme Court decisions
United States racial discrimination case law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence%20Cooke
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Terence Cooke
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Terence James Cooke (March 1, 1921 – October 6, 1983) was an American cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of New York from 1968 until his death, quietly battling leukemia throughout his tenure. He was named a cardinal in 1969. Cooke previously served as an auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of New York from 1965 to 1967.
Nine years after his death, Cooke was designated a Servant of God, the first step in the process that may lead to beatification and then canonization as a saint.
Early life and education
The youngest of three children, Terence Cooke was born in New York City to Michael and Margaret (née Gannon) Cooke. His parents were both from County Galway, Ireland, and named their son after Terence MacSwiney, the Lord Mayor of Cork who died on a hunger strike during the Irish War of Independence. Michael Cooke worked as a chauffeur and construction worker. At age five, Terence and his family moved from Morningside Heights, Manhattan, to the northeast Bronx. Following his mother's death in 1930, his aunt Mary Gannon helped raise him and his siblings.
After expressing an early interest in the priesthood, in 1934 Cooke entered Manhattan's Cathedral College, the minor seminary of the Archdiocese of New York. In 1940, he entered St. Joseph's Seminary in Yonkers, New York.
Ministry
Cooke was ordained a priest by Archbishop Francis Spellman on December 1, 1945. Cooke then served as chaplain for St. Agatha's Home for Children in Nanuet, New York, until 1947, when he moved to Washington, D.C., to pursue graduate studies at The Catholic University of America. He obtained a Master of Social Work degree in 1949.
When he returned to New York, Cooke was assigned to serve as a curate at St. Athanasius Parish in the Bronx, while also teaching at Fordham University's School of Social Service and working with the Catholic Youth Organization. In 1954 he was appointed executive director of the Youth Division of Catholic Charities and procurator of St. Joseph's Seminary. In 1957 he was appointed by Cardinal Spellman to be his secretary, a position he held until 1965. Cooke was named a monsignor on August 13, 1957, and vice-chancellor for the archdiocese in 1958, rising to full chancellor in 1961.
Auxiliary Bishop of New York
On September 15, 1965, Pope Paul VI appointed Cooke as an auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of New York and titular bishop of Summa. He received his episcopal consecration on December 13 1965 from Cardinal Spellman at St. Patrick's Cathedral, with Archbishops Joseph McGucken and John Maguire serving as co-consecrators. Cooke selected as his episcopal motto: Fiat Voluntas Tua, meaning, "Thy Will Be Done" from Luke 1:38.
Cooke played a prominent role in arranging Pope Paul's visit to New York in October 1965, and became Vicar General of the Archdiocese two days after his consecration, on December 15, 1965. He was diagnosed with acute myelomonocytic leukemia, a form of cancer, that year as well.
Archbishop of New York
Following Spellman's death in December 1967, Pope Paul named Cooke as the seventh Archbishop of New York on March 2, 1968.
Pope Paul's selection of Cooke came as a surprise; likely contenders for the post included Fulton J. Sheen, a television personality and Bishop of Rochester; and Archbishop Maguire, who had been Spellman's coadjutor but did not hold the right to succession. In addition to his duties in New York, Cooke was named Vicar Apostolic for the U.S. Military on April 4 1968 and was installed in both positions at St. Patrick's Cathedral.
That same day as Cooke's installation, the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, leading to a nationwide wave of riots in more than 100 cities. Cooke went to Harlem that evening to plead for racial peace and later attended King's funeral. After the assassination of Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy on June 6, 1968, Cooke led the funeral at St. Patrick's Cathedral; months later, he baptized Kennedy's youngest child, Rory Kennedy.
On January 20, 1969, Cooke delivered the benediction at the inauguration of President Richard Nixon.
Cooke helped implement the reforms of the Second Vatican Council in the archdiocese, and adopted a more collegial management style than his predecessor Spellman. Pope Paul VI appointed him as Cardinal-Priest of Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Rome (the traditional titular church of the New York archbishops starting in 1946) in the consistory of April 28, 1969. At the time of his elevation, Cooke was the second-youngest member of the College of Cardinals after Cardinal Alfred Bengsch, who was six months younger. Cooke was theologically conservative but progressive in secular matters.
During his tenure as archbishop, Cooke founded the Birthright organization, which provides counseling and other support for pregnant women; the Inner-City Scholarship Fund, which provides financial aid for Catholic-school students; an Archdiocesan Housing Development Program, providing housing to New York's disadvantaged; Catholic New York, the archdiocesan newspaper; and nine nursing homes. In 1974, Cooke went to the Pontifical North American College in Rome, where he attended lectures on the Second Vatican Council given by his future successor, Father Edward Egan.
Cooke was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the conclaves of August and October 1978, which selected Popes John Paul I and John Paul II, respectively. In 1979, Cooke separately hosted the Dalai Lama and Pope John Paul II at St. Patrick's Cathedral.
Illness and death
Cooke's leukemia, first diagnosed in 1965, was deemed terminal in 1975, and he was on almost constant chemotherapy for the last five years of his life. In late August 1983, he announced his illness to the public, saying that he was expected to live for a few more months but would not resign his post. In an open letter completed only days before his death, he wrote, "The gift of life, God's special gift, is no less beautiful when it is accompanied by illness or weakness, hunger or poverty, mental or physical handicaps, loneliness or old age."
On October 6, 1983, Cooke died from leukemia at age 62 at his episcopal residence in Manhattan, New York City. He is interred in the crypt under the altar of St. Patrick's Cathedral.
Views
Relations with the Soviet Union: An anti-Communist, he opposed the majority of his fellow bishops when he spoke out against nuclear disarmament in 1982. He once stated that deterrence was not satisfactory or safe, but could be considered morally "tolerable". During a 1968 Central Park anti-war rally by Coretta Scott King he organized a small counter demonstration in support of the Vietnam War.
Abortion: He was an outspoken opponent of abortion, which he called the "slaughter of the innocent unborn", and once served as chairman of the USCCB's Pro-Life Committee.
Homosexuality: He initiated the formation of Courage International, a ministry that promotes chastity for gay and lesbian Catholics.
Church movements: Cooke supported the Cursillo Movement, Christian Family Movement, and Charismatic Renewal, and was instrumental in bringing the Missionaries of Charity to New York.
Irish Republican Army: Cooke, opposed to the militant policies of the Provisional Irish Republican Army, remained inside St. Patrick's Cathedral during the 1983 St. Patrick's Day Parade, until the grand marshal, Michael Flannery, had passed by. Flannery was an outspoken supporter of the IRA.
Grace Kelly: Cooke once described Grace Kelly as "a lesson in Catholic motherhood".
Cause for canonization
Soon after Cooke died in 1983, a movement emerged to canonize him as a saint. In 1984, with the support of Cooke's successor, Archbishop (and future cardinal) John Joseph O'Connor, the Cardinal Cooke Guild was established. In 1992, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints officially designated Cooke as a Servant of God, the first step in the process that leads to beatification and then canonization as a saint. On April 14, 2010, the Guild and senior American clergy presented Pope Benedict XVI with the positio, the documentation of the cardinal's life, work, and virtues. The document was then filed with the Congregation for Causes, to be examined by theologians. If the document is approved, Cooke will receive the title of Venerable, the second step leading to sainthood.
Father Benedict Groeschel was the postulator for the cause while it was in its initial stages in New York. After the process was accepted by the Holy See, Andrea Ambrosi served as postulator until his retirement in 2021. He was replaced by Dr. Angelica Ambrosi. As of January 22, 2022, the canonization process is still ongoing.
Other recognitions
On April 5, 1984, President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Cooke the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1988, he posthumously received the F. Sadlier Dinger Award from the publisher William H. Sadlier, Inc., for his contributions to religious education.
During his years as archbishop, Cooke received honorary degrees from at least four Catholic colleges: College of New Rochelle (1968), College of Mount Saint Vincent (1968), Boston College (1969), and Marymount Manhattan College (1978). He also received the James Cardinal Gibbons Medal (1979) from his alma mater, Catholic University of America.
At least seven buildings in the Archdiocese of New York have been named in his honor:
Terence Cardinal Cooke Catholic Center (archdiocesan headquarters, in Manhattan)
Terence Cardinal Cooke–Cathedral Library (now part of New York Public Library, Manhattan)
Terence Cardinal Cooke Health Care Center (Manhattan)
Cooke School and Institute (special needs, Manhattan)
Cardinal Cooke Residence (special needs, Bronx)
Cardinal Cooke Residence (emergency home for mothers, Spring Valley)
Cardinal Cooke Center (parish hall, Staten Island)
See also
Catholic Church in the United States
Hierarchy of the Catholic Church
Historical list of the Catholic bishops of the United States
List of American saints and beatified people
List of Catholic bishops in the United States
List of Servants of God
Lists of popes, patriarchs, primates, archbishops, and bishops
Military chaplain
Religious symbolism in the United States military
United States military chaplains
References
External links
Terence Cardinal Cooke – Cause for Canonization, official website
Cardinal Cooke Guild, official website
Archdiocese of New York, official website
Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA, official website
Archdiocese for the Military Services of the United States, GCatholic.org
1921 births
1983 deaths
Clergy from New York City
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
Saint Joseph's Seminary (Dunwoodie) alumni
Catholic University of America alumni
Roman Catholic archbishops for the United States Military Services
Roman Catholic archbishops of New York
20th-century American cardinals
Cardinals created by Pope Paul VI
Participants in the Second Vatican Council
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Burials at St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
American Servants of God
20th-century venerated Christians
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
People from Morningside Heights, Manhattan
American anti-communists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Gold%20Star%20Mothers
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American Gold Star Mothers
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American Gold Star Mothers, Inc. (AGSM), is a private nonprofit organization of American mothers who lost sons or daughters in service of the United States Armed Forces. It was originally formed in 1928 for mothers of those lost in World War I, and it holds a congressional charter under Title 36 § 211 of the United States Code. Its name came from the custom of families of servicemen hanging a banner called a service flag in the windows of their homes. The service flag had a star for each family member in the Armed Forces. Living servicemen were represented by a blue star, and those who had lost their lives in combat were represented by a gold star.
Membership in the organization is open to any woman who is a U.S. citizen or legal resident that has lost a son or daughter in active service in the U.S. military (regardless of the place or time of the military service, regardless of whether the circumstances of death involved hostile conflict or not, and including mothers of those missing in action).
Founding
The Gold Star Mothers was founded by Grace Darling Seibold of Washington, D.C.
When the United States entered World War I in 1917, George Vaughn Seibold, 23, volunteered, requesting assignment in aviation. He was sent to Canada where he learned to fly British planes since the United States had neither an air force nor planes. Deployed to England, he was assigned to the British Royal Flying Corps with 148th Aero Squadron. With his squadron, he left for combat duty in France. He corresponded with his family regularly. His mother, Grace Darling Seibold, began to do community service by visiting returning servicemen in the hospitals. When mail from George stopped Grace assumed the worst and wrote the Army for assistance finding her son. Since all aviators were under British control and authority, the United States could not help the Seibold family with any information about their son.
Grace continued to visit hospitalized veterans in the Washington area, clinging to the hope that her son might have been injured and returned to the United States without any identification. While working through her sorrow, she helped ease the pain of the many servicemen who returned so war-damaged that they were incapable of ever reaching normalcy.
But on October 11, 1918, George's wife in Chicago received a box marked "Effects of deceased Officer 1st Lt. George Vaughn Seibold". The Seibolds also received a confirmation of George's death on November 4 through a family member in Paris. George's body was never identified.
Grace, convinced that self-contained grief is self-destructive, devoted her time and efforts not only to working in the hospital but also to supporting other mothers whose sons had lost their lives in military service. She organized a group consisting solely of these mothers, with the purpose of not only comforting each other, but giving loving care to hospitalized veterans confined in government hospitals far from home. The organization was named after the Gold Star that families hung in their windows in honor of the deceased veteran. After years of planning, twenty-five mothers met in Washington, D.C., on June 4, 1928, to establish the national organization, American Gold Star Mothers, Inc.
Origin of Gold Star Symbol
On May 28, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson approved a suggestion made by the Council of National Defense that, instead of wearing conventional mourning for relatives who have died in the service of their country, American women should wear a black band on the left arm with a gilt star on the band for each member of the family who has given his life for the nation.
"The Service Flag displayed from homes, places of business, churches, schools, etc., to indicate the number of members of the family or organizations who are serving in the Armed Forces or who have died from such service. Service flags have a deep Blue Star for each living member in the service and a Gold Star for each member who has died." Thus, the Gold Star and the term Gold Star Mother, as applied to mothers whose sons or daughters died in World War I, were accepted; they have continued to be used in reference to all American military engagements since that time.
History of membership criteria
Membership in American Gold Star Mothers was originally restricted to those who lost sons or daughters in World War I, and was later expanded to include mothers of those lost in World War II, then the Korean War, and then other specific conflicts. Today, the membership criteria do not consider the place or time of the military service and do not consider whether the circumstances of the death involved hostile conflict or not, and also allow membership for mothers of those missing in action.
For the first 77 years of its existence, AGSM restricted its membership criteria to admit only U.S. citizens. As a way to create pressure to change the rule, an application for admission was submitted in 2005 that deliberately highlighted the applicant's lack of citizenship. The application, from Ligaya Lagman, a Filipino permanent resident of the United States living in Yonkers, New York, who had been living in the U.S. more than 20 years and whose son, Marine Staff Sgt. Anthony Lagman, was killed in action in Afghanistan in 2004 at the age of 26, was rejected in May 2005. In the next month after that incident, which received a "firestorm" of publicity that included negative commentary by New York U.S. Representative Eliot Engel and New York U.S. Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton, the group agreed on June 27, 2005, to change its membership criteria, and it accepted its first two non-citizens as members a few months later in early September 2005.
Current membership and charter
The AGSM is a private 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that sets its own rules for who is allowed to become a member. The current charter, held under Title 36 § 211 of the United States Code, was established on June 12, 1984.
Today, membership in American Gold Star Mothers is open to any woman who was a U.S. citizen or legal resident of the U.S. or its Territories or Insular Possessions at the time their child (or adopted child) was inducted into military service and whose child (or adopted child) has died or has become missing in action while in the United States Armed Forces (or died later as the result of such service). Membership is not contingent on whether the child was killed in action or on the theater of operation or the time period of the service (which differs from distinctions made by the Department of Defense, which confers special status to service in particular periods of time and particular hostile operations). Non-adoptive stepmothers are also eligible for membership if they assumed responsibility for the child before the age of fifteen and raised them. Husbands and children of Gold Star Mothers are eligible to join as Associate Members. Honorary membership is available to mothers who were not citizens or legal residents at the time their child was inducted. Associate Members and Honorary Members cannot vote or hold official positions (and are not required to pay dues).
AGSM is made up of local chapters, which are organized into departments. Five members are required to start a local chapter. If no local chapter is available, a woman may join the organization as a member at large.
Just as when it was founded, AGSM continues to concentrate on providing emotional support to its members, doing volunteer work with veterans in general and veterans' hospitals in particular, and generally fostering a sense of patriotism and respect for members of the Armed Forces.
Uniform
The uniform consists of a white skirt, white shirt, and a white blazer, with a gold star embroidered on either lapel, and gold piping on the sleeve cuffs, and collars, and white shoes, either Mary Janes or pumps, with a white cap, similar to a women's service hat, with gold piping. This uniform is worn at all parades, meetings, and social functions connected with military functions (e.g., Memorial Day services at Arlington National Cemetery)
Notable memberships
Aside from the founder, perhaps the mother most known for being a Gold Star mother was Aletta Sullivan, the mother of the five Sullivan brothers, who were killed in action when their ship, the was sunk by an enemy torpedo on November 13, 1942, during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. On September 21, 1948, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative stamp, specially designed by artist Charles R. Chickering, honoring the Gold Star Mothers. Aletta Sullivan was given the first sheet of stamps issued.
Gold Star Mother's Day
On the last Sunday in September, Gold Star Mother's Day is observed in the U.S. in honor of Gold Star mothers, as established in Title 36 § 111 of the United States Code. This was originally declared by Senate Joint Resolution 115 of June 23, 1936. In September 2012, Barack Obama issued a presidential proclamation commemorating September 30, 2012, as "Gold Star Mother's and Family's Day". On September 23, 2017, President Donald Trump proclaimed Gold Star Mother's and Family's Day.
American Gold Star Manor
American Gold Star Manor, located in Long Beach, California, is a 348-unit retirement home for parents of soldiers killed while serving in the military. It was founded in the early 1960s by Eleanor Boyd, then president of the American Gold Star Mothers organization.
See also
American War Mothers
Blue Star Mothers of America
Gold Star Lapel Button
Gold Star Wives of America
List of women's organizations
References
Further reading
Budreau, Lisa M. "The politics of remembrance: The Gold Star mothers' pilgrimage and America's fading memory of the Great War." Journal of Military History 72.2 (2008): 371–411.
Fenelon, Holly S. That Knock at the Door: The History of Gold Star Mothers in America (2012).
Graham, John W. The Gold Star Mother pilgrimages of the 1930s: overseas grave visitations by mothers and widows of fallen US World War I soldiers (McFarland, 2005).
Plant, Rebecca Jo. "The gold star mothers pilgrimages: Patriotic maternalists and their critics in interwar America." (2012): 121–147. online
External links
American Gold Star Mothers, Inc. : hearing before the Subcommittee on Administrative Law and Governmental Relations of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, second session, on H.R. 3811, March 21, 1984.
1928 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Aftermath of World War I in the United States
Organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Organizations established in 1928
Patriotic and national organizations chartered by the United States Congress
United States military support organizations
Women and death
Women's organizations based in the United States
World War II non-governmental organizations
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20adjectival%20and%20demonymic%20forms%20of%20place%20names
|
List of adjectival and demonymic forms of place names
|
The following is a partial list of adjectival forms of place names in English and their demonymic equivalents, which denote the people or the inhabitants of these places.
Note: Demonyms are given in plural forms. Singular forms simply remove the final 's' or, in the case of -ese endings, are the same as the plural forms.
The ending -men has feminine equivalent -women (e.g. an Irishman and a Scotswoman). The French terminations -ois / ais serve as both the singular and plural masculine; adding 'e' ( / ) makes them singular feminine; 'es' ( / ) makes them plural feminine. The Spanish termination "-o" usually denotes the masculine and is normally changed to feminine by replacing the "-o" with "-a". The plural forms are usually "-os" and "-as" respectively.
Adjectives ending -ish can be used as collective demonyms (e.g. the English, the Cornish). So can those ending in -ch / -tch (e.g. the French, the Dutch) provided they are pronounced with a 'ch' sound (e.g., the adjective Czech does not qualify).
Where an adjective is a link, the link is to the language or dialect of the same name. (Reference: Ethnologue, Languages of the World)
Many place-name adjectives and many demonyms refer also to various other things, sometimes with and sometimes without one or more additional words. (Sometimes, the use of one or more additional words is optional.) Notable examples are cheeses, cat breeds, dog breeds, and horse breeds. (See List of words derived from toponyms.)
Planets
Continents
Entries in italics are continental regions.
Subcontinental regions
Countries and nations
States, provinces, regions and territories
Australian states and territories
Brazilian states
Canadian provinces and territories
Federated states and other territories of Germany
Indian states and territories
Bangladeshi divisions
Malaysian states and territories
States of Mexico
New Zealand regions
Philippine provinces
U.S. states
Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity
Regions tracing their origins (or otherwise referenced) in Greco-Roman antiquity [in cases where ancient regions are extant, this table is limited to cases where the present-day regional names retain their original/ancient form].
(References: Herodotus' "Histories"; Thucydides' "Peloponnesian War"; Pausanias' "Description of Greece"; Lemprière's Bibliotheca Classica; Leverett's 1838 edition of the "Lexicon of the Latin Language"; Freeman's "The History of Sicily..."; et al.)
Other former nations and regions
Ancient civilizations, former colonies, renamed countries and regions, annexations, secessions, etc. (other than Greco-Roman, which see above).
Fictional regions
Counties
Ireland
United Kingdom
Cities
See also
Demonym
List of adjectival and demonymic forms of place names
List of adjectivals and demonyms for astronomical bodies
List of adjectivals and demonyms for continental regions
List of adjectivals and demonyms for subcontinental regions
List of adjectival and demonymic forms for countries and nations
List of adjectivals and demonyms for Australia
List of adjectivals and demonyms for Canada
List of adjectivals and demonyms for India
List of adjectivals and demonyms for Malaysia
List of adjectivals and demonyms for Mexico
List of adjectivals and demonyms for New Zealand
List of adjectivals and demonyms for the Philippines
List of adjectivals and demonyms for the United States
List of adjectivals and demonyms for cities
List of adjectivals and demonyms for former regions
List of adjectivals and demonyms for Greco-Roman antiquity
List of adjectivals and demonyms for fictional regions
References
External links
Alphabetical list of world demonyms
Demonyms of the World
Adjectival Forms Of Place Names
Adjectival Forms Of Place Names
Placename Etymologies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercell
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Supercell
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A supercell is a thunderstorm characterized by the presence of a mesocyclone: a deep, persistently rotating updraft. For this reason, these storms are sometimes referred to as rotating thunderstorms. Of the four classifications of thunderstorms (supercell, squall line, multi-cell, and single-cell), supercells are the overall least common and have the potential to be the most severe. Supercells are often isolated from other thunderstorms, and can dominate the local weather up to away. They tend to last 2–4 hours.
Supercells are often put into three classification types: classic (Normal precipitation level), low-precipitation (LP), and high-precipitation (HP). LP supercells are usually found in climates that are more arid, such as the high plains of the United States, and HP supercells are most often found in moist climates. Supercells can occur anywhere in the world under the right pre-existing weather conditions, but they are most common in the Great Plains of the United States in an area known as Tornado Alley. A high number of supercells are seen in many parts of Europe as well as in the Tornado Corridor of Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil.
Characteristics
Supercells are usually found isolated from other thunderstorms, although they can sometimes be embedded in a squall line. Typically, supercells are found in the warm sector of a low pressure system propagating generally in a north easterly direction in line with the cold front of the low pressure system. Because they can last for hours, they are known as quasi-steady-state storms. Supercells have the capability to deviate from the mean wind. If they track to the right or left of the mean wind (relative to the vertical wind shear), they are said to be "right-movers" or "left-movers," respectively. Supercells can sometimes develop two separate updrafts with opposing rotations, which splits the storm into two supercells: one left-mover and one right-mover.
Supercells can be any size – large or small, low or high topped. They usually produce copious amounts of hail, torrential rainfall, strong winds, and substantial downbursts. Supercells are one of the few types of clouds that typically spawn tornadoes within the mesocyclone, although only 30% or fewer do so.
Geography
Supercells can occur anywhere in the world under the right weather conditions. The first storm to be identified as the supercell type was the Wokingham storm over England, which was studied by Keith Browning and Frank Ludlam in 1962. Browning did the initial work that was followed up by Lemon and Doswell to develop the modern conceptual model of the supercell. To the extent that records are available, supercells are most frequent in the Great Plains of the central United States and southern Canada extending into the southeastern U.S. and northern Mexico; east-central Argentina and adjacent regions of Uruguay; Bangladesh and parts of eastern India; South Africa; and eastern Australia. Supercells occur occasionally in many other mid-latitude regions, including Eastern China and throughout Europe. The areas with highest frequencies of supercells are similar to those with the most occurrences of tornadoes; see tornado climatology and Tornado Alley.
Supercell anatomy
The current conceptual model of a supercell was described in Severe Thunderstorm Evolution and Mesocyclone Structure as Related to Tornadogenesis by Leslie R. Lemon and Charles A. Doswell III. (See Lemon technique). Moisture streams in from the side of the precipitation-free base and merges into a line of warm uplift region where the tower of the thundercloud is tipped by high-altitude shear winds. The high shear causes horizontal vorticity which is tilted within the updraft to become vertical vorticity, and the mass of clouds spins as it gains altitude up to the cap, which can be up to – above ground for the largest storms, and trailing anvil.
Supercells derive their rotation through tilting of horizontal vorticity (an invisible horizontal vortex) caused by wind shear. Strong updrafts lift the air turning about a horizontal axis and cause this air to turn about a vertical axis. This forms the deep rotating updraft, the mesocyclone.
A cap or capping inversion is usually required to form an updraft of sufficient strength. The moisture-laden air is then cooled enough to precipitate as it is rotated toward the cooler region, represented by the turbulent air of the mammatus clouds where the warm air is spilling over top of the cooler, invading air. The cap is formed where shear winds block further uplift for a time, until a relative weakness allows a breakthrough of the cap (an overshooting top); cooler air to the right in the image may or may not form a shelf cloud, but the precipitation zone will occur where the heat engine of the uplift intermingles with the invading, colder air. The cap puts an inverted (warm-above-cold) layer above a normal (cold-above-warm) boundary layer, and by preventing warm surface air from rising, allows one or both of the following:
Air below the cap warms and/or becomes more moist
Air above the cap cools
As the cooler but drier air circulates into the warm, moisture laden inflow, the cloud base will frequently form a wall, and the cloud base often experiences a lowering, which, in extreme cases, are where tornadoes are formed. This creates a warmer, moister layer below a cooler layer, which is increasingly unstable (because warm air is less dense and tends to rise). When the cap weakens or moves, explosive development follows.
In North America, supercells usually show up on Doppler radar as starting at a point or hook shape on the southwestern side, fanning out to the northeast. The heaviest precipitation is usually on the southwest side, ending abruptly short of the rain-free updraft base or main updraft (not visible to radar). The rear flank downdraft, or RFD, carries precipitation counterclockwise around the north and northwest side of the updraft base, producing a "hook echo" that indicates the presence of a mesocyclone.
Structure
Overshooting top
This "dome" feature appears above the strongest updraft location on the anvil of the storm. It is a result of an updraft powerful enough to break through the upper levels of the troposphere into the lower stratosphere. An observer at ground level and close to the storm may be unable to see the overshooting top because the anvil blocks the sight of this feature. The overshooting is visible from satellite images as a "bubbling" amidst the otherwise smooth upper surface of the anvil cloud.
Anvil
An anvil forms when the storm's updraft collides with the upper levels of the lowest layer of the atmosphere, or the tropopause, and has nowhere else to go due to the laws of fluid dynamics- specifically pressure, humidity, and density. The anvil is very cold and virtually precipitation-free even though virga can be seen falling from the forward sheared anvil. Since there is so little moisture in the anvil, winds can move freely. The clouds take on their anvil shape when the rising air reaches or more. The anvil's distinguishing feature is that it juts out in front of the storm like a shelf. In some cases, it can even shear backwards, called a backsheared anvil, another sign of a very strong updraft.
Precipitation-free base
This area, typically on the southern side of the storm in North America, is relatively precipitation-free. This is located beneath the main updraft, and is the main area of inflow. While no precipitation may be visible to an observer, large hail may be falling from this area. A region of this area is called the Vault. It is more accurately called the main updraft area.
Wall cloud
The wall cloud forms near the downdraft/updraft interface. This "interface" is the area between the precipitation area and the precipitation-free base. Wall clouds form when rain-cooled air from the downdraft is pulled into the updraft. This wet, cold air quickly saturates as it is lifted by the updraft, forming a cloud that seems to "descend" from the precipitation-free base. Wall clouds are common and are not exclusive to supercells; only a small percentage actually produce a tornado, but if a storm does produce a tornado, it usually exhibits wall clouds that persist for more than ten minutes. Wall clouds that seem to move violently up or down, and violent movements of cloud fragments (scud or fractus) near the wall cloud, are indications that a tornado could form.
Mammatus clouds
Mammatus (Mamma, Mammatocumulus) are bulbous or pillow-like cloud formations extending from beneath the anvil of a thunderstorm. These clouds form as cold air in the anvil region of a storm sinks into warmer air beneath it. Mammatus are most apparent when they are lit from one side or below and are therefore at their most impressive near sunset or shortly after sunrise when the sun is low in the sky. Mammatus are not exclusive to supercells and can be associated with developed thunderstorms and cumulonimbus.
Forward Flank Downdraft (FFD)
This is generally the area of heaviest and most widespread precipitation. For most supercells, the precipitation core is bounded on its leading edge by a shelf cloud that results from rain-cooled air within the precipitation core spreading outward and interacting with warmer, moist air from outside of the cell. Between the precipitation-free base and the FFD, a "vaulted" or "cathedral" feature can be observed. In high precipitation supercells an area of heavy precipitation may occur beneath the main updraft area where the vault would alternately be observed with classic supercells.
Rear Flank Downdraft (RFD)
The Rear Flank Downdraft of a supercell is a very complex and not yet fully understood feature. RFDs mainly occur within classic and HP supercells although RFDs have been observed within LP supercells. The RFD of a supercell is believed to play a large part in tornadogenesis by tightening existing rotation within the surface mesocyclone. RFDs are caused by mid-level steering winds of a supercell colliding with the updraft tower and moving around it in all directions; specifically, the flow that is redirected downward is referred to as the RFD. This downward surge of relatively cool mid-level air, due to interactions between dew points, humidity, and condensation of the converging of air masses, can reach very high speeds and is known to cause widespread wind damage. The radar signature of an RFD is a hook-like structure where sinking air has brought with it precipitation.
Flanking line
A flanking line is a line of smaller cumulonimbi or cumulus that form in the warm rising air pulled in by the main updraft. Due to convergence and lifting along this line, landspouts sometimes occur on the outflow boundary of this region.
Radar features of a supercell
Hook echo or Pendant
The "hook echo" is the area of confluence between the main updraft and the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This indicates the position of the mesocyclone and probably a tornado.
Bounded weak echo region (or BWER)
This is a region of low radar reflectivity bounded above by an area of higher radar reflectivity with an untilted updraft, also called a vault. It is not observed with all supercells but it is at the edge of a very high precipitation echos with a very sharp gradient perpendicular to the RFD. This is evidence of a strong updraft and often the presence of a tornado. To an observer on the ground, it could be experienced as a zone free of precipitation but usually containing large hail.
Inflow notch
A "notch" of weak reflectivity on the inflow side of the cell. This is not a V-Notch.
V Notch
A "V" shaped notch on the leading edge of the cell, opening away from the main downdraft. This is an indication of divergent flow around a powerful updraft.
Hail spike
This three body scatter spike is a region of weak echoes found radially behind the main reflectivity core at higher elevations when large hail is present.
Supercell variations
Supercell thunderstorms are sometimes classified by meteorologists and storm spotters into three categories; however, not all supercells, being hybrid storms, fit neatly into any one category, and many supercells may fall into different categories during different periods of their lifetimes. The standard definition given above is referred to as the Classic supercell. All types of supercells typically produce severe weather.
Low Precipitation (LP)
LP supercells contain a small and relatively light precipitation (rain/hail) core that is well separated from the updraft. The updraft is intense, and LPs are inflow dominant storms. The updraft tower is typically more strongly tilted and the deviant rightward motion less than for other supercell types. The forward flank downdraft (FFD) is noticeably weaker than for other supercell types, and the rear-flank downdraft (RFD) is much weaker—even visually absent in many cases. Like classic supercells, LP supercells tend to form within stronger mid-to-upper level storm-relative wind shear; however, the atmospheric environment leading to their formation is not well understood. The moisture profile of the atmosphere, particularly the depth of the elevated dry layer, also appears to be important, and the low-to-mid level shear may also be important.
This type of supercell may be easily identifiable with "sculpted" cloud striations in the updraft base or even a "corkscrewed" or "barber pole" appearance on the updraft, and sometimes an almost "anorexic" look compared to classic supercells. This is because they often form within drier moisture profiles (often initiated by dry lines) leaving LPs with little available moisture despite high mid-to-upper level environmental winds. They most often dissipate rather than turning into classic or HP supercells, although it is still not unusual for LPs to do the latter, especially when moving into a much moister air mass. LPs were first formally described by Howard Bluestein in the early 1980s although storm-chasing scientists noticed them throughout the 1970s. Classic supercells may wither yet maintain updraft rotation as they decay, becoming more like the LP type in a process known as "downscale transition" that also applies to LP storms, and this process is thought to be how many LPs dissipate.
LP supercells rarely spawn tornadoes, and those that form tend to be weak, small, and high-based tornadoes, but strong tornadoes have been observed. These storms, although generating lesser precipitation amounts and producing smaller precipitation cores, can generate huge hail. LPs may produce hail larger than baseballs in clear air where no rainfall is visible. LPs are thus hazardous to people and animals caught outside as well as to storm chasers and spotters. Due to the lack of a heavy precipitation core, LP supercells often exhibit relatively weak radar reflectivity without clear evidence of a hook echo, when in fact they are producing a tornado at the time. LP supercells may not even be recognized as supercells in reflectivity data unless one is trained or experienced on their radar characteristics. This is where observations by storm spotter and storm chasers may be of vital importance in addition to Doppler velocity (and polarimetric) radar data. High-based shear funnel clouds sometimes form midway between the base and the top of the storm, descending from the main Cb (cumulonimbus) cloud. Lightning discharges may be less frequent compared to other supercell types, but on occasion LPs are prolific sparkers, and the discharges are more likely to occur as intracloud lightning rather than cloud-to-ground lightning.
In North America, these storms most prominently form in the semi-arid Great Plains during the spring and summer months. Moving east and southeast, they often collide with moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico, leading to the formation of HP supercells in areas just to the west of Interstate 35 before dissipating (or coalescing into squall lines) at variable distances farther east. LP supercells have been observed as far east as Illinois and Indiana, however. LP supercells can occur as far north as Montana, North Dakota, and even in the Prairie Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba in Canada. They have also been observed by storm chasers in Australia and Argentina (the Pampas).
LP supercells are quite sought after by storm chasers because the limited amount of precipitation makes sighting tornadoes at a safe distance much less difficult than with a classic or HP supercell and more so because of the unobscured storm structure unveiled. During spring and early summer, areas in which LP supercells are readily spotted include southwestern Oklahoma and northwestern Texas, among other parts of the western Great Plains.
High Precipitation (HP)
The HP supercell has a much heavier precipitation core that can wrap all the way around the mesocyclone. These are especially dangerous storms, since the mesocyclone is wrapped with rain and can hide a tornado (if present) from view. These storms also cause flooding due to heavy rain, damaging downbursts, and weak tornadoes, although they are also known to produce strong to violent tornadoes. They have a lower potential for damaging hail than Classic and LP supercells, although damaging hail is possible. It has been observed by some spotters that they tend to produce more cloud-to-ground and intracloud lightning than the other types. Also, unlike the LP and Classic types, severe events usually occur at the front (southeast) of the storm. The HP supercell is the most common type of supercell in the United States east of Interstate 35, in the southern parts of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in Canada, and in the central portions of Argentina and Uruguay.
Mini-supercell or low-topped supercell
Whereas classic, HP, and LP refer to different precipitation regimes and mesoscale frontal structures, another variation was identified in the early 1990s by Jon Davies. These smaller storms were initially called mini-supercells but are now commonly referred to as low-topped supercells. These are also subdivided into Classic, HP and LP types.
Effects
Supercells can produce hailstones averaging as large as in diameter, winds over , tornadoes of as strong as EF3 to EF5 intensity (if wind shear and atmospheric instability are able to support the development of stronger tornadoes), flooding, frequent-to-continuous lightning, and very heavy rain. Many tornado outbreaks come from clusters of supercells. Large supercells may spawn multiple long-tracked and deadly tornadoes, with notable examples in the 2011 Super Outbreak.
Severe events associated with a supercell almost always occur in the area of the updraft/downdraft interface. In the Northern Hemisphere, this is most often the rear flank (southwest side) of the precipitation area in LP and classic supercells, but sometimes the leading edge (southeast side) of HP supercells.
Examples worldwide
Asia
Some reports suggest that the deluge on 26 July 2005 in Mumbai, India was caused by a supercell when there was a cloud formation high over the city. On this day of rain fell over the city, of which fell in just four hours. The rainfall coincided with a high tide, which exacerbated conditions.
Supercells occur commonly from March to May in Bangladesh, West Bengal, and the bordering northeastern Indian states including Tripura. Supercells that produce very high winds with hail and occasional tornadoes are observed in these regions. They also occur along the Northern Plains of India and Pakistan. On March 23, 2013, a massive tornado ripped through Brahmanbaria district in Bangladesh, killing 20 and injuring 200.
Australia
On New Year's Day 1947 a supercell hit Sydney. The classic type Supercell formed over the Blue Mountains, mid-morning hitting the lower CBD and eastern suburbs by mid-afternoon with the hail similar in size to a cricket ball. At the time, it was the most severe storm to strike the city since recorded observations began in 1792.
On April 14, 1999, a severe storm later classified as a supercell hit the east coast of New South Wales. It is estimated that the storm dropped worth of hailstones during its course. At the time it was the most costly disaster in Australia's insurance history, causing an approximated A$2.3 billion worth of damage, of which A$1.7 billion was covered by insurance.
On February 27, 2007, a supercell hit Canberra, dumping nearly of ice in Civic. The ice was so heavy that a newly built shopping center's roof collapsed, birds were killed in the hail produced from the supercell, and people were stranded. The following day many homes in Canberra were subjected to flash flooding, caused either by the city's infrastructure's inability to cope with storm water or through mud slides from cleared land.
On 6 March 2010, supercell storms hit Melbourne. The storms caused flash flooding in the center of the city and tennis ball-sized () hailstones hit cars and buildings, causing more than $220 million worth of damage and sparking 40,000-plus insurance claims. In just 18 minutes, of rain fell, causing havoc as streets were flooded and trains, planes, and cars were brought to a standstill.
That same month, on March 22, 2010 a supercell hit Perth. This storm was one of the worst in the city's history, causing hail stones of in size and torrential rain. The city had its average March rainfall in just seven minutes during the storm. Hail stones caused severe property damage, from dented cars to smashed windows. The storm itself caused more than 100 million dollars in damage.
On November 27, 2014 a supercell hit the inner city suburbs including the CBD of Brisbane. Hailstones up to softball size cut power to 71,000 properties, injuring 39 people, and causing a damage bill of $1 billion AUD. A wind gust of 141 km/h was recorded at Archerfield Airport
South America
An area in South America known as the Tornado Corridor is considered to be the second most frequent location for severe weather, after Tornado Alley in the United States. The region, which covers portions of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil during the spring and summer, often experiences strong thunderstorms which may include tornadoes. One of the first known South American supercell thunderstorms to include tornadoes occurred on September 16, 1816 and destroyed the town of Rojas ( west of the city of Buenos Aires).
On September 20, 1926, an EF4 tornado struck the city of Encarnación (Paraguay), killing over 300 people and making it the second deadliest tornado in South America. On 21 April 1970, the town of Fray Marcos in the Department of Florida, Uruguay experienced an F4 tornado that killed 11, the strongest in the history of the nation. January 10, 1973 saw the most severe tornado in the history of South America: The San Justo tornado, 105 km north of the city of Santa Fe (Argentina), was rated EF5, making it the strongest tornado ever recorded in the southern hemisphere, with winds exceeding 400 km/h. On April 13, 1993, in less than 24 hours in the province of Buenos Aires was given the largest tornado outbreak in the history of South America. There were more than 300 tornadoes recorded, with intensities between F1 and F3. The most affected towns were Henderson (EF3), Urdampilleta (EF3) and Mar del Plata (EF2). In December 2000, a series of twelve tornadoes (only registered) affected the Greater Buenos Aires and the province of Buenos Aires, causing serious damage. One of them struck the town of Guernica, and, just two weeks later, in January 2001, an EF3 again devastated Guernica, killing 2 people.
The December 26, 2003 Tornado F3 happened in Cordoba, with winds exceeding 300 km/h, which hit Córdoba Capital, just 6 km from the city center, in the area known as CPC Route 20, especially neighborhoods of San Roque and Villa Fabric, killing 5 people and injuring hundreds. The tornado that hit the State of São Paulo in 2004 was one of the most destructive in the state, destroying several industrial buildings, 400 houses, killing one and wounding 11. The tornado was rated EF3, but many claim it was a tornado EF4. In November 2009, four tornadoes, rated F1 and F2 reached the town of Posadas (capital of the province of Misiones, Argentina), generating serious damage in the city. Three of the tornadoes affected the airport area, causing damage in Barrio Belén. On April 4, 2012, the Gran Buenos Aires was hit by the storm Buenos Aires, with intensities F1 and F2, which left nearly 30 dead in various locations.
On February 21, 2014, in Berazategui (province of Buenos Aires), a tornado of intensity F1 caused material damage including a car was, with two occupants inside, which was elevated a few feet off the ground and flipped over asphalt, both the driver and his passenger were slightly injured. The tornado caused no fatalities. The severe weather that occurred on Tuesday 8/11 had features rarely seen in such magnitude in Argentina. In many towns of La Pampa, San Luis, Buenos Aires and Cordoba, intense hail stones fell up to 6 cm in diameter. On Sunday December 8, 2013, severe storms took place in the center and the coast. The most affected province was Córdoba, storms and supercells type "bow echos" also developed in Santa Fe and San Luis.
Europe
During the evening of August 3rd 2008, a supercell formed over northern France. It has spawned an EF4 tornado in the Val de Sambre area, about 90 kilometers east of Lille, which impacted nearby cities like Maubeuge and Hautmont. Later on, this same supercell went on to generate other tornadoes in the Netherlands and Germany.
In 2009, on the night of Monday May 25, a supercell formed over Belgium. It was described by Belgian meteorologist Frank Deboosere as "one of the worst storms in recent years" and caused much damage in Belgium - mainly in the provinces of East Flanders (around Ghent), Flemish Brabant (around Brussels) and Antwerp. The storm occurred between about 1:00am and 4:00am local time. An incredible 30,000 lightning flashes were recorded in 2 hours - including 10,000 cloud-to-ground strikes. Hailstones up to across were observed in some places and wind gusts over ; in Melle near Ghent a gust of was reported. Trees were uprooted and blown onto several motorways. In Lillo (east of Antwerp) a loaded goods train was blown from the rail tracks.
On August 18, 2011, the rock festival Pukkelpop in Kiewit, Hasselt (Belgium) may have been seized by a supercell with mesocyclone around 18:15. Tornado-like winds were reported, trees of over diameter were felled and tents came down. Severe hail scourged the campus. Five people reportedly died and over 140 people were injured. One more died a week later. The event was suspended. Buses and trains were mobilised to bring people home.
On June 28, 2012, three supercells affected England. Two of them formed over the Midlands, producing hailstones reported to be larger than golfballs, with conglomerate stones up to 10 cm across. Burbage in Leicestershire saw some of the most severe hail. Another supercell produced a tornado near Sleaford, in Lincolnshire.
A third supercell affected the North East region of England. The storm struck the Tyneside area directly and without warning during evening rush hour causing widespread damage and travel chaos, with people abandoning cars and being trapped due to lack of public transport. Flooded shopping malls were evacuated, Newcastle station was shut, as was the Tyne & Wear Metro, and main road routes were flooded leading to massive tailbacks. 999 land line services were knocked out in some areas and the damage ran to huge amounts only visible the next day after water cleared. Many parts of County Durham and Northumberland were also affected, with thousands of homes across the North East left without power due to lightning strikes. Lightning was seen to hit the Tyne Bridge (Newcastle).
Throughout June 2014, an outbreak of severe supercells occurred in western Europe, producing a lot of damaging hail especially in France. In the Paris area, some hailstones reached 8 cm of diameter but the biggest was found in the Loiret department with an exceptional diameter of 12 cm.
On 25 July 2019 a supercell thunderstorm affected northern England and parts of Northumberland. Large hail, frequent lightning and rotation were reported by many people. On 24 September 2020 a similar event affected parts of West Yorkshire.
On the morning of June 19th 2021, a MCS developed over the French Atlantic coast. While progressing to the north, the system gained supercellular aspects and spawned a EF2 tornado 60 kilometers west of Tours. It reached Paris and its surroundings in the late afternoon, causing flash floods in the area due to heavy rainfalls. The system continued its path towards the Belgian frontier, reaching peak intensity: in the way, one of the peripheral supercells evolved into HP status just before entering the city of Reims. The main mesocyclone suddenly expanded and turned into a massive shelf cloud, a typical structure of the Tornado Alley. It produced strong gust winds, rainfalls and hail and inflicted a lot of damage over the nearby areas.
In Europe, the mini-supercell, or low-topped supercell, is very common, especially when showers and thunderstorms develop in cooler polar air masses with a strong jet stream above, especially in the left exit-region of a jetstreak.
North America
The Tornado Alley is a region of the central United States where severe weather is common, particularly tornadoes. Supercell thunderstorms can affect this region at any time of the year, but they are most common in the spring. Tornado watches and warnings are frequently necessary in the spring and summer. Most places from the Great Plains to the East Coast of the United States and north as far as the Canadian Prairies, the Great Lakes region, and the St. Lawrence River will experience one or more supercells each year.
Gainesville, Georgia was the site of the fifth deadliest tornado in U.S. history in 1936, where Gainesville was devastated and 203 people were killed.
The 1980 Grand Island tornado outbreak affected the city of Grand Island, Nebraska on June 3, 1980. Seven tornadoes touched down in or near the city that night, killing 5 and injuring 200.
The Elie, Manitoba tornado was an F5 that struck the town of Elie, Manitoba on June 22, 2007. While several houses were leveled, no one was injured or killed by the tornado.
A massive tornado outbreak on May 3, 1999 spawned an F5 tornado in the area of Oklahoma City that had the highest recorded winds on Earth. This outbreak spawned over 66 tornadoes in Oklahoma alone. On this day throughout the area of Oklahoma, Kansas and Texas, over 141 tornadoes were produced. This outbreak resulted in 50 fatalities and 895 injuries.
A series of tornadoes, which occurred in May 2013, caused severe devastation to Oklahoma City in general. The first tornado outbreaks occurred on May 18 to May 21 when a series of tornadoes hit. From one of the storms developed a tornado which was later rated EF5, which traveled across parts of the Oklahoma City area, causing a severe amount of disruption. This tornado was first spotted in Newcastle. It touched the ground for 39 minutes, crossing through a heavily populated section of Moore. Winds with this tornado peaked at . Twenty-three fatalities and 377 injuries were caused by the tornado. Sixty-one other tornadoes were confirmed during the storm period. Later on in the same month, on the night of May 31, 2013, another eight deaths were confirmed from what became the widest tornado on record which hit El Reno, Oklahoma, one of a series of tornadoes and funnel clouds which hit nearby areas.
South Africa
South Africa witnesses several supercell thunderstorms each year with the inclusion of isolated tornadoes. On most occasions these tornadoes occur in open farmlands and rarely cause damage to property, as such many of the tornadoes which do occur in South Africa are not reported. The majority of supercells develop in the central, northern, and north eastern parts of the country. The Free State, Gauteng, and Kwazulu Natal are typically the provinces where these storms are most commonly experienced, though supercell activity is not limited to these provinces. On occasion, hail reaches sizes in excess of golf balls, and tornadoes, though rare, also occur.
On 6 May 2009, a well-defined hook echo was noticed on local South African radars, along with satellite imagery this supported the presence of a strong supercell storm. Reports from the area indicated heavy rains, winds and large hail.
On October 2, 2011, two devastating tornadoes tore through two separate parts of South Africa on the same day, hours apart from each other. The first, classified as an EF2 hit Meqheleng, the informal settlement outside Ficksburg, Free State which devastated shacks and homes, uprooted trees, and killed one small child. The second, which hit the informal settlement of Duduza, Nigel in the Gauteng province, also classified as EF2 hit hours apart from the one that struck Ficksburg. This tornado completely devastated parts of the informal settlement and killed two children, destroying shacks and RDP homes.
Gallery
See also
Convective storm detection
Pseudo-cold front
Pseudo-warm front
References
External links
Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms
Lemon, Leslie R., (1998) On the Mesocyclone "Dry Intrusion" and Tornadogenesis
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
Storm
Mesoscale meteorology
Severe weather and convection
Tornadogenesis
Articles containing video clips
de:Gewitter#Superzellengewitter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesocyclone
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Mesocyclone
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A mesocyclone is a meso-gamma mesoscale (or storm scale) region of rotation (vortex), typically around in diameter, most often noticed on radar within thunderstorms. In the northern hemisphere it is usually located in the right rear flank (back edge with respect to direction of movement) of a supercell, or often on the eastern, or leading, flank of a high-precipitation variety of supercell. The area overlaid by a mesocyclone’s circulation may be several miles (kn) wide, but substantially larger than any tornado that may develop within it, and it is within mesocyclones where intense tornadoes form.
Description
Mesocyclones are medium-scale vortices of rising and converging air that circulate around a vertical axis. They are most often associated with a local region of low-pressure. Their rotation is (usually) in the same direction as low pressure systems in a given hemisphere: counter-clockwise in the northern, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere, with the only occasional exceptions being the smallest-scale mesocyclones. Mesoanticyclones that rotate in an opposite direction may accompany mesocyclones within a supercell but these tend to be weaker and often more transient than mesocyclones, which can be sustained for tens of minutes or hours, and also cyclically form in succession within a supercell.
A mesocyclone is usually a phenomenon that is difficult to observe directly. Visual evidence of rotation – such as curved inflow bands – may suggest the presence of a mesocyclone, but the cylinder of circulating air is often too large to be recognized when viewed from the ground, or may not carry clouds distinct enough from the surrounding calmer air to make the circulating air flow obvious.
Mesocyclones are best detected on Doppler weather radar as a rotation signature which meets specific criteria for magnitude, vertical depth, and duration. On U.S. NEXRAD radar displays, they are typically highlighted by a yellow solid circle on the Doppler velocity display; other weather services may have other conventions.
Within thunderstorms
They are of greatest concern when contained within severe thunderstorms, since mesocyclones often occur together with updrafts in supercells, within which tornadoes may form near the interchange with a downdraft.
Mesocyclones are localized, approximately to in diameter within strong thunderstorms. Thunderstorms containing persistent mesocyclones are supercell thunderstorms (although some supercells and even tornadic storms do not produce lightning or thunder and thus are not technically thunderstorms). Doppler weather radar is used to identify mesocyclones. A mesovortex is a similar but typically smaller and weaker rotational feature associated with squall lines.
Formation
Mesocyclones form when strong changes of wind speed and/or direction with height ("wind shear") sets parts of the lower part of the atmosphere spinning in invisible tube-like rolls. The convective updraft of a storm then draws up this spinning air, tilting the rolls' orientation upward (from parallel to the ground to perpendicular) and causing the entire updraft to rotate as a vertical column.
As the updraft rotates and ingests cooler moister air from the forward flank downdraft (FFD), it may form a wall cloud, a spinning layer of clouds lowered from ambient storm cloud base under the mid-level mesocyclone. The wall cloud tends to form closer to the center of the mesocyclone. As it descends, a funnel cloud may form near its center. This is usually the first visible stage of development of a tornado.
The gallery below shows the 3 stages of development of a mesocyclone and a view of the storm relative motion on radar of a mesocyclone-producing tornado over Greensburg, Kansas on 4 May 2007. The storm was in the process of producing an EF5 tornado at the time of the image.
Identification
The most reliable way to detect a mesocyclone is by Doppler weather radar. Nearby high values of opposite sign within velocity data are how they are detected. Mesocyclones are most often located in the right-rear flank of supercell thunderstorms and when embedded within squall lines (whereas mesovortices most often form in the front flank of squall lines), and may be distinguished by a hook echo rotation signature on a weather radar map. Visual cues such as a rotating wall cloud or tornado may also hint at the presence of a mesocyclone. This is why the term has entered into wider usage in connection with rotating features in severe storms.
Tornado formation
Tornado formation is not completely understood, but often occurs in one of two ways.
In the first method, two conditions must be satisfied:
First, a horizontal spinning effect must form on the Earth's surface. This usually originates in sudden changes in wind direction or speed, known as wind shear.
Second, a thundercloud, or occasionally a cumulus cloud, must be present.
During a thunderstorm, updrafts are occasionally powerful enough to lift the horizontal spinning row of air upwards, turning it into a vertical air column. This vertical air column then becomes the basic structure for the tornado. Tornadoes that form in this way are often weak and generally last less than 10 minutes.
The second method occurs during a supercell thunderstorm, in updrafts within the storm. When winds intensify, the force released can cause the updrafts to rotate. This rotating updraft is known as a mesocyclone.
For a tornado to form in this manner, a rear-flank downdraft enters the center of the mesocyclone from the back. Cold air, being denser than warm air, is able to penetrate the updraft. The combination of the updraft and downdraft completes the development of a tornado. Tornadoes that form in this method are often violent and can last over an hour.
Mesoscale convective vortex
A mesoscale convective vortex (MCV), also known as a mesoscale vorticity center or Neddy eddy, is a mesocyclone within a mesoscale convective system (MCS) that pulls winds into a circling pattern, or vortex, at the mid levels of the troposphere and is normally associated with anticyclonic outflow aloft, with a region of aeronautically troublesome wind shear between the upper and lower air. With a core only wide and deep, an MCV is often overlooked in standard weather maps. MCVs can persist for up to two days after its parent mesoscale convective system has dissipated.
The orphaned MCV can become the seed of the next thunderstorm outbreak. An MCV that moves into tropical waters, such as the Gulf of Mexico, can serve as the nucleus for a tropical cyclone. MCVs can produce very large wind storms; sometimes winds can reach over . The May 2009 Southern Midwest Derecho was an extreme progressive derecho and mesoscale convective vortex event that struck southeastern Kansas, southern Missouri, and southwestern Illinois on 8 May 2009.
References
External links
Severe weather and convection
Types of cyclone
Tornadogenesis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commandaria
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Commandaria
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Commandaria (also called Commanderia and Coumadarka; , and Cypriot Greek κουμανταρκά) is an amber-coloured sweet dessert wine made in the Commandaria region of Cyprus on the foothills of the Troödos mountains. Commandaria is made from sun-dried grapes of the varieties Xynisteri and Mavro. While often a fortified wine, through its production method it often reaches high alcohol levels, around 15%, already before fortification. It represents an ancient wine style documented in Cyprus back to 800 BC and has the distinction of being the world's oldest named wine still in production, with the name Commandaria dating back to the crusades in the 12th century.
History
The wine has a long history, said to date back to the time of the ancient Greeks, where it was a popular drink at festivals. A dried grape wine from Cyprus was first known to be described in 800 BC by the Greek poet Hesiod and was known, by much later, as the Cypriot Manna.
During the crusades, Commandaria was served at the 12th-century wedding of King Richard the Lionheart to Berengaria of Navarre, in the town of Limassol; it was during the wedding that King Richard pronounced Commandaria "the wine of kings and the king of wines". Near the end of the century he sold the island to the Knights Templar, who then sold it to Guy de Lusignan, but kept a large feudal estate at Kolossi, close to Limassol, to themselves. This estate was referred to as "La Grande Commanderie". The word Commanderie referred to the military headquarters whilst Grande helped distinguish it from two smaller such command posts on the island, one close to Paphos (Phoenix) and another near Kyrenia (Templos).
This area under the control of the Knights Templar (and subsequently the Knights Hospitaller) became known as Commandaria. When the knights began producing large quantities of the wine for export to Europe's royal courts and for supplying pilgrims en route to the holy lands, the wine assumed the name of the region. Thus it has the distinction of being the world's oldest named wine still in production.
Although today it is produced and marketed under the name Commandaria, it has been referred to with several similar names and spellings in the past. In 1863, Thomas George Shaw in his book Wine, the vine, and the cellar refers to this wine as Commanderi whilst in 1879, Samuel Baker refers to it as Commanderia. In 1833 Cyrus Redding in his book "A history and description of modern wines" makes reference to the wine of the "Commandery".
Legend has it that in the 13th century Philip Augustus of France held the first ever wine tasting competition. The event, branded The Battle of the Wines (fr. La Bataille des Vins), was recorded in a notable French poem written by Henry d'Andeli in 1224. The competition which included wines from all over Europe and France, was won by a sweet wine from Cyprus widely believed to be Commandaria. The Commandery region itself fell into the control of his descendant Philip IV in 1307, after the suppression of the Knights Templar.
Another legend has it that the Ottoman sultan Selim II invaded the island just to acquire Commandaria; also that the grapes used to make this wine were the same grapes exported to Portugal that eventually became famous as the source of port wine.
Production
Commandaria is made exclusively from two types of indigenous Cyprus grapes: Xynisteri and Mavro. The grapes are left to overripe on the vine and when sugar content reaches acceptable levels (corresponding to high must weight) they are harvested. More specifically, Xynisteri is picked when at around 12 degrees Baumé (°Bé) and Mavro at 15-16 °Bé. The grapes are then laid out in the sun to further increase the sugar density through evaporation. When the must weight reaches 19 to 23 °Bé the juice is extracted thorough crushing and pressing. Fermentation takes place in reservoirs and will arrest naturally due to the high levels of alcohol achieved at around 15%. The above process has to take place within the confines of 14 designated villages that lie in the Commandaria Region (see below). Commandaria, by law is aged for at least two years in Oak Barrels but this can take place outside the above designated area within Cyprus under strict control and under the conditions laid down in Cypriot legislation.
Once fermentation has been completed, at a minimum alcohol level of 10% (which is often exceeded), the alcoholic strength of Commandaria may be increased by the addition of pure 95% grape alcohol or a wine distillate of at least 70% alcohol to a minimum of 15% of alcohol. However, after this addition, the wine's actual alcohol content may not exceed 20%, while its total potential alcohol (including its sugar content) must be at least 22.5%. Thus, Commandaria may be a fortified wine, but fortification is not mandatory.
The origins of the production method are not definite. In his poem Works and Days, written in the 7th century BC, Hesiod, writes:
Pliny the Elder describes similar methods employed by the Greeks for making a sweet wines,
In his account Samuel Baker describes the production in 1879 He claims that the evolution of this method was more out of necessity than choice..…
Commandaria was produced by the large wine industries (KEO, ETKO, LOEL and SODAP) and by a few small local producers of the Commandaria appellation zone (see below). Nowadays several other modern wineries are producing high quality Commandaria (Oenou Yi, Tsiakas, Kyperounda etc.).
Data recorded by Samuel Baker in his book Cyprus - How I saw it in 1879 reveal that in the late 19th century Cyprus had an annual production of about 300,000 okes, equivalent to about 385,000 litres (data reflects only duty-paid production). Of this, Cyprus exported 180,103 okes from Limassol Port, of which the vast majority went to Austria (155,000 okes valued at UK£2,075).
Official figures released by Cyprus’ Vines Products Commission show that there is a general increasing trend in the volumes produced. Much of Commandaria production is still targeted for export.
Authentication
Currently Commandaria holds a protected designation of origin (PDO) within the European Union, the United States and Canada. By Cypriot legislation passed on March 2, 1990, it is only produced in a collection of 14 neighbouring villages: Agios Georgios, Agios Konstantinos, Agios Mamas, Agios Pavlos, Apsiou, Gerasa, Doros, Zoopigi, Kalo Chorio, Kapilio, Laneia, Louvaras, Monagri and Silikou. The designated area has assumed the name of the Commandaria Region and is located on the south facing slopes of the Troödos Mountains at an altitude of 500-900m within the Limassol District. Only grapes from vineyards that have been planted for at least 4 years are allowed. Vine training must follow the goblet method and watering is prohibited. The grape harvest may only commence after the vine products commission of Cyprus has given the green light, based on the average sugar content of the grapes. Xinisteri grapes must demonstrate a sugar content of 212 g/L whilst Mavro can only qualify with a reading of 258 g/L and above. The sugar concentration is then raised by laying the grapes in the sun, usually for 7–10 days, to a strict window of 390 to 450g/L.
In February 2006, the Wine Products Association of Cyprus selected an official Commandaria wine glass, manufactured by Riedel, an Austrian wine glass company.
See also
Cyprus wine
Straw wine
Mavro grape
Xynisteri grape
References
Cypriot wine
Appellations
Dessert wine
Medieval wine
Byzantine cuisine
Fortified wine
|
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244373
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar%20multiplication
|
Scalar multiplication
|
In mathematics, scalar multiplication is one of the basic operations defining a vector space in linear algebra (or more generally, a module in abstract algebra). In common geometrical contexts, scalar multiplication of a real Euclidean vector by a positive real number multiplies the magnitude of the vector—without changing its direction. The term "scalar" itself derives from this usage: a scalar is that which scales vectors. Scalar multiplication is the multiplication of a vector by a scalar (where the product is a vector), and is to be distinguished from inner product of two vectors (where the product is a scalar).
Definition
In general, if K is a field and V is a vector space over K, then scalar multiplication is a function from K × V to V.
The result of applying this function to k in K and v in V is denoted kv.
Properties
Scalar multiplication obeys the following rules (vector in boldface):
Additivity in the scalar: (c + d)v = cv + dv;
Additivity in the vector: c(v + w) = cv + cw;
Compatibility of product of scalars with scalar multiplication: (cd)v = c(dv);
Multiplying by 1 does not change a vector: 1v = v;
Multiplying by 0 gives the zero vector: 0v = 0;
Multiplying by −1 gives the additive inverse: (−1)v = −v.
Here, + is addition either in the field or in the vector space, as appropriate; and 0 is the additive identity in either.
Juxtaposition indicates either scalar multiplication or the multiplication operation in the field.
Interpretation
Scalar multiplication may be viewed as an external binary operation or as an action of the field on the vector space. A geometric interpretation of scalar multiplication is that it stretches, or contracts, vectors by a constant factor. As a result, it produces a vector in the same or opposite direction of the original vector but of a different length.
As a special case, V may be taken to be K itself and scalar multiplication may then be taken to be simply the multiplication in the field.
When V is Kn, scalar multiplication is equivalent to multiplication of each component with the scalar, and may be defined as such.
The same idea applies if K is a commutative ring and V is a module over K.
K can even be a rig, but then there is no additive inverse.
If K is not commutative, the distinct operations left scalar multiplication cv and right scalar multiplication vc may be defined.
Scalar multiplication of matrices
The left scalar multiplication of a matrix with a scalar gives another matrix of the same size as . It is denoted by , whose entries of are defined by
explicitly:
Similarly, the right scalar multiplication of a matrix with a scalar is defined to be
explicitly:
When the underlying ring is commutative, for example, the real or complex number field, these two multiplications are the same, and are simply called scalar multiplication. However, for matrices over a more general ring that are not commutative, such as the quaternions, they may not be equal.
For a real scalar and matrix:
For quaternion scalars and matrices:
where are the quaternion units. The non-commutativity of quaternion multiplication prevents the transition of changing to .
See also
Dot product
Matrix multiplication
Multiplication of vectors
Product (mathematics)
References
Linear algebra
Abstract algebra
Multiplication
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64
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X86-64
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x86-64 (also known as x64, x86_64, AMD64, and Intel 64) is a 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set, first released in 1999. It introduced two new modes of operation, 64-bit mode and compatibility mode, along with a new 4-level paging mode.
With 64-bit mode and the new paging mode, it supports vastly larger amounts of virtual memory and physical memory than was possible on its 32-bit predecessors, allowing programs to store larger amounts of data in memory. x86-64 also expands general-purpose registers to 64-bit, and expands the number of them from 8 (some of which had limited or fixed functionality, e.g. for stack management) to 16 (fully general), and provides numerous other enhancements. Floating-point arithmetic is supported via mandatory SSE2-like instructions, and x87/MMX style registers are generally not used (but still available even in 64-bit mode); instead, a set of 16 vector registers, 128 bits each, is used. (Each register can store one or two double-precision numbers or one to four single-precision numbers, or various integer formats.) In 64-bit mode, instructions are modified to support 64-bit operands and 64-bit addressing mode.
The compatibility mode defined in the architecture allows 16- and 32-bit user applications to run unmodified, coexisting with 64-bit applications if the 64-bit operating system supports them. As the full x86 16-bit and 32-bit instruction sets remain implemented in hardware without any intervening emulation, these older executables can run with little or no performance penalty,
while newer or modified applications can take advantage of new features of the processor design to achieve performance improvements. Also, a processor supporting x86-64 still powers on in real mode for full backward compatibility with the 8086, as x86 processors supporting protected mode have done since the 80286.
The original specification, created by AMD and released in 2000, has been implemented by AMD, Intel, and VIA. The AMD K8 microarchitecture, in the Opteron and Athlon 64 processors, was the first to implement it. This was the first significant addition to the x86 architecture designed by a company other than Intel. Intel was forced to follow suit and introduced a modified NetBurst family which was software-compatible with AMD's specification. VIA Technologies introduced x86-64 in their VIA Isaiah architecture, with the VIA Nano.
The x86-64 architecture is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture (formerly IA-64). The architectures are not compatible on the native instruction set level, and operating systems and applications compiled for one cannot be run on the other.
AMD64
History
AMD64 (also variously referred to by AMD in their literature and documentation as “AMD 64-bit Technology” and “AMD x86-64 Architecture”) was created as an alternative to the radically different IA-64 architecture designed by Intel and Hewlett-Packard, which was backward-incompatible with IA-32, the 32-bit version of the x86 architecture. Originally announced in 1999 with a full specification available in August 2000, the AMD64 architecture was positioned by AMD from the beginning as an evolutionary way to add 64-bit computing capabilities to the existing x86 architecture while supporting legacy 32-bit x86 code, as opposed to Intel's approach of creating an entirely new 64-bit architecture with IA-64.
The first AMD64-based processor, the Opteron, was released in April 2003.
Implementations
AMD's processors implementing the AMD64 architecture include Opteron, Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon 64 FX, Athlon II (followed by "X2", "X3", or "X4" to indicate the number of cores, and XLT models), Turion 64, Turion 64 X2, Sempron ("Palermo" E6 stepping and all "Manila" models), Phenom (followed by "X3" or "X4" to indicate the number of cores), Phenom II (followed by "X2", "X3", "X4" or "X6" to indicate the number of cores), FX, Fusion/APU and Ryzen/Epyc.
Architectural features
The primary defining characteristic of AMD64 is the availability of 64-bit general-purpose processor registers (for example, ), 64-bit integer arithmetic and logical operations, and 64-bit virtual addresses.
The designers took the opportunity to make other improvements as well.
Notable changes in the 64-bit extensions include:
64-bit integer capability
All general-purpose registers (GPRs) are expanded from 32 bits to 64 bits, and all arithmetic and logical operations, memory-to-register and register-to-memory operations, etc., can operate directly on 64-bit integers. Pushes and pops on the stack default to 8-byte strides, and pointers are 8 bytes wide.
Additional registers
In addition to increasing the size of the general-purpose registers, the number of named general-purpose registers is increased from eight (i.e. , , , , , , , ) in x86 to 16 (i.e. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ). It is therefore possible to keep more local variables in registers rather than on the stack, and to let registers hold frequently accessed constants; arguments for small and fast subroutines may also be passed in registers to a greater extent.
AMD64 still has fewer registers than many RISC instruction sets (e.g. PA-RISC, Power ISA, and MIPS have 32 GPRs; Alpha, 64-bit ARM, and SPARC have 31) or VLIW-like machines such as the IA-64 (which has 128 registers). However, an AMD64 implementation may have far more internal registers than the number of architectural registers exposed by the instruction set (see register renaming). (For example, AMD Zen cores have 168 64-bit integer and 160 128-bit vector floating-point physical internal registers.)
Additional XMM (SSE) registers
Similarly, the number of 128-bit XMM registers (used for Streaming SIMD instructions) is also increased from 8 to 16.
The traditional x87 FPU register stack is not included in the register file size extension in 64-bit mode, compared with the XMM registers used by SSE2, which did get extended. The x87 register stack is not a simple register file although it does allow direct access to individual registers by low cost exchange operations.
Larger virtual address space
The AMD64 architecture defines a 64-bit virtual address format, of which the low-order 48 bits are used in current implementations. This allows up to 256 TiB (248 bytes) of virtual address space. The architecture definition allows this limit to be raised in future implementations to the full 64 bits, extending the virtual address space to 16 EiB (264 bytes). This is compared to just 4 GiB (232 bytes) for the x86.
This means that very large files can be operated on by mapping the entire file into the process's address space (which is often much faster than working with file read/write calls), rather than having to map regions of the file into and out of the address space.
Larger physical address space
The original implementation of the AMD64 architecture implemented 40-bit physical addresses and so could address up to 1 TiB (240 bytes) of RAM. Current implementations of the AMD64 architecture (starting from AMD 10h microarchitecture) extend this to 48-bit physical addresses and therefore can address up to 256 TiB (248 bytes) of RAM. The architecture permits extending this to 52 bits in the future (limited by the page table entry format); this would allow addressing of up to 4 PiB of RAM. For comparison, 32-bit x86 processors are limited to 64 GiB of RAM in Physical Address Extension (PAE) mode, or 4 GiB of RAM without PAE mode.
Larger physical address space in legacy mode
When operating in legacy mode the AMD64 architecture supports Physical Address Extension (PAE) mode, as do most current x86 processors, but AMD64 extends PAE from 36 bits to an architectural limit of 52 bits of physical address. Any implementation, therefore, allows the same physical address limit as under long mode.
Instruction pointer relative data access
Instructions can now reference data relative to the instruction pointer (RIP register). This makes position-independent code, as is often used in shared libraries and code loaded at run time, more efficient.
SSE instructions
The original AMD64 architecture adopted Intel's SSE and SSE2 as core instructions. These instruction sets provide a vector supplement to the scalar x87 FPU, for the single-precision and double-precision data types. SSE2 also offers integer vector operations, for data types ranging from 8bit to 64bit precision. This makes the vector capabilities of the architecture on par with those of the most advanced x86 processors of its time. These instructions can also be used in 32-bit mode. The proliferation of 64-bit processors has made these vector capabilities ubiquitous in home computers, allowing the improvement of the standards of 32-bit applications. The 32-bit edition of Windows 8, for example, requires the presence of SSE2 instructions. SSE3 instructions and later Streaming SIMD Extensions instruction sets are not standard features of the architecture.
No-Execute bit
The No-Execute bit or NX bit (bit 63 of the page table entry) allows the operating system to specify which pages of virtual address space can contain executable code and which cannot. An attempt to execute code from a page tagged "no execute" will result in a memory access violation, similar to an attempt to write to a read-only page. This should make it more difficult for malicious code to take control of the system via "buffer overrun" or "unchecked buffer" attacks. A similar feature has been available on x86 processors since the 80286 as an attribute of segment descriptors; however, this works only on an entire segment at a time.
Segmented addressing has long been considered an obsolete mode of operation, and all current PC operating systems in effect bypass it, setting all segments to a base address of zero and (in their 32-bit implementation) a size of 4 GiB. AMD was the first x86-family vendor to implement no-execute in linear addressing mode. The feature is also available in legacy mode on AMD64 processors, and recent Intel x86 processors, when PAE is used.
Removal of older features
A few "system programming" features of the x86 architecture were either unused or underused in modern operating systems and are either not available on AMD64 in long (64-bit and compatibility) mode, or exist only in limited form. These include segmented addressing (although the FS and GS segments are retained in vestigial form for use as extra-base pointers to operating system structures), the task state switch mechanism, and virtual 8086 mode. These features remain fully implemented in "legacy mode", allowing these processors to run 32-bit and 16-bit operating systems without modifications. Some instructions that proved to be rarely useful are not supported in 64-bit mode, including saving/restoring of segment registers on the stack, saving/restoring of all registers (PUSHA/POPA), decimal arithmetic, BOUND and INTO instructions, and "far" jumps and calls with immediate operands.
Virtual address space details
Canonical form addresses
Although virtual addresses are 64 bits wide in 64-bit mode, current implementations (and all chips that are known to be in the planning stages) do not allow the entire virtual address space of 264 bytes (16 EiB) to be used. This would be approximately four billion times the size of the virtual address space on 32-bit machines. Most operating systems and applications will not need such a large address space for the foreseeable future, so implementing such wide virtual addresses would simply increase the complexity and cost of address translation with no real benefit. AMD, therefore, decided that, in the first implementations of the architecture, only the least significant 48 bits of a virtual address would actually be used in address translation (page table lookup).
In addition, the AMD specification requires that the most significant 16 bits of any virtual address, bits 48 through 63, must be copies of bit 47 (in a manner akin to sign extension). If this requirement is not met, the processor will raise an exception. Addresses complying with this rule are referred to as "canonical form." Canonical form addresses run from 0 through 00007FFF'FFFFFFFF, and from FFFF8000'00000000 through FFFFFFFF'FFFFFFFF, for a total of 256 TiB of usable virtual address space. This is still 65,536 times larger than the virtual 4 GiB address space of 32-bit machines.
This feature eases later scalability to true 64-bit addressing. Many operating systems (including, but not limited to, the Windows NT family) take the higher-addressed half of the address space (named kernel space) for themselves and leave the lower-addressed half (user space) for application code, user mode stacks, heaps, and other data regions. The "canonical address" design ensures that every AMD64 compliant implementation has, in effect, two memory halves: the lower half starts at 00000000'00000000 and "grows upwards" as more virtual address bits become available, while the higher half is "docked" to the top of the address space and grows downwards. Also, enforcing the "canonical form" of addresses by checking the unused address bits prevents their use by the operating system in tagged pointers as flags, privilege markers, etc., as such use could become problematic when the architecture is extended to implement more virtual address bits.
The first versions of Windows for x64 did not even use the full 256 TiB; they were restricted to just 8 TiB of user space and 8 TiB of kernel space. Windows did not support the entire 48-bit address space until Windows 8.1, which was released in October 2013.
Page table structure
The 64-bit addressing mode ("long mode") is a superset of Physical Address Extensions (PAE); because of this, page sizes may be 4 KiB (212 bytes) or 2 MiB (221 bytes). Long mode also supports page sizes of 1 GiB (230 bytes). Rather than the three-level page table system used by systems in PAE mode, systems running in long mode use four levels of page table: PAE's Page-Directory Pointer Table is extended from four entries to 512, and an additional Page-Map Level 4 (PML4) Table is added, containing 512 entries in 48-bit implementations. A full mapping hierarchy of 4 KiB pages for the whole 48-bit space would take a bit more than 512 GiB of memory (about 0.195% of the 256 TiB virtual space).
Intel has implemented a scheme with a 5-level page table, which allows Intel 64 processors to support a 57-bit virtual address space. Further extensions may allow full 64-bit virtual address space and physical memory by expanding the page table entry size to 128-bit, and reduce page walks in the 5-level hierarchy by using a larger 64 KiB page allocation size that still supports 4 KiB page operations for backward compatibility.
Operating system limits
The operating system can also limit the virtual address space. Details, where applicable, are given in the "Operating system compatibility and characteristics" section.
Physical address space details
Current AMD64 processors support a physical address space of up to 248 bytes of RAM, or 256 TiB. However, , there were no known x86-64 motherboards that support 256 TiB of RAM. The operating system may place additional limits on the amount of RAM that is usable or supported. Details on this point are given in the "Operating system compatibility and characteristics" section of this article.
Operating modes
The architecture has two primary modes of operation: long mode and legacy mode.
Long mode
Long mode is the architecture's intended primary mode of operation; it is a combination of the processor's native 64-bit mode and a combined 32-bit and 16-bit compatibility mode. It is used by 64-bit operating systems. Under a 64-bit operating system, 64-bit programs run under 64-bit mode, and 32-bit and 16-bit protected mode applications (that do not need to use either real mode or virtual 8086 mode in order to execute at any time) run under compatibility mode. Real-mode programs and programs that use virtual 8086 mode at any time cannot be run in long mode unless those modes are emulated in software. However, such programs may be started from an operating system running in long mode on processors supporting VT-x or AMD-V by creating a virtual processor running in the desired mode.
Since the basic instruction set is the same, there is almost no performance penalty for executing protected mode x86 code. This is unlike Intel's IA-64, where differences in the underlying instruction set mean that running 32-bit code must be done either in emulation of x86 (making the process slower) or with a dedicated x86 coprocessor. However, on the x86-64 platform, many x86 applications could benefit from a 64-bit recompile, due to the additional registers in 64-bit code and guaranteed SSE2-based FPU support, which a compiler can use for optimization. However, applications that regularly handle integers wider than 32 bits, such as cryptographic algorithms, will need a rewrite of the code handling the huge integers in order to take advantage of the 64-bit registers.
Legacy mode
Legacy mode is the mode that the processor is in when it is not in long mode. In this mode, the processor acts like an older x86 processor, and only 16-bit and 32-bit code can be executed. Legacy mode allows for a maximum of 32 bit virtual addressing which limits the virtual address space to 4 GiB. 64-bit programs cannot be run from legacy mode.
Protected mode
Protected mode is made into a submode of legacy mode. It is the submode that 32-bit operating systems and 16-bit protected mode operating systems operate in when running on an x86-64 CPU.
Real mode
Real mode is the initial mode of operation when the processor is initialized, and is a submode of legacy mode. It is backwards compatible with the original Intel 8086 and Intel 8088 processors. Real mode is primarily used today by operating system bootloaders, which are required by the architecture to configure virtual memory details before transitioning to higher modes. This mode is also used by any operating system that needs to communicate with the system firmware with a traditional BIOS-style interface.
Intel 64
Intel 64 is Intel's implementation of x86-64, used and implemented in various processors made by Intel.
History
Historically, AMD has developed and produced processors with instruction sets patterned after Intel's original designs, but with x86-64, roles were reversed: Intel found itself in the position of adopting the ISA that AMD created as an extension to Intel's own x86 processor line.
Intel's project was originally codenamed Yamhill (after the Yamhill River in Oregon's Willamette Valley). After several years of denying its existence, Intel announced at the February 2004 IDF that the project was indeed underway. Intel's chairman at the time, Craig Barrett, admitted that this was one of their worst-kept secrets.
Intel's name for this instruction set has changed several times. The name used at the IDF was CT (presumably for Clackamas Technology, another codename from an Oregon river); within weeks they began referring to it as IA-32e (for IA-32 extensions) and in March 2004 unveiled the "official" name EM64T (Extended Memory 64 Technology). In late 2006 Intel began instead using the name Intel 64 for its implementation, paralleling AMD's use of the name AMD64.
The first processor to implement Intel 64 was the multi-socket processor Xeon code-named Nocona in June 2004. In contrast, the initial Prescott chips (February 2004) did not enable this feature. Intel subsequently began selling Intel 64-enabled Pentium 4s using the E0 revision of the Prescott core, being sold on the OEM market as the Pentium 4, model F. The E0 revision also adds eXecute Disable (XD) (Intel's name for the NX bit) to Intel 64, and has been included in then current Xeon code-named Irwindale. Intel's official launch of Intel 64 (under the name EM64T at that time) in mainstream desktop processors was the N0 stepping Prescott-2M.
The first Intel mobile processor implementing Intel 64 is the Merom version of the Core 2 processor, which was released on July 27, 2006. None of Intel's earlier notebook CPUs (Core Duo, Pentium M, Celeron M, Mobile Pentium 4) implement Intel 64.
Implementations
Intel's processors implementing the Intel64 architecture include the Pentium 4 F-series/5x1 series, 506, and 516, Celeron D models 3x1, 3x6, 355, 347, 352, 360, and 365 and all later Celerons, all models of Xeon since "Nocona", all models of Pentium Dual-Core processors since "Merom-2M", the Atom 230, 330, D410, D425, D510, D525, N450, N455, N470, N475, N550, N570, N2600 and N2800, all versions of the Pentium D, Pentium Extreme Edition, Core 2, Core i9, Core i7, Core i5, and Core i3 processors, and the Xeon Phi 7200 series processors.
VIA's x86-64 implementation
VIA Technologies introduced their first implementation of the x86-64 architecture in 2008 after five years of development by its CPU division, Centaur Technology.
Codenamed "Isaiah", the 64-bit architecture was unveiled on January 24, 2008, and launched on May 29 under the VIA Nano brand name.
The processor supports a number of VIA-specific x86 extensions designed to boost efficiency in low-power appliances.
It is expected that the Isaiah architecture will be twice as fast in integer performance and four times as fast in floating-point performance as the previous-generation VIA Esther at an equivalent clock speed. Power consumption is also expected to be on par with the previous-generation VIA CPUs, with thermal design power ranging from 5 W to 25 W.
Being a completely new design, the Isaiah architecture was built with support for features like the x86-64 instruction set and x86 virtualization which were unavailable on its predecessors, the VIA C7 line, while retaining their encryption extensions.
Microarchitecture levels
In 2020, through a cross-vendor collaboration, a few microarchitecture levels were defined, x86-64-v2, x86-64-v3 and x86-64-v4. These levels define specific features that can be targeted by programmers to provide compile-time optimizations. The features exposed by each level are as follows:
All levels include features found in the previous levels. Instruction set extensions not concerned with general-purpose computation, including AES-NI and RDRAND, are excluded from the level requirements.
Differences between AMD64 and Intel 64
Although nearly identical, there are some differences between the two instruction sets in the semantics of a few seldom used machine instructions (or situations), which are mainly used for system programming. Compilers generally produce executables (i.e. machine code) that avoid any differences, at least for ordinary application programs. This is therefore of interest mainly to developers of compilers, operating systems and similar, which must deal with individual and special system instructions.
Recent implementations
Intel 64's BSF and BSR instructions act differently than AMD64's when the source is zero and the operand size is 32 bits. The processor sets the zero flag and leaves the upper 32 bits of the destination undefined. Note that Intel documents that the destination register has an undefined value in this case, but in practice in silicon implements the same behaviour as AMD (destination unmodified). The separate claim about maybe not preserving bits in the upper 32 hasn't been verified, but has only been ruled out for Core 2 and Skylake, not all Intel microarchitectures like 64-bit Pentium 4 or low-power Atom.
AMD64 requires a different microcode update format and control MSRs (model-specific registers) while Intel 64 implements microcode update unchanged from their 32-bit only processors.
Intel 64 lacks some MSRs that are considered architectural in AMD64. These include SYSCFG, TOP_MEM, and TOP_MEM2.
Intel 64 allows SYSCALL/SYSRET only in 64-bit mode (not in compatibility mode), and allows SYSENTER/SYSEXIT in both modes. AMD64 lacks SYSENTER/SYSEXIT in both sub-modes of long mode.
In 64-bit mode, near branches with the 66H (operand size override) prefix behave differently. Intel 64 ignores this prefix: the instruction has 32-bit sign extended offset, and instruction pointer is not truncated. AMD64 uses 16-bit offset field in the instruction, and clears the top 48 bits of instruction pointer.
AMD processors raise a floating-point Invalid Exception when performing an FLD or FSTP of an 80-bit signalling NaN, while Intel processors do not.
Intel 64 lacks the ability to save and restore a reduced (and thus faster) version of the floating-point state (involving the FXSAVE and FXRSTOR instructions).
AMD processors ever since Opteron Rev. E and Athlon 64 Rev. D have reintroduced limited support for segmentation, via the Long Mode Segment Limit Enable (LMSLE) bit, to ease virtualization of 64-bit guests.
When returning to a non-canonical address using SYSRET, AMD64 processors execute the general protection fault handler in privilege level 3, while on Intel 64 processors it is executed in privilege level 0.
Older implementations
Early AMD64 processors (typically on Socket 939 and 940) lacked the CMPXCHG16B instruction, which is an extension of the CMPXCHG8B instruction present on most post-80486 processors. Similar to CMPXCHG8B, CMPXCHG16B allows for atomic operations on octa-words (128-bit values). This is useful for parallel algorithms that use compare and swap on data larger than the size of a pointer, common in lock-free and wait-free algorithms. Without CMPXCHG16B one must use workarounds, such as a critical section or alternative lock-free approaches. Its absence also prevents 64-bit Windows prior to Windows 8.1 from having a user-mode address space larger than 8 TiB. The 64-bit version of Windows 8.1 requires the instruction.
Early AMD64 and Intel 64 CPUs lacked LAHF and SAHF instructions in 64-bit mode. AMD introduced these instructions (also in 64-bit mode) with their Athlon 64, Opteron and Turion 64 revision D processors in March 2005 while Intel introduced the instructions with the Pentium 4 G1 stepping in December 2005. The 64-bit version of Windows 8.1 requires this feature.
Early Intel CPUs with Intel 64 also lack the NX bit of the AMD64 architecture. This feature is required by all versions of Windows 8.x.
Early Intel 64 implementations (Prescott and Cedar Mill) only allowed access to 64 GiB of physical memory while original AMD64 implementations allowed access to 1 TiB of physical memory. Recent AMD64 implementations provide 256 TiB of physical address space (and AMD plans an expansion to 4 PiB), while some Intel 64 implementations could address up to 64 TiB. Physical memory capacities of this size are appropriate for large-scale applications (such as large databases), and high-performance computing (centrally oriented applications and scientific computing).
Adoption
In supercomputers tracked by TOP500, the appearance of 64-bit extensions for the x86 architecture enabled 64-bit x86 processors by AMD and Intel to replace most RISC processor architectures previously used in such systems (including PA-RISC, SPARC, Alpha and others), as well as 32-bit x86, even though Intel itself initially tried unsuccessfully to replace x86 with a new incompatible 64-bit architecture in the Itanium processor.
, a Fujitsu A64FX-based supercomputer called Fugaku is number one. The first ARM-based supercomputer appeared on the list in 2018 and, in recent years, non-CPU architecture co-processors (GPGPU) have also played a big role in performance. Intel's Xeon Phi "Knights Corner" coprocessors, which implement a subset of x86-64 with some vector extensions, are also used, along with x86-64 processors, in the Tianhe-2 supercomputer.
Operating system compatibility and characteristics
The following operating systems and releases support the x86-64 architecture in long mode.
BSD
DragonFly BSD
Preliminary infrastructure work was started in February 2004 for a x86-64 port. This development later stalled. Development started again during July 2007
and continued during Google Summer of Code 2008 and SoC 2009. The first official release to contain x86-64 support was version 2.4.
FreeBSD
FreeBSD first added x86-64 support under the name "amd64" as an experimental architecture in 5.1-RELEASE in June 2003. It was included as a standard distribution architecture as of 5.2-RELEASE in January 2004. Since then, FreeBSD has designated it as a Tier 1 platform. The 6.0-RELEASE version cleaned up some quirks with running x86 executables under amd64, and most drivers work just as they do on the x86 architecture. Work is currently being done to integrate more fully the x86 application binary interface (ABI), in the same manner as the Linux 32-bit ABI compatibility currently works.
NetBSD
x86-64 architecture support was first committed to the NetBSD source tree on June 19, 2001. As of NetBSD 2.0, released on December 9, 2004, NetBSD/amd64 is a fully integrated and supported port.
32-bit code is still supported in 64-bit mode, with a netbsd-32 kernel compatibility layer for 32-bit syscalls. The NX bit is used to provide non-executable stack and heap with per-page granularity (segment granularity being used on 32-bit x86).
OpenBSD
OpenBSD has supported AMD64 since OpenBSD 3.5, released on May 1, 2004. Complete in-tree implementation of AMD64 support was achieved prior to the hardware's initial release because AMD had loaned several machines for the project's hackathon that year. OpenBSD developers have taken to the platform because of its support for the NX bit, which allowed for an easy implementation of the W^X feature.
The code for the AMD64 port of OpenBSD also runs on Intel 64 processors which contains cloned use of the AMD64 extensions, but since Intel left out the page table NX bit in early Intel 64 processors, there is no W^X capability on those Intel CPUs; later Intel 64 processors added the NX bit under the name "XD bit". Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) works on OpenBSD's AMD64 port, starting with release 3.6 on November 1, 2004.
DOS
It is possible to enter long mode under DOS without a DOS extender, but the user must return to real mode in order to call BIOS or DOS interrupts.
It may also be possible to enter long mode with a DOS extender similar to DOS/4GW, but more complex since x86-64 lacks virtual 8086 mode. DOS itself is not aware of that, and no benefits should be expected unless running DOS in an emulation with an adequate virtualization driver backend, for example: the mass storage interface.
Linux
Linux was the first operating system kernel to run the x86-64 architecture in long mode, starting with the 2.4 version in 2001 (preceding the hardware's availability). Linux also provides backward compatibility for running 32-bit executables. This permits programs to be recompiled into long mode while retaining the use of 32-bit programs. Several Linux distributions currently ship with x86-64-native kernels and userlands. Some, such as Arch Linux, SUSE, Mandriva, and Debian allow users to install a set of 32-bit components and libraries when installing off a 64-bit DVD, thus allowing most existing 32-bit applications to run alongside the 64-bit OS. Other distributions, such as Fedora, Slackware and Ubuntu, are available in one version compiled for a 32-bit architecture and another compiled for a 64-bit architecture. Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux allow concurrent installation of all userland components in both 32 and 64-bit versions on a 64-bit system.
x32 ABI (Application Binary Interface), introduced in Linux 3.4, allows programs compiled for the x32 ABI to run in the 64-bit mode of x86-64 while only using 32-bit pointers and data fields.
Though this limits the program to a virtual address space of 4 GiB it also decreases the memory footprint of the program and in some cases can allow it to run faster.
64-bit Linux allows up to 128 TiB of virtual address space for individual processes, and can address approximately 64 TiB of physical memory, subject to processor and system limitations.
macOS
Mac OS X 10.4.7 and higher versions of Mac OS X 10.4 run 64-bit command-line tools using the POSIX and math libraries on 64-bit Intel-based machines, just as all versions of Mac OS X 10.4 and 10.5 run them on 64-bit PowerPC machines. No other libraries or frameworks work with 64-bit applications in Mac OS X 10.4.
The kernel, and all kernel extensions, are 32-bit only.
Mac OS X 10.5 supports 64-bit GUI applications using Cocoa, Quartz, OpenGL, and X11 on 64-bit Intel-based machines, as well as on 64-bit PowerPC machines.
All non-GUI libraries and frameworks also support 64-bit applications on those platforms. The kernel, and all kernel extensions, are 32-bit only.
Mac OS X 10.6 is the first version of macOS that supports a 64-bit kernel. However, not all 64-bit computers can run the 64-bit kernel, and not all 64-bit computers that can run the 64-bit kernel will do so by default.
The 64-bit kernel, like the 32-bit kernel, supports 32-bit applications; both kernels also support 64-bit applications. 32-bit applications have a virtual address space limit of 4 GiB under either kernel. The 64-bit kernel does not support 32-bit kernel extensions, and the 32-bit kernel does not support 64-bit kernel extensions.
OS X 10.8 includes only the 64-bit kernel, but continues to support 32-bit applications; it does not support 32-bit kernel extensions, however.
macOS 10.15 includes only the 64-bit kernel and no longer supports 32-bit applications. This removal of support has presented a problem for WineHQ (and the commercial version CrossOver), as it needs to still be able to run 32-bit Windows applications. The solution, termed wine32on64, was to add thunks that bring the CPU in and out of 32-bit compatibility mode in the nominally 64-bit application.
macOS uses the universal binary format to package 32- and 64-bit versions of application and library code into a single file; the most appropriate version is automatically selected at load time. In Mac OS X 10.6, the universal binary format is also used for the kernel and for those kernel extensions that support both 32-bit and 64-bit kernels.
Solaris
Solaris 10 and later releases support the x86-64 architecture.
For Solaris 10, just as with the SPARC architecture, there is only one operating system image, which contains a 32-bit kernel and a 64-bit kernel; this is labeled as the "x64/x86" DVD-ROM image. The default behavior is to boot a 64-bit kernel, allowing both 64-bit and existing or new 32-bit executables to be run. A 32-bit kernel can also be manually selected, in which case only 32-bit executables will run. The isainfo command can be used to determine if a system is running a 64-bit kernel.
For Solaris 11, only the 64-bit kernel is provided. However, the 64-bit kernel supports both 32- and 64-bit executables, libraries, and system calls.
Windows
x64 editions of Microsoft Windows client and server—Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 Edition—were released in March 2005. Internally they are actually the same build (5.2.3790.1830 SP1), as they share the same source base and operating system binaries, so even system updates are released in unified packages, much in the manner as Windows 2000 Professional and Server editions for x86. Windows Vista, which also has many different editions, was released in January 2007. Windows 7 was released in July 2009. Windows Server 2008 R2 was sold in only x64 and Itanium editions; later versions of Windows Server only offer an x64 edition.
Versions of Windows for x64 prior to Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 offer the following:
8 TiB of virtual address space per process, accessible from both user mode and kernel mode, referred to as the user mode address space. An x64 program can use all of this, subject to backing store limits on the system, and provided it is linked with the "large address aware" option. This is a 4096-fold increase over the default 2 GiB user-mode virtual address space offered by 32-bit Windows.
8 TiB of kernel mode virtual address space for the operating system. As with the user mode address space, this is a 4096-fold increase over 32-bit Windows versions. The increased space primarily benefits the file system cache and kernel mode "heaps" (non-paged pool and paged pool). Windows only uses a total of 16 TiB out of the 256 TiB implemented by the processors because early AMD64 processors lacked a CMPXCHG16B instruction.
Under Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2, both user mode and kernel mode virtual address spaces have been extended to 128 TiB. These versions of Windows will not install on processors that lack the CMPXCHG16B instruction.
The following additional characteristics apply to all x64 versions of Windows:
Ability to run existing 32-bit applications (.exe programs) and dynamic link libraries (.dlls) using WoW64 if WoW64 is supported on that version. Furthermore, a 32-bit program, if it was linked with the "large address aware" option, can use up to 4 GiB of virtual address space in 64-bit Windows, instead of the default 2 GiB (optional 3 GiB with /3GB boot option and "large address aware" link option) offered by 32-bit Windows. Unlike the use of the /3GB boot option on x86, this does not reduce the kernel mode virtual address space available to the operating system. 32-bit applications can, therefore, benefit from running on x64 Windows even if they are not recompiled for x86-64.
Both 32- and 64-bit applications, if not linked with "large address aware," are limited to 2 GiB of virtual address space.
Ability to use up to 128 GiB (Windows XP/Vista), 192 GiB (Windows 7), 512 GiB (Windows 8), 1 TiB (Windows Server 2003), 2 TiB (Windows Server 2008/Windows 10), 4 TiB (Windows Server 2012), or 24 TiB (Windows Server 2016/2019) of physical random access memory (RAM).
LLP64 data model: "int" and "long" types are 32 bits wide, long long is 64 bits, while pointers and types derived from pointers are 64 bits wide.
Kernel mode device drivers must be 64-bit versions; there is no way to run 32-bit kernel mode executables within the 64-bit operating system. User mode device drivers can be either 32-bit or 64-bit.
16-bit Windows (Win16) and DOS applications will not run on x86-64 versions of Windows due to the removal of the virtual DOS machine subsystem (NTVDM) which relied upon the ability to use virtual 8086 mode. Virtual 8086 mode cannot be entered while running in long mode.
Full implementation of the NX (No Execute) page protection feature. This is also implemented on recent 32-bit versions of Windows when they are started in PAE mode.
Instead of FS segment descriptor on x86 versions of the Windows NT family, GS segment descriptor is used to point to two operating system defined structures: Thread Information Block (NT_TIB) in user mode and Processor Control Region (KPCR) in kernel mode. Thus, for example, in user mode GS:0 is the address of the first member of the Thread Information Block. Maintaining this convention made the x86-64 port easier, but required AMD to retain the function of the FS and GS segments in long mode – even though segmented addressing per se is not really used by any modern operating system.
Early reports claimed that the operating system scheduler would not save and restore the x87 FPU machine state across thread context switches. Observed behavior shows that this is not the case: the x87 state is saved and restored, except for kernel mode-only threads (a limitation that exists in the 32-bit version as well). The most recent documentation available from Microsoft states that the x87/MMX/3DNow! instructions may be used in long mode, but that they are deprecated and may cause compatibility problems in the future.
Some components like Jet Database Engine and Data Access Objects will not be ported to 64-bit architectures such as x86-64 and IA-64.
Microsoft Visual Studio can compile native applications to target either the x86-64 architecture, which can run only on 64-bit Microsoft Windows, or the IA-32 architecture, which can run as a 32-bit application on 32-bit Microsoft Windows or 64-bit Microsoft Windows in WoW64 emulation mode. Managed applications can be compiled either in IA-32, x86-64 or AnyCPU modes. Software created in the first two modes behave like their IA-32 or x86-64 native code counterparts respectively; When using the AnyCPU mode, however, applications in 32-bit versions of Microsoft Windows run as 32-bit applications, while they run as a 64-bit application in 64-bit editions of Microsoft Windows.
Video game consoles
Both PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and their variants incorporate AMD x86-64 processors, based on the Jaguar microarchitecture. Firmware and games are written in x86-64 code; no legacy x86 code is involved.
Their next generations, the PlayStation 5 and the Xbox Series X and Series S respectively, also incorporate AMD x86-64 processors, based on the Zen 2 microarchitecture.
Industry naming conventions
Since AMD64 and Intel 64 are substantially similar, many software and hardware products use one vendor-neutral term to indicate their compatibility with both implementations. AMD's original designation for this processor architecture, "x86-64", is still sometimes used for this purpose, as is the variant "x86_64". Other companies, such as Microsoft and Sun Microsystems/Oracle Corporation, use the contraction "x64" in marketing material.
The term IA-64 refers to the Itanium processor, and should not be confused with x86-64, as it is a completely different instruction set.
Many operating systems and products, especially those that introduced x86-64 support prior to Intel's entry into the market, use the term "AMD64" or "amd64" to refer to both AMD64 and Intel 64.
amd64
Most BSD systems such as FreeBSD, MidnightBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD refer to both AMD64 and Intel 64 under the architecture name "amd64".
Some Linux distributions such as Debian, Ubuntu, Gentoo Linux refer to both AMD64 and Intel 64 under the architecture name "amd64".
Microsoft Windows's x64 versions use the AMD64 moniker internally to designate various components which use or are compatible with this architecture. For example, the environment variable PROCESSOR_ARCHITECTURE is assigned the value "AMD64" as opposed to "x86" in 32-bit versions, and the system directory on a Windows x64 Edition installation CD-ROM is named "AMD64", in contrast to "i386" in 32-bit versions.
Sun's Solaris's isalist command identifies both AMD64- and Intel 64-based systems as "amd64".
Java Development Kit (JDK): the name "amd64" is used in directory names containing x86-64 files.
x86_64
The Linux kernel and the GNU Compiler Collection refers to 64-bit architecture as "x86_64".
Some Linux distributions, such as Fedora, openSUSE, Arch Linux, Gentoo Linux refer to this 64-bit architecture as "x86_64".
Apple macOS refers to 64-bit architecture as "x86-64" or "x86_64", as seen in the Terminal command arch and in their developer documentation.
Breaking with most other BSD systems, DragonFly BSD refers to 64-bit architecture as "x86_64".
Haiku refers to 64-bit architecture as "x86_64".
Licensing
x86-64/AMD64 was solely developed by AMD. AMD holds patents on techniques used in AMD64; those patents must be licensed from AMD in order to implement AMD64. Intel entered into a cross-licensing agreement with AMD, licensing to AMD their patents on existing x86 techniques, and licensing from AMD their patents on techniques used in x86-64. In 2009, AMD and Intel settled several lawsuits and cross-licensing disagreements, extending their cross-licensing agreements.
See also
AMD Generic Encapsulated Software Architecture (AGESA)
IA-32
x86
Notes
References
External links
AMD Developer Guides, Manuals & ISA Documents
x86-64: Extending the x86 architecture to 64-bits – technical talk by the architect of AMD64 (video archive), and second talk by the same speaker (video archive)
AMD's "Enhanced Virus Protection"
Intel tweaks EM64T for full AMD64 compatibility
Analyst: Intel Reverse-Engineered AMD64
Early report of differences between Intel IA32e and AMD64
Porting to 64-bit GNU/Linux Systems, by Andreas Jaeger from GCC Summit 2003. An excellent paper explaining almost all practical aspects for a transition from 32-bit to 64-bit.
Intel 64 Architecture
Intel Software Network: "64 bits"
TurboIRC.COM tutorials, including examples of how to of enter protected and long mode the raw way from DOS
Seven Steps of Migrating a Program to a 64-bit System
Memory Limits for Windows Releases
Computer-related introductions in 2003
X86 architecture
64-bit computers
Advanced Micro Devices technologies
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Snow (disambiguation)
|
Snow is precipitation in the form of crystalline water ice.
Snow may also refer to:
Places
Snow, Kentucky, an unincorporated community in the United States
Snow, Oklahoma, an unincorporated community in the United States
Snow Lake (disambiguation)
Snow Mountain (disambiguation), various mountains in the United States
Snow Peak (disambiguation)
Mount Snow, a ski area in the U.S. state of Vermont
Snow Island (South Shetland Islands), Antarctica
People
Snow (surname), a list of people with the surname Snow or Snowe
Arthur Owens (1899–1957), British WWII double agent codenamed SNOW
Snow (musician) (born 1969), real name Darrin O'Brien, Canadian reggae musician
Snow (Japanese singer) (born 1985), Japanese pop singer
Snow Badua (born 1977), real name Edmund Pineda Badua, Filipino sports journalist
Snow Bowman (1915–1992), real name Albert William Bowman, rugby union player from New Zealand
Snow P. Freeman (1805–1862), Canadian lawyer and political figure from Nova Scotia
Snow Parker (1760–1843), Canadian merchant, judge, and political figure from Novia Scotia
Snow Pendleton (1818–1888), real name Frederick Henry Snow Pendleton, Victorian Era priest in the Church of England
Snow Urbin, real name Snejana Urbin, Russian female dancer and choreographer
Films
Snow (1963 film), a UK documentary short by Geoffrey Jones
Snow: The Movie, a 1982 Australian comedy
Snow (2004 film), a Christmas-themed American television film
Snow (2008 film), a Bosnian film by Aida Begić
Snow (2015 film), a Bulgarian film
Literature
Snow (comics), a 2006 English-language manga by Morgan Luthi
Snow (picture book), a 1998 picture book by Uri Shulevitz
Snow (poem), a 1936 poem by Mao Zedong
Snow (Malfi novel), a 2010 novel by Ronald Malfi
Snow (Pamuk novel), a 2002 novel by Orhan Pamuk
The Snow (novel), a 2004 science fiction novel by Adam Roberts
"Snow" (Beattie short story), a 1986 story by Ann Beattie
"Snow" (Butler short story), a 1991 story by Robert Olen Butler
"Snow" (Crowley short story), a 1985 story by John Crowley
Music
Bands
The Snow (band), a New York rock band
Snowing (band), an American emo band
Albums
Snow (Angus & Julia Stone album) or title (see below; 2017)
Snow (Curt Kirkwood album) or title (2005)
Snow (The New Year album) or title (2017)
Snow (Spock's Beard album) (2002)
Snow (EP), a 1993 EP by the Cocteau Twins
Songs and compositions
"Snow" (Angus & Julia Stone song), the title song of the album Snow, 2017
"Snow (Hey Oh)", a 2006 song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers
"The Snow" (song), a 1991 song by Coil
"Snow", a song by JJ72 from the album, JJ72
"Snow", a song written by Irving Berlin that appears on the soundtrack of the 1954 film, White Christmas
"Snow", a classical song composed by Ivor Gurney
"The Snow", an 1894 part-song composed by Edward Elgar
Video games
Snow (visual novel), a 2003 Japanese adult visual novel
Snow (2019 video game), a 2019 skiing and snowboarding video game
Characters
Chrissy Snow, a female character on the TV show Three's Company, played by Suzanne Somers
Snow, a gang member in the 1979 film The Warriors
Mr. Snow, a character and the protagonist of the children's book series by Roger Hargreaves, Mr. Men
President Coriolanus Snow, a character in The Hunger Games trilogy and related media
Princess Snow, a character in the manga MÄR
Jon Snow (character), a character in the novel series A Song of Ice and Fire by George R. R. Martin, and in the adapted TV series Game of Thrones
Snow Villiers, one of the male protagonists of the video game, Final Fantasy XIII
Marion Snow, a character in the 2012 sci-fi/action film Lockout
Other uses
SNOW, a stream cipher
Snow (app), an image messaging and multimedia mobile application
Snow (beer), a brand of beer in China
Snow (dessert), two types of dessert
Snow (ship), a type of two-masted sailing vessel
Snow, a codec originating from the FFmpeg project
Snow College, Ephraim, Utah, U.S.
Snowflake Inc., an American cloud computing provider with stock ticker SNOW
Other common meanings
Cocaine, a narcotic also known as snow
Noise (video) or snow, white noise on an analog video or television display
See also
Thundersnow
Snowball (disambiguation)
Snowfall (disambiguation)
Snowflake (disambiguation)
Snowstorm (disambiguation)
Big Snow (disambiguation)
English feminine given names
English unisex given names
English-language unisex given names
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squall
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Squall
|
A squall is a sudden, sharp increase in wind speed lasting minutes, as opposed to a wind gust, which lasts for only seconds. They are usually associated with active weather, such as rain showers, thunderstorms, or heavy snow. Squalls refer to the increase to the sustained winds over that time interval, as there may be higher gusts during a squall event. They usually occur in a region of strong sinking air or cooling in the mid-atmosphere. These force strong localized upward motions at the leading edge of the region of cooling, which then enhances local downward motions just in its wake.
Etymology
There are different versions of the word's origins:
By one version, the word appears to be Nordic in origin, but its etymology is considered obscure. It probably has its roots in the word skvala an Old Norse word meaning literally to squeal.
By another version, it is an alteration of squeal influenced by bawl.
Character of the wind
The term "squall" is used to refer to a sudden wind-speed increase lasting minutes. In 1962 the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) defined that to be classified as a "squall", the wind must increase at least 8 m/s and must attain a top speed of at least 11 m/s, lasting at least one minute in duration. In Australia, a squall is defined to last for several minutes before the wind returns to the long-term mean value. In either case, a squall is defined to last about half as long as the definition of sustained wind in its respective country. Usually, this sudden violent wind is associated with briefly heavy precipitation as squall line.
Regional terms
Argentina
Known locally as pamperos, these are characterized as strong downsloped winds that move across the pampas, eventually making it to the Atlantic Ocean.
Central America
Offshore Central America, a gully squall is characterized by strong increases of the wind forced through sharp mountain valleys on the Pacific Ocean side of the isthmus.
Cuba
A bayamo is a squall emanating from tropical thunderstorms near the Bight of Bayamo.
East Indies
In the East Indies, brubu is a name for a squall
Pacific Northwest (North America)
In the Pacific Northwest, a squall is a short but furious rainstorm with strong winds, often small in area and moving at high speed, especially as a maritime term. Such a strong outflow occurring in fjords and inlets is referred to by mariners as a squamish.
South Africa
Bull's Eye Squall is a term used offshore South Africa for a squall forming in fair weather. It is named for the appearance of the small isolated cloud marking the top of the squall.
Philippines (West Pacific)
In most parts of the country, squalls are called subasko and are characterized by heavy rains driven by blustery winds. Local fishermen at sea are often on the lookout for signs of impending squalls on the open water and rush to shore at its early signs.
South-East Asia
"Barat" is a term for a northwest squall in Manado Bay in Sulawesi.
"Sumatra" squall is a term used in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia for squall lines that form over the island of Sumatra and move east across the Straits of Malacca. Gusts can reach up to 28 m/s (100 km/h).
Severe weather
A squall line is an organized line of thunderstorms. It is classified as a multi-cell cluster, meaning a thunderstorm complex comprising many individual updrafts. They are also called multi-cell lines. Squalls are sometimes associated with hurricanes or other cyclones, but they can also occur independently. Most commonly, independent squalls occur along front lines, and may contain heavy precipitation, hail, frequent lightning, dangerous straight line winds, and possibly funnel clouds, tornadoes and waterspouts. Squall lines require significant low-level warmth and humidity, a nearby frontal zone, and vertical wind shear from an angle behind the frontal boundary. The strong winds at the surface are usually a reflection of dry air intruding into the line of storms, which when saturated, falls quickly to ground level due to its much higher density before it spreads out downwind. Significant squall lines with multiple bow echoes are known as derechos.
Squall line life cycle
There are several forms of mesoscale meteorology, including simplistic isolated thunderstorms unrelated to advancing cold fronts, to the more complex daytime/nocturnal mesoscale convective system (MCS) and mesoscale convective complex (MCC), to squall line thunderstorms.
Formation
The main driving force behind squall line creation is attributed to the process of in-filling of multiple thunderstorms and/or a single area of thunderstorms expanding outward within the leading space of an advancing cold front.
Pressure perturbations
Pressure perturbations within an extent of a thunderstorm are noteworthy. With buoyancy rapid within the lower and mid-levels of a mature thunderstorm, one might believe that low pressure dominates in the mesoscale environment. However, this is not the case. With downdrafts ushering colder air from mid-levels, hitting ground and propagating away in all directions, high pressure is to be found widely at surface levels, usually indicative of strong (potentially damaging) winds.
Wind shear
Wind shear is an important aspect to measuring the potential of squall line severity and duration. In low to medium shear environments, mature thunderstorms will contribute modest amounts of downdrafts, enough to turn will aid in create a leading edge lifting mechanism – the gust front. In high shear environments created by opposing low level jet winds and synoptic winds, updrafts and consequential downdrafts can be much more intense (common in supercell mesocyclones). The cold air outflow leaves the trailing area of the squall line to the mid-level jet, which aids in downdraft processes.
Evolution
Updrafts
The leading area of a squall line is composed primarily of multiple updrafts, or singular regions of an updraft, rising from ground level to the highest extensions of the troposphere, condensing water and building a dark, ominous cloud to one with a noticeable overshooting top and anvil (thanks to synoptic scale winds). Because of the chaotic nature of updrafts and downdrafts, pressure perturbations are important.
As thunderstorms fill into a distinct line, strong leading-edge updrafts – occasionally visible to a ground observer in the form of a shelf cloud – may appear as an ominous sign of potential severe weather.
Beyond the strong winds because of updraft/downdraft behavior, heavy rain (and hail) is another sign of a squall line. In the winter, squall lines can occur albeit less frequently – bringing heavy snow and/or thunder and lightning – usually over inland lakes (i.e. Great Lakes region).
Bow echoes
Following the initial passage of a squall line, light to moderate stratiform precipitation is also common. A bow echo is frequently seen on the northern and southernmost reaches of squall line thunderstorms (via satellite imagery). This is where the northern and southern ends curl backwards towards the middle portions of the squall line, making a "bow" shape. Bow echoes are frequently featured within supercell mesoscale systems.
Mesolow
The poleward end of the squall line is commonly referred to as the cyclonic end, with the equatorward side rotating anticyclonically. Because of the coriolis force, the poleward end may evolve further, creating a "comma shaped" mesolow, or may continue in a squall-like pattern.
A wake low is another kind of mesoscale low-pressure area to the rear of a squall line near the back edge of the stratiform rain area. Due to the subsiding warm air associated with the system's formation, clearing skies are associated with the wake low. Severe weather, in the form of high winds, can be generated by the wake low when the pressure difference between the mesohigh preceding it and the wake low is intense enough. When the squall line is in the process of decay, heat bursts can be generated near the wake low. Once new thunderstorm activity along the squall line concludes, the wake low associated with it weakens in tandem.
Dissipation
As supercells and multi-cell thunderstorms dissipate due to a weak shear force or poor lifting mechanisms, (e.g. considerable terrain or lack of daytime heating) the squall line or gust front associated with them may outrun the squall line itself and the synoptic scale area of low pressure may then infill, leading to a weakening of the cold front; essentially, the thunderstorm has exhausted its updrafts, becoming purely a downdraft dominated system. The areas of dissipating squall line thunderstorms may be regions of low CAPE, low humidity, insufficient wind shear, or poor synoptic dynamics (e.g. an upper-level low filling) leading to frontolysis.
From here, a general thinning of a squall line will occur: with winds decaying over time, outflow boundaries weakening updrafts substantially and clouds losing their thickness.
Signs in the sky
Shelf clouds and roll clouds are usually seen above the leading edge of a squall, also known as a thunderstorm's gust front. From the time these low cloud features appear in the sky, one can expect a sudden increase in the wind in less than 15 minutes.
Tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones normally have squalls coincident with spiral bands of greater curvature than many mid-latitude systems due to their smaller size. These squalls can harbor waterspouts and tornadoes due to the significant vertical wind shear which exists in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone's outer bands.
Winter weather
Snow squalls can be spawned by an intrusion of cold air aloft over a relatively warm surface layer. Lake effect snows can be in the form of a snow squall.
See also
Rogue wave
Squall line
White squall
References
Storm
Wind
Rain
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash%20flood
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Flash flood
|
A flash flood is a rapid flooding of low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and depressions. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm, or meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields. Flash floods may also occur after the collapse of a natural ice or debris dam, or a human structure such as a man-made dam, as occurred before the Johnstown Flood of 1889. Flash floods are distinguished from regular floods by having a timescale of fewer than six hours between rainfall and the onset of flooding.
Flash floods are a significant hazard, causing more fatalities in the U.S. in an average year than lightning, tornadoes, or hurricanes. Flash floods can also deposit large quantities of sediments on floodplains and can be destructive of vegetation cover not adapted to frequent flood conditions.
Causes
Flash floods most often occur in dry areas that have recently received precipitation, but they may be seen anywhere downstream from the source of the precipitation, even many miles from the source. In areas on or near volcanoes, flash floods have also occurred after eruptions, when glaciers have been melted by the intense heat. Flash floods are known to occur in the highest mountain ranges of the United States and are also common in the arid plains of the Southwestern United States. Flash flooding can also be caused by extensive rainfall released by hurricanes and other tropical storms, as well as the sudden thawing effect of ice dams. Human activities can also cause flash floods to occur. When dams fail, a large quantity of water can be released and destroy everything in its path.
Hazards
The United States National Weather Service gives the advice "Turn Around, Don't Drown" for flash floods; that is, it recommends that people get out of the area of a flash flood, rather than trying to cross it. Many people tend to underestimate the dangers of flash floods. What makes flash floods most dangerous is their sudden nature and fast-moving water. A vehicle provides little to no protection against being swept away; it may make people overconfident and less likely to avoid the flash flood. More than half of the fatalities attributed to flash floods are people swept away in vehicles when trying to cross flooded intersections. As little as of water is enough to carry away most SUV-sized vehicles. The U.S. National Weather Service reported in 2005 that, using a national 30-year average, more people die yearly in floods, 127 on average, than by lightning (73), tornadoes (65), or hurricanes (16).
In deserts, flash floods can be particularly deadly for several reasons. First, storms in arid regions are infrequent, but they can deliver an enormous amount of water in a very short time. Second, these rains often fall on poorly absorbent and often clay-like soil, which greatly increases the amount of runoff that rivers and other water channels have to handle. These regions tend not to have the infrastructure that wetter regions have to divert water from structures and roads, such as storm drains, culverts, and retention basins, either because of sparse population or poverty, or because residents believe the risk of flash floods is not high enough to justify the expense. In fact, in some areas, desert roads frequently cross a dry river and creek beds without bridges. From the driver's perspective, there may be clear weather, when a river unexpectedly forms ahead of or around the vehicle in a matter of seconds. Finally, the lack of regular rain to clear water channels may cause flash floods in deserts to be headed by large amounts of debris, such as rocks, branches, and logs.
Deep slot canyons can be especially dangerous to hikers as they may be flooded by a storm that occurs on a mesa miles away. The flood sweeps through the canyon; the canyon makes it difficult to climb up and out of the way to avoid the flood. For example, a cloudburst in southern Utah on 14 September 2015 resulted in 20 flash flood fatalities, of which seven fatalities occurred at Zion National Park when hikers were trapped by floodwaters in a slot canyon.
Flash flood impacts
Flash floods induce severe impacts in both the built and the natural environment. The effects of flash floods can be catastrophic and show extensive diversity, ranging from damages in buildings and infrastructure to impacts on vegetation, human lives and livestock. The effects are particularly difficult to characterize in urban areas.
Researchers have used datasets such as the Severe Hazards Analysis and Verification Experiment (SHAVE) and the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) Storm Data datasets to connect the impact of flash floods with the physical processes involved in flash flooding. This should increase the reliability of flash flood impact forecasting models. Analysis of flash floods in the United States between 2006 and 2012 shows that injuries and fatalities are most likely in small, rural catchments, that the shortest events are also the most dangerous, that the hazards are greatest after nightfall, and that a very high fraction of injuries and fatalities involve vehicles.
An impact severity scale is proposed in 2020 providing a coherent overview of the flash flood effects through the classification of impact types and severity and mapping their spatial extent in a continuous way across the floodplain. Depending on the affected elements, the flood effects are grouped into 4 categories: (i) impacts on built environment (ii) impacts on man-made mobile objects,(iii) impacts on the natural environment (including vegetation, agriculture, geomorphology, and pollution) and (iv) impacts on the human population (entrapments, injuries, fatalities). The scale was proposed as a tool on prevention planning, as the resulting maps offer insights on future impacts, highlighting the high severity areas.
Flash floods can cause rapid soil erosion. Much of the Nile delta sedimentation may come from flash flooding in the desert areas that drain into the Nile River. However, flash floods of short duration produce relatively little bedrock erosion or channel widening, having their greatest impact from sedimentation on the floodplain.
Some wetlands plants, such as certain varieties of rice, are adapted to endure flash flooding. However, plants that thrive in drier areas can be harmed by flooding, as the plants can become stressed by the large amount of water.
Significant examples
1889: Johnstown Flood, Pennsylvania, U.S.: more than 2,200 people dead
1903: Heppner Flood of 1903; Oregon, United States: 247 dead, 25% of the city
1938: Los Angeles Flood of 1938, California, U.S.: 115 dead
1938: Kopuawhara flash flood of 1938, Mahia Peninsula, New Zealand: 21 dead
1952: Lynmouth disaster, England: 34 dead
1963: Petra Flash Flood, Jordan: 23 dead
1963: Vajont dam disaster, Italy: 1910 dead
1967: Flash flood in Lisbon, Portugal: 464 dead
1969: Nelson County, Virginia, US: 123 dead
1971: Kuala Lumpur floods, Malaysia: 32 dead
1972: The Black Hills flood, South Dakota, U.S.: 238 dead
1976: The Big Thompson River flood, Colorado, U.S.: 143 dead
1991: The Ormoc City tragedy, Ormoc, Philippines: ≈8,000 dead
1997: Antelope Canyon, a popular tourist attraction north of Page, Arizona:11 dead
2003: Bukit Lawang in Indonesia 239 people (5 of them were tourists) were killed
2006: Surat flood
2006: Jember Regency in Indonesia 59 people dead
2007: Sudan floods, 64 dead.
2009: September 26 in Metro Manila primarily Marikina, Taguig, and Pasig; and several municipalities in the provinces of Rizal, Bulacan, and Laguna, leaving more than 100 dead and thousands homeless. It also submerged several municipalities under feet of deep water for several weeks.
2009: October 1, Giampilieri, Messina, 37 dead. See also 2009 Messina floods and mudslides.
2010: Madeira floods and mudslides, 51 dead
2011: Lockyer Valley, Queensland, Australia. 21 dead, mainly in the town of Grantham.
2011: Philippines, Cagayan de Oro and Iligan City, 17 December 2011. At least 1200 dead
2012: May 5, Nearly three weeks of damming left 72 dead in the Seti Gorge in Upper Seti Basin. Rock and avalanche fall from the western part of Annapurna IV mountain in Pokhara, Nepal.
2012: Krasnodarskiy Kray, Russia. 172 dead following a flash flood that struck at 2 A.M. local time on 7 July. Main cities that were hit are Krymsk and Gelendzhik.
2013: Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand, India: 822 dead
2013: November 17–19, Northeast Sardinia: 18 dead, 3000 homeless. See also 2013 Sardinia floods
2013: Port Louis, Mauritius: 11 dead
2013: Argentina floods: 99+ dead
2013: Kedarnath, Uttarakhand, India: ≈5000 dead
2014: Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India: approximately 300 dead.
2014: Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia: 30+ dead
2015: May 25, Central Texas floods: 25+ dead
2016: June 25, West Virginia floods: 24+ dead
2016: July 30, Ellicott City, Maryland: 2 dead
2016: August 13, South Louisiana floods: 13 dead.
2016: September 20, Garut Regency in Indonesia floods: 33 dead
2017: July 15, Gila County, Arizona: 10 dead
2017: November 15, Νότια Αττική (West Attiki), Greece floods: 23 dead
2018: April 26, Tzafit Canyon, Israel flood: 10 dead
2018: May 27, Ellicott City, Maryland: Flood was considered worse than the one that occurred just under two years prior: 1 dead
2018: August 20, Raganello Canyon, Italy flood: 10 dead
2018: September 12, parts of Spain, Italy, France flood: 15 dead
2018: October 15–16, Aude region, France flood, 15 dead and 99 injured
2018: October 25, Dead sea flash flood: 21 dead
2019: Flash Flood in Southern Iran: at least 23 dead; also in Northern Afghanistan: at least 16 dead
See also
Storm surge
Coastal flood
Drowning
Flash flood watch
Flash flood warning
Flash Flood Guidance Systems
Freshet
Huayco
Lifesaving
References
Further reading
External links
Public clip of the Fochabers flood in Moray September 9
Decision tree to choose an uncertainty method for hydrological and hydraulic modelling, choosing an uncertainty analysis for flood modelling.
Great footage of flash floods in the arid midwest heading down dry washes after heavy rain.
Map of central Texas flash flood alley.
Workshop Proceedings Flash Flood Management
Workshop Proceedings Flash Flood Forecasting
Hydrologic Research Center
Flood
Hydrology
Hazards of outdoor recreation
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohol
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Bohol
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Bohol (), officially the Province of Bohol (; ), is an island province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, consisting of the island itself and 75 minor surrounding islands. Its capital is Tagbilaran. With a land area of and a coastline long, Bohol is the tenth largest island of the Philippines.
The province of Bohol is a first-class province divided into 3 congressional districts, comprising 1 component city and 47 municipalities. It has 1,109 barangays.
The province is a popular tourist destination with its beaches and resorts. The Chocolate Hills, numerous mounds of brown-coloured limestone formations, are the most popular attraction. The formations can be seen by land (climbing the highest point) or by air via ultralight air tours. Panglao Island, located just southwest of Tagbilaran, is famous for its diving locations and is routinely listed as one of the top ten diving locations in the world. Numerous tourist resorts and dive centers dot the southern beaches. The Philippine tarsier, amongst the world's smallest primates, is indigenous to the island.
It was the home province of Carlos P. Garcia, the eighth president of the Republic of the Philippines (1957–1961) who was born in Talibon, Bohol.
On 15 October 2013, Bohol was devastated by a 7.2 magnitude earthquake whose epicenter was south of Sagbayan town. The earthquake, which also hit southern Cebu, claimed 156 lives altogether and injured 374 people. It also destroyed or damaged a number of Bohol's heritage churches.
In 2017, the provincial government began initiating the nomination of the entire province to the UNESCO Global Geoparks Network.
Etymology
Bohol is ultimately derived from bo-ol, a kind of tree that flourished on the island. Similar to Nahuatl, the h in the middle was used to transcribe a glottal stop which is a common phoneme in the languages of the Philippines. The original name is survived through Bool, a town in Tagbilaran where Miguel Lopez de Legazpi supposedly landed.
History
Early history
In 1667, Father Francisco Combes, in his Historia de Mindanao, mentioned that at one time in their history, the people of the island of Panglao invaded mainland Bohol and subsequently imposing their economic and political dominance in the area. They considered the previous inhabitants of the islands as their slaves by reason of war, as witnessed for example by how Datu Pagbuaya, one of the rulers of Panglao, considered Datu Sikatuna as his vassal and relative. The invasion of mainland Bohol by the people of Panglao ushered the birth of the so-called Bohol "kingdom", also known as the "Dapitan Kingdom of Bohol". The Bohol "kingdom" prospered under the reign of the two brother rulers of Panglao - Datu Dailisan and Datu Pagbuaya, with trade links established with neighbouring Southeast Asian countries, particularly with the Sultanate of Ternate. The flourishing of trade in the Bohol "kingdom" is owed to its strategic location along the busy trading channels of Cebu and Butuan. For other countries such as Ternate to gain access to the busy trade ports of the Visayas, they need to first forge diplomatic ties with the Bohol "kingdom".
Relations between the Sultanate of Ternate and the province of Bohol soured when the Ternatan sultan learned the sad fate of his emissary and his men who were executed by the two ruling chieftains of Bohol as punishment for abusing one of the concubines. Thus, in 1563, the Ternatans attacked Bohol. Twenty joangas deceitfully posing as traders were sent by the sultan of Ternate to attack Bohol. Caught unaware, the inhabitants of Bohol could not defend themselves against the Ternatan raiders who were also equipped with sophisticated firearms like muskets and arquebuses, which the Boholanos saw for the first time. Such new weaponry were the result of the aid of the Portuguese to the Ternatan raid of Bohol. Many Boholanos lost their lives in this conflict, including that of Pagbuaya's brother Datu Dailisan. After the retaliatory Ternatan raid against Bohol, Datu Pagbuaya, who was left as the sole reigning chief of the island, decided to abandon mainland Bohol together with the rest of the freemen as they considered Bohol island unfortunate and accursed. They settled in the northern coast of the island of Mindanao, where they established the Dapitan settlement.
Bohol is derived from the word Bo-ho or Bo-ol. The island was the seat of the first international treaty of peace and unity between the native king Datu Sikatuna and Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi on 16 March 1565 through a blood compact alliance known today by many Filipinos as the Sandugo.
Spanish colonial period
The earliest significant contact of the island with Spain occurred in 1565. On 25 March (16 March in the Julian calendar), a Spanish explorer named Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in Bohol seeking spices and gold. After convincing the native chieftains that they were not Portuguese (who raided the islands of Mactan in 1521), Legazpi made a peace pact with Datu Sikatuna. This pact was signified with a blood compact between the two men. This event, called the Sandugo ("one blood"), is celebrated in Bohol every year during the Sandugo Festival. The Sandugo or blood compact is also depicted on Bohol's provincial flag and the Bohol provincial seal.
Two significant revolts occurred in Bohol during the Spanish Era. One was the Tamblot Uprising in 1621, led by Tamblot, a babaylan or native priest. The other was the famous Dagohoy Rebellion, considered the longest in Philippine history. This rebellion was led by Francisco Dagohoy, also known as Francisco Sendrijas, from 1744 to 1829.
Politically, Bohol was administered as part of Cebu Province. It was separated from Cebu on 22 July 1854 together with Siquijor. A census in 1879 found Bohol with a population of 253,103 distributed among 34 municipalities.
The culture of the Boholanos was influenced by Spain and Mexico during colonization. Many traditional dances, music, dishes and other aspects of the culture have considerable Hispanic influence.
U.S. intervention and occupation
After the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish–American War, the U.S. bought the entire Philippine islands. However, under the newly proclaimed independent government established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo, which was not recognized by the U.S., Bohol was governed as a Gobierno de Canton.
During the resulting Philippine–American War, American troops peacefully took over the island in March 1899. However, in January 1901, Pedro Sanson led 2,000 in rebellion, due to the harsh treatment imparted by these troops and the destruction they caused. General Hughes led a campaign of repression in October 1901, destroying a number of towns, and threatening in December 1901 to burn Tagbilaran if the rebels did not surrender. Pantaleon E. del Rosario then negotiated the rebel to surrender.
On 10 March 1917, the Americans made Bohol a separate province under Rep. Act 2711 (which also established most of the other Philippine provinces).
Japanese occupation and liberation
Japanese troops landed in Tagbilaran on 17 May 1942. Boholanos struggled in a guerilla resistance against the Japanese forces. Bohol was later liberated by the local guerrillas and the Filipino and American troops who landed on 11 April 1945.
A plaque placed on the port of Tagbilaran commemorating the liberation reads:
The convoy taking the Filipino and American liberation forces to Bohol consisted of a flotilla of six landing ships (medium), six landing crafts (infantry), two landing crafts (support), and one . Upon arrival, the reinforced battalion combat team advanced rapidly to the east and northeast with the mission of destroying all hostile forces in Bohol. Motor patrols were immediately dispatched by Col. Considine, Task Force Commander, and combed the area to the north and east, approximately halfway across the island, but no enemies were found during the reconnaissance. Finally, an enemy group of undetermined strength was located to the north of Ginopolan in Valencia, near the Sierra-Bullones boundary.
By 17 April the Task Force was poised to strike in Ginopolan. The bulk of the Japanese force was destroyed and beaten in the ten days of action. Bohol was officially declared liberated on 25 May 1945 by Major General William H. Arnold, Commander of the American Division. About this time, most officers and men of the Bohol Area Command had been processed by units of the Eighth United States Army.
On 31 May 1945, the Bohol Area Command was officially deactivated upon orders of Lt. General Robert L. Eichelberger, Commanding General of the Eighth United States Army, together with the regular and constable troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army, Philippine Constabulary, and the Boholano guerrillas.
During the from March to August 1945, Filipino troops of the 3rd, 8th, 83rd, 85th and 86th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and 8th Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary captured and liberated the island province of Bohol and helped the Boholano guerrilla fighters and U.S. liberation forces defeat the Japanese Imperial forces under General Sōsaku Suzuki.
2013 Earthquake
At 8:12 a.m. (PST) on 15 October 2013, the island province suffered a severe earthquake with a magnitude of 7.2 on the Richter scale. Its epicenter was at ( of Sagbayan and from Manila), and its depth of focus was . The quake was felt as far as Davao City, Mindanao. According to official reports by the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC), 57 people died in Bohol, and 104 were injured, The Great Wall of Bohol or "North Bohol Fault" is a reverse fault was discovered on 15, October 2013 during the "2013 Bohol earthquake", It became one of the tourist attraction in Bohol province
It was the deadliest earthquake in the Philippines since the 7.8 magnitude 1990 Luzon earthquake. Earlier that same year Bohol was struck by an earthquake (on 8 February 1990) with an epicentre almost exactly the same as in 2013, causing six fatalities and 200 injured. Several buildings were damaged and it caused a tsunami.
Recent history
On 12 April 2017, 11 Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) terrorists staged an attack on Bohol. Three soldiers, a police officer and at least 4 of the armed men, including their leader Abu Rami, were killed in the clashes that started at 5 am. Also killed were two Inabanga villagers, though it was not clear whether they were killed in the crossfire or executed by the cornered militants. Security officials relentlessly hunted down the remainder of the ASG who landed in Bohol from the hinterlands to a neighboring island in the province which ultimately led to the neutralization of Abu Asis, the last of the remaining bandits, in May. He was gunned down by police Special Weapons and Tactics operatives in Barangay Lawis, Calape while fighting it out to the end along with Ubayda. Despite their nefarious intents, all 11 ASG members killed in the intrusion were given proper burials under Muslim tradition.
The tourism industry in Bohol was negatively affected by the ASG militants' incursion on the island, though tour operators believe the industry can recover.
Geography
To the west of Bohol is Cebu, to the northeast is the island of Leyte and to the south, across the Bohol Sea, is Mindanao. The Cebu Strait separates Bohol from Cebu, and both island provinces share a common language, but Boholano retain a conscious distinction from Cebuano. Bohol's climate is generally dry, with maximum rainfall between the months of June and October. The interior is cooler than the coast.
Physical
With a land area of and a coastline long, Bohol is the tenth largest island of the Philippines. The main island is surrounded by about 70 smaller islands, the largest of which are Panglao Island, facing Tagbilaran, in the southwest and Lapinig Island in the northeast.
The terrain of Bohol is basically rolling and hilly, and about half the island is covered in limestone. Near the outer areas of the island are low mountain ranges. The interior is a large plateau with irregular landforms.
Near Carmen, the Chocolate Hills are more than 1,200 uniformly cone-shaped hills named for the grass growing on the hills that turns brown in the summer, making the landscape look like chocolate mounds. They are hills made of limestone left over from coral reefs during the Ice Age when the island was submerged. The Chocolate Hills are considered one of Philippine's natural wonders and Bohol is often referred to as the Jewel of the Philippines. They appear on the provincial seal of Bohol.
Bohol has 114 springs, 172 creeks, and four main rivers that run through Bohol with a radial drainage pattern. The largest river, the Inabanga River, runs in the northwestern part of the province; the Loboc River drains the center of the island to the mid-southern coast; the Abatan River runs in the southwest, and Ipil River in the north. The only natural lake in the province is Cabilao Island Lake, also called Lake Danao or Lanao, on Cabilao Island.
Numerous waterfalls and caves are scattered across the island, including MagAso Falls in Antequera. MagAso means smoke in the native tongue. The water is cool and often creates a mist in humid mornings which can hide the falls.
The Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape protects Bohol's largest remaining lowland forest and can be found in the island's southern portion near Bilar.
Islands
The 75 outlying islands surrounding mainland Bohol under the jurisdiction of the Bohol Provincial Government are:
Alicia
Bagatusan
Bagong Banwa
Balicasag
Banacon
Banbanan
Bansaan
Batasan
Bay Sa Owak
Bilangbilangan
Bonbon
Bosaan
Buabuahan
Bugatusan
Busalian
Cabilao
Cabulan
Cabantulan
Cabgan
Calangaman
Cancoslino
Calituban
Cataban
Catang
Catiil
Cuaming
Gakang
Gaus
Guindacpan
Hambongan
Hingutanan
Inanoran
Jaguliao
Jandayan
Jao
Juagdan
Lapinig
Lapinig Chico (Tres Reyes)
Limasoc
Lumislis
Maagpit
Mahanay
Makaina
Makalingao
Malingin
Mantatao Daku
Mantatao Gamay
Maomauan
Maubay
Mocaboc
Nasingin
Nocnocan
Pamasaun
Pamilacan
Pandanon
Pandao
Pangangan
Pangapasan
Panglao
Pinango
Potohan
Pungtud
Saag
Sagasa
Sandingan
Sentingnenay
Silo
Sinandigan
Tabangdio
Talibon
Talimobo
Tambo
Tangtaang
Tintinan
Tumok
Tarsier
In 1996 the Philippine Tarsier Foundation was established in Corella, Bohol in efforts to help conserve and protect tarsiers and their habitat. Forest and habitat sanctuaries have been created to ensure the safety of tarsiers while allowing visitors to roam and discover these miniature primates in their natural habitats.
The tarsier is the smallest living primate that exists in several South East Asian countries today. The Philippine tarsier, Tarsius syrichta, locally known as "mamag" in Boholano is near to threatened according to the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. Adaptation to their large bulging eyes allows them to catch prey clearly at night, and with elongated limbs and fingers, leaping from tree to tree gives no limitation to the tarsier. Their brain is about the same size as their eyes. The connection between its eyes and brain serves a unique function to these animals which is important for their stability and balance. Tarsiers have incredible hearing abilities. They can hear a frequency of up to 91 kHz (kilohertz) and send sounds of 70 kHz.
Climate
From November to April, the northeast monsoon (amihan) prevails. Except for a rare shower, this is the mildest time of the year. Daytime temperatures average , cooling at night to around . The summer season from May to July brings higher temperatures and very humid days. From August to October is the southwest monsoon (habagat). The weather during this season is not very predictable, with weeks of calm weather alternating with rainy days. It can rain any day of the year, but a higher chance of heavy showers occurs from November to January.
Demographics
According to the , it has a population of .
Government
Legislative districts
Governor: Arthur Yap (PDP–Laban)
Vice Governor: Rene Relampagos (NUP)
18th Congress
List of former Governors
Administrative divisions
There are 47 municipalities, 1 component city, and 1,109 barangays in Bohol.
Economy
Tourism plays an increasing role in the island's economy. The Panglao Island International Airport is currently planned for Panglao, which houses the most-visited and accessible beaches in the province. Proponents of the scheme hope that the new airport will increase Bohol's reputation as an international tourist destination although the plan has been dogged by ongoing criticism.
Infrastructure
Airport
The province's main airport is the Bohol–Panglao International Airport on Panglao Island. It replaced Tagbilaran Airport in November 2018 and serves as the gateway to Panglao Island and the rest of mainland Bohol for domestic air travelers. The airport is officially classified as an international airport by the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines, but currently only serves domestic flights.
Seaports
Port of Tubigon, the busiest among the smaller ports, offers more than ten daily round trips plying the Cebu-Bohol route, including fast-craft and roll-on/roll-off. Catagbacan Port in Loon serves the roll-on roll-off services between Argao, Cebu, and Bohol. Port of Jagna offers service between Bohol to Cagayan and Camiguin (with roll-on/roll-off) route. The other ports are Ubay, Talibon, Getafe, Buenavista, and Clarin.
Media
Bohol has 2 major AM radio stations, DYRD and DYTR, both based in Tagbilaran City. Another AM radio station, DYZD, based in Ubay, is being operated by DYRD. Both DYRD and DYTR also operate FM stations with the same names. There are multiple weekly or twice weekly newspapers like Bohol Tribune (formerly Sunday Post), Bohol Times, Bohol Standard and Bohol Bantay Balita. These days, Bohol Chronicle is now a daily paper. An online news website called Bohol News Daily aggregates news from various sources.
Education
The literacy rate of the province of Bohol is high at 98%.
Institutions of Higher Learning are:
Bohol Island State University (BISU)
Holy Name University (HNU)
Holy Spirit School of Tagbilaran (HSST)
University of Bohol (UB)
Tagbilaran City College (TCC)
BIT International College (BIT-IC)
Immaculate Heart of Mary Seminary
Mater Dei College
ACLC College of Tagbilaran
PMI Colleges Bohol
Bohol Wisdom School
Bohol Northern Star Colleges
Blessed Trinity College (BTC)
Bohol Northwestern College
Cristal e-College
Colegio De Getafe
Batuan Colleges Inc. (BCI)
Buenavista Community College (BCC)
Talibon Polytechnic College (TPC)
Trinidad Municipal College (TMC)
Asian Divine Light College
Bohol College of Science and Technology
Bohol International Learning College (BILC)
Ubay Community College (UCC)
Festivals
Sandugo Festival (1–31 July)
Tagbilaran City Fiesta (1 May)
Raffia Festival (29-30 June) Inabanga, Bohol
Saulog Tagbilaran Festival in honor to Saint Joseph the Worker
Bolibong Kingking Festival (23–24 May) – Loboc, Bohol
Pana-ad sa Loboc (Holy Thursday & Good Friday) – Loboc
SidlaKasilak or Festival of Lights – Loon (Fiesta Week: 30 August – 8 September)
Sambat Mascara y Regatta Festival (1st Saturday of December) – Loay, Bohol
Suroy sa Musikero (25 December 25 – 2 February) – Loboc
Bohol Fiestas (month of May)
Ubi Festival (January)
Tigum Bol-anon Tibuok Kalibutan or TBTK – "A gathering of Boholanos from different parts of the world and the name for such a grand event"
Hudyaka sa Panglao (27–28 August) Panglao, Bohol
Sinulog (3rd Saturday of January) – Valencia, Bohol
Dujan Festival (3rd to last week of January) – Anda
Sinuog–Estokada Festival (28–29 September) – Jagna
Chocolate Hills Festival – Carmen
Alimango Festival – Mabini
Humay Festival – Candijay
Guimbawan Festival – Batuan
Espadahan Festival – San Miguel
Notable people
Gallery
See also
Awit sa Bohol - official hymn of the province of Bohol
Boholano dialect
Boholano people
Diocese of Tagbilaran
Diocese of Talibon
Eskaya
Eskayan language
List of Bohol Churches
List of Bohol flora and fauna
List of Bohol-related topics
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Official website of the provincial government of Bohol
Provincial Planning and Development Office of Bohol (includes provincial atlas)
Provinces of the Philippines
Island provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1854
1854 establishments in the Philippines
Bohol Sea
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] |
244396
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBM
|
EBM
|
EBM may stand for:
El Borma Airport, in Tunisia
Electron-beam machining
Electron-beam melting
Electronic ballot marker
Electronic body music, an electronic music genre
Elektra Birseck Münchenstein, a Swiss energy company
English Biscuit Manufacturers, a Pakistani biscuit manufacturer
Espresso Book Machine, a print-on-demand machine
Evidence-based medicine, an approach to medical research and practice
Swedish Economic Crime Authority (Swedish: )
Écoles Belges au Maroc, Belgian international schools in Morocco
Ebm may stand for:
E-flat minor (Em)
|
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] |
244397
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gianfrancesco
|
Gianfrancesco
|
Gianfrancesco is a given name. Notable people with the name include:
Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (1380–1459), Italian scholar
Gianfrancesco Guarnieri (1934–2006),Italian–Brazilian actor, lyricist, poet, and playwright
See also
Gianfranco
Italian masculine given names
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebeians
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Plebeians
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In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words "commoners". Both classes were hereditary.
Etymology
The precise origins of the group and the term are unclear, but may be related to the Greek, plēthos, meaning masses.
In Latin, the word is a singular collective noun, and its genitive is . Plebeians were not a monolithic social class. Those who resided in the city and were part of the 4 urban tribes are sometimes called the , while those who lived in the country and were part of the 31 smaller rural tribes are sometimes differentiated by using the label . (List of Roman tribes)
In Ancient Rome
In the annalistic tradition of Livy and Dionysius, the distinction between patricians and plebeians was as old as Rome itself, instituted by Romulus' appointment of the first hundred senators, whose descendants became the patriciate. Modern hypotheses date the distinction "anywhere from the regal period to the late fifth century" BC. The 19th-century historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr believed plebeians were possibly foreigners immigrating from other parts of Italy. This hypothesis, that plebeians were racially distinct from patricians, however, is not supported by the ancient evidence. Alternatively, the patriciate may have been defined by their monopolisation of hereditary priesthoods that granted ex officio membership in the senate. Patricians also may have emerged from a nucleus of the rich religious leaders who formed themselves into a closed elite after accomplishing the expulsion of the kings.
Certain ("clans") were patrician, signalled by their family names (). In the early republic, there are attested 43 clan names, of which 10 are plebeian with 17 of uncertain status. A single clan also might have both patrician and plebeian branches sharing a distinguished by a .
There existed an aristocracy of wealthy families in the regal period, but "a clear-cut distinction of birth does not seem to have become important before the foundation of the republic". The literary sources hold that in the early republic, plebeians were excluded from magistracies, religious colleges, and the senate. Those sources also hold that they also not permitted to know the laws by which they were governed. However, some scholars doubt that patricians monopolised the magistracies of the early republic, as plebeian names appear in the lists of Roman magistrates back to the fifth century BC. It is likely that patricians, over the course of the first half of the fifth century, were able to close off high political office from plebeians and exclude plebeians from permanent social integration through marraige.
Plebeians were enrolled into the curiae and the tribes; they also served in the army and also in army officer roles as tribuni militum.
Conflict of the orders
The Conflict of the Orders ( meaning "social rank") refers to a struggle by plebeians for full political rights from the patricians. According to Roman tradition, shortly after the establishment of the republic, plebeians objected to their exclusion from power and exploitation by the patricians. The plebeians were able to achieve their political goals by a series of secessions from the city: "a combination of mutiny and a strike".
Ancient Roman tradition claimed that the Conflict led to laws being published, written down, and given open access starting in 494 BC with the law of the Twelve Tables, which also introduced the concept of equality before the law, "often referred to in Latin as libertas", which became foundational to republican politics. This succession also forced the creation of plebeian tribunes with authority to defend plebeian interests. Following this, there was a period of consular tribunes who shared power between plebeians and patricians in various years, but the consular tribunes apparently were not endowed with religious authority. In 445 BC, the lex Canuleia permitted intermarriage among plebeians and patricians.
There was a radical reform in 367–6 BC, which abolished consular tribunes and "laid the foundation for a system of government led by two consuls, shared between patricians and plebeians" over the religious objections of patricians, requiring at least one of the consuls to be a plebeian. And after 342 BC, plebeians regularly attained the consulship. Debt bondage was abolished in 326, freeing plebeians from the possibility of slavery by patrician creditors. By 287, with the passage of the lex Hortensia, plebiscites – or laws passed by the concilium plebis – were made binding on the whole Roman people. Moreover, it banned senatorial vetoes of plebeian council laws. And also around the year 300 BC, the priesthoods also were shared between patricians and plebeians, ending the "last significant barrier to plebeian emancipation".
The veracity of the traditional story is profoundly unclear: "many aspects of the story as it has come down to us must be wrong, heavily modernised... or still much more myth than history". Substantial portions of the rhetoric put into the mouths of the plebeian reformers of the early republic are likely imaginative reconstructions reflecting the late republican politics of their writers. Contradicting claims that plebs were excluded from politics from the fall of the monarchy, plebeians appear in the consular lists during the early fifth century BC. The form of the state may also have been substantially different, with a temporary ad hoc "senate", not taking on fully classical elements for more than a century from the republic's establishment.
Noble plebeians
The completion of plebeian political emancipation was founded on a republican ideal dominated by nobiles who were defined not by caste or heredity, but by their accession to the high offices of state, elected from both patrician and plebeian families. There was substantial convergence in this class of people, with a complex culture of preserving the memory of and celebrating one's political accomplishments and those of one's ancestors. This culture also focused considerably on achievements in terms of war and personal merit.
Throughout the Second Samnite War (326–304 BC), plebeians who had risen to power through these social reforms began to acquire the aura of ("nobility", also "fame, renown"), marking the creation of a ruling elite of nobiles. From the mid-4th century to the early 3rd century BC, several plebeian–patrician "tickets" for the consulship repeated joint terms, suggesting a deliberate political strategy of cooperation.
No contemporary definition of nobilis or novus homo – a person entering the nobility – exists; Mommsen, positively referenced by Brunt (1982), said the nobiles were patricians, plebeians whose families had become plebeian, and plebeians who had held curule offices (eg dictator, consul, praetor, and curule aedile). Becoming a senator after election to a quaestorship did not make a man a nobilis, only those who were entitled to a curule chair were nobiles. However, by the time of Cicero in the post-Sullan republic, the definition of nobilis had shifted. Now, nobilis came to refer only to former consuls and the direct relatives and male descendants thereof. The new focus on the consulship "can be directly related to the many other displays of pedigree and family heritage that became increasingly common after Sulla" and with the expanded senate and number of praetors diluting the honour of the lower offices.
A person becoming nobilis by election to the consulate was a novus homo (a new man). Marius and Cicero are notable examples of novi homines (new men) in the late Republic, when many of Rome's richest and most powerful men – such as Lucullus, Marcus Crassus, and Pompey – were plebeian nobles.
Later history
In the later republic, the term lost its indication of a social order or formal hereditary class, becoming used instead to refer to citizens of lower socioeconomic status. By the early empire, the word was used to refer to people who were not senators (of the empire or of the local municipalities) or equestrians.
Life
Childhood and education
The average plebeian did not come into a wealthy family; the politically active nobiles as a whole comprised a very small portion of the whole population. The average plebeian child was expected to enter the workforce at a young age. Plebeians typically belonged to a lower socio-economic class than their patrician counterparts, but there also were poor patricians and rich plebeians by the late republic.
Education was limited to what their parent would teach them, which consisted of only learning the very basics of writing, reading and mathematics. Wealthier plebeians were able to send their children to schools or hire a private tutor.
Living quarters
Plebeians in ancient Rome lived in buildings called , apartment buildings that housed many families. These apartments usually lacked running water and heat. Not all plebeians lived in these run-down conditions, as some wealthier plebs were able to live in single-family homes, called a domus.
Attire
Plebeian men wore a tunic with a belt at the waist, and women wore a long dress called a stola.
Meals
Since meat was very expensive, animal products such as pork, beef and veal would have been considered a delicacy to plebeians. Instead, a plebeian diet mainly consisted of bread and vegetables. Common flavouring for their food included honey, vinegar and different herbs and spices. A well-known condiment to this day known as 'garum', which is a fish sauce was also largely consumed.
Derivatives
United States military academies
In the U.S. military, plebes are freshmen at the U.S. Military Academy, U.S. Naval Academy, Valley Forge Military Academy and College, the Marine Military Academy, the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, Georgia Military College, and California Maritime Academy. The term is also used for new cadets at the Philippine Military Academy.
Philippine Military Academy
Since the construction of Philippine Military Academy, the system and traditions were programmed the same as the United States Military Academy. First Year Cadets in PMA are called Plebes or Plebos (short term for Fourth Class Cadets) because they are still civilian antiques and they are expected to master first the spirit of Followership. As plebes, they are also expected to become the "working force (force men or "porsmen") in the Corps of Cadets. They must know also the different plebe knowledges.
British and Commonwealth usage
Early public schools in the United Kingdom would enroll pupils as "plebeians", as opposed to sons of gentry and aristocrats.
In British, Irish, Australian, New Zealand and South African English, the back-formation pleb, along with the more recently derived adjectival form plebby, is used as a derogatory term for someone considered unsophisticated, uncultured, or lower class.
In popular culture
A British comedy show, Plebs has since 2013 followed plebeians during Ancient Rome in a comical manner.
In Margaret Atwood's novel Oryx and Crake, there is a major class divide. The rich and educated live in safeguarded facilities while others live in dilapidated cities referred to as the "pleeblands".
See also
Plebgate (aka Plodgate or Gategate), a 2012 British political scandal involving the use of the word as a slur
References
Citations
Sources
\
Further reading
External links
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, article Plebs
Livius.org: Plebs
Social classes in ancient Rome
Social history of the United Kingdom
Class-related slurs
Social divisions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipartite%20graph
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Bipartite graph
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In the mathematical field of graph theory, a bipartite graph (or bigraph) is a graph whose vertices can be divided into two disjoint and independent sets and , that is every edge connects a vertex in to one in . Vertex sets and are usually called the parts of the graph. Equivalently, a bipartite graph is a graph that does not contain any odd-length cycles.
The two sets and may be thought of as a coloring of the graph with two colors: if one colors all nodes in blue, and all nodes in green, each edge has endpoints of differing colors, as is required in the graph coloring problem. In contrast, such a coloring is impossible in the case of a non-bipartite graph, such as a triangle: after one node is colored blue and another green, the third vertex of the triangle is connected to vertices of both colors, preventing it from being assigned either color.
One often writes to denote a bipartite graph whose partition has the parts and , with denoting the edges of the graph. If a bipartite graph is not connected, it may have more than one bipartition; in this case, the notation is helpful in specifying one particular bipartition that may be of importance in an application. If , that is, if the two subsets have equal cardinality, then is called a balanced bipartite graph. If all vertices on the same side of the bipartition have the same degree, then is called biregular.
Examples
When modelling relations between two different classes of objects, bipartite graphs very often arise naturally. For instance, a graph of football players and clubs, with an edge between a player and a club if the player has played for that club, is a natural example of an affiliation network, a type of bipartite graph used in social network analysis.
Another example where bipartite graphs appear naturally is in the (NP-complete) railway optimization problem, in which the input is a schedule of trains and their stops, and the goal is to find a set of train stations as small as possible such that every train visits at least one of the chosen stations. This problem can be modeled as a dominating set problem in a bipartite graph that has a vertex for each train and each station and an edge for each pair of a station and a train that stops at that station.
A third example is in the academic field of numismatics. Ancient coins are made using two positive impressions of the design (the obverse and reverse). The charts numismatists produce to represent the production of coins are bipartite graphs.
More abstract examples include the following:
Every tree is bipartite.
Cycle graphs with an even number of vertices are bipartite.
Every planar graph whose faces all have even length is bipartite. Special cases of this are grid graphs and squaregraphs, in which every inner face consists of 4 edges and every inner vertex has four or more neighbors.
The complete bipartite graph on m and n vertices, denoted by Kn,m is the bipartite graph , where U and V are disjoint sets of size m and n, respectively, and E connects every vertex in U with all vertices in V. It follows that Km,n has mn edges. Closely related to the complete bipartite graphs are the crown graphs, formed from complete bipartite graphs by removing the edges of a perfect matching.
Hypercube graphs, partial cubes, and median graphs are bipartite. In these graphs, the vertices may be labeled by bitvectors, in such a way that two vertices are adjacent if and only if the corresponding bitvectors differ in a single position. A bipartition may be formed by separating the vertices whose bitvectors have an even number of ones from the vertices with an odd number of ones. Trees and squaregraphs form examples of median graphs, and every median graph is a partial cube.
Properties
Characterization
Bipartite graphs may be characterized in several different ways:
A graph is bipartite if and only if it does not contain an odd cycle.
A graph is bipartite if and only if it is 2-colorable, (i.e. its chromatic number is less than or equal to 2).
A graph is bipartite if and only if every edge belongs to an odd number of bonds, minimal subsets of edges whose removal increases the number of components of the graph.
A graph is bipartite if and only if the spectrum of the graph is symmetric.
Kőnig's theorem and perfect graphs
In bipartite graphs, the size of minimum vertex cover is equal to the size of the maximum matching; this is Kőnig's theorem. An alternative and equivalent form of this theorem is that the size of the maximum independent set plus the size of the maximum matching is equal to the number of vertices. In any graph without isolated vertices the size of the minimum edge cover plus the size of a maximum matching equals the number of vertices. Combining this equality with Kőnig's theorem leads to the facts that, in bipartite graphs, the size of the minimum edge cover is equal to the size of the maximum independent set, and the size of the minimum edge cover plus the size of the minimum vertex cover is equal to the number of vertices.
Another class of related results concerns perfect graphs: every bipartite graph, the complement of every bipartite graph, the line graph of every bipartite graph, and the complement of the line graph of every bipartite graph, are all perfect. Perfection of bipartite graphs is easy to see (their chromatic number is two and their maximum clique size is also two) but perfection of the complements of bipartite graphs is less trivial, and is another restatement of Kőnig's theorem. This was one of the results that motivated the initial definition of perfect graphs. Perfection of the complements of line graphs of perfect graphs is yet another restatement of Kőnig's theorem, and perfection of the line graphs themselves is a restatement of an earlier theorem of Kőnig, that every bipartite graph has an edge coloring using a number of colors equal to its maximum degree.
According to the strong perfect graph theorem, the perfect graphs have a forbidden graph characterization resembling that of bipartite graphs: a graph is bipartite if and only if it has no odd cycle as a subgraph, and a graph is perfect if and only if it has no odd cycle or its complement as an induced subgraph. The bipartite graphs, line graphs of bipartite graphs, and their complements form four out of the five basic classes of perfect graphs used in the proof of the strong perfect graph theorem.
Degree
For a vertex, the number of adjacent vertices is called the degree of the vertex and is denoted . The degree sum formula for a bipartite graph states that
The degree sequence of a bipartite graph is the pair of lists each containing the degrees of the two parts and . For example, the complete bipartite graph K3,5 has degree sequence . Isomorphic bipartite graphs have the same degree sequence. However, the degree sequence does not, in general, uniquely identify a bipartite graph; in some cases, non-isomorphic bipartite graphs may have the same degree sequence.
The bipartite realization problem is the problem of finding a simple bipartite graph with the degree sequence being two given lists of natural numbers. (Trailing zeros may be ignored since they are trivially realized by adding an appropriate number of isolated vertices to the digraph.)
Relation to hypergraphs and directed graphs
The biadjacency matrix of a bipartite graph is a (0,1) matrix of size that has a one for each pair of adjacent vertices and a zero for nonadjacent vertices. Biadjacency matrices may be used to describe equivalences between bipartite graphs, hypergraphs, and directed graphs.
A hypergraph is a combinatorial structure that, like an undirected graph, has vertices and edges, but in which the edges may be arbitrary sets of vertices rather than having to have exactly two endpoints. A bipartite graph may be used to model a hypergraph in which is the set of vertices of the hypergraph, is the set of hyperedges, and contains an edge from a hypergraph vertex to a hypergraph edge exactly when is one of the endpoints of . Under this correspondence, the biadjacency matrices of bipartite graphs are exactly the incidence matrices of the corresponding hypergraphs. As a special case of this correspondence between bipartite graphs and hypergraphs, any multigraph (a graph in which there may be two or more edges between the same two vertices) may be interpreted as a hypergraph in which some hyperedges have equal sets of endpoints, and represented by a bipartite graph that does not have multiple adjacencies and in which the vertices on one side of the bipartition all have degree two.
A similar reinterpretation of adjacency matrices may be used to show a one-to-one correspondence between directed graphs (on a given number of labeled vertices, allowing self-loops) and balanced bipartite graphs, with the same number of vertices on both sides of the bipartition. For, the adjacency matrix of a directed graph with vertices can be any (0,1) matrix of size , which can then be reinterpreted as the adjacency matrix of a bipartite graph with vertices on each side of its bipartition. In this construction, the bipartite graph is the bipartite double cover of the directed graph.
Algorithms
Testing bipartiteness
It is possible to test whether a graph is bipartite, and to return either a two-coloring (if it is bipartite) or an odd cycle (if it is not) in linear time, using depth-first search. The main idea is to assign to each vertex the color that differs from the color of its parent in the depth-first search forest, assigning colors in a preorder traversal of the depth-first-search forest. This will necessarily provide a two-coloring of the spanning forest consisting of the edges connecting vertices to their parents, but it may not properly color some of the non-forest edges. In a depth-first search forest, one of the two endpoints of every non-forest edge is an ancestor of the other endpoint, and when the depth first search discovers an edge of this type it should check that these two vertices have different colors. If they do not, then the path in the forest from ancestor to descendant, together with the miscolored edge, form an odd cycle, which is returned from the algorithm together with the result that the graph is not bipartite. However, if the algorithm terminates without detecting an odd cycle of this type, then every edge must be properly colored, and the algorithm returns the coloring together with the result that the graph is bipartite.
Alternatively, a similar procedure may be used with breadth-first search in place of depth-first search. Again, each node is given the opposite color to its parent in the search forest, in breadth-first order. If, when a vertex is colored, there exists an edge connecting it to a previously-colored vertex with the same color, then this edge together with the paths in the breadth-first search forest connecting its two endpoints to their lowest common ancestor forms an odd cycle. If the algorithm terminates without finding an odd cycle in this way, then it must have found a proper coloring, and can safely conclude that the graph is bipartite.
For the intersection graphs of line segments or other simple shapes in the Euclidean plane, it is possible to test whether the graph is bipartite and return either a two-coloring or an odd cycle in time , even though the graph itself may have up to edges.
Odd cycle transversal
Odd cycle transversal is an NP-complete algorithmic problem that asks, given a graph G = (V,E) and a number k, whether there exists a set of k vertices whose removal from G would cause the resulting graph to be bipartite. The problem is fixed-parameter tractable, meaning that there is an algorithm whose running time can be bounded by a polynomial function of the size of the graph multiplied by a larger function of k. The name odd cycle transversal comes from the fact that a graph is bipartite if and only if it has no odd cycles. Hence, to delete vertices from a graph in order to obtain a bipartite graph, one needs to "hit all odd cycle", or find a so-called odd cycle transversal set. In the illustration, every odd cycle in the graph contains the blue (the bottommost) vertices, so removing those vertices kills all odd cycles and leaves a bipartite graph.
The edge bipartization problem is the algorithmic problem of deleting as few edges as possible to make a graph bipartite and is also an important problem in graph modification algorithmics. This problem is also fixed-parameter tractable, and can be solved in time , where k is the number of edges to delete and m is the number of edges in the input graph.
Matching
A matching in a graph is a subset of its edges, no two of which share an endpoint. Polynomial time algorithms are known for many algorithmic problems on matchings, including maximum matching (finding a matching that uses as many edges as possible), maximum weight matching, and stable marriage. In many cases, matching problems are simpler to solve on bipartite graphs than on non-bipartite graphs, and many matching algorithms such as the Hopcroft–Karp algorithm for maximum cardinality matching work correctly only on bipartite inputs.
As a simple example, suppose that a set of people are all seeking jobs from among a set of jobs, with not all people suitable for all jobs. This situation can be modeled as a bipartite graph where an edge connects each job-seeker with each suitable job. A perfect matching describes a way of simultaneously satisfying all job-seekers and filling all jobs; Hall's marriage theorem provides a characterization of the bipartite graphs which allow perfect matchings. The National Resident Matching Program applies graph matching methods to solve this problem for U.S. medical student job-seekers and hospital residency jobs.
The Dulmage–Mendelsohn decomposition is a structural decomposition of bipartite graphs that is useful in finding maximum matchings.
Additional applications
Bipartite graphs are extensively used in modern coding theory, especially to decode codewords received from the channel. Factor graphs and Tanner graphs are examples of this. A Tanner graph is a bipartite graph in which the vertices on one side of the bipartition represent digits of a codeword, and the vertices on the other side represent combinations of digits that are expected to sum to zero in a codeword without errors. A factor graph is a closely related belief network used for probabilistic decoding of LDPC and turbo codes.
In computer science, a Petri net is a mathematical modeling tool used in analysis and simulations of concurrent systems. A system is modeled as a bipartite directed graph with two sets of nodes: A set of "place" nodes that contain resources, and a set of "event" nodes which generate and/or consume resources. There are additional constraints on the nodes and edges that constrain the behavior of the system. Petri nets utilize the properties of bipartite directed graphs and other properties to allow mathematical proofs of the behavior of systems while also allowing easy implementation of simulations of the system.
In projective geometry, Levi graphs are a form of bipartite graph used to model the incidences between points and lines in a configuration. Corresponding to the geometric property of points and lines that every two lines meet in at most one point and every two points be connected with a single line, Levi graphs necessarily do not contain any cycles of length four, so their girth must be six or more.
See also
Bipartite dimension, the minimum number of complete bipartite graphs whose union is the given graph
Bipartite double cover, a way of transforming any graph into a bipartite graph by doubling its vertices
Bipartite hypergraph, a generalization of bipartiteness to hypergraphs.
Bipartite matroid, a class of matroids that includes the graphic matroids of bipartite graphs
Bipartite network projection, a weighting technique for compressing information about bipartite networks
Convex bipartite graph, a bipartite graph whose vertices can be ordered so that the vertex neighborhoods are contiguous
Multipartite graph, a generalization of bipartite graphs to more than two subsets of vertices
Parity graph, a generalization of bipartite graphs in which every two induced paths between the same two points have the same parity
Quasi-bipartite graph, a type of Steiner tree problem instance in which the terminals form an independent set, allowing approximation algorithms that generalize those for bipartite graphs
Split graph, a graph in which the vertices can be partitioned into two subsets, one of which is independent and the other of which is a clique
Zarankiewicz problem on the maximum number of edges in a bipartite graph with forbidden subgraphs
References
External links
Information System on Graph Classes and their Inclusions: bipartite graph
Bipartite graphs in systems biology and medicine
Graph families
Parity (mathematics)
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] |
244432
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipartite
|
Bipartite
|
Bipartite may refer to:
2 (number)
Bipartite (theology), a philosophical term describing the human duality of body and soul
Bipartite graph, in mathematics, a graph in which the vertices are partitioned into two sets and every edge has an endpoint in each set
Bipartite uterus, a type of uterus found in deer and moose, etc.
Bipartite treaty, a treaty between two parties
See also
Dichotomy
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Parker%20%28wine%20critic%29
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Robert Parker (wine critic)
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Robert McDowell Parker Jr. (born July 23, 1947) is a retired U.S. wine critic. His wine ratings on a 100-point scale and his newsletter The Wine Advocate are influential in American wine buying and are therefore a major factor in setting the prices for newly released Bordeaux wines. This made him the most widely known and influential wine critic in the world.
Biography
Parker was born in Baltimore, Maryland. His father was a construction equipment salesman. He is an honors graduate of the University of Maryland, College Park, with a major in history and a minor in art history. He continued his education at University of Maryland School of Law at the urban campus of the University of Maryland, Baltimore, graduating in 1973 with a Juris Doctor degree. He discovered wine as a student visiting Alsace, where Patricia, now his wife, was studying. For over ten years, he was assistant general counsel for the Farm Credit Banks of Baltimore; he resigned in March 1984 to focus on writing about wine.
In 1975, Parker began writing a wine guidebook. Taking his cue from consumer advocate Ralph Nader, Parker wanted to write about wine without the conflicts of interest that might taint the opinions of other critics who also make a living selling wine. In 1978, he published a direct-mail newsletter called The Baltimore-Washington Wine Advocate, which was later renamed The Wine Advocate. The first issue was sent free to consumers from mailing lists Parker purchased from several major wine retailers. Six hundred charter subscribers paid to receive the second issue published later that year.
Parker received worldwide attention when he called the 1982 vintage in Bordeaux superb, contrary to the opinions of many other critics, such as San Francisco critic Robert Finigan, who felt it was too low-acid and ripe. While there is still debate about the timelessness of the vintage, prices of 1982 Bordeaux remain consistently higher than other vintages.
More than twenty years later, The Wine Advocate has over 50,000 subscribers, primarily in the United States, but with significant readership in over 37 other countries. While other wine publications have more subscribers, The Wine Advocate is still considered to exert a significant influence on wine consumers' buying habits, particularly in America. New York Times wine critic Frank Prial asserted that "Robert M. Parker Jr. is the most influential wine critic in the world."
A lengthy profile of Parker entitled "The Million Dollar Nose" ran in The Atlantic Monthly in December 2000. Among other claims, Parker told the author that he tastes 10,000 wines a year and "remembers every wine he has tasted over the past thirty-two years and, within a few points, every score he has given as well." Yet, in a public blind tasting of fifteen top wines from Bordeaux 2005—which he has called "the greatest vintage of my lifetime"—Parker could not correctly identify any of the wines, confusing left bank wines for right several times. (In general, "left bank" wines are grown in regions west of the Gironde Estuary, and "right bank" in the regions east.)
In addition to writing and tasting for The Wine Advocate, which is published six times a year in Monkton, Maryland, Parker has been a contributing editor for Food and Wine Magazine and BusinessWeek. He has also written periodically for the British magazine The Field and has been the wine critic for France's L'Express magazine, the first time a non-Frenchman has held this position.
Among media that focus on the influence and effects of Parker on the global wine industry are the 2005 unauthorized biography The Emperor of Wine by Elin McCoy, the 2004 documentary film Mondovino by Jonathan Nossiter, the 2008 book The Battle for Wine and Love: Or How I Saved the World from Parkerization by Alice Feiring, and the 2010 French language bande dessinée comic book, Robert Parker: Les Sept Pêchés capiteux.
Parker's nose and palate are insured for $1 million.
Parker disclosed end of 2012, that he will sell a "substantial interest" in his newsletter and plans to step down as editor in chief. His new partners are a trio of Singapore-based hedge fund investors.
Parker formally retired from The Wine Advocate at the age of 71 in 2019.
Impact of Parker on the world of wine
A new role for the wine critic
Until the 1970s, wine criticism was usually complementary to the production or trade of wine. The conflict of interest that might ensue from this close relationship was accepted by consumers, as they consulted wine reviews to gain an introduction to the world of wine, and not necessarily for advice on getting good value for their money. Hence, before Robert Parker, wine critics almost always had some link to the production or trade of wines.
Two wine critics were particularly influential in inspiring and defining Robert Parker:
Robert Lawrence Balzer's charisma inspired Parker. Like his contemporaries, Balzer rarely wrote negative statements about wines. He even once published a book under his name that had actually been written by wine grower Paul Masson.
Robert Finigan was Parker's forerunner in consumer-oriented wine reviewing. In the monthly Robert Finigan's Private Guide to Wine, launched in 1972, Finigan offered consumer-oriented, independent wine criticism, just as Parker did after him. Finigan helped consumers make decisions by developing standard evaluation criteria; his qualitative comments were straightforward and understandable, and each wine was ranked on a quality scale (exceptional, above average, average, below average).
Parker is a consumer advocate who admires Ralph Nader and has been critical of most wine critics, who traditionally have been part of the wine industry and have had vested interests.
According to Mike Steinberger, Parker has inadvertently made becoming a wine critic in the future almost impossible, since— in part because of the success of his scoring system—it is now prohibitively expensive to taste the very wines one should criticize. If it behooves a critic to understand, say, Château Lafite 1982, 2000, 2003, and 2005 before assessing the latest vintage: the critic must drink wine worth tens of thousands of dollars before beginning the review. This was not true when Steinberger became a connoisseur in the 1970s.
Parker's 100-point rating system
One of the most influential and controversial features of Parker's wine criticism is his 100-point rating system, which he popularized in conjunction with his friend Victor Morgenroth. Parker designed the system to counter what he believed to be confusing or inflated ratings by other wine writers—many of whom he accused of a conflict of interest, as they often had a financial interest in the wines they rated. The scale, now widely imitated in other publications (such as Wine Spectator), ranks wine on a scale from 50 to 100 points based upon the wine's color and appearance, aroma and bouquet, flavor and finish, and overall quality level or potential. Therefore, 51 rather than 100 different ratings are possible. Although some critics, such as Jancis Robinson, argue that numerical rating systems are questionable—given the subjectivity of wine tasting and the variance in scores that a wine's age and the circumstances of tasting can cause—similar 100-point scoring systems are widely used by American reviewers. Many British reviewers, such as Jancis Robinson and Clive Coates, still prefer a 20-point system.
Retailers in North America often mark wines with Parker's point scores, using printed cards attached to the shelves. Parker cautions buyers that they should read the tasting notes to determine whether or not the wine is made in a style they will like; he states on his website:
Parker argues that he scores wines on how much pleasure they give him. He, and others, have said that it is the obscurity, corruption, and other problems of the appellation system that made his consumer-oriented approach necessary. For example, the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855 was based entirely upon the château's reputation and trading price in 1855. However, since then many châteaux have sold much of their vineyards; others have bought additional vineyards far away. The original winemakers are long dead. Parker says that this state of affairs was responsible for creating an injustice for consumers, causing mediocre wine to be sold at too high a price, and good wine to be sold at too low a price. He says of the 1855 classifications, "At most, these classifications should be regarded by both the wine connoisseur and novice as informational items of historical significance only."
Parker has admitted that emotions do matter, contrary to the seeming objectivity of the 100-point scale: "I really think probably the only difference between a 96-, 97-, 98-, 99-, and 100-point wine is really the emotion of the moment."
Parker is considered an unusually fast taster, and during an initial assessment he may keep a wine in his mouth for only four or five seconds before determining whether it is potentially a wine of 80 points or above. Mediocre wines will then be dismissed while those with potential are tasted twice or three times in succession before the final score is determined.
Impact on the supply: the "Parkerization" of wine
Parker's impact on the style of fine wines has generated controversy. Parker is highly critical of "those who make 'industrial wines with little flavor and no authenticity'" and he believes that there are still undiscovered regions and wines that can successfully challenge the wine establishment. Critics such as Golo Weber claim that Parker likes less-acidic, riper wines with significant amounts of oak, alcohol, and extract. This supposed "Parker taste" may be less the result of Parker's own preferences than of a trend initiated by Émile Peynaud, the French oenologist and father of the so-called "international wines". In the 1970s, winemakers avoided the late harvests, when the grapes were mature, in order to avoid the risks of end-of-season rains. Peynaud proposed that winemakers should wait to harvest until the grape was fully mature, or even over-mature. He also insisted on control of malolactic fermentation through the use of stainless steel vessels.
The globalist domination of the oenological press by Parker's ideas has led to changes in viticulture and winemaking practices, such as reducing yield by green harvesting, harvesting grapes as late as possible for maximum ripeness, not filtering the wine, and using new techniques—such as microoxygenation—to soften tannins. These widespread changes in technique have been called "Parkerization", also sometimes known as "The International Style", and have led to fear of a homogenization of wine styles around the world as Parker's "tastes are irrevocably changing the way some French wines are made", according to the BBC's Caroline Wyatt. Indeed, certain low-producing "boutique" wineries, among others, have received high scores from Parker for wines made in this style. Parker disputes the notion of growing homogeneity and argues for the opposite: "When I started tasting wines, in the 1970s, we were on a slippery slope. There was a standardization of wines, where you couldn't tell a Chianti from a cabernet. That's pretty much stopped now."
Jacques Hebrard, the manager of Château Cheval Blanc, was once outraged at Parker's evaluation and asked Parker to re-taste the wine. Upon his return, Hebrard's dog attacked Parker as the manager stood by idly and watched. Parker says that when he asked for a bandage to stop the bleeding from his leg, Hebrard instead gave him a copy of the offending newsletter. Hebrard denies that Parker was bleeding.
Wine critic Prial says "The Bordeaux wine establishment feels threatened by these new-style wines... and is engaged in an increasingly bitter fight against Parker and his influence."
Impact on the market
Impact on prices
There is evidence that Parker's rating scale has a dual effect on prices and sales, with claims from the wine industry that a Parker top score is valued at potentially £5 million.
When Parker declined to review the 2002 Bordeaux vintage "in barrel," the vintners were forced to drop their prices.
According to one Bordeaux shipper cited by McCoy, "the difference between a score of 85 and 95 [for one wine] was 6 to 7 million Euro", and a "bottle rated 100 can multiply its price fourfold."
Château Quinault, which used to have hard time selling its wine at 100 francs a bottle, saw its 1998 vintage rise in price in half a day to 125 francs after Parker gave it a 92 rating.
According to a 2005 economic analysis, Parker's scores would inflate the prices of already highly rated wines but, for the less good ones, it would not decrease their sales nor even increase their prices.
Whatever his influence, Parker alone cannot impact the market price for a wine if he is alone against the mainstream. The famous controversy around the Château Pavie 2003 is an example of this: despite Parker's positive ratings, the wine in bottle sold 30% cheaper than en primeur.
In a statistical analysis published in New Political Economy, political scientist Colin Hay suggests that Parker has a significant impact on the price of en primeur Bordeaux wines:
Hay also argues that
Hay notes that Parker's influence on consumer preferences is not so great as it is on prices.
Creation of new market segments
Parker strongly influenced the creation of garagiste wines, created by a group of innovative winemakers in the Bordeaux region of France.
Limits to Parker's influences
Parker is an avid fan of Bordeaux, and some of his critics observe that his focus is largely limited to French wine. In recent years, he has taken on additional staff for The Wine Advocate, which has enabled the publication to expand into other areas, such as Greek and Israeli wines. Still, his influence is most keenly felt by Bordeaux, California, and Rhône wines.
Parker's influence on Burgundy wines was lessened as the result of a libel lawsuit filed against him by Domaine Faiveley. In the third edition of his Wine Buyer's Guide, Parker reported that "the Faiveley wines tasted abroad would be less rich than those one can taste on the spot [...]". In other words, Parker accused Faiveley of cheating. Faiveley sued Parker for libel; in February 1994, Parker was requested to appear in front of the Paris superior court (tribunal de grande instance). The case was settled out of court. It was eventually discovered that the difference in taste that Parker identified was due to improper storage of the wine at the American importer's warehouse, causing the wine to be "cooked." Parker delegated coverage of the Burgundy and Alsace regions to Pierre-Antoine Rovani in April 1997.
Controversy
Parker has stated very clearly, both in The Wine Advocate and his books, that his advice stands on high ethical standards, and that independence and impartiality constitute his two most important values. By abiding by these standards, he says, he seeks to guarantee that his valuations will be pro-consumer, and not pro-industry.
Several published sources offer accounts that may call Parker's independence and impartiality into question.
In her book Emperor of Wine, Elin McCoy describes a positive article Parker wrote in the second issue of The Baltimore/Washington Wine Advocate about MacArthur Liquors and its manager, Addy Bassin. That article fails to mention that Mr. Bassin sold Parker a list of MacArthur's customers for use in mailing out the first, free issue of the Advocate, a potential conflict of interest.
In issue 164 of The Wine Advocate, Parker wrote a long article about Jeffrey Davies, a wine trader based in Bordeaux. As Hanna Agostini and Marie-Françoise Guichard point out in their book Robert Parker, Anatomy of a Myth, what Parker failed to mention was that he tasted wines with Davies, not by himself—yet Parker has repeatedly stated that an impartial wine critic should taste wines alone. Davies advised Parker not to publish his comments on the 2004 Bordeaux in issue 164, as Parker had planned, because they would have suffered from their comparison with the much better 2003 and 2005. Parker followed Davies' advice, and published those comments in the following issue instead.
The second issue of The Baltimore/Washington Wine Advocate stated "Robert Parker has no interest, direct or indirect, financial or any other, in importing, distributing or selling wines." In the late 1980's, Parker invested in an Oregon vineyard with his brother-in-law, Michael G. Etzel, called The Beaux Frères Vineyard ("The Brothers-in-Law"), which would soon after become a commercial winery under the same name. He promised never to review any wines produced there in The Wine Advocate.
Two of Parker's tasters had, or still have, an interest in the distribution or the sale of wines, according to published accounts.
Until January 1, 2007, David Schildknecht spent half of his time importing and distributing wines, and the other half critiquing wine for The Wine Advocate. He subsequently became a full-time critic for The Wine Advocate.
Kevin Zraly is the vice-president of Smith and Wollensky Restaurants, a group of 17 restaurants with a substantial wine list.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Agostini|first1=Hanna|last2=Guichard|first2=Marie-Françoise|title=Robert Parker, anatomie d'un mythe; portrait non autorisé du plus grand dégustateur de tous les temps|year=2007|location=Paris|publisher=Scala|language=fr|isbn=978-2-35012-186-4|page=85}}</ref>
Robert Parker's goddaughter, Marie Raynaud, is the daughter of Alain Raynaud—the co-owner of Château la Croix-de-Gay in Pomerol and former owner of Château Quinault in Saint-Émilion. Mr. Raynaud was the President of the Union des Grands Crus de Bordeaux, an advocacy group for the Grand Crus of Bordeaux, between 1994 and 2000.
Yale University professor, econometrician, and lawyer Ian Ayres wrote about Robert Parker's conflict with Orley Ashenfelter, the publisher of Liquid Assets: The International Guide to Fine Wines, in his book Super Crunchers. Ashenfelter devised a formula for predicting wine quality based on weather data such as rainfall and temperature that Parker characterized as "ludicrous and absurd." Ashenfelter was able to show that Parker's initial ratings of vintages had been biased upward, requiring him to revise his rankings downward more often than not. Says Ayres, "Both the wine dealers and writers have a vested interest in maintaining their informational monopoly on the quality of wine." Ayres pointed out that Ashenfelter's predictions have proven to be remarkably accurate, and claimed the wine critics' "predictions now correspond much more closely to [Ashenfelter's] simple equation results."
Bibliography
Awards and recognition
1993 - Chevalier de l'Ordre National du Mérite
1993 - Wine and Vine Communication Award from Moet-Hennessey
1995 - Declared Honorary Citizen of Chateauneuf du Pape
1997 - James Beard Foundation Wine and Spirits Professional of 1997
1999 - Chevalier de l'Ordre de la Légion d'honneur
2002 - Commendatore dell'Ordine al merito della Repubblica Italiana
2005 - Officier de la Légion d'honneur
2008 - Elected to the Wine Media Guild Hall of Fame
Robert Parker is one of only a few foreigners to have received France's two highest Presidential honors, and is the first wine critic to have received such recognitions in France and in Italy.
See also
Garagistes
List of wine personalities
List of celebrities who own wineries and vineyards
References
External links
eRobertParker.com official site
Hedonistic Fruit Bombs, a February 2005 article in London Review of Books, with biographical information.
"Big Shake-Up at Robert Parker's Wine Advocate," Lettie Teague, The Wall Street Journal'', 9 December 2012
1947 births
Living people
Wine critics
Writers from Baltimore
University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law alumni
University of Maryland, College Park alumni
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
American male writers
James Beard Foundation Award winners
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] |
244436
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Indonesians
|
List of Indonesians
|
Academics
Luthfi Assyaukanie
Azyumardi Azra
Arief Budiman, sociologist, brother of Soe Hok Gie, professor at the University of Melbourne, formerly at Satya Wacana Christian University
Winai Dahlan, founder Director of the Halal Science Center Chulalongkorn University
Firmanzah
Sunaryati Hartono
Ong Hok Ham, one of the leading experts on Indonesian history during the 19th century Dutch colonial rule
Samaun Samadikun
Pantur Silaban
Yohanes Surya
Leo Suryadinata
Jawahir Thontowi
Djoehana Wiradikarta
Arts and entertainment
Arts
Basuki Abdullah
Affandi
Kartika Affandi-Koberl
Marina Joesoef, painter and photographer
Raden Saleh
Asep Sunandar Sunarya
Tio Tjay
Dance
Gusmiati Suid (1942–2001), choreographer
Film
Oka Antara, actor
Ateng, actor, comedian
Laudya Chintya Bella, actress
Meriam Bellina, actress
Titi Rajo Bintang, actress, drummer
Garin Nugroho, film director
Rianti Cartwright, actress, presenter
Pierre Coffin (half Indonesian), French co-director of Despicable Me
Nia Dinata, film director
Julie Estelle, actress
Ian Gouw, Chinese-Indonesian descent Hong Kong actor and model
Tania Gunadi, actress
Christine Hakim, actress
Usmar Ismail, film director
Famke Janssen (quarter-Indonesian)
Titi Kamal, actress
Rano Karno, actor, politician
Sophia Latjuba (half-Indonesian), actress
Bunga Citra Lestari, actress, singer
Tuti Indra Malaon, actress
Camelia Malik, actress
Deddy Mizwar, actor and film director
Prisia Nasution, actress
Jajang C. Noer, actress
Soekarno M. Noer, actor
Tio Pakusadewo, actor
Barry Prima, actor
Reza Rahadian, actor
Chelsea Islan, actress
Nora Samosir (half-Indonesian), Singaporean actress
Asrul Sani, writer, poet and screenwriter
Nadia Saphira, actress, model, lawyer
Nicholas Saputra, actor
Joko Anwar, film director
Dian Sastrowardoyo, actress
Acha Septriasa, actress
Abimana Aryasatya, actor and film producer
Sjumandjaja, director, screenwriter, and actor
Bing Slamet, actor
Julyana Soelistyo, American stage and film actress
Sophan Sophiaan, actor
Tora Sudiro, actor
Suzzanna, actress
Joe Taslim, actor
Kristian Andreas Sinaga. actor
Revalina Sayuthi Temat, actress
Imelda Therinne, actress
Wim Umboh, film director
Iko Uwais, actor
Nirina Zubir, actress, presenter
Lo Lieh, Indonesian-born Hong Kong actor
Music
Daniel Adams-Ray, Swedish rapper, singer of Indonesian descent
Ebiet G. Ade, country singer
Wisnu Witono Adhi, Norwegian Idol finalist
Afgan, pop singer
Vidi Aldiano, singer
Joey Alexander, pianist
Ahmad Albar, rock singer
Haddad Alwi, nasheed singer
Amara, singer, songwriter
Raisa Andriana, singer
Anggun
Ian Antono, guitarist, songwriter
Anan Anwar (half-Indonesian)
Joni Anwar (half-Indonesian)
Nicky Astria, singer
Nike Ardilla, singer
Nowela Elizabeth Auparay, winner of the seventh season of Indonesian Idol, singer
Carmit Bachar (quarter-Indonesian), singer
Michelle Branch (quarter-Indonesian), singer, musician
Adia Chan, Chinese-Indonesian Hong Kong actress, singer, model, and spokesperson
Rich Brian, Rapper
Chrisye
Inul Daratista, dangdut singer
Dewiq, singer, songwriter
Ahmad Dhani, rock musician
Angger Dimas, DJ
Hetty Koes Endang
Maia Estianty
Iwan Fals, singer
Glenn Fredly, pop r&b singer-songwriter
Giring Ganesha
Melly Goeslaw, singer, songwriter
Erwin Gutawa
Gita Gutawa, singer, actress, songwriter
Eduardus Halim, American pianist of Chinese-Indonesian descent
Berlian Hutauruk
Rhoma Irama, dangdut singer, songwriter
Nazril Irham, singer, vocalist of Noah
Audy Item
Mulan Jameela, singer
Januarisman, winner of the fifth season of Indonesian Idol, rock singer
Iwa K, rapper
Lala Karmela
Tonny Koeswoyo
Krisdayanti, singer
Lee Kum-Sing, classical pianist
Indra Lesmana, jazz pianist
Reza Ningtyas Lindh, Swedish Idol finalist
Fatin Shidqia Lubis, winner of the first season of X Factor Indonesia
A. T. Mahmud
Dougy Mandagi, vocals and guitar with The Temper Trap
Gesang Martohartono, Keroncong composer, songwriter of the famous song "Bengawan Solo"
Jessica Mauboy, runner-up of the fourth season of Australian Idol, Australian r&b singer of Indonesian descent
Once Mekel
Agnez Mo, r&b singer and dancer
Frans Mohede, singer
Mike Mohede, winner of the second season of Indonesian Idol, soul and gospel singer
Addie MS
Mytha Mulyarto, winner of the first season of Mamamia Show, jazz singer
Fariz Rustam Munaf
Sherina Munaf, actress, singer, songwriter
Taco Ockerse, singer
Vina Panduwinata
Eric Papilaya, Eurovision Song Contest 2007 representative of Austria
Dewi Persik
Indah Dewi Pertiwi
Broery Pesulima, singer, songwriter
Titiek Puspa, singer, songwriter, actress
Bebi Romeo, singer-songwriter
Rossa, singer
Darian Sahanaja, singer-songwriter
Ruth Sahanaya, singer
Daniel Sahuleka (half-Indonesian), musician and singer
Isyana Sarasvati
Citra Scholastika
Elfa Secioria
Shae, singer
Yuni Shara, singer
Putri Ayu Silaen, soprano singer
Wibi Soerjadi, pianist
Sandhy Sondoro, singer
Raden Ajeng Srimulat, Keroncong singer and comedian
Dira Sugandi, jazz singer
Elvy Sukaesih
Mbah Surip, reggae singer
Aubrey Suwito, Malaysian pianist, keyboardist, songwriter of Indonesian descent
Terry, singer
Ayu Tingting, dangdut singer
Goh Soon Tioe (quarter-Indonesian), key player in the development of classical music for post-war Singapore
Titi DJ, singer
Joy Tobing, winner of the first season of Indonesian Idol, singer
Trie Utami, jazz singer
Alex Van Halen (quarter-Indonesian), member of the rock group Van Halen
Eddie Van Halen (quarter-Indonesian), member of the rock group Van Halen
Armand Van Helden (quarter Indonesian), DJ
Hendry Wijaya, pianist
Kuei Pin Yeo, pianist
Wayan Yudane, gangsa player and an exponent of Balinese music in New Zealand
Catalina Yue (quarter-Indonesian), Canadian-American actress, singer
Yura, singer
Rainych
Television
Raffi Ahmad, actor, presenter, TV personality, comedian
Rachel Amanda, actress
Sutan Amrull, American-Indonesian TV personality, makeup artist, drag performer
Lulu Antariksa (half-Indonesian), American actress, singer
Tukul Arwana, host of talk show Bukan Empat Mata
Indy Barends, presenter
Basuki, member of traditional comedy group Srimulat
Indra Birowo, actor, comedian
Billy Chong, actor
Sandra Dewi, actress, TV personality
Dorce Gamalama, trans woman pop singer, actress, presenter, and comedian
Mark-Paul Gosselaar (quarter-Indonesian), American actor
Tania Gunadi, American actress of Chinese-Indonesian descent
Donna Harun (half-Indonesian), actress, presenter, TV personality
Dude Harlino, actor
Jojon, comedian
Kristin Kreuk (half-Indonesian), Canadian actress
Daniel Mananta, presenter
Marshanda, actress, singer
Amelia Natasha, presenter
Soimah Pancawati, traditional singer and performer, comedian
Julia Perez, comedian, actress, singer
Nia Ramadhani, actress, socialite
Olla Ramlan, actress, presenter, socialite, TV personality
Feni Rose, presenter
Evan Sanders, actor, presenter
Alyssa Soebandono, actress
Benyamin Sueb, actor, comedian, film director and singer
Sule, comedian
Alin Sumarwata (half-Indonesian), Australian actress
Shireen Sungkar, actress
Olga Syahputra, comedian
Syahrini, TV personality, singer, socialite
Aliando Syarief, actor
Mikha Tambayong, actress, model
Chelsea Olivia Wijaya (half-Indonesian), actress
Nikita Willy, actress
Rini Wulandari, winner of the fourth season of Indonesian Idol, singer
Tantowi Yahya, presenter
Business and economics
Business people
Aburizal Bakrie
Ciputra
Erick Thohir
Setiawan Djody
Batara Eto
Rachman Halim
Michael Bambang Hartono
Robert Budi Hartono
Bob Hasan
Dahlan Iskan
Abdul Latief
Prajogo Pangestu
Probosutedjo
Raam Punjabi
James Riady
Mochtar Riady
Bob Sadino
Sudono Salim (Liem Sioe Liong)
Anthoni Salim (Liem Hong Sien)
Michael Joseph Sampoerna
Putera Sampoerna
Jaka Singgih
Martua Sitorus
William Soeryadjaya
Tommy Suharto
Jaya Suprana
Djoko Susanto
Sehat Sutardja
Tan Khoen Swie
Dato Sri Tahir
Chairul Tanjung
Hary Tanoesoedibjo
Sukanto Tanoto
Erick Thohir
Sandiaga Salahudin Uno
Jusuf Wanandi (Liem Bian Kie)
Eka Tjipta Widjaja
Fuganto Widjaja
Tomy Winata
Surya Wonowidjojo
Susilo Wonowidjojo
Business executives
Karen Agustiawan
Betti Alisjahbana
Rinaldi Firmansyah
Ibnu Sutowo
Economists
Armida Alisjahbana, State Minister for National Development Planning (2009-2014)
J. Soedradjad Djiwandono, Governor of Bank of Indonesia (1993-1998)
Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, Minister of Industry and Trade (1950-1951) and Minister of Finance (1952-1953)
Kwik Kian Gie, Coordinating Minister for Economics and Finance (1999-2000)
Sri Mulyani Indrawati, Managing Director of the World Bank Group
Agus Martowardojo, Minister of Finance (2010-2013) and Governor of Bank of Indonesia (2013)
Darmin Nasution, Governor of Bank of Indonesia (2010-2013)
Widjojo Nitisastro, Coordinating Minister for Economics, Finance and Industry (1973-1983)
Mari Pangestu, Minister of Trade (2004-2011)
Radius Prawiro, Governor of Bank of Indonesia (1966-1968), Minister of Trade (1973-1983), Minister of Finance (1983-1988)
Rizal Ramli, Coordinating Minister for Economics (2000-2001) and Minister of Finance (2001)
Syahril Sabirin, Governor of Bank Indonesia (1999-2003)
Emil Salim
Hadi Soesastro, economist and political scientist (international relations)
Syahrir, Economic Adviser in the Council of Presidential Advisers of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (2007-2008)
Gita Wirjawan, Minister of Trade (2011-2014) and the founder of Ancora Group and Ancora Foundation
Fashion
Fashion designers
Anne Avantie
Sebastian Gunawan
Didit Hediprasetyo
Oscar Lawalata
Obin
Tex Saverio
Auguste Soesastro
Iwan Tirta
Biyan Wanaatmadja
Fashion models
Mesty Ariotedjo, medical doctor, harpist, model and socialite
Ayu Gani, winner of Asia's Next Top Model (cycle 3)
Nadya Hutagalung (half-Indonesian), model
Luna Maya, model, actress
Jodi Ann Paterson (half-Indonesian), Playboy Playmate
Manohara Odelia Pinot
Mariana Renata (half-Indonesian), model
Pageant winners
Puteri Indonesia (Miss Indonesia Universe)
Nadine Ames (2011)
Frederika Alexis Cull (2019)
Nadine Chandrawinata (2005)
Artika Sari Devi (2004)
Elvira Devinamira (2014)
Whulandary Herman (2013)
Agni Kuswardono (2006)
Maria Selena Nurcahya (2009)
Putri Raemawasti (2007)
Qory Sandioriva (2010)
Zivanna Letisha Siregar (2008)
Kezia Warouw (2016)
Miss Indonesia (Miss Indonesia World)
Sandra Angelia (2008)
Kristania Virginia Besouw (2006)
Imelda Fransisca (2005)
Karenina Sunny Halim (2009)
Maria Harfanti (2015)
Vania Larissa (2013)
Asyifa Latief (2010)
Ines Putri (2012)
Kamidia Radisti (2007)
Maria Asteria Sastrayu Rahajeng (2014)
Astrid Yunadi (2011)
Miss Indonesia Earth
Annisa Ananda Nusyirwan (2014)
Nita Sofiani (2013)
Miss Indonesia International
Kevin Lilliana Miss International 2017
Jolene Marie Cholock-Rotinsulu (2019)
Chintya Fabyola (2015)
Reisa Kartikasari (2011)
Marisa Sartika Maladewi (2013)
Liza Elly Purnamasari (2012)
Elfin Rappa (2014)
Journalism and writing
Theodora Sarah Abigail poet, author
Djamaluddin Adinegoro, journalist in the colonial era
Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana
Svida Alisjahbana, President and CEO of Femina Magazine
Desi Anwar
Rosihan Anwar, founder of Siasat magazine and Pedoman newspaper
Thio Tjin Boen, writer of Malay-language fiction and a journalist
Lauw Giok Lan, journalist and one of the founders of Sin Po newspaper
Ernest Douwes Dekker
Nirwan Dewanto, poet, cultural critic
Ahmadun Yosi Herfanda, arts editor
Andrea Hirata, novelist
Ani Idrus, founder of Waspada daily newspaper
Kho Ping Hoo, author of Chinese ethnicity
Kwee Tek Hoay, Chinese-Indonesian Malay-language writer of novels and drama, journalist
Dewi Lestari
Pramoedya Ananta Toer
Putra Nababan
Budi Putra, technology journalist
Rahadyan Sastrowardoyo, editor and photographer
Atika Shubert
Najwa Shihab
Law
Basrief Arief
Jimly Asshiddiqie
Albertina Ho
Hotman Paris Hutapea
Tjung Tin Jan
Todung Mulya Lubis
Mohammad Mahfud
Wirjono Prodjodikoro
Abraham Samad
Bismar Siregar
Hendarman Supandji
Hamdan Zoelva
Artidjo Alkostar
Crime
Reynhard Sinaga, Serial rapist and most prolific rapist in English legal history
Sundarti Supriyanto, domestic maid and victim of maid abuse who killed her abusive employer Angie Ng in Singapore, and also Ng's daughter Crystal Poh
National Heroes
Abdul Halim
Abdul Haris Nasution
Adam Malik
Agus Salim
Ahmad Yani
Bagindo Azizchan
Bung Tomo
Cut Nyak Dhien
Fatmawati
Gatot Soebroto
Halim Perdanakusuma
Hamengkubuwono I
Hamengkubuwono IX
Hasyim Asy'ari
I Gusti Ngurah Rai
John Lie Tjeng Tjoan
Kartini
Katamso Darmokusumo
Mohammad Hatta
Mohammad Husni Thamrin
Mohammad Natsir
Mohammad Yamin
Sam Ratulangi
Siti Hartinah
Soekarno
Sutan Sjahrir
Wahid Hasyim
Wahidin Soedirohoesodo
Politicians and administrators
Presidents
Soekarno, 1st President of Indonesia (1945-1967)
Assaat, Provisional President of Republic of Indonesia (1949-1950)
Soeharto, 2nd President of Indonesia (1967-1998)
BJ Habibie, 3rd President of Indonesia (1998-1999)
Abdurrahman Wahid, 4th President of Indonesia (1999-2001)
Megawati Soekarnoputri, 5th President of Indonesia (2001-2004)
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, 6th President of Indonesia (2004-2014)
Joko Widodo, 7th President of Indonesia (since 2014)
Spouses of Presidents
Fatmawati, wife of Soekarno (1945-1967)
Siti Hartinah, wife of Soeharto (1967-1998)
Hasri Ainun Habibie, wife of BJ Habibie (1998-1999)
Sinta Nuriyah, wife of Abdurrahman Wahid (1999-2001)
Taufiq Kiemas, husband of Megawati Soekarnoputri (2001-2004)
Kristiani Herrawati, wife of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (2004-2014)
Iriana Joko Widodo, wife of Joko Widodo (since 2014)
Vice-Presidents
Boediono, 11th Vice-President of Indonesia (2009-2014)
Mohammad Hatta, 1st Vice-President of Indonesia (1945-1956)
Hamzah Haz, 9th Vice-President of Indonesia (2001-2004)
Jusuf Kalla, 10th and 12th Vice-President of Indonesia (2004-2009 & 2014-2019)
Adam Malik, 3rd Vice-President of Indonesia (1978-1983)
Sudharmono, 5th Vice-President of Indonesia (1988-1993)
Try Sutrisno, 6th Vice-President of Indonesia (1993-1998)
Umar Wirahadikusumah, 4th Vice-President of Indonesia (1983-1988)
Prime Ministers
Abdul Halim, 4th Prime Minister of Indonesia (1950)
Burhanuddin Harahap, 9th Prime Minister of Indonesia (1955-1956)
Djuanda Kartawidjaja, 10th Prime Minister of Indonesia (1957-1959)
Muhammad Natsir, 5th Prime Minister of Indonesia (1950-1951)
Ali Sastroamidjojo, 8th Prime Minister of Indonesia (1953-1955 & 1956-1957)
Sutan Sjahrir, 1st Prime Minister of Indonesia (1945-1947)
Amir Sjarifuddin, 2nd Prime Minister of Indonesia (1947-1948)
Wilopo, 7th Prime Minister of Indonesia (1952-1953)
Soekiman Wirjosandjojo, 6th Prime Minister of Indonesia (1951-1952)
Government Ministers
Ruslan Abdulgani, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1956-1957) & Minister of Information (1963-1964)
Azwar Abubakar, Minister of Administrative Reform (2011-2014)
Amirmachmud, Minister of Home Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia (1969-1983)
Anton Apriantono, Minister of Agriculture (2004-2009)
Cosmas Batubara, State Minister of Public Housing (1978-1988) & Minister of Labor (1988-1993)
Bachtiar Chamsyah, Minister of Social (2001-2009)
Adhyaksa Dault, Minister Youth and Sports (2004-2009)
Jusman Syafii Djamal, Minister of Transportation (2007-2009)
Agum Gumelar, Minister of Transportation (1999-2001 & 2001-2004), Minister of Defense (2001) & Coordinating Minister for Politic, Social and Security (2001)
Soedarsono Hadisapoetro, Minister of Agriculture (1978-1983)
Mohamad Suleman Hidayat, Minister of Industry (2009-2014)
Fahmi Idris, Minister of Labour and Transmigration (1998-1999 & 2004-2005) & Minister of Industry (2005-2009)
Malam Sambat Kaban, Minister of Forestry (2004-2009)
Kusmayanto Kadiman, Minister of Research and Technology (2004-2009)
Ginandjar Kartasasmita, Minister of Energy And Mineral Resources (1988-1993)& Coordinating Minister for Economics, Finance and Industry (1998 & 1998-1999)
Agung Laksono, Minister Youth and Sports (2012-2013), Minister of Religious Affairs (2014) & Coordinating Minister for People's Welfare (2009-2014)
Yusril Ihza Mahendra, Minister of Justice and Human Rights (1999-2001), Minister of Law (2001-2004) and Minister of State Secretary (2004-2007)
Nabiel Makarim, State Minister of Environment (2001-2004)
Susi Pudjiastuti, Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (since 2014)
Hatta Rajasa, State Minister of Research and Technology (2001-2004), Minister of Transportation (2004-2007), Minister of State Secretary (2007-2009), Coordinating Minister for Economics (2009-2014)
Chaerul Saleh, Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources (1959-1964) & Minister of Industry (1960-1964)
Juwono Sudarsono, State Minister of Environment (1998), Minister of National Education (1998-1999) & Minister of Defence (1999-2000 & 2004-2009)
Suharna Surapranata, Minister of Research and Technology of Indonesia (2009-2011)
Djoko Suyanto, Coordinating Minister for Politic, Law and Security (2009-2014)
Tarmizi Taher, Minister of Religious Affairs (1993-1998)
Akbar Tanjung, Minister of Youth and Sports (1988-1993), State Minister for Public Housing (1993-1998) & Minister of State Secretary (1998-1999)
Jero Wacik, Minister of Culture and Tourism (2004-2011) & Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources (2011-2014)
Wiranto, Minister of Defense and Security (1998-1999) & Coordinating Minister for Politic, Law and Security (1999-2000, 2016-)
Rachmat Witoelar, State Minister of Environment (2004-2009)
Arief Yahya, Minister of Tourism (since 2014)
Muhammad Yamin, Minister of Justice (1951-1952), Minister of Education (1953-1955) & Minister of Information (1962)
Diplomats
Achmad Soebardjo, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia (1945 - 1945 & 1951-1952)
Adam Malik, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia (1966-1978)
Ali Alatas, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia (1988-1999)
Nicholas Tandi Dammen, Indonesian Ambassador to the South Korea (since 2009)
Hartono Rekso Dharsono, 1st Secretary General of the ASEAN (1976-1978)
Dino Patti Djalal, Indonesian Ambassador to the United States (2010-2013)
Marty Natalegawa, Minister of Foreign Affairs (2009-2014)
Agus Salim, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia (1947-1949)
Sunario Sastrowardoyo, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia (1957-1959)
Alwi Shihab, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia (1999-2001)
Hassan Wirajuda, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia (2001-2009)
Retno Marsudi, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia (since 2014)
Province Governors
Mustafa Abubakar, Governor of Aceh (2004-2007)
Eko Maulana Ali, Governor of Bangka Belitung (2007-2013)
Azwar Anas, Governor of West Sumatra (1977-1987)
Dewa Made Beratha, Governor of Bali (1998-2008)
Daud Beureu'eh, Governor of Aceh (1945-1953)
Ratu Atut Chosiyah, Governor of Banten (2007-2014)
Teuku Muhammad Hasan, Governor of Sumatra (1945-1949)
Ahmad Heryawan, Governor of West Java (since 2009)
Cornelis M.H., Governor of West Kalimantan (since 2008)
Ben Mboi, Governor of East Nusa Tenggara (1978-1988)
Rizal Nurdin, Governor of North Sumatra (1998-2005)
Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, Governor of Jakarta (2014-2017)
Djarot Saiful Hidayat Governor of Jakarta (2017)
Ali Sadikin, Governor of Jakarta (1966-1977)
José Abílio Osório Soares, Governor of East Timor (1992-1999)
Sutiyoso, Governor of Jakarta (1997-2007)
Hamengkubuwana IX, Governor of Yogyakarta (1945-1988)
Irwandi Yusuf, Governor of Aceh (2007-2012)
Anies Rasyid Baswedan, Governor of Jakarta (since 2017)
Hamengkubuwana X, Governor of Yogyakarta (since 1998)
Ganjar Pranowo, Governor of Central Java (since 2013)
Joko Widodo, Governor of Jakarta (2012-2014)
Hasan Basri Durin Governor of West Sumatra (1987-1997)
Fauzi Bowo, Governor of Jakarta (2007-2012)
Gamawan Fauzi, Governor of West Sumatra (2005-2009)
Rano Karno, Governor of Banten (2014-2017)
Irwan Prayitno, Governor of West Sumatra (since 2016)
Paku Alam VIII, Governor of Yogyakarta (1988-1998)
Soekarwo, Governor of East Java (since 2014)
Rusli Habibie, Governor of Gorontalo (since 2017)
Olly Dondokambey, Governor of North Sulawesi (since 2016)
Awang Faroek Ishak, Governor of East Kalimantan (since 2013)
Muhammad Zainul Majdi, Governor of West Nusa Tenggara (since 2008)
Sam Ratulangi, Governor of Sulawesi (1945-1949)
El Tari, Governor of East Nusa Tenggara (1966-1978)
Sutan Mohammad Amin Nasution, Governor of North Sumatra (1948), (1953-1956), Governor of Riau (1958-1960)
Wan Abubakar, Governor of Riau (2008)
Gatot Pujo Nugroho, Governor of North Sumatra (2011-2015)
Mayors
Ridwan Kamil, Mayor of Bandung (since 2013)
Tri Rismaharini, Mayor of Surabaya (since 2010)
Mohammad Ramdhan Pomanto, Mayor of Makassar (since 2014)
Dada Rosada, Mayor of Bandung (2003-2013)
F. X. Hadi Rudyatmo, Mayor of Surakarta (since 2012)
Ateng Wahyudi, Mayor of Bandung (1983-1993)
Joko Widodo, Mayor of Surakarta (2005-2012)
Mahyeldi Ansharullah, Mayor of Padang (since 2014)
Hasan Basri Durin, Mayor of Padang (1971-1983)
Members of People's Representative Council
Alvin Lie
Soedardjat Nataatmadja
Budiman Sudjatmiko
Astrid Susanto
Politicians
Dipa Nusantara Aidit, senior leader of Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI)
Biem Benyamin
Manuel Carrascalão, former Indonesian politician
Omar Dhani, commander of the Indonesian Air Force (1962-1965)
H. S. Dillon, Indonesian Indian who has occupied a variety of positions in Indonesian political life, including assistant to the Minister of Agriculture, and Commissioner of the National Commission on Human Rights (of which he is still a member)
Prabowo Subianto Djojohadikusumo, chairman of Gerindra political party, 2014 Indonesia's presidential candidate
Eurico Guterres, pro-Indonesian or anti-independence militia recruited by the Indonesian military
Loa Sek Hie, colonial politician, community leader, patrician, landlord and founder of Pao An Tui
Hok Hoei Kan, prominent public figure, statesman, patrician and landowner of Peranakan Chinese descent
Muhammad Taufiq Kiemas, 13th Speaker of People's Consultative Assembly (2009-2013), 5th First Gentleman of Indonesia (2001-2004)
Musso, leader of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in the 1920s and again during the Madiun rebellion of 1948
Amien Rais, 1st Chairman of Partai Amanat Nasional (1998-2005)& Speaker of People's Consultative Assembly (1999-2004)
Frans Tutuhatunewa, second president in exile of the Republic of the South Moluccas
Hidayat Nur Wahid, 12th Speaker of Indonesia People's Consultative Assembly (2004-2009)
Dede Yusuf, former Vice Governor of West Java, actor, model
Sidarto Danusubroto, 14th Speaker of Indonesia People's Consultative Assembly (2013-2014)
Nobility
Ahmad Jayadiningrat of Banten
Hasanuddin of Gowa
Andi Abdullah Bau Massepe of Gowa
Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagar of Pagaruyung
Kyai Ronggo Ngabehi Soero Pernollo, Chinese-Javanese police chief, bureaucrat and founder of the Muslim branch of the Han family of Lasem
Prince Diponegoro of Yogyakarta
Paku Alam VIII of Yogyakarta
Hamengkubuwana IX of Yogyakarta, 2nd Vice-President of Indonesia (1973-1978)
Hamengkubuwana X of Yogyakarta, Governor of Yogyakarta (since 1998)
Queen Hemas of Yogyakarta
Princess Hayu of Yogyakarta
Princess Pembayun of Yogyakarta
Activists
Soe Hok Gie
Ita Martadinata Haryono
Munir
Poncke Princen
Thung Sin Nio
Yap Thiam Hien
Others
Madame Wellington Koo (born Oei Hui-lan), First Lady of China, socialite and fashion icon, wife of the Chinese statesman Wellington Koo and daughter of Majoor Oei Tiong Ham
Lolo Soetoro, step-father of Barack Obama
Maya Soetoro-Ng, half-sister of Barack Obama
Yenny Wahid, daughter of former president Abdurrahman Wahid
Religious
Islam
Abdul Karim Amrullah
Abdurrahman Wahid
Amien Rais
Mustofa Bisri
Ahmad Dede
Hamka
Hasyim Asyari
Hasyim Muzadi
Idham Chalid
Jefri Al Buchori
Jimly Asshiddiqie
Ma'ruf Amin
Mohammad Natsir
Quraish Shihab
Din Syamsuddin
Tutty Alawiyah
Tuanku Imam Bonjol
Tuanku Tambusai
Maria Ulfah
Fakih Usman
Wahid Hasyim
Buddhism
Ashin Jinarakkhita
Parwati Soepangat
Soemantri Mohammad Saleh
Hinduism
Gedong Bagus Oka
Ketut Wiana
Putu Sukreta Suranta
Protestantism
Ibrahim Tunggul Wulung
Kyai Sadrach
Roman Catholic
Albertus Soegijapranata
Justinus Darmojuwono
Julius Darmaatmadja
Ignatius Suharyo Hardjoatmodjo
Benyamin Yosef Bria
Gabriel Manek
Sport
Aviation
Khouw Khe Hien, pioneering Indonesian aviator
Khouw Keng Nio, first Indonesian and Chinese woman aviator (qualified in March 1936)
Archery
Diananda Choirunisa
Ika Yuliana Rochmawati
Hendra Purnama
Kusuma Wardhani
Lilies Handayani
Muhammad Hanif Wijaya
Nurfitriyana Saiman
Riau Ega Agatha
Rina Dewi Puspitasari
Athletics
Agus Prayogo
Carolina Rieuwpassa
Dedeh Erawati
Desy Margawati
Dolly Zegerius
Edward Nabunone
Fadlin
Fernando Lumain
Gurnam Singh
Irene Truitje Joseph
Lalu Muhammad Zohri
Maria Natalia Londa
Mohammad Sarengat
Rio Maholtra
Sapwaturrahman
Sudirman Hadi
Supriyati Sutono
Suryo Agung Wibowo
Triyaningsih
Yaspi Boby
Auto racing
Zahir Ali, Formula driver
Philo Paz Armand, Formula driver
Sean Gelael, Formula driver
Rio Haryanto, Formula driver
Satrio Hermanto, Formula driver
Ananda Mikola, Formula driver
Doni Tata Pradita
Moreno Soeprapto, Formula driver
Rafid Topan Sucipto
Dimas Ekky Pratama
Galang Hendra Pratama
Badminton
Ade Chandra
Ade Yusuf Santoso
Adriyanti Firdasari
Afiat Yuris Wirawan
Alamsyah Yunus
Alan Budikusuma
Alfian Eko Prasetya
Alvent Yulianto
Ana Rovita
Andre Kurniawan Tedjono
Andika Ramadiansyah
Andrei Adistia
Angelica Wiratama
Angga Pratama
Anggia Shitta Awanda
Anggun Nugroho
Anneke Feinya Agustin
Annisa Saufika
Anthony Sinisuka Ginting
Antonius Ariantho
Aprilia Yuswandari
Apriyani Rahayu
Ardy Wiranata
Aryono Miranat
Asty Dwi Widyaningrum
Bambang Suprianto
Bellaetrix Manuputty
Berry Angriawan
Bobby Ertanto
Bona Septano
Bunga Fitriani Romadhini
Candra Wijaya
Chico Aura Dwi Wardoyo
Christian Hadinata
Debby Susanto
Denny Kantono
Della Destiara Haris
Dian Fitriani
Dinar Dyah Ayustine
Dionysius Hayom Rumbaka
Devi Tika Permatasari
Deyana Lomban
Eddy Hartono
Eddy Kurniawan
Edi Subaktiar
Eliza Nathanael
Ellen Angelina
Endang Nursugianti
Eng Hian
Erma Sulistianingsih
Fajar Alfian
Fachryza Abimanyu
Febby Angguni
Fernando Kurniawan
Ferry Sonneville
Fikri Ihsandi Hadmadi
Finarsih
Fitriani
Firman Abdul Kholik
Fran Kurniawan
Fransisca Ratnasari
Gebby Ristiyani Imawan
Gloria Emanuelle Widjaja
Gregoria Mariska Tunjung
Greysia Polii
Hadibowo Susanto
Hafiz Faizal
Halim Haryanto
Hanna Ramadini
Hariamanto Kartono
Hardianto
Hariyanto Arbi
Hastomo Arbi
Hendra Setiawan
Hendra Aprida Gunawan
Hendrawan
Hera Desi
Hermawan Susanto
Icuk Sugiarto
Ihsan Maulana Mustofa
Iie Sumirat
Imelda Wiguna
Indra Viki Okvana
Irfan Fadhilah
Ivana Lie
Jauza Fadhila Sugiarto
Jenna Gozali
Jo Novita
Johan Wahjudi
Joko Suprianto
Jonatan Christie
Kenas Adi Haryanto
Keshya Nurvita Hanadia
Kevin Sanjaya Sukamuljo
Komala Dewi
Krishna Adi Nugraha
Lidya Djaelawijaya
Liem Swie King
Lili Tampi
Liliyana Natsir
Lindaweni Fanetri
Lingga Lie
Lita Nurlita
Lius Pongoh
Lukhi Apri Nugroho
Luluk Hadiyanto
Maretha Dea Giovani
Maria Febe Kusumastuti
Maria Kristin Yulianti
Marcus Fernaldi Gideon
Markis Kido
Marleve Mainaky
Marsheilla Gischa Islami
Masita Mahmudin
Meiliana Jauhari
Meirisa Cindy Sahputri
Melati Daeva Oktavianti
Melvira Oklamona
Mia Audina
Millicent Wiranto
Minarni
Minarti Timur
Moh Reza Pahlevi Isfahani
Mohammad Ahsan
Muhammad Rian Ardianto
Muhammad Rijal
Muhammad Ulinnuha
Muljadi
Mychelle Crhystine Bandaso
Nadya Melati
Natalia Christine Poluakan
Ni Ketut Mahadewi Istarani
Nisak Puji Lestari
Nitya Krishinda Maheswari
Nova Widianto
Panji Ahmad Maulana
Pia Zebadiah Bernadeth
Praveen Jordan
Rahmadhani Hastiyanti Putri
Rani Mundiasti
Rehan Naufal Kusharjanto
Rendra Wijaya
Retno Koestijah
Rexy Mainaky
Rian Sukmawan
Richi Puspita Dili
Ricky Karanda Suwardi
Ricky Subagja
Rika Rositawati
Riky Widianto
Rinov Rivaldy
Ririn Amelia
Rizki Amelia Pradipta
Ronald Alexander
Rosiana Tendean
Rosyita Eka Putri Sari
Rudy Gunawan
Rudy Hartono
Rudy Heryanto
Ruselli Hartawan
Rusydina Antardayu Riodingin
Sarwendah Kusumawardhani
Selvanus Geh
Serena Kani
Shella Devi Aulia
Shendy Puspa Irawati
Shesar Hiren Rhustavito
Sigit Budiarto
Silvi Antarini
Simon Santoso
Siti Fadia Silva Ramadhanti
Sony Dwi Kuncoro
Sri Fatmawati
Suci Rizki Andini
Susi Susanti
Tan Joe Hok
Tania Oktaviani Kusumah
Taty Sumirah
Taufik Hidayat
Tiara Rosalia Nuraidah
Tjun Tjun
Tommy Sugiarto
Tony Gunawan
Tri Kusharjanto
Utami Kinard
Vania Arianti Sukoco
Variella Aprilsasi Putri Lejarsar
Verawaty Fajrin
Vita Marissa
Wahyu Nayaka
Weni Anggraini
Wisnu Yuli Prasetyo
Yeni Asmarani
Yohanes Rendy Sugiarto
Yonathan Suryatama Dasuki
Yulianti
Yulfira Barkah
Zelin Resiana
Basketball
Arki Dikania Wisnu
Body Building
Ade Rai
Ridwan Kodiat
Boxing
Chris John, WBA featherweight boxing champion
Daud Yordan
Ellyas Pical
Muhammad Rachman
Nico Thomas
Chess
Utut Adianto
Medina Warda Aulia
Susanto Megaranto
Irine Kharisma Sukandar
Gymnastics
Rifda Irfanaluthfi
Jet ski
Aero Sutan Aswar
Aqsa Sutan Aswar
Judo
Pujawati Utama
Putu Wiradamungga
Football
Elie Aiboy
Yongki Aribowo
Samsul Arif
Ponaryo Astaman
Irfan Bachdim
Titus Bonai
Gunawan Dwi Cahyo
Syamsul Chaeruddin
Serginho van Dijk
Bruce Diporedjo
Cristian Gonzáles
Agus Indra Kurniawan
Kim Kurniawan
Stefano Lilipaly
Chris Limahelu
Ebrahim Enguio Lopez
Oktovianus Maniani
Markus Haris Maulana
Diego Michiels
Radja Nainggolan (half-Indonesian)
Bambang Pamungkas
Rochy Putiray
Bima Sakti
Vangelino Sastrodimedjo
Boaz Solossa
Ilija Spasojević
Amadeus Suropati
Firman Utina
Andik Vermansyah
Nol van der Vin
Patrich Wanggai
Wahyu Wijiastanto
Ricky Yacobi
Kurniawan Dwi Yulianto
Golf
Inesh Putri Chandra
Poker
John Juanda
Sailing
Oka Sulaksana
Swimming
Achmad Dimyati
Aflah Fadlan Prawira
Glenn Victor Sutanto
Habib Nasution
I Gede Siman Sudartawa
Kristiono Sumono
Lukman Niode
Ranomi Kromowidjojo (half-Indonesian), world record holder
Raina Saumi Grahana
Ressa Kania Dewi
Ria Tobing
Richard Sam Bera
Ricky Anggawijaya
Triady Fauzi Sidiq
Wirmandi Sugriat
Yessy Yosaputra
Taekwondo
Defia Rosmaniar
Juana Wangsa Putri
Satriyo Rahadhani
Tennis
Aldila Sutjiadi
Angelique Widjaja
Atet Wijono
Ayi Sutarno
Ayu Fani Damayanti
Beatrice Gumulya
Benny Wijaya
Björn Phau (half-Indonesian)
Bonit Wiryawan
Christopher Rungkat
Deria Nur Haliza
Donald Wailan-Walalangi
Grace Sari Ysidora
Hary Suharyadi
Irawati Moerid
Jessy Rompies
Jesse Huta Galung (half-Indonesian)
Jooce Suwarimbo
Justin Barki
Lany Kaligis
Lavinia Tananta
Lita Liem Sugiarto
Liza Andriyani
Lukky Tedjamukti
Lutfiana-Aris Budiharto
Maya Rosa
Mien Suhadi
Natalia Soetrisno
Olivia Tjandramulia
Romana Tedjakusuma
Sandy Gumulya
Septi Mende
Suzanna Wibowo
Tami Grende
Vivien Silfany-Tony
Wukirasih Sawondari
Wynne Prakusya
Yayuk Basuki
Weightlifting
Citra Febrianti
Deni
Dewi Safitri
Eko Yuli Irawan
I Ketut Ariana
Jadi Setiadi
Muhammad Hasbi
Patmawati Abdul Hamid
Raema Lisa Rumbewas
Sandow Nasution
Surahmat Wijoyo
Sri Indriyani
Sri Wahyuni Agustiani
Triyatno
Winarni Binti Slamet
Wushu
Lindswell Kwok
Science & Technology
Joe Hin Tjio
Taufik Akbar
Jim Geovedi
Jusuf Habibie
Soedarsono Hadisapoetro
Samaun Samadikun
Pratiwi Sudarmono
Hary Gunarto
See also
Indonesian Australians
Indonesians in Hong Kong
Indonesians in Japan
Indonesians in Malaysia
Indonesians in the Philippines
Indonesians in Saudi Arabia
Indonesians in the United Kingdom
Indonesian Americans
Indonesian Chinese
List of Javanese
List of Minangkabaus
List of Sundanese people
References
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian%20path
|
Hamiltonian path
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In the mathematical field of graph theory, a Hamiltonian path (or traceable path) is a path in an undirected or directed graph that visits each vertex exactly once. A Hamiltonian cycle (or Hamiltonian circuit) is a Hamiltonian path that is a cycle. Determining whether such paths and cycles exist in graphs is the Hamiltonian path problem, which is NP-complete.
Hamiltonian paths and cycles are named after William Rowan Hamilton who invented the icosian game, now also known as Hamilton's puzzle, which involves finding a Hamiltonian cycle in the edge graph of the dodecahedron. Hamilton solved this problem using the icosian calculus, an algebraic structure based on roots of unity with many similarities to the quaternions (also invented by Hamilton). This solution does not generalize to arbitrary graphs.
Despite being named after Hamilton, Hamiltonian cycles in polyhedra had also been studied a year earlier by Thomas Kirkman, who, in particular, gave an example of a polyhedron without Hamiltonian cycles. Even earlier, Hamiltonian cycles and paths in the knight's graph of the chessboard, the knight's tour, had been studied in the 9th century in Indian mathematics by Rudrata, and around the same time in Islamic mathematics by al-Adli ar-Rumi. In 18th century Europe, knight's tours were published by Abraham de Moivre and Leonhard Euler.
Definitions
A Hamiltonian path or traceable path is a path that visits each vertex of the graph exactly once. A graph that contains a Hamiltonian path is called a traceable graph. A graph is Hamiltonian-connected if for every pair of vertices there is a Hamiltonian path between the two vertices.
A Hamiltonian cycle, Hamiltonian circuit, vertex tour or graph cycle is a cycle that visits each vertex exactly once. A graph that contains a Hamiltonian cycle is called a Hamiltonian graph.
Similar notions may be defined for directed graphs, where each edge (arc) of a path or cycle can only be traced in a single direction (i.e., the vertices are connected with arrows and the edges traced "tail-to-head").
A Hamiltonian decomposition is an edge decomposition of a graph into Hamiltonian circuits.
A Hamilton maze is a type of logic puzzle in which the goal is to find the unique Hamiltonian cycle in a given graph.
Examples
A complete graph with more than two vertices is Hamiltonian
Every cycle graph is Hamiltonian
Every tournament has an odd number of Hamiltonian paths (Rédei 1934)
Every platonic solid, considered as a graph, is Hamiltonian
The Cayley graph of a finite Coxeter group is Hamiltonian (For more information on Hamiltonian paths in Cayley graphs, see the Lovász conjecture.)
Cayley graphs on nilpotent groups with cyclic commutator subgroup are Hamiltonian.
The flip graph of a convex polygon or equivalently, the rotation graph of binary trees, is Hamiltonian.
Properties
Any Hamiltonian cycle can be converted to a Hamiltonian path by removing one of its edges, but a Hamiltonian path can be extended to Hamiltonian cycle only if its endpoints are adjacent.
All Hamiltonian graphs are biconnected, but a biconnected graph need not be Hamiltonian (see, for example, the Petersen graph).
An Eulerian graph G (a connected graph in which every vertex has even degree) necessarily has an Euler tour, a closed walk passing through each edge of G exactly once. This tour corresponds to a Hamiltonian cycle in the line graph L(G), so the line graph of every Eulerian graph is Hamiltonian. Line graphs may have other Hamiltonian cycles that do not correspond to Euler tours, and in particular the line graph L(G) of every Hamiltonian graph G is itself Hamiltonian, regardless of whether the graph G is Eulerian.
A tournament (with more than two vertices) is Hamiltonian if and only if it is strongly connected.
The number of different Hamiltonian cycles in a complete undirected graph on n vertices is and in a complete directed graph on n vertices is . These counts assume that cycles that are the same apart from their starting point are not counted separately.
Bondy–Chvátal theorem
The best vertex degree characterization of Hamiltonian graphs was provided in 1972 by the Bondy–Chvátal theorem, which generalizes earlier results by G. A. Dirac (1952) and Øystein Ore. Both Dirac's and Ore's theorems can also be derived from Pósa's theorem (1962). Hamiltonicity has been widely studied with relation to various parameters such as graph density, toughness, forbidden subgraphs and distance among other parameters. Dirac and Ore's theorems basically state that a graph is Hamiltonian if it has enough edges.
The Bondy–Chvátal theorem operates on the closure cl(G) of a graph G with n vertices, obtained by repeatedly adding a new edge uv connecting a nonadjacent pair of vertices u and v with until no more pairs with this property can be found.
Bondy–Chvátal Theorem (1976). A graph is Hamiltonian if and only if its closure is Hamiltonian.
As complete graphs are Hamiltonian, all graphs whose closure is complete are Hamiltonian, which is the content of the following earlier theorems by Dirac and Ore.
Dirac's Theorem (1952). A simple graph with n vertices () is Hamiltonian if every vertex has degree or greater.
Ore's Theorem (1960). A simple graph with n vertices () is Hamiltonian if, for every pair of non-adjacent vertices, the sum of their degrees is n or greater.
The following theorems can be regarded as directed versions:
Ghouila-Houiri (1960). A strongly connected simple directed graph with n vertices is Hamiltonian if every vertex has a full degree greater than or equal to n.
Meyniel (1973). A strongly connected simple directed graph with n vertices is Hamiltonian if the sum of full degrees of every pair of distinct non-adjacent vertices is greater than or equal to .
The number of vertices must be doubled because each undirected edge corresponds to two directed arcs and thus the degree of a vertex in the directed graph is twice the degree in the undirected graph.
Rahman–Kaykobad (2005). A simple graph with n vertices has a Hamiltonian path if, for every non-adjacent vertex pairs the sum of their degrees and their shortest path length is greater than n.
The above theorem can only recognize the existence of a Hamiltonian path in a graph and not a Hamiltonian Cycle.
Many of these results have analogues for balanced bipartite graphs, in which the vertex degrees are compared to the number of vertices on a single side of the bipartition rather than the number of vertices in the whole graph.
Existence of Hamiltonian cycles in planar graphs
Theorem (Whitney, 1931). A 4-connected planar triangulation has a Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem (Tutte, 1956). A 4-connected planar graph has a Hamiltonian cycle.
The Hamiltonian cycle polynomial
An algebraic representation of the Hamiltonian cycles of a given weighted digraph (whose arcs are assigned weights from a certain ground field) is the Hamiltonian cycle polynomial of its weighted adjacency matrix defined as the sum of the products of the arc weights of the digraph's Hamiltonian cycles. This polynomial is not identically zero as a function in the arc weights if and only if the digraph is Hamiltonian. The relationship between the computational complexities of computing it and computing the permanent was shown by Grigoriy Kogan.
See also
Barnette's conjecture, an open problem on Hamiltonicity of cubic bipartite polyhedral graphs
Eulerian path, a path through all edges in a graph
Fleischner's theorem, on Hamiltonian squares of graphs
Gray code
Grinberg's theorem giving a necessary condition for planar graphs to have a Hamiltonian cycle
Hamiltonian path problem, the computational problem of finding Hamiltonian paths
Hypohamiltonian graph, a non-Hamiltonian graph in which every vertex-deleted subgraph is Hamiltonian
Knight's tour, a Hamiltonian cycle in the knight's graph
LCF notation for Hamiltonian cubic graphs.
Lovász conjecture that vertex-transitive graphs are Hamiltonian
Pancyclic graph, graphs with cycles of all lengths including a Hamiltonian cycle
Seven Bridges of Königsberg
Shortness exponent, a numerical measure of how far from Hamiltonian the graphs in a family can be
Snake-in-the-box, the longest induced path in a hypercube
Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm for finding a Hamiltonian path in a permutohedron
Subhamiltonian graph, a subgraph of a planar Hamiltonian graph
Tait's conjecture (now known false) that 3-regular polyhedral graphs are Hamiltonian
Travelling salesman problem
Notes
References
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External links
Euler tour and Hamilton cycles
Computational problems in graph theory
NP-complete problems
Graph theory objects
William Rowan Hamilton
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244439
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnstone
|
Turnstone
|
Turnstones are two bird species that comprise the genus Arenaria in the family Scolopacidae. They are closely related to calidrid sandpipers and might be considered members of the tribe Calidriini.
The genus Arenaria was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 with the ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres) as the type species. The genus name arenaria is from Latin arenarius, "inhabiting sand", from arena, "sand".
The genus contains two species: the ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres) and the black turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala). Both birds are distinctive medium-sized waders. Their length is typically between 20 and 25 cm, with a wingspan between 50 and 60 cm and a body mass between 110 and 130g. For waders their build is stocky, with short, slightly upturned, wedge shaped bills. They are high Arctic breeders, and are migratory. Their strong necks and powerful, slightly upturned bills are adapted to their feeding technique. As the name implies, these species overturn stones, seaweed, and similar items in search of invertebrate prey. They are strictly coastal, prefer stony beaches to sand, and often share beach space with other species of waders such as purple sandpipers.
Their appearance in flight is striking, with white patches on the back, wings and tail.
Species
Ruddy turnstone
The ruddy turnstone (or just turnstone in Europe), Arenaria interpres, has a circumpolar distribution, and is a very long distance migrant, wintering on coasts as far south as South Africa and Australia. It is thus a common sight on coasts almost everywhere in the world. It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.
In breeding plumage, this is a showy bird, with a black-and-white head, chestnut back, white underparts and red legs. The drabber winter plumage is basically brown above and white below. This is a generally tame bird and is an opportunist feeder. Unlike most waders, it will scavenge, and has a phenomenal list of recorded food items, including human corpses and coconut. The call is a staccato tuck- tuck- tuck.
Black turnstone
The black turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala) has a similar structure to its widespread relative, but has black upperparts and chest, and white below. It has a much more restricted range than the ruddy turnstone, breeding in western Alaska, and wintering mainly on the Pacific coast of the United States.
There exists a fossil bone, a distal piece of tarsometatarsus found in the Edson Beds of Sherman County, Kansas. Dating from the mid-Blancan some 4-3 million years ago, it appears to be from a calidriid somewhat similar to a pectoral sandpiper, but has some traits reminiscent of turnstones. Depending on which traits are apomorphic and plesiomorphic, it may be an ancestral representative of either lineage.
References
External links
Ruddy turnstone – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Turnstones feeding and bathing
Sandpipers
Taxa named by Mathurin Jacques Brisson
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruddy%20turnstone
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Ruddy turnstone
|
The ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres) is a small wading bird, one of two species of turnstone in the genus Arenaria.
It is now classified in the sandpiper family Scolopacidae but was formerly sometimes placed in the plover family Charadriidae. It is a highly migratory bird, breeding in northern parts of Eurasia and North America and flying south to winter on coastlines almost worldwide. It is the only species of turnstone in much of its range and is often known simply as turnstone.
Taxonomy
The ruddy turnstone was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tringa interpres. The species is now placed together with the black turnstone in the genus Arenaria that was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 with the ruddy turnstone as the type species. The genus name arenaria is from Latin arenarius, "inhabiting sand", from arena, "sand". The specific interpres means "messenger"; when visiting Gotland in 1741, Linnaeus thought that the Swedish word Tolk, meaning "interpreter" applied to this species, but in the local dialect the word means "legs" and is used for the redshank.
Two subspecies are recognised:
A. i. interpres (Linnaeus, 1758) – breeds in northeast Canada, Greenland, north Europe to northeast Siberia and west Alaska; winters in west, south Europe, Africa, south, east Asia, Australasia, Pacific islands, west USA and west Mexico
A. i. morinella (Linnaeus, 1766) – breeds in northeast Alaska and north Canada; winters in south USA to South America
Description
It is a fairly small and stocky bird, long with a wingspan of and a weight of . The dark, wedge-shaped bill is long and slightly upturned. The legs are fairly short at and are bright orange.
In all seasons, the plumage is dominated by a harlequin-like pattern of black and white. Breeding birds have reddish-brown upper parts with black markings. The head is mainly white with black streaks on the crown and a black pattern on the face. The breast is mainly black apart from a white patch on the sides. The rest of the underparts are white. In flight it reveals a white wingbar, white patch near the base of the wing and white lower back, rump and tail with dark bands on the uppertail-coverts and near the tip of the tail. The female is slightly duller than the male and has a browner head with more streaking.
Non-breeding adults are duller than breeding birds and have dark grey-brown upperparts with black mottling and a dark head with little white. Juvenile birds have a pale brown head and pale fringes to the upperpart feathers creating a scaly impression.
Birds of the subspecies morinella are smaller with darker upperparts and less streaking on the crown.
The ruddy turnstone has a staccato, rattling call and also a chattering alarm-call which is mainly given during the breeding season.
Distribution
The ruddy turnstone breeds in northern latitudes, usually no more than a few kilometres from the sea. The subspecies A. i. morinella occurs in northern Alaska and in Arctic Canada as far east as Baffin Island. A. i. interpres breeds in western Alaska, Ellesmere Island, Greenland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Estonia and northern Russia. It formerly bred on the Baltic coast of Germany and has possibly bred in Scotland and the Faroe Islands.
In the Americas, the species winters on coastlines from Washington and Massachusetts southwards to the southern tip of South America although it is scarce in southern parts of Chile and Argentina and is only an unconfirmed vagrant in the Falkland Islands. In Europe, it winters in western regions from Iceland, Norway and Denmark southwards. Only small numbers are found on Mediterranean coasts. In Africa, it is common all the way down to South Africa with good numbers on many offshore islands. In Asia, it is widespread in the south with birds wintering as far north as southern China and Japan (mainly in the Ryukyu Islands). It occurs south to Tasmania and New Zealand and is present on many Pacific islands. Some non-breeding birds remain year round in many parts of the wintering range, with some of those birds still taking on breeding plumage in the spring and summer.
Behaviour
Feeding and diet
The ruddy turnstone has a varied diet including carrion, eggs, fish and plant material but it feeds mainly on invertebrates. Insects and their larvae are particularly important in the breeding season. At other times it also takes crustaceans, spiders, molluscs and worms. It often flips over stones and other objects to get at prey items hiding underneath; this behaviour is the origin of the name "turnstone". It usually forages in flocks.
They have also been observed preying on the eggs of other bird species such as gulls, terns, ducks, and even other turnstones, though this behaviour is uncommon. In the majority of observed cases, turnstones typically go after undefended or unattended nests, puncturing the shells with their beaks to get at the contents within.
Ruddy turnstones engage in a variety of behaviours to locate and capture prey. These behaviours can be placed into six general categories:
Routing: The turnstone manipulates piles of seaweed through flicking, bulldozing, and pecking to expose small crustaceans or gastropod molluscs hidden underneath.
Turning stones: As suggested by its name, the turnstone flicks stones with its bill to uncover hidden littorinids and gammarid amphipods.
Digging: With small flicks of its bill, the turnstone creates holes in the ground substrate (usually sand or mud) and then pecks at the exposed prey – often sandhoppers or seaweed flies.
Probing: The turnstone inserts its bill more than a quarter-length into the ground to get at littorinids and other gastropods.
Hammer–probing: The turnstone cracks open its prey's shell by using its bill as a hammer, and then extracts the animal inside through pecking and probing.
Surface pecking: The turnstone uses short, shallow pecks (less than a quarter bill-length) to get at prey at or just below the ground's surface.
There is evidence that turnstones vary between these feeding behaviours based on individual preference, sex, and even social status with respect to other turnstones. In one studied population, dominant individuals tended to engage in routing while preventing subordinates from doing the same. When these dominant individuals were temporarily removed, some of the subordinates started to rout, while others enacted no change in foraging strategy.
Aggression and territory defence
When foraging, turnstones adopt different postures indicative of their level of dominance. A lowered tail and a hunched stance is associated with chasing and aggression, and thus a dominant individual. Dominance in aggression is age-related, with juveniles assuming the subordinate role a disproportionate amount of the time.
The plumage patterns of ruddy turnstones exhibit an unusual amount of variation in comparison with other shorebirds. Turnstones use these unique plumage patterns to recognize individuals and discriminate intruders in their territory from neighbours occupying an adjacent territory. When a fake fiberglass turnstone model is placed in a turnstone's territory, the occupant is less likely to respond aggressively if the model is painted to have the plumage pattern of a neighbouring turnstone.
Ecology
Ruddy turnstones can survive in a wide range of habitats and climatic conditions from Arctic to tropical. The typical breeding habitat is open tundra with water nearby. Outside the breeding season, it is found along coasts, particularly on rocky or stony shores. It is often found on man-made structures such as breakwaters and jetties. It may venture onto open grassy areas near the coast. Small numbers sometimes turn up on inland wetlands, especially during the spring and autumn migrations.
In terms of wintering sites, ruddy turnstones are particularly faithful to specific locations. A study published in 2009 examined turnstones wintering along a stretch of coastline in the Firth of Clyde. It found that 95% of birds resident to the area at the end of winter returned the following autumn. The same study also confirmed ruddy turnstones as one of the longest lived wader species, with annual adult mortality rates of under 15%. Their average lifespan is 9 years with 19 years and 2 months being the longest recorded.
Reproduction
It is a monogamous bird and pairs may remain together for more than one breeding season. The nest is a shallow scrape, often with a lining of leaves. It is about across and deep. It may be built amongst vegetation or on bare stony or rocky ground. Several pairs may nest close together.
A single clutch of two to five eggs is laid with four being most common. The eggs measure about and weigh around . They are smooth, slightly glossy and oval to pear-shaped. They are variable in colour but are commonly pale green-brown with dark brown markings, densest at the larger end. Incubation begins when the first egg is laid and lasts for about 22–24 days. The female is mainly responsible for incubating the eggs but the male may help towards the end.
The young birds are precocial and are able to leave the nest soon after hatching. They are buff above with dark grey markings and are white below. They are able to feed themselves but are protected by the parents, particularly the male. They fledge after 19–21 days.
Status and conservation
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the ruddy turnstone population is currently very stable. Environment Canada surveys suggest that they have in fact decreased in abundance relative to the 1970s, and face a variety of threats during migration and winter. They estimate that the Canadian population is 100,000–500,000 adults. The Canadian Wildlife Service estimates that the worldwide population of ruddy turnstones is 449,000, and that 235,000 are breeding in North America while the rest are breeding throughout the Arctic regions. They are very common and widespread. Their remote breeding range and widespread winter range should help them remain a common species.
References
External links
Ruddy turnstone Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Ruddy turnstone profile at BirdWeb.org
Ruddy Turnstone Population Assessment Summary – Environment Canada
Ruddy turnstone species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Encounter between ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres and hermit crab Coenobita perlatus
Video of ruddy turnstones in Swansea Bay, Wales, U.K.
Birds described in 1758
Birds of the Arctic
Birds of the Caribbean
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Cosmopolitan birds
Sandpipers
Shorebirds
ruddy turnstone
Holarctic birds
|
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244443
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20turnstone
|
Black turnstone
|
The black turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala) is a species of small wading bird. It is one of two species of turnstone in the genus Arenaria the ruddy turnstone (A. interpres) being the other. It is now classified in the sandpiper family, Scolopacidae, but was formerly sometimes placed in the plover family, Charadriidae. It is native to the west coast of North America and breeds only in Alaska.
Description
It is 22–25 centimeters long and weighs 100–170 grams. The black bill is 20–27 millimeters long and slightly upturned. The legs and feet are blackish-brown with a reddish tinge. The bird is largely black and white in appearance. Breeding-plumaged adults have a black head and breast apart from a white spot between the eye and bill, a white stripe over the eye and white flecks on the sides of the breast. The upperparts are blackish-brown with pale fringes to the wing-coverts and scapular feathers. The belly and vent are white. In flight it shows a white wingbar, white shoulder patch and white tail with a broad black band across it. There is white from the lower back to the uppertail-coverts apart from a dark bar across the rump.
In winter the head and breast become largely dark brown with little white. Juveniles are similar to winter adults but browner with buff fringes to the wing-coverts and scapulars and a grey-brown tip to the tail.
The ruddy turnstone is similar but has rufous-brown markings on the upperparts and more white on the head and breast, particularly in breeding plumage. It has narrower wings and a narrower white wingbar. Its legs are orange and brighter than those of the black turnstone though there can be some overlap.
The black turnstone has a variety of calls, especially a rattling trill which can be heard throughout the year. This call is higher and less harsh than the similar call of the ruddy turnstone. Other calls include a loud, screeching alarm call and a soft, purring call uttered to young chicks. Displaying males produce a long series of staccato notes in flight as well as chirruping trills on the ground.
Distribution
It breeds in western Alaska from the Alaska Peninsula in the south to Point Hope in the north. The bulk of the population nests in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. It usually nests near the coast but in some areas it occurs further inland along the shores of rivers and lakes. There are a handful of records from north-east Siberia but there has been no sign of breeding there. The world population is estimated at 95,000 birds with about 80,000 of these in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta.
It winters on rocky shores along the Pacific coast of North America from southern Alaska southwards as far as north-west Mexico where it occurs in Baja California and Sonora with a single record from Nayarit. It is very occasionally seen inland during spring and fall migration; there are a number of records from the Salton Sea in southern California and scattered sightings from inland US states including Montana, Wisconsin, Nevada and Arizona. Vagrant birds have been recorded from Yukon and the Northwest Territories and there is one record from San Cristóbal Island in the Galápagos Islands.
Ecology
It feeds mainly on invertebrates, particularly crustaceans and mollusks in winter and insects during the breeding season. Seeds, eggs and carrion are also taken. At the breeding grounds it mainly feeds in wet meadows with sedges. In winter, its typical habitat is rocky coasts but it also feeds on beaches, mudflats and man-made structures such as jetties and breakwaters. It uses its bill to turn over stones, algal mats and other objects to get at prey hidden beneath.
It arrives on its breeding ground from early May to early June with the males arriving first. The birds often return to the same territory and pair with the same mate as previous years. The nest is a scrape dug mainly by the male. It is usually located amongst sedges or grasses or under willows. Four eggs are usually laid; they are olive or pale greenish with darker spots. The eggs are incubated for 21–24 days by both parents. The young birds are precocial and are able to leave the nest and feed themselves soon after hatching. They are able to fly well after 25–34 days.
Footnotes
References
Handel, C. M., and R. E. Gill (2001). Black Turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala). In The Birds of North America, No. 585 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. Accessed 20/09/07. [subscription required]
Rosair, David & Cottridge, David (1995) Hamlyn Photographic Guide to the Waders of the World. Hamlyn, London.
External links
Black turnstone flashcard eNature.com
Sandpipers
Birds of the Arctic
Native birds of Alaska
Birds described in 1829
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors
|
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] |
244445
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total
|
Total
|
Total may refer to:
Mathematics
Total, the summation of a set of numbers
Total order, a partial order without incomparable pairs
Total relation, which may mean either
serial relation (a binary relation that relates every domain element to some range element), or
connected relation (a binary relation in which any two elements are comparable).
Total function, a partial function that is also a total relation
Business
TotalEnergies, a French petroleum company
Total (cereal), a food brand by General Mills
Total, a brand of strained yogurt made by Fage
Total, a database management system marketed by Cincom Systems
Total Linhas Aéreas - a brazilian airline
Music and culture
Total (group), an American R&B girl group
Total: From Joy Division to New Order, a compilation album
Total (Sebastian album)
Total (Total album)
Total (Teenage Bottlerocket album)
Total (Seigmen album)
Total (Wanessa album)
Total (Belinda Peregrín album)
Total 1, an annual compilation album
Total, the one time recording name of British musician Matthew Bower
Total!, a British videogames magazine
Sports
Total (football club)
See also
Total war, a large-scale military conflict
Totaled, the write-off of a damaged vehicle on cost grounds
Totally (disambiguation)
|
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] |
244450
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICS
|
ICS
|
ICS may refer to:
Computing
Image Cytometry Standard, a digital multidimensional image file format used in life sciences microscopy
Industrial control system, computer systems and networks used to control industrial plants and infrastructures
Information and computer science, the combined field of informatics and computing
Internet chess server, an external server that provides the facility to play, discuss, and view chess over the Internet
Internet Connection Sharing, a feature in Microsoft operating systems since the advent of Windows 98 Second Edition
.ics, a filename extension for iCalendar files
Android Ice Cream Sandwich, the codename for version 4.0 of the Android operating system
Education
Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, Irvine, California, United States
Graduate School of International Corporate Strategy, Tokyo, Japan
Indian Central School, Singapore
Institute for Christian Studies, Toronto, Ontario
Institute of Cornish Studies, in Falmouth, UK
Inter-Community School Zürich, Switzerland
Intermountain Christian School, Utah, United States
International Christian School (Hong Kong)
International Community School (Kirkland, Washington)
International Community School (Singapore)
International Community School (Thailand)
International Community School (UK)
International Community School of Addis Ababa
International Correspondence Schools
Islesboro Central School
Entertainment
International Channel Shanghai, a foreign-language cable channel
Immigration And Customs Security, a fictional organization in the Canadian TV series The Border
Music
ICS Vortex, alias of Simen Hestnæs, Norwegian rock musician
Immersion Composition Society, a network of composers, based in the USA
Organizations
ICS Africa
Imperial Civil Service
Indian Civil Service (British India)
Indian National Congress (Socialist)
Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers
International Communist Seminar
Institute for Computational Sustainability, a Cornell-based institute in the United States
International Chamber of Shipping
International Citizen Service, a UK volunteer organization
International Commission on Stratigraphy, the largest scientific body within the International Union of Geological Sciences
International Continence Society, a multidisciplinary membership society for medical professionals concerned with incontinence
Irish Computer Society, the national body for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Professionals in Ireland
Integrated care system, a component of the National Health Service (England)
Science
Inhaled corticosteroid, steroid hormones used to treat the nasal mucosa, sinuses, bronchi, and lungs
Intercostal space, the space between two ribs
Technology
Ganz CSMG, also known as Ganz ICS, a Hungarian tram type
In Channel Select, a technology improving programme reception in FM tuners
Industrial control system
International Classification for Standards, an international classification system for technical standards
International Code of Signals, a maritime signaling standard also abbreviated INTERCO
Other uses
Incident Command System, an emergency response management system
InterCity Slovenia, a premium train service in Slovenia
Israeli Cassini Soldner, a historical geographic coordinate system
Investor court system
Inmate Calling Service, a type of specialized telephone service provisioned for use by inmates at correctional facilities
International Code of Signals, an international system of signals and codes for use in navigation and related matters
See also
Ic (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency%20matrix
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Adjacency matrix
|
In graph theory and computer science, an adjacency matrix is a square matrix used to represent a finite graph. The elements of the matrix indicate whether pairs of vertices are adjacent or not in the graph.
In the special case of a finite simple graph, the adjacency matrix is a (0,1)-matrix with zeros on its diagonal. If the graph is undirected (i.e. all of its edges are bidirectional), the adjacency matrix is symmetric.
The relationship between a graph and the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of its adjacency matrix is studied in spectral graph theory.
The adjacency matrix of a graph should be distinguished from its incidence matrix, a different matrix representation whose elements indicate whether vertex–edge pairs are incident or not, and its degree matrix, which contains information about the degree of each vertex.
Definition
For a simple graph with vertex set }, the adjacency matrix is a square matrix such that its element is one when there is an edge from vertex to vertex , and zero when there is no edge. The diagonal elements of the matrix are all zero, since edges from a vertex to itself (loops) are not allowed in simple graphs. It is also sometimes useful in algebraic graph theory to replace the nonzero elements with algebraic variables. The same concept can be extended to multigraphs and graphs with loops by storing the number of edges between each two vertices in the corresponding matrix element, and by allowing nonzero diagonal elements. Loops may be counted either once (as a single edge) or twice (as two vertex-edge incidences), as long as a consistent convention is followed. Undirected graphs often use the latter convention of counting loops twice, whereas directed graphs typically use the former convention.
Of a bipartite graph
The adjacency matrix of a bipartite graph whose two parts have and vertices can be written in the form
where is an matrix, and and represent the and zero matrices. In this case, the smaller matrix uniquely represents the graph, and the remaining parts of can be discarded as redundant. is sometimes called the biadjacency matrix.
Formally, let be a bipartite graph with parts }, } and edges . The biadjacency matrix is the 0–1 matrix in which if and only if .
If is a bipartite multigraph or weighted graph, then the elements are taken to be the number of edges between the vertices or the weight of the edge , respectively.
Variations
An -adjacency matrix of a simple graph has if is an edge, if it is not, and on the diagonal. The Seidel adjacency matrix is a -adjacency matrix. This matrix is used in studying strongly regular graphs and two-graphs.
The distance matrix has in position the distance between vertices and . The distance is the length of a shortest path connecting the vertices. Unless lengths of edges are explicitly provided, the length of a path is the number of edges in it. The distance matrix resembles a high power of the adjacency matrix, but instead of telling only whether or not two vertices are connected (i.e., the connection matrix, which contains boolean values), it gives the exact distance between them.
Examples
Undirected graphs
The convention followed here (for undirected graphs) is that each edge adds 1 to the appropriate cell in the matrix, and each loop adds 2. This allows the degree of a vertex to be easily found by taking the sum of the values in either its respective row or column in the adjacency matrix.
Directed graphs
The adjacency matrix of a directed graph can be asymmetric. One can define the adjacency matrix of a directed graph either such that
a non-zero element indicates an edge from to or
it indicates an edge from to .
The former definition is commonly used in graph theory and social network analysis (e.g., sociology, political science, economics, psychology). The latter is more common in other applied sciences (e.g., dynamical systems, physics, network science) where is sometimes used to describe linear dynamics on graphs.
Using the first definition, the in-degrees of a vertex can be computed by summing the entries of the corresponding column and the out-degree of vertex by summing the entries of the corresponding row. When using the second definition, the in-degree of a vertex is given by the corresponding row sum and the out-degree is given by the corresponding column sum.
Trivial graphs
The adjacency matrix of a complete graph contains all ones except along the diagonal where there are only zeros. The adjacency matrix of an empty graph is a zero matrix.
Properties
Spectrum
The adjacency matrix of an undirected simple graph is symmetric, and therefore has a complete set of real eigenvalues and an orthogonal eigenvector basis. The set of eigenvalues of a graph is the spectrum of the graph. It is common to denote the eigenvalues by
The greatest eigenvalue is bounded above by the maximum degree. This can be seen as result of the Perron–Frobenius theorem, but it can be proved easily. Let be one eigenvector associated to and the component in which has maximum absolute value. Without loss of generality assume is positive since otherwise you simply take the eigenvector , also associated to . Then
For -regular graphs, is the first eigenvalue of for the vector (it is easy to check that it is an eigenvalue and it is the maximum because of the above bound). The multiplicity of this eigenvalue is the number of connected components of , in particular for connected graphs. It can be shown that for each eigenvalue , its opposite is also an eigenvalue of if is a bipartite graph. In particular − is an eigenvalue of bipartite graphs.
The difference is called the spectral gap and it is related to the expansion of . It is also useful to introduce the spectral radius of denoted by . This number is bounded by . This bound is tight in the Ramanujan graphs, which have applications in many areas.
Isomorphism and invariants
Suppose two directed or undirected graphs and with adjacency matrices and are given. and are isomorphic if and only if there exists a permutation matrix such that
In particular, and are similar and therefore have the same minimal polynomial, characteristic polynomial, eigenvalues, determinant and trace. These can therefore serve as isomorphism invariants of graphs. However, two graphs may possess the same set of eigenvalues but not be isomorphic. Such linear operators are said to be isospectral.
Matrix powers
If is the adjacency matrix of the directed or undirected graph , then the matrix (i.e., the matrix product of copies of ) has an interesting interpretation: the element gives the number of (directed or undirected) walks of length from vertex to vertex . If is the smallest nonnegative integer, such that for some , , the element of is positive, then is the distance between vertex and vertex . This implies, for example, that the number of triangles in an undirected graph is exactly the trace of divided by 6. The adjacency matrix can be used to determine whether or not the graph is connected.
Data structures
The adjacency matrix may be used as a data structure for the representation of graphs in computer programs for manipulating graphs. The main alternative data structure, also in use for this application, is the adjacency list.
Because each entry in the adjacency matrix requires only one bit, it can be represented in a very compact way, occupying only |V |2 / 8 bytes to represent a directed graph, or (by using a packed triangular format and only storing the lower triangular part of the matrix) approximately |V |2 / 16 bytes to represent an undirected graph. Although slightly more succinct representations are possible, this method gets close to the information-theoretic lower bound for the minimum number of bits needed to represent all -vertex graphs. For storing graphs in text files, fewer bits per byte can be used to ensure that all bytes are text characters, for instance by using a Base64 representation. Besides avoiding wasted space, this compactness encourages locality of reference.
However, for a large sparse graph, adjacency lists require less storage space, because they do not waste any space to represent edges that are not present.
An alternative form of adjacency matrix (which, however, requires a larger amount of space) replaces the numbers in each element of the matrix with pointers to edge objects (when edges are present) or null pointers (when there is no edge). It is also possible to store edge weights directly in the elements of an adjacency matrix.
Besides the space tradeoff, the different data structures also facilitate different operations. Finding all vertices adjacent to a given vertex in an adjacency list is as simple as reading the list, and takes time proportional to the number of neighbors. With an adjacency matrix, an entire row must instead be scanned, which takes a larger amount of time, proportional to the number of vertices in the whole graph. On the other hand, testing whether there is an edge between two given vertices can be determined at once with an adjacency matrix, while requiring time proportional to the minimum degree of the two vertices with the adjacency list.
See also
Laplacian matrix
Self-similarity matrix
References
External links
Fluffschack — an educational Java web start game demonstrating the relationship between adjacency matrices and graphs.
Open Data Structures - Section 12.1 - AdjacencyMatrix: Representing a Graph by a Matrix, Pat Morin
Café math : Adjacency Matrices of Graphs : Application of the adjacency matrices to the computation generating series of walks.
Algebraic graph theory
Matrices
Graph data structures
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu%20Xi
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Zhu Xi
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Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese Confucian scholar, philosopher, and government official of Song dynasty China, who was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He contributed greatly to Chinese philosophy and fundamentally reshaped the Chinese worldview. His works include his editing of and commentaries to the Four Books (which later formed the curriculum of the civil service exam in Imperial China from 1313 to 1905), his writings on the process of the "investigation of things" (), and his development of meditation as a method for self-cultivation.
He was a scholar with a wide learning in the classics, commentaries, histories and other writings of his predecessors. In his lifetime he was able to serve multiple times as an government official, although he avoided public office for most of his adult life. He also wrote, compiled and edited almost a hundred books and corresponded with dozens of other scholars. He acted as a teacher to groups of students, many of whom chose to study under him for years. He built upon the teachings of the Cheng brothers and others; and further developed their metaphysical theories in regards to principle (lǐ 理) and vital force (qì 氣). His followers recorded thousands of his conversations in writing.
Life
Zhu Xi, whose family originated in Wuyuan County, Huizhou (in modern Jiangxi province), was born in Fujian, where his father worked as the subprefectural sheriff. After his father was forced from office due to his opposition to the government appeasement policy towards the Jurchen in 1140, Zhu Xi received instruction from his father at home. Many anecdotes attest that he was a highly precocious child. It was recorded that at age five he ventured to ask what lay beyond Heaven, and by eight he understood the significance of the Classic of Filiality (Xiaojing). As a youth, he was inspired by Mencius’ proposition that all people could become a sage. Upon his father's death in 1143, he studied with his father's friends Hu Xian, Liu Zihui, and Liu Mianzhi. In 1148, at the age of 19, Zhu Xi passed the Imperial Examination and became a presented scholar (jinshi ). Zhu Xi's first official dispatch position was as Subprefectural Registrar of Tong'an (), which he served from 1153 - 1156. From 1153 he began to study under Li Tong, who followed the Neo-Confucian tradition of Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, and formally became his student in 1160.
In 1179, after not serving in an official capacity since 1156, Zhu Xi was appointed Prefect of Nankang Military District (), where he revived White Deer Grotto Academy. and got demoted three years later for attacking the incompetency and corruption of some influential officials. There were several instances of receiving an appointment and subsequently being demoted. Upon dismissal from his last appointment, he was accused of numerous crimes and a petition was made for his execution. Much of this opposition was headed by Han Tuozhou, the Prime Minister, who was a political rival of Zhu's. Even though his teachings had been severely attacked by establishment figures, almost a thousand brave people attended his funeral. After the death of Han Tuozhou, Zhu's successor Zhen Dexiu, together with Wei Liaoweng, made Zhu's branch of Neo-Confucianism the dominant philosophy at the Song Court.
In 1208, eight years after his death, Emperor Ningzong of Song rehabilitated Zhu Xi and honored him with the posthumous name of Wen Gong (), meaning “Venerable gentleman of culture”. Around 1228, Emperor Lizong of Song honored him with the posthumous noble title Duke of (State) Hui (). In 1241, a memorial tablet to Zhu Xi was placed in the Confucian Temple at Qufu, thereby elevating him to Confucian sainthood. Today, Zhu Xi is venerated as one of the "Twelve Philosophers" () of Confucianism. Modern Sinologists and Chinese often refer to him as Zhu Wen Gong () in lieu of his name.
Teachings
The Four Books
During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi's teachings were considered to be unorthodox. Rather than focusing on the I Ching like other Neo-Confucians, he chose to emphasize the Four Books: the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects of Confucius, and the Mencius as the core curriculum for aspiring scholar officials. For all these classics he wrote extensive commentaries that were not widely recognized in his time; however, they later became accepted as the standard commentaries. The Four Books served as the basis of civil service examinations up until 1905, and education in the classics often began with Zhu Xi's commentaries as the cornerstone for understanding them.
The sources of Zhu Xi's new approach to the Confucian curriculum have been found in several works of the Cheng brothers. Zhu Xi “codified the Cheng brothers’ teachings and reworked them into his own philosophical program,” moving “from philology to philosophy.”
Vital force, principle, and the Supreme Ultimate
Zhu Xi maintained that all things are brought into being by the union of two universal aspects of reality: qi (气 Wade-Giles: ch‘i), sometimes translated as vital (or physical, material) force; and li (理), sometimes translated as rational principle (or law). The source and sum of li is the Taiji (太极 Wade-Giles: T‘ai Chi), meaning the Supreme Ultimate. The source of qi is not so clearly stated by Zhu Xi, leading some authorities to maintain that he was a metaphysical monist and others to maintain that he was a metaphysical dualist.
According to Zhu Xi's theory, every physical object and every person has its li and therefore has contact in its metaphysical core with the Taiji. What is referred to as the human soul, mind, or spirit is understood as the Taiji, or the supreme creative principle, as it works its way out in a person.
Qi and li operate together in mutual dependence. They are mutually aspective in all creatures in the universe. These two aspects are manifested in the creation of substantial entities. When their activity is waxing (rapid or expansive), that is the yang energy mode. When their activity is waning (slow or contractive), that is the yin energy mode. The yang and yin phases constantly interact, each gaining and losing dominance over the other. In the process of the waxing and waning, the alternation of these fundamental vibrations, the so-called five elements (fire, water, wood, metal, and earth) evolve. Zhu Xi argues that li existed even before Heaven and Earth
In terms of li and qi, Zhu Xi's system strongly resembles Buddhist ideas of 理 li (principle) and 事 shi (affairs, matters), though Zhu Xi and his followers strongly argued that they were not copying Buddhist ideas. Instead, they held, they were using concepts already present long before in the I Ching.
Zhu Xi discussed how he saw the Supreme Ultimate concept to be compatible with principle of Taoism, but his concept of Taiji was different from the understanding of Tao in Daoism. Where Taiji is a differentiating principle that results in the emergence of something new, Dao is still and silent, operating to reduce all things to equality and indistinguishability. He argued that there is a central harmony that is not static or empty but was dynamic, and that the Supreme Ultimate is itself in constant creative activity.
Human nature
Zhu Xi considered the earlier Confucian Xun Zi to be a heretic for departing from Mencius' idea of innate human goodness. Even if people displayed immoral behaviour, the supreme regulative principle was good. The cause of immoral actions is qi. Zhu Xi's metaphysics is that everything contains li and qi. Li is the principle that is in everything and governs the universe. Each person has a perfect li. As such, individuals should act in perfect accordance with morality. However, while li is the underlying structure, qi is also part of everything. Qi obscures our perfect moral nature. The task of moral cultivation is to clear our qi. If our qi is clear and balanced, then we will act in a perfectly moral way.
Heart/mind
Clarity of mind and purity of heart are ideal in Confucian philosophy. In the following poem, "Reflections While Reading - 1" Zhu Xi illustrates this concept by comparing the mind to a mirror, left covered until needed that simply reflects the world around it, staying clear by the flowing waters symbolizing the Tao. In Chinese, the mind was sometimes called "the square inch," which is the literal translation of the term alluded to in the beginning of the poem.
Knowledge and action
According to Zhu Xi's epistemology, knowledge and action were indivisible components of truly intelligent activity. Although he did distinguish between the priority of knowing, since intelligent action requires forethought, and the importance of action, as it produces a discernible effect, Zhu Xi said "Knowledge and action always require each other. It is like a person who cannot walk without legs although he has eyes, and who cannot see without eyes although he has legs. With respect to order, knowledge comes first, and with respect to importance, action is more important."
The investigation of things and the extension of knowledge
Zhu Xi advocated 格物致知 gewu zhizhi, the investigation of things. How to investigate and what these things are is the source of much debate. To Zhu Xi, the things are moral principles and the investigation involves paying attention to everything in both books and affairs because "moral principles are quite inexhaustible".
Religion
Zhu Xi did believe in the existence of spirits, ghosts, divination, and blessings.
Meditation
Zhu Xi practiced a form of daily meditation called jingzuo similar to, but not the same as, Buddhist dhyana or chan ding (Wade-Giles: ch'an-ting). His meditation did not require the cessation of all thinking as in some forms of Buddhism; rather, it was characterised by quiet introspection that helped to balance various aspects of one's personality and allowed for focused thought and concentration.
His form of meditation was by nature Confucian in the sense that it was concerned with morality. His meditation attempted to reason and feel in harmony with the universe. He believed that this type of meditation brought humanity closer together and more into harmony.
On teaching, learning, and the creation of an academy
Zhu Xi heavily focused his energy on teaching, claiming that learning is the only way to sage-hood. He wished to make the pursuit of sage-hood attainable to all men.
He lamented more modern printing techniques and the proliferation of books that ensued. This, he believed, made students less appreciative and focused on books, simply because there were more books to read than before. Therefore, he attempted to redefine how students should learn and read. In fact, disappointed by local schools in China, he established his own academy, White Deer Grotto Academy, to instruct students properly and in the proper fashion.
Taoist and Buddhist influence on Zhu Xi
Zhu Xi wrote what was to become the orthodox Confucian interpretation of a number of concepts in Taoism and Buddhism. While he appeared to have adopted some ideas from these competing systems of thought, unlike previous Neo-Confucians he strictly abided by the Confucian doctrine of active moral cultivation. He found Buddhist principles to be darkening and deluding the original mind as well as destroying human relations.
Legacy
From 1313 to 1905, Zhu Xi's commentaries on the Four Books formed the basis of civil service examinations in China. His teachings were to dominate Neo-Confucians such as Wang Fuzhi, though dissenters would later emerge such as Wang Yangming and the School of Mind two and a half centuries later.
His philosophy survived the Intellectual Revolution of 1917, and later Feng Youlan would interpret his conception of li, qi, and taiji into a new metaphysical theory.
He was also influential in Japan known as Shushigaku (朱子学, School of Master Zhu), and in Korea known as Jujahak (주자학), where it became an orthodoxy.
Life magazine ranked Zhu Xi as the forty-fifth most important person in the last millennium.
Zhu Xi's descendants, like those of Confucius and other notable Confucians, held the hereditary title of Wujing Boshi (五经博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì), which translated means Erudite or Doctor (PhD) of the Five Classics and enjoyed the rank of 8a in the Mandarin (bureaucrat) system.
One of his descendants married Emperor Lizong.
Calligraphy
Zhu Xi had, from an early age, followed his father and a number of great calligraphers at the time in practicing calligraphy. At first he learned the style of Cao Cao, but later specialized in the regular script of Zhong Yao and the running cursive script of Yan Zhenqing. Though his manuscripts left to the world are piecemeal and incomplete, and most of his works are lost. Moreover, his fame in the realm of philosophy was so great that even his brilliance in calligraphy was overshadowed. He was skillful in both running and cursive scripts, especially in large characters, but extant artworks consist mainly of short written notes in running script and rarely of large characters. His authentic manuscripts are collected by Nanjing Museum, Beijing Palace Museum, Liaoning Province Museum, Taipei Palace Museum and the National Museum of Tokyo, Japan. Some pieces are in private collections in China and overseas. The Thatched Hut Hand Scroll, one of Zhu Xi's masterpieces in running-cursive script, is in an overseas private collection.
Thatched Hut Hand Scroll contains three separate parts:
Title
102 characters by Zhu Xi in running cursive scripts
The postscripts by Wen Tianxiang (1236～1283) of Song dynasty, Fang Xiaoru (1375～1402), Zhu Yunming (1460–1526), Tang Yin (1470～1523) and Hai Rui (1514～1587) of the Ming dynasty.
Calligraphy style
The calligraphy of Zhu Xi had been acclaimed as acquiring the style of the Han and Wei dynasties. He was skillful in the central tip, and his brush strokes are smooth and round, steady yet flowing in the movements without any trace of frivolity and abruptness. Indeed, his calligraphy possesses stability and elegance in construction with a continuous flow of energy. Without trying to be pretentious or intentional, his written characters are well-balanced, natural and unconventional. As he was a patriarch of Confucianism philosophy, it is understandable that his learning permeated in all his writings with due respect for traditional standards. He maintained that while rules had to be observed for each word, there should be room for tolerance, multiplicity and naturalness. In other words, calligraphy had to observe rules and at the same time not be bound by them so as to express the quality of naturalness. It is small wonder that his calligraphy had been highly esteemed throughout the centuries, by great personages as follows:
Tao Chung Yi (around 1329～1412) of the Ming dynasty:
Whilst Master Zhu inherited the orthodox teaching and propagated it to the realm of sages and yet he was also proficient in running and cursive scripts, especially in large characters. His execution of brush was well-poised and elegant. However piecemeal or isolated his manuscripts, they were eagerly sought after and treasured.
Wang Sai Ching (1526–1590) of the Ming dynasty:
The brush strokes in his calligraphy were swift without attempting at formality, yet none of his strokes and dots were not in conformity with the rules of calligraphy.
Wen Tianxiang of the Song dynasty in his postscript for the Thatched Hut Hand Scroll by Zhu Xi:
People in the olden days said that there was embedded the bones of loyal subject in the calligraphy of Yan Zhenqing. Observing the execution of brush strokes by Zhu Xi, I am indeed convinced of the truth of this opinion.
Zhu Yunming of the Ming dynasty in his postscript for the Thatched Hut Hand Scroll by Zhu Xi:
Master Zhu was loyal, learned and a great scholar throughout ages . He was superb in calligraphy although he did not write much in his lifetime and hence they were rarely seen in later ages. This roll had been collected by Wong Sze Ma for a long time and of late, it appeared in the world. I chanced to see it once and whilst I regretted that I did not try to study it extensively until now, in the study room of my friend, I was so lucky to see it again. This showed that I am destined to see the manuscripts of master Zhu. I therefore wrote this preface for my intention.
Hai Rui of the Ming dynasty in his postscript for the Thatched Hut Hand Scroll by Zhu Xi:
The writings are enticing, delicate, elegant and outstanding. Truly such calligraphy piece is the wonder of nature.
See also
Footnotes and references
Further reading
J. Percy Bruce. Chu Hsi and His Masters, Probsthain & Co., London, 1922.
Daniel K. Gardner. Learning To Be a Sage, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1990. .
Bruce E. Carpenter. 'Chu Hsi and the Art of Reading' in Tezukayama University Review (Tezukayama daigaku ronshū), Nara, Japan, no. 15, 1977, pp. 13–18.
Wing-tsit Chan, Chu Hsi: Life and Thought (1987). .
Wing-tsit Chan, Chu Hsi: New Studies. University of Hawaii Press: 1989.
Gedalecia, D (1974). "Excursion Into Substance and Function." Philosophy East and West. vol. 4, 443–451.
Hoyt Cleveland Tillman, Utilitarian Confucianism: Ch‘en Liang's Challenge to Chu Hsi (1982)
Wm. Theodore de Bary, Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Learning of the Mind-and-Heart (1981), on the development of Zhu Xi's thought after his death
Wing-tsit Chan (ed.), Chu Hsi and Neo-Confucianism (1986), a set of conference papers
Donald J. Munro, Images of Human Nature: A Sung Portrait (1988), an analysis of the concept of human nature in Zhu Xi's thought
Joseph A. Adler, Reconstructing the Confucian Dao: Zhu Xi's Appropriation of Zhou Dunyi (2014), a study of how and why Zhu Xi chose Zhou Dunyi to be the first true Confucian Sage since Mencius
Lianbin Dai, “From Philology to Philosophy: Zhu Xi (1130–1200) as a Reader-Annotator” (2016). In Canonical Texts and Scholarly Practices: A Global Comparative Approach, edited by Anthony Grafton and Glenn W. Most, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016, 136–163, on Zhu Xi within the context and development of neo-Confucianism
Translations
All translations are of excerpts except where otherwise noted.
Wing-tsit Chan (1963), A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Gardner, Daniel (1986). Chu Hsi and Ta-hsueh: Neo-Confucian Reflection on the Confucian Canon. Cambridge: Harvard UP.
A full translation of 近思錄.
A full translation of 續近思錄.
A full translation of 家禮.
A full translation of 易學啟蒙.
Full translation of Zhu Xi's commentaries on Zhou Dunyi's Taijitu shuo 太極圖說 and Tongshu 通書.
Full translation of Zhu Xi's Zhouyi benyi 周易本義, with Introduction and annotations.
External links
Zhu Xi and his Calligraphy Gallery at China Online Museum
Zhu Xi's large-character calligraphy from the Yijing
Chu Hsi and Divination - Joseph A. Adler
First part of the Classified Conversations of Master Zhu
1130 births
1200 deaths
12th-century Chinese calligraphers
12th-century Chinese historians
12th-century Chinese philosophers
12th-century Chinese poets
Chinese Confucianists
Critics of Buddhism
Historians from Fujian
Neo-Confucian scholars
Philosophers from Fujian
Poets from Fujian
Politicians from Sanming
Song dynasty calligraphers
Song dynasty essayists
Song dynasty historians
Song dynasty philosophers
Song dynasty poets
Song dynasty politicians from Fujian
|
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] |
244470
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odd
|
Odd
|
Odd means unpaired, occasional, strange or unusual, or a person who is viewed as eccentric.
Odd may also refer to:
In mathematics, the term is used in several senses related to even:
even and odd numbers, an integer is odd if dividing by two does not yield an integer
even and odd functions, a function is odd if f(−x) = −f(x) for all x
even and odd permutations, a permutation of a finite set is odd if it is composed of an odd number of transpositions
Ships
HNoMS Odd, a Storm-class patrol boat of the Royal Norwegian Navy
, a Norwegian whaler
Other uses:
Odd (name), a male name common in Norway
Odd, West Virginia, USA, an unincorporated community
Odd Grenland, a Norwegian football team
Odd Della Robbia, a character in the animated television series Code Lyoko
Odd Fellowship, a fraternal order
Odd (Shinee album), an album by the South Korean boy band Shinee
Odd Thomas (character), a character in a series of novels by Dean Koontz
Odd and the Frost Giants, a book by Neil Gaiman
Odd, a science fiction short story by John Wyndham in the collection The Seeds of Time
"Odd", a song by Loona Odd Eye Circle from Mix & Match
ODD as an acronym or as an abbreviation may refer to:
Optical disc drive
ODD (Text Encoding Initiative), "One Document Does it all", an abstracted literate-programming format for describing XML schemas
Oppositional defiant disorder, a mental disorder characterized by anger-guided, hostile behavior
ODD, a play by Hal Corley about a teenager with oppositional defiant disorder
Operational due diligence
See also
Odds, from probability theory and gambling
|
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244473
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius%20Sulpicius%20Rufus
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Publius Sulpicius Rufus
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Publius Sulpicius Rufus (124–88 BC) was a Roman politician and orator whose attempts to pass controversial laws with the help of mob violence helped trigger the first civil war of the Roman Republic. His actions kindled the deadly rivalry between Gaius Marius and Sulla, and provided the pretext for Sulla's unexpected march on Rome.
Life
Background and early career
Publius Sulpicius Rufus was probably born in 124 BC. His precise background is unclear: he was most likely not related to the jurist and near-contemporary Servius Sulpicius Rufus, nor, like him, a patrician, despite their matching family names. It is likely, nevertheless, that he was of high birth, as he was personally acquainted to some of the most important aristocrats of the day. These included the orators Lucius Licinius Crassus and Marcus Antonius, of whom Sulpicius was a close friend as well as disciple. Sulpicius himself came to be regarded as one of the finest orators of his generation. Together with two highborn friends of his, Marcus Livius Drusus (son of the opponent of Gaius Gracchus) and Gaius Aurelius Cotta (uncle of Julius Caesar), Sulpicius formed a circle of "talented and energetic young aristocrats" in whom and the older generation of Roman senators placed great hope for the future.
In 95 BC, Sulpicius, with the encouragement and approval of the nobility, led an eloquent but ultimately unsuccessful prosecution of a former tribune of the plebs, Gaius Norbanus. This was his first major public performance, and he continued working as an advocate in the courts during the following years. He soon became involved in politics as a close ally of his friend, Livius Drusus, during the latter's eventful term as tribune of the plebs in 91 BC. Their circle seems to have identified with the cause of moderate reform within the establishment, that sought to maintain and perpetuate the ruling class's hold on power by making their rule more palatable to the ruled. To that end, Drusus as tribune had proposed several ambitious reforms which included the transfer of the state courts from the equestrian class to the Senate, the granting of full citizenship to Rome's restive non-citizen allies across Italy, and distribution of land and grain to the poor. To continue Drusus's work, his friends Aurelius Cotta and Sulpicius agreed to follow him on the tribunate in successive years, the former in 90 BC and Sulpicius himself in 89.
Failure of reform and war
Drusus's attempts at reform and catering to many diverse interests simultaneously ended in failure. The equestrians strongly resisted his proposals to deprive them of the courts, and Drusus was unable to reach a compromise that was acceptable to both them and the senatorial nobility. Shortly after a meeting of supporters at a villa of Lucius Licinius Crassus near Tusculum in September 91 BC, at which Sulpicius was present, Crassus himself died, depriving Drusus of his mentor and main supporter in the Senate. Drusus himself was murdered under mysterious circumstances shortly afterwards. Rome's Italian allies, with their desire for citizenship stymied, soon broke away in rebellion, beginning the Social War.
The outbreak of the Social War was followed by several politically-motivated prosecutions as part of the equestrian class's reaction to Drusus's legislative proposals. One tribune, Varius, established a commission to prosecute Drusus's supporters on the charge that their attempts to appease the Italian allies with promises of citizenship had encouraged them to revolt. Sulpicius's friend, Cotta, who was supposed to succeed Drusus in the tribunate, was forced into exile to avoid condemnation, and Sulpicius himself narrowly avoided prosecution, probably because he then undertook military service against the Italian rebels. Sulpicius served in the conflict with the rank of lieutenant (), but his activities during it cannot be known with certainty.
Tribune of the plebs (89–88 BC)
Soon afterwards Sulpicius declared in favour of Gaius Marius and the populares, a move considered to be a surprising volte face by contemporaries: Cicero, for instance, remarks that 'the popular breeze carried Sulpicius, who had set out from an excellent position, further than he wished' He was deeply in debt, and it seems that Marius had promised him financial assistance in the event of his being appointed to the command in the Mithridatic Wars, to which Sulla had already been appointed. To secure the appointment for Marius, Sulpicius brought in a franchise bill by which the newly enfranchised Italian allies and freedmen would have swamped the old electors. The majority of the senate were strongly opposed to the proposal; a justitium (cessation of public business) was proclaimed by the consuls, but Marius and Sulpicius fomented a riot, and the consuls, in fear of their lives, withdrew the justitium. The proposals of Sulpicius became law, and, with the assistance of the new voters, the command was bestowed upon Marius, at the time a privatus holding no elected office.
Sulla, who was then at Nola, immediately marched upon Rome. Marius and Sulpicius, unable to resist him, fled from the city. Marius managed to escape to Africa, but Sulpicius was discovered in a villa at Laurentum and put to death; his head was sent to Sulla and exposed in the forum, and his laws annulled.
Sulpicius appears to have been originally a moderate reformer, who by force of circumstances became one of the leaders of a democratic revolt. Although he had impeached the turbulent tribune Gaius Norbanus in 95 BC, and resisted the proposal to repeal judicial sentences by popular decree, he did not hesitate to incur the displeasure of the Julian family by opposing the illegal candidature for the consulship of Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus, who had never been praetor and was consequently ineligible. Sulpicius' franchise proposals, as far as the Italians were concerned, were a necessary measure of justice; but they had been carried by violence.
Cicero as a young man went almost daily to see Sulpicius speak as tribune in the Forum (Brutus, 306), and judged him an able orator. Of his skills, Cicero says (Brutus, 55): "He was by far the most dignified of all the orators I have heard, and, so to speak, the most tragic; his voice was loud, but at the same time sweet and clear; his gestures were full of grace; his language was rapid and voluble, but not redundant or diffuse; he tried to imitate Crassus, but lacked his charm." Sulpicius left no written speeches, those that bore his name being written by a Publius Canutius. Sulpicius is one of the interlocutors in Cicero's De oratore.
Notes
Citations
References
120s BC births
88 BC deaths
2nd-century BC Romans
1st-century BC Romans
Ancient Roman generals
Roman legates
Rufus, Publius
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20examination
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Imperial examination
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The Chinese imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") was a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, aimed to select candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by merit rather than by birth started early in Chinese history, but using written examinations as a tool of selection started in earnest during the Tang dynasty of 618–907. The system became dominant during the Song dynasty (960–1279) and lasted for almost a millennium until its abolition in the late Qing dynasty reforms in 1905. Nevertheless, aspects of the imperial examination still exists for entry into the civil service of contemporary China, in both the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC).
The exams served to ensure a common knowledge of writing, Chinese classics, and literary style among state officials. This common culture helped to unify the empire, and the ideal of achievement by merit gave legitimacy to imperial rule. The examination system played a significant role in tempering the power of hereditary aristocracy and military authority, and in the rise of a gentry class of scholar-bureaucrats.
Starting with the Song dynasty, the system became regularized and developed into a roughly three-tiered ladder from local to provincial to court exams. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), authorities narrowed the content and fixed it on texts of Neo-Confucian orthodoxy; the highest degree, the jinshi (), became essential for the highest offices. On the other hand, holders of the basic degree, the shengyuan (), became vastly oversupplied, resulting in holders who could not hope for office. Wealthy families, especially from the merchant class, could opt into the system by educating their sons or by purchasing degrees. During the late 19th century, some critics within Qing China blamed the examination system for stifling science and technical knowledge, and urged for some reforms. At the time, China had about one civil licentiate per 1000 people. Due to the stringent requirements, out of the two or three million annual applicants who took the exams, there was only a 1% passing rate.
The Chinese examination system has made a profound influence in the development of modern civil service administrative functions in other countries. These include analogous structures that exists in Japan, Korea, Ryūkyū, and Vietnam. In addition to Asia, reports by European missionaries and diplomats introduced the Chinese examination system to the Western world and encouraged France, Germany as well as the British East India Company (EIC) to use similar methods to select prospective employees. Seeing its initial success within the EIC, the British government adopted a similar testing system for screening civil servants across the board throughout the United Kingdom in 1855. The United States would also establish such programs for certain government jobs after 1883.
General history
Tests of skill such as archery contests have existed since the Zhou dynasty (or, more mythologically, Yao). The Confucian characteristic of the later imperial exams was largely due to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han during the Han dynasty. Although some examinations did exist from the Han to the Sui dynasty, they did not offer an official avenue to government appointment, the majority of which were filled through recommendations based on qualities such as social status, morals, and ability.
The bureaucratic imperial examinations as a concept has its origins in the year 605 during the short-lived Sui dynasty. Its successor, the Tang dynasty, implemented imperial examinations on a relatively small scale until the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian. Included in the expanded examination system was a military exam, but the military exam never had a significant impact on the Chinese officer corps and military degrees were seen as inferior to their civil counterpart. The exact nature of Wu's influence on the examination system is still a matter of scholarly debate.
During the Song dynasty the emperors expanded both examinations and the government school system, in part to counter the influence of military aristocrats, increasing the number of degree holders to more than four to five times that of the Tang. From the Song dynasty onward, the examinations played the primary role in selecting scholar-officials, who formed the literati elite of society. However the examinations co-existed with other forms of recruitment such as direct appointments for the ruling family, nominations, quotas, clerical promotions, sale of official titles, and special procedures for eunuchs. The regular higher level degree examination cycle was decreed in 1067 to be three years but this triennial cycle only existed in nominal terms. In practice both before and after this, the examinations were irregularly implemented for significant periods of time: thus, the calculated statistical averages for the number of degrees conferred annually should be understood in this context. The jinshi exams were not a yearly event and should not be considered so; the annual average figures are a necessary artifact of quantitative analysis. The operations of the examination system were part of the imperial record keeping system, and the date of receiving the jinshi degree is often a key biographical datum: sometimes the date of achieving jinshi is the only firm date known for even some of the most historically prominent persons in Chinese history.
A brief interruption to the examinations occurred at the beginning of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, but was later brought back with regional quotas which favored the Mongols and disadvantaged Southern Chinese. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrow and focused nature of intellectual life and enhanced the autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its abolition in 1905 during the last years of the Qing dynasty. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from the imperial one.
Precursors
Han dynasty
Candidates for offices recommended by the prefect of a prefecture were examined by the Ministry of Rites and then presented to the emperor. Some candidates for clerical positions would be given a test to determine whether they could memorize nine thousand Chinese characters. The tests administered during the Han dynasty did not offer formal entry into government posts. Recruitment and appointment in the Han dynasty were primarily through recommendations by aristocrats and local officials. Recommended individuals were also primarily aristocrats. In theory, recommendations were based on a combination of reputation and ability but it is not certain how well this worked in practice. Oral examinations on policy issues were sometimes conducted personally by the emperor himself during Western Han times.
In 165 BC Emperor Wen of Han introduced recruitment to the civil service through examinations, however these did not heavily emphasize Confucian material. Previously, potential officials never sat for any sort of academic examinations.
Emperor Wu of Han's early reign saw the creation of a series of posts for academicians in 136 BC. Ardently promoted by Dong Zhongshu, the Taixue and Imperial examination came into existence by recommendation of Gongsun Hong, chancellor under Wu. Officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics, from which Emperor Wu would select officials to serve by his side. Gongsun intended for the Taixue's graduates to become imperial officials but they usually only started off as clerks and attendants, and mastery of only one canonical text was required upon its founding, changing to all five in the Eastern Han. Starting with only 50 students, Emperor Zhao expanded it to 100, Emperor Xuan to 200, and Emperor Yuan to 1000.
While the examinations expanded under the Han, the number of graduates who went on to hold office were few. The examinations did not offer a formal route to commissioned office and the primary path to office remained through recommendations. Though connections and recommendations remained more meaningful than the exam, the initiation of the examination system by Emperor Wu was crucial for the Confucian nature of later imperial examinations. During the Han dynasty, these examinations were primarily used for the purpose of classifying candidates who had been specifically recommended. Even during the Tang dynasty the quantity of placements into government service through the examination system only averaged about nine persons per year, with the known maximum being less than 25 in any given year.
Three Kingdoms
The first standardized method of recruitment in Chinese history was introduced during the Three Kingdoms period in the Kingdom of Wei. It was called the nine-rank system. In the nine-rank system, each office was given a rank from highest to lowest in descending order from one to nine. Imperial officials were responsible for assessing the quality of the talents recommended by local elites. The criteria for recruitment included qualities such as morals and social status, which in practice meant that influential families monopolized all high ranking posts while men of poorer means filled the lower ranks.
History by dynasty
Sui dynasty (581–618)
The Sui dynasty continued the tradition of recruitment through recommendation but modified it in 587 with the requirement for every prefecture (fu) to supply three scholars a year. In 599, all capital officials of rank five and above were required to make nominations for consideration in several categories.
During the Sui dynasty, examinations for "classicists" (mingjing ke) and "cultivated talents" (xiucai ke) were introduced. Classicists were tested on the Confucian canon, which was considered an easy task at the time, so those who passed were awarded posts in the lower rungs of officialdom. Cultivated talents were tested on matters of statecraft as well as the Confucian canon. In AD 607, Emperor Yang of Sui established a new category of examinations for the "presented scholar" (jinshike ). These three categories of examination were the origins of the imperial examination system that would last until 1905. Consequently, the year 607 is also considered by many to be the real beginning of the imperial examination system. The Sui dynasty was itself short lived however and the system was not developed further until much later.
The imperial examinations did not significantly shift recruitment selection in practice during the Sui dynasty. Schools at the capital still produced students for appointment. Inheritance of official status was also still practiced. Men of the merchant and artisan classes were still barred from officialdom. However the reign of Emperor Wen of Sui did see much greater expansion of government authority over officials. Under Emperor Wen (r. 581–604), all officials down to the district level had to be appointed by the Department of State Affairs in the capital and were subjected to annual merit rating evaluations. Regional Inspectors and District Magistrates had to be transferred every three years and their subordinates every four years. They were not allowed to bring their parents or adult children with them upon reassignment of territorial administration. The Sui did not establish any hereditary kingdoms or marquisates (hóu) of the Han sort. To compensate, nobles were given substantial stipends and staff. Aristocratic officials were ranked based on their pedigree with distinctions such as "high expectations", "pure", and "impure" so that they could be awarded offices appropriately.
Tang dynasty (618–907)
The Tang dynasty and the Zhou interregnum of Empress Wu (Wu Zetian) expanded examinations beyond the basic process of qualifying candidates based on questions of policy matters followed by an interview. Oral interviews as part of the selection process were theoretically supposed to be an unbiased process, but in practice favored candidates from elite clans based in the capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang (speakers of solely non-elite dialects could not succeed).
Under the Tang, six categories of regular civil-service examinations were organized by the Department of State Affairs and held by the Ministry of Rites: cultivated talents, classicists, presented scholars, legal experts, writing experts, and arithmetic experts. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang also added categories for Daoism and apprentices. The hardest of these examination categories, the presented scholar jinshi degree, became more prominent over time until it superseded all other examinations. By the late Tang the jinshi degree became a prerequisite for appointment into higher offices. Appointments by recommendation were also required to take examinations.
The examinations were carried out in the first lunar month. After the results were completed, the list of results was submitted to the Grand Chancellor, who had the right to alter the results. Sometimes the list was also submitted to the Secretariat-Chancellery for additional inspection. The emperor could also announce a repeat of the exam. The list of results was then published in the second lunar month.
Classicists were tested by being presented phrases from the classic texts. Then they had to write the whole paragraph to complete the phrase. If the examinee was able to correctly answer five of ten questions, they passed. This was considered such an easy task that a 30-year-old candidate was said to be old for a classicist examinee, but young to be a jinshi. An oral version of the classicist examination known as moyi also existed but consisted of 100 questions rather than just ten. In contrast, the jinshi examination not only tested the Confucian classics, but also history, proficiency in compiling official documents, inscriptions, discursive treatises, memorials, and poems and rhapsodies. Because the number of jinshi graduates were so low they acquired great social standing in society. The judicial, arithmetic, and clerical examinations were also held but these graduates only qualified for their specific agencies.
Candidates who passed the exam were not automatically granted office. They still had to pass a quality evaluation by the Ministry of Rites, after which they were allowed to wear official robes.
Wu Zhou dynasty
Wu Zetian's reign was a pivotal moment for the imperial examination system. The reason for this was because up until that point, the Tang rulers had all been male members of the Li family. Wu Zetian, who officially took the title of emperor in 690, was a woman outside the Li family who needed an alternative base of power. Reform of the imperial examinations featured prominently in her plan to create a new class of elite bureaucrats derived from humbler origins. Both the palace and military examinations were created under Wu Zetian.
In 655, Wu Zetian graduated 44 candidates with the jìnshì degree (), and during one seven-year period the annual average of exam takers graduated with a jinshi degree was greater than 58 persons per year. Wu lavished favors on the newly graduated jinshi degree-holders, increasing the prestige associated with this path of attaining a government career, and clearly began a process of opening up opportunities to success for a wider population pool, including inhabitants of China's less prestigious southeast area. Wu Zetian's government further expanded the civil service examination system by allowing certain commoners and gentry previously disqualified by their non-elite backgrounds to take the tests. Most of the Li family supporters were located to the northwest, particularly around the capital city of Chang'an. Wu's progressive accumulation of political power through enhancement of the examination system involved attaining the allegiance of previously under-represented regions, alleviating frustrations of the literati, and encouraging education in various locales so even people in the remote corners of the empire would study to pass the imperial exams. These degree holders would then become a new nucleus of elite bureaucrats around which the government could center itself.
In 681, a fill in the blank test based on knowledge of the Confucian classics was introduced.
Examples of officials whom she recruited through her reformed examination system include Zhang Yue, Li Jiao, and Shen Quanqi.
From 702 onward, the names of examinees were hidden to prevent examiners from knowing who was tested. Prior to this, it was even a custom for candidates to present their examiner with their own literary works in order to impress him.
Tang restoration
Sometime between 730 and 740, after the Tang restoration, a section requiring the composition of original poetry (including both shi and fu) was added to the tests, with rather specific set requirements: this was for the jinshi degree, as well as certain other tests. The less-esteemed examinations tested for skills such as mathematics, law, and calligraphy. The success rate on these tests of knowledge on the classics was between 10 and 20 percent, but for the thousand or more candidates going for a jinshi degree each year in which it was offered, the success rate for the examinees was only between 1 and 2 percent: a total of 6504 jinshi were created during course of the Tang dynasty (an average of only about 23 jinshi awarded per year). After 755, up to 15 percent of civil service officials were recruited through the examinations.
During the early years of the Tang restoration, the following emperors expanded on Wu's policies since they found them politically useful, and the annual averages of degrees conferred continued to rise. This led to the formation of new court factions consisting of examiners and their graduates. With the upheavals which later developed and the disintegration of the Tang empire into the "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period", the examination system gave ground to other traditional routes to government positions and favoritism in grading reduced the opportunities of examinees who lacked political patronage. Ironically this period of fragmentation resulted in the utter destruction of old networks established by elite families that had ruled China throughout its various dynasties since its conception. With the disappearance of the old aristocracy, Wu's system of bureaucrat recruitment once more became the dominant model in China, and eventually coalesced into the class of nonhereditary elites who would become known to the West as "mandarins," in reference to Mandarin, the dialect of Chinese employed in the imperial court.
Song dynasty (960–1279)
In the Song dynasty (960–1279) the imperial examinations became the primary method of recruitment for official posts. More than a hundred palace examinations were held during the dynasty, resulting in a greater number of jinshi degrees rewarded. The examinations were opened to adult Chinese males, with some restrictions, including even individuals from the occupied northern territories of the Liao and Jin dynasties. Figures given for the number of examinees record 70–80,000 in 1088 and 79,000 at the turn of the 12th century. In the mid-11th century, between 5,000 and 10,000 took the metropolitan examinations in a given year. By the mid-12th century, 100,000 candidates registered for the prefectural examinations each year, and by the mid-13th century, more than 400,000. The number of active jinshi degree holders ranged from 5,000 to 10,000 between the 11th and 13th centuries, representing 7,085 of 18,700 posts in 1040 and 8,260 of 38,870 posts in 1213. Many individuals of low social status were able to rise to political prominence through success in the imperial examination. According to studies of degree-holders in the years 1148 and 1256, approximately 57 percent originated from families without a father, grandfather, or great-grandfather who had held official rank. However most did have some sort of relative in the bureaucracy.
Prominent officials who went through the imperial examinations include Wang Anshi, who proposed reforms to make the exams more practical, and Zhu Xi, whose interpretations of the Four Classics became the orthodox Neo-Confucianism which dominated later dynasties. Two other prominent successful entries into politics through the examination system were Su Shi and his brother Su Zhe: both of whom became political opponents of Wang Anshi. The process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly, requiring time to spare and tutors. Most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning scholar-official class.
The examination hierarchy was formally divided into prefectural, metropolitan, and palace examinations. The prefectural examination was held on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month. Graduates of the prefectural examination were then sent to the capital for metropolitan examination, which took place in Spring, but had no fixed date. Graduates of the metropolitan examination were then sent to the palace examination.
Since 937, by the decision of the Emperor Taizu of Song, the palace examination was supervised by the emperor himself. In 992, the practice of anonymous submission of papers during the palace examination was introduced; it was spread to the departmental examinations in 1007, and to the prefectural level in 1032. From 1037 on, it was forbidden for examiners to supervise examinations in their home prefecture. Examiners and high officials were also forbidden from contacting each other prior to the exams. The practice of recopying papers in order to prevent revealing the candidate's calligraphy was introduced at the capital and departmental level in 1015, and in the prefectures in 1037. Statistics indicate that the Song imperial government degree-awards eventually more than doubled the highest annual averages of those awarded during the Tang dynasty, with 200 or more per year on average being common, and at times reaching a per annum figure of almost 240. By 1050, about half of the 12,700 officials in the employ of the Song civil service were exam graduates.
In 1009, Emperor Zhenzong of Song (r. 997–1022) introduced quotas on degrees awarded. In 1090, only 40 degrees were being awarded to 3,000 candidates in Fuzhou, which meant only one degree would be awarded for every 75 candidates. The quota system became even more stringent in the 13th century when only one percent of candidates were allowed to pass the prefectural examination. Even graduates of the lowest tier of examinations represented an elite class.
In 1071, Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085) abolished the classicist as well as various other examinations on law and arithmetics. The jinshi examination became the primary gateway to officialdom. Judicial and classicist examinations were revived shortly after. However the judicial examination was classified as a special examination and not many people took the classicist examination. The oral version of the classicist exam was abolished. Other special examinations for household and family member of officials, Minister of Personnel, and subjects such as history as applied to current affairs (shiwu ce Policy Questions), translation, and judicial matters were also administered by the state. Policy Questions became an essential part of following examinations. An exam called the cewen which focused on contemporary matters such as politics, economics, and military affairs was introduced.
Various reforms or attempts to reform the examination system were made during the Song dynasty by individuals such as Fan Zhongyan, Zhu Xi, and by Wang Anshi. Wang and Zhu successfully argued that poems and rhapsodies should be excluded from the examinations because they were of no use to administration or cultivation of virtue. The poetry section of the examination was removed in the 1060s. Fan's memorial to the throne initiated a process which lead to major educational reform through the establishment of a comprehensive public school system.
Liao dynasty (916–1125)
The Khitans who ruled the Liao dynasty only held imperial examinations for regions with large Han populations. The Liao examinations focused on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies. The Khitans themselves did not take the exams until 1115 when it became an acceptable avenue for advancing their careers.
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty held two separate examinations to accommodate their former Liao and Song subjects. In the north examinations focused on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies while in the south, Confucian Classics were tested. During the reign of Emperor Xizong of Jin (r. 1135–1150), the contents of both examinations were unified and examinees were tested on both genres. Emperor Zhangzong of Jin (r. 1189–1208) abolished the prefectural examinations. Emperor Shizong of Jin (r. 1161–1189) created the first examination conducted in the Jurchen language, with a focus on political writings and poetry. Graduates of the Jurchen examination were called "treatise graduates" (celun jinshi) to distinguish them from the regular Chinese jinshi.
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)
Imperial examinations were ceased for a time with the defeat of the Song in 1279 by Kublai Khan and his Yuan dynasty. One of Kublai's main advisers, Liu Bingzhong, submitted a memorial recommending the restoration of the examination system: however, this was not done. Kublai ended the imperial examination system, as he believed that Confucian learning was not needed for government jobs. Also, Kublai was opposed to such a commitment to the Chinese language and to the ethnic Han scholars who were so adept at it, as well as its accompanying ideology: he wished to appoint his own people without relying on an apparatus inherited from a newly conquered and sometimes rebellious country. The discontinuation of the exams had the effect of reducing the prestige of traditional learning, reducing the motivation for doing so, as well as encouraging new literary directions not motivated by the old means of literary development and success.
The examination system was revived in 1315, with significant changes, during the reign of Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan. The new examination system organized its examinees into regional categories in a way which favored Mongols and severely disadvantaged Southern Chinese. A quota system both for number of candidates and degrees awarded was instituted based on the classification of the four groups, those being the Mongols, their non-Han allies (Semu-ren), Northern Chinese, and Southern Chinese, with further restrictions by province favoring the northeast of the empire (Mongolia) and its vicinities. A quota of 300 persons was fixed for provincial examinations with 75 persons from each group. The metropolitan exam had a quota of 100 persons with 25 persons from each group. Candidates were enrolled on two lists with the Mongols and Semu-ren located on the left and the Northern and Southern Chinese on the right. Examinations were written in Chinese and based on Confucian and Neo-Confucian texts but the Mongols and Semu-ren received easier questions to answer than the Han. Successful candidates were awarded one of three ranks. All graduates were eligible for official appointment.
Under the revised system the yearly averages for examination degrees awarded was about 21. The way in which the four regional racial categories were divided tended to favor the Mongols, Semu-ren, and North Chinese, despite the South Chinese being by far the largest portion of the population. The 1290 census figures record some 12,000,000 households (about 48% of the total Yuan population) for South China, versus 2,000,000 North Chinese households, and the populations of Mongols and Semu-ren were both less. While South China was technically allotted 75 candidates for each provincial exam, only 28 Han Chinese from South China were included among the 300 candidates, the rest of the South China slots (47) being occupied by resident Mongols or Semu-ren, although 47 "racial South Chinese" who were not residents of South China were approved as candidates.
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) retained and expanded the system it inherited. The Hongwu Emperor was initially reluctant to restart the examinations, considering their curriculum to be lacking in practical knowledge. In 1370 he declared that the exams would follow the Neo-Confucian canon put forth by Zhu Xi in the Song dynasty: the Four Books, discourses, and political analysis. Then he abolished the examinations two years later because he preferred appointment by referral. In 1384, the examinations were revived again, however in addition to the Neo-Confucian canon, Hongwu added another portion to the exams to be taken by successful candidates five days after the first exam. These new exams emphasized shixue (practical learning), including subjects such as law, mathematics, calligraphy, horse riding, and archery. The emperor was particularly adamant about the inclusion of archery, and for a few days after issuing the edict, he personally commanded the Guozijian and county-level schools to practice it diligently. As a result of the new focus on practical learning, from 1384 to 1756/7, all provincial and metropolitan examinations incorporated material on legal knowledge and the palace examinations included policy questions on current affairs. The first palace examination of the Ming dynasty was held in 1385.
Provincial and metropolitan exams were organized in three sessions. The first session consisted of three questions on the examinee's interpretation of the Four Books, and four on the Classics corpus. The second session took place three days later, and consisted of a discursive essay, five critical judgments, and one in the style of an edict, an announcement and a memorial. Three days after that, the third session was held, consisting of five essays on the Classics, historiography, and contemporary affairs. The palace exam was just one session, consisting of questions on critical matters in the Classics or current affairs. Written answers were expected to follow a predefined structure called the eight-legged essay which consisted of the eight parts opening, amplification, preliminary exposition, initial argument, central argument, latter argument, final argument, and conclusion. The length of the essay ranged between 550 and 700 characters. Gu Yanwu considered the eight-legged essay to be worse than the book burning of Qin Shi Huang and his burying alive of 460 Confucian scholars.
The Hanlin Academy played a central role in the careers of examination graduates during the Ming dynasty. Graduates of the metropolitan exam with honors were directly appointed senior compiler in the Hanlin Academy. Regular metropolitan exam graduates were appointed junior compilers or examining editors. In 1458, appointment in the Hanlin Academy and the Grand Secretariat was restricted to jinshi graduates. Posts such as minister or vice minister of rites or right vice ministers of personnel were also restricted to jinshi graduates. The training jinshi graduates underwent in the Hanlin Academy allowed them insight into a wide range of central government agencies. Ninety percent of Grand Chancellors during the Ming dynasty were jinshi degree holders.
The Neo-Confucian orthodoxy became the new guideline for literati learning, narrowing the way in which they could politically and socially interpret the Confucian canon. At the same time, commercialization of the economy and booming population growth resulted in an inflation of the number of degree candidates at the lower levels. The Ming bureaucracy did not increase degree quotas in proportion to the increased population. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, in 1600, there were roughly 500,000 shengyuan in a population of 150 million, that is, one per 300 people. This trend of booming population but artificial limitation of degrees awarded continued into the Qing dynasty, when during the mid-19th century, the ratio of shengyuan to population had shrunk to one per each thousand people. Access to government office became not only extremely difficult, but officials also became more orthodox in their thinking. The higher and more prestigious offices were still dominated by jinshi degree-holders, similar to the Song dynasty, but tended to come from elite families.
The social background of metropolitan graduates also narrowed as time went on. In the early years of the Ming dynasty only 14 percent of metropolitan graduates came from families that had a history of providing officials, while in the last years of the Ming roughly 60 percent of metropolitan exam graduates came from established elite families.
Qing dynasty (1636–1912)
The ambition of Hong Taiji, the first emperor of the Qing dynasty, was to use the examinations to foster a cadre of Manchu Bannermen who were both martial and literate to administer the government. He initiated the first exam for bannermen in 1638, offered in both Manchu and Chinese, even before his troops took Beijing in 1644. But the Manchu bannermen had no time or money to prepare for the exams, especially since they could gain advancement on the battlefield, and the dynasty went on to rely on both Manchu and Han Chinese officials chosen through the system inherited with minor adaptation from the Ming. During the dynasty a total of 26,747 jinshi degrees were earned in 112 examinations held over the 261 years 1644–1905, an average of 238.8 jinshi degrees conferred per examination.
Racial quotas were placed on the number of graduates permitted. In the early Qing period, a 4:6 Manchu to Han quota was placed on the palace examination, and was in effect until 1655. Separate examinations were held for bannermen from 1652 to 1655 with a ten-point racial quota of 4:2:4 for Manchus, Mongols, and Han Chinese. In 1651, "translation" examinations were implemented for bannermen, however the purpose of these exams was not to create translators, but to service those Manchus and bannermen who did not understand Classical Chinese. During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1736–95), Manchus and Mongols were encouraged to take the examinations in Classical Chinese. The translation examination was abolished in 1840 because there weren't enough candidates to justify it. After 1723, Han Chinese graduates of the palace examination were required to learn the Manchu language. Bilingualism in Chinese and Manchu languages was favored in the bureaucracy and people who fulfilled the language requirements were given preferential appointments. For example, in 1688, a candidate from Hangzhou who was able to answer policy questions at the palace examination in both Chinese and Manchu was appointed as compiler at the Hanlin Academy, despite finishing bottom of the second tier of jinshi graduates. Ethnic minorities such as the Peng people in Jiangxi Province were given a quota of 1:50 for the shengyuan degree to encourage them to settle down and give up their nomadic way of life. In 1767, a memorial from Guangxi Province noted that some Han Chinese took advantage of the ethnic quotas to become shengyuan and that it was hard to verify who was a native. In 1784, quotas were recommended for Muslims to incorporate them into mainstream society. In 1807, a memorial from Hunan Province requested higher quotas for Miao people so that they would not have to compete with Han Chinese candidates.
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851–1864)
The Chinese Christian Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was created in rebellion against the Qing dynasty led by a failed examination candidate Hong Xiuquan, which established its capital in Nanjing in 1851. Following the imperial example, the Taipings held exams starting in 1851. They replaced the Confucian Classes, however, with the Taiping Bible, the Old and New Testaments as edited by Hong. Candidates were expected to write eight-legged essays using quotations.
In 1853, women were for the first time in Chinese history able to become examination candidates. Fu Shanxiang took the exam and became the first (and last) female zhuangyuan in Chinese history.
Decline and abolition
By the 1830s and 1840s, proposals emerged from officials calling for reforms to the Imperial Examinations to include Western technology. In 1864, Li Hongzhang submitted proposals to add a new subject into the Imperial examinations involving Western technology, that scholars may focus their efforts entirely on this. A similar proposal was tabled by Feng Guifen in 1861 and Ding Richang (mathematics and science) in 1867. In 1872, and again in 1874, Shen Baozhen submitted proposals to the throne for the reform of the Imperial Examinations to include Mathematics. Shen also proposed the abolition of the military examinations, which were based on obsolete weaponry such as archery. He proposed the idea that Tongwen Guan students who performed well in mathematics could be directly appointed to the Zongli Yamen as if they were Imperial examination graduates. Li Hongzhang, in an 1874 memorial, tabled the concept of "Bureaus of Western Learning" (洋学局) in coastal provinces, participation in which was to be accorded the honour of Imperial examination degrees. In 1888, the Imperial examinations was expanded to include the subject of international commerce.
With the military defeats in the 1890s and pressure to develop a national school system, reformers such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao called for abolition of the exams, and the Hundred Days' Reform of 1898 proposed a set of modernizations. After the Boxer Rebellion, the government drew up plans to reform under the name of New Policies. Reformers memorialized the throne to abolish the system. The key sponsors were Yuan Shikai, Yin Chang, and Zhang Zhidong (Chang Chih-tung). On 2 September 1905, the throne ordered the examination system be discontinued, beginning at the first level in 1905. The new system provided equivalents to the old degrees; a bachelor's degree, for instance, would be considered equivalent to the xiu cai.
Those who had at least the degree of shengyuan remained fairly well off since they retained their social status. Older students who had failed to even become shengyuan were more damaged because they could not easily absorb new learning, were too proud to turn to commerce, and too weak for physical labor.
Impact
Transition to scholar-bureaucracy
The original purpose of the imperial examinations as they were implemented during the Sui dynasty was to strike a blow against the hereditary aristocracy and to centralize power around the emperor. The era preceding the Sui dynasty, the period of Northern and Southern dynasties, was a golden age for the Chinese aristocracy. The power they wielded seriously constrained the emperor's ability to exercise his power in court, especially when it came to appointing officials. The Sui emperor created the imperial examinations to bypass and mitigate aristocratic interests. This was the origin of the Chinese examination system.
The short lived Sui dynasty was soon replaced by the Tang, who built on the examination system. The emperor placed the palace exam graduates, the jinshi, in important government posts, where they came into conflict with hereditary elites. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (713-56), about a third of the Grand Chancellors appointed were jinshi, but by the time of Emperor Xianzong of Tang (806-21), three fifths of the Grand Chancellors appointed were jinshi. This change in the way government was organized dealt a real blow to the aristocrats, but they did not sit idly by and wait to become obsolete. Instead they themselves entered the examinations to gain the privileges associated with it. By the end of the dynasty, the aristocratic class had produced 116 jinshi, so that they remained a significant influence in the government. Hereditary privileges were also not completely done away with. The sons of high ministers and great generals had the right to hold minor offices without taking the examinations. This privilege was introduced in 963 and allowed high officials to nominate their sons, nephews, and grandsons for civil service. However, after 1009, nominated candidates also had to study at the Guozijian and after completing a course, sit an examination. More than 50 percent passed. Lower level posts in the capital were awarded to these graduates.
In addition, the number of graduates were not only small, but also formed their own clique in the government based around the examiners and the men they passed. In effect the graduates became another interest group the emperor had to contend with. This problem was greatly mitigated by the increase in candidates and graduates during the Song dynasty, made possible by its robust economy. Since the entire upper echelon of the Song dynasty was filled by jinshi, and imperial clan members were barred from posts of substance, there was no longer any conflict of the type relating to different preparatory backgrounds. Efforts were made to break the link between examiner and examinee, removing another factor contributing to the formation of scholar bureaucrat cliques. While the influence of certain scholar officials never disappeared, they no longer held any influence in organizing men.
The scholar-bureaucrats, later known as Mandarins in the West, continued to exert significant influence throughout the rest of Chinese imperial history. The relationship between the emperor and his officials as seen from the side of the officials is encapsulated by Zhang Fangping's statement to Emperor Renzong of Song in the 1040s: "The empire cannot be ruled by Your Majesty alone; the empire can only be governed by Your Majesty collaborating with the officials." In 1071, Emperor Shenzong of Song remarked that Wang Anshi's New Policies were for the benefit of the people and not the shidafu, the elite literate class. His grand chancellor, Wen Yanbo, retorted, "You govern the nation with us, the officials, not with the people."
The importance of clan identity as the chief marker of status seems to have declined by the 9th century, when the genealogical section of epitaphs excluded choronyms (combination of clan and place names) in favor of office titles. For the aristocracy, although status was still an important factor in marriage, wealth had become far more important by the time of the Southern Song (1127–1279) than the Tang era. During the Yuanyou era (1086-1093), it was reported that an imperial clanswoman had married a man surnamed Liu from the foreign quarter of Guangzhou. In 1137, a complaint was lodged against a military official for marrying his sister to the "great merchant" Pu Yali (a two-time envoy from Arabia). The foreign merchant family of Pu also sought marriage into the imperial clan.
Subordination of the military
Although there was a military version of the exam, it was neglected by the government. The importance of the regular imperial examinations in governance had the effect of subordinating the military to civil government. By the time of the Song dynasty, the two highest military posts of Minister of War and Chief of Staff were both reserved for civil servants. It became routine for civil officials to be appointed as front-line commanders in the army. The highest rank for a dedicated military career was reduced to unit commander. To further reduce the influence of military leaders, they were routinely reassigned at the end of a campaign, so that no lasting bond occurred between commander and soldier. The policy of appointing civil officials as ad hoc military leaders was maintained by both the Ming and Qing dynasties after the initial phase of conquest. Successful commanders entrenched solely in the military tradition such as Yue Fei were viewed with distrust and apprehension. He was eventually executed by the Song government despite successfully leading Song forces against the Jin dynasty. It's possible that foreigners also looked down on Chinese military men in contrast to their civil counterparts. In 1042, the general Fan Zhongyan refused a military title because he thought it would demean him in the eyes of the Tibetans and Tanguts. Although it negatively impacted the military's performance at times, the new relationship between the civil and military sectors of the government avoided the endemic military coups of preceding dynasties for the rest of imperial Chinese history.
Education
During the Tang period, a set curricular schedule took shape where the three steps of reading, writing, and the composition of texts had to be learnt before students could enter state academies. As the number of graduates increased, competition for government posts became more fierce. Whereas at the beginning of the Tang dynasty, there were few jinshi, during the Song dynasty, there were more than the government needed. Several reforms to education were suggested to thin the number of candidates and improve their quality. In 1044, Han Qi, Fan Zhongyan, Ouyang Xiu, and Song Qi implemented the Qingli Reforms, which included hiring experts in the classics to teach at government schools, setting up schools in every prefecture, and requiring every candidate to have attended the prefectural school for at least 300 days to qualify for the prefectural exam. Prior to the Qingli Reforms, the role of the state was limited to supporting a few institutions, such as in 1022 when the government granted a prefectural school in Yanzhou with 151 acres of land. Some of the reformers directly participated in the creation of schools. Between 1035 and 1046, Fan Zhongyan and his followers set up 16 schools. Ouyang Xiu donated 1.5 million cash for the construction of a school in his home prefecture. Han Qi did the same as well. The Qingli Reforms were abandoned after only one year.
While the Qingli Reforms failed, the ideal of a statewide education system was taken up by Wang Anshi (1021–86), who proposed as part of his New Policies that examinations alone were not enough to select talent. His answer to the glut of graduates was to found new schools (shuyuan) for the selection of officials, with the ultimate goal of replacing the examinations altogether by selecting officials directly from the school's students. The government expanded the Taixue (National University) and ordered each circuit to grant land to schools and to hire supervising teachers for them. In 1076, a special examination for teachers was introduced. Implementation of the reforms was uneven and slow. Of the 320 prefectures, only 53 had prefectural schools with supervising teachers by 1078 and only a few were given the ordered allotment of land. Wang died and his reforms languished until the early 12th century when Emperor Huizong of Song injected more resources into the national education project. In 1102, Huizong and his chief councilor Cai Jing (1046-1126) decided to combine schools and examinations and make schools the focus of both education and recruitment. In 1103, the Taixue grew to 3,800 students with 200 in the upper hall, 600 in the lower hall, and 3,000 in the Biyong or outer hall. In 1104, students started being processed up the three-colleges (Three Hall) ranking system from the county school to the Taixue for direct appointment in the bureaucracy. In 1106, the "eight virtues" method of selection was introduced. The "eight virtues" method was to select and promote students based on eight varieties of virtuous conduct. By 1109, schools had received more than 100,000 jing of land (1.5 million acres), taken from the state granaries. Total student numbers were reported at 210,000 in 1104, 167,622 in 1109, and over 200,000 in 1116. At its height the Song education system included approximately 0.2% of its one hundred million people.
The new education policies were sometimes criticized. In 1112, a memorial criticized the prefectural and county schools for a variety of abuses. It accused the local supervisors of not understanding the goal of educating greater talent, wasting funds by buying excess food and drink, buying superfluous decorations, profiting by selling grain at market price, borrowing from students, and engaging in acts of violence towards officials. The "eight virtues" system received many complaints about its lack of academic rigor. In 1121, the local three-colleges system was dismantled and the local schools ordered to return land to the government.
The schools went into further decline starting from the Southern Song period (1127–1279) after the loss of the north to the Jin dynasty. The government was reluctant to fund them because they did not create immediate profits and as a result, cuts were made in teaching personnel, and the national university itself was reduced in size. Schools in imperial China never recovered from the decline starting from the Southern Song. For the rest of China's dynastic history, government funded academies functioned primarily as gateways to the examination system, and did not offer any real instruction to students. Functionally they were not schools but rather preparatory institutions for the examinations. Wang's goal of replacing the examinations was never realized. Although Wang's reforms fell short of their mark, they launched the first state led initiative to regulate the day to day education of its subjects through the appointment of teachers and funding of schools.
Primary education was relegated to private schools founded by kinship clusters during the Ming dynasty, although private teachers for individual households remained popular. Some schools were charity projects of the imperial government. The government also funded specialized schools for each of the Eight Banners to teach the Manchu language and Chinese. None of these institutions had a standardized curriculum or age of admission.
Surplus graduates
The problem of surplus graduates became especially acute starting from the 18th century. Due to the long period of peace established by the Qing dynasty, a large number of candidates were able to make significant progress in their studies and apply for the exams. Their papers were all of similar quality so that examiners found it difficult to differentiate them and make their selections. Officials began to think of new ways to eliminate candidates rather than how to select the best scholars. A complicated set of formal requirements for the examinations was created which undermined the whole system.
Failed candidates
Inevitably a large number of candidates failed the exams, often repeatedly. During the Tang period, the ratio of success to failure in the palace exam was 1:100 or 2:100. In the Song dynasty, the ratio of success to failure for the metropolitan exam was about 1:50. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, success to failure for the provincial exam was about 1:100. For every shengyuan in the country, only one in three thousand would ever become a jinshi. While most candidates were men of certain means, those from poor families risked everything on passing the exams. Ambitious and talented candidates who suffered repeated failures felt the bite of indignation, and failure escalated from disappointment to desperation, and sometimes even revolt.
Huang Chao led a massive rebellion in the late Tang dynasty, after it had already been weakened by the An Lushan rebellion. He was born to a wealthy family in western Shandong. After repeated failures he created a secret society that engaged in illicit salt trading. Although Huang Chao's rebellion was ultimately defeated, it led to the final disintegration of the Tang dynasty. Among Huang Chao's cohort were other failed candidates such as Li Zhen, who targeted government officials, killed them and threw their bodies into the Yellow River. Zhang Yuanhao of the Northern Song defected to Western Xia after failing the examinations. He aided the Tanguts in setting up a Chinese-style court. Niu Jinxing of the late Ming was a general in Li Zicheng's rebel army. Having failed to become a jinshi, he targeted high officials and members of the royal family, butchering them as retribution. Hong Xiuquan led the mid-19th-century Taiping Rebellion against the Qing dynasty. After his fourth and final attempt at the shengyuan exam, he had a nervous breakdown, during which he had visions of a heaven where he was part of a celestial family. Influenced by the teachings of Christian missionaries, Hong announced to his family and followers that his visions had been of God, his father, and Jesus Christ, his brother. He created the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and waged war on the Qing dynasty, devastating parts of southeast China which would not recover for decades.
Pu Songling (1640–1715) failed the examination multiple times. He immortalized the frustrations of candidates trapped in the relentless system in numerous stories that parodied the system.
General discussion of late imperial system
Reformers charged that the set format of the "eight-legged essay" stifled original thought and satirists portrayed the rigidity of the system in novels such as Rulin waishi. In the twentieth century, the New Culture Movement portrayed the examination system as a cause for China's weakness in such stories as Lu Xun's Kong Yiji. Some have suggested that limiting the topics prescribed in examination system removed the incentives for Chinese intellectuals to learn mathematics or to conduct experimentation, perhaps contributing to the Great Divergence, in which China's scientific and economic development fell behind Europe.
However, the political and ethical theories of Confucian classical curriculum have also been likened to the classical studies of humanism in European nations which proved instrumental in selecting an "all-rounded" top-level leadership. British and French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on Greco-Roman classical subjects and general cultural studies, as well as assessing personal physique and character. US leaders included "virtue" such as reputation and support for the US constitution as a criterion for government service. These features have been compared to similar aspects of the earlier Chinese model. In the British civil service, just as it was in China, entrance to the civil service was usually based on a general education in ancient classics, which similarly gave bureaucrats greater prestige. The Cambridge-Oxford ideal of the civil service was identical to the Confucian ideal of a general education in world affairs through humanism. Well into the 20th century, classics, literature, history and language remained heavily favoured in British civil service examinations. In the period of 1925–1935, 67 percent of British civil service entrants consisted of such graduates.
In late imperial China, the examination system was the primary mechanism by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. Their loyalty, in turn, ensured the integration of the Chinese state, and countered tendencies toward regional autonomy and the breakup of the centralized system. The examination system distributed its prizes according to provincial and prefectural quotas, which meant that imperial officials were recruited from the whole country, in numbers roughly proportional to each province's population. Elite individuals all over China, even in the disadvantaged peripheral regions, had a chance at succeeding in the examinations and achieving the rewards and emoluments office brought.
The examination-based civil service thus promoted stability and social mobility. The Confucianism-based examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across the whole of China were taught with similar values. Even though only a small fraction (about 5 percent) of those who attempted the examinations actually passed them and even fewer received titles, the hope of eventual success sustained their commitment. Those who failed to pass did not lose wealth or local social standing; as dedicated believers in Confucian orthodoxy, they served, without the benefit of state appointments, as civilian teachers, patrons of the arts, and managers of local projects, such as irrigation works, schools, or charitable foundations.
Taking the exams
Requirements
During the Tang dynasty, candidates were either recommended by their schools or had to register for exams at their home prefecture. By the Song dynasty, theoretically all adult Chinese men were eligible for the examinations. The only requirement was education.
In practice, a number of official and unofficial restrictions applied to who was able to take the imperial exams. The commoners were divided into four groups according to occupation: scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. Beneath the common people were the so-called "mean" people such as boat-people, beggars, sex-workers, entertainers, slaves, and low-level government employees. Among the forms of discrimination faced by the "mean" people were restriction from government office and the credential to take the imperial exam. Certain ethnic groups or castes such as the "degraded" Jin dynasty outcasts in Ningbo, around 3,000 people, were barred from taking the imperial exams as well. Women were excluded from taking the exams. Butchers and sorcerers were also excluded at times. Merchants were restricted from taking the exams until the Ming and Qing dynasties, although as early as 955, the scholar-officials themselves were involved in trading activities. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, artisans were also restricted from official service. During the Song dynasty, artisans, merchants, clerks, and Buddhist and Taoist priests were specifically excluded from the jinshi exam; and, in the Liao dynasty, physicians, diviners, butchers, and merchants were all prohibited from taking the examinations., citing Liao-shih. At times, quota systems were also used to restrict the number of candidates allowed to take or to pass the imperial civil service examinations, by region or by other criteria.
Aside from official restrictions, there was also the economic problem faced by men of poorer means. The route to a jinshi degree was long and the competition fierce. Men who achieved a jinshi degree in their twenties were considered extremely fortunate. Someone who obtained a jinshi degree in their thirties, the average age of jinshi candidates, was also considered on schedule. Both were expected to study continuously for years without interruption. Without the necessary financial support, studying for the exams would have been an impractical task. After completing their studies, candidates also had to pay for travel and lodging expenses, not to mention thank-you gifts for the examiners and tips for the staff. A jinshi candidate required someone in the bureaucracy to act as his patron to vouch for their integrity. Banquets and entertainment also had to be paid for. As a result of these expenses, the nurturing of a candidate was a common burden for the whole family.
Procedures
Each candidate arrived at an examination compound with only a few amenities: a water pitcher, a chamber pot, bedding, food (prepared by the examinee), an inkstone, ink and brushes. Guards verified a student's identity and searched him for hidden texts such as cheat sheets. The facilities provided for the examinee consisted of an isolated room or cell with a makeshift bed, desk, and bench. Each examinee was assigned to a cell according to their number. Paper was provided by the examiners and stamped with an official seal. The examinees of the Ming and Qing periods could take up to three days and two nights writing "eight-legged essays"—literary compositions with eight distinct sections. Interruptions and outside communication were forbidden for the duration of the exam. If a candidate died, officials wrapped his body in a straw mat and tossed it over the high walls that ringed the compound.
At the end of the examination, answer sheets were processed by the sealing office. The Ming era Book of Swindles (ca. 1617) contains an entire section of stories about "Corruption in Education," most of which involve swindlers exploiting exam-takers' desperate attempts to bribe the examiner. Exact quotes from the classics were required; misquoting even one character or writing it in the wrong form meant failure, so candidates went to great lengths to bring hidden copies of these texts with them, sometimes written on their underwear.<ref>Andrew H. Plaks, "Cribbing Garment" Gest Library</ref> The Minneapolis Institute of Arts holds an example of a Qing dynasty cheatsheet, a handkerchief with 10,000 characters of Confucian classics in microscopically small handwriting.
To prevent cheating, the sealing office erased any information about the candidate found on the paper and assigned a number to each candidate's papers. Persons in the copy office then recopied the entire text three times so that the examiners would not be able to identify the author. The first review was carried out by an examining official, and the papers were then handed over to a secondary examining official and to an examiner, either the chief examiner or one of several vice examiners. Judgments by the first and second examining official were checked again by a determining official, who fixed the final grade. Working with the team of examiners were a legion of gate supervisors, registrars, sealers, copyists and specialist assessors of literature.
Pu Songling, a Qing dynasty satirist, described the "seven transformations of the candidate":
Ceremonies
The middle of the stairs of the main hall of the imperial palace during the Tang and Song dynasties were carved with an image of the mythical turtle Ao (). When the list of successful candidates of the palace examination was published, all the names of the graduates were read aloud in the presence of the emperor, and recorded in the archival documents of the dynasty. Graduates were given a green gown, a tablet as a symbol of status, and boots. The first ranked scholar received the title of Zhuàngyuán () and stood in the middle of the stairs on the carving of Ao. This gave rise to the phrase "to have seized Ao's head" ( zhàn ào tóu), or "to have alone seized Ao's head" ( dú zhàn àotóu) to describe a Zhuàngyuán, and more generally to refer to someone who excels in a certain field.
Privileges
Shengyuan degree holders were given some general tax exemptions. Metropolitan exam graduates were allowed to buy themselves free of exile in cases of crime and to decrease the number of blows with the stick for a fee. Other than the title of jinshi, graduates of the palace examination were also exempted from all taxes and corvee labour.
Post-examination appointments
Graduates of the prefectural examination qualified for employment as teachers in local or family schools, as administrators of granaries or temples, and as subofficial local administrators. The top three graduates of the palace examinations were directly appointed to the Hanlin Academy. Lower ranked graduates could be appointed to offices like Hanlin bachelor, secretaries, messengers in the Ministry of Rites, case reviewers, erudites, prefectural judges, prefects or county magistrates (zhixian ).
During the Tang dynasty, successful candidates reported to the Ministry of Personnel for placement examinations. Unassigned officials and honorary title holders were expected to take placement examinations at regular intervals. Non-assigned status could last a very long time especially when waiting for a substantive appointment. After being assigned to office, a junior official was given an annual merit rating. There was no specified term limit, but most junior officials served for at least three years or more in one post. Senior officials served indefinitely at the pleasure of the emperor.
In the Song dynasty, successful candidates were appointed to office almost immediately and waiting periods between appointments were not long. Between 60 and 80 percent of the civil service was composed of low-ranking officials. They all started their careers in counties not in their home prefecture. These assignments lasted three to four years before they were reassigned to another locality and position. Annual merit ratings were still taken but officials could request evaluation for reassignment. Officials who wished to escape harsh assignments often requested reassignment as a state supervisor of a Taoist temple or monastery. Senior officials in the capital also sometimes nominated themselves for the position of prefect in obscure prefectures.
Recruitment by examination during the Yuan dynasty constituted a very minor part of the Yuan administration. Hereditary Mongol nobility formed the elite nucleus of the government. Initially the Mongols drew administrators from their subjects. In 1261, Kublai Khan ordered the establishment of Mongolian schools to draw officials from. The School for the Sons of the State was established in 1271 to give two or three years of training for the sons of the Imperial Bodyguards so that they might become suitable for official recruitment.
Recruitment by examination flourished after 1384 in the Ming dynasty. Provincial graduates were sometimes appointed to low-ranking offices or entered the Guozijian for further training, after which they might be considered for better appointments. Before appointment to office, metropolitan graduates were assigned to observe the functions of an office for up to one year. The maximum tenure for an office was nine years, but triennial evaluations were also taken, at which point an official could be reassigned. Magistrates of districts submitted monthly evaluation reports to their prefects and the prefects submitted annual evaluations to provincial authorities. Every third year, provincial authorities submitted evaluations to the central government, at which point an "outer evaluation" was conducted, requiring local administration to send representatives to attend a grand audience at the capital. Officials at the capital conducted an evaluation every six years. Capital officials of rank 4 and above were exempted from regular evaluations. Irregular evaluations were conducted by censorial officials.
Graduates of the metropolitan examination during the Qing dynasty were assured influential posts in the officialdom. The Ministry of Personnel submitted a list of nominees to the emperor, who then decided all major appointments in the capital and in the provinces in consultation with the Grand Council. Appointments were generally on a three-year basis with an evaluation at the end and the option for renewal. Officials rank three and above were personally evaluated by the emperor. Due to a population boom in the early modern era, qualified men far exceeded vacancies in the bureaucracy so that many waited for years between active duty assignments. Purchase of office became a common practice during the 19th century since it was very hard for qualified men to be appointed to one of the very limited number of posts. Even receiving empty titles with no active assignment required a monetary contribution.
Institutions
Ministry of Rites
The Ministry of Rites, under the Department of State Affairs, was responsible for organizing and carrying out the imperial examinations.
Hanlin Academy
The Hanlin Academy was an institution created during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–755). It was located directly in the palace compound and staffed by officials who drafted official documents such as edicts. These officials, commonly appointed from the top three ranks of the palace examination graduates, came to be known as academicians (xueshi) after 738, when a new building was constructed to provide them living quarters. The title "academician" was not only for the staff of the Hanlin Academy, but any special assignment to special posts. The number of academicians in the Hanlin Academy was fixed to six at a later date and they were given the task of doing paperwork and consulting the emperor. The Hanlin Academy drafted documents about the appointment and dismissal of high ministers, proclamation of amnesties, and imperial military commands. It also aided the emperor in reading documents.
The number of Hanlin academicians was reduced to two during the Song dynasty. During the Yuan dynasty, a Hanlin Academy just for Mongols was created to translate documents. More emphasis was put on the oversight of imperial publications such as dynastic histories.
In the Qing dynasty, the number of posts in the Hanlin Academy increased immensely and a Manchu official was installed at all times. The posts became purely honorary and the institution was reduced to just another stepping stone for persons seeking higher positions in the government. Lower officials in the Hanlin Academy often had other posts at the same time.
Taixue
The Taixue (National University), was the highest educational institution in imperial China. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141-87 BC), Confucianism was adopted as the state doctrine. The Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu suggested establishing a National University (Taixue) in the capital, Chang'an, so that erudites could teach the Classics. Teaching at the Taixue was a prestigious job because the emperor commonly picked from among them for appointment in high offices. At first the Taixue had only 50 students but increased to around 3,000 by the end of the millennium. Under the reign of Wang Mang (r. 9–23), two other educational institutions called the Biyong and Mingtang were established south of the city walls, each able to house 10,000 students. The professors and students were able to exercise some political power by criticizing their opponents such as governors and eunuchs. This eventually led to the arrest of more than 1,000 professors and students by the eunuchs.
After the collapse of the Han dynasty, the Taixue was reduced to just 19 teaching positions and 1,000 students but climbed back to 7,000 students under the Jin dynasty (266–420). After the nine rank system was introduced, a "Directorate of Education" (Guozijian) was created for persons rank five and above, effectively making it the educational institution for nobles, while the Taixue was relegated to teaching commoners. Over the next two centuries, the Guozijian became the primary educational institute in the Southern Dynasties. The Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern Dynasties also created their own schools but they were only available for sons and relatives of high officials. The Northern Wei dynasty founded the Primary School of Four Gates.
During the Sui dynasty, a Law School, Arithmetics School, and Calligraphy School were put under the administration of the Guozijian. These schools accepted the relatives of officials rank eight and below while the Taixue, Guozijian, and Four Gates School served higher ranks. By the start of the Tang dynasty (618-907), 300 students were enrolled in the Guozijian, 500 at the Taixue, 1,300 at the Four Gates School, 50 at the Law School, and a mere 30 at the Calligraphy and Arithmetics Schools. Emperor Gaozong of Tang (r. 649–683), founded a second Guozijian in Luoyang. The average age of admission was 14 to 19 but 18 to 25 for the Law School. Students of these institutions who applied for the state examinations had their names transmitted to the Ministry of Rites, which was also responsible for their appointment to a government post.
During the Song dynasty, Emperor Renzong of Song founded a new Taixue at Kaifeng with 200 students enrolled. Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085) raised the number of students to 2,400. He also implemented the "three-colleges law" (sanshefa三舍法) in 1079, which divided the Taixue into three colleges. Under the three-colleges law, students first attended the Outer College, then the Inner College, and finally the Superior College. One of the aims of the three-colleges was to provide a more balanced education for students and to de-emphasize Confucian learning. Students were taught in only one of the Confucian classics, depending on the college, as well as arithmetics and medicine. Students of the Outer College who passed a public and institutional examination were allowed to enter the Inner College. At the Inner College there were two exams over a two-year period on which the students were graded. Those who achieved the superior grade on both exams were directly appointed to office equal to that of a metropolitan exam graduate. Those who achieved an excellent grade on one exam but slightly worse on the other could still be considered for promotion, and having a good grade in one exam but mediocre in another still awarded merit equal to that of a provincial exam graduate.
In 1104, the prefectural examinations were abolished in favor of the three-colleges system, which required each prefecture to send an annual quota of students to the Taixue. This drew criticism from some officials who claimed that the new system benefited the rich and young, and was less fair because the relatives of officials could enroll without being examined for their skills. In 1121, the local three-college system was abolished but retained at the national level. For a time, the national examination system was also abandoned in favor of directly appointing students of the Taixue to government posts. The Taixue itself did not survive the demise of the Song dynasty and ceased to exist afterwards, becoming a synonym for the Guozijian.
Guozijian
The Guozijian (Directorate of Education) was founded under Emperor Wu of Jin (r. 265–289) to educate the nobility. Under the Song dynasty, the Guozijian became the central administrative institution for all state schools throughout the empire. Among its duties were the maintenance of the buildings, the construction of new facilities, and the promotion of students. The Guozijian itself was equipped with a library and printing shop to create model printing blocks for distribution. The Guozijian was abolished in 1907.
Organization
The examinations were administered at the district, provincial, and metropolitan levels. Tight quotas restricted the number of successful candidates at each level—for example, only three hundred students could pass the metropolitan examinations. Students often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.
Entry-level examinations were held annually and accessible to educated individuals from their early teenage years. These were held locally and were collectively called Tóngshéng shì (, "Child Exam") or Tóngshì (). Tóngshì was broken down hierarchically into the Xiànshì (, "County Exam"), the Fǔshì (, "Prefectural exam") and Yuànshì (, "college exam").
Provincial exams: Xiāngshì (, "township exam") were held every three years in provincial capitals.
Metropolitan exams: Huìshì (, "conference exam") were held every three years in the national capital.
Palace exams: Diànshì (, "court exam") were held every three years in the Imperial palace and often supervised by the emperor himself.
Degree types
By the Ming dynasty, the examinations and degrees formed a "ladder of success", with success generally being equated with being graduated as jinshi, a degree similar to a modern Doctor of Literature degree, or PhD. Modifications to the basic jinshi or other degree were made for higher-placing graduates, similar to the modern Summa cum laude. The examination process extended down to the county level, and included examinations at the provincial and national levels. The highest level tests would be at the imperial court or palace level, of which the jinshi was the highest regular level, although special purpose tests were occasionally offered, by imperial decree:
Tongsheng (, lit. "child student"), an entry-level examinee who had passed the county/prefecture exams.
Shengyuan (, lit. "student member"), also commonly called xiucai (, lit. "distinguished talent"), an entry-level licentiate who had passed the college exam. Xiucai enjoyed officially sanctioned social privileges such as exemption from statute labour, access into local government facilities and limited immunity against corporal punishments. They were further divided into three classes according to exam performance.
Linsheng (, lit. "granary student"), the first class of shengyuan, who were the best performers in the college exam, and got to receive government-issued rations and pay for their academic achievements. The top performers within this class would get accepted into the Imperial Academy as gongsheng (, lit. "tribute student"), who will then be eligible to sit the provincial or even the national exam directly.
Anshou (, lit. "first on the desk"), the highest ranking linsheng, and thus the top shengyuan who ranked first in college exam.
Zengsheng (, lit. "expanded student"), the second class of shengyuan, who performed less well than linsheng and enjoyed similar legal perks, but not the material allowance.
Fusheng (, lit. "attached student"), the third class of shengyuan and considered substitute recruits outside the official quota of enrollment. They were considered passable in exams but needed more improvements.
Juren (, lit. "recommended man"), a qualified graduate who passed the triennial provincial exam.
Jieyuan (, lit. "top escorted examinee"), the juren who ranked first in provincial exam.
Gongshi (, lit. "tribute scholar"), a recognized scholarly achiever who passed the triennial national exam.
Huiyuan (, lit. "top conference examinee"), the gongshi who ranked first in national exam.
Jinshi (, lit. "advanced scholar"), a graduate who passed the triennial court exam.
Jinshi Jidi (, lit. "distinguished jinshi"), graduates ranked first class in the court exam, usually only the top three individuals were qualified for this title.
Zhuangyuan (, lit. "top thesis author"), the jinshi who ranked first overall nationwide.
Bangyan (, lit. "eyes positioned alongside"), the jinshi who ranked second overall just below zhuangyuan.
Tanhua (, lit. "flower snatcher"), the jinshi ranked third overall.
Jinshi Chushen (, lit. "jinshi background"), the graduates who ranked second class in court exam, ranking immediately after the tanhua.
Tong Jinshi Chushen' (, lit. "along with jinshi background"), graduates ranked third class in the court exam.
Other examinations
Classicist
The classicist (mingjing) originated as a category for recruitment by local authorities to the appointment of state offices. The term was created during the Han dynasty under Emperor Wu of Han for candidates eligible for official appointment or for enrolment in the Taixue. Classicists were expected to be familiar with the Confucian canon and the Taoist text Laozi. The classicist category fell out of use under Cao Wei and the Jin dynasty but was revived during the Southern Dynasties for filling places in the Taixue.
During the Sui dynasty, examinations for classicists and cultivated talents were introduced. Unlike cultivated talents, classicists were only tested on the Confucian canon, which was considered an easy task at the time, so those who passed were awarded posts in the lower rungs of officialdom. Classicists were tested by being presented phrases from the classic texts. They then had to write the whole paragraph to complete the phrase. If the examinee was able to correctly answer five of ten questions, they passed. This was considered such an easy task that a 30-year-old candidate was said to be old for a classicist examinee, but young to be a jinshi. An oral version of the classicist examination known as moyi also existed but consisted of 100 questions rather than just ten. In contrast, the jinshi examination tested not only the Confucian classics, but also history, proficiency in compiling official documents, inscriptions, discursive treatises, memorials, and poems and rhapsodies. In 742, Laozi was replaced in the examination by the glossary Erya. In 1071, Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085) abolished the classicist as well as various other examinations on law and arithmetics.
Cultivated talent
The cultivated talent (xiucai) originated in the Han dynasty when Emperor Wu of Han declared that each province had to present one cultivated talent per year to be appointed in the government. During the Sui dynasty, examinations for "cultivated talents" were introduced. They were tested on matters of statecraft and the Confucian canon. This type of examination was very limited in its implementation and there were only 11 or 12 graduates throughout its entire history. During the Song dynasty, cultivated talent became a general title for graduates of the state examinations.
Strategic questions
The strategic questions examination (cewen) was a question-and-answer type essay examination introduced during the Han dynasty. The purpose of the exam was to ensure examinees could apply Confucian doctrine to practical matters of statecraft. A question on a problematic political issue was asked and the examinee was expected to answer it according to his own opinion and how the issue could be resolved. The strategic questions examination became obsolete during the Ming dynasty due to the prevalence of the eight-legged essay.
Military
During the reign of Wu Zetian the imperial government created military examinations for the selection of army officers as a response to the breakdown of garrison militias known as the Fubing system. The first formal military examinations (武舉 Wǔjǔ) were introduced in 702. The military examinations had the same general arrangement as the regular exams, with provincial, metropolitan and palace versions of the exams. Successful candidates were awarded military versions of Jinshi and Juren degrees: Wujinshi () and Wujuren (), and so on.
The military exam included both a written and physical portion. In theory, candidates were supposed to master not only the same Confucian texts as required by the civil exam, but also Chinese military texts such as The Art of War, in addition to martial skills such as archery and horsemanship. The district exam was conducted by the county magistrate and consisted of three sessions.
The first session tested mounted archery by having candidates shoot three arrows while riding a horse toward a target at a distance of 35 and 80 paces. The target was in the shape of a man 1.6 meters high. A perfect score was three hits, a good score two, and one hit earned a pass. Those who fell off their horse or failed to score even one hit were eliminated. The second session was held in a garden at the prefectural office. Candidates were ordered to shoot five arrows at a target at 50 paces. Again, five hits were graded excellent while one hit earned a pass. Next they had to bend a bow into the shape of a full moon. The bows were graded by strength into 72 kg, 60 kg, and 48 kg weapons. Bending a 72 kg bow was excellent while bending a 48 kg bow earned a pass. Then they were ordered to perform a number of exercises with a halberd without it touching the ground. The halberds were graded by weight from 72 kg to 48 kg, with the lowest grade weapon earning a pass. For the final portion of the second session, candidates were required to lift a stone 35 cm off the ground. Lifting a 180 kg stone earned an excellent grade, a 150 kg stone good, and a 120 kg stone passing.
The third session involved writing out by memory entire portions of the Seven Military Classics, but only three of the classics were ever used, those being The Methods of the Sima, the Wuzi, and The Art of War. Even just memorizing the reduced portion of the classics was too difficult for most military examinees, who resorted to cheating and bringing with them miniature books to copy, a behavior the examiners let slide owing to the greater weighting of the first two sessions. In some cases the examinees still made mistakes while copying the text word for word. The contents of the military exam were largely the same at the prefectural, provincial, metropolitan, and palace levels, with the only difference being tougher grading.
Military degrees were considered inferior to civil degrees and did not carry the same prestige. The names of civil jinshi were carved in marble whereas military jinshi were not. While the military and civil services were imagined in Chinese political philosophy as the two wheels of a chariot, in practice, the military examination degree was highly regarded by neither the army or the world at large. Soldiers preferred not having military exam graduates as commanders whose skills in test taking did not necessarily transfer to the army. Final decision for appointment in the military still came down to forces outside the examination system. For example, at the beginning of 755, An Lushan replaced 32 Han Chinese commanders with his own barbarian favorites without any repercussions. During the Qing dynasty, the pre-existing institutions of the Eight Banners and Green Standard Army had their own rules for promotion and left little room for military exam graduates. Some of the few military examination graduates who did achieve distinction include the Tang general Guo Ziyi, the father of the founder of the Song dynasty Zhao Hongyin, Ming generals Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang, and Ming general turned traitor Wu Sangui. However these are but a minuscule number among those who passed the 282 military metropolitan exams held between their inception in 702 and abolishment in 1901. Even in desperate times of war, the majority of distinguished military figures in Chinese history have come from civil degree holders. The practices of the Ming and Qing military exams were incorporated into physical education in the Republic of China.
Translation
During the Qing dynasty, translation examinations were held for young men from the Eight Banners who held no military post. Manchus, Mongols and Chinese Bannermen were allowed to participate in the Manchu exam while the Mongolian exam was restricted to Mongol Bannermen. The examinees did not take the examinations expecting to become translators. The content of the exam consisted of material from the Manchu or Mongol versions of the Four Books and the Five Classics, while only a minor part of the exam consisted of translation from Chinese into Manchu or Mongolian. Three levels of the exam were implemented but there was no palace examination. The quota on the provincial level was 33 persons for the Manchu, and 9 for the Mongolian examination. The number of graduates declined to just 7 and 3 persons, respectively, in 1828, and 4 and 1 in 1837. In 1840 the Mongolian exam was abolished because there were only 6 candidates. Graduates of the metropolitan translation examination were all given the title of regular metropolitan translation graduate without further gradation or extraordinary designations. Excellent graduates of the Manchu exam were directly appointed secretaries in one of the Six Ministries while those of the Mongol one were commonly made officials in the Court of Colonial Affairs.
Special
Besides the regular tests for the jinshi and other degrees, there were also occasionally special purpose examinations, by imperial decree (zhiju). Decree examinations could be for a number of purposes such as identifying talent for specific assignments, or to satisfy particular interest groups such as ethnic groups and the imperial clan. In the Tang dynasty, the emperor held on occasion irregular examinations for specialized topics. These were open to persons already employed by the government. During the Song dynasty, in 1061, Emperor Renzong of Song decreed special examinations for the purpose of finding men capable of "direct speech and full remonstrance" (zhiyan jijian): the testing procedure required the examinees to submit 50 previously prepared essays, 25 on particular contemporary problems, 25 on more general historical governmental themes. In the examination room, the examinees then had a day to write essays on six topics chosen by the test officials, and finally were required to write a 3,000 character essay on a complex policy problem, personally chosen by the emperor, Renzong. Among the few successful candidates were the Su brothers, Su Shi and Su Zhe (who had already attained their jinshi degrees, in 1057), with Su Shi scoring exceptionally high in the examinations, and subsequently having copies of his examination essays widely circulated.
Culture
Language
All Chinese imperial examinations were written in Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese, using the regular script (kaishu), which is today the most commonly seen calligraphic style in modern China. The importance of knowledge in Classical Chinese was retained in examination systems in other countries such as in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, where candidates were required to be well-versed in the Confucian classics, to be able to compose essays and poetry in Classical Chinese, and to be able to write in regular script. Owing to the examination system, Classical Chinese became a basic educational standard throughout these countries. Readers of Classical Chinese did not need to learn spoken Chinese to understand or read the text because of its logographic nature. Texts written in Classical Chinese could be "read and understood by any sufficiently literate person, even if a given text was ultimately voiced in Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese and not mutually intelligible in speech." This shared textual tradition and common understanding of the Confucian canon allowed these countries to communicate with each other through "brush talk" in the absence of a common language.
In both Korea and Japan, forms of writing were developed to assist readers in understanding Classical Chinese. The Korean Gugyeol and Japanese Kanbun Kundoku writing systems modified the Chinese text with markers and annotations to represent their respective languages' pronunciation and grammatical order. Chinese script was also adapted to write Korean and Japanese in their respective native word order. In Korea this was called the Idu script (official reading) and in Japan, Man'yōgana (ten thousand leaves). In Japan, Kanbun was used to write official documents from the 8th century until after World War 2. In Korea, the Idu script was used for writing official documents and the civil service examinations from their establishment in 958 to termination in 1894. Vietnamese examinations used Chữ Hán (Chinese script), also called Chữ nho (Confucian script), which is virtually indistinguishable from Classical Chinese in its written form, but uses Vietnamese pronunciations when read aloud. Chữ nho was made the official writing system of Đại Việt in 1174 and remained the writing system of the administration until Vietnam was taken over by France in the 19th century. Similar to Korea and Japan, Vietnam also adapted Chinese script to write the Vietnamese language in what is known as Chữ Nôm (southern characters).
Poetry
Some of the main outstanding questions regarding the imperial examinations are in regard to poetry. There is a long history of debate on the usefulness of the procedure of testing the ability of the candidates to write poetry. During the Tang dynasty, a poetry section was added to the examinations, requiring the examinee to compose a shi poem in the five-character, 12-line regulated verse form and a fu composition of 300 to 400 characters. The poetry requirement remained standard for many decades, despite some controversy, although briefly abolished for the examination year 833–834 (by order of Li Deyu). During the Song dynasty, in the late 1060s Wang Anshi removed the traditional poetry composition sections (regulated verse and fu), on the grounds of irrelevancy to the official functions of bureaucratic office: on the other side of the debate, Su Shi (Dongpo) pointed out that the selection of great ministers of the past had not been obstructed by the poetry requirements, that the study and practice of poetry encouraged careful writing, and that the evaluation and grading of poetry was more objective than for the prose essays, due to the strict and detailed rules for writing verse according to the formal requirements.
Starting from the Yuan dynasty, poetry was abolished as a subject in the examinations, being regarded as frivolous. This process was completed at the inception of the following Ming dynasty. It was revived in 1756 by the Qing dynasty.
Religion
The imperial examinations influenced traditional Chinese religion as well as contemporary literary tradition. The examination system ostensibly represented the Confucian system in its most rationalist expression and was designed to achieve a society ruled by men of merit, as determined by an objective measure of the candidates' knowledge and intelligence. In practice, the examinations also included various religious and superstitious beliefs that extend the examinations beyond Confucian idealism. Traditional beliefs about fate, that cosmic forces predestine certain human affairs, and particularly that individual success or failure was subject to the will of Heaven and the influence and intervention by various deities, played into the interpretation of results when taking the tests. Zhong Kui, also known as Chung-kuei, was a deity associated with the examination system. The story is that he was a scholar who took the tests, and, despite his most excellent performance, he was unfairly deprived of the first-place prize by a corrupt system: in response, he killed himself, the act of suicide condemning him to be a ghost. Many people afraid of traveling on roads and paths that may be haunted by evil spirits have worshiped Zhong Kui as a protective deity. Also known as Kechang Yiwen Lu, the Strange Stories from the Examination Halls was a collection of stories popular among Confucian scholars of the Qing dynasty. The theme of many of the stories is that good deeds are rewarded by success in the examination halls, often by Heaven-inspired deities acting on karmic principles; and evil deeds result in failure, often under the influence of the ghosts of victims.
Some individuals were discriminated against because of their names, due to a naming taboo. For example, because the Tang dynasty poet Li He's father's name sounded like the jin, in jinshi, he was discouraged from taking the tests. The claim was that if Li He was called a jinshi, it would be against the rule of etiquette that a son not be called by his father's name.
Influence
Japan
Chinese legal institutions and the examination system began to heavily influence Japan during the Tang dynasty. In 728, Sugawara no Kiyotomo took part in the Tang examinations. Near the end of the Tang era, Japan implemented the examination system, which lasted for some 200 years during the Heian period (794-1185). According to the Records of Palace Examinations, four shinshi (jinshi) passed the exams in 916: Fujiwara Takaki, Oue Koretoki, Harubuchi Yoshiki, and Fujiwara Harufusa. Poets such as Sugawara no Michizane and Miyoshi Yoshimune mentioned their experiences with the examinations in their writing:
Like the Chinese examinations, the curriculum revolved around the Confucian canon. As Japanese examinations developed, they diverged in practice from the Chinese ones. The xiucai exams became more popular than the jinshi because it was simpler and considered more practical. The Japanese examinations were also never opened to the common folk to the same extent as in China during the Song dynasty. Due to aristocratic influence, by the 10th century, only students recommended based on their reputation and record of service could take the exams. While the exams were still held after the 11th century, they had lost all practical value, and any candidates who had been nominated by dignitaries passed unconditionally. The Japanese imperial examinations gradually died out afterwards. The examinations were revived in 1787 during the Edo period. The new examinations, called sodoku kugin, were more or less the same as the Chinese ones in terms of content (Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism), but did not confer official titles, only honorary titles. During the early Meiji era, Kanda Takahira wrote a letter advocating for the establishment of a Japanese recruitment system with the Chinese imperial examination system as a model. The proposal failed to gain support.
Korea
Korea directly participated in the Chinese imperial examination system during the 9th century when as many as 88 Sillans received degrees after passing the Tang examinations.
The Korean examination system was established in 958 under the reign of Gwangjong of Goryeo. The examination system was spread to Goryeo in 957 by a visiting Hanlin scholar named Shuang Ji from Later Zhou. Gwangjong was highly pleased with Shuang Ji and requested that he remain at the Korean court permanently.
According to Xu Jing, writing during the Song dynasty, the Korean examinations were largely the same as the Chinese ones with some differences:
Some Korean examination practices converged with the Chinese system. By the end of the Goryeo period, a military exam had been added, the triennial schedule observed, and the exam hierarchy organized into provincial, metropolitan, and palace levels, similar to the Chinese. Other practices, such as the inclusion of exams on Buddhism and the worship of Confucius, were not shared with China. Outside China, the examination system was most widely implemented in Korea, with enrollment rates surpassing even that of China. Any free man (not Nobi) was able to take the examinations. At the start of the Joseon period, 33 candidates were selected from every triennial examination, and the number increased to 50 later on. In comparison, China's selected candidates after each palace examination were no more than 40 to 300 from the Tang to Ming dynasties while encompassing a landmass six times larger than Korea. By the Joseon period, high offices were closed to aristocrats who had not passed the exams. Over the span of 600 years, the Joseon civil service selected more than 14,606 candidates in the highest level examinations on 744 occasions. The examination system continued until 1894 when it was abolished by the Gabo Reform. All Korean examinations were conducted using the Idu script from their establishment in 958 to their termination in 1894.
Vietnam
The Confucian examination system in Vietnam was established in 1075 under the Lý dynasty Emperor Lý Nhân Tông and lasted until the Nguyễn dynasty Emperor Khải Định (1919). During the Lý dynasty (1009–1225) the imperial examinations had very limited influence. Only four were held throughout the entire duration of the dynasty, producing a small handful of officials. Later during the Trần dynasty (1225–1400), Trần Thái Tông began to filter students through the Tiến sĩ (jinshi) examinations. From 1232 to 1314, ten Tiến sĩ examinations were held. In 1314, 50 Tiến sĩ were recruited in one exam. Throughout most of the Vietnamese examinations' history, there were only three levels to the Vietnamese system: interprovincial, pre-court, and court. A provincial examination was implemented by the Nguyễn dynasty (1802–1883) in 1807 and a metropolitan examination in 1825. Emperor Minh Mạng (r. 1820–1839) paid special attention to the examinations and even dined with newly recruited Tiến sĩ frequently. Although Confucian content took precedence in the examinations, material on Buddhism and Daoism were also included. In 1429, Lê Thái Tổ ordered famous Buddhist and Daoist monks to take the exams, and if they failed, they had to forfeit their religious life. Elephants were used to guard the examination halls until 1843 when the emperor said it was no longer necessary. During the 845 years of civil service examinations held in Vietnam, about 3,000 candidates passed the highest level exams and had their names carved on stelae in the Temple of Literature in Hanoi.
West
The imperial examination system was known to Europeans as early as 1570. It received great attention from the Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), who viewed it and its Confucian appeal to rationalism favorably in comparison to religious reliance on "apocalypse." Knowledge of Confucianism and the examination system was disseminated broadly in Europe following the Latin translation of Ricci's journal in 1614. During the 18th century, the imperial examinations were often discussed in conjunction with Confucianism, which attracted great attention from contemporary European thinkers such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Baron d'Holbach, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Friedrich Schiller. In France and Britain, Confucian ideology was used in attacking the privilege of the elite. Figures such as Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. According to Ferdinand Brunetière (1849-1906), followers of Physiocracy such as François Quesnay, whose theory of free trade was based on Chinese classical theory, were sinophiles bent on introducing "l'esprit chinois" to France. He also admits that French education was really based on Chinese literary examinations which were popularized in France by philosophers, especially Voltaire. Western perception of China in the 18th century admired the Chinese bureaucratic system as favourable over European governments for its seeming meritocracy. However those who admired China such as Christian Wolff were sometimes persecuted. In 1721 he gave a lecture at the University of Halle praising Confucianism, for which he was accused of atheism and forced to give up his position at the university.
Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi based much of his inspiration for cameralism on contemporary accounts of the Chinese imperial bureaucracy. The growth of cameralist studies, which played an important role in Prussian civil service training, may be traced to Justi's admiration for the Imperial examinations of China. Justi, like other cameralists, also lauded many Chinese public policies including the examination system.
The earliest evidence of examinations in Europe date to 1215 or 1219 in Bologna. These were chiefly oral in the form of a question or answer, disputation, determination, defense, or public lecture. The candidate gave a public lecture of two prepared passages assigned to him from the civil or canon law, and then doctors asked him questions, or expressed objections to answers. Evidence of written examinations do not appear until 1702 at Trinity College, Cambridge. According to Sir Michael Sadler, Europe may have had written examinations since 1518 but he admits the "evidence is not very clear." In Prussia, medication examinations began in 1725. The Mathematical Tripos, founded in 1747, is commonly believed to be the first honor examination, but James Bass Mullinger considered "the candidates not having really undergone any examination whatsoever" because the qualification for a degree was merely four years of residence. France adopted the examination system in 1791 as a result of the French Revolution but it collapsed after only ten years. Germany implemented the examination system around 1800.
Englishmen in the 18th century such as Eustace Budgell recommended imitating the Chinese examination system. Adam Smith recommended examinations to qualify for employment in 1776. In 1838, the Congregational church missionary Walter Henry Medhurst considered the Chinese exams to be "worthy of imitating." In 1806, the British established a Civil Service College near London for training of the East India Company's administrators in India. This was based on the recommendations of British East India Company officials serving in China and had seen the Imperial examinations. In 1829, the company introduced civil service examinations in India on a limited basis. This established the principle of qualification process for civil servants in England. In 1847 and 1856, Thomas Taylor Meadows strongly recommended the adoption of the Chinese principle of competitive examinations in Great Britain. Both Thomas Babington Macaulay, who was instrumental in passing the Saint Helena Act 1833, and Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh, who prepared the Northcote–Trevelyan Report that catalyzed the British civil service, were familiar with Chinese history and institutions. When the report was brought up in parliament in 1853, Lord Monteagle argued against the implementation of open examinations because it was a Chinese system and China was not an "enlightened country." Lord Stanley called the examinations the "Chinese Principle." The Earl of Granville did not deny this but argued in favor of the examination system, considering that the minority Manchus had been able to rule China with it for over 200 years. In 1854, Edwin Chadwick reported that some noblemen did not agree with the measures introduced because they were Chinese. The examination system was finally implemented in the British Indian Civil Service in 1855, prior to which admission into the civil service was purely a matter of patronage, and in England in 1870. Even as late as ten years after the competitive examination plan was passed, people still attacked it as an "adopted Chinese culture." Alexander Baillie-Cochrane, 1st Baron Lamington insisted that the English "did not know that it was necessary for them to take lessons from the Celestial Empire." In 1875, Archibald Sayce voiced concern over the prevalence of competitive examinations, which he described as "the invasion of this new Chinese culture."
After Great Britain's successful implementation of systematic, open, and competitive examinations in India in the 19th century, similar systems were instituted in the United Kingdom itself, and in other Western nations. Like the British, the development of the French and American civil service was influenced by the Chinese system. When Thomas Jenckes made a Report from the Joint Select Committee on Retrenchment in 1868, it contained a chapter on the civil service in China. In 1870, William Spear wrote a book called The Oldest and the Newest Empire-China and the United States, in which he urged the United States government to adopt the Chinese examination system. Like in Britain, many of the American elites scorned the plan to implement competitive examinations, which they considered foreign, Chinese, and "un-American." As a result, the civil services reform introduced into the House of Representatives in 1868 was not passed until 1883. The Civil Service Commission tried to combat such sentiments in its report:
Examinations in modern China
1912–1949
After the fall of the Qing in 1912, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the newly risen Republic of China, developed similar procedures for the new political system through an institution called the Examination Yuan, one of the five branches of government, although this was quickly suspended due to the turmoil in China between the two world wars, such as the Warlord era and the Japanese invasion. The Kuomintang administration revived the Examination Yuan in 1947 after the defeat of Japan. This system continues into present times in Taiwan along with the government itself after loss of the mainland to the Communist Party of China.
1949–present
The Civil Service in the People's Republic of China (PRC) since the economic reform era maintains a system of examinations for selection and promotion of civil servants.
In the Republic of China (ROC), the constitution specifies that a public servant cannot be employed without going through an examination. The employment is usually also lifelong (that is, until age about retirement).
See also
Bar exam
Chinese classic texts
Civil Service of the People's Republic of China
Confucian court examination system in Vietnam
Donglin Academy
Education in the People's Republic of China
Eight-legged essay, a literary form developed in association with examination requirements
Four Books and Five Classics, Confucian works used in the examinations
Gwageo, Korean national examination system begun in Unified Silla, expanded in Goryeo dynasty, and continued by the Joseon administration
Hanlin Academy
Huang Zongxi
Imperial examination in Chinese mythology, cultural and mythological features related to the examinations
Mandarin square
Music Bureau
Nine-rank system, a predecessor to the later imperial examination system
Scholar-bureaucrats, a class of educated government officials in Chinese history
Wen Wu temple, temples dedicated to the worship of the civil and military deities
References
Citations
Sources
. University of Oregon Libraries (not searchable), American Libraries Internet Archive Google Books (Searchable).
This article incorporates material from the Library of Congress that is believed to be in the public domain.''
External links
High resolution digitised images of the final triennial examination paper, 1902, Cambridge Digital Library
Academic pressure in East Asian culture
Chinese culture
Chinese inventions
Civil services
Confucian education
Civil service examinations
Government recruitment
Chinese officials in Chinese history
History of education in China
History of Imperial China
Public administration
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaifeng
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Kaifeng
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Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital seven times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Northern Song dynasty.
As of 31 December 2018, around 4,465,000 people lived in Kaifeng's Prefecture, of whom 1,652,000 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of Xiangfu, Longting, Shunhe Hui, Gulou and Yuwantai Districts. Located along the Yellow River's southern bank, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the west, Xinxiang to the northwest, Shangqiu to the east, Zhoukou to the southeast, Xuchang to the southwest, and Heze of Shandong to the northeast.
Kaifeng is also a major city in the world by scientific research outputs as tracked by the Nature Index. The city is home to a campus of Henan University, one of the national key universities in the Double First Class University Plan.
Names
The postal romanization for the city is "Kaifeng". Its official one-character abbreviation in Chinese is (Biàn). Historically it has also been known as:
Dàliáng ()
Biànliáng ()
Biànzhōu ()
Nánjīng ()
Dōngjīng ()
Biànjīng ()
The area was named "Kaifeng" after the Qin's conquest of China in the second century BC. The name literally means "opening the border" and figuratively "hidden" and "vengeance". Its name was originally Qifeng (), but the syllable qi (Baxter-Sagart: /*kʰˤijʔ/) was changed to the essentially synonymous kai (/*Nə-[k]ʰˤəj/, /*[k]ʰˤəj/) to avoid the naming taboo of Liu Qi (Emperor Jing of Han).
Administration
The prefecture-level city of Kaifeng administers five districts and four counties:
Gulou District ()
Longting District ()
Yuwangtai District ()
Xiangfu District ()
Shunhe Hui District ()
Weishi County ()
Qi County ()
Tongxu County ()
Lankao County ()
History
Kaifeng is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China. As with Beijing, there have been many reconstructions during its history.
In 364 BC during the Warring States period, the State of Wei founded a city called Daliang () as its capital in this area. During this period, the first of many canals in the area was constructed linking a local river to the Yellow River. When the State of Qin conquered the State of Wei, Kaifeng was destroyed and abandoned except for a mid-sized market town, which remained in place.
During the Han Dynasty, the city underwent some reconstruction. Kaifeng became the capital of Liu Wu (son of Han emperor Wen) when he was given the title of Liang Xiao Wang. Liu Wu restored and constructed many buildings and old city walls. Kaifeng became a center of music, art, a refuge for artists, and of splendid gardens despite the trivial political importance of the city at this period.
Early in the 7th century, Kaifeng was transformed into a major commercial hub when it was connected to the Grand Canal as well as through the construction of a canal running to western Shandong.
In 781 during the Tang dynasty, a new city was reconstructed and named Bian (). Bian was the capital of the Later Jin (936–946), Later Han (947–950), and Later Zhou (951–960) of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Song dynasty made Bian its capital when it overthrew the Later Zhou in 960. Shortly afterwards, the city underwent further expansion.
During the Song, when it was known as Dongjing or Bianjing, Kaifeng, then the largest and most prosperous city in China, was the capital, with a population of over 400,000 living both inside and outside the city wall. Typhus was an acute problem in the city. The historian Jacques Gernet provides a lively picture of life in this period in his Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276, which often draws on Dongjing Meng Hua Lu, a nostalgic memoir of the city of Kaifeng.
In 1049, the Youguosi Pagoda () – or Iron Pagoda as it is called today – was constructed measuring in height. It has survived the vicissitudes of war and floods to become the oldest landmark in this ancient city. Another Song-dynasty pagoda, , dating from 974, has been partially destroyed.
Another well-known sight was the astronomical clock tower of the engineer, scientist, and statesman Su Song (1020–1101 AD). It was crowned with a rotating armillary sphere that was hydraulically-powered (i.e. by water wheel and a water clock), yet it incorporated an escapement mechanism two hundred years before they were found in the clockworks of Europe and featured the first known endless power-transmitting chain drive.
Kaifeng reached its peak importance in the 11th century as a commercial and industrial center at the intersection of four major canals. During this time, the city was surrounded by three rings of city walls and probably had a population of between 600,000 and 700,000. It is believed that Kaifeng was the largest city in the world from 1013 to 1127.
This period ended in 1127 when the city fell to Jurchen invaders during the Jingkang Incident. It subsequently came under the rule of the Jurchen Jin dynasty, which had conquered most of North China during the Jin–Song Wars. While it remained an important administrative center, only the area inside the inner city wall of the early Song remained settled and the two outer rings were abandoned.
As the imperial capital of the Song, Kaifeng was conveniently situated along the Grand Canal for logistics supply but militarily vulnerable due to its position on the floodplains of the Yellow River.
Kaifeng served as the Jurchen "southern capital" from 1157 (other sources say 1161) and was reconstructed during this time. The Jurchen kept their main capital further north until 1214 when they were forced to move the imperial court southwards to Kaifeng in order to flee from the onslaught of the Mongols. In 1232 they succumbed to the combined Mongol and Song forces in the Mongol siege of Kaifeng. The Mongols captured the city and in 1279 conquered all of China. During the Yuan dynasty Bianliang became the capital of Henan Jiangbei Province, which was established in 1277.
The city was briefly captured around the mid-fourteenth century by the Red Turban rebels who made it their capital for ten years. They were crushed by the early Ming forces. At the beginning of the Ming dynasty in 1368, Kaifeng was made the capital of Henan province.
In 1642, Kaifeng was flooded by the Ming army with water from the Yellow River to prevent the peasant rebel Li Zicheng from taking over. After this disaster, the city was abandoned again.
(262nd most destructive act of warfare in Chinese history)
In 1662, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty, Kaifeng was rebuilt. Another reconstruction in 1843 followed flooding in 1841, shaping Kaifeng as it stands today.
On 6 June 1938, the city was occupied by the invading Japanese Imperial Army.
Kaifeng is also known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China, the Kaifeng Jews.
Kaifeng remained the capital of Henan province until 1954, when it was moved to Zhengzhou.
In 1969, the former President of the People's Republic of China, Liu Shaoqi, died from medical neglect while under house arrest in Kaifeng.
Climate
Kaifeng has a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa) that borders on a humid continental climate, with four distinct seasons. Winters are cool and mostly dry while summers are hot and humid; spring is warm and sees some, but not much rainfall, while autumn weather is crisp and drier. Precipitation mainly occurs from June to September.
Transportation
Air
Downtown Kaifeng is about away from Zhengzhou Xinzheng International Airport (IATA: CGO, ICAO: ZHCC), which is the busiest airport in central China in terms of both passenger and cargo traffic (2017 statistics).
With the completion of Zhengzhou–Kaifeng intercity railway and Zhengzhou–Xinzheng Airport intercity railway, fast train connections to Zhengzhou Xinzheng International Airport from Kaifeng became available. As of August 2018, there are 12 pairs of intercity trains running between Xinzheng Airport and Songchenglu every day, with a travel time of 53 min.
Rail
Kaifeng railway station is on the east–west Longhai Railway mainline and provides convenient access to many cities around China, including Beijing West, Shanghai, Shanghai Hongqiao, Tianjin, Xi'an, Jinan, Hangzhou. Services to Zhengzhou, Luoyang and Qingdao are also frequent and convenient. Direct long-distance services to Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Chengdu, Chongqing North, Harbin, Ürümqi, Fuzhou, Dalian and Wuhan are also available.
The Zhengzhou–Kaifeng intercity railway () started operation on 28 December 2014, connecting the provincial capital Zhengzhou and Kaifeng. The railway currently terminates at Songchenglu, and is planned to be extended to Kaifeng railway station. The designed top speed is .
Kaifeng North railway station of the Xuzhou–Lanzhou high-speed railway is the main high-speed railway station of the city. It started operation on 10 September 2016.
Coach
There are 4 main coach stations in Kaifeng:
Kaifeng West Coach Station ()
Kaifeng Long-Distance Coach Station ()
Kaifeng Jinming Coach Station ()
Kaifeng Xiangguosi Coach Station ()
There are frequent services to many neighboring counties, other provincial cities and long-distance services to other provinces.
Road transport
G30 Lianyungang–Khorgas Expressway
G45 Daqing–Guangzhou Expressway
S82 Zhengzhou–Minquan Expressway
S83 Lankao–Nanyang Expressway
China National Highway 106
China National Highway 220
China National Highway 310
Culture
Religion
Kaifeng is known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China, the Kaifeng Jews.
It also has a significant Muslim enclave and is notable for its many women's mosques (nǚsì), including the oldest nǚsì in China: Wangjia Hutong Women's Mosque, which dates to 1820.
There are also some active Christian churches, like Sacred-Heart of Kaifeng cathedral ().
Cuisine
Kaifeng cuisine plays a dominant part in forming Henan cuisine.
Kaifeng offers a wide range of food specialties such as steamed pie and dumplings. Particularly famous is Kaifeng's five-spice bread (wǔxiāng shāobǐng), which, like pita, can be opened and filled. In the evening, Kaifeng's streets turn into restaurants while hundreds open their stands and begin selling their food in the famous night market. People from nearby Zhengzhou often come to Kaifeng to visit family members and to enjoy the atmosphere.
The Ma Yu Ching's Bucket Chicken House (), located in Kaifeng, is by some accounts the world's oldest restaurant.
Chrysanthemums
The chrysanthemum is the city flower of Kaifeng. The tradition of cultivating varieties of chrysanthemums extends back 1600 years, and the scale of cultivation reached its height during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126.
The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The festival has since taken place between 18 October and 18 November of every year.
The festival reached another milestone on 18 October 2012, when it celebrated its 30th birthday. The opening ceremony was broadcast live during the evening prime slot on Henan Television (HNTV), which broadcasts to all Chinese cities at or above the prefecture level.
During the festival, hundreds of chrysanthemums breeds are on show at festival venues, and the flower becomes a common features around the city. Kaifeng has been dubbed the "city of chrysanthemums".
Sporting events
Zheng-Kai International Marathon
The China Zheng-Kai International Marathon (, Zheng-Kai stands for "Zhengzhou-Kaifeng", also abbreviated "ZK") is a sporting event hosted jointly by the Chinese Athletic Association, the general sport administration of Henan province, Zhengzhou municipal government, and the Kaifeng municipal government. It is the premier international sports competition in Henan province and one of the biggest sports competitions in the Central-West of China. ZK International Marathon is held at the end of March or beginning of April each year. The main part of the event occurs along the famous Zhengkai Express Way (). At its launch in 2007, 5600 athletes competed. By 2012, almost 25000 athletes from 28 countries and regions have participated in the ZK International Marathon.
Military
Kaifeng is the headquarters of the 20th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army, one of three group armies that comprise the Jinan Military Region responsible for the defense of the Yellow River Plain.
Kaifeng Air Base is a military airfield in the southern suburb of Kaifeng City. It does not provide civilian aviation service.
Gallery
Twin towns – sister cities
Kaifeng is twinned with:
Kiryat Motzkin, Israel
Omsk, Russia
Toda, Japan
Wichita, United States
Wingecarribee, Australia
Yeongcheon, South Korea
Colleges and universities
Public
Henan University () (founded 1912)
Kaifeng University () (founded 1980)
Kaifeng Institute of Education ()
Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute () (founded 1929)
See also
Historical capitals of China
1642 Yellow River flood
Kaifeng Jews
References
Further reading
The Origin of the Kaifeng Jews, in S. Shaked, ed., Irano-Judaica, Jerusalem, 1982, pp. 101–11
External links
Government website of Kaifeng (in Simplified Chinese)
Kaifeng City Portal (in Simplified Chinese)
Notes on the Jewish colony at Kaifeng from the Papers of Charles Daniel Tenney
360s BC establishments
364 BC
Historic Jewish communities
Populated places established in the 4th century BC
History of the Jews in Asia
Chinese Jews
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela%27s%20Ashes
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Angela's Ashes
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Angela's Ashes: A Memoir is a 1996 memoir by the Irish-American author Frank McCourt, with various anecdotes and stories of his childhood. It details his very early childhood in Brooklyn, New York, US but focuses primarily on his life in Limerick, Ireland. It also includes his struggles with poverty and his father's alcoholism.
The book was published in 1996 and won the 1997 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography. A sequel, 'Tis, was published in 1999, followed by Teacher Man in 2005.
Synopsis
The narrative is told from the point of view of Frank McCourt as a child. Born in Brooklyn, New York, on 19 August 1930, Frank (Francis) McCourt is the oldest son of Malachy McCourt and Angela Sheehan McCourt. Both of his parents immigrated from Ireland and married in a shotgun wedding over Angela's pregnancy with Frankie. Angela is from Limerick, Ireland, and is fond of music, singing, and dancing. Malachy, from Northern Ireland, is an alcoholic known for his "odd manner" and for telling the stories about Irish heroes. Frankie is said to resemble his father, having a hang-dog face and the same "odd manner."
In Brooklyn, the McCourts live in modern tenement housing next to a park and share a floor, and an indoor lavatory, with other immigrant families. Frankie has four younger siblings in Brooklyn: Malachy, born in 1931; twins Oliver and Eugene, born in 1932; and an infant sister, Margaret, in 1935.
The family struggles with poverty because Malachy Sr.'s efforts to find work are complicated by his alcoholism. The family's prospects, and Angela's spirits, lift whenever he finds a new job and brings home his wages, but soon he finds himself spending all of his pay packet in pubs, despite Angela's efforts to prevent him from doing so. He loses each job after a few weeks as a result of his heavy drinking.
Margaret's birth instills new life into the family: the whole family falls in love with her, Malachy Sr most of all. He stops drinking and finds steady work to support the family. Due to her parents' ignorance of childhood disease, Margaret lives for only seven weeks. With her death, Malachy Sr goes on an alcoholic binge, while Angela suffers severe depression. Frank, age four, feeds and cares for his younger siblings, until the neighbours help out. The neighbours contact Angela's cousins, who in turn recommend the family return to Ireland. Angela is pregnant as they return to Ireland from America, though she loses the child shortly after moving to Limerick.
The Great Depression strikes Ireland even harder than it does the United States. The family first goes to Malachy's family home in Toome in County Antrim, where his parents tell them there is no work. He tries Dublin, hoping for a pension from his fighting days, but that does not materialise. They settle in Angela's original hometown, Limerick. Conditions for poor families are miserable. Malachy Sr finds it difficult to find work because of his Northern Irish accent and mannerisms, and the boys are mocked for their American accents.
The family is forced to rely on the dole and charity from the local Society of Saint Vincent de Paul, which requires a humiliating application process. Angela and Malachy Sr argue about this as Malachy drinks the welfare money meant to feed the family, and views Angela's asking for charity as degrading. The young family subsists on little more than bread and tea.
Within a year of the family's arrival, Oliver and Eugene also die. Oliver dies first, and then Eugene, a few months later, from grieving the loss of his twin and pneumonia. After each death, Angela is depressed, and the family moves to another house. Each move is a slide into worse circumstances. They settle in a slum house. The entire ground floor floods for half the year, requiring the family to live in the upstairs rooms, called Italy, until the rains cease, when they again have access to the ground floor, Ireland. Their house is next to the only lavatory on the street. The traffic of families dumping chamber pots in the lavatory is offensive. Two more baby brothers, Michael (born 1936), and Alphie (Alphonsus Joseph, b. 1940), are born in Limerick.
Frankie grows up in Limerick as an intelligent boy, if always hungry. He makes unique observations about those around him. His strict Catholic upbringing in the local public school preys on him; will he be going to hell, this plagues his mind as soon as he has been taught to make confession aged seven. He sees his father as three people; the man who rises early in the morning and talks with Frank; the man who tells stories to his sons in the evening; and the man who drinks too much, sings old songs and asks his young sons promise to die for Ireland.
Frank gets typhoid fever at age ten and is taken to the hospital for months, where for the first time he has adequate food, warmth, and clean sheets, and access to books with the time to read them. Frankie contracts chronic conjunctivitis the next year, which does not heal, requiring treatments.
When the US joins World War II, many Limerick men, including Malachy Sr, find work at defence plants in Coventry, England, and send money home. The first payment from Malachy Sr. allows the family to buy food and pay the rent. But soon, the money stops coming, and at age 11, Frank is the man of the house.
When their mother is ill, Frank and his brothers steal leftover food from restaurants and grocery deliveries from doorsteps of wealthier homes, until they are sent to stay with their aunt while their mother recuperates in the hospital.
After a humorous few weeks of burning the second floor wall for the cooking fire, the family is evicted and homeless. At her mother's suggestion, Angela and her children move in with her bachelor cousin, Laman Griffin; who is a petty tyrant, not pleasant company. Frank endures this treatment until the day after his schooling ends in June and he is promised the loan of Laman's bicycle to join his friends; Laman reneges on his promise. Added to this disappointment, Laman's deal to provide housing includes a sexual relationship with Angela. Frankie fights with Laman and is thrown out of the house. Shortly after, Malachy Jr leaves Laman Griffin's to join the British military as a bugle boy.
Frankie moves in with his maternal uncle, a simple man who was "dropped on his head as a child" and lives alone in the house. Frank gets a job as a telegram delivery boy on his fourteenth birthday in August and enjoys his first real wages. He meets many unexpected situations while delivering telegrams, including his first girlfriend, who dies of tuberculosis. He meets Mrs Finucane who buys clothes for people at a discount, and then they pay her back over time for the full price; she asks Frank to write threatening letters to encourage them to repay those loans. He tells no one about this job, which he has until she dies.
A few months after he moves, the rest of the family follows him to the house. Frank now turns over the majority of his wages to his mother. He works for the post office until he is sixteen, when he finds a job with Eason's, a company that supplies magazines and newspapers to Limerick stores.
On his sixteenth birthday, Frank's uncle takes him to the pub to buy him his first beer. Frank gets drunk and heads home. When his mother shames him for drinking like his father, Frank hits her, accusing her of being a whore for Laman Griffin, and is immediately ashamed of himself.
Shortly before he turns nineteen, Frank returns to Mrs. Finucane’s home to find she has died. Frank takes some of the money from her purse and throws her ledger of debtors into the river to free the neighborhood of their debts. This gives him enough money to sail to New York. Frank arrives in Poughkeepsie, New York where the ship docks, and he agrees with a ship's crew man that it is a great country, 'tis.
Character list
McCourt family
Francis McCourt: The writer of the book and main character. Frank is a religious, determined, and intelligent Irish American who struggles to find happiness and success in the harsh community
Malachy McCourt: Frank's father and an alcoholic. Though his addiction almost ruins the family, Mr. McCourt manages to obtain his children's affection by telling Irish stories
Angela McCourt, née Sheehan: Frank's hardworking mother who puts her family first and holds high expectations for her children. She is also humorous and witty
Malachy (Jr.): Frank's younger and supposedly more attractive and charming brother
Oliver: Frank's brother, twin to Eugene, who dies at an early age in Ireland
Eugene: Frank's brother, who dies of pneumonia six months after Oliver, his twin
Margaret: Frank's only little sister, who dies in her sleep in the United States
Michael: Frank's brother
Alphonsus: Frank's youngest brother
Aunt Aggie: Frank's childless aunt. She does not approve of Angela's husband or how Angela is raising and caring for her children, but is helpful and loyal nonetheless
Uncle Pa Keating: Aunt Aggie's husband, who is especially fond of Eugene
Uncle Pat Sheehan: Angela's brother, who was dropped on the head when he was young
Grandma: Angela's mother and Frank's grandmother, who sends Angela money to come to Ireland
Others
Paddy Clohessy: a poor boy in the same class as Frank, who considers Frank a friend after Frank shares with him a much-coveted raisin.
Brendan "Question" Quigley, occasionally (not to mention, inconsistently) referred to as Brendan Kieley: another classmate of Frank's, who often gets into trouble because of his tendency to ask too many questions.
Fintan Slattery: a classmate of Frank's who invites Frank and Paddy over for lunch, but proceeds to eat all of it in front of them without offering them any. It is implied that he has homosexual tendencies.
Mikey Molloy: Son of Nora Molloy, who is older than Frank, has seizures, and is the "expert on Girls' Bodies and Dirty Things".
Patricia Madigan: A patient at the Fever Hospital who befriends Frank and tells him bits of poetry, notably "The Highwayman" by Alfred Noyes, but dies before she can tell him the rest of the poem
Seamus: The hospital janitor who helps Frank and Patricia communicate, and who later recites poetry to Frank in the eye hospital
Mr Timoney: An old man who pays Frank to read books to him
Dotty O’Neill: Frank's somewhat eccentric 4th class teacher who loves Euclid
Mr O’Dea: Frank's 5th class teacher and headmaster
Theresa Carmody: A 17-year-old consumptive girl with whom Frank has a sexual relationship. Frank desperately worries about the fate of Theresa's soul, which he thinks he is jeopardizing by having premarital sex with her
Mickey Spellacy: A friend of Frank's who, anticipating his sister's death, promises Frank he can come to the wake and eat some of the food
Mrs. Brigid Finucane: Frank delivers a telegram to her, and then works for her by writing threatening letters to people who owe her money. Mrs. Finucane bought clothes for people at a discount, and they repaid her the full price in time. Frank tells no one that he is writing these letters, even when he hears his mother and various neighbors complaining about the letters.
Literary significance and reception
Michiko Kakutani concluded her review in The New York Times of Angela's Ashes by saying that "The reader of this stunning memoir can only hope that Mr. McCourt will set down the story of his subsequent adventures in America in another book. Angela's Ashes is so good it deserves a sequel." McCourt "has used the storytelling gifts he inherited from his father to write a book that redeems the pain of his early years with wit and compassion and grace." The book is compared "with The Liars Club by Mary Karr and Andre Aciman's Out of Egypt as a classic modern memoir." McCourt writes without bitterness about his epic tale of woe, though "there is plenty a less generous writer might well be judgmental about." The review is peppered with quotations from the book showing the author's style. Kakutani remarks that "Writing in prose that's pictorial and tactile, lyrical but streetwise, Mr. McCourt does for the town of Limerick what the young Joyce did for Dublin: he conjures the place for us with such intimacy that we feel we've walked its streets and crawled its pubs." This review is strong in its analysis of the book as well-written and modern, comparable with great writers. The scope of the "memoir is not just the story of his family's struggles, but the story of his own sentimental education: his discovery of poetry and girls, and his efforts to come to terms with God and death and faith. By 11, he's the chief breadwinner for the family. By 15, he's lost his first girlfriend to tuberculosis. By 19, he's saved enough money to make his escape to the States."
In its review, Kirkus Reviews has strong praise: "An extraordinary work in every way. McCourt magically retrieves love, dignity, and humor from a childhood of hunger, loss and pain." This is the first book by McCourt. It is "a powerful, exquisitely written debut, a recollection of the author's miserable childhood in the slums of Limerick, Ireland, during the Depression and World War II."
Nina King wrote in the Washington Post that "This memoir is an instant classic of the genre -- all the more remarkable for being the 66-year-old McCourt's first book." She summarized her review by saying that "Angela's Ashes confirms the worst old stereotypes about the Irish, portraying them as drunken, sentimental, bigoted, bloody-minded dreamers, repressed sexually and oppressed politically, nursing ancient grievances while their children (their far-too-many children) go hungry. ... at the same time that it transcends them through the sharpness and precision of McCourt's observation and the wit and beauty of his prose."
Reviewing the book at its publication in 1996, John Blades wrote in the Chicago Tribune that "Like McCourt himself, Angela's Ashes is a bundle of contradictions, as uproarious as they are grievous, whether the young Frankie is pushing his baby brother around Limerick, dumping loose coal and turf into his pram; his "pious, defeated" mother is begging a sheep's head for their Christmas dinner; or his soused father is rousing the boys in the middle of the night to sing "Kevin Barry" and other patriotic Irish songs." The book event was held in at the Mercury Theater and the adjoining Chicago bar; the book is a debut for McCourt but he had "been a familiar figure on local stages during the '80s. Billing themselves as "A Couple of Blaguards," he and his younger brother, Malachy, re-enacted their Limerick boyhood in story, song and verse for audiences at the Royal George and other theaters." McCourt's book places "McCourt's mother, Angela, [as] the nominal heroine of his memoir, eternally on the dole, pathetically trying to clothe and feed her sons. But it's the blackguard father, also named Malachy, who obsesses McCourt, and who commandeers center stage in his memoir, long after he's abandoned his wife and family." At the book event, McCourt notes that most of the reviews of his memoir call it "lyrical and charming," but he says that "what gives Irish writing its distinctive flavor is not the charming stuff but the darkness."
In a review of the book and its audio book version released in 1997, Gayle Sims wrote that it is "only book that I unequivocally recommend listening to instead of reading." She explains why the narration makes a better experience than reading on paper, as the author "reads the narrative in his everyday dialect, yet he is able to give it the voice of a child. This works particularly well because Angela's Ashes is written from a child's unjudging perspective." Although the tough, challenging and sad events of his childhood might present a negative story to the reader or listener, "The book is full of tears and laughter. McCourt is forgiving of his family's tragic life. When he reads, there is no rancor in his voice."
Writing a review in 2020, Ashley Nelson said that "This story is challenging to the emotions; it deals with many elements and situations that make people uncomfortable. However, it has you holding back laughter, as Frank McCourt has this magical ability to make light of being starving in the pouring rain walking through the streets of Limerick. This book has you feel love, loss, fear, hunger, and the will to overcome uncertainty." This book is a "quintessential coming of age story viewed through the grimy, unyielding, and sometimes downright heartbreaking lens of poverty. It follows Frank McCourt as he comically explains the dire circumstances of his conception, birth, and life."
Background
After traveling to America (where the book ends), Frank ended up working at the Biltmore Hotel in New York City, where he remained until 1951. Frank was drafted during the Korean War to be stationed in Bavaria, Germany. After being discharged, Frank returned to New York and dabbled with several different jobs until he was accepted into NYU. After graduating in 1957 with a bachelor's degree in English, McCourt turned to teaching in New York schools. He then obtained his master's degree and traveled to Dublin in pursuit of his PhD, which he never completed.
Awards
Angela's Ashes won several awards, including the 1997 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography, the 1996 National Book Critics Circle Award (Biography), and the 1997 Boeke Prize.
Frank McCourt was elected Irish American of the Year in 1998.
Disputed memories
McCourt was accused of exaggerating his family's impoverished upbringing by many Limerick natives, including Richard Harris. McCourt's mother denied the accuracy of his stories shortly before her death in 1981, walking out of a stage performance by her two elder sons; Malachy's recollection is that she said it was "all a pack of lies."
Local writer and filmmaker Gerry Hannan has compiled a list of 204 inaccuracies in Angela's Ashes, most notably that McCourt claims that Willie Harrold charged people to watch his sisters undressing, but Harrold had no sisters; that McCourt's claim to have had a sexual relationship with Teresa Carmody tarnishes the name of a girl who died young; that McCourt never worked as a telegraph boy; and that the McCourts never lived with Laman (Gerry) Griffin. McCourt is accused of hating the "pillars" of Limerick city, especially the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul, the Catholic Church and Munster Rugby. Hannan confronted McCourt on The Late Late Show in 1999. McCourt was a member of the Boy Scouts, a middle-class pursuit the poor could not afford, and family photographs show the children and Angela as well-fed.
American journalist John Meyer visited Limerick and took the tour of the city sparked by publication of the book. He realized how much the city had changed since McCourt's childhood years, including destruction of the slum area where his family lived when Frank was in school.
McCourt described the book as "a memoir, not an exact history", and admitted to fabricating the story about Willie Harrold's sisters. Similarly, Alan Parker, who directed the film version, said that Angela's Ashes "was a work of art which met Gore Vidal's definition of autobiography, being an 'impression' of a life, rather than a memoir."
Adaptations
Film
In 1999 a film version was released. It was co-written and directed by Alan Parker starring Joe Breen, Ciaran Owens, and Michael Legge, as the Young, Middle and Older Frank McCourt respectively and Emily Watson as McCourt's mother Angela, Robert Carlyle as the father.
The film begins when the McCourt family move back to Ireland after experiencing hardship in America. Many of the Street scenes were filmed in Cork, Ireland. The film soundtrack was composed and conducted by John Williams, and features songs by Billie Holiday and Sinéad O'Connor.
Musical
A stage musical adaptation of Angela's Ashes by Adam Howell (Music & Lyrics) and Paul Hurt (Book) received its world premiere at the Lime Tree Theatre, Limerick on July 6, 2017 with following performances at the Bord Gáis Energy Theatre, Dublin and the Grand Opera House, Belfast. McCourt's wife, Ellen Frey McCourt, remarked about making a musical from that memoir, before it opened in Limerick, that "“The movie does not have the humour of the book, or that this musical has.” Moreover, she adds, “if you think about it, was Sweeney Todd a good example of a musical subject? Or Oliver!, or Annie? There’s a silver lining in each of these shows, and Angela’s Ashes is really a story about a family triumphing over adversity.”"
See also
Misery lit
References
Further reading
Hagan, Edward A. “Really an Alley Cat? Angela's Ashes and Critical Orthodoxy”, New Hibernia Review / Iris Éireannach Nua 4:4 (Winter 2000): 39–52.
Lenz, Peter. "'To Hell or to America?': Tragicomedy in Frank McCourt’s Angela’s Ashes and the Irish Literary Tradition", Anglia: Zeitschrift für Englische Philologie 118:3 (2000): 411–20.
McCourt, Frank. Tis: A Memoir, Scribner (August 2000)
External links
Frank McCourt discusses Angela's Ashes on the BBC World Book Club
Cullen, Kevin. “Memoir Lashed, and Loved: Angela’s Ashes Author Finds Foes, Friends in Limerick”, Limerick Globe October 29, 1997
Late Author’s Younger Brother Remembers Childhood Poverty Depicted in Angela’s Ashes - video report by Democracy Now!
Limerick Leader's Angela's Ashes tour: Part 1 Part 2 Part 3
Booknotes interview with McCourt on Angela's Ashes, August 31, 1997
1996 books
Culture in Limerick (city)
Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography-winning works
Novels by Frank McCourt
Memoirs adapted into films
American memoirs
Novels set in Ireland
Memoirs about alcoholism
National Book Critics Circle Award-winning works
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] |
244490
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOCKS
|
SOCKS
|
SOCKS is an Internet protocol that exchanges network packets between a client and server through a proxy server. SOCKS5 optionally provides authentication so only authorized users may access a server. Practically, a SOCKS server proxies TCP connections to an arbitrary IP address, and provides a means for UDP packets to be forwarded.
SOCKS performs at Layer 5 of the OSI model (the session layer, an intermediate layer between the presentation layer and the transport layer). A SOCKS server accepts incoming client connection on TCP port 1080, as defined in .
History
The protocol was originally developed/designed by David Koblas, a system administrator of MIPS Computer Systems. After MIPS was taken over by Silicon Graphics in 1992, Koblas presented a paper on SOCKS at that year's Usenix Security Symposium, making SOCKS publicly available. The protocol was extended to version 4 by Ying-Da Lee of NEC.
The SOCKS reference architecture and client are owned by Permeo Technologies, a spin-off from NEC. (Blue Coat Systems bought out Permeo Technologies, and were in turn acquired by Symantec.)
The SOCKS5 protocol was originally a security protocol that made firewalls and other security products easier to administer. It was approved by the IETF in 1996 as (authored by: M. Leech, M. Ganis, Y. Lee, R. Kuris, D. Koblas, and L. Jones). The protocol was developed in collaboration with Aventail Corporation, which markets the technology outside of Asia.
Usage
SOCKS is a de facto standard for circuit-level gateways (level 5 gateways).
The circuit/session level nature of SOCKS make it a versatile tool in forwarding any TCP (or UDP since SOCKS5) traffic, creating a good interface for all types of routing tools. It can be used as:
A circumvention tool, allowing traffic to bypass Internet filtering to access content otherwise blocked, e.g., by governments, workplaces, schools, and country-specific web services. Since SOCKS is very detectable, a common approach is to present a SOCKS interface for more sophisticated protocols:
The Tor onion proxy software presents a SOCKS interface to its clients.
Providing similar functionality to a virtual private network, allowing connections to be forwarded to a server's "local" network:
Some SSH suites, such as OpenSSH, support dynamic port forwarding that allows the user to create a local SOCKS proxy. This can free the user from the limitations of connecting only to a predefined remote port and server.
Protocol
SOCKS4
A typical SOCKS4 connection request looks like this:
VER SOCKS version number, 0x04 for this version
CMD command code:
0x01 = establish a TCP/IP stream connection
0x02 = establish a TCP/IP port binding
DSTPORT2-byte port number (in network byte order)
DESTIP IPv4 Address, 4 bytes (in network byte order)
ID the user ID string, variable length, null-terminated.
VN reply version, null byte
REP reply code
{| class="wikitable"
!Byte
!Meaning
|-
|0x5A
|Request granted
|-
|0x5B
|Request rejected or failed
|-
|0x5C
|Request failed because client is not running identd (or not reachable from server)
|-
|0x5D
|Request failed because client's identd could not confirm the user ID in the request
|}
DSTPORT destination port, meaningful if granted in BIND, otherwise ignore
DSTIP destination IP, as above – the ip:port the client should bind to
For example, this a SOCKS4 request to connect Fred to 66.102.7.99:80, the server replies with an "OK":
Client: 0x04 | 0x01 | 0x00 0x50 | 0x42 0x66 0x07 0x63 | 0x46 0x72 0x65 0x64 0x00
The last field is "Fred" in ASCII, followed by a null byte.
Server: 0x00 | 0x5A | 0xXX 0xXX | 0xXX 0xXX 0xXX 0xXX
0xXX can be any byte value. The SOCKS4 protocol specifies that the values of these bytes should be ignored.
From this point onwards, any data sent from the SOCKS client to the SOCKS server is relayed to 66.102.7.99, and vice versa.
The command field may be 0x01 for "connect" or 0x02 for "bind"; the "bind" command allows incoming connections for protocols such as active FTP.
SOCKS4a
SOCKS4a extends the SOCKS4 protocol to allow a client to specify a destination domain name rather than an IP address; this is useful when the client itself cannot resolve the destination host's domain name to an IP address. It was proposed by Ying-Da Lee, the author of SOCKS4.
The client should set the first three bytes of DSTIP to NULL and the last byte to a non-zero value. (This corresponds to IP address 0.0.0.x, with x nonzero, an inadmissible destination address and thus should never occur if the client can resolve the domain name.) Following the NULL byte terminating USERID, the client must send the destination domain name and terminate it with another NULL byte. This is used for both "connect" and "bind" requests.
Client to SOCKS server:
SOCKS4_C SOCKS4 client handshake packet (above)
DOMAIN the domain name of the host to contact , null (0x00) terminated
Server to SOCKS client: (Same as SOCKS4)
A server using protocol SOCKS4a must check the DSTIP in the request packet. If it represents address 0.0.0.x with nonzero x, the server must read in the domain name that the client sends in the packet. The server should resolve the domain name and make connection to the destination host if it can.
SOCKS5
The SOCKS5 protocol is defined in . It is an incompatible extension of the SOCKS4 protocol; it offers more choices for authentication and adds support for IPv6 and UDP, the latter of which can be used for DNS lookups. The initial handshake consists of the following:
Client connects and sends a greeting, which includes a list of authentication methods supported.
Server chooses one of the methods (or sends a failure response if none of them are acceptable).
Several messages may now pass between the client and the server, depending on the authentication method chosen.
Client sends a connection request similar to SOCKS4.
Server responds similar to SOCKS4.
The initial greeting from the client is:
VER SOCKS version (0x05)
NAUTH Number of authentication methods supported, uint8
AUTH Authentication methods, 1 byte per method supported
The authentication methods supported are numbered as follows:
0x00: No authentication
0x01: GSSAPI (
0x02: Username/password ()
0x03–0x7F: methods assigned by IANA
0x03: Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol
0x04: Unassigned
0x05: Challenge-Response Authentication Method
0x06: Secure Sockets Layer
0x07: NDS Authentication
0x08: Multi-Authentication Framework
0x09: JSON Parameter Block
0x0A–0x7F: Unassigned
0x80–0xFE: methods reserved for private use
VER SOCKS version (0x05)
CAUTH chosen authentication method, or 0xFF if no acceptable methods were offered
The subsequent authentication is method-dependent. Username and password authentication (method 0x02) is described in :
VER 0x01 for current version of username/password authentication
IDLEN, ID Username length, uint8; username as bytestring
PWLEN, PW Password length, uint8; password as bytestring
VER 0x01 for current version of username/password authentication
STATUS 0x00 success, otherwise failure, connection must be closed
After authentication the connection can proceed. We first define an address datatype as:
TYPE type of the address. One of:
0x01: IPv4 address
0x03: Domain name
0x04: IPv6 address
ADDR the address data that follows. Depending on type:
4 bytes for IPv4 address
1 byte of name length followed by 1–255 bytes for the domain name
16 bytes for IPv6 address
VER SOCKS version (0x05)
CMD command code:
0x01: establish a TCP/IP stream connection
0x02: establish a TCP/IP port binding
0x03: associate a UDP port
RSV reserved, must be 0x00
DSTADDR destination address, see the address structure above.
DSTPORT port number in a network byte order
VER SOCKS version (0x05)
STATUS status code:
0x00: request granted
0x01: general failure
0x02: connection not allowed by ruleset
0x03: network unreachable
0x04: host unreachable
0x05: connection refused by destination host
0x06: TTL expired
0x07: command not supported / protocol error
0x08: address type not supported
RSV reserved, must be 0x00
BNDADDR server bound address (defined in ) in the "SOCKS5 address" format specified above
BNDPORT server bound port number in a network byte order
Since clients are allowed to use either resolved addresses or domain names, a convention from cURL exists to label the domain name variant of SOCKS5 "socks5h", and the other simply "socks5". A similar convention exists between SOCKS4a and SOCKS4.
Software
Servers
SOCKS proxy server implementations
Sun Java System Web Proxy Server is a caching proxy server running on Solaris, Linux and Windows servers that support HTTPS, NSAPI I/O filters, dynamic reconfiguration, SOCKSv5 and reverse proxy.
WinGate is a multi-protocol proxy server and SOCKS server for Microsoft Windows which supports SOCKS4, SOCKS4a and SOCKS5 (including UDP-ASSOCIATE and GSSAPI auth). It also supports handing over SOCKS connections to the HTTP proxy, so can cache and scan HTTP over SOCKS.
Socksgate5 SocksGate5 is an application-SOCKS firewall with inspection feature on Layer 7 of the OSI model, the Application Layer. Because packets are inspected at 7 OSI Level the application-SOCKS firewall may search for protocol non-compliance and blocking specified content.
Dante is a circuit-level SOCKS server that can be used to provide convenient and secure network connectivity, requiring only the host Dante runs on to have external network connectivity.
Other programs providing SOCKS server interface
OpenSSH allows dynamic creation of tunnels, specified via a subset of the SOCKS protocol, supporting the CONNECT command.
PuTTY is a Win32 SSH client that supports local creation of SOCKS (dynamic) tunnels through remote SSH servers.
ShimmerCat is a web server that uses SOCKS5 to simulate an internal network, allowing web developers to test their local sites without modifying their /etc/hosts file.
Tor is a system intended to enable online anonymity. Tor offers a TCP-only SOCKS server interface to its clients.
Shadowsocks is a circumvent censorship tool. It provides a SOCKS5 interface.
Clients
Client software must have native SOCKS support in order to connect through SOCKS. There are programs that allow users to circumvent such limitations:
Socksifiers
Socksifiers allow applications to access the networks to use a proxy without needing to support any proxy protocols. The most common way is to set up a virtual network adapter and appropriate routing tables to send traffic through the adapter.
Win2Socks, which enables applications to access the network through SOCKS5, HTTPS or Shadowsocks.
tun2socks, an open source tool that creates virtual TCP TUN adapters from a SOCKS proxy. Works on Linux and Windows, has a macOS port and a UDP-capable reimplementation in Golang.
proxychains, a Unix program that forces TCP traffic through SOCKS or HTTP proxies on (dynamically-linked) programs it launches. Works on various Unix-like systems.
Translating proxies
Polipo, a forwarding and caching HTTP/1.1 proxy server with IPv4 support. Open Source running on Linux, OpenWrt, Windows, Mac OS X, and FreeBSD. Almost any Web browser can use it.
Privoxy, a non-caching SOCKS-to-HTTP proxy.
Security
Due to lack of request and packets exchange encryption it makes SOCKS practically vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks and IP addresses eavesdropping which in consequence clears a way to censorship by governments.
References
External links
: SOCKS Protocol Version 5
: Username/Password Authentication for SOCKS V5
: GSS-API Authentication Method for SOCKS Version 5
: A SOCKS-based IPv6/IPv4 Gateway Mechanism
Draft-ietf-aft-socks-chap, Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol for SOCKS V5
SOCKS: A protocol for TCP proxy across firewalls, SOCKS Protocol Version 4 (NEC)
Internet protocols
Internet privacy software
Session layer protocols
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutt%20River%20%28New%20Zealand%29
|
Hutt River (New Zealand)
|
Te Awa Kairangi / Hutt River (Māori:Te Awa Kairangi, Te Awakairangi, Te Wai o Orutu or Heretaunga) flows through the southern North Island of New Zealand. It flows south-west from the southern Tararua Range for , forming a number of fertile floodplains, including Kaitoke, central Upper Hutt and Lower Hutt.
The Hutt River Trail, a regional park administered by Wellington Regional Council, runs alongside the eastern side of the river.
Course
The headwaters in the Kaitoke Regional Park are closed to preserve the quality of the drinking water drawn off at Kaitoke to supply the greater Wellington area. Below Kaitoke is the Kaitoke Gorge, a popular destination for rafting. Below the gorge is Te Mārua, where the Mangaroa River joins the Hutt from the east.
Further down, at Birchville, the Akatarawa River joins the Hutt from the west. Here it flows in a deep channel between the surrounding hills and is turned to flow across the Wellington Fault to Maoribank. The movement of the fault can be seen from the displacement of the river terraces in Harcourt Park.
At the top of the Upper Hutt floodplain, the river makes a sharp turn against the bedrock at the foot of the cliff at Maoribank to flow down the valley. The Upper Hutt floodplain contains the greater portion of Upper Hutt city. The Whakatiki River joins the Hutt from the west and it is about this point the river starts to flow along the virtually straight Wellington geologic fault, which lies on the western side of the river valley.
At the lower end of the Upper Hutt floodplain is Taita Gorge, which separates Upper Hutt from Lower Hutt; this gorge is significantly shorter and less constricting than Kaitoke Gorge. The river's outflow, at Petone, is into Wellington Harbour. The geological fault that the river previously followed continues as a steep bluff at the edge of the Wellington Harbour.
State Highway 2 follows the course of the river for most of its length, with the exception of the Kaitoke Gorge and the head waters, before crossing the Remutaka Range into the Wairarapa.
Bridges
Heading downstream:
Kaitoke Swingbridges, two footbridges in Kaitoke Regional Park.
Te Mārua Bridgem a demolished bridge.
Akatarawa Road Bridge, a two-lane road bridge opened in 1981 to replace a single-lane road bridge opened in 1915 and demolished in 1982. Abutments of the old bridge remain in the adjacent downstream riverbank and a pier footing remains in the river bed.
Akatarawa Bridge, the old Hutt County Council wooden truss bridge that crossed the river near the intersection of Rata Street and Birch Terrace with Akatarawa Road. The bridge was constructed in 1880-81 and closed in 1953. Piers were damaged by flooding and then demolished and removed from riverbed in 1998.
Hutt Borough Council Pipe Bridge was constructed adjacent to the Akatarawa Bridge in 1913 to carry the Hutt Borough Council water supply pipes until decommissioned in 1958. It was damaged by flooding, and demolished in 1998 at the same time as the Akatarawa Bridge.
Norbert Street Footbridge between California Park in Totara Park and Harcourt Park at the end of Norbert Street in Birchville.
Maoribank Suspension Bridge was built in 1917, crossing at the bend in the river at the foot of Maoribank Cliff. The bridge was demolished in 1998, after the cliffside pier was damaged by flooding, making the bridge unsafe.
Totara Park Bridge (Totara Park Road), a two-lane road bridge, opened about 1970 and provides access to the suburb of Totara Park.
Moonshine Bridge (River Road/SH 2), a curved two-lane road bridge, was opened in 1987 as part of the River Road bypass of Upper Hutt. It replaced a road bridge slightly upstream of the current bridge.
Silverstream Road Bridge (Fergusson Drive), a two-lane road bridge, carries a bulk water supply pipe, underslung on the north side, connecting Te Mārua water treatment plant with Porirua and Wellington City.
Silverstream Rail Bridge (Wairarapa Line), a double-track rail bridge, opened in 1954 to replace the 1875 single-track rail bridge around 500 metres further downstream.
Pomare Rail Bridge (Wairarapa Line), a double-track rail bridge, opened in 1954 as part of the Hutt Valley railway deviation.
Kennedy-Good Bridge (Fairway Drive), a two-lane road bridge, opened in 1979 and was the first bridge at this site. The bridge is named after the Mayor of Lower Hutt at the time.
Melling Bridge (Melling Link Road), a three-lane bridge opened 1957, with one eastbound lane and two westbound lanes. This is the second bridge at this site, the first being a one-lane suspension bridge opened in 1909, approximately 200 metres upstream.
New Ewen Bridge is a single span arch bridge carrying four traffic lanes of traffic and footways. It is the seventh bridge at this site and was opened in 1996. The preceding bridges, which crossed nearer to Bridge Street, upstream of the latest bridge, were opened in 1844, 1847, 1856, 1872, 1904 and 1929.
The Rail Bridge (Wairarapa Line) is a two-track rail bridge with pedestrian walkway. It was opened o 1927 with the then Hutt Valley Line to Waterloo.
Estuary Bridge (Waione Street) is a two-lane road bridge opened in 1954, that carries a bulk water supply pipe connecting Waterloo and Wainuiomata water treatment plants with Wellington City.
History
For most of its length, the Hutt is a shallow and sometimes braided river in a wide rocky bed, but in the Kaitoke gorge the river flows directly over bedrock, and approaching the mouth at Petone the river is narrower and the banks steeper. The larger populated areas in Upper Hutt and Lower Hutt are protected from flooding by stopbanks and introduced willow trees, as is common in New Zealand.
The Hutt has moved significantly since European settlement, due to a major earthquake in 1855 that raised the riverbed.
The regular flooding of Lower Hutt resulted in highly fertile land and prior to the building of state housing by the first Labour Government starting in 1937, there were many market gardens in Lower Hutt.
Well-established foot tracks along the river were formally signposted in the 1990s, through a collaboration between Wellington Regional Council, local Rotary International clubs, Hutt City Council, Upper Hutt City Council and other groups.
Recreation
The Hutt River Trail, a 29 kilometre cycling and walking route, follows the entire length of the river from Petone to Kaitoke Regional Park at Upper Hutt, linking up to Kaitoke Regional Park. Most of the track is gravel, but some is sealed or grass. Some low-lying parts of the track can be affected by flooding.
There are several spots for swimming, fishing and kayaking. The trail includes some filming locations for the Lord of the Rings film franchise.
The Lower Hutt Parkrun runs along the last section of the Hutt River from just north of the Ewen Bridge down to the Waione Bridge and back.
Naming
The official name since 2011 is Te Awa Kairangi / Hutt River. Early Māori residents, such as Ngāi Tara, called it Te Awa Kairangi. Later Māori settlers named it Te Wai o Orutu after Orutu, a Ngāti Mamoe ancestor. By the time European settlers arrived, Māori called it Heretaunga, a name adopted by an Upper Hutt suburb and secondary school.
The river was named Hutt after Sir William Hutt, chairman of the New Zealand Company. This name was given by Captain Edward Main Chaffers and Colonel William Wakefield while charting Port Nicholson in 1839.
Ecology
The river has a good stock of brown trout.
References
Lower Hutt
Upper Hutt
Rivers of the Wellington Region
Rivers of New Zealand
Regional parks of New Zealand
|
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