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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20rice
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Golden rice
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Golden Rice is a variety of rice (Oryza sativa) produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesize beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the edible parts of rice. It is intended to produce a fortified food to be grown and consumed in areas with a shortage of dietary vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency causes xerophthalmia, a range of eye conditions from night blindness to more severe clinical outcomes such as keratomalacia and corneal scars, and permanent blindness. It also increases risk of mortality from measles and diarrhea in children. In 2013, the prevalence of deficiency was the highest in sub-Saharan Africa (48%; 25–75), and South Asia (44%; 13–79).
Although golden rice has met significant opposition from environmental and anti-globalisation activists, more than 100 Nobel laureates in 2016 encouraged use of genetically modified golden rice which can produce up to 23 times as much beta-carotene as the original golden rice.
History
Research for development of golden rice began as a Rockefeller Foundation initiative in 1982.
In the 1990s, Peter Bramley discovered that a single phytoene desaturase gene (bacterial CrtI) can be used to produce lycopene from phytoene in GM tomato, rather than having to introduce multiple carotene desaturases that are normally used by higher plants. Lycopene is then cyclized to beta-carotene by the endogenous cyclase in golden rice. The scientific details of the rice were first published in 2000, the product of an eight-year project by Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg.
The first field trials of golden rice cultivars were conducted by Louisiana State University Agricultural Center in 2004. Additional trials were conducted in the Philippines and Taiwan, and in Bangladesh (2015). Field testing provided an accurate measurement of nutritional value and enabled feeding tests to be performed. Preliminary results from field tests showed field-grown golden rice produces 4 to 5 times more beta-carotene than golden rice grown under greenhouse conditions.
Crossbreeding
As of 2018, breeders at the Philippine Rice Research Institute, the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, and the Indonesian Centre for Rice Research were developing golden rice versions of existing rice varieties used with their local farmers, retaining the same yield, pest resistance, and grain qualities. Golden rice seeds may cost farmers the same as other rice varieties.
Approvals
In 2018, Canada and the United States approved golden rice for cultivation, with Health Canada and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) declaring it safe for consumption. This followed a 2016 decision where the FDA had ruled that the beta-carotene content in golden rice did not provide sufficient amounts of vitamin A for US markets. Health Canada declared that golden rice would not affect allergies, and that the nutrient contents were the same as in common rice varieties, except for the intended high levels of provitamin A.
In 2019, golden rice was approved for use as human food and animal feed or for processing in the Philippines. On 21 July 2021, the Philippines became the first country to officially issue the biosafety permit for commercially propagating vitamin A-infused golden rice. The approval came as the first commercial propagation authorisation of genetically engineered rice in South and Southeast Asia. As a result of the permission, golden rice can be grown on a commercial scale in accordance with the terms and conditions specified by the Philippines government.
Genetics
Golden rice was created by transforming rice with two beta-carotene biosynthesis genes:
psy (phytoene synthase) from daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus)
crtI (phytoene desaturase) from the soil bacterium Erwinia uredovora
(The insertion of a lcy (lycopene cyclase) gene was thought to be needed, but further research showed it is already produced in wild-type rice endosperm.)
The psy and crtI genes were transferred into the rice nuclear genome and placed under the control of an endosperm-specific promoter, so that they are only expressed in the endosperm. The exogenous lcy gene has a transit peptide sequence attached, so it is targeted to the plastid, where geranylgeranyl diphosphate is formed. The bacterial crtI gene was an important inclusion to complete the pathway, since it can catalyse multiple steps in the synthesis of carotenoids up to lycopene, while these steps require more than one enzyme in plants. The end product of the engineered pathway is lycopene, but if the plant accumulated lycopene, the rice would be red. Recent analysis has shown the plant's endogenous enzymes process the lycopene to beta-carotene in the endosperm, giving the rice the distinctive yellow colour for which it is named. The original golden rice was called SGR1, and under greenhouse conditions it produced 1.6 µg/g of carotenoids.
Golden Rice 2
In 2005, a team of researchers at Syngenta produced Golden Rice 2. They combined the phytoene synthase gene from maize with crt1 from the original golden rice. Golden Rice 2 produces 23 times more carotenoids than golden rice (up to 37 µg/g), and preferentially accumulates beta-carotene (up to 31 µg/g of the 37 µg/g of carotenoids).
Vitamin A deficiency
The research that led to Golden Rice was conducted with the goal of helping children who suffer from vitamin A deficiency (VAD). Estimates show that around 1.02 billion people are severely affected by micronutrient deficiencies globally, with vitamin A to be the most deficient nutrient in the body. In 2012, the World Health Organization reported that about 250 million preschool children are affected by VAD, and that providing those children with vitamin A could prevent about a third of all under-five deaths, which amounts to up to 2.7 million children that could be saved from dying unnecessarily. The World Health Organization has classified vitamin A deficiency as a public health problem affecting about one third of children aged 6 to 59 months in 2013, with the highest rates in sub-Saharan Africa (48 per cent) and South Asia (44 per cent).
VAS programs began in the 1990s in response to evidence demonstrating the association between VAD and increased childhood mortality. Between 1990 and 2013, more than 40 efficacy studies of VAS in children 6–59 months of age were conducted, and two systematic reviews and meta-analyses have concluded that VA supplements can considerably reduce mortality and morbidity during childhood. As of 2017, more than 80 countries worldwide are implementing universal VA supplementation (VAS) programs targeted to children 6–59 months of age through semi-annual national campaigns. Periodic, high-dose vitamin A supplementation is a proven, low-cost intervention which has been shown to reduce all-cause mortality by 12 to 24 per cent, and is therefore an important program in support of efforts to reduce child mortality. However, UNICEF and a number of NGOs involved in supplementation note more frequent low-dose supplementation is preferable.
As many children in VAD-affected countries rely on rice as a staple food, genetic modification to make rice produce the vitamin A precursor beta-carotene was seen as a simple and less expensive alternative to ongoing vitamin supplements or an increase in the consumption of green vegetables or animal products. Initial analyses of the potential nutritional benefits of golden rice suggested consumption of golden rice would not eliminate the problems of vitamin A deficiency, but could complement other supplementation. Golden Rice 2 contains sufficient provitamin A to provide the entire dietary requirement via daily consumption of some 75g per day.
Vitamin A deficiency is usually coupled to an unbalanced diet. Since carotenes are hydrophobic, sufficient fat must be present in the diet for golden rice (or most other vitamin A supplements) to alleviate vitamin A deficiency. Moreover, this claim referred to an early cultivar of Golden Rice; one bowl of the latest version provides 60% of RDA for healthy children. The RDA levels advocated in developed countries are far in excess of the amounts needed to prevent blindness.
Research
Clinical trials/food safety and nutrition research
In 2009, results of a clinical trial of golden rice with adult volunteers from the US were published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. The trial concluded that "beta-carotene derived from golden rice is effectively converted to vitamin A in humans". A summary for the American Society for Nutrition suggested that "Golden Rice could probably supply 50% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of vitamin A from a very modest amount – perhaps a cup – of rice, if consumed daily. This amount is well within the consumption habits of most young children and their mothers".
Beta-carotene is found and consumed in many nutritious foods eaten around the world, including fruits and vegetables. Beta-carotene in food is a safe source of vitamin A. In August 2012, Tufts University and others published research on golden rice in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition showing that the beta-carotene produced by golden rice is as effective as beta-carotene in oil at providing vitamin A to children. The study stated that "recruitment processes and protocol were approved". In 2015 the journal retracted the study, claiming that the researchers had acted unethically when providing Chinese children golden rice without their parents' consent.
A simulated analysis study by De Moura et al. (2016) suggests that beta carotene rice (i.e. Golden Rice) could improve vitamin A intake and could reduce the prevalence of vitamin A deficiency among women and children. The molecular-genetic characterisation of GR2E rice, including the assessment of potential toxic or allergic reaction to the newly expressed ZmPSY1 and CRTI proteins, when considered together with the comparative compositional assessment10, support the conclusion that food derived from rice varieties containing event GR2E is as safe as food derived from conventional rice varieties.
Controversy
Critics of genetically engineered crops have raised various concerns. An early issue was that Golden Rice originally did not have sufficient pro-vitamin A content. This problem was solved by the advancing of GR2E event. The speed at which beta-carotene degrades once the rice is harvested, and how much remains after cooking are contested. However, a 2009 study concluded that beta-carotene from golden rice is effectively converted into vitamin A in humans.
Greenpeace opposes the use of any patented genetically modified organisms in agriculture and opposes the cultivation of golden rice, claiming it will open the door to more widespread use of GMOs. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has emphasised the non-commercial nature of their project, stating that "None of the companies listed ... are involved in carrying out the research and development activities of IRRI or its partners in Golden Rice, and none of them will receive any royalty or payment from the marketing or selling of golden rice varieties developed by IRRI."
Vandana Shiva, an Indian anti-GMO activist, argued the problem was not the plant per se, but potential issues with loss of biodiversity. Shiva argued that golden rice proponents were obscuring the limited availability of diverse and nutritionally adequate food. Other groups argued that a varied diet containing foods rich in beta-carotene such as sweet potato, leaf vegetables and fruit would provide children with sufficient vitamin A. However, Keith West of Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health has said that foodstuffs containing vitamin A are often unavailable, only available at certain seasons, or are too expensive for poor families to obtain.
In 2008, WHO malnutrition expert Francesco Branca cited the lack of real-world studies and uncertainty about how many people will use golden rice, concluding "giving out supplements, fortifying existing foods with vitamin A, and teaching people to grow carrots or certain leafy vegetables are, for now, more promising ways to fight the problem". Author Michael Pollan, who had criticized the product in 2001, being unimpressed by the benefits, expressed support for the continuation of the research in 2013.
In 2012, controversy surrounded a study published in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. The study, involving feeding GM rice to 6 to 8 year old children in China, was later found to have violated human research rules of both Tufts University and the federal government. Subsequent reviews found no evidence of safety problems with the study, but found issues with insufficient consent forms, unapproved changes to study protocol, and lack of approval from a China-based ethics review board. Additionally, the GM rice used was brought into China illegally.
Support
The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation supports the use of genetically modified organisms in agricultural development and supports the International Rice Research Institute in developing golden rice. In June 2016, 107 Nobel laureates signed a letter urging Greenpeace and its supporters to abandon their campaign against GMOs, and against golden rice in particular.
In May 2018, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the use of golden rice for human consumption, stating: "Based on the information IRRI has presented to FDA, we have no further questions concerning human or animal food derived from GR2E rice at this time." This marks the fourth national health organisation to approve the use of golden rice in 2018, joining Australia, Canada and New Zealand who issued their assessments earlier in the year.
In December 2021, an opinion piece in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America called on regulators to "allow Golden Rice save lives", which the authors say has been delayed due to "fear and false accusations", leading to estimated 266'000 lives lost per year due to vitamin A deficiency.
Protests
On August 8, 2013, an experimental plot of Golden Rice being developed by IRRI and DA-PhilRice in Camarines Sur province of the Philippines was uprooted by protesters. British author Mark Lynas reported in Slate that the vandalism was carried out by a group of activists led by the extreme left-inclined Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas (KMP) (unofficial translation: Farmers' Movement of the Philippines), to the dismay of other protesters. No local farmers participated in the uprooting; only the small number of activists damaged the golden rice crops.
Distribution
A recommendation was made that golden rice be distributed free to subsistence farmers. Free licenses for developing countries were granted quickly due to the positive publicity that golden rice received, particularly in Time magazine in July 2000. Monsanto Company was one of the companies to grant free licences for related patents owned by the company. The cutoff between humanitarian and commercial use was set at US$10,000. Therefore, as long as a farmer or subsequent user of golden rice genetics would not make more than $10,000 per year, no royalties would need to be paid. In addition, farmers would be permitted to keep and replant seed.
See also
References
External links
The Philippines Rice Research Institute – Golden Rice Questions and Answers
Genetically modified organisms in agriculture
Rice varieties
pt:Arroz#Arroz dourado
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] |
246465
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setting
|
Setting
|
Setting may refer to:
A location (geography) where something is set
Set construction in theatrical scenery
Setting (narrative), the place and time in a work of narrative, especially fiction
Setting up to fail a manipulative technique to engineer failure
Stonesetting, in jewelry, when a diamond or gem is set into a frame or bed
Campaign setting in role playing play
In computers and electronics, the computer configuration or options of the software or device
Settings (Windows)
Typesetting
Set and setting, the context for psychedelic drug experiences
Setting (knot), the tightening of a knot
Musical setting, the composition of music for an existing text, usually in choral music
Education
Ability grouping, small groups formed within a single classroom
Tracking (education), also called streaming, separating pupils by academic ability into groups for all subjects within a school
The location where the education takes place, for example the classroom, known as the educational setting
See also
Set (disambiguation)
Setup (disambiguation)
|
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246469
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%20%28unit%29
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Maxwell (unit)
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The maxwell (symbol: Mx) is the CGS (centimetre–gram–second) unit of magnetic flux ().
History
The unit name honours James Clerk Maxwell, who presented a unified theory of electromagnetism. The maxwell was recommended as a CGS unit at the International Electrical Congress held in 1900 at Paris. This practical unit was previously called a line, reflecting Faraday's conception of the magnetic field as curved lines of magnetic force, which he designated as line of magnetic induction. Kiloline (103 line) and megaline (106 line) were sometimes used because 1 line was very small relative to the phenomena that it was used to measure.
The maxwell was affirmed again unanimously as the unit name for magnetic flux at the Plenary Meeting of the International Electrotechnical Commission in July 1930 at Oslo. In 1933, the Electric and Magnetic Magnitudes and Units committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission recommended to adopt the metre–kilogram–second (MKS) system (Giorgi system), and the name weber was proposed for the practical unit of magnetic flux (), subject to approval of various national committees, which was achieved in 1935. The weber was thus adopted as a practical unit of magnetic flux by the International Electrotechnical Commission.
Definition
The maxwell is a non-SI unit.
1 maxwell = 1 gauss × cm2
That is, one maxwell is the total flux across a surface of one square centimetre perpendicular to a magnetic field of strength one gauss.
The weber is the related SI unit of magnetic flux, which was defined in 1946.
1 maxwell ≘ 10−8 weber
See also
Centimetre–gram–second system of units
gauss (unit)
Gaussian units
James Clerk Maxwell
Maxwell's equations
Weber (unit)
References
Units of magnetic flux
Centimetre–gram–second system of units
James Clerk Maxwell
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crab-eating%20macaque
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Crab-eating macaque
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The crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis), also known as the long-tailed macaque and referred to as the cynomolgus monkey in laboratories, is a cercopithecine primate native to Southeast Asia. A species of macaque, the crab-eating macaque has a long history alongside humans; it has been alternately seen as an agricultural pest, sacred animal in some temples, and more recently, the subject of medical experiments.
The crab-eating macaque lives in matrilineal social groups of up to eight individuals dominated by females. Male members leave the group when they reach puberty. It is an opportunistic omnivore and has been documented using tools to obtain food in Thailand and Myanmar. The crab-eating macaque is a known invasive species and a threat to biodiversity in several locations, including Hong Kong and western New Guinea. The significant overlap in macaque and human living space has resulted in greater habitat loss, synanthropic living, and inter- and intraspecies conflicts over resources.
Etymology
Macaca comes from the Portuguese word macaco, which was derived from makaku, a word in Ibinda, a language of Central Africa (kaku means monkey in Ibinda). The specific epithet fascicularis is Latin for a small band or stripe. Sir Thomas Raffles, who gave the animal its scientific name in 1821, did not specify what he meant by the use of this word.
In Indonesia and Malaysia, M. fascicularis and other macaque species are known generically as kera, possibly because of their high-pitched cries.
The crab-eating macaque has several common names. It is often referred to as the long-tailed macaque due to its tail, which is often longer than its body. The name crab-eating macaque refers to its being often seen foraging beaches for crabs. Another common name for M. fascicularis is the cynomolgus monkey, from the name of a race of humans with long hair and handsome beards who used dogs for hunting according to Aristophanes of Byzantium, who seemingly derived the etymology of the word cynomolgus from the Greek κύων, cyon 'dog' (gen. cyno-s) and the verb ἀμέλγειν, amelgein 'to milk' (adj. amolg-os), by claiming that they milked female dogs. This name is commonly used in laboratory settings.
In Thailand, the species is called "ลิงแสม" (Ling s̄æm; literally 'mangrove monkeys') because it lives and forages in mangrove forests.
Taxonomy
The 10 subspecies of M. fascicularis are:
Common long-tailed macaque, M. f. fascicularis
Burmese long-tailed macaque, M. f. aurea
Nicobar long-tailed macaque, M. f. umbrosa
Dark-crowned long-tailed macaque, M. f. atriceps
Con Song long-tailed macaque, M. f. condorensis
Simeulue long-tailed macaque, M. f. fusca
Lasia long-tailed macaque, M. f. lasiae
Maratua long-tailed macaque, M. f. tua
Kemujan long-tailed macaque, M. f. karimondjawae
Philippine long-tailed macaque, M. f. philippensis
Physical characteristics
The body length of the adult, which varies among subspecies, is with relatively short arms and legs. Males are considerably larger than females, weighing compared to the of females. The tail is longer than the body, typically , which is used for balance when they jump distances up to . The upper parts of the body are dark brown with light golden brown tips. The under parts are light grey with a dark grey/brown tail. Crab-eating macaques have backwards-directed crown hairs which sometimes form short crests on the midline. Their skin is black on their feet and ears, whereas the skin on the muzzle is a light grayish pink color. The eyelids often have prominent white markings and sometimes there are white spots on the ears. Males have a characteristic mustache and cheek whiskers, while females have only cheek whiskers. Crab-eating macaques have a cheek pouch which they use to store food while foraging. Females show no perineal swelling.
Behavior
Group living
Macaques live in social groups that contain three to 20 females, their offspring, and one or many males. The groups usually have fewer males than females. In social groups of macaques, a clear dominance hierarchy is seen among females. These ranks remain stable throughout the female's lifetime and also can be sustained through generations of matrilines. Females have their highest birth rates around 10 years of age and completely stop bearing young by age 24.
The social groups of macaques are female-bonded, meaning the males will disperse at the time of puberty. Thus, group relatedness on average appears to be lower than compared to matrilines. More difference in relatedness occurs when comparing high-ranking lineages to lower ranking lineages, with higher-ranking individuals being more closely related to one another. Additionally, groups of dispersing males born into the same social groups display a range of relatedness, at times appearing to be brothers, while at other times appearing to be unrelated.
In addition to the matrilineal dominance hierarchy, male dominance rankings also exist. Alpha males have a higher frequency of mating compared to their lower-ranking conspecifics. The increased success is due partially to his increased access to females and also due to female preference of an alpha male during periods of maximum fertility. Though females have a preference for alpha males, they do display promiscuous behavior. Through this behavior, females risk helping to rear a nonalpha offspring, yet benefit in two specific ways, both in regard to aggressive behavior. First, a decreased value is placed on one single copulation. Moreover, the risk of infanticide is decreased due to the uncertainty of paternity.
Increasing group size leads to increased competition and energy spent trying to forage for resources, and in particular, food. Further, social tensions build and the prevalence of tension-reducing interactions like social grooming fall with larger groups. Thus, group living appears to be maintained solely due to the safety against predation.
Crab-eating macaques sometimes form mixed species groups with other primate species, including the southern pig-tailed macaque, dusky langur and white-thighed surili. They have been observed engaging in grooming with other primate species, including the southern pig-tailed macaque and leaf monkeys such as Raffles' banded langur and the dusty langur.
Conflict
Group living in all species is dependent on tolerance of other group members. In crab-eating macaques, successful social group living maintains postconflict resolution must occur. Usually, less dominant individuals lose to a higher-ranking individual when conflict arises. After the conflict has taken place, lower-ranking individuals tend to fear the winner of the conflict to a greater degree. In one study, this was seen by the ability to drink water together. Postconflict observations showed a staggered time between when the dominant individual begins to drink and the subordinate. Long-term studies reveal the gap in drinking time closes as the conflict moves further into the past.
Grooming and support in conflict among primates is considered to be an act of reciprocal altruism. In crab-eating macaques, an experiment was performed in which individuals were given the opportunity to groom one another under three conditions: after being groomed by the other, after grooming the other, and without prior grooming. After a grooming took place, the individual that received the grooming was much more likely to support its groomer than one that had not previously groomed that individual. These results support the reciprocal altruism theory of grooming in long-tailed macaques.
Crab-eating macaques demonstrate two of the three forms of suggested postconflict behavior. In both captive and wild studies, the monkeys demonstrated reconciliation, or an affiliative interaction between former opponents, and redirection, or acting aggressively towards a third individual. Consolation was not seen in any study performed.
Postconflict anxiety has been reported in crab-eating macaques that have acted as the aggressor. After a conflict within a group, the aggressor appears to scratch itself at a higher rate than before the conflict. Though the scratching behavior cannot definitely be termed as an anxious behavior, evidence suggests this is the case. An aggressor's scratching decreases significantly after reconciliation. This suggests reconciliation rather than a property of the conflict is the cause of reduction in scratching behavior. Though these results seem counterintuitive, the anxiety of the aggressor appears to have a basis in the risks of ruining cooperative relationships with the opponent.
Kin altruism and spite
In a study, a group of crab-eating macaques was given ownership of a food object. Unsurprisingly, adult females favored their own offspring by passively, yet preferentially, allowing them to feed on the objects they held. When juveniles were in possession of an object, mothers robbed them and acted aggressively at an increased rate towards their own offspring compared to other juveniles. These observations suggest close proximity influences behavior in ownership, as a mother's kin are closer to her on average. When given a nonfood object and two owners, one being a kin and one not, the rival will choose the older individual to attack regardless of kinship. Though the hypothesis remains that mother-juvenile relationships may facilitate social learning of ownership, the combined results clearly point to aggression towards the least-threatening individual.
A study was conducted in which food was given to 11 females. They were then given a choice to share the food with kin or nonkin. The kin altruism hypothesis suggests the mothers would preferentially give food to their own offspring. Yet eight of the 11 females did not discriminate between kin and nonkin. The remaining three did, in fact, give more food to their kin. The results suggest it was not kin selection, but instead spite that fueled feeding kin preferentially. This is due to the observation that food was given to kin for a significantly longer period of time than needed. The benefit to the mother is decreased due to less food availability for herself and the cost remains great for nonkin due to not receiving food. If these results are correct, crab-eating macaques are unique in the animal kingdom, as they appear not only to behave according to the kin selection theory, but also act spitefully toward one another.
Reproduction
After a gestation period of 162–193 days, the female gives birth to one infant. The infant's weight at birth is about . Infants are born with black fur which will begin to turn to a grey or reddish-brown shade (depending on the subspecies) after about three months of age. This natal coat may indicate to others the status of the infant, and other group members treat infants with care and rush to their defense when distressed. Immigrant males sometimes kill infants not their own in order to shorten interbirth intervals. High-ranking females will sometimes kidnap the infants of lower-ranking females. These kidnappings can result in the death of the infants, as the other female is usually not lactating. A young juvenile stays mainly with its mother and relatives. As male juveniles get older, they become more peripheral to the group. Here they play together, forming crucial bonds that may help them when they leave their natal group. Males that emigrate with a partner are more successful than those that leave alone. Young females, though, stay with the group and become incorporated into the matriline into which they were born.
Male crab-eating macaques groom females to increase the chance of mating. A female is more likely to engage in sexual activity with a male that has recently groomed her than with one that has not.
Diet
Despite its name, the crab-eating macaque typically does not consume crabs as its main food source; rather, it is an opportunistic omnivore, eating a variety of animals and plants. Although fruits and seeds make up 60 - 90% of its diet, it also eat leaves, flowers, roots, and bark. It sometimes preys on vertebrates including bird chicks, nesting female birds, lizards, frogs, and fish, invertebrates, and bird eggs. In Indonesia, it has become a proficient swimmer and diver for crabs and other crustaceans in mangrove swamps. In Bukit Timah, Singapore its diet consists of 44% fruit, 27% animal matter, 15% flowers and other plant matter, and 14% food provided by humans.
The crab-eating macaque exhibits particularly low tolerance for swallowing seeds. Despite its inability to digest seeds, many primates of similar size swallow large seeds, up to , and simply defecate them whole. The crab-eating macaque, though, spits seeds out if they are larger than . This decision to spit seeds is thought to be adaptive; it avoids filling the monkey's stomach with wasteful bulky seeds that cannot be used for energy. It also can help the plants by distributing seeds to new areas: Crab-eating macaques eat durians such as Durio graveolens and D. zibethinus, and are a major seed disperser for the latter species.
Although the crab-eating macaque is ecologically well-adapted and poses no threat to population stability of prey species in its native range, in areas where it is not native, it can pose a substantial threat to biodiversity. Some believe the crab-eating macaque is responsible for the extinction of forest birds by threatening critical breeding areas as well as eating the eggs and chicks of endangered forest birds.
The crab-eating macaque can become a synanthrope, living off human resources. It feeds in cultivated fields on young dry rice, cassava leaves, rubber fruit, taro plants, coconuts, mangos, and other crops, often causing significant losses to local farmers. In villages, towns, and cities, it frequently takes food from garbage cans and refuse piles. It can become unafraid of humans in these conditions, which can lead to macaques directly taking food from people, both passively and aggressively.
Tool use
In Thailand and Myanmar, crab-eating macaques use stone tools to open nuts, oysters and other bivalves, and various types of sea snails (nerites, muricids, trochids, etc.) along the Andaman sea coast and offshore islands.
Another instance of tool use is washing and rubbing foods such as sweet potatoes, cassava roots, and papaya leaves before consumption. Crab-eating macaques either soak these foods in water or rub them through their hands as if to clean them. They also peel the sweet potatoes, using their incisors and canine teeth. Adolescents appear to acquire these behaviors by observational learning of older individuals.
Distribution and habitat
The crab-eating macaque lives in a wide variety of habitats, including primary lowland rainforests, disturbed and secondary rainforests, shrubland, and riverine and coastal forests of nipa palm and mangrove. They also easily adjust to human settlements; they are considered sacred at some Hindu temples and on some small islands, but are pests around farms and villages. Typically, they prefer disturbed habitats and forest periphery. The native range of this species includes most of mainland Southeast Asia, from extreme southeastern Bangladesh south through Malaysia, and the Maritime Southeast Asia islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, offshore islands, the islands of the Philippines, and the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. This primate is a rare example of a terrestrial mammal that violates the Wallace line.
Introduced range
The crab-eating macaque is an introduced alien species in several countries, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia's Papua province, Papua New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Nauru, Vanuatu, Pohnpei, Anggaur Island in Palau, and Mauritius. This has led the Invasive Species Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature to list the crab-eating macaque as one of the "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species". In Mauritius, it is a threat for the endemic and endangered Roussea simplex, as it destroys its flowers.
Where it is not a native species, particularly on island ecosystems whose species often evolved in isolation from large predators, it is a documented threat to many native species. The immunovaccine porcine zona pellucida (PZP), which causes infertility in females, is currently being tested in Hong Kong to investigate its use as potential population control.
Relationship with humans
Crab-eating macaques extensively overlap with humans across their range in Southeast Asia. Consequently, they live together in many locations. Some of these areas are associated with religious sites and local customs, such as the temples of Bali in Indonesia, Thailand, and Cambodia, while other areas are characterized by conflict as a result of habitat loss and competition over food and space. Humans and crab-eating macaques have shared environments since prehistoric times, and both tend to frequent forest and river edge habitats. Crab-eating macaques are occasionally used as a food source for some indigenous forest-dwelling peoples. In Mauritius, they are captured and sold to the pharmaceutical industry, and in Angaur and Palau, they are sold as pets. Macaques feed on sugarcane and other crops, affecting agriculture and livelihoods, and can be aggressive towards humans. Macaques may carry potentially fatal human diseases, including herpes B virus.
The macaques have also developed a reputation for actively stealing items from humans (cameras, eyeglasses, hats, etc.), then refusing to return their stolen goods until given food in return. This unique form of kleptoparasitism (known as "robbing and bartering") has primarily been observed in smaller groups of macaques living near Hindu temples and tourist-heavy areas, suggesting it is a learned behaviour within social groups, in response to realizing that humans would trade food for their possessions back.
In scientific research
M. fascicularis is also used extensively in medical experiments, in particular those connected with neuroscience and disease. Due to their close physiology, they can share infections with humans. Some cases of concern have been an isolated event of Reston ebolavirus found in a captive-bred population shipped to the US from the Philippines, which was later found to be a strain of Ebola that has no known pathological consequences in humans, unlike the African strains. Furthermore, they are a known carrier of monkey B virus (Herpesvirus simiae), a virus which has produced disease in some lab workers working mainly with rhesus macaques (M. mulatta). Nafovanny, the largest facility for the captive breeding of nonhuman primates in the world, houses 30,000 macaques . Plasmodium knowlesi, which causes malaria in M. fascicularis, can also infect humans. A few cases have been documented in humans, but for how long humans have been getting infections of this malarial strain is unknown. It is, therefore, not possible to assess if this is a newly emerging health threat, or if just newly discovered due to improved malarial detection techniques. Given the long history of humans and macaques living together in Southeast Asia, it is likely the latter.
The use of crab-eating macaques and other nonhuman primates in experimentation is controversial with critics charging that the experiments are cruel, unnecessary and lead to dubious findings. One of the most well known examples of experiments on crab-eating macaques is the 1981 Silver Spring monkeys case.
In 2014, 21,768 crab-eating macaques were imported in the United States to be used in experimentation.
Conservation status
The crab-eating macaque has the third-largest range of any primate species, behind only humans and rhesus macaques. The IUCN Red List categorizes the species as Vulnerable, and CITES lists them as Appendix II ("not necessarily threatened with extinction", in which trade must be controlled to avoid use incompatible with their survival). Its IUCN status was changed from Least Concern in 2020 as a result of declining population resulting from hunting and troublesome interactions with humans, despite its wide range and ability to adapt to different habitats. A 2008 review of their populations suggests a need for better monitoring of populations due to increased wild trade and rising levels of human-macaque conflict, which are reducing overall population levels despite the species being widely distributed.
Each subspecies faces differing levels of threats, and too little information is available on some subspecies to assess their conditions. The M. f. umbrosa subspecies is likely of important biological significance and has been recommended as a candidate for protection in the Nicobar Islands, where its small, native population has been seriously fragmented, and is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. The Philippine long-tailed macaque (M. f. philippensis) is listed as near threatened, and M. f. condorensis is vulnerable. All other subspecies are listed as data deficient and need further study; although recent work is showing M. f. aurea and M. f. karimondjawae need increased protection. One concern for conservation is, in areas where M. fascicularis is not native, their populations need to be monitored and managed to reduce their impact on native flora and fauna.
Genome
The genome of the crab-eating macaque has been sequenced.
Clones
On 24 January 2018, scientists in China reported in the journal Cell the creation of two crab-eating macaque clones, named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, using the complex DNA transfer method that produced Dolly the sheep. This makes Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua the first primates to be cloned using the somatic cell nuclear transfer method.
See also
Maggie the Macaque
Prostitution among animals
References
External links
Bonadio, C. 2000. "Macaca fascicularis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 10, 2006.
Primate Info Net Macaca fascicularis Factsheet
ISSG Database: Ecology of Macaca fascicularis
Primate Info Net: Macaca fascicularis
BBC Factfile on M. fascicularis
"Conditions at Nafovanny", video produced by the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection following an undercover investigation at a captive-breeding facility for long-tailed macaques in Vietnam.
crab-eating macaque
Primates of Southeast Asia
Mammals of Oceania
Crab-eating macaque
Mammals of Bangladesh
Mammals of Borneo
Mammals of Brunei
Mammals of Myanmar
Mammals of Cambodia
Mammals of Timor
Mammals of Indonesia
Mammals of Laos
Mammals of Malaysia
Mammals of the Philippines
Mammals of Singapore
Mammals of Thailand
Mammals of Vietnam
Mammals of Fiji
Mammals of Samoa
Mammals of Tonga
Crab-eating macaque
Crab-eating macaque
Crab-eating macaque
Articles containing video clips
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch%20butterfly
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Monarch butterfly
|
The monarch butterfly or simply monarch (Danaus plexippus) is a milkweed butterfly (subfamily Danainae) in the family Nymphalidae. Other common names, depending on region, include milkweed, common tiger, wanderer, and black-veined brown. It may be the most familiar North American butterfly, and often is considered an iconic pollinator species, although it is not an especially effective pollinator of milkweeds. Its wings feature an easily recognizable black, orange, and white pattern, with a wingspan of A Müllerian mimic, the viceroy butterfly, is similar in color and pattern, but is markedly smaller and has an extra black stripe across each hindwing.
The eastern North American monarch population is notable for its annual southward late-summer/autumn instinctive migration from the northern and central United States and southern Canada to Florida and Mexico. During the fall migration, monarchs cover thousands of miles, with a corresponding multigenerational return north. The western North American population of monarchs west of the Rocky Mountains often migrates to sites in southern California, but has been found in overwintering Mexican sites, as well. In 2009, monarchs were reared on the International Space Station, successfully emerging from pupae located in the station's Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus.
Taxonomy
The name "monarch" is believed to have been given in honor of King William III of England, as the butterfly's main color is that of the king's secondary title, Prince of Orange. The monarch was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758 and placed in the genus Papilio. In 1780, Jan Krzysztof Kluk used the monarch as the type species for a new genus, Danaus.
Danaus (Ancient Greek ), a great-grandson of Zeus, was a mythical king in Egypt or Libya, who founded Argos; Plexippus () was one of the 50 sons of Aegyptus, the twin brother of Danaus. In Homeric Greek, his name means "one who urges on horses", i.e., "rider" or "charioteer". In the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, at the bottom of page 467, Linnaeus wrote that the names of the Danai festivi, the division of the genus to which Papilio plexippus belonged, were derived from the sons of Aegyptus. Linnaeus divided his large genus Papilio, containing all known butterfly species, into what we would now call subgenera. The Danai festivi formed one of the "subgenera", containing colorful species, as opposed to the Danai candidi, containing species with bright white wings. Linnaeus wrote: "" (English: "The names of the Danai candidi have been derived from the daughters of Danaus, those of the Danai festivi from the sons of Aegyptus.")
Robert Michael Pyle suggested Danaus is a masculinized version of Danaë (Greek ), Danaus's great-great-granddaughter, to whom Zeus came as a shower of gold, which seemed to him a more appropriate source for the name of this butterfly.
The three species of monarch butterflies are:
D. plexippus, described by Linnaeus in 1758, is the species known most commonly as the monarch butterfly of North America. Its range actually extends worldwide and can be found in Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, Spain, and the Pacific Islands.
D. erippus, the southern monarch, was described by Pieter Cramer in 1775. This species is found in tropical and subtropical latitudes of South America, mainly in Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and southern Peru. The South American monarch and the North American monarch may have been one species at one time. Some researchers believe the southern monarch separated from the monarch's population some 2 million years ago, at the end of the Pliocene. Sea levels were higher, and the entire Amazonas lowland was a vast expanse of brackish swamp that offered limited butterfly habitat.
D. cleophile, the Jamaican monarch, described by Jean-Baptiste Godart in 1819, ranges from Jamaica to Hispaniola.
Six subspecies and two color morphs of D. plexippus have been identified:
D. p. plexippus – nominate subspecies, described by Linnaeus in 1758, is the migratory subspecies known from most of North America.
D. p. p. form nivosus, the white monarch commonly found on Oahu, Hawaii, and rarely in other locations.
D. p. p. (as yet unnamed) – a color morph lacking some wing vein markings.
D. p. nigrippus (Richard Haensch, 1909) – as forma: Danais archippus f. nigrippus. Hay-Roe et al. in 2007 identified this taxon as a subspecies:
D. p. megalippe (Jacob Hübner, [1826]) – nonmigratory subspecies, and is found from Florida and Georgia southwards, throughout the Caribbean and Central America to the Amazon River.
D. p. leucogyne (Arthur G. Butler, 1884) − St. Thomas
D. p. portoricensis Austin Hobart Clark, 1941 − Puerto Rico
D. p. tobagi Austin Hobart Clark, 1941 − Tobago
The population level of the white morph in Oahu is nearing 10%. On other Hawaiian islands, the white morph occurs at a relatively low frequency. White monarchs (D. p. p. nivosus) have been found throughout the world, including Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, and the United States. However, some taxonomists disagree on these classifications.
Monarchs belong in the subfamily Danainae of the family Nymphalidae. Danainae was formerly considered a separately family Danaidae.
Genome
The monarch was the first butterfly to have its genome sequenced. The 273-million-base pair draft sequence includes a set of 16,866 protein-coding genes. The genome provides researchers insights into migratory behavior, the circadian clock, juvenile hormone pathways, and microRNAs that are differentially expressed between summer and migratory monarchs. More recently, the genetic basis of monarch migration and warning coloration has been described.
No genetic differentiation exists between the migratory populations of eastern and western North America. Recent research has identified the specific areas in the genome of the monarch that regulate migration. No genetic difference is seen between a migrating and nonmigrating monarch, but the gene is expressed in migrating monarchs, but not expressed in nonmigrating monarchs.
A 2015 publication identified genes from wasp bracoviruses in the genome of the North American monarch leading to articles about monarch butterflies being genetically modified organisms.
Life cycle
Metamorphosis
Like all Lepidoptera, monarchs undergo complete metamorphosis; their life cycle has four phases: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Monarchs transition from eggs to adults during warm summer temperatures in as little as 25 days, extending to as many as seven weeks during cool spring conditions. During their development, both larvae and their milkweed hosts are vulnerable to weather extremes, predators, parasites, and diseases; commonly fewer than 10% of monarch eggs and caterpillars survive.
Egg
The egg is derived from materials ingested as a larva and from the spermatophores received from males during mating. Female monarchs lay eggs singly, most often on the underside of a young leaf of a milkweed plant during the spring and summer. Females secrete a small amount of glue to attach their eggs directly to the plant. They typically lay 300 to 500 eggs over a two- to five-week period.
Eggs are cream colored or light green, ovate to conical in shape, and about 1.2×0.9 mm in size. The eggs weigh less than 0.5 mg each and have raised ridges that form longitudinally from the point to apex to the base. Although each egg is the mass of the female, she may lay up to her own mass in eggs. Females lay smaller eggs as they age. Larger females lay larger eggs. The number of eggs laid by a female, which may mate several times, can reach 1,180.
Eggs take three to eight days to develop and hatch into larvae or caterpillars. The offspring's consumption of milkweed benefits health and helps defend them against predators. Monarchs lay eggs along the southern migration route.
Larva
The larva (caterpillar) has five stages (instars), molting at the end of each instar. Instars last about 3 to 5 days, depending on factors such as temperature and food availability.
The first-instar caterpillar that emerges from the egg is pale green or grayish-white, shiny, and almost translucent, with a large, black head. It lacks banding coloration or tentacles. The larvae or caterpillar eats its egg case and begins to feed on milkweed with a circular motion, often leaving a characteristic, arc-shaped hole in the leaf. Older first-instar larvae have dark stripes on a greenish background and develop small bumps that later become front tentacles. The first instar is usually between 2 and 6 mm long.
The second-instar larva develops a characteristic pattern of white, yellow, and black transverse bands. The larva has a yellow triangle on the head and two sets of yellow bands around this central triangle. It is no longer translucent, and is covered in short setae. Pairs of black tentacles begin to grow, a larger pair on the thorax and a smaller pair on the abdomen. The second instar is usually between 6 mm and 1 cm long.
The third-instar larva has more distinct bands and the two pairs of tentacles become longer. Legs on the thorax differentiate into a smaller pair near the head and larger pairs further back. Third-instar larvae usually feed using a cutting motion on leaf edges. The third instar is usually between 1 and 1.5 cm long.
The fourth-instar larva has a different banding pattern. It develops white spots on the prolegs near its back, and is usually between 1.5 and 2.5 cm long.
The fifth-instar larva has a more complex banding pattern and white dots on the prolegs, with front legs that are small and very close to the head. Fifth-instar larvae often chew a shallow notch in the petiole of the leaf they are eating, which causes the leaf to fall into a vertical position. Its length ranges from 2.5 to 4.5 cm.
As the caterpillar completes its growth, it is 4.5 cm long (large specimens can reach 5 cm) and 7 to 8 mm wide, and weighs about 1.5 g, compared to the first instar, which was 2 to 6 mm long and 0.5 to 1.5 mm wide. Fifth-instar larvae greatly increase in size and weight. They then stop feeding and are often found far from milkweed plants as they seek a site for pupating.
In a laboratory setting, the fourth- and fifth-instar stages of the caterpillar showed signs of aggressive behavior with lower food availability. Attacked caterpillars were found to be attacked when it was feeding on milkweed leaves, and the caterpillars attacked when foraging for milkweed. This demonstrates the aggressive behavior of monarch caterpillars due to the availability of milkweed.
Pupa
To prepare for the pupal or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar chooses a safe place for pupation, where it spins a silk pad on a downward-facing horizontal surface. At this point, it turns around and securely latches on with its last pair of hindlegs and hangs upside down, in the form of the letter J. After "J-hanging" for about 12–16 hours, it suddenly straightens out its body and goes into peristalsis some seconds before its skin splits behind its head. It then sheds its skin over a period of a few minutes, revealing a green chrysalis. At first, the chrysalis is long, soft, and somewhat amorphous, but over a few hours, it compacts into its distinct shape – an opaque, pale-green chrysalis with small golden dots near the bottom, and a gold-and-black rim around the dorsal side near the top. At first, its exoskeleton is soft and fragile, but it hardens and becomes more durable within about a day. At this point, it is about 2.5 cm (1 in) long and 10–12 mm (– in) wide, weighing about 1.2 g. At normal summer temperatures, it matures in 8–15 days (usually 11–12 days). During this pupal stage, the adult butterfly forms inside. A day or so before emerging, the exoskeleton first becomes translucent and the chrysalis more bluish. Finally, within 12 hours or so, it becomes transparent, revealing the black and orange colors of the butterfly inside before it ecloses (emerges).
Adult
The adult emerges from its chrysalis after about two weeks of pupation. The emergent adult hangs upside down for several hours while it pumps fluids and air into its wings, which expand, dry, and stiffen. The butterfly then extends and retracts its wings. Once conditions allow, it flies and feeds on a variety of nectar plants. During the breeding season, adults reach sexual maturity in 4–5 days. However, the migrating generation does not reach maturity until overwintering is complete.
The adult's wingspan ranges from . The upper sides of the wings are tawny orange, the veins and margins are black, and two series of small white spots occur in the margins. Monarch forewings also have a few orange spots near their tips. Wing undersides are similar, but the tips of forewings and hindwings are yellow brown instead of tawny orange and the white spots are larger. The shape and color of the wings change at the beginning of the migration and appear redder and more elongated than later migrants. Wings size and shape differ between migratory and nonmigratory monarchs. Monarchs from eastern North America have larger and more angular forewings than those in the western population.
In eastern North American populations, overall wing size in the physical dimensions of wings varies. Males tend to have larger wings than females, and are typically heavier than females. Both males and females have similar thoracic dimensions. Female monarchs tended to have thicker wings, which is thought to convey greater tensile strength and reduce the likelihood of being damaged during migration. Additionally, females had lower wing loading than males, which would mean females require less energy to fly.
Adults are sexually dimorphic. Males are slightly larger than females and have a black spot on a vein on each hindwing. The spots contain scales that produce pheromones that many Lepidoptera use during courtship. Females are often darker than males and have wider veins on their wings. The ends of the abdomens of males and females differ in shape.
The adult's thorax has six legs, but as in all of the Nymphalidae, the forelegs are small and held against the body. The butterfly uses only its middle and hindlegs when walking and clinging.
Adults typically live for 2–5 weeks during their breeding season. Larvae growing in high densities are smaller, have lower survival, and weigh less as adults compared with those growing in lower densities.
Vision
Physiological experiments suggest that monarch butterflies view the world through a tetrachromatic system. Like humans, their retina contain three types of opsin proteins, expressed in distinct photoreceptor cells, each of which absorbs light at a different wavelength. Unlike humans, one of those types of photoreceptor cells corresponds to a wavelength in the ultraviolet range; the other two correspond to blue and green.
In addition to these three photoreceptors cells in the main retina, monarch butterfly eyes contain orange filtering pigments that filter the light reaching some green-absorbing opsins, thereby making a fourth photoreceptor cell sensitive to longer-wavelength light. The combination of filtered and unfiltered green opsins permits the butterflies to distinguish yellow from orange colors. The ultraviolet opsin protein has also been detected in the dorsal rim region of monarch eyes. One study suggests that this allows the butterflies the ability to detect ultraviolet polarized skylight to orient themselves with the sun for their long migratory flight.
These butterflies are capable of distinguishing colors based on their wavelength only, and not based on intensity; this phenomenon is termed "true color vision". This is important for many butterfly behaviors, including seeking nectar for nourishment, choosing a mate, and finding milkweed on which to lay eggs. One study found that floral color is more easily recognized at a distance by butterflies searching for nectar than floral shape. This may be because flowers have highly contrasting colors to the green background of a vegetative landscape. On the other hand, leaf shape is important for oviposition so that the butterflies can ensure their eggs are being laid on milkweed.
Beyond the perception of color, the ability to remember certain colors is essential in the life of monarch butterflies. These insects can easily learn to associate color, and to a lesser extent, shape, with sugary food rewards. When searching for nectar, color is the first cue that draws the insect's attention toward a potential food source, and shape is a secondary characteristic that promotes the process. When searching for a place to lay its eggs, the roles of color and shape are switched. Also, a difference may exist between male and female butterflies from other species in terms of the ability to learn certain colors; however, no differences is noted between the sexes for monarch butterflies.
Courtship and mating
Monarch courtship occurs in two phases. During the aerial phase, a male pursues and often forces a female to the ground. During the ground phase, the butterflies copulate and remain attached for about 30 to 60 minutes. Only 30% of mating attempts end in copulation, suggesting that females may be able to avoid mating, though some have more success than others. During copulation, a male transfers his spermatophore to a female. Along with sperm, the spermatophore provides a female with nutrition, which aids her in laying eggs. An increase in spermatophore size increases the fecundity of female monarchs. Males that produce larger spermatophores also fertilize more females' eggs.
Females and males typically mate more than once. Females that mate several times lay more eggs. Mating for the overwintering populations occurs in the spring, prior to dispersion. Mating is less dependent on pheromones than other species in its genus. Male search and capture strategies may influence copulatory success, and human-induced changes to the habitat can influence monarch mating activity at overwintering sites.
Distribution and habitat
The range of the western and eastern populations of D. p. plexippus expands and contracts depending upon the season. The range differs between breeding areas, migration routes, and winter roosts. However, no genetic differences between the western and eastern monarch populations exist; reproductive isolation has not led to subspeciation of these populations, as it has elsewhere within the species' range.
In the Americas, the monarch ranges from southern Canada through northern South America. It has also been found in Bermuda, Cook Islands, Hawaii, Cuba, and other Caribbean islands the Solomons, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Australia, the Azores, the Canary Islands, Madeira, continental Portugal, Gibraltar, the Philippines, and Morocco. It appears in the UK in some years as an accidental migrant.
Overwintering populations of D. p. plexippus are found in Mexico, California, along the Gulf Coast of the United States, year-round in Florida, and in Arizona where the habitat has the specific conditions necessary for their survival. On the East Coast of the United States, they have overwintered as far north as Lago Mar, Virginia Beach, Virginia. Their wintering habitat typically provides access to streams, plenty of sunlight (enabling body temperatures that allow flight), and appropriate roosting vegetation, and is relatively free of predators.
Overwintering, roosting butterflies have been seen on basswoods, elms, sumacs, locusts, oaks, osage-oranges, mulberries, pecans, willows, cottonwoods, and mesquites. While breeding, monarch habitats can be found in agricultural fields, pasture land, prairie remnants, urban and suburban residential areas, gardens, trees, and roadsides – anywhere where there is access to larval host plants.
Larval host plants
The host plants used by the monarch caterpillar include:
Asclepias angustifolia – Arizona milkweed
Asclepias asperula – antelope horns milkweed
Asclepias californica – California milkweed
Asclepias cordifolia – heartleaf milkweed
Asclepias curassavica
Asclepias eriocarpa – woolly pod milkweed
Asclepias erosa – desert milkweed
Asclepias exaltata – poke milkweed
Asclepias fascicularis – Mexican whorled milkweed
Asclepias humistrata – sandhill/pinewoods milkweed
Asclepias incarnata – swamp milkweed
Asclepias nivea – Caribbean milkweed
Asclepias oenotheroide – zizotes milkweed
Asclepias perennis – aquatic milkweed
Asclepias speciosa – showy milkweed
Asclepias subulata – rush milkweed
Asclepias syriaca – common milkweed
Asclepias tuberosa – butterfly weed
Asclepias variegata – white milkweed
Asclepias verticillata – whorled milkweed
Asclepias vestita – woolly milkweed
Asclepias viridis – green antelopehorn milkweed
Calotropis gigantea – crown flower
Calotropis procera
Cynanchum laeve – sand vine milkweed
Sarcostemma clausa – white vine
Asclepias curassavica, or tropical milkweed, is often planted as an ornamental in butterfly gardens. Year-round plantings in the USA are controversial and criticised, as they may be the cause of new overwintering sites along the U.S. Gulf Coast, leading to year-round breeding of monarchs. This is thought to adversely affect migration patterns, and to cause a dramatic buildup of the dangerous parasite, Ophryocystis elektroscirrha. New research also has shown that monarch larvae reared on tropical milkweed show reduced migratory development (reproductive diapause), and when migratory adults are exposed to tropical milkweed, it stimulates reproductive tissue growth.
Adult food sources
Although larvae eat only milkweed, adult monarchs feed on the nectar of many plants, including:
Apocynum cannabinum – Indian hemp
Asclepias spp. – milkweeds
Aster sp. – asters
Cirsium sp. – thistles
Daucus carota – wild carrot
Dipsacus sylvestris – teasel
Echinacea sp. – coneflowers
Erigeron canadensis – horseweed
Eupatorium maculatum – spotted Joe-Pye weed
Eupatorium perfoliatum – common boneset
Hesperis matronalis – dame's rocket
Liatris sp. – blazing stars
Medicago sativa – alfalfa
Solidago sp. – goldenrod
Syringa vulgaris – lilac
Trifolium pratense – red clover
Vernonia altissima – tall ironweed
Monarchs obtain moisture and minerals from damp soil and wet gravel, a behavior known as mud-puddling. The monarch has also been noticed puddling at an oil stain on pavement.
Flight and migration
In North America, monarchs migrate both north and south on an annual basis, in a long-distance journey that is fraught with risks. This is a multi-generational migration, with individual monarchs only making part of the full journey. The population east of the Rocky Mountains attempts to migrate to the sanctuaries of the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reserve in the Mexican state of Michoacán and parts of Florida. The western population tries to reach overwintering destinations in various coastal sites in central and southern California. The overwintered population of those east of the Rockies may reach as far north as Texas and Oklahoma during the spring migration. The second, third, and fourth generations return to their northern locations in the United States and Canada in the spring.
Captive-raised monarchs appear capable of migrating to overwintering sites in Mexico, though they have a much lower migratory success rate than do wild monarchs (see section on captive-rearing below). Monarch overwintering sites have been discovered recently in Arizona. Monarchs from the eastern US generally migrate longer distances than monarchs from the western US.
Since the 1800s, monarchs have spread throughout the world, and there are now many non-migratory populations globally.
Flight speeds of adults are around .
Interactions with predators
In both caterpillar and butterfly form, monarchs are aposematic, warding off predators with a bright display of contrasting colors to warn potential predators of their undesirable taste and poisonous characteristics. One monarch researcher emphasizes that predation on eggs, larvae or adults is natural, since monarchs are part of the food chain, thus people should not take steps to kill predators of monarchs.
Larvae feed exclusively on milkweed and consume protective cardiac glycosides. Toxin levels in Asclepias species vary. Not all monarchs are unpalatable, but exhibit Batesian or automimics. Cardiac glycosides levels are higher in the abdomen and wings. Some predators can differentiate between these parts and consume the most palatable ones.
Butterfly weed (A. tuberosa) lacks significant amounts of cardiac glycosides (cardenolides), but instead contains other types of toxic glycosides, including pregnanes. This difference may reduce the toxicity of monarchs whose larvae feed on that milkweed species, as a naturalist and others have reported that monarch caterpillars do not favor the plant. Some other milkweeds have similar characteristics.
Types of predators
While monarchs have a wide range of natural predators, none of these is suspected of causing harm to the overall population, or are the cause of the long-term declines in winter colony sizes.
Several species of birds have acquired methods that allow them to ingest monarchs without experiencing the ill effects associated with the cardiac glycosides (cardenolides). The black-backed oriole is able to eat the monarch through an exaptation of its feeding behavior that gives it the ability to identify cardenolides by taste and reject them. The black-headed grosbeak, though, has developed an insensitivity to secondary plant poisons that allows it to ingest monarchs without vomiting. As a result, these orioles and grosbeaks periodically have high levels of cardenolides in their bodies, and they are forced to go on periods of reduced monarch consumption. This cycle effectively reduces potential predation of monarchs by 50% and indicates that monarch aposematism has a legitimate purpose. The black-headed grosbeak has also evolved resistance mutations in the molecular target of the heart poisons, the sodium pump. The specific mutations that evolved in one of the grosbeak's four copies of the sodium pump gene are the same as those found in other milkweed butterflies like the common crow that also evolved to resist cardiac glycosides. Other bird predators include brown thrashers, grackles, robins, cardinals, sparrows, scrub jays, and pinyon jays.
The monarch's white morph appeared in Oahu after the 1965-1966 introduction of two bulbul bird species, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus jocosus. These are now the most common avian insectivores in Hawaii, and probably the only ones that eat insects as large as monarchs. Although Hawaiian monarchs have low cardiac glycoside levels, the birds may also be tolerant of that toxin. The two species hunt the larvae and some pupae from the branches and undersides of leaves in milkweed bushes. The bulbuls also eat resting and ovipositing adults, but rarely flying ones. Because of its color, the white morph has a higher survival rate than the orange one. This is either because of apostatic selection (i.e., the birds have learned the orange monarchs can be eaten), because of camouflage (the white morph matches the white pubescence of milkweed or the patches of light shining through foliage), or because the white morph does not fit the bird's search image of a typical monarch, so is thus avoided.
Some mice, particularly the black-eared mouse (Peromyscus melanotis), are, like all rodents, able to tolerate large doses of cardenolides and are able to eat monarchs. Overwintering adults become less toxic over time making them more vulnerable to predators. In Mexico, about 14% of the overwintering monarchs are eaten by birds and mice and black-eared mice can eat up to 40 monarchs per night.
In North America, eggs and first-instar larvae of the monarch are eaten by larvae and adults of the introduced Asian lady beetle (Harmonia axyridis). The Chinese mantis (Tenodera sinensis) will consume the larvae once the gut is removed thus avoiding cardenolides. Predatory wasps commonly consume larvae, though large larvae may avoid wasp predation by dropping from the plant or by jerking their bodies.
Aposematism
Monarchs are toxic and foul-tasting because of the presence of cardenolides in their bodies, which the caterpillars ingest as they feed on milkweed. Monarchs and other cardenolide-resistant insects rely on a resistant form of the Na+/ K+-ATPase enzyme to tolerate significantly higher concentrations of cardenolides than nonresistant species. By ingesting a large amount of plants in the genus Asclepias, primarily milkweed, monarch caterpillars are able to sequester cardiac glycosides, or more specifically cardenolides, which are steroids that act in heart-arresting ways similar to digitalis. It has been found that monarchs are able to sequester cardenolides most effectively from plants of intermediate cardenolide content rather than those of high or low content. Three mutations that evolved in the monarch's Na+/ K+-ATPase were found to be sufficient together to confer resistance to dietary cardiac glycosides. This was tested by swapping these mutations into the same gene in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster using CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing. These fruit flies-turned monarch flies were completely resistant to dietary ouabain, a cardiac glycoside found in Apocynaceae, and even sequestered some through metamorphosis, like the monarch.
Different species of milkweed have different effects on growth, virulence, and transmission of parasites. One species, Asclepias curassavica, appears to reduce the symptoms of Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE) infection. The two possible explanations for this include that it promotes overall monarch health to boost the monarch's immune system or that chemicals from the plant have a direct negative effect on the OE parasites. A. curassavica does not cure or prevent the infection with OE; it merely allows infected monarchs to live longer, and this would allow infected monarchs to spread the OE spores for longer periods. For the average home butterfly garden, this scenario only adds more OE to the local population.
After the caterpillar becomes a butterfly, the toxins shift to different parts of the body. Since many birds attack the wings of the butterfly, having three times the cardiac glycosides in the wings leaves predators with a very foul taste and may prevent them from ever ingesting the body of the butterfly. To combat predators that remove the wings only to ingest the abdomen, monarchs keep the most potent cardiac glycosides in their abdomens.
Mimicry
Monarchs share the defense of noxious taste with the similar-appearing viceroy butterfly in what is perhaps one of the most well-known examples of mimicry. Though long purported to be an example of Batesian mimicry, the viceroy is actually reportedly more unpalatable than the monarch, making this a case of Müllerian mimicry.
Human interaction
The monarch is the state insect of Alabama, Idaho, Illinois, Minnesota, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia. Legislation was introduced to make it the national insect of the United States, but this failed in 1989 and again in 1991.
Homeowners are increasingly establishing butterfly gardens; monarchs can be attracted by cultivating a butterfly garden with specific milkweed species and nectar plants. Efforts are underway to establish these monarch waystations.
An IMAX film, Flight of the Butterflies, describes the story of the Urquharts, Brugger, and Trail to document the then-unknown monarch migration to Mexican overwintering areas.
Sanctuaries and reserves have been created at overwintering locations in Mexico and California to limit habitat destruction. These sites can generate significant tourism revenue.
However, with less tourism, monarch butterflies will have a higher survival rate because they show more protein content and a higher value of immune response and oxidative defense.
Organizations and individuals participate in tagging programs. Tagging information is used to study migration patterns.
The 2012 novel by Barbara Kingsolver, Flight Behavior, deals with the appearance of a large population in the Appalachians.
Captive rearing
Humans interact with monarchs when rearing them in captivity, which has become increasingly popular. However, risks occur in this controversial activity. On one hand, captive rearing has many positive aspects. Monarchs are bred in schools and used for butterfly releases at hospices, memorial events, and weddings. Memorial services for the September 11 attacks include the release of captive-bred monarchs. Monarchs are used in schools and nature centers for educational purposes. Many homeowners raise monarchs in captivity as a hobby and for educational purposes.
On the other hand, this practice becomes problematic when monarchs are "mass-reared". Stories in the Huffington Post in 2015 and Discover magazine in 2016 have summarized the controversy around this issue.
The frequent media reports of monarch declines have encouraged many homeowners to attempt to rear as many monarchs as possible in their homes and then release them to the wild in an effort to "boost the monarch population". Some individuals, such as one in Linn County, Iowa, have reared thousands of monarchs at the same time.
Some monarch scientists do not condone the practice of rearing "large" numbers of monarchs in captivity for release into the wild because of the risks of genetic issues and disease spread. One of the biggest concerns of mass rearing is the potential for spreading the monarch parasite, Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, into the wild. This parasite can rapidly build up in captive monarchs, especially if they are housed together. The spores of the parasite also can quickly contaminate all housing equipment, so that all subsequent monarchs reared in the same containers then become infected. One researcher stated that rearing more than 100 monarchs constitutes "mass rearing" and should not be done.
In addition to the disease risks, researchers believe these captive-reared monarchs are not as fit as wild ones, owing to the unnatural conditions in which they are raised. Homeowners often raise monarchs in plastic or glass containers in their kitchens, basements, porches, etc., and under artificial lighting and controlled temperatures. Such conditions would not mimic what the monarchs are used to in the wild, and may result in adults that are unsuited for the realities of their wild existence. In support of this, a recent study by a citizen scientist found that captive-reared monarchs have a lower migration success rate than wild monarchs do.
A 2019 study shed light on the fitness of captive-reared monarchs, by testing reared and wild monarchs on a tethered flight apparatus that assessed navigational ability. In that study, monarchs that were reared to adulthood in artificial conditions showed a reduction in navigational ability. This happened even with monarchs that were brought into captivity from the wild for a few days. A few captive-reared monarchs did show proper navigation. This study revealed the fragility of monarch development; if the conditions are not suitable, their ability to properly migrate could be impaired. The same study also examined the genetics of a collection of reared monarchs purchased from a butterfly breeder, and found they were dramatically different from wild monarchs, so much so that the lead author described them as "franken-monarchs".
An unpublished study in 2019 compared behavior of captive-reared versus wild monarch larvae. The study showed that reared larvae exhibited more defensive behavior than wild larvae. The reason for this is unknown, but it could relate to the fact that reared larvae are frequently handled and/or disturbed.
Threats
In February 2015, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported a study that showed that nearly a billion monarchs had vanished from the butterfly's overwintering sites since 1990. The agency attributed the monarch's decline in part to a loss of milkweed caused by herbicides that farmers and homeowners had used.
Western monarch populations
Based on a 2014 20-year comparison, the overwintering numbers west of the Rocky Mountains have dropped more than 50% since 1997 and the overwintering numbers east of the Rockies have declined by more than 90% since 1995. According to the Xerces Society, the monarch population in California decreased 86% in 2018, going from millions of butterflies to tens of thousands of butterflies.
The society's annual 2020-2021 winter count showed a significant decline in the California population. One Pacific Grove site did not have a single monarch butterfly. A primary explanation for this was the destruction of the butterfly's milkweed habitats.
Eastern and midwestern monarch populations
A 2016 publication attributed the previous decade's 90% decline in overwintering numbers of the eastern monarch population to the loss of breeding habitat and milkweed. The publication's authors stated that an 11%–57% probability existed that this population will go almost extinct over the next 20 years.
Chip Taylor, the director of Monarch Watch at the University of Kansas, has stated that the Midwest milkweed habitat "is virtually gone" with 120–150 million acres lost. To help fight this problem, Monarch Watch encourages the planting of "Monarch Waystations".
Habitat loss due to herbicide use and genetically modified crops
Declines in milkweed abundance and monarch populations between 1999 and 2010 are correlated with the adoption of herbicide-tolerant genetically modified (GM) corn and soybeans, which now constitute 89% and 94% of these crops, respectively, in the U.S. GM corn and soybeans are resistant to the effect of the herbicide glyphosate. Some conservationists attribute the disappearance of milkweed to agricultural practices in the Midwest, where GM seeds are bred to resist herbicides that farmers use to kill unwanted plants that grow near their rows of food crops.
In 2015, the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a suit against the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The Council argued that the agency ignored warnings about the dangers of glyphosate usage for monarchs. However, a 2018 study has suggested that the decline in milkweed predates the arrival of GM crops.
Losses during migration
Eastern and midwestern monarchs are apparently experiencing problems reaching Mexico. A number of monarch researchers have cited recent evidence obtained from long-term citizen science data that show that the number of breeding (adult) monarchs has not declined in the last two decades.
The lack of long-term declines in the numbers of breeding and migratory monarchs, yet the clear declines in overwintering numbers, suggests a growing disconnect exists between these life stages. One researcher has suggested that mortality from car strikes constitutes an increasing threat to migrating monarchs. A study of road mortality in northern Mexico, published in 2019, showed very high mortality from just two "hotspots" each year, amounting to 200,000 monarchs killed.
Loss of overwintering habitat
The area of Mexican forest to which eastern and midwestern monarchs migrate reached its lowest level in two decades in 2013. The decline was expected to increase during the 2013–2014 season. Mexican environmental authorities continue to monitor illegal logging of the oyamel trees. The oyamel is a major species of evergreen on which the overwintering butterflies spend a significant time during their winter diapause, or suspended development.
A 2014 study acknowledged that while "the protection of overwintering habitat has no doubt gone a long way towards conserving monarchs that breed throughout eastern North America", their research indicates that habitat loss on breeding grounds in the United States is the main cause of both recent and projected population declines.
Parasites
Parasites include the tachinid flies Sturmia convergens and Lespesia archippivora. Lesperia-parasitized butterfly larvae suspend, but die prior to pupation. The fly's maggot lowers itself to the ground, forms a brown puparium and then emerges as an adult.
Pteromalid wasps, specifically Pteromalus cassotis, parasitize monarch pupae. These wasps lay their eggs in the pupae while the chrysalis is still soft. Up to 400 adults emerge from the chrysalis after 14–20 days, killing the monarch.
The bacterium Micrococcus flacidifex danai also infects larvae. Just before pupation, the larvae migrate to a horizontal surface and die a few hours later, attached only by one pair of prolegs, with the thorax and abdomen hanging limp. The body turns black shortly thereafter. The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa has no invasive powers, but causes secondary infections in weakened insects. It is a common cause of death in laboratory-reared insects.
Ophryocystis elektroscirrha is another parasite of the monarch. It infects the subcutaneous tissues and propagates by spores formed during the pupal stage. The spores are found over all of the body of infected butterflies, with the greatest number on the abdomen. These spores are passed, from female to caterpillar, when spores rub off during egg laying and are then ingested by caterpillars. Severely infected individuals are weak, unable to expand their wings, or unable to eclose, and have shortened lifespans, but parasite levels vary in populations. This is not the case in laboratory rearing, where after a few generations, all individuals can be infected.
Infection with O. elektroscirrha creates an effect known as culling, whereby migrating monarchs that are infected are less likely to complete the migration. This results in overwintering populations with lower parasite loads. Owners of commercial butterfly-breeding operations claim that they take steps to control this parasite in their practices, although this claim is doubted by many scientists who study monarchs.
Confusion of host plants
The black swallow-wort (Cynanchum louiseae) and pale swallow-wort (Cynanchum rossicum) plants are problematic for monarchs in North America. Monarchs lay their eggs on these relatives of native vining milkweed (Cynanchum laeve) because they produce stimuli similar to milkweed. Once the eggs hatch, the caterpillars are poisoned by the toxicity of this invasive plant from Europe.
Climate
Climate variations during the fall and summer affect butterfly reproduction. Rainfall and freezing temperatures affect milkweed growth. Omar Vidal, director general of WWF-Mexico, said, "The monarch's lifecycle depends on the climatic conditions in the places where they breed. Eggs, larvae, and pupae develop more quickly in milder conditions. Temperatures above 35°C (95°F) can be lethal for larvae, and eggs dry out in hot, arid conditions, causing a drastic decrease in hatch rate." If a monarch's body temperatures is below 30°C (86°F), a monarch cannot fly. To warm up, they sit in the sun or rapidly shiver their wings to warm themselves.
Climate change may dramatically affect the monarch migration. A study from 2015 examined the impact of warming temperatures on the breeding range of the monarch, and showed that in the next 50 years the monarch host plant will expand its range further north into Canada, and that the monarchs will follow this. While this will expand the breeding locations of the monarch, it will also have the effect of increasing the distance that monarchs must travel to reach their overwintering destination in Mexico, which could result in greater mortality during the migration.
Milkweeds grown at increased temperatures have been shown to contain higher cardenolide concentrations, making the leaves too toxic for the monarch caterpillars. However, these increased concentrations are likely in response to increased insect herbivory, which is also caused by the increased temperatures. Whether increased temperatures make milkweed too toxic for monarch caterpillars when other factors are not present is unknown. Additionally, milkweed grown at carbon dioxide levels of 760 parts per million was found to produce a different mix of the toxic cardenolides, one of which was less effective against monarch parasites.
Conservation status
The monarch butterfly is not currently listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora or protected specifically under U.S. domestic laws. On August 14, 2014, the Center for Biological Diversity and the Center for Food Safety filed a legal petition requesting Endangered Species Act protection for the monarch and its habitat, based largely on the long-term trends observed at overwintering sites.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) initiated a status review of the monarch butterfly under the Endangered Species Act with a due date for information submission of March 3, 2015, later extended to 2020. On December 15, 2020, the FWS ruled that adding the butterfly to the list of threatened and endangered species was "warranted-but-precluded" because it needed to devote its resources to 161 higher-priority species.
The number of monarchs overwintering in Mexico has shown a long-term downward trend. Since 1995, coverage numbers have been as high as during the winter of 1996–1997, but on average about . Coverage declined to its lowest point to date () during the winter of 2013–2014, but rebounded to in 2015–2016. The average population of monarchs in 2016 was estimated at 200 million. Historically, on average there are 300 million monarchs. The 2016 increase was attributed to favorable breeding conditions in the summer of 2015. However, coverage declined by 27% to during the winter of 2016–2017. Some believe this was because of a storm that had occurred during March 2016 in the monarchs' previous overwintering season, though this seems unlikely since most current research shows that the overwintering colony sizes do not predict the size of the next summer breeding population.
In Ontario, Canada, the monarch butterfly is listed as a species of special concern. In fall 2016, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada proposed that the monarch be listed as endangered in Canada, as opposed to its current listing as a "species of concern" in that country. This move, once enacted, would protect critical monarch habitat in Canada, such as major fall accumulation areas in southern Ontario, but it would also have implications for citizen scientists who work with monarchs, and for classroom activities. If the monarch were federally protected in Canada, these activities could be limited, or require federal permits.
In Nova Scotia, the monarch is listed as endangered at the provincial level, as of 2017. This decision (as well as the Ontario decision) apparently is based on a presumption that the overwintering colony declines in Mexico create declines in the breeding range in Canada. Two recent studies have been conducted examining long-term trends in monarch abundance in Canada, using either butterfly atlas records or citizen science butterfly surveys, and neither shows evidence of a population decline in Canada.
Conservation efforts
Although numbers of breeding monarchs in eastern North America have apparently not decreased, reports of declining numbers of overwintering butterflies have inspired efforts to conserve the species.
Federal actions
On June 20, 2014, President Barack Obama issued a presidential memorandum entitled "Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The memorandum established a Pollinator Health Task Force, to be co-chaired by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, and stated:The number of migrating Monarch butterflies sank to the lowest recorded population level in 2013–14, and there is an imminent risk of failed migration.
In May 2015, the Pollinator Health Task Force issued a "National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The strategy laid out federal actions to achieve three goals, two of which were:• Monarch Butterflies: Increase the Eastern population of the monarch butterfly to 225 million butterflies occupying an area of approximately 15 acres (6 hectares) in the overwintering grounds in Mexico, through domestic/international actions and public-private partnerships, by 2020.• Pollinator Habitat Acreage: Restore or enhance 7 million acres of land for pollinators over the next 5 years through Federal actions and public/private partnerships.
Many of the priority projects that the national strategy identified focused on the I-35 corridor, which extends for from Texas to Minnesota. The area through which that highway travels provides spring and summer breeding habitats in the United States' key monarch migration corridor.
The U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) publishes sets of landscape performance requirements in its P100 documents, which mandate standards for the GSA's Public Buildings Service. Beginning in March 2015, those performance requirements and their updates have included four primary aspects for planting designs that are intended to provide adequate on-site foraging opportunities for targeted pollinators. The targeted pollinators include bees, butterflies, and other beneficial insects.
On December 4, 2015, President Obama signed into law the Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act (Pub. L. 114-94). The FAST Act placed a new emphasis on efforts to support pollinators. To accomplish this, the FAST Act amended Title 23 (Highways) of the United States Code. The amendment directed the United States Secretary of Transportation, when carrying out programs under that title in conjunction with willing states, to:
(1) encourage integrated vegetation management practices on roadsides and other transportation rights-of-way, including reduced mowing; and
(2) encourage the development of habitat and forage for Monarch butterflies, other native pollinators, and honey bees through plantings of native forbs and grasses, including noninvasive, native milkweed species that can serve as migratory way stations for butterflies and facilitate migrations of other pollinators.
The FAST Act also stated that activities to establish and improve pollinator habitat, forage, and migratory way stations may be eligible for Federal funding if related to transportation projects funded under Title 23.
The United States Department of Agriculture's Farm Service Agency helps increase U.S. populations of monarch butterfly and other pollinators through its Conservation Reserve Program's State Acres for Wildlife Enhancement (SAFE) Initiative. The SAFE Initiative provides an annual rental payment to farmers who agree to remove environmentally sensitive land from agricultural production and who plant species that will improve environmental health and quality. Among other things, the initiative encourages landowners to establish wetlands, grasses, and trees to create habitats for species that the FWS has designated to be threatened or endangered.
Other actions
Agriculture companies and other organizations are being asked to set aside areas that remain unsprayed to allow monarchs to breed. In addition, national and local initiatives are underway to help establish and maintain pollinator habitats along corridors containing power lines and roadways. The Federal Highway Administration, state governments, and local jurisdictions are encouraging highway departments and others to limit their use of herbicides, to reduce mowing, to help milkweed to grow and to encourage monarchs to reproduce within their right-of-ways.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program report
In 2020, the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCRHP) of the Transportation Research Board issued a 208-page report that described a project that had examined the potential for roadway corridors to provide habitat for monarch butterflies. A part of the project developed tools for roadside managers to optimize potential habitat for monarch butterflies in their road rights-of-way.
Such efforts are controversial because the risk of butterfly mortality near roads is high. Several studies have shown that motor vehicles kill millions of monarchs and other butterflies every year. Also, some evidence indicates that monarch larvae living near roads experience physiological stress conditions, as evidenced by elevations in their heart rate.
The NCRHP report acknowledged that, among other hazards, roads present a danger of traffic collisions for monarchs, stating that these effects appear to be more concentrated in particular funnel areas during migration. Nevertheless, the report concluded:In summary, threats along roadway corridors exist for monarchs and other pollinators, but in the context of the amount of habitat needed for recovery of sustainable populations, roadsides are of vital importance.
Butterfly gardening
While scientific studies on the subject have been reported, the practice of butterfly gardening and creating "monarch waystations" is commonly thought to increase the populations of butterflies. Efforts to restore falling monarch populations by establishing butterfly gardens and monarch waystations require particular attention to the butterfly's food preferences and population cycles, as well to the conditions needed to propagate and maintain milkweed.
For example, in the Washington, DC, area and elsewhere in the northeastern United States, monarchs prefer to reproduce on common milkweed (A. syriaca), especially when its foliage is soft and fresh. Because monarch reproduction in that area peaks in late summer when milkweed foliage is old and tough, A. syriaca needs to be mowed or cut back in June through August to assure that it will be regrowing rapidly when monarch reproduction reaches its peak. Similar conditions exist for showy milkweed (A. speciosa) in Michigan and for green antelopehorn milkweed (A. viridis), where it grows in the Southern Great Plains and the Western United States. In addition, the seeds of A. syriaca and some other milkweeds need periods of cold treatment (cold stratification) before they will germinate.
To protect seeds from washing away during heavy rains and from seed–eating birds, one can cover the seeds with a light fabric or with an layer of straw mulch. However, mulch acts as an insulator. Thicker layers of mulch can prevent seeds from germinating if they prevent soil temperatures from rising enough when winter ends. Further, few seedlings can push through a thick layer of mulch.
Although monarch caterpillars will feed on butterfly weed (A. tuberosa) in butterfly gardens, the plant has rough leaves and is typically not a heavily used host plant for the species. The plant's low levels of cardenolides may also make the plant unattractive to egg-laying monarchs. While A. tuberosa colorful flowers provide nectar for many adult butterflies, the plant may be less suitable for use in butterfly gardens and monarch waystations than are other milkweed species.
Breeding monarchs prefer to lay eggs on swamp milkweed (A. incarnata). However, A. incarnata is an early successional plant that usually grows at the margins of wetlands and in seasonally flooded areas. The plant is slow to spread via seeds, does not spread by runners and tends to disappear as vegetative densities increase and habitats dry out. Although A. incarnata plants can survive for up to 20 years, most live only two-five years in gardens. The species is not shade-tolerant and is not a good vegetative competitor.
See also
Butterfly house (conservatory)
Lepidoptera migration
Peninsula Point Light, Michigan
References
External links
Australian Museum fact sheet on monarch butterflies
Mission Monarch (Canada)
Monarch butterfly metamorphosis: time-lapse video (2:42 minutes)
Monarch butterfly on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures website
Monarch Joint Venture – Partnering Across the U.S. to Conserve the Monarch Butterfly Migration
Monarch migration maps
Monarch Watch
PBS Nova documentary "The Incredible Journey of the Butterflies"
USGS description of monarch butterfly
Monarch butterfly data at NatureServe Explorer
Danaus (butterfly)
Butterflies of North America
Butterflies of Central America
Nymphalidae of South America
Insects of Hawaii
Butterflies of the Caribbean
Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands
Animal migration
Aposematic species
Butterflies of Europe
Butterflies of Oceania
Symbols of West Virginia
Butterflies described in 1758
Endangered fauna of California
Articles containing video clips
Poisonous animals
Symbols of Alabama
Symbols of Illinois
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Symbols of Idaho
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20%26%20Wine
|
Iron & Wine
|
Samuel "Sam" Ervin Beam (born July 26, 1974), better known by his stage name Iron & Wine, is an American singer-songwriter. He has released six studio albums, several EPs and singles, as well as a few download-only releases, which include a live album (a recording of his 2005 Bonnaroo performance). He occasionally tours with a full band.
Beam was raised in South Carolina before moving to Virginia and then Florida to attend school. He now resides in Durham, North Carolina. The name Iron & Wine is taken from a dietary supplement named "Beef, Iron & Wine" that he found in a general store while shooting a film.
Early life
Beam was raised in Chapin, South Carolina, where his father worked in land management and his mother was a schoolteacher. When he was a child, his family took regular trips to the country, where his grandfather ran a farm. He attended Seven Oaks Elementary School and Chapin High School. While home from college, he was a waiter at California Dreaming restaurant in Columbia. Beam earned a bachelor's degree in art from Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia. He specialized in painting before graduating from the Florida State University Film School with an MFA degree. Before the release of the first Iron & Wine album, Beam's main source of income was as a professor of film and cinematography at the University of Miami and Miami International University of Art & Design. He had been writing songs for over seven years before a friend lent him a four-track recorder. He began making demos and gave one to his friend Michael Bridwell, brother of Band of Horses lead singer, Ben Bridwell. Michael handed it to Mike McGonigal, editor of Yeti magazine, who chose "Dead Man's Will", later released on In the Reins, for inclusion on one of his magazine's compilation CDs. Beam later came to the attention of Sub Pop Records co-owner, Jonathan Poneman, who contacted Beam to propose a deal.
Musical career
Beam released his first Iron & Wine album, The Creek Drank the Cradle, on the Sub Pop label in 2002. Beam wrote, performed, recorded and produced the album in his home studio. Featuring acoustic guitars, banjo, and slide guitar, the album's music has been compared to that of Nick Drake, Simon and Garfunkel, Elliott Smith, Neil Young and John Fahey.
Also in 2002, Beam recorded a cover of The Postal Service's then-unreleased song "Such Great Heights". Rather than being included on an Iron & Wine release, the track was initially included as a b-side of the original version by The Postal Service. It was later included on the B-sides and rarities album, Around the Well. He then followed up on his debut album in 2003 with The Sea & The Rhythm, an EP containing other home-recorded tracks with a similar style to the songs on the debut.
Beam's second full-length album, Our Endless Numbered Days (2004), was recorded in a professional studio with a significant increase in fidelity. Produced in Chicago by Brian Deck, the focus was still on acoustic material, but the inclusion of other band members gave rise to a slightly different sound. That same year, he recorded the song "The Trapeze Swinger" for the film In Good Company, and had his version of "Such Great Heights" featured in an advertisement for M&M's and in the film and soundtrack for Garden State. This version was later used in a 2006 Ask.com advertisement, and eventually released as a single in 2006 backed with recordings of "The Trapeze Swinger" and "Naked as We Came" made for Radio Vienna.
In February 2005, he released an EP entitled Woman King, which expanded on the sounds of his previous LP with the addition of electric guitars. Each track features a spiritual female figure, and had subtle Biblical undertones.
The EP In the Reins, a collaboration with the Arizona-based rock band Calexico, was released in September 2005. Beam wrote all of the EP's songs years earlier, but Calexico added their trademark fusion of southwestern rock, traditional Mexican music and jazz to the songs' arrangements. Several tracks, most notably, "Burn That Broken Bed", feature brass instruments, a first for Beam's music.
The third full-length Iron & Wine album, entitled The Shepherd's Dog, was released September 25, 2007. This album was voted one of the ten best of 2007 by Paste magazine. Contributors included Joey Burns and Paul Niehaus of Calexico, as well as jazz musicians Matt Lux and Bob Burger. When asked to describe the album to The Independent, Beam remarked that "it's not a political propaganda record, but it's definitely inspired by political confusion, because I was really taken aback when Bush got reelected."
Beam has released most of his music on iTunes, including several exclusive EPs. The Iron & Wine iTunes Exclusive EP features unreleased studio recordings, including a Stereolab cover and two tracks which had previously only appeared on vinyl. The Live Session (iTunes Exclusive) features Beam and his sister, Sarah Beam, performing a number of tracks from his albums, as well as a cover of New Order's "Love Vigilantes". Sarah Beam has contributed backing vocals on many of Beam's studio recordings.
Beam's music has appeared in television series such as Grey's Anatomy, The L Word and House M.D. "Flightless Bird, American Mouth" was used in the film Twilight. The song was specifically chosen for the film's prom scene by Kristen Stewart, the female lead, and appears on the film's soundtrack.
The B-sides and rarities album Around the Well was released in 2009. Iron & Wine also contributed the song "Stolen Houses (Die)" to the AIDS benefit album Dark Was the Night produced by the Red Hot Organization.
On November 26, 2010 Iron & Wine released a special edition Record Store Day Black Friday 12" vinyl and CD single called, Walking Far From Home for independent record stores.
Kiss Each Other Clean, Iron & Wine's fourth full-length album, was released on January 25, 2011 on Warner Bros. Records in North America and 4AD for the rest of the world. With this album, Beam blended his earlier styles with a stronger pop influence.
Ghost on Ghost, Iron & Wine's fifth studio album, was released in April 2013 on Nonesuch Records in North America and 4AD for the rest of the world. Ghost on Ghost marked a further exploration into the pop sounds of Kiss Each Other Clean while also exhibiting jazz and R&B influences, with jazz drummer Brian Blade contributing to the album. In January 2014, recording during the polar vortex in Chicago, Beam and his regular collaborator Brian Deck co-produced eight of the ten songs on Chadwick Stokes' 2015 album The Horse Comanche. Beam contributed the Iron & Wine band to the sessions and sang backing vocals.
Iron & Wine released two albums in 2015. Archive Series: Volume 1, released in February, featured unreleased songs recorded during the same period as The Creek Drank the Cradle. Covers album, Sing Into My Mouth, recorded with Band of Horses singer Ben Bridwell, was released in July. Love Letter for Fire, an album of duets with American singer-songwriter Jesca Hoop, was released in 2016 on Sub Pop. Produced, recorded, and mixed by Tucker Martine, the album also featured contributions from Wilco's Glenn Kotche, Rob Burger, Eyvind Kang, Sebastian Steinberg, and Edward Rankin-Parker.
In August 2017, Iron & Wine's sixth studio album Beast Epic was released through Sub Pop Records. The record saw Beam strip back the production and array of instruments from previous records to return to more simple and melodic song structures.
On March 21, 2019, Calexico and Iron & Wine announced Years to Burn, their first collaboration album. It was released on June 14, 2019 via Sub Pop.
Personal life
Beam, his wife Kim, and their five daughters live in Durham, North Carolina. He was raised in the Bible belt as a Christian, but is now an agnostic: "That was a confusing time for me, but I don't miss being misled. I'm not an atheist. There's an undeniable unseen world that some people call God and think they know more about than other people. I try not to get hung up on the names."
In 2011, a portrait of Beam was painted by British artist Joe Simpson. The painting was exhibited around the UK, including in a solo exhibition at The Royal Albert Hall.
Discography
Albums
EPs
Singles
"Call Your Boys" b/w "Dearest Forsaken" via Sub Pop Singles Club (CD + Clear 7" Vinyl) (2002)
"No Moon" b/w "Sinning Hands" (Limited 7" Vinyl Bonus with first Pressing of Our Endless Numbered Days) (2004)
"Passing Afternoon" (CD only) (2004)
"The Trapeze Swinger" (iTunes only) (2005)
"Such Great Heights" (UK only CD) (2006)
"Arms of a Thief / Serpent Charmer" (2007)
"Boy with a Coin" b/w "Carried Home" and "Kingdom of the Animals" (CD + UK only 10" Vinyl) (2007)
"Dark Eyes" (Bob Dylan cover w/ Calexico) (2007)
"Lovesong of the Buzzard" (CD + UK only 10" Vinyl) (2008)
"Flightless Bird, American Mouth" (iTunes only) (2008)
"Love Vigilantes" (2009)
"Walking Far from Home" (2010)
"Me And Lazarus" (2011)
"Tree by the River" (2011)
"Time After Time" (2016)
"Call It Dreaming" (2017)
"Bitter Truth" (2017)
"Song in Stone" (2017)
Music videos
"Southern Anthem" (2002)
"Lion's Mane" (2002)
"Boy with a Coin" (2007)
"Joy" (2013)
"Call It Dreaming" (2017)
"Thomas County Law" (2017)
"Bitter Truth" (2018)
"Last Night" (2018)
Other contributions
The Six Parts Seven's Lost Notes from Forgotten Songs (2003) – "Sleeping Diagonally"
The O.C. Soundtrack (2004) – "The Sea & the Rhythm"
Garden State Soundtrack (2004) – "Such Great Heights"
Sweetheart: Love Songs (2004) – "Ab's Song" (The Marshall Tucker Band cover)
L Word: Season Two Soundtrack (2004) – "Naked as We Came"
Grey's Anatomy: Season Two Soundtrack (2004) – "Naked as We Came"
In Good Company (2004) – "Naked as We Came," "Sunset Soon Forgotten," "The Trapeze Swinger"
Fighting in a Sack (2004) – "New Slang (Featuring Iron & Wine) [Live]"
KCRW Sounds Eclectic Volume 3 (2005) – "Waitin' for a Superman" (Flaming Lips cover)
I Am a Cold Rock. I Am Dull Grass. (2006) – "We All, Us Three, Will Ride"
I'm Not There Soundtrack (2007) – "Dark Eyes" (with Calexico)
The Road Mix Volume 3, music from One Tree Hill (2007) – "He Lays in the Reins" (with Calexico)
Acoustic 07 (2007) – "Naked as We Came"
Numb3rs Season 3, Episode 19, "Pandora's Box" (2007) – "Naked as We Came"
Friday Night Lights Season 1, Episode 12 (2007) – "Upward Over the Mountain"
Friday Night Lights: Original Television Soundtrack (2007) – "Dead Man's Will" (with Calexico)
Twilight Soundtrack (2008) – "Flightless Bird, American Mouth"
90210 Season 1, Episode 18, "Off the Rails" (2008) – "Cinder & Smoke"
House M.D.
Season 4, Episode 16 (Season Finale, Part 2) "Wilson's Heart" (2008) – "Passing Afternoon"
Season 6, Episode 1 (Season Premiere, Part 1) "Broken" (2009) – "Love Vigilantes" (New Order cover)
Dark Was the Night (2009) – "Stolen Houses (Die)"
Ugly Betty Season 3, Episode 16 (2009) – "Naked as We Came"
The Mysteries of Pittsburgh (2009) – "Naked as We Came"
Misfits Season 1, Episode 6 (2009) – "Such Great Heights"
TiMER (2009) – "The Trapeze Swinger"
The Last Song Soundtrack (2010) – "Each Coming Night"
Degrassi Season 10, Episode 31, "Halo, Part 2" (2010) – "Passing Afternoon"
Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 Soundtrack (2011) – "Flightless Bird, American Mouth (wedding version)"
The Lone Ranger: Wanted (Music Inspired by the Film) (2013) – "Rattling Bone"
References
External links
Official site
1974 births
Living people
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American singers
21st-century American male singers
4AD artists
American agnostics
American folk guitarists
American folk singers
American male guitarists
American male singer-songwriters
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
Fingerstyle guitarists
Florida State University alumni
Guitarists from South Carolina
Indie folk musicians
Musicians from Durham, North Carolina
People from Chapin, South Carolina
Sub Pop artists
Singer-songwriters from South Carolina
Singer-songwriters from North Carolina
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan%20%28song%29
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Stan (song)
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"Stan" is a song by American rapper Eminem featuring vocals sampled from the opening lines of British singer Dido's song "Thank You". It was released in November 20, 2000 as the third single from Eminem's third album, The Marshall Mathers LP (2000). It reached number one in 12 countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Ireland, and Australia.
The 45 King-produced track also uses a slightly modified break from "Thank You" as its base sample; both songs were released as singles in late 2000. "Stan" has been called one of Eminem's best songs and is considered one of his signature songs. In 2003, Rolling Stone magazine ranked "Stan" 296th on its list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, upping their ranking to 223rd in a 2021 updated list. The song was also listed 15th on VH1s list of the greatest hiphop songs of all time and named in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
The song was nominated for multiple awards, including Best Song at the MTV Europe Music Awards, Video of the Year, Best Rap Video, Best Direction, and Best Cinematography at the MTV Video Music Awards. It won Best International Artist Video at the MuchMusic Video Awards. In April 2011, Complex magazine put together a list of the 100 greatest Eminem songs and ranked "Stan" second. The eponymous character's name gave rise to a slang term that refers to overzealous, maniacal, overly obsessed, entitled fans of a celebrity or personality; the term has since been included in the Oxford English Dictionary.
Song
The song tells the story of a person named Stanley "Stan" Mitchell (voiced by Eminem) who claims to be Eminem's biggest fan. He writes Eminem several letters; over two verses, he becomes more obsessive, and when there is no reply he becomes angrier. He finally creates a voice recording of himself while driving his car on the highway, having consumed large quantities of depressants and alcohol; this verse includes a call-back to Eminem's "My Name Is" with the lyrics "I drank a fifth of vodka, you dare me to drive?" He reveals that his pregnant girlfriend is tied up in the trunk as he approaches a bridge, and realizes just before driving off it that he has no way to send the tape to Eminem.
The fourth verse features Eminem as himself, writing back to Stan and attempting to reason with him. Eminem explains to Stan that his lyrics are not to be taken literally. He warns Stan that he should get help, telling him about a story he heard on the news about a man who had driven his car off a bridge in a drunken stupor, killing himself and his pregnant girlfriend. Eminem then comes to the realization that this man was actually Stan.
Music video
Directed by Dr. Dre and Philip Atwell, the video is a literal interpretation of the story. The video features Devon Sawa as Stan and Dido as his pregnant girlfriend. A prologue involves Stan dyeing his hair blonde and reacting angrily to being called "Stanley" by his girlfriend. Later, he sits in a basement full of Eminem's posters, writing letters that express his devotion as "your (Eminem's) biggest fan". He is aware of every development in Eminem's personal life.
Stan gets mad at his girlfriend (Dido) when she interrupts him watching “The Way I Am” video.
Stan wants Eminem to contact him through a personal letter or a phone call; but, due to unfortunate circumstances, the letters fail to reach Eminem in a timely manner. Believing he has been ignored, Stan uses a tape recorder to record himself driving along a rain-soaked highway while his girlfriend is locked up in the trunk; which he does with the intention of driving off a bridge. In the process, Stan references both "My Name Is" ("I drank a fifth of vodka, dare me to drive?") and an urban legend about Phil Collins's "In the Air Tonight" before realizing that there is no way of transmitting this final tape to Eminem. The car then breaks through the bridge barrier, sealing both occupants' fates.
Stan's mother and his little brother Matthew visit his grave. When Matthew opens his hoodie, he has dyed his hair blonde like Stan. Eminem finally gets around to responding to Stan. He apologizes for being late, thanks him for being a fan, and expresses interest in Stan's personal life. Eminem worries about Stan's mental state and says he does not want Stan to end up like a story he had seen on the news recently—a man who had driven drunk off a bridge with his girlfriend in the trunk, about whom he then realizes, "It was you. Damn." Unbeknownst to Eminem, flashes of lightning shine on his window, revealing the ghost of Stan silently glaring. The video ends with Matthew staring at Stan's grave.
Credits
Singing and lyrics: Eminem, Dido
Production: Eminem, The 45 King
Mixing: Eminem
Guitar and bass: Mike Elizondo
Keyboard: Mike Elizondo, Tommy Coster
Executive producer: Dr. Dre
Composer: Marshall Mathers, Dido Armstrong, The 45 King
Producer video: Chris Palladino
Cinematographer: Dariusz Wolski
Directors: Philip G. Atwell & Dr. Dre
Appearances in the clip: Devon Sawa, Dido, Nathan Mathers, Eminem
Censorship
In the MTV "clean" version, the song and video were censored. Significant portions from the first two verses and most of the third verse were removed. MTV also cut out all traces of Stan's girlfriend bound in the trunk of the car and removed one scene showing him guzzling vodka while driving. In the MTV full version, which is 8:15 long, verse 3 censors Stan mentioning his girlfriend in the trunk (so "Shut up bitch" and "screaming in the trunk" is censored), and about him not slitting her throat, but tied her up, and "if she suffocates, she'll suffer more, then she'll die too", which "slit", "tied her up", "suffocates", and "die" is censored.
Dido has stated that she was gagged in the third verse of the video, but this was censored so widely that versions with her gagged are rare. In the uncensored version, Stan is shown drinking at the wheel of the car before showing Dido struggling in the trunk of the car. She manages to remove the duct tape from her mouth and screams before struggling for breath. Most versions were censored so that there is only a brief clip of Dido in the trunk of the car towards the end of the verse. It also censors when Stan says he "drank a fifth of vodka", which censors "drank" and "vodka"; and censors when he says he's on "a thousand downers", which "downers" is censored; and also censors Stan drinking while driving. At the end of the third verse, "Well, gotta go, I'm almost at the bridge now" is changed to "Well, gotta go, I'm almost at the end of the bridge now". In the fourth verse, the line "[And what's this] shit about us meant to be together" is completely censored. All references to the girlfriend in the trunk are censored, including the screaming in the background, and the line: "And had his girlfriend in his trunk, and she was pregnant with his kid."
In the MTV short version, which was used for radio airplay due to time constraints, the second verse lines that are missing are from "I ain't that mad though, I just don't like bein' lied to" to "I even got a tattoo of your name across the chest"; the video cuts showing Stan meeting Eminem, talking about how his father cheated and beat his mother and showed him getting a "Slim Shady" tattoo on his chest. The missing lyrics from the third verse are of Stan talking about drinking while driving and referencing "In the Air Tonight", (Eminem quotes the title as "In the Air of the Night) which in the video, it skips from showing Stan near-missing a car, and swerving to avoid crashing into it. The lines that are missing are from "Hey Slim, I drank a fifth of vodka, you dare to me to drive?" to "I hope you know I ripped all of your pictures off the wall". It also removes the chorus after the third verse and goes straight to the fourth verse; the video then cuts to Eminem at last receiving the letter from Stan, and the car sinking more into the water.
In Fuse's original state as a rock and alternative station, the same versions of the video were shown as on MTV. However, in later Fuse airings, more lines and words are silenced than on the clean version of the LP; half of one of the beginning verses are cut out, and then the song fades out about halfway through the second verse, after playing for approximately two minutes. "Stan" was also released on track 17 of Curtain Call: The Hits; on the clean and explicit versions, the live track censored only the profanity, unlike the clean version of the studio track.
Critical reception
"Stan" was met with critical acclaim, with praise directed to the song's epistolary narrative structure, emotional range and lyrical depth. Stephen Thomas Erlewine highlighted the song. Entertainment Weekly praised the song, too: "Eminem proves himself a peerless rap poet with a profound understanding of the power of language. Stan, an epistolary exchange between the artist and a dangerously obsessive fan, may be the most moving song about star worship ever recorded" and added that "Stan" blazes significant new ground for rap. The Los Angeles Times was also positive: Stan', the album's most haunting track, is superb storytelling with a point. It has the affecting tone of such rap high points as Ice Cube's 'It Was a Good Day' and 2Pac's 'Dear Mama'."
NME magazine praised the song: Stan' is a wonderful short story, an astute study in extreme fandom." Sputnik Music described that "Stan's sampling of Dido and use of rain and writing sound effects" make the album versatile. The same critic listed the song in the Recommended Downloads list and reviewed it:If you haven't heard this, you probably make a career out of living under rocks. It tells the story of an obsessive fan who kills themselves because their idol (Eminem) never writes back, and introduces one of the album's key themes – the scary power of fame. Ironic, then, that this album made him the biggest cultural figurehead on the planet. It starts with a sample of Dido's 'Thank You' under a sample of rain. This sample goes on to form the song's hook, relating the level of Stan's obsession and almost making him a sympathetic character (Your picture on my wall/It reminds me that it's not so bad....). Offsetting this is Eminem's raps under the persona of Stan, which reveal him as a reprehensible character; mentally unstable, self-mutilating, sexually confused, volatile, and abusive to his pregnant girlfriend (whose life he takes too, when he takes his own). Eminem's final verse is him attempting to write back, asking him not to be like this guy he saw on the news....Overplayed? Yes. But even so, of all of Eminem's singles, this one demonstrates his power as a rapper and his skill as a poet best. IGN praised the song as "easily the most scathingly introspective rumination on fan adoration, idol assimilation, and borderline stalker etiquette. Teamed to Dido's lulling 'Thank You' with its almost somnambulistically hypnotic pop sultriness provides a jolting contrast to the twisted storyline of a musical obsession gone awry. It also paints a picture of what it's like to be knee deep in the push-and-pull world of a superstar. The song's poignancy never fades, even almost five years later it's still potent." Slant Magazine was mixed: Stan' is an interesting look into the mind of a fanatic (albeit through the eyes of an equally disturbed individual), but it's structured entirely around someone else's work (Dido's 'Thank You')."
Legacy
"Stan" is one of Eminem's most acclaimed songs and has been called a "cultural milestone", referred to as "Eminem's best song" by About.com. Analyzing "Stan" in The Guardian, writer and literary critic Giles Foden compared Eminem to Robert Browning.
At the 2001 Grammy Awards, when he was facing criticism from GLAAD over his lyrics, Eminem responded by performing "Stan" with singer Elton John singing Dido's lines. Many of the profanities were substituted, for example, "You're like his favorite idol" in place of "You're like his fucking idol", and "stuff" for "shit". Recordings of this performance were available for download on Eminem's official website Eminem.com and, later, on his 2005 greatest hits release Curtain Call: The Hits.
Rapper Canibus released a response track to "Stan" titled "U Didn't Care" in which Canibus, imitating Stan, accused Eminem of not caring about him.
Christian rap artist KJ-52 recorded two songs: "Dear Slim" and "Dear Slim, Part II", which attempted to contact Eminem in an allusion to "Stan". Eminem later referenced a fan who had written a letter saying he was praying for him in "Careful What You Wish For". "My Life" by The Game samples "Stan". Conservative rapper Tom MacDonald (rapper) recorded a response track to Stan in 2021, making detractors comparing MacDonald to Stan.
"Stan" has entered the lexicon as a term for an overly-obsessed fan of someone or something and is used colloquially to express fandom of all kinds. The term is especially popular in the rap community; in "Ether", a diss track against rapper Jay-Z, Nas notably called Jay a "stan" of both himself and The Notorious B.I.G. The term was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2017.
"Stan" has been listed by many as one of the greatest hip hop songs of all time. It was ranked number three on a list of the greatest rap songs in history by Q magazine and came tenth in a similar survey conducted by Top40-Charts.com. Rolling Stone magazine's list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time" ranked it number 290, one of Eminem's two songs on the list along with "Lose Yourself"; in the updated 2010 list, it was ranked at number 296. It ranked number 45 on About.com's "Top 100 Rap Songs".
The song ranked number 15 on VH1's "100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop", and number two on their "Countdown Millennium Songs". It was also named the "46th Best Song of the Decade" by Complex magazine, and the 10th Best Song of the decade by Rolling Stone. The song was ranked at number 58 in Rolling Stones list of "100 Greatest Hip-Hop songs of all time".
Stan has influenced many other hip-hop songs, including Tyler, the Creator's 2013 song Colossus, off of Wolf. This track dwells on similar themes as Stan, such as growing up without a father, feeling like an outsider, and deep emotional attachment to a rapper.
Eminem has referenced "Stan" in some of his later songs, including "Bad Guy", "River", "Walk on Water", "The Ringer", the diss track "Killshot", and his verse on "Calm Down" by Busta Rhymes.
In 2020, Saturday Night Live featured a Christmas parody of "Stan" called "Stu", featuring Pete Davidson as Stu writing to Santa and becoming increasingly angry when he does not answer his requests for a PlayStation 5, with a cameo appearance from Eminem himself who does receive the system for Christmas.
Awards and nominations
Track listing
Notes
signifies a co-producer.
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
See also
List of best-selling singles
List of European number-one hits of 2000
List of number-one singles of 2000 (Ireland)
List of number-one hits of 2000 (Switzerland)
List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 2000s
List of Austrian number-one hits of 2001
List of number-one singles in Australia in 2001
List of number-one hits in Denmark
List of number-one hits of 2001 (Germany)
List of number-one hits of 2001 (Italy)
List of Romanian Top 100 number ones of the 2000s
Bad Guy (Eminem song)
References
External links
Eminem songs
Dido (singer) songs
Songs about driving under the influence
Songs about suicide
2000s ballads
2000s fads and trends
Contemporary R&B ballads
Vehicle wreck ballads
2000 singles
Horrorcore songs
Uxoricide in fiction
Murder–suicide in fiction
Music video controversies
Number-one singles in Australia
Number-one singles in Austria
Number-one singles in Denmark
European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles
Number-one singles in Finland
Number-one singles in Germany
Number-one singles in Iceland
Irish Singles Chart number-one singles
Number-one singles in Italy
Number-one singles in Romania
Number-one singles in Scotland
Number-one singles in Switzerland
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Songs written by Dido (singer)
Songs written by Eminem
Song recordings produced by Eminem
Songs about domestic violence
Songs about mental disorders
Songs about fictional male characters
Songs about stalking
Songs about letters (message)
Shady Records singles
Aftermath Entertainment singles
Interscope Records singles
Borderline personality disorder in fiction
Self-harm in fiction
2000 songs
Murder ballads
American hip hop songs
Obscenity controversies in music
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapt
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Trapt
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Trapt is an American rock band formed in Los Gatos, California. It consists of vocalist Chris Taylor Brown, bassist Pete Charell and guitarist Brendan Hengle. They have recorded eight studio albums to date: Amalgamation (1999), Trapt (2002), Someone in Control (2005), Only Through the Pain (2008), No Apologies (2010), Reborn (2013), DNA (2016), and Shadow Work (2020). Trapt is best known for their 2002 hit "Headstrong".
History
Formation and early years (1995–1999)
The members of Trapt met in middle school in the mid-'90s, and were in an early NOFX cover band called the Swinging Udders, with Manny Terres on guitar and Aaron Azlant on lead vocals. Shortly thereafter, the band reformed and developed an act with Chris Taylor Brown (lead vocals), Simon Ormandy (guitar), Peter "Pete" Charell (bass), and David Stege (drums). The band's first few rehearsals were in Ormandy's guesthouse, which had a party-like atmosphere with its loft overlooking the living room. They began playing at local venues in 1997 before any members had graduated high school. In 1998, still before graduation, they were already opening for up-and-coming fellow acts like Papa Roach. They recorded and released their first CD, Amalgamation, in 1999, which they sold at their live shows. Their second release, the Glimpse EP, came in 2000, and another EP, 2001's self-titled Trapt, served as the band's demo.
The debut independent release by Trapt, Amalgamation, released in June 1999 and sold only in the Los Gatos, California area.
Trapt (2001–2003)
In 2001, the band signed with Warner Bros. Records and started recording their debut album, with Robin Diaz replacing Stege on the drums. On November 5, 2002 the band released their self-titled album, Trapt, which was certified platinum by the RIAA and produced a total of three singles.
Someone in Control (2004–2006)
Before releasing their next full-length album, the band released a self-titled three-track EP, released March 30, 2004, that included live versions of the "Made of Glass" and "Echo" tracks from their debut album, as well as a previously unreleased non-LP track, "Promise".
Their second full-length album, titled Someone in Control, was released September 13, 2005. It produced three singles for the band: "Stand Up", "Waiting", and "Disconnected (Out of Touch)".
Only Through the Pain (2007–2009)
Their live album titled Trapt Live!, was released on September 18, 2007. The album featured two new studio songs ("Stay Alive" and "Everything to Lose") as well as live versions of nine songs from their earlier records. On March 7, 2008, it was announced that lead guitarist Simon Ormandy had parted ways with the band. He was replaced by Robb Torres. Despite rumors indicating otherwise, Ormandy's departure was amicable, and Chris Taylor Brown continues to speak highly of Ormandy to the media, while promoting Torres as the new guitarist. On March 8, 2008, Trapt released "Who's Going Home With You Tonight?" on the band's website, a song from their then-upcoming studio album entitled Only Through the Pain. The band also posted four other songs from the upcoming album: "Black Rose", "Contagious", "Wasteland", and "Ready When You Are". On April 15, 2008, Trapt announced they would be touring as part of Mötley Crüe's Crüe Fest along with Buckcherry, Papa Roach and Sixx:A.M.. The tour began July 1, 2008 in West Palm Beach, Florida.
On June 10, 2008, Trapt released "Who's Going Home with You Tonight?" as a single. They also recorded a music video for the song.
No Apologies and Reborn (2010–2013)
In March 2010, Trapt said they were wrapping up the recording process of their new record with producer Johnny K. No Apologies was released on October 12, 2010. The first single, "Sound Off", was available on iTunes on July 20, 2010. Another song, "Stranger in the Mirror", was released for free from the band's Facebook page August 11, 2010.
DNA and Shadow Work (2014–present)
In 2014, Trapt re-released their early, out of print albums Amalgamation and Glimpse EP. and announced "The Self Titled Tour", a tour focused around their self-titled album. On June 15, Trapt announced their next studio album, DNA, and a collection of acoustic versions of songs called The Acoustic Collection. They also announced they would participate in the Make America Rock Again tour.
The band's seventh studio album, DNA was released on August 19, 2016. It was the band's poorest charting album to date, debuting and peaking at number 148 on the Billboard 200 chart. Similarly, its three singles, "Passenger", "Human", and "It's Over", failed to crack the top 20 of the Mainstream Rock Songs chart, or chart at all on the Hot Rock Songs chart. In 2018, the band released the non-album single "Come Together", which did not chart on any Billboard song charts.
In May 2020, a new studio album, Shadow Work, was announced. It released the following July, though it failed to chart in the top 200 of albums released in the US Billboard 200 chart in its release week, selling only 600 copies, an 87% drop from their prior studio album, DNA, in 2016. In the following December, multiple outlets reported that Brown had been fired from the band, though it was debunked as a hoax hours later. On January 23, 2021, drummer Mike Smith announced that he had left Trapt for "primarily political" reasons.
Musical style and influences
Trapt's sound has been described as nu metal, post-grunge, alternative metal and hard rock. AllMusic critic MacKenzie Wilson thought that the band "draws influences from grunge and heavy metal" while "absorbing the heavy rock sounds of Korn, Soundgarden, and Metallica". The band has cited Korn, Tool, Papa Roach, Pink Floyd, Pearl Jam and Genesis as influences.
Social media use
Many publications have taken note of the band's unusual use of social media accounts, run by Brown, often to lash out and attack others, something not often done from official band accounts. Music website Metal Sucks noted in 2015 that the band's official Facebook account made lengthy posts criticizing viewers of Keeping Up with the Kardashians, which devolved into the account swearing and berating commenters. The comment also included homophobic insults towards internet musician Rob Scallon, whom the band had feuded with on social media earlier in the year over the unauthorized and unattributed use of Scallon's videos. In 2017, Brown insulted commenters who disagreed with his defense of President Trump's dismissal of James Comey, and then again later in the year with critics of Brown's stance that institutional racism does not exist.
In March 2020, Metal Injection, The A.V. Club, and Slate all reported that the band's Twitter account had gone on a week-long effort of arguing with and insulting people. It began with insults of civil rights activist and bishop Talbert W. Swan II and accusations of having a "victim mentality". The comments then expanded into areas such as defending the Unite the Right rally, calling people "nerds", challenging the existence of white privilege in society, supporting Trump's "Chinese virus" rhetoric in reference to the COVID-19 pandemic, and fat-shaming women. Loudwire noted that many notable bands and musicians later responded to counter or ridicule the claims. Brown later used the band account to threaten legal action against an unflattering parody account assuming Trapt's identity, only to drop the issue on the same day once the account altered its Twitter handle to make the parody clearer. In May 2020, Brown threatened legal action against multiple Change.org petitions to keep the band's music off of the upcoming Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2 re-release, even though the band's music never appeared on the originals nor was announced for the remaster. In the same month, Brown used the band's account to partially blame George Floyd for his own death.
In August 2020, in response to an article by music publication Consequence of Sound that asserted that the band drew a small crowd size at a festival, the band took to Twitter to berate the publication and any fans who agreed with the story's claim of poor attendance. The following month, the band's account was used to publicly berate Travis Livingston, an artist the band had commissioned, but not paid, for a lyric video for their album release that year. In October 2020, the band drew criticism when they announced their support for the far-right extremist group the Proud Boys and invited the group's Dallas, Texas chapter to their next show in town.
In November 2020, Spin reported that Facebook had deleted Trapt's page on the grounds of hate speech. In December 2020, the band's Twitter account was suspended after Brown wrote a series of Tweets that multiple publications interpreted to be about defending statutory rape, where Brown said he would 'high five' a hypothetical 15-year-old boy who had sex with a 25-year-old female teacher. In April 2021, Brown defended and clarified his stance, saying it was not meant as a defense of statutory rape, but rather, "a joke in bad taste" in relation to his thoughts on "double standard between how men need to treat women versus the other way around".
Band members
Current members
Chris Taylor Brown - lead vocals, rhythm guitar, synths, samples (1995–present)
Pete Charell – bass guitar, backing vocals (1995–present)
Brendan Hengle – lead guitar (2018–present), drums (2016–2018)
Former members
Simon Ormandy – lead guitar (1995–2008)
Rick Sanders – lead guitar (1995–1997)
David Stege – drums (1995–2000)
Robin Diaz – drums (2000–2002)
Mike Smith - drums (2018–2021)
Aaron "Monty" Montgomery – drums (2002–2012)
Robb Torres – lead guitar (2008–2013)
Travis Miguel – lead guitar (2013–2014)
Dylan Thomas Howard – drums (2012–2016)
Ty Fury – lead guitar (2014–2017)
David Suddock – lead guitar (2017–2018)
Adam Prentice - drums (2019–2020)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Amalgamation (1999)
Trapt (2002)
Someone in Control (2005)
Only Through the Pain (2008)
No Apologies (2010)
Reborn (2013)
DNA (2016)
Shadow Work (2020)
References
External links
1997 establishments in California
American alternative metal musical groups
American post-grunge musical groups
Hard rock musical groups from California
EMI Records artists
Musical groups established in 1997
Musical groups from the San Francisco Bay Area
Musical quartets
Nu metal musical groups from California
Warner Records artists
Music controversies
|
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] |
246481
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%20Oregon%20Ballot%20Measure%209
|
1992 Oregon Ballot Measure 9
|
Ballot Measure 9 was a 1992 no-promo-homo ballot measure in the U.S. state of Oregon. Concerning gay rights as well as pedophilia, sadomasochism, and public education, it drew widespread national attention.
Measure 9 would have added the following text to the Oregon Constitution:
It was defeated in the November 3, 1992 general election with 638,527 votes in favor, 828,290 votes against.
Political context
The ballot measure was an effort of the Oregon Citizens Alliance (OCA), a conservative group active in Oregon politics in the 1990s. Supporters of the measure felt that their traditional values were under siege in the face of growing acceptance of homosexuality by society. Opponents stated that the measure was unfairly discriminatory, that it was unconstitutional, and that it demonstrated the homophobia and bigotry of its backers. Republican Senator Mark Hatfield opposed the measure, as did most Oregon newspapers. Opponents outspent the OCA six to one.
The OCA would go on to back Measure 13, which would have prevented schools from using materials that were deemed to "legitimize homosexuality", and Measure 19. They also backed another measure numbered 9 ("son of 9") in 2000. All these were unsuccessful.
Opposition
On September 10, 1992, the grunge-rock band Nirvana played a benefit concert titled, "No on #9" in opposition to the measure.
Lingering effects
Although the measure failed, its legacy can still be seen today. The Oregon Citizens Alliance went on to introduce a series of watered-down ballot measures along the same lines as Measure 9 (most of which failed). Another response of the OCA was to place laws similar to Measure 9 on local ballots in the parts of Oregon where a majority of voters had supported Measure 9. They succeeded in this effort in Josephine, Douglas, Linn, and Klamath counties, as well as in Canby and Junction City. The state legislature eventually overruled these local measures. On the other hand, opposition to Ballot Measure 9 formed the basis of much of the current gay rights movement in Oregon, including the organization Basic Rights Oregon.
Full text
Be it Enacted by the People by the State of Oregon:
PARAGRAPH 1. The Constitution of the State of Oregon is amended by creating a new section to be added to and made a part of Article I and to read:
SECTION
This state shall not recognize any categorical provision such as "sexual orientation," "sexual preference," and similar phrases that include homosexuality, pedophilia, sadism or masochism. Quotas, minority status, affirmative action, or any similar concepts, shall not apply to these forms of conduct, nor shall government promote these behaviors.
State, regional and local governments and their properties and monies shall not be used to promote, encourage, or facilitate homosexuality, pedophilia, sadism or masochism.
State, regional and local governments and their departments, agencies and other entities, including specifically the State Department of Higher Education and the public schools, shall assist in setting a standard for Oregon's youth that recognizes homosexuality, pedophilia, sadism and masochism as abnormal, wrong, unnatural, and perverse and that these behaviors are to be discouraged and avoided.
It shall be considered that it is the intent of the people in enacting this section that if any part thereof is held unconstitutional, the remaining parts shall be held in force.
See also
List of Oregon ballot measures
Oregon Ballot Measure 19 (1994)
Ballot Measure 9, a 1995 documentary about the measure
Lon Mabon
Footnotes
Further reading
Amy L. Stone, Gay Rights at the Ballot Box. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.
LGBT law in the United States
1992 Oregon ballot measures
1992 in LGBT history
LGBT in Oregon
Initiatives in the United States
|
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246489
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masochist
|
Masochist
|
Masochist may also refer to:
Sadomasochism, giving or receiving pleasure from the receipt or infliction of pain or humiliation
Masochist (album), released 2006 by deathcore band Elysia
Masochist, 2009 album by The John Steel Singers
Masochists & Martyrs, 2010 album by Z-Star
Masochist Mimes, 2004 album by Australian band The Scare
“Masochist”, song by Christina Aguilera from her 2018 album Liberation
"Masochist", song by Pendulum on the 2004 compilation album Jungle Sound: The Bassline Strikes Back!
"Masochist", song on Archetype (Tonedeff album), released in 2005
"Masochist", song on Girls and Boys (album), released in 2006 by Ingrid Michaelson
"The Masochist", song on the 2012 album Rock and Roll Is Black and Blue by Danko Jones
The Masochist, 1972 novel by Barry N. Malzberg
The Masochists, 2001 graphic novel by Nick Bertozzi
The Masochist, alias for The Prophet (musician) (born 1968), Dutch DJ and producer
Mountain Masochist Trail Run, 50-mile ultramarathon in the Blue Ridge Mountains, eastern United States
See also
Sadism (disambiguation)
Sadist (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20P%C3%A1kozd
|
Battle of Pákozd
|
The Battle of Pákozd (or Battle of Sukoró) was a battle in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, fought on the 29 September 1848 in the Pákozd – Sukoró – Pátka triangle. It was the first and one of the most important battles of the revolution, in which the Hungarian revolutionary army led by Lieutenant-General János Móga clashed with the troops of the Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić.
Background
The wave of revolutions of 1848 also affected the Habsburg Empire. The multiethnic nature of the empire made it particularly vulnerable to the wave of nationalism sweeping through Europe in the early and mid-19th century. When the news of the Paris Revolution reached Austria, liberal and nationalist tendencies exploded into open revolt. The most serious of these attempts at insurrection were the revolts in Italy (the First Italian War of Independence) and in Hungary (the Hungarian Revolution).
The empire lacked the military strength to crush both insurgencies. The rulers of Vienna therefore decided to concentrate their military forces on the Italian war scene while trying to meet the Hungarian demands. The strategy proved effective and during the summer of 1848 the uprisings in Italy were crushed, freeing troops for a campaign against the Hungarians.
In September of that year, an Austro-Croatian army of nearly 40,000 men, under the command of Josip Jelačić, broke into Hungary. The news of this, combined with the Austrians breaking the promises made as before, created great irritation among the Hungarians, who immediately organized their own army to meet the Habsburg forces.
In an effort to prevent the conflict, Hungarian Prime Minister Lajos Batthyány and Justice Minister Ferenc Deák traveled to Vienna to negotiate with the emperor. However, the journey was fruitless because the emperor refused to meet them.
At the same time as this was taking place in Vienna, Ádám Teleky was appointed commander of the Hungarian army. Teleky was worried that his hastily assembled forces would not be able to compete with the Imperial Army, so he decided to retreat to Székesfehérvár. The withdrawal of the army created great dissatisfaction in the Hungarian parliament, which immediately fired Teleky. Archbishop Stefan was appointed the new commander. Stefan, who wanted to negotiate with the Austrians, invited Jelačić to a meeting at Balatonszemes but he never arrived.
Battle
On the morning of September 29, the Hungarian army had taken advantageous positions between the village of Pátka and the town of Velence. Jelačić's plan was to break the Hungarians' right flank at Pátka and then direct a concerted attack on the center, which he hoped would lead to the total annihilation of the enemy army. The battle began with Major General Kempen attacking the Hungarian positions at Pátka with 8,000 men and forcing the defenders to retreat after a brief battle. The Hungarian right wing, however, went on the counterattack and managed to stop the Austrian advance. Jelačić launched his main attack on the Hungarian center, which was repulsed. After consulting with Kempen, Jelačić began negotiations on a ceasefire while the Austrians withdrew from the battlefield, covered by artillery.
Aftermath
Although the battle ended in an Hungarian victory, the success was not used. A truce was concluded shortly afterwards and the Hungarians withdrew to Martonvásár. Jelačić, who was afraid of being surrounded, organized an orderly retreat towards Vienna. Despite the small size of the battle compared to future battles, the victory raised the morale of the Hungarian army that had managed to meet and defeat the emperor's troops.
In Hungary its anniversary (29 September) later became "National Defence Day" (). In 1991 that day was changed to 21 May (the date of the recapture of Buda at the Battle of Buda (1849)).
References
Sources
{{citation|title=Magyarország hadtörténete két kötetben ("Military History of Hungary in two volumes")|language=hu|isbn=963-326-332-8}}
Nobili, Johann. Hungary 1848: The Winter Campaign''. Edited and translated Christopher Pringle. Warwick, UK: Helion & Company Ltd., 2021.
External links
Video animation about the Battle of Pákozd
Pakozd 1848
Pakozd 1848
Military history of Hungary
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
Fejér County
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20folk%20music
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American folk music
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The term American folk music encompasses numerous music genres, variously known as traditional music, traditional folk music, contemporary folk music, or roots music. Many traditional songs have been sung within the same family or folk group for generations, and sometimes trace back to such origins as Great Britain, Mainland Europe, or Africa. Musician Mike Seeger once famously commented that the definition of American folk music is "...all the music that fits between the cracks."
Roots music is a broad category of music including bluegrass, gospel, old time music, jug bands, Appalachian folk, blues, Cajun and Native American music. The music is considered American either because it is native to the United States or because it developed there, out of foreign origins, to such a degree that it struck musicologists as something distinctly new. It is considered "roots music" because it served as the basis of music later developed in the United States, including rock and roll, rhythm and blues, and jazz.
Early American folk music
Most songs of the Colonial and Revolutionary periods originated in England, Scotland and Ireland and were brought over by early settlers. "Barbara Allen" remains a popular traditional ballad originating in England and Scotland, which immigrants introduced to the United States. The murder ballad "Pretty Polly" is an American version of an earlier British song, "The Gosport Tragedy".
Spirituals
African American folk music in the area has roots in slavery and emancipation. "Sacred music, both a Capella and instrumentally accompanied, is at the heart of the tradition. Early spirituals framed Christian beliefs within native practices and were heavily influenced by the music and rhythms of Africa." Spirituals are prominent, and often use a call and response pattern. "Gospel developed after the Civil War (1861-65). It relied on biblical text for much of its direction, and the use of metaphors and imagery was common. Gospel is a "joyful noise," sometimes accompanied by instrumentation and almost always punctuated by hand clapping, toe tapping, and body movement."
Work songs
Sea shanties
Sea shanties functioned to lighten the burden of routine tasks and provide a rhythm that helped workers perform as a team.
Cowboy songs
Cowboys songs are typically ballads that cowboys sang in the West and Southwest. The familiar “Streets of Laredo" (or "Cowboys Lament") derives from an Irish folk song of the late 18th century called "The Unfortunate Rake", which in turn appears to have descended from the even earlier "The Bard of Armagh". While "Streets of Laredo" uses the same melody as "The Unfortunate Rake", "St. James Infirmary Blues" adapts the story to a different tune. This illustrates how folk songs can change in the retelling and appear in a variety of versions.
Railroad songs
The "Ballad of John Henry (folklore)" is about an African-American folk hero said to have worked as a "steel-driving man".
Roots music
Many roots musicians do not consider themselves folk musicians. The main difference between the American folk music revival and American "roots music" is that roots music seems to cover a broader range, including blues and country.
Roots music developed its most expressive and varied forms in the first three decades of the 20th century. The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl were extremely important in disseminating these musical styles to the rest of the country, as Delta blues masters, itinerant honky tonk singers, Cajun musicians spread to cities like Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York. The growth of the recording industry in the same period was also important; higher potential profits from music placed pressure on artists, songwriters, and label executives to replicate previous hit songs. This meant that musical fads, such as Hawaiian slack-key guitar, never died out completely, since a broad range of rhythms, instruments, and vocal stylings were incorporated into disparate popular genres.
By the 1950s, forms of roots music had led to pop-oriented forms. Folk musicians like the Kingston Trio, blues-derived rock and roll and rockabilly, pop-gospel, doo wop and R&B (later secularized further as soul music) and the Nashville sound in country music all modernized and expanded the musical palette of the country.
The roots approach to music emphasizes the diversity of American musical traditions, the genealogy of creative lineages and communities, and the innovative contributions of musicians working in these traditions today. In recent years roots music has been the focus of popular media programs such as Garrison Keillor's public radio program, A Prairie Home Companion and the feature film by the same name.
Regional forms
American traditional music is also called roots music. Roots music is a broad category of music including bluegrass, country music, gospel, old time music, jug bands, Appalachian folk, blues, Cajun and Native American music. The music is considered American either because it is native to the United States or because it developed there, out of foreign origins, to such a degree that it struck musicologists as something distinctly new. It is considered "roots music" because it served as the basis of music later developed in the United States, including rock and roll, contemporary folk music, rhythm and blues, and jazz.
Appalachian music
Appalachian music is the traditional music of the region of Appalachia in the Eastern United States. It derives from various European and African influences—including English ballads, Irish and Scottish traditional music (especially fiddle music), hymns, and African-American blues. First recorded in the 1920s, Appalachian musicians were a key influence on the early development of Old-time music, country music, and bluegrass, and were an important part of the American folk music revival.
Instruments typically used to perform Appalachian music include the banjo, American fiddle, fretted dulcimer, and guitar.
Early recorded Appalachian musicians include Fiddlin' John Carson, Henry Whitter, Bascom Lamar Lunsford, the Carter Family, Clarence Ashley, Frank Proffitt, and Dock Boggs, all of whom were initially recorded in the 1920s and 1930s. Several Appalachian musicians obtained renown during the folk revival of the 1950s and 1960s, including Jean Ritchie, Roscoe Holcomb, Ola Belle Reed, Lily May Ledford, and Doc Watson.
The Carter Family was a traditional American folk music group that recorded between 1927 and 1956. Their music had a profound impact on bluegrass, country, Southern Gospel, pop and rock musicians. They were the first vocal group to become country music stars; a beginning of the divergence of country music from traditional folk music. Their recordings of such songs as "Wabash Cannonball" (1932), "Will the Circle Be Unbroken" (1935), "Wildwood Flower" (1928), and "Keep on the Sunny Side" (1928) made them country standards.
Country and bluegrass artists such as Loretta Lynn, Roy Acuff, Dolly Parton, Earl Scruggs, Chet Atkins, and Don Reno were heavily influenced by traditional Appalachian music. Artists such as Bob Dylan, Jerry Garcia, and Bruce Springsteen have performed Appalachian songs or rewritten versions of Appalachian songs.
Cajun music
Cajun music, an emblematic music of Louisiana, is rooted in the ballads of the French-speaking Acadians of Canada. Cajun music is often mentioned in tandem with the Creole-based, Cajun-influenced zydeco form, both of Acadiana origin. These French Louisiana sounds have influenced American popular music for many decades, especially country music, and have influenced pop culture through mass media, such as television commercials.
Oklahoma and southern US plains
Before recorded history American Indians in this area used songs and instrumentation; music and dance remain the core of ceremonial and social activities. "Stomp dance" remains at its core, a "call and response" form; instrumentation is provided by rattles or shackles worn on the legs of women. "Other southeastern nations have their own complexes of sacred and social songs, including those for animal dances and friendship dances, and songs that accompany stickball games.
Central to the music of the southern Plains Indians is the drum, which has been called the heartbeat of Plains Indian music. Most of that genre traces back to the hunting and warfare that was a strong part of plains culture. During the reservation period, they frequently used music to relieve boredom and despair. Neighbors gathered, exchanged and created songs and dances. This is a part of the roots of the modern intertribal powwow. Another common instrument is the courting flute.
Shape-note or sacred harp singing developed in the early nineteenth century as a way for itinerant singing instructors to teach church songs in rural communities. They taught using song books that represented musical notation of tones by geometric shapes that associated a shape with a pitch. Sacred harp singing became popular in many Oklahoma rural communities, regardless of ethnicity.
Later, the blues tradition developed, with roots in and parallels to sacred music. By the early 20th century, jazz developed, born from a "blend of ragtime, gospel, and blues" "Anglo-Scots-Irish music traditions gained a place in Oklahoma after the Land Run of 1889. Because of its size and portability, the fiddle was the core of early Oklahoma Anglo music, but other instruments such as the guitar, mandolin, banjo, and steel guitar were added later. Various Oklahoma music traditions trace their roots to the British Isles, including cowboy ballads, western swing, and contemporary country and western." "Mexican immigrants began to reach Oklahoma in the 1870s, bringing beautiful canciones and corridos love songs, waltzes, and ballads along with them. Like American Indian communities, each rite of passage in Hispanic communities is accompanied by traditional music.
The acoustic guitar, string bass, and violin provide the basic instrumentation for Mexican music, with maracas, flute, horns, or sometimes accordion filling out the sound." Other Europeans (such as Bohemians and Germans) settled in the late nineteenth century. Their social activities centered on community halls, "where local musicians played polkas and waltzes on the accordion, piano, and brass instruments."
Later Asians contributed to the musical mix. "Ancient music and dance traditions from the temples and courts of China, India, and Indonesia are preserved in Asian communities throughout the state, and popular song genres are continually layered on to these classical music forms"
The American Southwest and South Texas
Tejano and New Mexico music, heard throughout the American Southwest and South Texas, is rooted in the musics of the Native American and Hispanic/Latino communities of the regions. Tejano music is also heavily influenced by Regional Mexican and Country music, while New Mexico music is much more influenced by Hispano folk and Western music. Both styles have influenced one another over the years, and incorporated American popular music styles.
Other forms
Folk composer and musician Robert Schmertz composed and wrote pieces related to historical events in Western Pennsylvania.
20th century folk revival music
Starting in the mid-20th century a phenomenon termed the folk music revival began, forming a new contemporary type of folk music. It was somewhat centered on but not limited to the United States. While sometimes termed the American Folk Music Revival, it was somewhat international and does not fit some narrower definitions of American folk music even when the artists were American. Prominent artists from this movement include Pete Seeger, Woody Guthrie, The Weavers, Burl Ives, and others. A more commercially oriented version of folk music emerged in the 1960s, including performers such as The Kingston Trio, The Limeliters, The Brothers Four, Peter, Paul and Mary, Joan Baez, The Highwaymen, Judy Collins, The New Christy Minstrels, and Gordon Lightfoot, as well as counterculture and folk rock performers including Bob Dylan, The Byrds, Arlo Guthrie, and Buffy Sainte-Marie.
Books
In 2004, NPR published the book titled The NPR Curious Listener's Guide to American Folk Music, Linda Ronstadt wrote the foreword.
The Never-Ending Revival: Rounder Records and the Folk Alliance by Michael F. Scully (University of Illinois Press, 2008)
In 2007, James P. Leary published Polkabilly: How the Goose Island Ramblers Redefined American Folk Music, which proposes a redefinition of traditional American folk music and identifies a new genre of music from the Upper Midwest known as Polkabilly, which blends ethnic music, old-time country music, and polka. The book was awarded the American Folklore Society’s Chicago Folklore Prize for the best book in the field of folklore scholarship.
Film and TV
Hootenanny, a weekly musical variety show broadcast on the ABC network in the U.S. in 1963–1964, primarily featured folk musicians.
The soundtrack of the 2000 film O Brother, Where Art Thou? is exclusively roots music, performed by Alison Krauss, The Fairfield Four, Emmylou Harris, Norman Blake and others.
In 2001, PBS broadcast a 4-part documentary series, American Roots Music, that explored the historical roots of American roots music through footage and performances by the creators of the movement.
The 2003 film A Mighty Wind is a tribute to (and parody of) the folk-pop musicians of the early 1960s.
A six-hour public television series, The Music of America: History Through Musical Traditions, appeared in 2010.
See also
American folk music revival
Anthology of American Folk Music
List of North American folk music traditions
Protest songs in the United States
References
Further reading and listening
Nettl, Bruno. An Introduction to Folk Music in the United States. Rev. ed. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1962.
External links
The Historyscoper
The Folk File: A Folkie's Dictionary by Bill Markwick (1945-2017) - musical definitions and short biographies for American and U.K. Folk musicians and groups. Retrieved September 21, 2017.
Folk
|
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246503
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele%20Goldberg%20%28linguist%29
|
Adele Goldberg (linguist)
|
Adele Eva Goldberg (born November 9, 1963, Columbus OH) is an American linguist, best known for the construction grammar in the tradition of cognitive linguistics.
Academic career
In 1985, Goldberg received a B.A. in Mathematics and Philosophy from University of Pennsylvania. She received an M.A. in 1989 in linguistics, and in 1992 a PhD in linguistics, both from the University of California at Berkeley, studying with George Lakoff, Charles Fillmore, and Dan Slobin.
Since 2004, she has been Professor of Psychology and Linguistics at Princeton University. From 1997 to 2004, she was Associate Professor of Linguistics at the Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. From 1992 to 1997, she was Assistant Professor of Linguistics and from 1997 to 1998 Associate Professor of Linguistics at the University of California, San Diego.
Personal life
She is married to Ali Yazdani, a professor of physics, and they have two children. Her brother is Ken Y. Goldberg, an IEOR professor at UC Berkeley.
Awards
2019 Fillmore Professorship, Linguistic Society of America Institute
2016 Labex International Chair, Paris, France.
2016 Humboldt Research Award.
2014 Fellow of the Linguistic Society of America.
2010–2014 Visiting Fellow, Einstein Foundation. Freie Universitat, Berlin.
2003–2004 Fellow at Center for Advanced Study of Behavioral Sciences. Stanford, California.
2000 Fellow of the Center for Advanced Study, UIUC.
1996 Gustave O. Arlt Book Award. North American Graduate Council for Constructions (1995).j
Selected publications
2019: Explain Me This: Creativity, Competition and the Partial Productivity of Constructions. Princeton University Press.
2006: Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalization in Language. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2006.
1995: Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
References
External links
Official homepage at Princeton University
1963 births
Living people
Linguists from the United States
Women linguists
Cognitive scientists
Syntacticians
Women cognitive scientists
Place of birth missing (living people)
Developmental psycholinguists
Humboldt Research Award recipients
Fellows of the Linguistic Society of America
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silage
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Silage
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Silage () is a type of fodder made from green foliage crops which have been preserved by fermentation to the point of acidification. It can be fed to cattle, sheep and other such ruminants (cud-chewing animals). The fermentation and storage process is called ensilage, ensiling or silaging. Silage is usually made from grass crops, including maize, sorghum or other cereals, using the entire green plant (not just the grain). Silage can be made from many field crops, and special terms may be used depending on type: oatlage for oats, haylage for alfalfa (haylage may also refer to high dry matter silage made from hay).
Silage can be made using several methods, largely dependent on available technology, local tradition or prevailing climate.
Production
The crops most often used for ensilage are the ordinary grasses, clovers, alfalfa, vetches, oats, rye and maize. Many crops have ensilaging potential, including potatoes and various weeds, notably spurrey such as Spergula arvensis. Silage must be made from plant material with a suitable moisture content: about 50% to 60% depending on the means of storage, the degree of compression, and the amount of water that will be lost in storage, but not exceeding 75%. Weather during harvest need not be as fair and dry as when harvesting for drying. For corn, harvest begins when the whole-plant moisture is at a suitable level, ideally a few days before it is ripe. For pasture-type crops, the grass is mown and allowed to wilt for a day or so until the moisture content drops to a suitable level. Ideally the crop is mowed when in full flower, and deposited in the silo on the day of its cutting.
After harvesting, crops are shredded to pieces about long. The material is spread in uniform layers over the floor of the silo, and closely packed. When the silo is filled or the stack built, a layer of straw or some other dry porous substance may be spread over the surface. In the silo, the pressure of the material, when chaffed, excludes air from all but the top layer; in the case of the stack, extra pressure is applied by weights to prevent excessive heating.
Equipment
Forage harvesters collect and chop the plant material, and deposit it in trucks or wagons. These forage harvesters can be either tractor-drawn or self-propelled. Harvesters blow the chaff into the wagon through a chute at the rear or side of the machine. Chaff may also be emptied into a bagger, which puts the silage into a large plastic bag that is laid out on the ground.
In North America, Australia, northwestern Europe, and New Zealand it is common for silage to be placed in large heaps on the ground, rolled by tractor to push out the air, then covered with plastic sheets that are held down by used tires or tire ring walls. In New Zealand and Northern Europe, 'clamps' made of concrete or old wooden railway ties (sleepers) and built into the side of a bank are sometimes used. The chopped grass can then be dumped in at the top, to be drawn from the bottom in winter. This requires considerable effort to compress the stack in the silo to cure it properly. Again, the pit is covered with plastic sheet and weighed down with tires.
In an alternative method, the cut vegetation is baled, making balage (North America) or silage bales (UK). The grass or other forage is cut and partly dried until it contains 30–40% moisture (much drier than bulk silage, but too damp to be stored as dry hay). It is then made into large bales which are wrapped tightly in plastic to exclude air. The plastic may wrap the whole of each cylindrical or cuboid bale, or be wrapped around only the curved sides of a cylindrical bale, leaving the ends uncovered. In this case, the bales are placed tightly end to end on the ground, making a long continuous "sausage" of silage, often at the side of a field. The wrapping may be performed by a bale wrapper, while the baled silage is handled using a bale handler or a front-loader, either impaling the bale on a flap, or by using a special grab. The flaps do not hole the bales.
In the UK, baled silage is most often made in round bales about 4 feet by 4 feet, individually wrapped with four to six layers of "bale wrap plastic" (black, white or green 25-micrometre stretch film). The percentage of dry matter can vary from about 20% dry matter upwards. The continuous "sausage" referred to above is made with a special machine which wraps the bales as they are pushed through a rotating hoop which applies the bale wrap to the outside of the bales (round or square) in a continuous wrap. The machine places the bales on the ground after wrapping by moving forward slowly during the wrapping process.
Haylage
Haylage sometimes refers to high dry matter silage of around 40% to 60%, typically made from hay. Horse haylage is usually 60% to 70% dry matter, made in small bales or larger bales.
Handling of wrapped bales is most often with some type of gripper that squeezes the plastic-covered bale between two metal parts to avoid puncturing the plastic. Simple fixed versions are available for round bales which are made of two shaped pipes or tubes spaced apart to slide under the sides of the bale, but when lifted will not let it slip through. Often used on the tractor rear three-point linkage, they incorporate a trip tipping mechanism which can flip the bales over on to the flat side or end for storage on the thickest plastic layers.
Fermentation
Silage undergoes anaerobic fermentation, which starts about 48 hours after the silo is filled, and converts sugars to acids. Fermentation is essentially complete after about two weeks.
Before anaerobic fermentation starts, there is an aerobic phase in which the trapped oxygen is consumed. How closely the fodder is packed determines the nature of the resulting silage by regulating the chemical reactions that occur in the stack. When closely packed, the supply of oxygen is limited, and the attendant acid fermentation brings about decomposition of the carbohydrates present into acetic, butyric and lactic acids. This product is named sour silage. If the fodder is unchaffed and loosely packed, or the silo is built gradually, oxidation proceeds more rapidly and the temperature rises; if the mass is compressed when the temperature is , the action ceases and sweet silage results. The nitrogenous ingredients of the fodder also change: in making sour silage, as much as one-third of the albuminoids may be converted into amino and ammonium compounds; in making sweet silage, a smaller proportion is changed, but they become less digestible. If the fermentation process is poorly managed, sour silage acquires an unpleasant odour due to excess production of ammonia or butyric acid (the latter is responsible for the smell of rancid butter).
In the past, the fermentation was conducted by indigenous microorganisms, but, today, some bulk silage is inoculated with specific microorganisms to speed fermentation or improve the resulting silage. Silage inoculants contain one or more strains of lactic acid bacteria, and the most common is Lactobacillus plantarum. Other bacteria used include Lactobacillus buchneri, Enterococcus faecium and Pediococcus species.
Ryegrasses have high sugars and respond to nitrogen fertiliser better than any other grass species. These two qualities have made ryegrass the most popular grass for silage-making for the last sixty years. There are three ryegrasses in seed form and commonly used: Italian, Perennial and Hybrid.
Pollution and waste
The fermentation process of silo or pit silage releases liquid. Silo effluent is corrosive. It can also contaminate water sources unless collected and treated. The high nutrient content can lead to eutrophication (hypertrophication), the growth of bacterial or algal blooms.
Plastic sheeting used for sealing pit or baled silage needs proper disposal, and some areas have recycling schemes for it. Traditionally, farms have burned silage plastics; however odor and smoke concerns have led certain communities to restrict that practice.
Storing silage
Silage must be firmly packed to minimize the oxygen content, or it will spoil.
Silage goes through four major stages in a silo:
Presealing, which, after the first few days after filling a silo, enables some respiration and some dry matter (DM) loss, but stops
Fermentation, which occurs over a few weeks; pH drops; there is more DM loss, but hemicellulose is broken down; aerobic respiration stops
Infiltration, which enables some oxygen infiltration, allowing for limited microbial respiration; available carbohydrates (CHOs) are lost as heat and gas
Emptying, which exposes surface, causing additional loss; rate of loss increases.
Safety
Silos are potentially hazardous: deaths may occur in the process of filling and maintaining them, and several safety precautions are necessary. There is a risk of injury by machinery or from falls. When a silo is filled, fine dust particles in the air can become explosive because of their large aggregate surface area. Also, fermentation presents respiratory hazards. The ensiling process produces "silo gas" during the early stages of the fermentation process. Silage gas contains nitric oxide (NO), which will react with oxygen (O2) in the air to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which is toxic. Lack of oxygen inside the silo can cause asphyxiation. Molds that grow when air reaches cured silage can cause organic dust toxic syndrome. Collapsing silage from large bunker silos has caused deaths. Silage itself poses no special danger.
Nutrition
Ensilage can be substituted for root crops. Bulk silage is commonly fed to dairy cattle, while baled silage tends to be used for beef cattle, sheep and horses. The advantages of silage as animal feed are several:
During fermentation, the silage bacteria act on the cellulose and carbohydrates in the forage to produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs), such as acetic, propionic, lactic, and butyric acids. By lowering pH, these produce a hostile environment for competing bacteria that might cause spoilage. The VFAs thus act as natural preservatives, in the same way that the lactic acid in yogurt and cheese increases the preservability of what began as milk, or vinegar (dilute acetic acid) preserves pickled vegetables. This preservative action is particularly important during winter in temperate regions, when green forage is unavailable.
When silage is prepared under optimal conditions, the modest acidity also has the effect of improving palatability and provides a dietary contrast for the animal. (However, excessive production of acetic and butyric acids can reduce palatability: the mix of bacteria is ideally chosen so as to maximize lactic acid production.)
Several of the fermenting organisms produce vitamins: for example, lactobacillus species produce folic acid and vitamin B12.
The fermentation process that produces VFA also yields energy that the bacteria use: some of the energy is released as heat. Silage is thus modestly lower in caloric content than the original forage, in the same way that yogurt has modestly fewer calories than milk. However, this loss of energy is offset by the preservation characteristics and improved digestibility of silage.
History
Using the same technique as the process for making sauerkraut, green fodder was preserved for animals in parts of Germany since the start of the 19th century. This gained the attention of a French agriculturist, Auguste Goffart of Sologne, near Orléans, who published a book in 1877 which described the experiences of preserving green crops in silos. Goffart's experience attracted considerable attention. The conditions of dairy farming in the United States suited the ensiling of green corn fodder, and was soon adopted by New England farmers. Francis Morris of Maryland prepared the first silage produced in America in 1876. The favourable results obtained in the US led to the introduction of the system in the United Kingdom, where Thomas Kirby first introduced the process for British dairy herds.
The modern silage preserved with acid and by preventing contact with air was invented by a Finnish academic and professor of chemistry Artturi Ilmari Virtanen. Virtanen was awarded the 1945 Nobel prize in chemistry "for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method", practically inventing modern silage.
Early silos were made of stone or concrete either above or below ground, but it is recognized that air may be sufficiently excluded in a tightly pressed stack, though in this case a few inches of the fodder round the sides is generally useless owing to mildew. In the US, structures were typically constructed of wooden cylinders to 35 or 40 ft. in depth.
In the early days of mechanized agriculture, stalks were cut and collected manually using a knife and horsedrawn wagon, and fed into a stationary machine called a "silo filler" that chopped the stalks and blew them up a narrow tube to the top of a tower silo.
Anaerobic digestion
Silage may be used for anaerobic digestion.
Fish silage
Fish silage is a method used for conserving by-products from fishing for later use as feed in fish farming. This way, the parts of the fish that are not used as human food such as fish guts (entrails), fish heads and trimmings are instead utilized as ingredients in feed pellets. The silage is performed by first grinding the remains and mixing it with formic acid, and then storing it in a tank. The acid helps with preservation as well as further dissolving the residues. Process plants for fish silage can either come in the form of tanks onboard ships or on land.
See also
Artturi Ilmari Virtanen
Grain crimping
Mycoestrogen
Trifolium pratense
Xenoestrogen
References
Sources
Making and Feeding Silage, John Murdoch, B.Sc, Ph.D. Published by Dairy Farmer (Books) Limited, Lloyd's Chambers, Ipswich, UK 1961)
Feeding baleage to horses – the ultimate guide – Horsetalk.co.nz
"The Owner-Built Homestead" by Barbara and Ken Kern, New York: Scribner, 1977.
Further reading
Zhou, Yiqin. Compar[ison of] Fresh or Ensiled Fodders (e.g., Grass, Legume, Corn) on the Production of Greenhouse Gases Following Enteric Fermentation in Beef Cattle. Rouyn-Noranda, Qué.: Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 2011. N.B.: Research report.
Anaerobic digestion
Fodder
|
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246513
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele%20Goldberg%20%28computer%20scientist%29
|
Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)
|
Adele Goldberg (born July 22, 1945) is an American computer scientist. She participated in developing the programming language Smalltalk-80 and various concepts related to object-oriented programming while a researcher at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), in the 1970s.
Early life
She was born in Cleveland, Ohio, and grew up in Chicago, Illinois. She earned a bachelor's degree in mathematics at the University of Michigan, and a master's degree in information science from the University of Chicago. She completed her PhD in information science at the University of Chicago in 1973. She completed her dissertation, "Computer-Assisted Instruction: The Application of Theorem-proving to Adaptive Response Analysis," while working as a research associate at Stanford University. She served as a visiting researcher at Stanford University.
Goldberg began working at PARC in 1973 as a laboratory and research assistant, and eventually became manager of the System Concepts Laboratory where she, Alan Kay, and others developed Smalltalk-80. This language developed the object-oriented approach of Simula 67 and introduced a programming environment of overlapping windows on graphic display screens. Smalltalk's innovative format was simple to use and customizable. Objects could be transferred among applications with minimal effort. Goldberg and Kay were involved in the development of design templates, forerunners of the design patterns later used in software design.
Along with Kay, she wrote the influential article "Personal Dynamic Media", which predicted a world in which ordinary individuals would use notebook computers to exchange, modify, and redistribute personal media. This paper outlined the vision for the Dynabook.
She was president of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) from 1984 to 1986, and, together with Alan Kay and Dan Ingalls, received the ACM Software Systems Award in 1987. She was included in Forbes's "Twenty Who Matter". She received PC Magazine'''s Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996. In 1994, she was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.
Many of the concepts developed by Goldberg and her team at PARC became the basis for graphical user interfaces. According to Goldberg, Steve Jobs demanded a demonstration of the Smalltalk System, which she refused to give him. Her superiors eventually compelled her to comply. Apple eventually used many of the ideas in the Alto and their implementations as the basis for their Apple Macintosh desktop environment.
In 1988, Goldberg left PARC to co-found ParcPlace Systems, a company that created development tools for Smalltalk-based applications. She served as ParcPlace Systems's chairwoman and CEO until its 1995 merger with Digitalk.
She cofounded Neometron, Inc. an Internet support provider in 1999. She works at Bullitics. She continues to pursue her interest in education, formulating computer science courses at community colleges in the United States and abroad. She is a board member and adviser at Cognito Learning Media, a provider of multimedia software for science education.
The Computer History Museum houses a collection of Goldberg's working documents, reports, publications and videotapes related to her work on the development of Smalltalk.
Selected publications
Smalltalk-80: The Language and Its Implementation (with David Robson), Addison-Wesley, 1983, (out of print; called the blue book by Smalltalk people)
Smalltalk-80: the Interactive Programming Environment, Addison-Wesley, 1984, (the orange book)
Smalltalk-80: The Language (with David Robson), Addison-Wesley, 1989, (the purple book, a revision of the blue book'')
References
External links
A brief biography
Smalltalk FAQ (reference for publications)
Transcript of interview from IEEE Global History Network
Neometron
Oral History of Adele Goldberg, Computer History Museum
1945 births
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American scientists
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American women scientists
21st-century American scientists
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American women scientists
American computer scientists
20th-century American Jews
American technology writers
American women computer scientists
Engineers from Illinois
Engineers from Ohio
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Jewish women scientists
Living people
Presidents of the Association for Computing Machinery
Scientists at PARC (company)
Scientists from California
Scientists from Chicago
Scientists from Cleveland
University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
Women technology writers
21st-century American Jews
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCI%20Road%20World%20Championships%20%E2%80%93%20Men%27s%20road%20race
|
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race
|
The UCI Road World Championships Elite Men's Road Race is a one-day event for professional cyclists that takes place annually. The winner is considered the World Cycling Champion (or World Road Cycling Champion) and earns the right to wear the Rainbow Jersey for a full year in road race or stage events. The event is a single 'mass start' road race with the winner being the first across the line at the completion of the full race distance.
The road race is contested by riders organized by national cycling teams as opposed to commercially sponsored or trade teams, which is the standard in professional cycling.
History
The first professional World Cycling Championship took place in 1927 at the Nürburgring in Germany and was won by Alfredo Binda, of Italy. In recent years, the race is held towards the end of the European season, usually following the Vuelta a España. The event can be held over either a relatively flat course which favors cycling sprinters or over a hilly course which favors more of a climbing specialist or all-round type of cyclist.
The elite men's race is usually won by riders on the UCI World Tour or its predecessors. However, in the past there were separate events for amateur riders, mainly from Eastern bloc countries.
For men at the elite professional level, the World Cycling Championship, along with the Tour de France, and the Giro d'Italia, forms the Triple Crown of Cycling.
Medalists
Seven cyclists have successfully defended their title (three Belgians, two Italians, a Slovakian and a French): Georges Ronsse (Belgium, 1928–29); Rik Van Steenbergen (Belgium, 1956–57); Rik Van Looy (Belgium, 1960–61); Gianni Bugno (Italy, 1991–92); Paolo Bettini (Italy, 2006–07), Peter Sagan (Slovakia, 2015–17) and Julian Alaphilippe (France, 2020–21). Sagan is the only rider with three straight titles (2015–17). Spaniard Alejandro Valverde has the most total medals by any individual rider with seven (1 gold in 2018; 2 silver in 2003, 2005; 4 bronze in 2006, 2012–14).
Most successful riders
Medals per country
Notes
See also
GP Wolber
References
Men's road race
Recurring sporting events established in 1927
Men's road bicycle races
Lists of UCI Road World Championships medalists
Super Prestige Pernod races
|
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] |
246515
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silo%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Silo (disambiguation)
|
A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials.
Silo or SILO may refer to:
Computers
Data silo, a type of information silo
SILO (boot loader), used in Linux
Silo (library), a data file format and library for scientific model data
Silo (software), a 3D modeling software
People
Quintus Poppaedius Silo, leader of the Italian tribe of the Marsi
Silo of Asturias, king of Asturias (in Spain) from 774 to 783
Silo (Mario Rodríguez) (1938–2010), Argentine writer and founder of the Humanist Movement
Other uses
Missile silo, an underground missile launching facility
Information silo, a management system incapable of reciprocal operation with other, related management systems
Roy and Silo, chinstrap penguin pair
School Infrastructure Local Option, a 1% local option sales tax in Iowa, U.S.
Silastic silo, used to treat abdominal wall defects
Silo (series), science fiction novellas by Hugh Howey
Silo (store), a defunct chain of retail electronics stores
The Silo, an agricultural newspaper from Lesotho
Silo (insect), a genus of insects in the order Trichoptera
Silo (film), a 2021 American thriller drama film
See also
Shilo (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homesteading
|
Homesteading
|
Homesteading is a vernacular term for a lifestyle of self-sufficiency. It is characterized by subsistence agriculture, home preservation of food, and may also involve the small scale production of textiles, clothing, and craft work for household use or sale. Pursued in different ways around the world—and in different historical eras—homesteading is generally differentiated from rural village or commune living by isolation (either socially or physically) of the homestead. Use of the term in the United States dates back to the Homestead Act (1862) and before. In sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in nations formerly controlled by the British Empire, a homestead is the household compound for a single extended family. In the UK, the terms smallholder and croft are rough synonyms of homesteader.
Modern homesteaders often use renewable energy options including solar and wind power. Many also choose to plant and grow heirloom vegetables and to raise heritage livestock. Homesteading is not defined by where someone lives, such as the city or the country, but by the lifestyle choices they make.
As historical governmental policy
Historically, homesteading has been used by governmental entities (engaged in national expansion) to help settle what were previously unsettled (though not unpeopled) areas, especially in the United States, Canada, and Australia. Guided by legal homestead principles, many of these "homestead acts" were instituted in the 19th and 20th centuries and targeted specific areas, with most being discontinued after a set time-frame or goal.
Renewed interest in homesteading was brought about by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's program of Subsistence Homesteading in the 1930s and 1940s.
As a social movement
The attractiveness of back-to-the-land movements dates from the Roman era, and has been noted in Asian poetry and philosophy tracts as well (Agriculturalism). In the 1700s, the philosophy of physiocracy developed in France and by the 1800s and early 1900s the philosophy of Agrarianism had taken hold in many places around the world. The ideas of modern homesteading proponents, such as Ralph Borsodi, gained in popularity in the 1960s in the United States. Self-sufficiency movements in the 1990s and 2000s began to apply the concept to urban and suburban settings, known as urban homesteading. According to author John Seymour, "urban homesteading" incorporates small-scale sustainable agriculture and homemaking.
As economic choice
In homesteading, social and government support systems are frequently eschewed in favor of self-reliance and relative deprivation in order to maximize independence and self-determination. The degree of independence occurs along a spectrum, with many homesteaders creating foodstuffs or crafts to appeal to high-end niche markets in order to meet financial needs. Other homesteaders come to the lifestyle following successful careers which provide the funding for land, housing, taxes, and specialized equipment such as solar panels, farm equipment, and electric generators.
Modern government regulation—in the form of building codes, food safety codes, zoning regulations, minimum wage and social security for occasional labor, and town council restrictions on landscaping and animal keeping—can increase the marginal cost of home production of food in areas affected by these restrictions. Careful choice of homesteading location is essential for economic success.
Potential benefits of homesteading include a satisfying standard of living and a healthier, more rewarding lifestyle than more conventional patterns of living.
See also
Permaculture
Seasteading
Notes
Further reading
Cannon, Brian Q., “Homesteading Remembered: A Sesquicentennial Perspective,” Agricultural History, 87 (Winter 2013), 1–29.
External links
Mid-America Homesteading Conference
State of Alaska Land Offerings and Remote Recreation Cabins Staking Program
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Homesteading
Simple living
Self-sustainability
Western (genre) staples and terminology
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small%20hydro
|
Small hydro
|
Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale suitable for local community and industry, or to contribute to distributed generation in a regional electricity grid. Exact definitions vary, but a "small hydro" project is less than 50 megawatts (MW), and can be further subdivide by scale into "mini" (<1MW), "micro" (<100 kW), "pico" (<10 kW). In contrast many hydroelectric projects are of enormous size, such as the generating plant at the Three Gorges Dam at 22,500 megawatts or the vast multiple projects of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a national electricity grid, or in areas where a national grid does not exist.
Description
The use of the term "small hydro" varies considerably around the world, the maximum limit is usually somewhere between 10 and 30 MW. While a minimum limit is not usually set, the US National Hydropower Association specifies a minimum limit of 5 MW. In California, hydroelectric generating stations with a maximum capacity of less than 30 MW are classified as small, and are eligible for inclusion in the state's renewable portfolio standard, while hydroelectric generating stations with a higher capacity are classified as large and are not considered renewable. The "small hydro" description may be stretched up to in the United States, Canada and China. In India, hydro projects up to 25 MW station capacities have been categorized as Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects.
Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini hydro, usually defined as 100 to 1,000 kilowatts (kW), and micro hydro which is 5 to 100 kW. Micro hydro is usually the application of hydroelectric power sized for smaller communities, single families or small enterprise. The smallest installations are pico hydro, below 5 kW.
Since small hydro projects usually have correspondingly small civil construction work and little or no reservoir, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro.
Growth
According to a report by REN21, during 2008 small hydro installations grew by 28% over year 2005 to raise the total world small hydro capacity to 85 gigawatts (GW). Over 70% of this was in China (with 65 GW), followed by Japan (3.5 GW), the United States (3 GW) and India (2 GW). Global growth is expected to be 2.8% annually until the mid-2020s when capacity will be about 150 gigawatts.
China planned to electrify a further 10,000 villages between 2005 and 2010 under their China Village Electrification Program, including further investments in small hydro and photovoltaics. By 2010, China had 45,000 small hydro installations, especially in rural areas, producing 160 Twh annually. Over 50% of the world's potential small hydro power was found in Asia; however, the report noted, "It is possible in the future that more small hydropower potential might be identified both on the African and American continents".
In the mountains and rain forests of British Columbia, Canada there are a great many sites suitable for hydro development. However environmental concerns towards large reservoirs after the 1980s halted new dam construction. The solution to coping with increased demand was to offer contracts to independent power producers, who have built 100 run of the river projects under 50 MW. Power production without reservoirs varies dramatically, but older conventional dams retain or release water to average out production though the year. In 2014 these independent producers generated 18,000 GWh from 4,500 MW of capacity.
Generation
Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power from the movement of water. A hydroelectric facility requires a dependable flow of water and a reasonable height for the water to fall, called the head. In a typical installation, water is fed from a reservoir through a pipe into a turbine. The water flowing through the turbine causes an electrical generator to rotate, converting the motion into electrical energy.
Small hydro may developed by constructing new facilities or through re-development of existing dams whose primary purpose is flood control, or irrigation. Old hydro sites may be re-developed, sometimes salvaging substantial investment in the installation such as penstock pipe and turbines, or just re-using the water rights associated with an abandoned site. Either of these cost saving advantages can make the return on investment for a small hydro site well worth the use of existing sites.
Project design
Many companies offer standardized turbine generator packages in the approximate size range of 200 kW to 10 MW. These "water to wire" packages simplify the planning and development of the site since one vendor looks after most of the equipment supply. Because non-recurring engineering costs are minimized and development cost is spread over multiple units, the cost of such package systems is reduced. While synchronous generators capable of isolated plant operation are often used, small hydro plants connected to an electrical grid system can use economical induction generators to further reduce installation cost and simplify control and operation.
Small "run of the river" projects do not have a conventional dam with a reservoir, only a weir to form a headpond for diversion of inlet water to the turbine. Unused water simply flows over the weir and the headpond may only be capable of a single day's storage, not enough for dry summers or frozen winters when generation may come to a halt. A preferred scenario is to have the inlet in an existing lake.
Modular “micro hydrokinetic” systems have been developed for irrigation canals. "Irrigation districts across the U.S. have installed power plants at diversion points and in-canal drops, which are traditionally used for flow measurement, to stabilize upstream heads and to dissipate energy where there is significant elevation change throughout the canal system."
Countries like India and China have policies in favor of small hydro, and the regulatory process allows for building dams and reservoirs. In North America and Europe the regulatory process is too long and expensive to consider having a dam and a reservoir for a small project.
Small hydro projects usually have faster environmental and licensing procedures, and since the equipment is usually in serial production, standardized and simplified, and the civil works construction is also reduced, the projects may be developed very rapidly. The physically smaller size of equipment makes it easier to transport to remote areas without good road or rail access.
One measure of decreased environmental impact with lakes and reservoirs depends on the balance between stream flow and power production. Reducing water diversions helps the river's ecosystem, but reduces the hydro system's return on Investment (ROI). The hydro system design must strike a balance to maintain both the health of the stream and the economics.
Sample list of small installations worldwide
Africa
Zengamina, a 700 kW plant in Kalene Hill, Mwinilunga District in northwestern Zambia. 2008
Asia
Meenvallam Small Hydroelectric Project, Palakkad district, Kerala, India.
Bario Asal & Arur Layun Micro-Hydro Community Project, Kelabit Highlands, Sarawak, Malaysia. 2009
Ambangal Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, Kiangan, Ifugao, Philippines (2010)
Asiga River Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, Santiago, Agusan del Norte, Philippines (2019)
Balongbong Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, Bato, Catanduanes, Philippines (1983)
Cantingas Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, San Fernando, Romblon, Philippines (2009)
Likud Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, Asipulo and Kiangan, Ifugao, Philippines (2015)
New Bataan Hydro Electric Power Plant, New Bataan, Davao de Oro, Philippines (2018)
San Luis Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, San Luis, Aurora, Philippines (2011)
Villasiga Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, Bugasong, Antique, Philippines (2016)
Pakpattan Hydro Power Project, a 2.82 MW plant on Pakpattan Canal in Pakpattan District, Pakistan 2015
Europe
Green Valleys Project, Brecon Beacons National Park, Wales. Joint winner of £300K in Big Green Challenge 2009.
St Catherine's, a National Trust site near Windermere, Westmorland, United Kingdom.
North America
Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant, Colorado, United States. On the List of IEEE Milestones
Childs-Irving Hydroelectric Facilities, Arizona, United States. 1916 Now decommissioned
Snoqualmie Falls, Washington, United States. 1957
Malibu Hydro, British Columbia, Canada. 2005
Cloudworks Energy is one of many Independent power producers that have built projects in British Columbia, Canada
See also
Electricity generation
Hydro power
Low head hydro power
Micro hydro up to 100 kW
Pico hydro up to 5 kW
Conduit hydroelectricity
International Center on Small Hydro Power
References
Hydroelectricity
Power station technology
Renewable energy
Distributed generation
|
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246535
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20College%20Consortium
|
Five College Consortium
|
The Five College Consortium (often referred to as simply the Five Colleges) comprises four liberal arts colleges and one university in the Connecticut River Pioneer Valley of Western Massachusetts: Amherst College, Hampshire College, Mount Holyoke College, Smith College, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst, totaling approximately 38,000 students. They are geographically close to one another and are linked by frequent bus service which operates between the campuses during the school year.
The consortium was formally established in 1965, but its roots lay in cooperative efforts between the oldest four members of the consortium dating back to 1914.
History
In 1914, Massachusetts Agricultural College (now UMass), Amherst, Mount Holyoke, and Smith joined International YMCA College (now Springfield College) to form the Committee on University Extension of the Connecticut Valley Colleges, a joint continuing education program for the Pioneer Valley. In later years, Amherst, Mount Holyoke, Smith, and MAC—later known as Massachusetts State and UMass—increased their collaboration, culminating in the formation of an inter-library loaning program in 1951 and a joint astronomy department in 1959. Finally, in 1965, Amherst, Mount Holyoke, Smith and UMass incorporated the Four College Consortium, which became the Five College Consortium when Hampshire College was founded in 1968.
The five colleges operate both as independent entities as well as mutually dependent institutions. The mission of the consortium is to support long-term forms of cooperation that benefit the faculty, staff and students of the five colleges. Shared academic and cultural resources are the primary initiative of the consortium. This means that students at each of these schools are permitted and encouraged to take classes at the other colleges (through "cross-registration") at no additional cost to the student. Student groups and organizations often draw participants from all five campuses and several academic programs are run by the Five Colleges (for example: astronomy, dance, some foreign languages, and women's studies). The colleges also participate in an interlibrary loan program, allowing students, staff, and faculty to take advantage of all five campuses' collections.
The Five College Radio Astronomy Observatory was founded in 1969 by the Five College Astronomy Department. Together, the Five Colleges operate WFCR (Five College Radio), an NPR member station operating at 88.5 MHz in the FM band.
Bus transportation
The Pioneer Valley Transit Authority (PVTA) provides free daily intra-campus bus service to students, staff, and faculty during the school year. The buses, some of them run by University of Massachusetts Transportation Services and operated by student workers, run on a frequent schedule, allowing car-free travel to classes, social events, and local shopping areas. This service is funded primarily through a contract with the member institutions.
Five College folklore
A popular urban legend among Five College students holds that the characters on the Saturday morning cartoon Scooby-Doo represent the five colleges. The legend has Daphne representing Mount Holyoke College, Velma as Smith College, Fred as Amherst College, Shaggy as Hampshire College, and Scooby as UMass Amherst. Hanna-Barbera Productions, CBS executive Fred Silverman, and Mark Evanier, one of the show's writers, have stated that the legend is false. Moreover, Scooby-Doo creators Joe Ruby and Ken Spears have been explicit in the cartoon show being based on the radio program I Love a Mystery and the TV sitcom The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis, with the four teenagers being based directly on characters from Dobie Gillis. In addition, Scooby-Doo made its television debut in 1969, one year before Hampshire College opened.
See also
Cooperating Colleges of Greater Springfield, a local association of colleges which often collaborate with Five College institutions
Museums10, a collaboration of several local museums run by the Five Colleges
UMassFive College Federal Credit Union
References
External links
Amherst College
College and university associations and consortia in the United States
Hampshire College
Mount Holyoke College
Smith College
University of Massachusetts Amherst
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Bourassa
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Henri Bourassa
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Joseph-Napoléon-Henri Bourassa (; September 1, 1868 – August 31, 1952) was a French Canadian political leader and publisher. In 1899, Bourassa was outspoken against the British government's request for Canada to send a militia to fight for Britain in the Second Boer War. Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier's compromise was to send a volunteer force, but the seeds were sown for future conscription protests during the World Wars of the next half-century. Bourassa unsuccessfully challenged the proposal to build warships to help protect the empire. He led the opposition to conscription during World War I and argued that Canada's interests were not at stake. He opposed Catholic bishops who defended military support of Britain and its allies. Bourassa was an ideological father of French-Canadian nationalism. Bourassa was also a defining force in forging French Canada's attitude to the Canadian Confederation of 1867.
Early life
Born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, to Napoléon Bourassa and Azélie Papineau (Bourassa), Henri Bourassa was a grandson of the pro-democracy reformist politician Louis-Joseph Papineau. He was educated at École Polytechnique de Montréal and at Holy Cross College in Worcester, Massachusetts. In 1890, he became mayor of the town of Montebello, Quebec, at the age of 22.
Political career
In 1896, he was elected to the House of Commons as an independent Liberal for Labelle but resigned in 1899 to protest the sending of Canadian troops to the Second Boer War. He was re-elected soon after his resignation. He argued that Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier was un vendu ("a sell-out") to British Empire and its supporters in Canada.
To counter what he perceived to be the evils of imperialism, he created in 1903 the Ligue nationaliste canadienne (Canadian Nationalist League) to instill a pan-Canadian nationalist spirit in the francophone population. It opposed political dependence on either Britain or the United States and supported instead Canadian autonomy within the British Empire.
Bourassa left the federal parliament on May 11, 1907, but he remained active in Quebec politics by being elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec in the 1908 provincial election in Montréal division no. 2. He led the Ligue until he retired from the assembly on September 5, 1912. He continued to criticize Laurier, whose compromises mostly helped the British Empire. Bourassa opposed Laurier's attempts to build a Canadian Navy in 1910, which he believed would draw Canada into future wars between Britain and Germany. He supported the eventual creation of an independent navy but did not want it to be under British command, as Laurier had planned. Bourassa's attacks depleted Laurier's strength in Quebec and contributed to the Liberal Party's loss in the 1911 election. Bourassa's moves ironically aided the election of the Conservative Party, which held more staunchly pro-imperialist policies than the Liberals.
In 1910, while he was serving in the Provincial Assembly as the member for Saint-Hyacinthe, he founded the newspaper Le Devoir to promote the Nationalist League and served as its editor until 1932. Bourassa's main objective was to position Le Devoir outside the control of the established parties in Quebec and in Ottawa, which had authority over press organs devoted to their electoral interests and attempted to control public opinion by their partisan actions. Bourassa chose the name Le Devoir for his newspaper because of its emphasis of his commitment to integrity and justice and his desire to serve the public good.
In 1913, Bourassa denounced the government of Ontario as "more Prussian than Prussia" during the Ontario Schools Question crisis (see Regulation 17) after Ontario had almost banned the use of French in its schools and made English its official language of instruction. He charged his compatriots to see their enemies inside Canada, in 1915:"The enemies of the French language, of French civilization in Canada, are not the Boches on the shores of the Spree; but the English-Canadian anglicizers, the Orange intriguers, or Irish priests. Above all they are French Canadians weakened and degraded by the conquest and three centuries of colonial servitude. Let no mistake be made: if we let the Ontario minority be crushed, it will soon be the turn of other French groups in English Canada." [in Wade, v 2 p. 671]
World Wars
Bourassa led French-Canadian opposition to the participation in World War I, especially Robert Borden's plans to implement conscription in 1917. He agreed that the war was necessary for the survival of France and Britain but felt that only Canadians who volunteered for service should be sent to the battlefields of Europe. His opposition to conscription brought him the anglophone public's disfavour, as was expressed by the hostile crowd amassed in Ottawa that threw vegetables and eggs during his oration.
Three months after stating that he had nothing more to do with politics, he returned to the House of Commons in the 1925 election with his election as an Independent MP, and he remained until his defeat in the 1935 election. In the 1930s, Bourassa demanded for Canada keep its gates shut to Jewish immigrants, like other politicians of the time.
Bourassa also opposed the draft during the conscription crisis of 1944 in World War II though less effectively, and he was a member of the Bloc populaire. His influence on Quebec's politics can still be seen in all major provincial parties.
Death and legacy
Upon his death in Outremont, Quebec in 1952 (one day shy of his 84th birthday), Henri Bourassa was interred in Montreal's Cimetière Notre-Dame-des-Neiges.
Henri Bourassa Boulevard, Henri-Bourassa metro station, and the federal riding of Bourassa, all in Montreal, are named for him. It is also the case for Henri-Bourassa Street, Henri-Bourassa park and the Regional County Municipality (RCM) of Papineau building, all of which are located in Papineauville, Québec. He is not related to Robert Bourassa, the former premier of Quebec.
Bourassa's political thought, according to Michael C. Macmillan, was largely a combination of Whig liberalism, Catholic social thought, and traditional Quebec political thought. He was distinctly liberal in his anti-imperialism and general support for civil liberties for French Canadians, and his approach to economic questions was essentially Catholic. While Bourassa embraced the ultramontane idea that the Church was responsible for faith, morals, discipline, and administration, he resisted Church involvement in the political sphere and rejected the corporatism espoused by the Church. Bourassa opposed state intervention wherever possible and increasingly throughout his career emphasized the need for moral reform.
According Levitt has shown, attitudes of historians, both Anglophone and Francophone, toward Bourassa consistently have been coloured by the position of each historian on the major issues Bourassa addressed. Goldwin Smith, a fellow anti-imperialist, introduced him into historical literature in 1902. The isolationism of the 1930s and the biculturalism of the 1960s (Bourassa, while a champion of Francophone rights, always opposed separatism) occasioned favourable treatment among Anglophones, while Lionel Groulx, his onetime foe, described him as "l'incomparable Éveilleur". Bourassa's position on social issues (Catholic, moderately reformist, emphasizing the family and agricultural values) likewise has called forth praise and blame.
Works
The Works section is copied and adapted from the French Wikipedia page of Henri Bourassa. See that page's history for attribution.
(This list is incomplete)
Le projet de Loi Navale. Sa nature ses conséquences. (Speech given at the Monument National on January 20, 1910).
Pour la justice. La législation scolaire au Nord Ouest. Les discours de MM. Monk et Pelletier. Quelques objections. L'esprit de la Confédération.
L'Emprunt de la Victoire la surenchère du bluff.
Que Devons-Nous À L'Angleterre? La Défense Nationale. La Révolution Impérialiste. Le Tribut À L'Empire.
L'intervention américaine ses motifs son objet ses conséquences.
Le pape arbitre de la paix (1918)
La Langue Gardienne de la Foi.
La Propriété, Ses Bornes, Ses Abus. (Conference at the Semaine Sociale De Sherbrooke, August 11, 1924)
Henri Bourassa; Biographie, Index Des Écrits, Index de la Correspondance Publique 1895–1924.
Bibliography
The Bibliography section is copied and adapted from the French Wikipedia page of Henri Bourassa. See that page's history for attribution.
Samuel Leduc-Frenette, Les pèlerinages du Devoir en Acadie (1924 et 1927): un voyage intéressé et curieux pour les Canadiens français, Thesis, Concordia University, 2016, 78 p.
Réal Bélanger, Henri Bourassa. Le fascinant destin d'un homme libre. (1868–1914), Québec, Presses de l'Université Laval, 2013, 570 p.
Mario Cardinal, Pourquoi j'ai fondé Le Devoir. Henri Bourassa et son temps, Libre Expression, Montréal, 2010, 396 p. (ISBN 978-2-7648-0480-3)
Pierre Anctil, Fais ce que dois. 60 éditoriaux pour comprendre Le Devoir sous Henri Bourassa (1910-1932), Québec, Éditions du Septentrion, 2010, 383 p. (ISBN 978-2-89448-617-7)
Yvan Lamonde, Histoire sociale des idées au Québec (1896-1929), Montréal, Éditions Fides, 2000, 895p.
Yvan Lamonde, Histoire sociale des idées au Québec, vol. II (1896-1929), Montréal, Éditions Fides, 2004, 328 p.
Robert Comeau et Luc Desrochers (dir.), Le Devoir. Un journal indépendant (1910-1995), Sainte-Foy, Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1996, 368 p.
Robert Lahaise (dir.), Le Devoir. Reflet du Québec au 20e siècle, Montréal, Hurtubise, 1994, 504 p.
Pierre Anctil, Le Devoir, les Juifs et l'immigration. De Bourassa à Laurendeau, Québec, Institut québécois de recherche sur la culture, 1988, 172 p.
David Rome, The Jewish Biography of Henri Bourassa, Montréal, National Archives, Canadian Jewish Congress, 1988, 2 volumes.
François-Albert Angers et Aurélien Boisvert, L’égarement du «Devoir», Montréal, Éditions du Franc-Canada, 1986, 105 p.
Auldham Roy Petrie, Henri Bourassa, Don Mills, Ont., Fitzhenry & Whiteside, cop., 1980, 63 p.
Joseph Levitt, Henri Bourassa, Catholic Critic, Ottawa, [Canadian Historical Association], 1976, 24 p.
Joseph Levitt (ed.), Henri Bourassa on Imperialism and Biculturalism, 1900–1918, Toronto, Copp. Clark Pub Co., 1970, 183 p.
Joseph Levitt, Henri Bourassa and the Golden Calf. The Social Program of the Nationalists of Quebec, 1900–1914, Ottawa, Éditions de l'Université d'Ottawa, 1969, 178 p.
Casey Murrow, Henri Bourassa and French-Canadian Nationalism. Opposition to Empire, Montréal, Harvest House, 1968, 143 p.
André Bergevin, Cameron Nish, Anne Bourassa, Henri Bourassa. Biographie, index des écrits, index de la correspondance publique, 1895–1924, Montréal, Éditions de l'Action nationale, 1966, 150 p.
Martin Patrick O'Connell, Henri Bourassa and Canadian Nationalism, thesis, University of Toronto, 1954, 304 p.
Rumilly, Robert. Henri Bourassa – La Vie Publique D'un Grand Canadien (1944), also published as Histoire De La Province De Quebec: XIII: Henri Bourassa.
Hommage à Henri Bourassa. Reproduit du numéro souvenir paru dans Le Devoir du 25 octobre 1952, Montréal, Le Devoir, 1952, 216 p.; 2nd edition, 1953, 305 p.
Articles and chapters
This section is copied and adapted from the French Wikipedia page of Henri Bourassa. See that page's history for attribution.
Lucien Bouchard: Henri Bourassa, en Bâtisseurs d'Amérique: Des canadiens français qui ont faite de l'histoire. Dir. André Pratte, Jonathan Kay. La Presse, Montréal 2016
Legacy. How french Canadians shaped North America. McClelland & Stewart, Toronto 2016; 2019 (ISBN 0771072392)
Geoff Keelan, « Catholic Neutrality: The Peace of Henri Bourassa », Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, vol. 22, no. 1, 2011, p. 99-132
Réal Bélanger, « BOURASSA, HENRI », in Dictionnaire biographique du Canada, vol. 18, Université Laval/University of Toronto, 2009.
Rolando Gomes, « Henri Bourassa et l’impérialisme britannique (1899–1918), in Bulletin d’histoire politique, volume 16, numéro 3, printemps 2008, p. 161-182.
Joseph Levitt, « Henri Bourassa », in L'Encyclopédie canadienne, 2008.
Béatrice Richard, « Henri Bourassa et la conscription : traitre ou sauveur ? », in Revue militaire canadienne/Canadian Military Journal, volume 7, no. 4 (hiver), 2006–2007, p. 75-83.
Gilles Gallichan, « La carrière parlementaire d'Henri Bourassa à Québec », in Revue parlementaire canadienne, automne 1996.
« Bourassa, Henri », in Dictionnaire des auteurs de langue française en Amérique du Nord, 1989.
René Durocher, « Henri Bourassa, les évêques et la guerre de 1914–1918 », Historical Papers / Communications historiques, vol. 6, no 1, 1971, p. 248-275.
Susan Mann Robertson, « Variations on a Nationalist Theme: Henri Bourassa and Abbé Groulx in the 1920’s », Historical Papers / Communications historiques, vol. 5, no 1, 1970, p. 109-119.
Joseph Levitt, « La perspective nationaliste d'Henri Bourassa, 1896–1914 », Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, vol. 22, no 4, 1969, p. 567-582.
Richard Jones « La perspective nationaliste d'Henri Bourassa, 1896–1914 : commentaire », Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, vol. 22, no 4, 1969, p. 582-586.
Pierre-R. Desrosiers, «Le Castor rouge. La genèse et le développement de la pensée politique et sociale d'Henri Bourassa», in Parti pris, vol. 4, nos. 9–12 (mai-août), 1967, p. 146-164.
James I. W. Corcoran, « Henri Bourassa et la guerre sud-africaine (part 4) », Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, vol. 19, no 3, 1965, p. 414-442.
James I. W. Corcoran, « Henri Bourassa et la guerre sud-africaine (part 3) », Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, vol. 19, no 2, 1965, p. 229-237
James I. W. Corcoran, « Henri Bourassa et la guerre sud-africaine (part 2) », Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, vol. 19, no 1, 1965, p. 84-105.
James I. W. Corcoran, « Henri Bourassa et la guerre sud-africaine (part 1) », Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, vol. 18, no 3, 1964, p. 343-356.
« Un document historique: toute la pensée de Bourassa sur le séparatisme », in L'Action nationale, vol. 53, no. 9, mai 1964.
André Laurendeau (dir.), «Henri Bourassa», in L'Action nationale, vol. 43, no.1, janvier 1954
Marine Leland, « Quelques observations sur le nationalisme de Henri Bourassa », Report of the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Historical Association / Rapports annuels de la Société historique du Canada, vol. 30, no 1, 1951, p. 60-63.
« Henri Bourassa » in Biographies canadiennes-françaises. 3e édition, Ottawa, 1923, p. 140.
« Henri Bourassa » in Biographies canadiennes-françaises. 2e édition, Ottawa, 1922, p. 227.
Other works
This section is copied and adapted from the French Wikipedia page of Henri Bourassa. See that page's history for attribution.
« Avant le combat, Henri Bourassa », Résonances, Savoir média
Christian Blais and al., Le Devoir, témoin de la vie politique québécoise. Une exposition sur les 100 ans du Devoir à découvrir à la Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale, du 17 février au 1er octobre 2010, Québec, Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale, 2010, 36 p.
« La conscription, Henri Bourassa », Résonances, Savoir média
Paul Racine, Henri Bourassa à Notre-Dame, Montréal, Éditions de l'Entr'aide, 1941?, 52 p.
« Le péril de l'immigration, Henri Bourassa », Résonances, Savoir média
Pierre Colmet, M. Bourassa et la Judéo-Maçonnerie, Paris, Revue internationale des Sociétés secrètes, 1924, p. 909-915.
E. Roux, M. Henri Bourassa au service de l'Allemagne, Montréal, Imprimerie Perrault, 1917?, 58 p.
Joseph-Arthur D'Amours, Où allons-nous? Le nationalisme canadien. Lettres de «Un Patriote» publiées dans le journal La Presse, augmentées d'une introduction, d'additions et d'appendices documentaires, Montréal, Société d'éditions patriotiques, 1916, 73 p.
Canadian Nationalism and the War, Montréal, [s.n.], 1916, 31 p.
LaChapelle, Guy and Comeau, Robert, ed. Robert Bourasa: Un Bâtisseur Tranquille Pr. de l'U. Laval, 2003. 406 p.
Levitt, Joseph. "Images of Bourassa" Journal of Canadian Studies 1978 13(1): 100–113. ISSN 0021-9495
MacMillan, C. Michael. "Henri Bourassa on the Defence of Language Rights" Dalhousie Review 1982a 62(3): 413–430. ISSN 0011-5827
MacMillan, C. Michael. "The Character of Henri Bourassa's Political Philosophy" American Review of Canadian Studies 1982b 12(1): 10–29. ISSN 0272-2011
Mason Wade, The French Canadians, 1760–1945 (1955).
Alfred George Gardiner, Henri Bourassa and the Future of Canada, Montréal, Le Devoir Printing, 1914, 7 p.
The character of Henri Bourassa played by Christian Martel appears in the 5th episode of season 13 of Murdoch Mysteries.
Note
Several sections were copied and adapted from the French Wikipedia page of Henri Bourassa. See that page's history for attribution.
See also
Politics of Quebec
Conscription Crisis of 1917
Conscription Crisis of 1944
National Assembly of Quebec
List of third party leaders (Quebec)
History of Quebec
References
Primary sources
Henri Bourassa fonds at Library and Archives Canada. Archival reference number is R8069.
Patrick Allen et al., eds. La pensée de Henri Bourassa (1954)
Levitt, Joseph, ed. Henri Bourassa on Imperialism and Biculturalism, 1900–1918 (1970)
External links
"Henri Bourassa’s Career in the Quebec National Assembly", Canadian Parliamentary Review
Link to Dictionary of Canadian Biography — DCB Initiative
1868 births
1952 deaths
Activists from Montreal
Anti–World War I activists
Canadian anti-war activists
Canadian Roman Catholics
Independent MPs in the Canadian House of Commons
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Politicians from Montreal
Members of the National Assembly of Quebec
Canadian nationalists
Le Devoir people
Burials at Notre Dame des Neiges Cemetery
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246542
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barataria
|
Barataria
|
Barataria may refer to:
Places
Trinidad and Tobago
Barataria, Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Barataria, Louisiana, a census-designated place (CDP) in Jefferson Parish
Barataria Bay (sometimes "Barrataria Bay"), Louisiana
Barataria Preserve, part of Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve, Louisiana
Bayou Barataria, which drains into Barataria Bay
In fiction
Barataria, a fictional ínsula ("isle") awarded by some noblemen to Sancho Panza as a prank in Part II of Cervantes' Don Quixote (from the Spanish word barato, meaning cheap)
Barataria, a fictional republican kingdom in Gilbert and Sullivan's comic opera The Gondoliers
Castle Barataria, a castle on Planet X in the CRPG Ultima II: The Revenge of the Enchantress
Ships
USC&GS Barataria (1867), a survey ship in service with the United States Coast Survey from 1867 to 1878 and with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey from 1878 to 1885
USCGC Barataria (WAVP-381), later WHEC-381, a United States Coast Guard cutter in service from 1949 to 1969
USS Barataria, the name of more than one United States Navy ship
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataraxia
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Ataraxia
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Ataraxia (Greek: ἀταραξία, from alpha privative ("a-", negation) and tarachē "disturbance, trouble"; hence, "unperturbedness", generally translated as "imperturbability", "equanimity", or "tranquility") is a Greek term first used in Ancient Greek philosophy by Pyrrho and subsequently Epicurus and the Stoics for a lucid state of robust equanimity characterized by ongoing freedom from distress and worry. In non-philosophical usage, the term was used to describe the ideal mental state for soldiers entering battle.
Achieving ataraxia is a common goal for Pyrrhonism, Epicureanism, and Stoicism, but the role and value of ataraxia within each philosophy varies in accordance with their philosophical theories. The mental disturbances that prevent one from achieving ataraxia vary among the philosophies, and each philosophy has a different understanding as to how to achieve ataraxia.
Pyrrhonism
Ataraxia is the central aim of Pyrrhonist practice. Pyrrhonists view ataraxia as necessary for bringing about eudaimonia (happiness) for a person, representing life's ultimate purpose. The Pyrrhonist method for achieving ataraxia is through achieving epoché (i.e., suspension of judgment) regarding all matters of dogma (i.e., non-evident belief). The Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus summarized Pyrrhonism as "a disposition to oppose phenomena and noumena to one another in any way whatever, with the result that, owing to the equipollence among the things and statements thus opposed, we are brought first to epoché and then to ataraxia... Epoché is a state of the intellect on account of which we neither deny nor affirm anything. Ataraxia is an untroubled and tranquil condition of the soul."
Sextus gave this detailed account of ataraxia:
We always say that as regards belief (i.e., dogma) the Pyrrhonist's goal is ataraxia, and that as regards things that are unavoidable it is having moderate pathē. For when the Pyrrhonist set out to philosophize with the aim of assessing his phantasiai – that is, of determining which are true and which are false so as to achieve ataraxia – he landed in a controversy between positions of equal strength, and, being unable to resolve it, he suspended judgment. But while he was thus suspending judgment there followed by chance the sought-after ataraxia as regards belief. For the person who believes that something is by nature good or bad is constantly upset; when he does not possess the things that seem to be good, he thinks he is being tormented by things that are by nature bad, and he chases after the things he supposes to be good; then, when he gets these, he falls into still more torments because of irrational and immoderate exultation, and, fearing any change, he does absolutely everything in order not to lose the things that seem to him good. But the person who takes no position as to what is by nature good or bad neither avoids nor pursues intensely. As a result, he achieves ataraxia. Indeed, what happened to the Pyrrhonist is just like what is told of Apelles the painter. For it is said that once upon a time, when he was painting a horse and wished to depict the horse's froth, he failed so completely that he gave up and threw his sponge at the picture – the sponge on which he used to wipe the paints from his brush – and that in striking the picture the sponge produced the desired effect. So, too, the Pyrrhonists were hoping to achieve ataraxia by resolving the anomaly of phenomena and noumena, and, being unable to do this, they suspended judgment. But then, by chance as it were, when they were suspending judgment the ataraxia followed, as a shadow follows the body. We do not suppose, of course, that the Pyrrhonist is wholly untroubled, but we do say that he is troubled only by things unavoidable. For we agree that sometimes he is cold and thirsty and has various feelings like those. But even in such cases, whereas ordinary people are affected by two circumstances – namely by the pathē themselves and not less by its seeming that these conditions are by nature bad – the Pyrrhonist, by eliminating the additional belief that all these things are naturally bad, gets off more moderately here as well. Because of this we say that as regards belief the Pyrrhonist's goal is ataraxia, but in regard to things unavoidable it is having moderate pathē.
Epicureanism
Ataraxia is a key component of the Epicurean conception of the highest good. Epicureans value ataraxia highly because of how they understand pleasure. Epicureans argue that pleasure is the highest good. They break pleasure down into two categories: the physical and the mental. They consider mental, not physical, pleasures to be the greatest sort of pleasure because physical pleasures exist only in the present; whereas mental pleasures exist in the past, the present, and the future.
Epicureans further separate pleasure into what they call kinetic and katastematic pleasures. Kinetic pleasures are those pleasures which come about through action or change. Such an action could be satisfying a desire or removing a pain, as that very sort of act is pleasurable in itself. Actions that feel good, even if not done to satisfy a desire or remove a pain, such as eating good-tasting food, also fall under the category of kinetic pleasures. Mental pleasures could also be kinetic in nature. Epicurus is said to have described joy as an example of a kinetic mental pleasure.
Katastematic pleasure is pleasure which comes about from the absence of pain or distress. This sort of pleasure can be physical or mental. Physical katastematic pleasure comes in freedom from physical disturbances, such as simply being in the state of not being thirsty. Comparatively, mental katastematic pleasure comes in freedom from mental disturbance. Those who achieved freedom from physical disturbance were said to be in a state of aponia, while those who achieved freedom from mental disturbances were said to be in a state of ataraxia.
Katastematic pleasures were regarded to be better than kinetic pleasures by Epicurus, believing that one could feel no more pleasure than the removal of all pain. Indeed, he is reported to have said:
The magnitude of pleasure reaches its limit in the removal of all pain. When pleasure is present, so long as it is uninterrupted, there is no pain either of body or of mind or of both together.Being both a mental and katastematic pleasure, ataraxia has a supreme importance in Epicurean ethics and is key to a person's happiness. In the Epicurean view, a person experiences the highest form of happiness should they ever be both in a state of aponia and ataraxia at the time.
Stoicism
Unlike in Pyrrhonism and Epicureanism, in Stoicism ataraxia is not the ultimate goal of life. Instead, a life of virtue according to nature is the goal of life. However, according to the Stoics, living virtuously in accordance with nature would lead to ataraxia as a byproduct.
An important distinction to be made is the difference in Stoicism between ataraxia and the Stoic idea of apatheia. While closely related to ataraxia, the state of apatheia was the absence of unhealthy passions; a state attained by the ideal Stoic sage. This is not the same as ataraxia. Apatheia describes freedom from the disturbance of emotions, not tranquility of the mind. However, apatheia is integral for a Stoic sage to reach the stage of ataraxia. Since the Stoic sage does not care about matters outside of himself and is not susceptible to emotion because of his state of apatheia, the Stoic sage would be unable to be disturbed by anything at all, meaning that he was in a stage of mental tranquility and thus was in the state of ataraxia.
Buddhism
Buddhism, a religion based on the teachings of Siddharta Gautama in the sixth century BC, affirms that the main cause of pain due to anguish is desire (any desire, which, because it is always associated with fear and hope, makes the heart anguish). So the flight or redemption of pain lies in the extinction or nakedness of all desire or disturbing affection, as especially the desire to live.
See also
Enlightenment (spiritual)
Euthymia (philosophy)
Flow (psychology)
Freedom from fear
Inner peace
Qingjing Jing
Upekṣā
Wa (Japanese culture)
References
External links
Concepts in ancient Greek philosophy of mind
Epicureanism
Happiness
Pyrrhonism
Stoicism
Concepts in ancient Greek ethics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedone
|
Hedone
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Hedone (, hēdonē) is the Greek word meaning "pleasure." It was an important concept in Ancient Greek philosophy, especially in the Epicurean school. It is also the root of the English word "hedonism".
In Greek mythology, Hedone is personified as a goddess of pleasure, enjoyment, and delight, as the daughter born from the union of Eros (personification of love) and Psyche (personification of the soul). She was associated more specifically with sensual pleasure. Her opposites were the Algea, personifications of pain. Her equivalent in Roman mythology is Voluptas. There is no evidence that she was ever the object of cult worship.
Aristotelian philosophy
Aristotle identified it as one of the two elements or components of pathe, with the other being lype or pain. The philosopher described pathe in these words: "Let the emotions be all those things on account of which people change their minds and differ in regard to their judgments, and upon which attend pain and pleasure."
Hēdonē, in Aristotelian ethics, is part of the philosopher's account of virtue and that pleasure (along with pain) is said to reveal a person's character. It is good if it is a consequence of a virtuous life as opposed to the position of some philosophers such as Aristippus, which holds that it is wholly good. For the concept to be good or true, it must conform to nature, reason, or virtue and that, although, hēdonē can harmonize with these three, Aristotle gave it less value. An example is the concept of proper pleasure or oikeia hedone, which has been discussed in Poetics and considered a process of restoration. Martin Heidegger's interpretation of Aristotelian philosophy explains that pleasure is a movement of the soul and that tranquility arises from it.
In Epicureanism
In the philosophy of Epicurus, hēdonē is described as a pleasure that may or may not derive from actions that are virtuous, whereas another form of pleasure, terpsis, is always virtuous. Another Epicurean reading, which distinguished hēdonē from terpsis, referred to it as a feeling of pleasure that is episodic and might or might not be beneficial. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Epicurus uses hēdonē in reference to only physical pleasures.
Stoicism
The Stoics held a negative view of hēdonē, arguing that it is not in accordance with nature and reason. This can be understood within the philosophy's position that emotions are by definition excessive or are excessive impulses that exceed the measure of natural reason and – as in other forms of excess – leads to other evils of irrationality.
See also
Hedonism
References
External links
Hedonism
Epicureanism
Concepts in ancient Greek ethics
Personifications in Greek mythology
Love and lust deities
Greek love and lust deities
Love and lust goddesses
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer%20Valley
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Pioneer Valley
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The Pioneer Valley is the colloquial and promotional name for the portion of the Connecticut River Valley that is in Massachusetts in the United States. It is generally taken to comprise the three counties of Hampden, Hampshire, and Franklin. The lower Pioneer Valley corresponds to the Springfield, Massachusetts metropolitan area, the region's urban center, and the seat of Hampden County. The upper Pioneer Valley region includes the smaller cities of Northampton and Greenfield, the county seats of Hampshire and Franklin counties, respectively.
Historically the northern part of the Valley was an agricultural region, known for growing Connecticut shade tobacco and other specialty crops like Hadley asparagus; however, since the late 19th century its economy has become increasingly a knowledge economy, due to the prominence of the Five Colleges in Hampshire County. Similarly the Springfield-Chicopee-Holyoke economies transformed from volume producers of goods such as paper and armaments, into a combination of specialized manufacturing and distribution services for Boston and New York.
Many of the cities and towns include areas of forests, and Springfield itself, which in the early twentieth century was nicknamed "The City in a Forest," features nature within its city limits and over 12% parkland. The Pioneer Valley is known for its scenery and as a vacation destination. The Holyoke Range, Mount Tom Range, and numerous rolling hills, bluffs, and meadows feature extravagant homes from the Gilded Age, many of which surround New England's longest and largest river, the Connecticut River, which flows through the region.
The name Pioneer Valley originates in the 20th century with travel writers using it in the 1920s and 1930s to designate the region. In 1939 the Pioneer Valley Association was formed to promote the region using that name.
Tourist destination
The Pioneer Valley is a popular, year-round tourist destination—a role that it has played historically, prior to its deindustrialization (from approximately 1970-2000). Travelers are drawn to the Pioneer Valley by its lively college towns, such as Northampton and Amherst; the resurgent city of Springfield; its unspoiled nature, numerous parks, and recreational facilities, including New England's largest and most popular amusement park, Six Flags New England in Agawam; its cultural and historical sites, such as the Emily Dickinson House in Amherst, the Springfield Armory National Historical Site, and the Basketball Hall of Fame on Springfield's riverfront. The region features alpine skiing at resorts such as Berkshire East and Blandford Ski Resort and seasonal festivals that draw millions of visitors, such as The Big E—all six New England states' collective, annual state fair in West Springfield—and Bright Nights at Springfield's Forest Park—an elaborate, high-tech lighting display during the holiday season.
Geology
The Pioneer Valley includes approximately half of the southern Connecticut River Valley—an ancient rift valley created by the breakup of the supercontinent Pangea along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge during the Triassic and Jurassic periods of the Mesozoic Era. The Connecticut River has been flowing through the valley for millions of years and was naturally dammed to form glacial lake Hitchcock during the last ice age.
According to King's Handbook of Springfield, by Moses King, the Pioneer Valley "is not an ordinary river channel; it is, in fact, a trough between two systems of mountains. To the west lie the worn-down remnants of the once lofty Berkshire Mountains; on the east, the yet more degraded ridges which constitute what we may call the Eastern Massachusetts set of mountain ridges. These rocks now form many sharp hills and mountains in the Valley. During the Triassic time, Massachusetts's portion of the Connecticut River Valley formed a shallow arm of the sea," leaving deposits that enriched the Pioneer Valley's inordinately fertile soil.
Geologically interesting parts of the Valley are the basalt flows and dinosaur tracks in South Hadley and Holyoke, Massachusetts, a chain of basaltic traprock ridges known as Metacomet Ridge along the ancient tectonic rift including the Mount Holyoke and Mount Tom ranges, layers of rock deposit laid down by the river, and varves and deltas
deposited by Lake Hitchcock during the Pleistocene.
Political geography
The region known as the Pioneer Valley constitutes Massachusetts's portion of the fertile Connecticut River Valley and the hill and mountain towns to its east and west. The following three counties—from north to south, and each with a different character—encompass the Pioneer Valley:
Franklin County
Franklin County is the most rural county in Massachusetts and thus reminiscent of southern Vermont, which it borders. Greenfield is its largest municipality, a small city frequently used as a gateway to the region's many outdoor pursuits. The county offers downhill skiing at resorts such as Berkshire East, white-water rafting, zip-lining, hiking, kayaking, and other outdoor pursuits. In addition, Franklin County contains many rustic, former mill towns. Many of these have become quaint and scenic since the decline of the mills, (e.g., Turners Falls.) Massachusetts's Routes 2 and 2A, which run through Franklin County, feature many antique stores.
Hampshire County
Hampshire County is the home to five prominent colleges and universities that cooperate with each other and are known collectively as the Five Colleges. They are UMass Amherst, Amherst, Mount Holyoke, Smith, and Hampshire. Each of these highly regarded liberal arts colleges and universities contribute to Hampshire County's college town atmosphere, particularly in the significant college towns of Northampton and Amherst. Much of Hampshire County's cultural activity, vibrant nightlife, and musical venues are concentrated in these two small but lively cities that are separated by a mere 7 miles. While the college towns in Hampshire County are known for their liberal political values and their embrace of alternative cultures and lifestyles, many of the county's outlying towns preserve their traditional, bucolic characters. In terms of political demographics, Hampshire County is one of the most liberal areas in the United States in both voter registration and election returns.
Hampden County
Hampden County is the most highly urbanized county in Western Massachusetts; however, its environs have long been described as rus in urbe—cities amidst forests. Springfield, Massachusetts—the "shire town" for which Hampden County was initially carved out of Hampshire County in 1814—is located in southern Hampden County, at a natural crossroads where three significant rivers flow into Connecticut River (the Westfield, the Chicopee, and the Mill). Springfield's history is long, illustrious, and well-chronicled. It was one of the United States' most important precision manufacturing and defense centers until its relatively recent deindustrialization, which was catalyzed by the government's controversial closure of the Springfield Armory during the Vietnam War. (In 1777, General George Washington and Henry Knox personally selected that site for the United States' Federal Arsenal.) After nearly 30 years of decline, Springfield has since about 2006 experienced a cultural and economic resurgence, catalyzed by billions of dollars in private and public investment, including the funded construction of the United States' first high-speed bullet-train, known as the Knowledge Corridor intercity rail line as well as a sharp decreases in crime and new festivals that have renewed the city's traditionally robust civic pride. Springfield itself features international tourist attractions like the Basketball Hall of Fame and the Springfield Armory National Historic Site; it also features the Dr. Seuss Memorial, Augustus Saint Gaudens's outdoor masterpiece, The Puritan, and five world-class art, science, and history museums at the Quadrangle. Forest Park, a city park of designed following the principles of Frederick Law Olmsted, who is most famous for designing New York City's Central Park, is comparably diverse and ornate. The city's economic base is diverse, featuring Massachusetts's wealthiest Fortune 100 company, MassMutual Insurance, as well as numerous universities and hospitals. Springfield features thousands of Victorian era Painted Lady mansions (like San Francisco's), e.g., in the McKnight Historic District. In addition to the Connecticut River, Springfield features Watershops Pond, Porter Lake, and the Mill River.
Less than two miles south of Springfield, Six Flags New England amusement park is located in suburban Agawam; and one mile west of Springfield, The Big E—the collective state fairgrounds of all six New England States—is located in West Springfield. North of Springfield, the U.S. Westover Air Force Base is located in the resurgent, former industrial city of Chicopee. The City of Chicopee features the confluence of the fast-moving Chicopee River and the meandering Connecticut River. The Chicopee River, although only 18.0 miles long, has the largest water basin in Massachusetts—and along the Connecticut River—at 741 square miles. Across from Chicopee, on the west side of the Connecticut River, the Holyoke Mall at Ingleside is one of the largest malls in New England. In addition to the mall, Holyoke is home to the Mount Tom Range of mountains, the Holyoke Canal System, and the Volleyball Hall of Fame. (The sport of volleyball was invented in Holyoke in 1895.)
The city of Westfield features Westfield State University, founded by renowned education reformer Horace Mann. Near to Westfield—approximately 15 miles west of Springfield—numerous outdoor opportunities are available, such as alpine skiing at Blandford Ski Area and the United States's oldest white-water rafting races on the 78.1 mile Westfield River, the longest Connecticut River tributary in Massachusetts.
The international airport that serves Hampden County, and the Pioneer Valley in general, is Bradley International Airport, which is located 12 miles south of Springfield in the town of Windsor Locks, Connecticut, land that formerly belonged to Springfield.
Demographics
Ethnicity
Currently, the Pioneer Valley's ethnic and racial diversity varies greatly from city to town. Predominantly British until the 19th Century, and then European-American in the late 19th and 20th centuries, as of the 2010 Census, the region features a rapidly growing Hispanic population in nearly all urban areas. This influx includes large numbers of Puerto Ricans. Among the European-American community, the Pioneer Valley's population reflects the British Isles background of its original settlers and the immigrant populations that settled it during the late-19th century, including large numbers of residents with Irish, Italian, Polish, Portuguese, French Canadian, and Greek backgrounds. As of 2011, Springfield is home to a particularly large number of Vietnamese immigrants. Also, as of 2011, Russian and Ukrainian immigrants are increasing in Springfield, West Springfield, Westfield, and other communities.
Large LGBT population
According to the 2010 Census, the Pioneer Valley features one of the highest per capita lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) populations in the United States. Indeed, according to the U.S. Census Bureau's 2010 Census statistics, Springfield was ranked one of the Top 10 gay cities in the United States. The 2010 Census figures indicate the number of same-sex households per thousand. Springfield ranked #10, with 5.69 same-sex couples per thousand. In January 2010, the national LGBT magazine The Advocate rated Springfield #13 among its new "15 Gayest Secondary Cities in America," ahead of San Diego, California and Albuquerque, New Mexico. Springfield was the only Massachusetts city included on The Advocate's list.
The cities of Northampton and Springfield, in particular, feature vibrant LGBT communities. Unlike in other communities across the United States, LGBT residents have largely integrated into Northampton and Springfield, i.e. neither city features a gay ghetto. Generally, in the Pioneer Valley, LGBT people and straight people co-mingle in various bars, nightclubs, and cultural institutions. Still, both cities feature a robust and active LGBT nightlife - especially Northampton for lesbians, and Springfield for gay men. The college towns of Amherst and South Hadley also feature significant LGBT populations.
Higher education institutions
Five College consortium
Amherst College - Amherst
Hampshire College - Amherst
Mount Holyoke College - South Hadley
Smith College - Northampton
University of Massachusetts Amherst - Amherst
Metro Springfield Universities
American International College - Springfield
Bay Path University - Longmeadow
Cambridge College - Springfield
Elms College - Chicopee
Springfield College - Springfield
Western New England University -Springfield
Westfield State University - Westfield
Graduate schools
Conway School of Landscape Design – Conway, Easthampton
Mount Holyoke College, Professional and Graduate Education - South Hadley
Community colleges
Greenfield Community College – Greenfield
Holyoke Community College – Holyoke
Springfield Technical Community College -Springfield
History
Native American history in the Pioneer Valley stretches back thousands of years; its recorded history begins in 1635, when Roxbury magistrate William Pynchon commissioned land scouts John Cable and John Woodcock to look for the Connecticut River Valley's best site for both conducting trade and farming. The first 16 years of the history of the European settlement of the Pioneer Valley, before 1652, when Northampton, Massachusetts was established, are coterminous with the history of Springfield, Massachusetts, as it was Pioneer Valley's only settlement. From 1633-1635, there had been three English settlements in the Connecticut River Valley: Wethersfield, Connecticut; Windsor, Connecticut; and the best situated of the three (because of its two rivers:) Hartford, Connecticut. Cable and Woodcock continued northward until they came upon a spot that they agreed was the best situated of them all: modern-day Springfield, Massachusetts.
Springfield sits at a natural crossroads, at the confluence of four rivers: to the west, the 78.1 mile Westfield River, (the Connecticut River's longest tributary river in Massachusetts;) in the middle, the 418.0 mile Connecticut River, then known as "The Great River;" and to the east two smaller rivers: the 18.0 mile Chicopee River, which featured the fast moving and the Connecticut River's largest water basin; and also, the Mill River, which would become very important approximately 150 years later after George Washington's foundation of the U.S. Armory at Springfield.
First settlement
At that time, on the western bank of the Connecticut River, the explorers found the Pocomtuc (or perhaps Nipmuck) Indian village of Agawam. Just south of the Westfield River, the colonists constructed a pre-fabricated house in what is present-day Agawam, Massachusetts.
In 1636, Pynchon led a settlement expedition with a larger group, including Henry Smith (Pynchon's son-in-law), Jehu Burr, William Blake, Matthew Mitchell, Edmund Wood, Thomas Ufford, and John Cable. Springfield was Massachusetts' first settlement for non-religious reasons, although many of its settlers were very religious, as indicated by their first article of incorporation, "Wee intend by God's grace, as soon as we can, with all convenient speede to procure some Godly and faithfull minister we purpose to joyne in church covenant, to walk in all the ways of Christ" In scouting Springfield, Cable, Woodcock, and Pynchon selected a spot just north of Enfield Falls, the first spot on the Connecticut River where all travelers must stop to negotiate a waterfall, in height, and then transship their cargoes from ocean-going vessels to smaller shallops. Pynchon's party purchased land on both sides of Connecticut River from 18 tribesman who lived at a palisade fort at the current site of Springfield's Longhill Street. The price paid was 18 hoes, 18 fathoms of wampum, 18 coats, 18 hatchets and 18 knives. Originally, in 1636, the English settlement was named Agawam Plantation. By founding "Agawam" in its particular location, Pynchon essentially forced all northerly river trade to move through his town.
After warnings from the Natives about the Connecticut River's west side being prone to flooding, most Springfield settlers moved to the east side of the river, which was slightly less advantageous for farming because of its prominent bluffs and hills. The initial land grants to English families were made there in what is today Springfield's Metro Center, along what is today Main Street. Long, narrow plots of farmland were created, extending outward from the river. In addition, more distant forested "wood lots" were offered. The original, main profit-generating industry for Springfield was trade with the Indians for beaver skins, which were then exported around the colonial world.
Choosing Massachusetts
In 1640 and 1641, two events took place that forever changed the political boundaries of the Connecticut River Valley. From its founding until that time, Springfield had been administered by Connecticut, along with Connecticut's three other settlements - at Wethersfield, Hartford, and Windsor. In the spring of 1640, grain was very scarce; cattle were dying of starvation. The nearby Connecticut Colony settlements gave power to William Pynchon to buy corn for all four English settlements, (Springfield's natives were, by far, the most congenial to the English.) If the Natives would not sell their corn at market prices, then Pynchon was authorized to offer more money. The Natives refused to sell their corn at market prices, and then later refused to sell it at "reasonable" prices. Pynchon refused to buy it, believing it best not to broadcast the English colonists' weaknesses, and also wanting to keep market values steady.
Leading citizens of (what would become) Hartford were furious with Pynchon for not purchasing any grain. With Windsor's and Wethersfield's consent, the three southerly settlements commissioned the famed Native American-conqueror Captain John Mason to travel to Springfield with "money in one hand and a sword in the other." On reaching (what would become) Springfield, Mason intimidated the local Natives with war if they did not sell their corn at a "reasonable price." The Natives capitulated and ultimately sold the colonists corn. Pynchon, an avowed "man of peace," believed in negotiation with the Natives (and thus, quickly made a fortune), whereas Mason – a hero of the Pequot Wars and conqueror of Connecticut – believed in subduing Natives by force if necessary. This philosophical difference led to Mason using "hard words" against Pynchon. Pynchon's settlement, however, agreed with him, and his philosophy, and that same year, voted to separate from the Connecticut Colony and be annexed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. When the dust finally settled, William Pynchon was named magistrate of Agawam by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and, in honor of him, the settlement was renamed Springfield after the village of Springfield near Chelmsford, Essex in England, where Pynchon was born and raised. For decades, Springfield - which, at the time, included modern-day Westfield - was the westernmost settlement in Massachusetts.
Witchcraft and the New World's first banned book
In 1645, 46 years before the Salem witch trials, Springfield experienced America's first accusations of witchcraft when Mary Parsons accused a widow named Marshfield, who had moved from Windsor to Springfield, with witchcraft - an offense then punishable by death. For this, Mary Parsons was found guilty of slander. In 1651, Mary Parsons was accused of witchcraft - specifically "divers devilish practices by witchcraft, to the hurt of Martha and Rebeckah Moxon," two daughters of Springfield's first minister - and also of murdering her own child. In turn, Mary Parsons then accused her own husband, Hugh Parsons, of witchcraft. At America's first witch trial, both Mary and Hugh Parsons were found not guilty of witchcraft for want of satisfactory evidence; however, Mary was found guilty of murdering her own child. For this, she was sentenced to death, but died in prison in 1651, before receiving her death sentence.
In 1650, William Pynchon became infamous for writing the New World's first banned book. In 1649, Pynchon found time to write a book, The Meritous Price of Our Redemption, a theological study that was published in London in 1650. Several copies made it back to the Massachusetts Bay Colony and its capital, Boston, which, this time reacted with rage to Pynchon rather than with support. For his critical attitude toward Massachusetts' Calvinist Puritanism, Pynchon was accused of heresy, and his book was burned on the Boston Common. Only four copies survived. By declaration of the Massachusetts General Court, in 1650, The Meritous Price of Our Redemption became the first-ever banned book in the New World. In 1651, Pynchon was accused of heresy by the Massachusetts General Court (at the same meeting of the Court where Springfielder Mary Parsons was sentenced to death in America's first witch trial). Thus he is the first author to have his work "banned in Boston". Standing to lose all of his land-holdings – the largest in the Connecticut River Valley – William Pynchon transferred ownership to his son, John, and then, in 1652, moved back to England with his friend, the Reverend Moxon.
William's son, John Pynchon, and his brother-in-law, Elizur Holyoke, quickly took on the settlement's leadership roles. They began moving Springfield away from the diminishing fur trade into agricultural pursuits, and also founded several new towns, including Northampton, Massachusetts.
Northampton
Early settlement
The area now called Northampton was once known as Norwottuck, or Nonotuck, meaning "the midst of the river" by its original Pocumtuc inhabitants. According to various accounts, Northampton was named by John King (1629–1703), one of its original settlers, or possibly in his honor, since it is supposed that he came to Massachusetts from Northampton, England.
The Pocumtuc confederacy occupied the Connecticut River Valley, from what is now southern Vermont and New Hampshire into northern Connecticut. The Pocumtuc tribes were Algonquian, and traditionally allied with the Mahican confederacy to the west. By 1606, an ongoing struggle between the Mahican and Iroquois confederacies led to direct attacks on the Pocumtuc by the Iroquoian Mohawk nation. The Mahican confederacy had been defeated by 1628, limiting Pocumtuc access to trade routes to the west. The area suffered a major smallpox epidemic in the 1630s, following the arrival of Dutch traders in the Hudson Valley and English settlers in the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the previous two decades. It was in this context that the land making up the bulk of modern Northampton was sold to settlers from Springfield, Massachusetts in 1653, and settled the following year. The situation in the region further deteriorated when the Mohawk escalated hostilities against the Pocumtuc confederacy and other Algonquian tribes after 1655, forcing many of the plague-devastated Algonquian groups into defensive mergers. This coincided with a souring of relations between the Wampanoag and the Massachusetts Bay colonists, eventually leading to the expanded Algonquian alliance which took part in King Philip's War.
The partition of Northampton
Northampton's territory would be enlarged beyond the original settlement, but later portions would be carved up into separate cities, towns, and municipalities. Southampton, for example, was incorporated in 1775, and included parts of the territories of modern Montgomery (which was itself incorporated in 1780) and Easthampton. Westhampton was incorporated in 1778, and Easthampton in 1809. Formerly, a section of Northampton called Smith's Ferry was separated from the rest of the town by the boundaries of Easthampton. The shortest path to downtown was on a road near the Connecticut River oxbow, which was subject to frequent flooding. Smith's Ferry was ceded to Holyoke, Massachusetts in 1909.
Deerfield
Deerfield was the northwesternmost outpost of New England settlement for several decades during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. It occupies a fertile portion of the Connecticut River Valley and was vulnerable to attack because of its position near the Berkshire Mountains. For these reasons it became the site of several Anglo-French and Indian skirmishes during its early history, as well as intertribal warfare.
At the time of the English colonists' arrival, the Deerfield area was inhabited by the Algonquian-speaking Pocumtuck nation, with a major village by the same name. First settled by English colonists in 1673, Deerfield was incorporated in 1677. Settlement was the result of a court case in which the government in Boston agreed to return some of the land of the town of Dedham to Native American control, and allowed some of Dedham's residents to acquire land in the new township of Pocumtuck. To obtain this land, their agent John Plympton signed a treaty with some Pocumtuck men, including one named Chaulk. He had no authority to deed the land to the colonists, and appeared to have only a rough idea of what he was signing. Native Americans and English had quite differing ideas about property and land use, which contributed to their conflicts, along with competition for resources.
The settlers expelled the Pocumtuck tribe by force, who in turn sought French protection from colonists in Canada. At the Battle of Bloody Brook on September 18, 1675, the dispossessed Indians destroyed a small force under the command of Captain Thomas Lathrop before being driven off by reinforcements. Colonial casualties numbered about sixty. In retaliation, at dawn on May 19, 1676, Captain William Turner led an army of settlers in a surprise attack on Peskeompskut, in present-day Montague, then a traditional native gathering place. They killed 200 natives, mostly women and children. When the men of the tribe returned, they routed Turner, who died of a mortal wound at Green River.
On February 29, 1704, during Queen Anne's War, joint French and Indian forces attacked the town in what has become known as the 1704 Raid on Deerfield. Under the command of Jean-Baptiste Hertel de Rouville were 47 Canadiens and 200 Abenaki, Kanienkehaka and Wyandot, as well as a few Pocumtuck. They struck at dawn, razing Deerfield and killing 56 colonists, including 22 men, 9 women, and 25 children. They took as captives 109 survivors, including women and children, and "carried" them away on a months-long trek to Quebec. Many died along the way or were killed when they could not keep up.
Deerfield and other communities collected funds to ransom the captives, and negotiations were conducted between colonial governments. When New England released the French pirate, Canada arranged redemption of numerous Deerfield people, among them the minister John Williams. He wrote a captivity narrative about his experience, which was published in 1707 and became well known. Because of losses to war and disease, the Mohawk and other tribes often adopted younger captives into their tribes. Such was the case with Williams' daughter Eunice, eight years old when captured. She became thoroughly assimilated, at age 16 marrying a Mohawk man. Most of the Deerfield captives eventually returned to New England. During this period, other captives remained by choice in French and Native communities such as Kahnawake for the rest of their lives.
As the frontier moved north, Deerfield became another colonial town with an unquiet early history. In 1753 Greenfield was set off and incorporated. During the early nineteenth century, Deerfield's role in agricultural production of the Northeast declined. It was overtaken by the rapid development of the Midwestern United States into the nation's breadbasket, with transportation to eastern markets and New York City enhanced by construction of the Erie Canal.
During the Colonial Revival movement of the late nineteenth century, Deerfield citizens rediscovered the town's past. Residents founded the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association in 1870, and erected monuments to commemorate various events, including the Bloody Brook and 1704 attacks. In 1890, Charlotte Alice Baker returned to Deerfield to restore her family home, the Frary House. Assisted by the Boston architectural firm of Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, her project was one of the first in historic preservation in western Massachusetts. Today, tourism is the town's principal industry. Historic Deerfield, a National Historic Landmark district with eleven house museums and a regional museum and visitors' center, and the Yankee Candle Company are major attractions.
An account of the town's early history was written by local historian George Sheldon and published in the late nineteenth century. By this time, South Deerfield and other New England villages were already absorbing a new wave of Eastern European immigration, particularly from Poland. The new people influenced Deerfield's demographics and culture. They were mostly Catholic peasants, who built their own churches and first worked as laborers, forming a community later known as Old Polonia. Later twentieth-century immigrants from Poland tended to be more educated, but settled in the larger cities. Immigrants in smaller communities followed different paths, and their descendants often moved to cities for more opportunities.
Greenfield
Pocumtuck Indians first settled and originally inhabited the Greenfield area. Native American artifacts found in the area have been dated as originating between 7,000 and 9,000 years BC. The Pocumtucks planted field crops and fished the rivers, but were wiped out as a tribe by the Mohawks in 1664. Thereafter, the newly unoccupied area - being the eastern terminus of the Mohawk Trail, a principal route for Native American trade traveling west into New York - was colonized by the English in 1686 as part of Deerfield. In 1753, Greenfield was set off from Deerfield and incorporated as a separate town, named for the Green River.
In 1795, the South Hadley Canal opened, allowing boats to bypass the South Hadley falls and reach Greenfield via the Connecticut River. Located at the confluence of the Deerfield and Green rivers, and not far from where they merge into the Connecticut River, Greenfield developed into a trade center. It was designated county seat when Franklin County was created from Hampshire County in 1811. Falls provided water power for industry, and Greenfield grew into a prosperous mill town.
Culture
Hampshire County
Residents benefit from a rich cultural array of fine arts, performances, notable architecture and sidewalks of strolling scientists and literary VIPs - mostly in the college towns and in Springfield. According to the 2010 Census, per capita, Northampton has the highest concentration of lesbians in the United States, and perhaps the world. Hampshire County is certainly the "Valley full o' Pioneer ... in the sleepy west of the woody east", of which the Pixies sang in the song "U-Mass".
Springfield
Springfield's cultural contributions to the United States and world at large have been so numerous that here, only brief descriptions of very important national and international cultural milestones will be mentioned.
As of 2011, Springfield's most famous cultural contribution worldwide is basketball, currently the world's 2nd most popular sport. That said, the "City of Progress" produced three other innovations, not nearly as well publicized, but which have proven to have proven to be just as significant, if not more so, to the world at large. In 1892-93, the first, functional, American gasoline-powered car was produced at the Stacy Building in Springfield by the Duryea Brothers. The Duryea's car also won the world's first automobile race in 1895 in Chicago. In 1901, the first motorcycle company in the world was "Indian", produced in Springfield; in 1905, the first modern fire engines in the world were produced by Knox Automobile (which made Springfield's fire department the first modern fire department in the world;), and the first commercial radio station in the U.S., WBZ, was broadcast from Springfield in 1921.
Of national importance, Springfield featured the United States' first witch trial in 1646 - decades before the Salem Witch Trials; and a few years later in 1650, a Springfielder wrote the New World's first banned book, The Meritorious Price of Our Redemption by William Pynchon. Pynchon was the founder of the city of Springfield. His book, expressing views contrary to Puritan Calvinist doctrine, caused him to be brought before the high court in Boston and accused of heresy. He later to return to England.
In Springfield, in 1860, Milton Bradley invented and produced his popular parlor games, including the still popular The Game of Life. Also in Springfield, Dr. Seuss grew up, and wrote several of the works for which he is now best known, (e.g. And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street.) Psychiatrist and LSD activist Timothy Leary - the man who influenced a generations to "turn on, tune in, drop out" - was born and educated in Springfield. Earlier, from 1846–1850, John Brown, the famed abolitionist, lived in Springfield, where he met, for the first time the national leaders of the abolition movement like Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth. In Springfield, in response to the Fugitive Slave Act, John Brown founded his first militant anti-slavery organization, The League of Gileadites. Brown's years in Springfield have often been called his "transformative years."
To the extent that military history adds to a place's culture, Springfield's history is notably rich, beginning with the 1675 Attack on Springfield during King Philip's War. Later, events such as George Washington's and Henry Knox's founding of the Springfield Armory atop a bluff in the town made Springfield one of the U.S. military's most important sites for centuries. Shays's Rebellion, which led directly to the U.S. Constitution, occurred at the Armory ten years after Washington's founding of it - and also forced him to come out of retirement.
As regards literary works, the world's first American-English dictionary was published in Springfield in 1806, and is still published in the city by Merriam Webster. Also, the first comprehensive, major United States history book was written by Springfielder George Bancroft in 1830.
To the extent that cultural contributions comprise invention, innovation, and progress, Springfield has been, historically, one of the nation's most innovative cities. In 1819, inventor Thomas Blanchard invented the lathe in Springfield, which would catalyze manufacturing developments now known the world over as interchangeable parts and the assembly line. In 1825, Blanchard also built the first American car, a "horseless carriage," which was powered by steam. In 1844, inventor Charles Goodyear perfected and patented his process for making vulcanized rubber in Springfield - as of 2011, as it has been for many years previous, Goodyear's name is known the world over for rubber production. In 1868, inventor Margaret E. Knight invented a machine for folding and gluing flat-bottomed paper bags.
Other major cultural contributions from Springfield include the first U.S. postcard in 1873; the first American, national horse show in 1853; the first American dog show - and even the first American friction match in 1834.
Art and museums
Valley residents also have a love of arts, both visual and performing, as demonstrated by numerous art galleries, countless theaters and performances, the residencies of children's authors Dr. Seuss, Eric Carle in the valley, and the Eric Carle Museum of Picture Book Art in Amherst.
Springfield's Quadrangle features an extraordinary grouping of five museums, including two art museums, two history museums, and one science museum. Springfield's Science Museum features the United States' first planetarium. Interspersed among the five museums is the sculptural Dr. Seuss Memorial garden, which recreates the Springfield author's whimsical characters in bronze.
In Springfield, Springfield Symphony Hall serves as the major focal point for classical music, Broadway tours, concerts and stand-up comedy shows in the Valley. Symphony Hall was built in 1911-13, and its ornamentation is a spectacle in itself. The major playhouse in Springfield is CityStage, which features an eclectic mix of entertainment. Both venues are managed by Springfield Performing Arts Development Corporation.
Local media
The Valley Post
The Republican (major Springfield newspaper)
The Valley Advocate, local arts & entertainment newspaper
Predvestnik, the Russian language newspaper of Pioneer Valley (ceased publication April 2008)
The Rainbow Times, the Pioneer Valley's LGBT magazine. (Springfield and Northampton have sizable LGBT communities.)
The Valley Art Newsletter
Independent bookstores
With an independent bookstore in almost every town, several small publishers, and countless local authors, the Valley could well be counted as a reader's paradise. Amherst has at least four bookstores (including Amherst Books and Food for Thought Bookstore), South Hadley has at least one notable bookstore (The Odyssey Bookshop). Since the late 1980s, Montague has had The Bookmill, and the World Eye Bookshop is in its 40th year in Greenfield. John Doe, Jr. used books and records opened in Greenfield the summer of 2009. Federal Street Books is another used bookstore in Greenfield. Northampton has least four independent bookstores (including Broadside Bookshop). One of the more popular, Raven Used Books, features a wide variety of titles and subjects. South Deerfield has New England Auctions, specializing in rare and antiquarian books.
Sports
The Pioneer Valley is home to a multitude of professional, amateur, and collegiate sports teams, as well as a rich athletic history.
The Springfield Thunderbirds are the region's only professional sports team, competing in the American Hockey League. Historically, the city has had professional hockey dating back to the 1930s with the seven-time Calder Cup champion Springfield Indians. The area has also had several minor-league baseball teams and the Springfield Armor of the NBA Development League.
On the collegiate level, the only school in the region to be a full member of the NCAA's Division I is the University of Massachusetts, although the ice hockey team at American International College competes in the Atlantic Hockey Association, a hockey-only DI conference. There are a multitude of well-known Division III schools as well, including Amherst College.
The most notable amateur team in the region is the Holyoke Blue Sox, members of the New England Collegiate Baseball League.
The region has had many notable professional athletes see significant portions of their careers in the region. Eddie Shore played for and later became the owner of the very successful Springfield Indians franchise; his number 2 remains retired by the Thunderbirds. Julius Erving, one of the top basketball players of all time, played at UMass Amherst. Wrestler John Cena graduated from Springfield College prior to joining the WWE. The most notable athlete to be born in the region is hockey player Bill Guerin, a Stanley Cup champion and Olympic Silver Medalist, who is from Wilbraham.
The region features a lot of independent professional wrestling shows, most notably Pioneer Valley Pro Wrestling, the former New Age Old Tyme Wrestling and The Way Wrestling Was Promotions. Aside from monthly shows, PVP Wrestling also runs charity shows for different benefits.
The region is also credited as being the home of both basketball (invented at Springfield College) and volleyball (invented in Holyoke), as created in the late 1890s; the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and the Volleyball Hall of Fame are located in those cities.
Economy
Historically a region known for growing Connecticut shade tobacco, today the Pioneer Valley has a broad and varied economic base, featuring more than 16 universities and liberal arts colleges (many of which are considered among the United States' best, e.g. Amherst College); numerous hospitals and healthcare organizations (e.g. Baystate Health, Massachusetts' third largest employer), and numerous financial service organizations (e.g. the Fortune 100 MassMutual). Manufacturing remains a part of the Pioneer Valley's economy (e.g. Smith & Wesson), although its manufacturing base has dwindled since 1968, when the Springfield Armory was controversially shut-down. The Pioneer Valley is considered to have a "mature economy", which means that its economic base is sufficiently varied so as not to be completely dependent on market fluctuations, like many places in the United States. This was illustrated during the Great Recession, when Springfield, Massachusetts and the Pioneer Valley performed within the Top 10 of all U.S. regional economies.
Franklin County
Franklin County in the north serves as a significant agricultural region despite its size, due to the rich topsoil found in the area. The valley's sweet corn and asparagus are cash crops. Cow corn, potatoes, and shade-grown tobacco are also major crops. Fields of all sort, particularly corn and tobacco fields, as well as numerous farmhouses and tobacco barns, dot the landscape. Light industry is concentrated in the town of South Deerfield and the city of Greenfield, while service industries exist throughout the county. Increasingly Franklin County is becoming a place of bedroom communities, with the major transportation routes of Interstate 91, Route 2, and U.S. Route 5 facilitating a boom in residential building that has not kept pace with commercial development in many of the county's towns.
The Hallmark Institute of Photography is located in Turners Falls.
Two major corporations, Channing Bete and Yankee Candle, are headquartered in South Deerfield and Greenfield. Both communities have been had controversial zoning issues surrounding permitting variances to build big box stores such as Wal-Mart. Greenfield received national attention when its decision prevented Wal-Mart from building a store in town.
The county also garners tourism due to such attractions as Historic Deerfield (which hosts a craft fair in the summer and an even larger and more popular fall craft fair), and a Butterfly Garden located in South Deerfield. The annual arrival of thousands of American and foreign tourists to observe the area's spectacular autumn foliage is a welcome boost to revenue.
Hampshire County
With the Five Colleges, Hampshire County has a significant part of its economy devoted to serving university and liberal arts college students, including numerous independent bookstores and stationery shops. Hampshire County is also one of the most politically liberal counties in the United States, due in large part to Northampton, Amherst, and a large LGBT community centered on the Five College area.
The area is also home to many restaurants, ranging in character from sports bars to steakhouses. Northampton (also known to some as "Hamp" and others as "Noho") is—along with Springfield—the culinary capital of Western Massachusetts as well as a lesbian mecca, featuring the highest number of lesbians per capita according to the United States' 2000 Census.
Hampden County
Hampden County is centered on the region's major economic and cultural center, Springfield, Massachusetts. Springfield is a major transportation hub, lying equidistant to the Ports of Boston and Albany, New York, and also near to New York City and Montreal. Many of the projects that have catalyzed Springfield's recent economic resurgence have been related to transportation, e.g. the $1 billion-plus Knowledge Corridor intercity rail line and the Springfield-Northampton-Brattleboro intercity commuter line. Springfield is also a medical, government, and higher education center. Baystate Health's $300 million "Hospital of the Future" is scheduled for completion in 2012. Massachusetts $110 million high-tech data center—an adaptive re-use of the city's original Technical High School—will also be completed in 2012. Regarding higher education: in 2011, Western New England University and Springfield College each added $45 million-plus additions to their respective campuses in Springfield. Remnants of a manufacturing economy remain in Springfield despite a dramatic de-industrialization in last quarter of the 20th century; for example, in 2011, Smith & Wesson relocated 225 new jobs to its Springfield headquarters, bringing its total manufacturing workforce in Springfield to over 1150.
Chicopee's growth continues to be catalyzed by the growth of Westover Air Force Base, especially around Memorial Avenue. As of 2011, Holyoke continues to see rapid growth in its high-tech sector, featuring new enterprises that capitalize on Holyoke's abundance of green energy, e.g. water power from the Holyoke Canal System, the nearby Falls, and a proposed wind farm. All three formerly industrialized cities—Springfield, Chicopee, and Holyoke—continue to face typical urban problems, such as gang activity and the drug trade in increasingly isolated parts of each city; however, these activities have lessened significantly during the past 20 years and a spirit of revitalization now pervades each city. Westfield's formerly moribund town center is in the midst of receiving a dramatic makeover, replete with 60 foot clock tower—scheduled to be completed in 2012.
Nearly all other towns and villages in Hampden County are either wealthy suburbs (e.g. Longmeadow, Massachusetts, Wilbraham, Massachusetts), or rural exurbs, (e.g. Palmer, Massachusetts and Brimfield, Massachusetts). Hampden County also features numerous natural retreats like the Mount Tom and Mount Holyoke Ranges.
In this Hampden County, tourism is very popular. Six Flags New England features the #1 roller-coaster in the world ("Bizarro") and draws tourists from all over. Similarly, the Basketball Hall of Fame, a shrine to the world's 2nd most popular sport, invented in Springfield, draws hundreds of thousands of visitors per year. Other major tourist attractions include Western Massachusetts' only national park, the Springfield Armory National Historic Site. The Quadrangle in Springfield features five museums of varying themes, including the United States' first planetarium, gathered around the whimsical Dr. Seuss National Memorial Sculpture Garden. Forest Park (Springfield) designed by Frederick Law Olmsted (of NYC's Central Park fame) is one of the largest urban parks in the United States at . During the holiday season it features a nationally renowned light display called "Bright Nights". The New England States' collective state fair, The Big E, is held each September–October and generally draws millions of visitors. Springfield's "Parade of Big Balloons" takes place on November 1 each year, borrowing many of the balloons from Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade and attracting 100,000 spectators. Each July, the Hoops City Jazz Festival draws tens of thousands to Metro Center to hear famous jazz musicians. In 2011, the Vintage Sports Car Club of America moved its famous, annual Grand Prix from Pittsburgh to Springfield—the Springfield Grand Prix took place in 2012, on a 1.6 mile track through the center of the city. Outlying Hampden County towns such as Tolland are sparsely populated and close to the Berkshires—outdoor activities such as camping make up a large part of their economy.
Politically, Hampden County leans liberal; however, it features several notably conservative cities and towns, such as Holyoke, Westfield, Agawam, Monson, and Palmer. Hampden County's largest city, Springfield, while historically moderate, politically, has become nearly as liberal as Hampshire County in recent years, according to voter registration and election results.
Conservation
Appreciation of the natural environs has, historically, been a large part of the Pioneer Valley life. It features numerous non-profit nature sanctuaries, such as Friends of Wissatinnewag, Inc. a sacred Native American burial grounds where the Turners Falls massacre occurred in 1676, as well as historic parks like King Phillip's Stockade in Springfield, the Forest Park, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, and Western Massachusetts' only national park, the Springfield Armory National Historic Site. The Great Falls Discovery Center, the flagship visitor center of the multi-state, Silvio O. Conte National Fish and Wildlife Refuge is located in Turners Falls. In addition to these, there are hundreds of state and municipal parks and forests. Due to the considerable natural and cultural resources in the Pioneer Valley, environmental agencies have made a substantial investments in protecting unspoiled nature in the region, particularly along the Connecticut River, and in many of the Pioneer Valley's rural "hilltowns." Government conservation efforts have targeted wildlife and rare plant habitats, recreational sites and corridors including the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail, and the rich agricultural soils in farming towns such as Hadley, Massachusetts. Efforts have been augmented and assisted by local and regional conservation land trusts and statewide and national conservation organizations. Many of these organizations protect additional land through direct ownership of conservation areas and land held under conservation easement. Many municipalities in the area also have conservation holdings, usually under the aegis of the community's 'conservation commission', the appointed body which also applies local and state environmental regulations.
One notable area consists of Mount Tom State Reservation, Mount Holyoke Range State Park, and Skinner State Park, which, joined with the Arcadia Wildlife Sanctuary held by the Massachusetts Audubon Society, form a long wildlife corridor stretching across the Connecticut River.
Recently, there has been a notable grassroots effort to reclaim Springfield's once easily accessible and pedestrian-friendly waterfront, which is now separated from the city by the eight-lane, elevated highway Interstate 91. In 2010, the Urban Land Institute presented a plan that suggested how Springfield could reunite with its greatest natural resource, the Connecticut River.
See also
Knowledge Corridor
Massachusetts geography
Metropolitan Springfield
Pioneer Valley Transit Authority
Western Massachusetts
References
External links
Greater Springfield Convention & Visitors Bureau
Pioneer Valley Planning Commission
Pioneer Valley Local First
Geography of Springfield, Massachusetts
Landforms of Franklin County, Massachusetts
Landforms of Hampden County, Massachusetts
Landforms of Hampshire County, Massachusetts
Regions of Massachusetts
Valleys of Massachusetts
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246551
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen%20Winsor
|
Kathleen Winsor
|
Kathleen Winsor (October 16, 1919 – May 26, 2003) was an American author. She is best known for her first work, the 1944 historical novel Forever Amber. The novel, racy for its time, became a runaway bestseller even as it drew criticism from some authorities for its depictions of sexuality. She wrote seven other novels, none of which matched the success of her debut.
Early life
Winsor was born October 16, 1919 in Olivia, Minnesota but raised in Berkeley, California. Her father was a real-estate dealer.
At the age of 18, Winsor made a list of her goals for life. Among those was her hope to write a best-selling novel.
Winsor graduated in 1938 from the University of California, Berkeley. During her school years, she married a fellow student, All-American college football player Robert Herwig. In 1937, she began writing a thrice-weekly sports column for the Oakland Tribune. Although that job only lasted a year, Winsor remained at the newspaper, working as a receptionist. She was fired in 1938 when the newspaper chose to trim its workforce.
Career
Forever Amber
Winsor became interested in the Restoration period through her husband. Herwig was writing a paper for school on Charles II, and, out of boredom, Winsor read one of his research books.
Her husband joined the military at the outbreak of World War II and spent five years with the United States Marines fighting in the Pacific theatre. During that time, Winsor studied the Restoration period, claiming to have read 356 books on the subject. She began writing a novel based on her research. Her fifth draft of the novel was accepted for publication. The publishers promptly edited the book down to one-fifth of its original size. The resulting novel, Forever Amber, was 972 pages long. The novel took readers on a frolic through Restoration England and offered vivid images of fashion, politics, affairs and public disasters of the time, including the plague and the Great Fire of London.
The book appeared in 1944. It attracted criticism for its blatant sexual references. Fourteen U.S. states banned it as pornography and the Hays Office also condemned it, but within a month the movie rights had been purchased by Twentieth Century Fox. The film, directed by Otto Preminger and starring Linda Darnell and Cornel Wilde, was released in 1947.
Despite being banned, Forever Amber became one of the bestselling American novels of the 1940s. It sold over 100,000 copies in its first week of release, and went on to sell over three million copies.
Later career
Made a celebrity by the success of her novel, Winsor found it unthinkable to return to the married life she had known with Herwig and, in 1946, they divorced. Ten days later, she became the sixth wife of the big-band leader and clarinetist Artie Shaw, despite the fact that two years previously Shaw had castigated his then-wife, Ava Gardner, for reading such a "trashy novel" as Forever Amber. The marriage to Shaw ended in 1948, and Winsor soon married her divorce attorney, Arnold Krakower. That marriage likewise ended in divorce, in 1953. In 1956 Winsor married for the fourth time, to Paul A. Porter, a former head of the Federal Communications Commission. They remained married until Porter's death in 1975.
Winsor's next commercially successful novel, Star Money, appeared in 1950, and was a portrait closely drawn from her experience of becoming a bestselling author. But in five subsequent novels, the last appearing in 1986 – The Lovers, Calais, Robert and Arabella, Jacintha, and Wanderers Eastward, Wanderers West – she failed to make as much of an impact. In 2000 a new edition of Forever Amber was published with a foreword by Barbara Taylor Bradford.
Death
Winsor died May 26, 2003 in New York City.
Works
Forever Amber (1944)
Star Money (1950)
The Lovers (1952)
America, With Love (1954)
Wanderers Eastward, Wanderers West (1965)
Calais (1979)
Jacintha (1984)
Robert and Arabella (1986)
Papers
Winsor's manuscripts and research from 1940-1949 are at The Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin.
Notes
References
Guardian Unlimited obituary on Kathleen Winsor
External links
Lise Jaillant, "Subversive Middlebrow: The Campaigns to Ban Kathleen Winsor’s Forever Amber in the United States and in Canada." International Journal of Canadian Studies (Special issue on Print Culture and the Middlebrow, ed. Michelle Smith & Faye Hammill) 48 (2014): 33-52.
Guardian Unlimited book review of Forever Amber by Elaine Showalter, August 2002.
Time magazine book review, October 1957, of America, With Love.
1919 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
American historical novelists
American romantic fiction writers
American women novelists
People from Olivia, Minnesota
Writers from Berkeley, California
Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period
21st-century American women
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20McCrae
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John McCrae
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Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae (November 30, 1872 – January 28, 1918) was a Canadian poet, physician, author, artist and soldier during World War I, and a surgeon during the Second Battle of Ypres, in Belgium. He is best known for writing the famous war memorial poem "In Flanders Fields". McCrae died of pneumonia near the end of the war.
Biography
McCrae was born in McCrae House in Guelph, Ontario to Lieutenant-Colonel David McCrae and Janet Simpson Eckford; he was the grandson of Scottish immigrants from Balmaghie, Kirkcudbrightshire. His father had seen action during the Fenian raids, and was a member of the Guelph city council and a director of The North American Life Assurance Company. His brother, Dr. Thomas McCrae, became a professor of medicine at Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore and close associate of Sir William Osler. His sister Geills married James Kilgour, a justice of the Court of King's Bench of Manitoba, and moved to Winnipeg.
McCrae attended the Guelph Collegiate Vocational Institute but took a year off his studies due to recurring problems with asthma.
Among his papers in the John McCrae House in Guelph is a letter he wrote on July 18, 1893, to Laura Kains while he trained as an artilleryman at Tête-de-Pont barracks, today's Fort Frontenac, in Kingston, Ontario. "I have a manservant ... Quite a nobby place it is, in fact ... My windows look right out across the bay, and are just near the water's edge; there is a good deal of shipping at present in the port; and the river looks very pretty."
He was a resident master in English and Mathematics in 1894 at the Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph.
McCrae returned to the University of Toronto and completed his B.A., then returned again to study medicine on a scholarship.
At medical school, McCrae had tutored other students to help pay his tuition. Two of his students were among the first female doctors in Ontario.
McCrae graduated in 1898. He was first a resident house-officer at Toronto General Hospital, then in 1899 at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. In 1900 McCrae served in South Africa as a lieutenant in the Royal Canadian Artillery (RCA) during the Second Boer War (1899 to 1902), and upon his return was appointed professor of pathology at the University of Vermont, where he taught until 1911; he also taught at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec.
In 1902, he was appointed resident pathologist at Montreal General Hospital and later became assistant pathologist to the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal, Quebec. In 1904, he was appointed an associate in medicine at the Royal Victoria Hospital. Later that year, he went to England where he studied for several months and became a member of the Royal College of Physicians.
In 1905, McCrae set up his own practice although he continued to work and lecture at several hospitals. The same year, he was appointed pathologist to the Montreal Foundling and Baby Hospital. In 1908, he was appointed physician to the Alexandra Hospital for Contagious Diseases. In 1910, he accompanied Lord Grey, the Governor General of Canada, on a canoe trip to Hudson Bay to serve as expedition physician.
McCrae was the co-author, with J.G. Adami, of a medical textbook, A Text-Book of Pathology for College Students of Medicine (1912; 2nd ed., 1914).
World War I
When Britain declared war on Germany because of the latter's invasion of neutral Belgium at the beginning of World War I (1914), Canada, as a Dominion within the British Empire, was at war as well. McCrae was appointed as Medical Officer and Major of the 1st Brigade CFA (Canadian Field Artillery). He treated the wounded during the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915, from a hastily dug bunker in the back of the dyke along the Yser Canal about 2 miles north of Ypres. McCrae's friend and former militia member, Lt. Alexis Helmer, was killed in the battle, and his burial inspired the poem, "In Flanders Fields", which was written on May 3, 1915.
From June 1, 1915, McCrae was ordered away from the artillery to set up No. 3 Canadian General Hospital at Dannes-Camiers near Boulogne-sur-Mer, northern France. For eight months the hospital operated in Durbar tents (donated by the Begum of Bhopal and shipped from India), but after suffering from storms, floods, and frosts it was moved in February 1916 into the old Jesuit College in Boulogne-sur-Mer. C.L.C. Allinson reported that McCrae "most unmilitarily told [me] what he thought of being transferred to the medicals and being pulled away from his beloved guns. His last words to me were: 'Allinson, all the goddamn doctors in the world will not win this bloody war: what we need is more and more fighting men.'"
"In Flanders Fields" first appeared anonymously in Punch on December 8, 1915, but in the index to that year, McCrae was named as the author (misspelt as McCree). The verses swiftly became one of the most popular poems of the war, used in countless fund-raising campaigns and frequently translated (a Latin version begins In agro belgico...). "In Flanders Fields" was also extensively printed in the United States, whose government was contemplating joining the war, alongside a 'reply' by R. W. Lillard, ("...Fear not that you have died for naught, / The torch ye threw to us we caught...").
McCrae, now "a household name, albeit a frequently misspelt one", regarded his sudden fame with some amusement, wishing that "they would get to printing 'In F.F.' correctly: it never is nowadays"; but (writes his biographer) "he was satisfied if the poem enabled men to see where their duty lay."
On January 28, 1918, while still commanding No. 3 Canadian General Hospital (McGill) at Boulogne, McCrae died of pneumonia with "extensive pneumococcus meningitis" at the British General Hospital in Wimereux, France. He was buried the following day in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission section of Wimereux Cemetery, just a couple of kilometres up the coast from Boulogne, with full military honours. His flag-draped coffin was borne on a gun carriage and the mourners – who included Sir Arthur Currie and many of McCrae's friends and staff – were preceded by McCrae's charger, "Bonfire", with McCrae's boots reversed in the stirrups. Bonfire was with McCrae from Valcartier, Quebec until his death and was much loved. McCrae's gravestone is placed flat, as are all the others in the section, because of the unstable sandy soil.
In Flanders Fields
A collection of his poetry, In Flanders Fields and Other Poems (1918), was published after his death.
In Flanders Fields
In Flanders Fields, the poppies blow
Between the crosses, row on row,
That mark our place; and in the sky
The larks, still bravely singing, fly
Scarce heard amid the guns below.
We are the dead, short days ago
We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow,
Loved and were loved, and now we lie
In Flanders fields.
Take up our quarrel with the foe:
To you from failing hands we throw
The torch; be yours to hold it high.
If ye break faith with us who die
We shall not sleep, though poppies grow
In Flanders fields. –John McCrae
Though various legends have developed as to the inspiration for the poem, the most commonly held belief is that McCrae wrote "In Flanders Fields" on May 3, 1915, the day after presiding over the funeral and burial of his friend Lieutenant Alexis Helmer, who had been killed during the Second Battle of Ypres. The poem was written as he sat upon the back of a medical field ambulance near an advance dressing post at Essex Farm, just north of Ypres. The poppy, which was a central feature of the poem, grew in great numbers in the spoiled earth of the battlefields and cemeteries of Flanders. An article by Veteran's Administration Canada provides this account:The day before he wrote his famous poem, one of McCrae's closest friends was killed in the fighting and buried in a makeshift grave with a simple wooden cross. Wild poppies were already beginning to bloom between the crosses marking the many graves.
The Canadian government has placed a memorial to John McCrae that features "In Flanders Fields" at the site of the dressing station which sits beside the Commonwealth War Graves Commission's Essex Farm Cemetery. The Belgian government has named this site the "John McCrae Memorial Site".
Legacy
The Canadian Medical Association awards the John McCrae Memorial Medal to a health services member of the Canadian Armed Forces for exemplary service.
McCrae was designated a Person of National Historic Significance in 1946.
McCrae was the great-uncle of former Alberta Member of Parliament (MP) David Kilgour and of Kilgour's sister Geills Turner, who married former Canadian Prime Minister John Turner. Marie Christie Geills Kilgour (née McCrae) was the sister of John McCrae.
In 1918, Lieut. John Philip Sousa wrote the music to "In Flanders Fields, the poppies grow" words by Lieut.-Col John McCrae.
The Cloth Hall of the city of Ypres in Belgium has a permanent war museum called the "In Flanders Fields Museum", named after the poem. There are also a photograph and a short biographical memorial to McCrae in the St George Memorial Church in Ypres. In May 2007, to commemorate the 90th anniversary of the writing of his best-known poem with a two-day literary conference.
Institutions that have been named in McCrae's honour include John McCrae Public School in Guelph, John McCrae Public School in Markham, John McCrae Senior Public School in Toronto, and John McCrae Secondary School in Ottawa.
A bronze plaque memorial dedicated to Lt. Col. John McCrae was erected by the Guelph Collegiate Vocational Institute.
McCrae House was converted into a museum. The current Canadian War Museum has a gallery for special exhibits, called The Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae Gallery.
In May 2015, a statue of McCrae by Ruth Abernathy was erected on Green Island (Rideau River) in Ottawa, Ontario. McCrae is dressed as an artillery officer and his medical bag nearby, as he writes. The statue shows the destruction of the battlefield and, at his feet, the poppies which are a symbol of Remembrance of World War I and all armed conflict since. A copy of that statue was erected at Guelph Civic Museum in Guelph in 2015.
The street next to the cemetery where he is buried is named in his honour, although the street is called "Rue Mac Crae".
Mount McCrae in British Columbia, is named for him.
Notes and references
Busch, Briton Cooper (2003). Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association papers. McGill-Queen's University Press.
Holt, Tonie and Valmai (1996). Poets of the Great War, "Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae". Barnsley: Leo Cooper (Reprinted 1999).
Peddie, John. The Story of John McCrae Guelph Museums, Guelph, Ontario. Accessed: 2010-02-25
Prescott, J F (1985). In Flanders fields: the story of John McCrae. Boston Mills Press.
Further reading
External links
Guelph Civic Museum McCrae House
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
John McCrae: Profile and Poems at Poets.org
John McCrae in Flanders Fields – Historical Essay, illustrated with many photographs of McCrae
For occurrences of In Flanders Fields in film, see
"In Flanders Fields" museum, Ypres.
Lost Poets of the Great War, a hypertext document on the poetry of World War I by Harry Rusche, of the English Department, Emory University. It contains a bibliography of related materials
John McCrae Veteran's Affairs
John McCrae's page at Poeticous.com
Archival photographs related to John McCrae held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services
Poems by John McCrae at English Poetry
1872 births
1918 deaths
Canadian Expeditionary Force officers
Canadian military personnel killed in World War I
Canadian pathologists
19th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian poets
Canadian Presbyterians
Canadian World War I poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male poets
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Clan Macrae
People from Guelph
University of Toronto alumni
University of Vermont faculty
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada
Deaths from pneumonia in France
19th-century Canadian male writers
McGill University faculty
Canadian military personnel from Ontario
Canadian military doctors
Burials at Essex Farm Cemetery
Canadian Militia officers
Canadian Army officers
Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps officers
Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery officers
Canadian military personnel of the Second Boer War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forever%20Amber%20%28novel%29
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Forever Amber (novel)
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Forever Amber (1944) is a historical romance novel by Kathleen Winsor set in 17th-century England. It was made into a film in 1947 by 20th Century Fox.
Forever Amber tells the story of an orphaned Amber St. Clare, who makes her way up through the ranks of 17th-century English society by sleeping with or marrying successively richer and more important men while keeping her love for the one man she can never have. The subplot of the novel follows Charles II of England as he returns from exile and adjusts to ruling England. The novel includes portrayals of Restoration fashion, including the introduction and popularization of tea in English coffeehouses and the homes of the fashionably rich; politics; and public disasters, including the plague and the Great Fire of London. Many notable historical figures appear in the book, including Charles II of England, members of his court, and several of his mistresses including Nell Gwyn.
Winsor's inspiration for the book came from her first husband, who had written his undergraduate thesis on Charles II, completed while he was serving in the army. She read books on the period and wrote numerous drafts of what would become Forever Amber.
Plot
Judith Marsh has been engaged since birth to her neighbor, John Mainwaring, heir to the Earl of Rosswood. In 1644, she has her engagement broken off when her family and the Mainwarings find themselves on opposing sides of the English Civil War. During a break in the fighting, John visits Judith and the two consummate their relationship. Pregnant, Judith abandons her family and goes to Parliamentarian territory on John's instructions, introducing herself as Judith St. Clare. There, she ends up staying with farmer Matthew Goodegroome and his wife Sarah. Judith dies in childbirth after naming her daughter Amber (after the color of John's eyes).
In 1660, Amber, now a flirtatious teenager, is being raised by the Goodegroomes in ignorance of her origins. She meets a band of Royalists who inform her that Charles II of England is returning. Amber is particularly attracted to Lord Bruce Carlton. During a fair, she lures him into the woods and loses her virginity to him. After she persuades him, Carlton reluctantly takes her to London, but tells Amber he will not marry her and she will come to regret her choice.
In London, Carlton makes Amber his mistress. She quickly grows accustomed to their luxurious lifestyle. She longs to marry Carlton and believes becoming pregnant will make him marry her. However, when she does become pregnant, Carlton announces plans to become a privateer. He leaves Amber a significant amount of money and tells her if she is clever she can legitimize herself and her child by marrying well. Left alone, Amber is befriended by a woman named Sally Goodman and passes herself off as a rich country heiress. Sally introduces Amber to her nephew Luke Channell, who Amber quickly marries out of fear that her pregnancy will soon be visible. She soon discovers Sally and Luke are not who they appear. When they realize she is not as wealthy as she claimed they abandon her, leaving her penniless. Amber is pursued by creditors and taken to a debtors' prison. Salvation comes when she catches the eye of Black Jack Mallard, a highwayman who takes Amber with him when he escapes. Black Jack takes Amber to Whitefriars, where she is introduced to the ways of criminals and gives birth to a son who she gives to a countrywoman to raise properly. Black Jack hires a student of noble birth, Michael Godfrey, to educate Amber, and begins to use her as bait in schemes where she lures handsome, rich men to quiet corners before Black Jack robs them.
Amber attracts the attention of Bess, Black Jack's former lover, whose jealous behavior towards Amber results in Bess being kicked out. Bess avenges herself by turning in Black Jack and his conspirators. Amber manages to escape and happens upon Michael, who offers her his protection. She becomes his mistress.
Terrified that her debts will one day catch up with her, Amber learns that actors are protected from arrest (through being servants of the King) and uses her connections to find a position with the King's Company. Though she is not a great actress, Amber uses her beauty to earn larger parts, hoping to attract the attention of a man who can afford to keep her as his mistress. She catches the eye of Captain Rex Morgan, the paramour of fellow actress Beck Marshall, and succeeds in persuading him to pay to keep her. Morgan falls in love with Amber and offers to marry her, but she resists, wanting a wealthier husband. Amber eventually attracts the attention of the King and sleeps with him twice before his mistress, Barbara Palmer, intervenes. Depressed, Amber decides to marry Rex, but Bruce returns from his travels, and Amber realizes she is still in love with him. This leads to a duel between Bruce and Rex, resulting in Rex dying and Bruce leaving once more.
Now bereft Amber falls deeper into prostitution. Shunned and unwell following an abortion, she flees to Tunbridge Wells where she meets a rich elderly widower, Samuel Dangerfield, and seduces him into marriage by pretending to be a modest young widow. Dangerfield's puritanical family is horrified, though she becomes friends with his daughter Jemima, who is only a few years younger than herself. Amber discovers her new husband is financing Bruce, and re-starts her affair with him, hoping to conceive a child she can pass off as her husband's. Amber becomes pregnant then discovers her stepdaughter is also pregnant by Bruce, who abandons both of them. Amber finds a suitable husband for Jemima and is left extremely wealthy after Samuel dies. Shortly after their child is born Bruce returns, and both he and Amber contract plague. They both survive but Bruce abandons her again, and Amber decides to marry for a third time, to the avaricious but influential Earl of Radclyffe.
Now a countess, Amber intends to go to court and become the King's favored mistress, replacing Barbara Palmer. Her husband interferes in these plans and forces her to move to the country. As revenge, Amber seduces her new husband's son and is discovered. Her husband attempts to poison the pair, succeeding in killing his son. The Earl then flees to London, where Amber has him killed (using the Great Fire of London to cover up the crime).
Finally free, she becomes the King's mistress and becomes pregnant by him. The King arranges a marriage – Amber's fourth – to Gerald Stanhope. Bruce returns, and Amber continues cheating on her husband with both the King and Bruce. Bruce reveals that he is married and intends to make their son his lawful heir, to which Amber reluctantly consents, knowing it will secure his future. Amber becomes the King's primary and official mistress, and he makes her Duchess of Ravenspur. As Amber is at the height of her power and influence, Bruce returns once again and resumes his affair with Amber. Bruce's wife Corinna discovers the affair and Bruce finally leaves Amber for good. Amber confronts Corinna, revealing that she is the mother of Bruce's son. While the two are quarreling, Bruce returns and he and Amber get into a violent fight, broken up by Corinna.
Unbeknownst to Amber, the Duke of Buckingham (one of the influential men to which Amber prostituted herself) decides Amber is a threat and makes a plan with a former enemy Lord Arlington, to get rid of her. The two men write Amber a note claiming Corinna has died. A hopeful Amber leaves England in pursuit of Bruce, hoping he will finally marry her, unaware that Corinna is alive and well.
Characters
Original characters
Amber St. Clare – The illegitimate daughter of two nobles who is raised by well-off farmers ignorant of her origins. She is extremely beautiful and ambitious but also selfish and naive.
Lord Bruce Carlton – A free-spirited Royalist, thirteen years older than Amber, who spent his formative years in exile following Charles II of England's wandering court.
Lord Almsbury – a friend of Bruce Carlton's who is also taken with Amber. He tries repeatedly over the years to make Amber his mistress. He is more willing to stay at home and play politics to secure his fortune, unlike his free-spirited friend.
Nan Britton – Amber's loyal maid and an only female friend.
Black Jack Mallard – an extremely tall, clever, and lustful highwayman who uses his savvy to escape from debtors' prison.
Michael Godfrey – a bon vivant law student who falls in love with Amber and introduces her to a life of hedonism.
Captain Rex Morgan – a swashbuckling lothario who keeps many mistresses but is most interested and loyal to Amber, wanting to marry her despite knowing that she is married and has a child by another man.
Samuel Dangerfield – a 60-year-old widower and one of the richest men in England, this self-made man becomes Amber's second husband.
Earl of Radclyffe – Amber's ugly and indebted third husband is both impotent and abusive. Unbeknownst to Amber he was once engaged to marry her mother, Judith, before she ran away, leading him to pine after her for the rest of his life.
Gerald Stanhope – Amber's fourth husband who is the foppish first son of a family that went bankrupt during the civil war. He allows Amber to dominate him, and eventually allows her to pay him off so that she may live freely while he consorts with his mistress.
Bruce – Amber and Bruce Carlton's oldest son, born of the first period of their long affair.
Susanna Dangerfield – Amber and Bruce's youngest child, born during their affair during Amber's marriage to Samuel Dangerfield and passed off as a Dangerfield child. She is very much like her mother in both looks and temperament.
Charles Stanhope – Amber's third child born of her affair with Charles II, King of England. He looks very much like his biological father, though Amber names him after Gerald Stanhope, her husband at the time of his birth. Amber uses his birth to manipulate the king into making her a countess and, eventually, a duchess.
Historical figures
Charles II of England – The newly returned King of England who is well known for his voracious sexual appetite, good-temper, and political savvy.
Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland – The king's favorite mistress who is an ill-tempered but extremely beautiful woman who is ambitious and enjoys scheming.
George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham – A perverse man who enjoys scheming and making enemies of his friends. He is Barbara Palmer's cousin.
Frances Stewart, Duchess of Richmond – a beautiful young noblewoman who attracts the King's attention but refuses to become his mistress.
Catherine of Braganza – Charles' Portuguese wife. Small of stature and very modest due to her Catholic upbringing, she is devoted to her husband and puts up with his affairs. He remains loyal to her as well, despite her inability to produce an heir.
Publication
After five drafts, Forever Amber was accepted for publication. After editing, the two and a half million-word manuscript was reduced to a fifth of its original size. The published novel was 972 pages long. A condensed version was published as an Armed Services Edition during WWII.
Critical reception
While many reviewers "praised the story for its relevance, comparing Amber's fortitude during the plague and fire to that of the women who held hearth and home together through the blitzes of World War II", others condemned it for its blatant sexual references. Fourteen US states banned the book as pornography. The first was Massachusetts, whose attorney general cited 70 references to sexual intercourse, 39 illegitimate pregnancies, 7 abortions, and "10 descriptions of women undressing in front of men" as reasons for banning the novel. Winsor denied that her book was particularly daring and said that she had no interest in explicit scenes. "I wrote only two sexy passages," she remarked, "and my publishers took both of them out. They put in ellipses instead. In those days, you know, you could solve everything with an ellipsis."
Despite its banning, Forever Amber was the best-selling US novel of the 1940s. It sold over 100,000 copies in its first week of release, and went on to sell over three million copies. Forever Amber was also responsible for popularizing "Amber" as a given name for girls in the 20th century.
The book was condemned by the Catholic Church for indecency, which helped its popularity. One critic went so far as to number each of the passages to which he objected. A film adaptation by 20th Century Fox was finally completed after substantial changes to the script were made, toning down some of the book's most objectionable passages in order to appease Catholic media critics.
The book was banned in August 1945 in Australia. The Minister for Customs, Senator Richard Keane, said "The Almighty did not give people eyes to read that rubbish."
Cultural references
Amber St. Clair appears as a historical character in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen as a member of the first incarnation of the League in the 17th century, Prospero's Men.
References
External links
Guardian Unlimited book review of Forever Amber by Elaine Showalter, August 2002.
1944 American novels
American novels adapted into films
American historical novels
American romance novels
Novels set in the 1640s
Novels set in the 1660s
Novels set during the English Civil War
Novels set in London
Obscenity controversies in literature
Cultural depictions of Charles II of England
ja:永遠のアンバー
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246556
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Morning%20After%20%281986%20film%29
|
The Morning After (1986 film)
|
The Morning After is a 1986 American neo noir mystery thriller film directed by Sidney Lumet and starring Jane Fonda, Jeff Bridges and Raul Julia. The film received generally favourable reviews and was a moderate commercial success, grossing $25.1 million against its $15 million budget. Fonda received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress.
Plot
A washed-up, alcoholic actress, Alex Sternbergen (played by Fonda), wakes up on Thanksgiving 1986 next to a murdered man, a sleazy photographer. She feels sick and remembers nothing from the night before. She calls her friend Jackie about what happened the night before. (We find out later that he is her husband, they are separated.) He informs her that she missed out on getting what could have been her best gig in a while the night before because she was drunk and rude. She tells him about the body. He tells her to call the cops and she says that she is scared but he insists, telling her it will be all right. She retorts saying "ya wanna bet?" She leaves the apartment, and it is implied that she has not called the police. While trying to flee at the airport, Alex encounters an ex-policeman, Turner (Jeff Bridges), who believes in her innocence. Raul Julia plays Jackie, a hairdresser who wants to divorce her, as he has fallen in love with socialite Isabel Harding (Diane Salinger).
Cast
Jane Fonda as Alexandra "Alex" Sternbergen / Viveca Van Loren
Jeff Bridges as Turner Kendall
Raul Julia as Joaquin "Jackie" Manero, Alex's Husband
Diane Salinger as Isabel Harding, Jackie's New Lover
Richard Foronjy as Sergeant Herb Greenbaum
Bruce Vilanch as Harry, The Bartender
Geoffrey Scott as Bobby Korshack
James Haake as Frankie, Drag Queen and Friend of Alex's
Don Hood as Mr. Hurley, The Lawyer
Corey Everson as Miss Olympia
Kathleen Wilhoite as "Red", Jackie's Assistant At His Salon
Kathy Bates as Korshack's Neighbor
Frances Bergen as Mrs. Harding, Isabel's Mother
Reception
The film holds a 63% "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 19 reviews.
Awards
Jane Fonda was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.
References
External links
1986 films
1980s mystery thriller films
20th Century Fox films
American films
American mystery thriller films
English-language films
Films about alcoholism
Films directed by Sidney Lumet
Films scored by Paul Chihara
Films set in 1985
Films set in Los Angeles
Thanksgiving in films
|
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246557
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes%20of%20the%20Heart
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Crimes of the Heart
|
Crimes of the Heart is a play by American playwright Beth Henley. It is set in Hazlehurst, Mississippi in the mid-20th century. The play won the 1981 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Play. In 1986, the play was novelized and released as a book, written by Claudia Reilly.
Synopsis
The tragicomedy relates the story of the three Magrath sisters, Meg, Babe, and Lenny, who reunite at Old Granddaddy's home in Hazlehurst, Mississippi, after Babe shoots her abusive husband. The sisters were raised in a dysfunctional family with a penchant for ugly predicaments. Each has endured her share of hardship and misery. Past resentments bubble to the surface as the sisters are forced to deal with assorted relatives and past relationships while coping with Babe's latest incident. Each sister is forced to face the consequences of the "crimes of the heart" she has committed.
Summary
In Act One, Lenny and Chick walk into the scene talking about the news that is in the paper. They start talking about what is happening with the sisters. Chick mentions that Doc is crippled with a limp due to Meg's actions and does not want her to come home. Chick then gives Lenny a birthday present; a box of chocolates. Doc enters with a bag of pecans for Lenny, and Chick leaves. Doc gave her the pecans because it is her birthday and her horse has died. Doc leaves shortly after to go pick up his son from the dentist. Meg then arrives home and hears the news about what Babe has done; she has shot her husband. Meg tells Lenny about her failed singing career. They then talk about Doc and his family. Babe then arrives and excited to see her sister, but promptly leaves after being scolded by Chick. The scene continues with more exposition about the case and what is happening with the sisters.
In Act Two, Babe's lawyer is going over her case with her as she tells him what happened. They receive a phone call telling Barnette that there is new evidence he needs to pick up at the hospital. He leaves to go pick up the evidence. Lenny arrives home and tells Babe that she is frustrated with Meg because she lied to their grandfather about her success. Meg arrives home with alcohol and a newspaper for Babe. Meg apologizes for lying to her grandfather and it starts an argument. This leads Meg to make Lenny cry, and Babe follows her to comfort her. Doc arrives and shares a drink with Meg. Meg and Doc reconnect about the hurricane and why they separated due to Meg leaving town. Meg explains that she went to the psych ward and her life had gone downhill. After a pause, Doc offers to go for a ride and look at the moon. They leave to go do so. Babe comes to look for her sister but finds her lawyer, Barnette with photos of her and hew lover, Willie Jay. She starts to panic, but Lenny comes downstairs to tell them that Old Granddaddy had another stroke.
In Act Three, Chick asks how Old Granddaddy is. Lenny tells her that he will more than likely die soon. Chick goes home to make some phone calls. Lenny tells Babe that she wished that Old Granddaddy would pass and that they didn't all fight so much. Meg comes home happy and tells her sisters that she realized she had empathy for others. The sisters told Meg that their grandfather will more than likely die soon, and they start laughing. Lenny tells them that she doesn't want to be alone, and Meg tells her that she should call an old lover. Lenny goes upstairs, and Babe shows Meg the photos. Barnette shows up to collect the photos and tells Babe that he had a plan for her case. Meg leaves with Barnette to go buy Lenny a birthday cake. Lenny comes back downstairs and Chick arrives to tell the sisters that it is awful Meg is their sister. Lenny stands up for Meg, chasing Chick out of the house. She then calls her old lover and they make a date. She goes outside to find Meg, and while she is gone Babe tries to kill herself. Meg comes home to find Babe, and Babe reveals she knows why their mother killed the cat when she killed herself. When Lenny arrives back, they sing Happy Birthday to her and she wishes that they were happy and smiling. Once they cut the cake, they are all laughing and smiling, finally happy.
Production history
Henley completed her play in 1978 and submitted it to several regional theatres without success. Unknown to her, a friend entered it in the Great American Play Contest at the Actors Theatre of Louisville.
The play was first performed in February 1979 at the Actors Theatre Louisville and it was named co-winner of the contest. The play continued to be developed, with productions in Los Gatos, California, St. Louis, and Baltimore at the Centre Stage Theatre.
The Manhattan Theatre Club produced the play Off-Broadway at Stage 73, from December 9, 1980, to January 11, 1981, for 35 sold-out performances.
The play opened on Broadway at the John Golden Theatre on November 4, 1981, and closed on February 13, 1983, after 535 performances and 13 previews.
Directed by Melvin Bernhardt, the set design was by John Lee Beatty, costumes by Patricia McGourty, and lighting by Dennis Parichy. The cast also featured Raymond Baker (Doc Porter) and Peter MacNicol (Barnette Lloyd). Holly Hunter made her Broadway debut as a replacement in the role of Meg. J. Smith-Cameron also made her debut later in the run as Babe. The Broadway cast also performed in a production at the Ahmanson Theatre in 1983.
The first London production was in 1983 at the Bush Theatre. The first Chicago production was at the Blackstone Theatre in 1983.
An Off-Broadway revival at Second Stage Theatre ran from April 16, 2001 to May 13, 2001. It was directed by Garry Hynes, and featured Julia Murney (Chick), Enid Graham (Lenny), Mary Catherine Garrison (Babe), and Amy Ryan (Meg). The play was nominated for the Lucille Lortel Award for Best Revival.
The play was presented at the Williamstown Theatre Festival in August 2007, directed by Kathleen Turner and featuring Jennifer Dundas, Sarah Paulson, Lily Rabe, and Kali Rocha. This production was moved to the Roundabout Theatre Company for an Off-Broadway run. It ran February 14 to April 20, 2008 with Jessica Stone replacing Rocha as Chick.
Historical casting
Film adaptation
The 1986 film adaptation was directed by Bruce Beresford. It garnered an Academy Award nomination. Beth Henley was nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay, Jessica Lange starred as Meg, Diane Keaton as Lenny, and Sissy Spacek as Babe.
Critical response
Charles Isherwood, in his review of the 2008 revival for The New York Times called the production "a touching revival", and wrote: "Was another romp through Ms. Henley’s playfully Gothic imagination entirely necessary? Perhaps not. Might regular theatergoers eventually tire of these adorable eccentrics, laughing through their tears and crying themselves back to laughter again? Possibly... Interesting roles for women, on screen or behind it, are hard to come by. The quick return of 'Crimes of the Heart,'... gives another handful of talented women a chance to exercise — and, in the case of Ms. Turner, deepen — their gifts onstage."
Awards and nominations
Awards
1981 New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best American Play
1981 Pulitzer Prize for Drama
1982 Theatre World Award
Lizbeth MacKay
Peter MacNicol
Nominations
1982 Tony Award for Best Play
1982 Tony Award, Best Featured Actress in a Play
Mia Dillon
Mary Beth Hurt
1982 Tony Award, Best Direction of a Play (Melvin Bernhardt)
1981 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding New Play
1981 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Actress in a Play (Mary Beth Hurt)
1981 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Director of a Play
2002 Lucille Lortel Award, Outstanding Revival
References
External links
Curtain Up review, February 13, 2008
1978 plays
Plays by Beth Henley
Broadway plays
New York Drama Critics' Circle Award winners
Off-Broadway plays
Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winning works
Plays set in Mississippi
American plays adapted into films
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy%20Sue%20Got%20Married
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Peggy Sue Got Married
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Peggy Sue Got Married is a 1986 American fantasy comedy-drama film directed by Francis Ford Coppola starring Kathleen Turner as a woman on the verge of a divorce, who finds herself transported back to the days of her senior year in high school in 1960. The film was written by husband-and-wife team Jerry Leichtling and Arlene Sarner.
The film was a box office success and received positive reviews from critics. It was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Actress (Turner), Best Cinematography, and Best Costume Design. In addition, Turner was nominated for Best Foreign Actress at the Sant Jordi Awards.
The title of the movie, and the name of the main character, refers to the 1959 Buddy Holly song of the same name, which is played over the film's opening credits.
Plot
In 1985, Peggy Sue Bodell attends her 25-year high school reunion, accompanied by her daughter, Beth, rather than her husband, Charlie, who was her high-school sweetheart. She and Charlie, who married right after graduation when Peggy Sue became pregnant, have recently separated due to Charlie's infidelity.
At the reunion, Peggy reconnects with her old high school girlfriends, Maddy and Carol. She ignores Charlie when he unexpectedly arrives. The emcee then announces the reunion's “king and queen": Richard Norvik, the former class geek who is now a billionaire inventor, and Peggy Sue. Overwhelmed, she faints onstage while being crowned.
Peggy Sue awakens, only it is now 1960, her senior year of high school. Confused and disoriented, she decides to go home to her parents and act like everything is normal. Hoping that Richard Norvik can shed light on her situation, she befriends him and relates what happened. He disbelieves her story until Peggy Sue begins giving details about the future. She later decides to break up with Charlie. However, she wants to sleep with him after a party, but he panics and reminds her that she rebuffed him the weekend before. He takes her home, but instead of going inside, she goes to an all-night café where she sees fellow student, Michael Fitzsimmons, an artsy loner who she always wished she had slept with. As they sit and talk, Peggy Sue learns they have much in common. They leave on his motorcycle and later have sex under the stars.
The next night at a music bar, Michael wants Peggy to go to Utah with him and another female for a polygamous relationship where the two women support him while he writes. She declines, telling him to use their night together as inspiration for his writing. Charlie happens to be singing at the bar, and she sees there is more to him than she realized. Charlie comes off the stage and speaks to a music agent who is there to evaluate him but is unimpressed.
The next day, Peggy Sue tries to talk to Charlie but he lashes out, upset over failing to secure a record deal. She leaves to say goodbye to Richard, stating that she wants to stop ruining her life and everyone's around her, especially Charlie's, since the reason he stopped singing is because she got pregnant. Richard proposes, but she turns him down, not wanting to marry so young or derail his future. Peggy Sue visits her grandparents on her 18th birthday. Upon learning that her grandmother is psychic, she tells them her story. Her grandfather takes her to his Masonic lodge, where the members perform a ritual to return her to 1985. Charlie enters the lodge and seeing the ritual, picks up and runs out with Peggy Sue, leaving everyone inside believing the ritual worked.
Charlie tells her that he has given up singing and has been given 10% of the family business. He then proposes and gives her the locket she was wearing at the beginning of the film. She looks inside and sees baby pictures of herself and Charlie, which resemble their children. Peggy Sue realizes they love each other. They have sex, proving that she would make the same choices again.
Peggy Sue awakens in a hospital back in 1985, with Charlie at her side. He deeply regrets his infidelity and wants her back. Michael has written a book dedicated to Peggy and a starry night, indicating that Peggy possibly did travel back in time. Peggy Sue and Charlie reconcile.
Cast
Production
Development
The film was originally going to star Debra Winger and be directed by Jonathan Demme. They had creative differences and Demme left the project, to be replaced by Penny Marshall, who would be making her feature directorial debut. Then Marshall had creative differences with the writers and left the project. Winger then quit out of loyalty to Marshall. (Marshall then made her directing debut with Jumpin' Jack Flash after the original director dropped out.)
Rastar, the production company, offered the film to Francis Ford Coppola, hoping to entice Winger back to the project. In the end, Kathleen Turner became the star. Two of Coppola's relatives were also cast in the film: his daughter Sofia Coppola as Peggy Sue's sister, Nancy; and his nephew Nicolas Cage as Peggy's boyfriend and then estranged husband, Charlie. (Cage has later said he never wanted to play the role, but was asked multiple times by Coppola; he only agreed to take the part if he could play it in an over-the-top manner.)
Shooting
Kathleen Turner stated that Francis Ford Coppola was contractually obligated to finish the film on time or lose final cut privilege. Accordingly the cast and crew worked twenty hours a day, six days a week, to deliver the movie to the studio on time.
Turner has spoken numerous times about the difficulty of working with co-star Nicolas Cage (Coppola's nephew). In her 2008 memoir, she wrote that:
Turner also criticized Cage for his decision to wear false teeth and to adopt a nasal fry for his character (Cage said he based it on Pokey from The Gumby Show). During an interview in 2018, Turner commented on Cage's nasal voice that:
In 2008, in response to Turner's claims that he had driven drunk and stolen a chihuahua, Cage sued her for defamation and won. In exchange he received a public apology from Turner, admission from her publisher that the claims were false and defamatory, and a pledge that Turner and the publisher would make a substantial donation to charity.
Release and reception
Peggy Sue Got Married gained a positive reaction from critics, as it currently holds an 86% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 28 reviews The site's consensus reads, "Peggy Sue Got Married may seem just another in the line of 80's boomer nostalgia films, but none of the others have Kathleen Turner's keen lead performance." Rita Kempley of the Washington Post gave the film a positive review, but wrote of Cage's performance: "What mars the movie, aside from the pokey opening and overused theme, is an icky performance by Nicolas Cage as Charlie. He calls it surreal, 'a type of cartoon acting.' Well, he does kind of remind you of Jughead."
The film opened with $6,942,408 and ended up grossing $41,382,841 in the U.S. It was the first box-office success for Coppola since The Outsiders.
In addition to the film's three Academy Award nominations, and Turner's nomination at the Sant Jordi Awards, Turner won the 1986 award for Best Actress from the U.S. National Board of Review of Motion Pictures. This film appeared on Siskel and Ebert's best of 1986 lists.
Peggy Sue Got Married ranks number 17 on Entertainment Weeklys list of "50 Best High School Movies."
American Film Institute lists
AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs – Nominated
AFI's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Fantasy Film
Musical adaptation
The film was adapted by Leichtling and Sarner into a full-length musical theater production which opened in London's West End theatre district in 2001. Despite receiving solid reviews and a several million pound advance, 9/11 forced the show to close early.
References
External links
1986 films
1980s fantasy-comedy films
1986 romantic comedy films
1980s romantic fantasy films
American fantasy-comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American romantic fantasy films
American films
English-language films
Films about time travel
Films about weddings
Films directed by Francis Ford Coppola
Class reunions in popular culture
Films scored by John Barry (composer)
Films set in 1960
Films set in 1985
Films shot in California
American Zoetrope films
TriStar Pictures films
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] |
246562
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan%20Chung
|
Fan Chung
|
Fan-Rong King Chung Graham (; born October 9, 1949), known professionally as Fan Chung, is a Taiwanese-born American mathematician who works mainly in the areas of spectral graph theory, extremal graph theory and random graphs, in particular in generalizing the Erdős–Rényi model for graphs with general degree distribution (including power-law graphs in the study of large information networks).
Biography
Since 1998, Chung has been the Paul Erdős Professor in Combinatorics at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD). She received her doctorate from the University of Pennsylvania in 1974, under the direction of Herbert Wilf. After working at Bell Laboratories and Bellcore for nineteen years, she joined the faculty of the University of Pennsylvania as the first female tenured professor in mathematics. She serves on the editorial boards of more than a dozen international journals. Since 2003 she has been the editor-in-chief of Internet Mathematics. She has been invited to give lectures at many conferences, including the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1994 and a plenary lecture on the mathematics of PageRank at the 2008 Annual meeting of the American Mathematical Society. She was selected to be a Noether Lecturer in 2009.
Chung has two children; the first child was born during her graduate studies from her first marriage. She was married to the mathematician Ronald Graham from 1983 until his death in 2020. They were close friends of the mathematician Paul Erdős, and have both published papers with him – 13 in her case; thus, both have Erdős numbers of 1.
She has published more than 200 research papers and three books:
Erdős on Graphs: His Legacy of Unsolved Problems (with Ron Graham), A K Peters, Ltd., 1998,
Spectral Graph Theory (CBMS Regional Conference Series in Mathematics, No. 92), American Mathematical Society, 1997,
Complex Graphs and Networks (CBMS Regional Conference Series in Mathematics, No. 107 " (with Linyuan Lu), American Mathematical Society, 2006,
In 2012, she became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
Biography
Fan Chung was born on October 9, 1949 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Under the influence of her father, an engineer, she became interested in mathematics, especially in the area of combinatorics in high school in Kaohsiung. After high school, Chung entered the National Taiwan University (NTU) to start her career in mathematics formally. While Chung was an undergraduate, she was surrounded by many female mathematicians, and this helped encourage her to pursue and study mathematics.
After graduating from NTU with a B.S. in mathematics, Chung went on to the University of Pennsylvania to pursue a career in mathematics. There she obtained the highest score in the qualifying exam by a wide margin, catching the attention of Herbert Wilf, who would eventually become her doctoral advisor. Wilf suggested Ramsey theory as a subject Chung could work on. During a single week studying material Chung had come up with new proofs for established results in the field. Wilf said: "My eyes were bulging. I was very excited. I asked her to go to the blackboard and show me. What she wrote was incredible! In just one week, from a cold start, she had a major result in Ramsey theory. I told her she had just done two-thirds of a doctoral dissertation."
Chung was awarded a M.S. in 1972 and a Ph.D. two years later. By this time, she was married and had already given birth to her first child. The same year she received her Ph.D. and started working for the Mathematical Foundations of Computing Department at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. The position at Bell Laboratories was an opportunity to work with other excellent mathematicians, but also it contributed to her mathematical world powerfully. She published many impressive mathematical papers and published many joint papers with Ron Graham.
After twenty years of work at Bell Laboratories and Bellcore, Chung decided to go back to the University of Pennsylvania to become a professor of mathematics. In 1998, she was named Distinguished Professor of Mathematics at the University of California, San Diego. To date, she has over 200 publications to her name. The two best known books are Spectral Graph Theory and Erdős on Graphs. Spectral Graph Theory studies how the spectrum of the Laplacian of a graph is related to its combinatorial properties. Erdős on Graphs, which was jointly written by Fan Chung and Ron Graham, studies many of Paul Erdős problems and conjectures in graph theory. Beyond her contributions to graph theory, Chung has used her knowledge to connect different fields of science. As she wrote in "Graph Theory in the Information Age,
“In the past decade, graph theory has gone through a remarkable shift and a profound transformation. The change is in large part due to the humongous amount of information that we are confronted with. A main way to sort through massive data sets is to build and examine the network formed by interrelations. For example, Google’s successful Web search algorithms are based on the WWW graph, which contains all Web pages as vertices and hyperlinks as edges. There are all sorts of information networks, such as biological networks built from biological databases and social networks formed by email, phone calls, instant messaging, etc., as well as various types of physical networks. Of particular interest to mathematicians is the collaboration graph, which is based on the data from Mathematical Reviews. In the collaboration graph, every mathematician is a vertex, and two mathematicians who wrote a joint paper are connected.”
Chung's life was profiled in the 2017 documentary film Girls who fell in love with Math.
Bell Laboratories
In 1974, Fan Chung graduated from the University of Pennsylvania and became a member of Technical Staff working for the Mathematical Foundations of Computing Department at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. She worked under Henry Pollak. During this time, Chung collaborated with many leading mathematicians who work for Bell Laboratories such as Ron Graham.
In 1975, Chung published her first joint paper with Graham on Multicolor Ramsey Numbers for Complete Bipartite Graphs which was published in the Journal of Combinatorial Theory.
In 1983 the Bell Telephone Company was split up. Since Pollak joined and became head of a research unit within a new company, he asked Chung to become Research Manager. Until 1990, she was one of the first to receive a fellowship to spend a sabbatical at a university. She supervised many mathematicians in the unit.
According to Chung's words, although people respect her because of the power to make decisions with positions in management, she prefers to be respected because of her achievement in mathematics. Since then, she has returned to the academic world.
Ron Graham
Fan Chung's first marriage ended in divorce in 1982. However, when she worked at Bell Laboratories, she met Ronald Graham. During that time, they became close friends and published many joint papers in graph theory, eventually marrying in 1983. In Paul Hoffman's book The Man Who Loved Only Numbers, regarding her marriage with Graham, Chung said:
Many mathematicians would hate to marry someone in the profession. They fear their relationship would be too competitive. In our case, not only are we both mathematicians, we both do work in the same areas. So we can understand and appreciate what the other is working on, and we can work on things together and sometimes make good progress.
In 1998, Graham and Chung co-wrote the book Erdős on Graphs.
Research
Spectral graph theory
Among Fan Chung's publications, her contributions to spectral graph theory are important to this area of graph theory. From the first publications about undirected graphs to recent publications about directed graphs, Fan Chung creates the solid base in the spectral graph theory to the future graph theorist.
Spectral graph theory, as one of the most important theories in graph theory, combines the algebra and graph perfectly. Historically, algebraic methods treat many types of graphs efficiently. Her work initiated a geometric approach to spectral graph theory with connections to differential geometry. According to the biography Fan Rong K Chung Graham, "Spectral graph theory studies how the spectrum of the Laplacian of a graph is related to its combinatorial properties.".
In 1997, the American Mathematical Society published Chung's book Spectral graph theory. This book became a standard textbook at many universities and is the key to study Spectral graph theory for many mathematics students who are interested in this area. Fan Chung's study in the spectral graph theory brings this “algebraic connectivity” of graphs into a new and higher level.
Network science
Fan Chung's work in random graph models shed new light on the field of network science. Many real-world large information networks (such as Internet Graphs, Call Graphs, and Collaboration Graphs, etc.) have been observed to be well approximated by a power law distribution. Fan Chung's work in the Chung-Lu model, pioneered the theory of treating random graphs with arbitrary degree distributions, including the power law graphs. Her work provides a solid framework for quantitative and rigorous analysis for modeling and analyzing large complex networks. It also often serves as a popular benchmark for comparing new graph models in network science.
In 2006, the American Mathematics Society and the Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences co-published Fan Chung and Linyuan Lu's book Complex Graphs and Networks. The book gave a well-structured exposition for using combinatorial, probabilistic, spectral methods as well as other new and improved tools to analyze real-world large information networks.
Quasi-random graphs
Fan Chung, together with Ronald Graham and Richard Wilson, introduced a strong notion of equivalence among graph properties through the control of error bounds and developed the theory of quasi-random graphs. In a series of research papers (with several coauthors), she showed that a large family of graph properties is equivalent in the sense that if a graph satisfies any one of the properties, it must satisfy all of them. The set of equivalent quasi-random properties includes a surprisingly diverse collection of properties, and therefore provides efficient methods for validating graph properties. Many (but not all) random graph properties are quasi-random. The notion of quasi-randomness has been extended to many other combinatorial structures, such as sequences, tournaments, hypergraphs and graph limits. In general, the theory of quasi-randomness gives a rigorous approach to 'random-like' or 'pseudorandom' alternatives.
Extremal graph theory
A basic question in extremal graph theory is to find unavoidable patterns and structures in graphs with given density or distribution. A complementary problem is to find a smallest graph which contains every member of a given family of graphs as subgraphs. In a series of work with Paul Erdős, Chung determined the sizes and structures of unavoidable graphs and hypergraphs. With several coauthors, she also derived many elegant and surprising results on universal graphs. Her fundamental contributions in these areas of extremal graph theory have many applications in parallel computations.
Awards and honors
Allendoerfer Award of Mathematical Association of America (1990)
Invited address, International Congress of Mathematicians (1994)
Noether Lecturer, Association for Women in Mathematics (2009)
Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1998)
Fellow, American Mathematics Society (2013)
Fellow, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (2015)
Academician, Academia Sinica (2016)
Euler Medal of Institute of Combinatorics and its Applications (2017)
References
Sources
Notable Women in Mathematics, a Biographical Dictionary, edited by Charlene Morrow and Teri Perl, Greenwood Press, 1998, pp. 29–34.
External links
Fan Chung's UCSD homepage
"Fan Chung", Biographies of Women Mathematicians, Agnes Scott College
Interview with Fan Chung created by Girls Talk Math
1949 births
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
Living people
Graph theorists
Scientists from Kaohsiung
National Taiwan University alumni
Taiwanese emigrants to the United States
University of California, San Diego faculty
University of Pennsylvania alumni
American women mathematicians
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
Taiwanese mathematicians
Chinese emigrants to the United States
Chinese mathematicians
20th-century women mathematicians
21st-century women mathematicians
20th-century American women
21st-century American women
|
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] |
246565
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenius
|
Eugenius
|
Flavius Eugenius (died 6 September 394) was a usurper in the Western Roman Empire (392–394) against Emperor Theodosius I. While Christian himself, Eugenius capitalized on the discontent in the West caused by Theodosius' religious policies targeting pagans. He restored the pagan Temple of Venus and Rome and restored the Altar of Victory, after continued petitions from the Roman senate. Eugenius replaced Theodosius' administrators with men loyal to him, including pagans. This revived the pagan cause. His army fought the army of Theodosius at the Battle of Frigidus, where he was captured and executed.
Life
A Christian and former teacher of grammar and rhetoric, as well as magister scrinorum, Eugenius was an acquaintance of Arbogast, the magister militum. Arbogast was of Frankish origin and de facto ruler of the western portion of the Empire.
Rise to power
Following the death of Valentinian II, Eugenius was elevated to augustus on 22 August 392 at Lyons, by Arbogast. Deferring to Eugenius offered Arbogast two strong advantages: first, Eugenius, a Roman and Christian, was more suitable than Arbogast, a Frank and pagan, as an augustus; furthermore, the Roman Senate would be more likely to support Eugenius.
Civil, religious, and military policies
After being installed as Emperor, Eugenius changed the imperial administrators. When Theodosius had left the western half of the empire to Valentinian II, he had put his own men in the highest civil offices, to keep a strong grasp on the whole empire. Eugenius replaced these administrators with others loyal to himself, coming from the senatorial class. Virius Nicomachus Flavianus the Elder became Praetorian Prefect of Italy, his son Nicomachus Flavianus the Younger received the title of Prefect of Rome, while the new praefectus annonae was Numerius Proiectus.
Though his actual beliefs are a matter of controversy among ancient and modern historians, Eugenius was at least publicly a Christian. Pagan senators convinced Eugenius to use public money to fund pagan projects, such as the rededication of the Temple of Venus and Rome and the restoration of the Altar of Victory within the Curia. Eugenius' appointment of Nicomachus Flavianus, a pagan, as Praetorian Prefect of Italy, revived the pagan cause. These religious policies created tension with pro-Christian figures, such as Emperor Theodosius and the powerful and influential Bishop Ambrose, who left his see in Milan when the imperial court of Eugenius arrived.
Eugenius was also successful in the military field, notably in the renovation of old alliances with Alamanni and Franks, even marching to the Rhine frontier, where he impressed and pacified the Germanic tribes by parading his army in front of them. After this display, he recruited Alamannic and Frankish units for his army.
Fall
After his election as emperor, Eugenius sent two embassies to Theodosius's court, asking for recognition of his election. Theodosius received them, but both embassies were given vague responses and returned without completing their missions. In January 393, Theodosius promoted his eight-year-old son Honorius to the rank of "Augustus" of the West, giving the indication of the illegality of Eugenius' elevation.
Following the news of Honorius' elevation to Augustus, Eugenius and Arbogast marched their army, stripped from the Rhine frontier, into Italy in the spring of 393. Theodosius then moved from Constantinople with his army, and met Eugenius and Arbogast at the Battle of the Frigidus in the Vipava Valley, on 6 September 394. The bloody battle lasted two days, and was marked by unusually strong winds, but in the end Theodosius won. Eugenius was captured and then executed, his head afterward being displayed in Theodosius' camp. Arbogast committed suicide the next day.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Roberts, Walter, "Flavius Eugenius (392-394)", De Imperatoribus Romanis
4th-century births
4th-century Christians
4th-century murdered monarchs
4th-century Roman usurpers
4th-century Roman consuls
394 deaths
Ancient Roman generals
Executed Roman emperors
Flavii
Imperial Roman consuls
People executed by the Roman Empire
Year of birth unknown
|
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246566
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmics%20Inc.
|
Algorithmics Inc.
|
Algorithmics was a Toronto, Ontario based company founded by Ron Dembo that provided risk management software to financial institutions. Founded in 1989, Algorithmics employed over 850 people in 23 global offices, and served more than 350 clients, including 25 of the 30 largest banks in the world, and over two thirds of the CRO Forum of leading insurers.
In January 2005, Algorithmics was acquired by Fitch Group for $175 million, which is also the parent company of Fitch Ratings.
In October 2011, Algorithmics was acquired by IBM for $387 million. IBM OpenPages and Algorithmics will be combined to form a new Risk Analytics pillar within the Business Analytics software division.
Algorithmics was voted as the leading enterprise risk firm for market risk, economic capital risk calculation, risk dashboards and collateral management in Risk magazine's 2010 Technology Rankings. Algorithmics was also selected as the best Risk Analytics Solution Provider in Waters magazine's annual financial technology rankings. In 2011, Algorithmics won the Life and Pension Risk award for Best Solvency II provider. In 2007, Algorithmics was selected as one of Canada's Top 100 Employers, as published in Maclean's magazine.
In December 2019, SS&C Technologies acquired Algorithmics from IBM for $88.8 million.
See also
SunGard
References
A Program to Keep Tabs on Derivatives, The New York Times
PeopleSoft And Algorithmics Partner On Risk Management, Informationweek
Risk Vendor Algorithmics Acquired By Fitch, Informationweek
Risky Business, Fast Company
Countering The Domino Effect, US Banker: "According to this accepted view, the top-tier vendors are: Algorithmics Inc., Toronto; Infinity Financial Technology Inc., New York; and MKIRisk"
External links
Company Site
Parent Company Page
Software companies of Canada
Software companies established in 1989
Companies based in Toronto
Risk management companies
Information technology audit
2005 mergers and acquisitions
2011 mergers and acquisitions
IBM acquisitions
Canadian subsidiaries of foreign companies
|
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246567
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC%20Northern%20Ireland
|
BBC Northern Ireland
|
BBC Northern Ireland (; Ulster-Scots: BBC Norlin Airlan) is a division of the BBC and the main public broadcaster in Northern Ireland.
It is one of the four BBC national regions, together with the BBC English Regions, BBC Scotland and BBC Cymru Wales. Based at Broadcasting House, Belfast, it provides television, radio, online and interactive television content. BBC Northern Ireland currently employs 700 people, largely in Belfast.
BBC Northern Ireland has two TV channels - BBC One Northern Ireland, BBC Two Northern Ireland; and two radio stations - BBC Radio Ulster and BBC Radio Foyle.
Television
BBC Northern Ireland operates two television stations: BBC One Northern Ireland and BBC Two Northern Ireland. BBC Northern Ireland funds an opt-out service with the majority of this output made in the independent sector. Some output that originates in London (so-called 'network' programmes) are time-shifted to create appropriate slots for programming that is more appealing to the BBC audience in NI.
Prior to 27 October 2006, BBC Two NI was a digital only service while BBC Two Northern Ireland was available on analogue transmission. Since 28 October 2006, BBC Two Northern Ireland has been the on-air name for both services which have been merged.
BBC Northern Ireland has its own team of continuity announcers which introduce the vast majority of programmes on BBC One and BBC Two in Northern Ireland.
Regional television
BBC Newsline is the regional news service. In 2021 the main presenter is Donna Traynor. The main bulletin is from 18.30–19.00 with shorter bulletins at 13.30 and 22.30. Summaries are also broadcast during BBC Breakfast and the early afternoon. BBC NI produces some regional political programmes, notably Spotlight, The View and Nolan Live.
Network Output
As well as programmes intended purely for an audience in NI, BBC Northern Ireland also funds or often co-funds output for pan-UK consumption on both the player and other BBC channels. in 2021 network output is principally in drama.
It was announced in June 2019 that the BBC quiz show Mastermind would now be produced from BBC NI.
BBC Northern Ireland is also involved more occasionally in co-productions with other broadcasting networks, most notably with the Irish broadcaster RTÉ.
Republic of Ireland
BBC One Northern Ireland and BBC Two Northern Ireland are widely available across the border in the Republic of Ireland. These channels are carried on pay-TV platforms in the Republic including Sky Ireland, Virgin Media Ireland, Magnet Networks, SCTV and Crossan Cable. BBC One NI and BBC Two NI are also available in the Republic via signal overspill by Freeview in counties near the Northern Ireland border. Similarly, prior to the digital switchover in 2012, they were available in these areas via analogue television.
Additional BBC channels such as BBC Four, BBC News, BBC World News and children's television channels CBBC and CBeebies, are also available within the Republic of Ireland via a free-to-air satellite receiver or, in some areas near the border, via overspill from the Freeview service. Leading subscription TV providers also carry these channels.
Radio
BBC Northern Ireland operates two radio stations:
BBC Radio Ulster, on 92–95 FM, (and previously on 1341KHz Medium Wave, that is now discontinued), which broadcasts throughout Northern Ireland, and
BBC Radio Foyle, on 93.1 FM and 792 Medium Wave, which broadcasts to the North West of Northern Ireland
BBC Northern Ireland takes part in the 'Regionalisation' of some of the BBC's national radio output. From the late 1990s until 2012, for example, Radio 1 split the home nations on Thursday morning from midnight to 2am, with Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland broadcasting their own shows to showcase regional talent. The Radio 1 session from Northern Ireland was last presented by Phil Taggart from Omagh.
Online
BBC Northern Ireland's online service provides News, Sport, Schools, Learning and Programme information for television and radio programmes. It provides a streaming audio service for Radio Ulster and Radio Foyle as well as every programme on demand for up to a week after transmission. bbc.co.uk/northernireland/ is part of BBC Online and operated from the Belfast base. It also provides multi platform interactivity for TV programmes including the annual Schools' Cup Rugby union and Gaelic Athletic Association finals.
Programmes
Radio
Good Morning Ulster
The Nolan Show
Gardeners’ Corner
Talkback
Evening Extra
Sunday Sequence
Television
BBC Newsline
Spotlight
The View
The Blame Game
Beauty Queen & Single
The Paddy Raff Show
Television news bulletins
Ulster Mirror (1950s)
Scene Around Six (1969 – September 1984)
Inside Ulster (September 1984 – 12 February 1996)
Newsline 6.30/Newsline/BBC Newsline (12 February 1996 to date)
Selection of network programmes
Ballykissangel (late 1990s)
Sesame Tree (Children's Series, late 2000s)
Murphy's Law Patrick Kielty Almost LiveSports
BBC NI has, at various times, over the last decades of the 20th century and the early decades of the 21st, provided live and pre-recorded coverage of all three major male sports in NI - Irish League soccer, Ulster Rugby and GAA. In the increasingly expensive world of sports rights and contracts the regional output has never covered all three concurrently but covers the sports extensively in radio news bulletins.
Languages
BBC Northern Ireland broadcasts almost exclusively in English, but there is some output in Irish Gaelic and Ulster Scots.
Radio Ulster carries a daily programme in Irish and there is an Irish language section on BBC Northern Ireland's website. Northern Ireland Screen helps co-fund television output in both Irish and Ulster Scots.
Technical
The BBC television and radio stations are broadcast primarily from the Divis (500 kW), Limavady and Brougher Mountain transmitters. Both transmitters receive the BBC stations via a satellite feeds and each transmitter has a wealth of relay transmitters to provide analogue service to areas not served by their respective main transmitter.
TV Studios
BBC Northern Ireland has three main television studios located in Belfast. There are two small studios located in the BBC Broadcasting House in Belfast. These are home to BBC Northern Ireland's regional news and current affairs programmes. They are around each and are called Studio B and Studio 1.
The largest of the studios is called Studio A which is located in the BBC Blackstaff House on Great Victoria Street in Belfast. The studio measures . Studio A has been home to the award winning local sitcom Give My Head Peace. Nolan Live for BBC One NI airs live from Studio A.
BBC NI broadcasters
Former BBC NI broadcasters
Gerry Anderson – presented The Gerry Anderson Show on BBC Radio Ulster/Foyle and famed for broadcasting without a script.
Gloria Hunniford – BBC NI presenter who had her own daily show on Radio Ulster before a move to BBC Radio 2
Patrick Kielty – comedian
Colin Murray – Talksport presenter and former BBC Radio 1 DJ started with BBC Radio Ulster as a presenter on the Across the Line programme
Sean Rafferty – former presenter of Scene Around Six and Inside Ulster, evening news programmes broadcast until the mid-1990s, as well as BBC Radio Ulster news programmes, now a BBC Radio 3 music presenter
Noel Thompson
Current BBC NI broadcasters
Hugo Duncan – presenter of Country Afternoon on BBC Radio Ulster
Stephen Nolan – presenter of The Nolan Show on BBC Radio Ulster, Nolan Live on BBC One NI and a weekend phone-in programme on BBC Radio Five Live
Donna Traynor – presenter on BBC Newsline''
Mark Carruthers
References
External links
Northern Ireland
Television networks in Ireland
Mass media companies of Northern Ireland
Mass media in Belfast
Radio stations in Northern Ireland
Television in Northern Ireland
|
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246568
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally%20Kirkland
|
Sally Kirkland
|
Sally Kirkland is an American film, television and stage actress. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in Anna (1987). She won the Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama for her role and received awards from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and the Independent Spirit Awards. She earned a second Golden Globe nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television for The Haunted (1991). Kirkland is also known for her roles in Cold Feet (1989), Best of the Best (1989), JFK (1991) and Bruce Almighty (2003).
Early life
Kirkland was born in New York City. She was named after her mother, Sally Kirkland (born Sarah Phinney), who was a fashion editor at Vogue and LIFE magazines, and was raised in Oklahoma. Her father, Frederic McMichael Kirkland, worked in the scrap metal business.
Career
Kirkland began acting Off-Broadway in 1963. After a few uncredited and bit parts in film and television, she appeared in the underground film Coming Apart (1969).
In the 1970s, she had small roles in popular films such as The Sting, The Way We Were, A Star Is Born and Private Benjamin. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for Anna (1987), and she won a Golden Globe Award, a Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award, and an Independent Spirit Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture. Her performance received widespread critical praise, in a performance that the Washington Post deemed "superb" and the Los Angeles Times rated her as one of the best actresses of the decade.
Kirkland hosts a weekly program on the syndicated HealthyLife Radio Network. Kirkland has had frequent television roles, including Three's Company, The Incredible Hulk, Murder, She Wrote, High Tide, Roseanne, Charlie's Angels, Baretta, Starsky & Hutch, and the soap operas Valley of the Dolls and Days of Our Lives. Films in which she has appeared include EDtv, JFK, Adam & Steve and Coffee Date.
In 2019, she starred in the film Cuck. In 2020, she starred in the Amazon release film Hope For The Holidays with Robert Lasardo, Doug Hutchison, Alex Cubis George Stults.
Other work and activism
Kirkland is also a health activist including advocating for women harmed by breast implants. She founded the Kirkland Institute for Implant Survival Syndrome in August 1998.
Kirkland is an ordained minister in the church of Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness.
She is a gallery-shown painter and a noted acting teacher whose students have included Sandra Bullock, Barbra Streisand, Liza Minnelli, Dwight Yoakam, and Roseanne Barr, among others.
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Sally Kirkland at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection
Actresses from New York City
Actresses from Philadelphia
American film actresses
American health activists
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners
Living people
Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness
21st-century American women
Year of birth missing (living people)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cajun%20music
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Cajun music
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Cajun music (), an emblematic music of Louisiana played by the Cajuns, is rooted in the ballads of the French-speaking Acadians of Canada. Although they are two separate genres, Cajun music is often mentioned in tandem with the Creole-based zydeco music. Both are from southwest Louisiana and share French and African origins. These French Louisiana sounds have influenced American popular music for many decades, especially country music, and have influenced pop culture through mass media, such as television commercials.
Musical theory
Cajun music is relatively catchy with an infectious beat and a lot of forward drive, placing the accordion at the center. The accordionist gives the vocal melody greater energy by repeating most notes. Besides the voices, only two melodic instruments are heard, the accordion and fiddle, but usually in the background can also be heard the high, clear tones of a metal triangle. The harmonies of Cajun music are simple and the melodic range is just one octave, rising a fifth above the tonic and descending a fourth below. Because the Cajun accordion is a diatonic instrument (do-re-mi or natural major scale) it can only play tunes in a few keys. For example, a "C" accordion is tuned such that the entire C scale is available on the ten buttons (over two octaves) and it can play a tune in the key of C with all the notes of the C scale available (C-D-E-F-G-A-B). A "C" accordion can also play a few Cajun songs in the key of F however the Bb note will be missing. Also it can play in the key of D with a bluesy sound since the F natural note becomes a flat third or minor third in the key of D. However a skilled accordion player can play in these other keys and still make good music whereby the notes missing (because of the limitations of the diatonic tuning) are not needed by the melody. Since an instrument must match the singer's range, much Cajun singing is sung in the singer's upper range.
History of Cajun music
Origins
It is unlikely that musical instruments were introduced to colonial Louisiana before around 1780. Although originally there were no instruments, there were songs. Families sung traditional French songs called complaintes which the Cajuns adapted to their new ways of life. The first known record was of a violin in 1780 and a fiddle and clarinet player in 1785. The diatonic accordion was introduced to Cajun music in the mid- to late-1800s. It became popular because of its volume which, along with the fiddle, created sufficient accompaniment for dancing. Originally, musicians and singers performed at house dance parties known as bals de maison. However Cajun music, born from ballads, later transformed to dance music—played with or without words. The music was essential for small get-togethers on the front porch, bals de maison, and public dances in dance halls called fais do-dos.
Traditional Cajun (Before 1930)
This style comprises the roots of Cajun dance music, involving only a few instruments such as the Cajun accordion, fiddle, and triangle. This form holds firm to a basic rhythm with staccato style notes, including many fiddle double stops. Each fiddle solo is composed of a major scale riff, repeated between verses. This form has existed since the early 1900s and the waltz and two-step are the most common dances of this Cajun music genre. Many songs that became standards in the Cajun music repertoire were first recorded in this period of the 1920s and 1930s. A number of the most prominent traditional Cajun musicians are featured in the 1989 documentary J'ai Été Au Bal. Amédé Ardoin, Canray Fontenot, Wade Frugé, Dewey Segura, Joe Falcon and Cléoma Falcon, and the Breaux Brothers are examples of this genre.
Country and Texas swing Cajun (Pre war/1934–1941)
This style draws from Texas country music and moves away from the traditional accordion sound. It has more of a swing style popularized by Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys. Instead of being dominated by the accordion, Cajun swing relies significantly on the fiddle and piano with a swinging tempo. Bands in the 1940s began using the steel guitar, an instrument also found in Cajun dancehall music. Dances such as "the jig" are common in this genre of Cajun music. Leo Soileau, J. B. Fuselier, Leroy "Happy Fats" Leblanc, Harry Choates and the Hackberry Ramblers are early examples of this style. The Red Stick Ramblers and The Lost Bayou Ramblers are Cajun swing bands from the 1990s.
Fais do-dos (Cajun Dancehalls - 1946-1960)
In Cajun Louisiana, public dancehalls are known as fais do-dos. This expression may have evolved from a practice of bringing children to dance halls to lull them to sleep. In French, fais do-do means "go to sleep". This style originated in the post-war era of the late 1940s and continues to the present-day in small town dancehalls. During this early period, bands changed from performing at house dances to large halls.
Fais do-do music is similar to the traditional Cajun music of house dances, with added accompaniment such as the bass guitar, drum kit, steel guitar, and rhythm guitar, electric or acoustic. The same abrupt, staccato feel can also be felt. The implementation of electrical amplification allowed instruments to cut through the noise of the crowd and be heard throughout the dance hall. Electrification of the dance venues also allowed the fiddle to be played in a smoother style and alternate leads with the accordion. The steel guitar also adds remarks. Typically in dancehall Cajun performances the melody is played by the accordion followed by a bridge, a vocal verse, leading lines by the steel guitar, fiddle, and accordion followed finally by a bridge. This is followed by the next vocal verse, and so on. Lawrence Walker, Aldus Roger, Nathan Abshire, Iry LeJeune, Al Berard, and Sidney Brown are examples of this musical period. The characteristics of dancehall Cajun can be seen in current artists such as Jesse Légé and The Basin Brothers Band.
Cajun "renaissance"(1970s - )
Drawing on elements of the earlier traditional, Texas swing, and dancehall periods, the Cajun "renaissance" also incorporates more modern elements of folk, blues, jazz and swamp pop, and bluegrass styles. The fiddle players relax, involving a more legato feel to the solos. The quick fiddle action and double stops are missing, replaced by dominant blues chords and jazz slides.
Pioneers such as BeauSoleil with Michael Doucet, Zachary Richard, Jambalaya Cajun Band, Bruce Daigrepont, and others broke new ground, while other musicians such as Eddie LeJeune, Irvin LeJeune, Homer LeJeune, the Pine Leaf Boys, and others brought energy to older, more traditional forms.
In 1964, Gladius Thibodeaux, Louis "Vinesse" Lejeune, and Dewey Balfa represented Louisiana at the Newport Folk Festival in Rhode Island. Their concert was a success and this was a turning point in the awareness of Cajun music at a national level.
Contemporary Cajun music (1980s - )
Contemporary Cajun music is influenced by rock, R&B, blues, soul, and zydeco music. Although led by the accordion, the electric guitar, washboard, and keyboard are all present in this form. Musicians such as Wayne Toups, Roddie Romero and the Hub City Allstars, Lee Benoit, Damon Troy, Kevin Naquin, Trent LeJeune, and Steve Riley and the Mamou Playboys have popularized this modern form of Cajun music. The band Atchafalaya, active from 1982 to 1986, is another example of this style. More recently, the Lost Bayou Ramblers have experimented with mixing traditional instruments and cutting-edge technology, as showcased on their last two records, Mammoth Waltz (2012) and Kalenda (2017). This sound has been dubbed “Heavy Cajun Psych”.
Doug Kershaw recorded "Louisiana Man", an autobiographical song that he wrote while in the army. The song sold millions of copies and, over the years, it has come to be considered a standard of modern Cajun music. "Louisiana Man" has been covered by more than 800 artists.
Lyrics and Instruments
The unaccompanied ballad was the earliest form of Cajun music. These narrative songs often had passionate themes of death, solitude or ill-fated love — a reaction to their harsh exile and rough frontier experience, as well as celebrations of love and humorous tales. Ballads were ritually sung at weddings and funerals, and sung informally for small groups of people at house parties as the food cooked and young children played.
The early songs were mixtures of la la, contra dances, reels and jigs and other folk influences from Black, white and Native American traditions. Early song lyrics were entirely in Cajun French. Though songwriting in French is still common, today some Cajun music is sung in English with younger singers and audiences.
In earlier years, the fiddle was the predominant instrument. Usually two fiddles were common, one playing the melody while the other provided the séconde, or back-up part. Twin fiddling traditions represent the music in its purest form, as it was brought to Louisiana with the early immigrants and before popular American tunes mingled with it. Gradually, the Cajun accordion emerged to share the limelight.
In the early 1930s, the accordion was pushed into the background by the popular string sounds of the time. Piano and other string instruments joined fiddle to create a jazzy swing beat strongly influenced by Western Swing of neighboring Texas. The Cajun fiddle was a well established instrument which had been somewhat eclipsed by the German accordion fad, which had similar effect in French Canada. But in the Depression era the tide turned, and, according to Stricklin et al., it had never been eclipsed.
After World War II, the accordion regained its popularity in Cajun music. Also, in the late 1930s and 1940s, country music became the dominant influence on Cajun music, and steel guitar and bass were introduced.
Modern Cajun music began taking on the influence of jazz and modern country music, resulting in a more polished sound. The acoustic guitar was added, mostly as a rhythm instrument, and the triangle provided a traditional percussion. Modern groups sometimes include drums, electric bass, electric guitars and amplified accordion and fiddles.
Dance and festivals
There are several variations of Cajun dance: a Cajun one step, also called a Cajun Jig, a Cajun two step, also called a Cajun Jitterbug, and a Cajun Waltz. In mild contrast, zydeco dancing is a syncopated two-step or jitterbug. A Cajun dancer will cover the dance floor while the zydeco dancer will primarily dance in a smaller area. Cajun music can be found predominantly at Louisiana festivals and dance halls, in addition to weddings in Acadiana.
In 1968, CODOFIL (the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana) was created. The goal of this agency, which still exists, was to promote Cajun culture and combat negative stereotypes. In 1974, CODOFIL created the three-hour Tribute to Cajun Music festival, later renamed the Festival de Musique Acadienne, in order to revive an interest in Cajun music and culture among the younger generation.
See also
History of Cajun Music
Swamp pop
Swamp blues
Zydeco
Blues
List of festivals in Louisiana
List of Notable People Related to Cajun Music
Jazz
Cajun French Music Association
References
Further reading
Brasseaux, Ryan André, Cajun Breakdown: The Emergence of an American Made Music, Oxford, 2009
Broven, John, South to Louisiana: The Music of the Cajun Bayous, Pelican, 1987.
Savoy, Ann Allen, Cajun Music: A Reflection of a People, Volume One, Bluebird, 1988.
Tomko, Gene, Encyclopedia of Louisiana Musicians: Jazz, Blues, Cajun, Creole, Zydeco, Swamp Pop, and Gospel, Louisiana State University, 2020.
External links
Field Recorders Collective CDs of Dewey Balfa, Dennis McGee and Sady Courville from private collections now made public
Cajun Music essays
Cajun Music Hall of Fame and Museum
The Cajun French Music Association
CajunZydeco Net
Radio Louisiane
Cajun Music mp3: samples of Cajun music: "Hadacol it Something"
Jolie Blonde : Lyrics and song history of the traditional Cajun waltz, often referred to as "the Cajun National Anthem".
A Brief History of Cajun, Creole, and Zydeco Music
NPR story about a band named Feufollet
Cajunlyrics.com - Cajun, Swamp-Pop & Zydeco Lyrics
Academic
Cajun and Creole Music Collection at Edith Garland Dupré Library, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Contemporary Louisiana Cajun, Creole and Zydeco Musicians
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246577
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20Crimes%20Law%20%28Belgium%29
|
War Crimes Law (Belgium)
|
Belgium's War Crimes Law invokes the concept of universal jurisdiction to allow anyone to bring war crime charges in Belgian courts, regardless of where the alleged crimes have taken place.
Note that this is a Belgian law and is different from the International Criminal Court, which is a treaty body to try war crimes, and also different from the International Court of Justice, which is a U.N. body to settle disputes between countries. Both of these bodies reside in nearby The Hague, Netherlands, although some have said that American Servicemen's Protection Act passed by the United States was also directed against the War Crimes Law.
Background
The law took effect in 1993 and was expanded the following year after 10 Belgian soldiers were killed in Rwanda.
The law reached prominence after the Rwandan genocide. According to the Washington Post, the process of prosecution of Rwandans in Belgium for crimes committed in the violence were set in motion by Martine Beckers, a Brussels resident, whose sister Claire called her to tell her of being attacked by soldiers, who soon after killed her, her family, and 10 other villagers who were unable to reach a United Nations peacekeepers' compound.
Universal jurisdiction
Countries have long claimed jurisdiction over nationals of other countries or suits against countries themselves in matters Civil or criminal where those foreign nationals are alleged to have committed crimes against the complaining country's nationals, or have committed crimes in the complaining country.
What made this Belgian law controversial was that it afforded the right to anyone to submit a war crime for prosecution in Belgian courts that occurred anywhere in the world, whether on Belgian territory, and whether a Belgian national was involved as either criminal or victim. This concept called universal jurisdiction, or universal competence, was recently used in Germany to indict high-ranking US officials for their involvement in prisoner abuse in the war on terror under the command responsibility.
Problems with implementation of the law
The law soon ran into trouble when a number of parties worldwide filed cases criticized as politically motivated against leaders of various nations.
Over the years filings included cases against American officials, including George H. W. Bush, Dick Cheney, Colin Powell, Norman Schwarzkopf and Tommy Franks. Cases had also been filed against the leaders of many other countries, such as Iraq and Israel, and Cuba's Fidel Castro. The paperwork backing several of these filings was very limited, consisting out of a single fax or several pages.
Critics assailed the law as an attempt to circumvent the sovereignty of other states and become a venue for partisan show trials of propaganda value but no legal consequence. Proponents respond by arguing that universal jurisdiction is often the only recourse victims of war crimes have, and that under the UN Charter countries are already obliged to prosecute those involved in war crimes.
In an effort by the United States to pressure Belgium, United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld threatened to remove the NATO Headquarters from Brussels unless the Law was changed.
Most cases dropped
On 12 July 2003, the incoming government of Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt announced that scrapping this law would be among the first acts carried out.
In September of that year, the Belgian Court of Cassation threw out the cases against the former President Bush and other US officials, as well as Israelis.
Modified law and criticism
Six human rights groups (Amnesty International Belgium, both the Dutch-speaking Human Rights League and the French-speaking Human Rights League of Belgium, the International Federation for Human Rights, Avocats Sans Frontières (Lawyers Without Borders) and Human Rights Watch) called that loss of the universal jurisdiction component "a step backwards in the global fight against the worst atrocities."
Human Rights Watch outlined the reduced scope of the law:
Belgian courts will only have jurisdiction over international crimes if the accused is Belgian or has his primary residence in Belgium; if the victim is Belgian or has lived in Belgium for at least three years at the time the crimes were committed; or if Belgium is required by treaty to exercise jurisdiction over the case. The new law also considerably reduces victims' ability to obtain direct access to the courts - unless the accused is Belgian or has his primary residence in Belgium, the decision whether to proceed with any complaint rests entirely with the state prosecutor.
Court of Arbitration
On 21 June 2006, the Constitutional Court of Belgium (called the Court of Arbitration at the time) annulled parts of the modified law which came in place of the Belgian War Crimes Law.
References
Belgian legislation
International criminal law
Laws of war
1993 in law
1993 in Belgium
Belgium–Rwanda relations
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Le%20Moyne%20d%27Iberville
|
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
|
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville (16 July 1661 – 9 July 1706) or Sieur d'Iberville was a soldier, ship captain, explorer, colonial administrator, knight of the order of Saint-Louis, adventurer, privateer, trader, member of Compagnies Franches de la Marine and founder of the French colony of Louisiana in New France. He was born in Montreal of French colonist parents.
Early life
Pierre Le Moyne was born in July 1661 at Fort Ville-Marie (now Montreal), in the French colony of Canada, the third son of Charles le Moyne de Longueuil et de Châteauguay, a native of Dieppe or of Longueuil near Dieppe, Normandy in France and lord of Longueuil in Canada, and of Catherine Thierry (called Catherine Primot in some sources) from Rouen. He is also known as Sieur d'Iberville (et d'Ardillières).
He had eleven brothers, most of whom became soldiers. One, Jacques Le Moyne de Sainte-Hélène, led French and Indian forces in the Schenectady massacre in present-day New York's Mohawk Valley. Charles le Moyne de Longueuil, Baron de Longueuil, was governor of Montreal. Another, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne Bienville, founded New Orleans. Jacques and Paul LeMoyne were with him on James Bay, and Joseph LeMoyne was with him in Louisiana.
Le Moyne d'Iberville was raised Catholic under the Jesuit order. Parish records indicate that he made his First Communion at the age of 12. Like most young men of his background, who received a classical and religious education, d'Iberville was educated in a Sulpician seminary.
Destined for the priesthood, he chose the military vocation. At the age of 12, he became a cabin boy on his uncle's ship trading to Port Royal, Acadia. A few years later he was in the fur trade at Sault Ste. Marie in Canada, where he would have learned something of canoe travel in the wilderness. He later became quartermaster on one of his father's ships.
Hudson Bay expeditions
The Hudson's Bay Company was founded in 1670. This company diverted furs away from Quebec and threatened further expansion into French territory. In 1682, the Compagnie du Nord was founded to compete with the English on the Bay. In 1686, the aggressive Governor General Denonville decided to drive out the English even though the two countries were at peace.
Under the command of Pierre de Troyes, Chevalier de Troyes, d'Iberville his brothers Paul and Jacques led the Canadian woodsmen on a 1686 expedition to Hudson Bay. He played a heroic part in the capture of the fort at Moose Factory. At Fort-Rupert, he captured the sloop Craven and killed at least one unarmed sailor. As a result, the French seized all three English posts on James Bay, leaving the English only York Factory which was far to the northwest and inaccessible by land. De Troyes left in August 1686, leaving d'Iberville in charge with 40 men. The following summer, when no supplies arrived, d'Iberville left 12 men at the forts and went first south to Quebec and then to France. In France, he lobbied for the Compagnie and obtained command of Soleil D'Afrique and returned to James Bay in the summer of 1688. There he captured three HBC ships that were trying to re-establish their position on James Bay.
Returning to Quebec, he was caught up in King William's War and sent south to attack the British colonies (see below). In July 1690, he left Quebec with three ships in the hope of capturing York Factory. Finding himself outgunned by a larger English ship, he fled south and captured the new HBC base at Fort Severn. In 1692 and 1693, he again planned to attack York Factory, but both times the needed ships were diverted. It was 1694 before he could effect the capture of York Factory. His work was undone when the English recaptured Fort Albany in 1693 and York Factory in 1695. 1695 and 1696 were spent in coastal raiding. In 1697 he captured York Factory a second time after winning his most heroic battle. It was too late in the season to capture Fort Albany, so he left Hudson Bay, never to return. York Factory remained French until 1713.
King William's War
In 1690, he was second in command to his brother Jacques in a raid south to New York that culminated in the Schenectady Massacre. In 1692, he convoyed supply ships from France and harassed English coastal settlements, taking three prizes. In 1694, he returned to Hudson Bay and captured York Factory for the first time. In the spring of 1696, he sailed from France with three ships. Sending one to Quebec, he led the other two to the aid of the governor of Acadia, Joseph Robineau de Villebon, whom the English were blockading at the mouth of the Saint John River. He captured one enemy ship and drove the other two away. He then went 200 miles west and captured the most northerly settlement in New England, Pemaquid (Siege of Pemaquid (1696), 14 August). He then sailed east to Placentia, the French capital of Newfoundland, and began the Avalon Peninsula Campaign on 1 November. On this expedition he captured St. John's and ruined most of the English fishing villages. During four months of raids, Iberville was responsible for the destruction of 36 settlements. The Newfoundland campaign was one of the cruelest and most destructive of Iberville's career. Before he could consolidate his hold on Newfoundland, he was diverted north to capture York Factory for a second time during the summer of 1697. Soon after his departure, the English arrived in Newfoundland with 2,000 troops and restored their position. Hostilities ended with the Treaty of Ryswick in September 1697.
Exploring Louisiana
In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle was the first European to travel from the Great Lakes down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. The French began dreaming of building a great empire by linking the Saint Lawrence and Mississippi basins, thereby bottling up the English on the Atlantic coast. This presented diplomatic problems; the Gulf coast was claimed, though not occupied, by Spain.
Pontchartrain, the minister for naval affairs and colonies, gave d'Iberville the task of locating the mouth of the Mississippi River, which La Salle had failed to find on his last expedition, and building a fort which would block the river to other nations. D'Iberville left Brest with four ships in October 1698. He sailed along the Florida coast, past the base the Spanish were building at Pensacola. In March 1699, he entered the Birdfoot Delta. It was only after meeting some Indians who remembered La Salle that he was sure that this was the Mississippi. Having achieved his first aim and finding no good sites in the delta, he built a temporary fort Fort Maurepas at Ocean Springs, Mississippi, left a garrison of 81 men, and returned to France.
On his second voyage, he reached Biloxi in January 1700. He built a second "Fort Maurepas" 40 miles up the Mississippi River. On his return journey, he is said to have stopped at New York City and sold 9,000 furs that coureurs des bois had given him, in preference to hauling them back to Montreal. (This story illustrates the benefits of the future New Orleans area as a port, the size of the French presence on the Mississippi at this early date, and d'Iberville's questionable business practices.) On his third voyage in February 1701, he built a fort at Mobile. Here, Henri de Tonti aided him in establishing good relations with the Indians. He left Louisiana for the last time in April 1702. His brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville founded New Orleans in 1718.
Queen Anne's War and Death
In 1702, England and France were again at war (War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714, the North American theater of which was Queen Anne's War). D'Iberville had contracted malaria on the Gulf coast, and both his health and judgment seem to have deteriorated. Early in 1706, he left France in command of twelve vessels. A squadron under Henri-Louis de Chavagnac devastated Saint Kitts. From 1 to 22 April, d'Iberville and Chavagnac devastated the island of Nevis and took much of the population prisoner. He went to Havana, where he was involved in planning an expedition against Charles Town, Carolina (an English colonial settlement), when he died suddenly, perhaps of yellow fever, in July, 1706. D'Iberville was buried at Church of San Cristóbal (Havana Cathedral); the burial records identify him under his French name, and as El General Dom Pedro Berbila.
After his death, his estate became involved in an inquiry that dragged on for more than thirty years. D'Iberville had acquired a large fortune by uncertain means. The accounts of the West Indian expedition were hopelessly disorganized; there were accusations of embezzlement. His widow, Marie Thérèse Pollet (24 March 1672 – 1740) was forced to pay back a large part of her inheritance.
D'Iberville was perhaps the first great soldier born in Canada. Students of the art of war may see his career as an example of the importance of following up after a victory, for he won all his battles but never was able to consolidate what he had won.
Honours
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was a knight of the Order of Saint-Louis.
Legacy
The following works and sites are named for d'Iberville:
D'Iberville, a 39 episode television series on Radio-Canada from 1967 to 1968
The city of Iberville, Quebec, now a district of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu
A high school in Longueuil, Quebec, on the south shore of Montreal, is named after him.
A secondary school in Rouyn-Noranda, Québec, bears the name D'Iberville
Avenue Iberville, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada
Rue D'Iberville and the adjacent D'Iberville metro station in Montreal, Quebec
The provincial electoral district of Iberville, Quebec
Mont d'Iberville, the highest mountain in Quebec
The city of D'Iberville, Mississippi
Iberville Parish, Louisiana
Rue Iberville in New Orleans, Louisiana
Rue d'Iberville in Chicoutimi, Québec
Rue Iberville in Radisson, Québec
Rue d'Iberville in Alma, Québec
A number of French ships, notably:
A torpedo aviso, one of the first French ships to be designated as a "contre-torpilleur" (destroyer)
A colonial sloop scuttled in Toulon harbor on 27 November 1942
, Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker.
Has a statue in Mobile erected in 2002, a gift from Hand Arendall, L.L.C.
The cafeteria at Northwestern State University of Louisiana is named for him.
Ibervillea, a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae, from Central America and Mexico.
See also
Fort Gaines, Alabama
D'Iberville (TV series)
Notes
References
Bibliography
Frégault, Guy. Iberville le conquérant. (Montréal, 1944).
External links
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville at the Valiants Memorial
Iberville Prospectus at The Historic New Orleans Collection
Explorers of Canada
Explorers of the United States
People of New France
1661 births
1706 deaths
French explorers of North America
French Navy officers
French naval commanders in the War of the Spanish Succession
People from Rouen
Canadian nobility (French)
Knights of the Order of Saint Louis
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Deaths from yellow fever
Infectious disease deaths in Cuba
Louisiana (New France)
Le Moyne family
1680s in New France
1690s in New France
1700s in New France
Military history of Canada
Naval history of Canada
Military history of Acadia
Military history of New England
Military history of Nova Scotia
King William's War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi%20dinar
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Iraqi dinar
|
The Iraqi dinar () (Arabic: دينار; sign: د.ع; code: IQD) is the currency of Iraq. It is issued by the Central Bank of Iraq and is subdivided into 1,000 fils (فلس), although inflation has rendered the fils obsolete since 1990. On 18 June 2021, the exchange rate was IQD 1,483.5000 = US$1.
History
The Iraqi dinar went into circulation on 1 April 1932, replacing the Indian rupee, which had been the official currency since the British occupation of the country in World War I, at a rate of 1 dinar = 11 rupees. The dinar was pegged at par with the British pound until 1959 when, without changing its value, the peg was switched to the United States dollar at the rate of 1 dinar = US$2.80. By not following the US devaluations in 1971 and 1973, the official rate rose to US$3.3778, before a 5% devaluation reduced its rate to US$3.2169, a rate which remained until the Gulf War in 1990, although in late 1989 the black market rate was reported at five to six times higher than the official rate.
Post-1990 developments
After the Gulf War in 1990, due to UN sanctions, the previously used Swiss printing method was no longer available, so new, inferior quality notes were produced. The pre-1990 notes became known as the “Swiss dinars” while the new dinar notes were called “Saddam dinars”. Due to United States and the international sanctions on Iraq along with excessive government printing, the Saddam dinar currency devalued quickly. By late 1995, US$1 was valued at 3,000 dinars on the black market.
Swiss dinars notes continued to circulate in the politically isolated Kurdish regions of Iraq. The Kurdish government refused to accept the low quality Saddam dinar notes (which were issued in huge amounts). Since the supply of Saddam dinar notes increased while the supply of Swiss dinar notes remained stable (even decreased because of notes taken out of circulation), the Swiss dinar notes appreciated against the Saddam dinar note. By having its own stable currency, the northern part of Iraq effectively evaded inflation, which ran rampant throughout the rest of the country.
After Saddam Hussein was deposed in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Iraqi Governing Council and the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance printed more Saddam dinar notes as a stopgap measure to maintain the money supply until a new currency could be introduced.
Between 15 October 2003 and 15 January 2004, the Coalition Provisional Authority issued new Iraqi dinar notes and coins, with the notes printed by the British security printing firm De La Rue using modern anti-forgery techniques to "create a single unified currency that is used throughout all of Iraq and will also make money more convenient to use in people's everyday lives". Multiple trillions of dinars were shipped to Iraq and secured in the Central Bank to exchange for Saddam dinar notes. Saddam dinar notes were exchanged for the new dinars at par, while Swiss dinar notes were exchanged at a rate of one Swiss dinar = 150 new dinars.
Inflation and depreciation of the currency has continued since. On 2 March 2019, the Central Bank's indicative exchange rate was 1,190 dinars = US$1. and on 18 June 2021 it was IQD 1,460.5000 = US$1.
There is considerable confusion (perhaps intentional on the part of dinar sellers) around the role of the International Monetary Fund in Iraq. The IMF as part of the rebuilding of Iraq is monitoring Iraq’s finances and for this purpose uses a single rate (not a sell/buy) of 1170 dinars per US$. This "program rate" is used for calculations in the IMF monitoring program and is not a rate imposed on Iraq by the IMF. For a wider history surrounding currency in the region, see British currency in the Middle East.
Use in speculation and fraud since the Iraq war (2003–present)
Since Iraq has few exports other than oil, which is sold in dollars, there is little international demand for dinars, resulting in an extremely high exchange rate compared with other currencies.
However, the downfall of Saddam Hussein resulted in the development of a multi-million-dollar industry involving the sale of dinars to speculators. Such exchange services and companies sell dinars at an inflated price, pushing the idea that the dinar would sharply increase in value to a profitable exchange rate some time in the future, instead of being redenominated. This activity can be either a legitimate service to currency speculators, or foreign exchange fraud: at least one major such currency exchange provider was convicted of fraud involving the dinar. This trade revived after the election of Donald Trump in November 2016, with many buyers believing that Trump would cause a sharp revaluation in the dinar (often referred to by the abbreviation "RV" by supporters of the dinar trade,) to an exchange rate comparable to the US dollar.
In 2014, Keith Woodwell (director of the Utah Division of Securities) and Mike Rothschild (writer for Skeptoid blog) stated that the speculation over the Iraqi dinar originated from a misunderstanding of why the value of the Kuwaiti dinar recovered after the First Gulf War, leading to an assumption that the Iraqi dinar would follow suit after the fall of Saddam: Woodwell and Rothschild noted substantial differences in economic and political stability between Iraq and Kuwait, with Iraq facing pervasive sectarian violence amid near-total reliance on oil exports.
In response to the growing concerns about fraud and scams related to investment in the Iraqi dinar, State agencies such as Washington State, Utah, Oklahoma, Alabama and others issued statements and releases warning potential investors. Further alerts were issued by news agencies.
These alerts usually warn potential investors that there is no place outside Iraq to exchange the dinar, that they are typically sold by dealers at inflated prices, and that there is little evidence to substantiate the claims of significant appreciation of their investment due to revaluation of the currency.
In February 2014, the Better Business Bureau included investing in the dinar as one of the ten most notable scams in 2013. There has also been a book written on the subject.
Coins
Coins were introduced in 1931 and 1932 in denominations of round 1, and 2 fils in bronze, and scalloped 4, and 10, fils in nickel. 20, 50, and 200 fils were 50% silver. The 200 fils coin is also known as a rial. Bronze substituted nickel in the 5 and 10 fils from 1938 to 1943 during the World War II period and reverted to nickel in 1953. Silver 100 fils coins were also introduced in 1953. These coins first depicted King Faisal I from 1931 to 1933, King Ghazi from 1938, and King Faisal II from 1943 until the end of the kingdom.
Following the establishment of the Iraqi Republic, a new series of coins was introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 fils, with the 25, 50, and 100 fils in silver until 1969. In this series an allegorical sun replaced the image of the king, shapes and sizes remained the same with the exception of the 1 fil which was decagon shaped. This image was then replaced by three palms in 1968. In 1970, 250 fils pieces were introduced, followed by 500 fils and 1 dinar coins in 1982. A number of the coins for 1982 were a commemorative series celebrating Babylonian achievements. During this period, many of the coins were identified by their shape due to being made of similar composition metals, as from 1980 onward 250 fils were octagonal, 500 fils square, and 1 dinar decagon shaped. Coin production ceased after 1990 due to the emergency conditions generated by the Gulf War and international sanctions.
In 2004, a new series of coins were issued in denominations of 25, 50 and 100 dinars and were struck in bronze, brass, and nickel-plated steel respectively. They are sparse in design and depict an abstract map of Iraq and the main rivers.
Banknotes
On 16 March 1932, banknotes were issued by the government in denominations of , , 1, 5, 10 and 100 dinars. The notes were printed in the United Kingdom by Bradbury, Wilkinson & Co. From 1932 to 1947, the banknotes were issued by the Iraqi currency board for the government of Iraq and banknotes were convertible into pound sterling. From 1947, the banknotes were issued by the National Bank of Iraq, then after 1954 by the Central Bank of Iraq.
100 dinars notes ceased production in the 1940s, however, the same denominations were used until 1978, when 25 dinars notes were introduced. In 1991, 50 dinars were introduced and 100 dinars reintroduced, followed in 1995 by 250 dinar notes and 10,000 dinars notes in 2002.
Banknotes that were issued between 1990 and October 2003, along with a 25-dinar note issued in 1986, bear an idealized engraving of former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein. Following the 1991 Gulf War, Iraq's currency was printed both locally and in China, using poor grade wood pulp paper (rather than cotton or linen) and inferior quality lithography (some notes were reputedly printed on presses designed for printing newspapers).
The primitive printing techniques resulted in a limitless variety in coloration and detail, one layer of the printing would be too faint while another would be too dark. Counterfeit banknotes often appeared to be of better quality than real notes. Some notes were very poorly cut, and some notes even lacked serial numbers. Despite the collapse in the value of the Iraqi dinar, the highest denomination printed until 2002 was 250 dinars. In 2002, the Central Bank of Iraq issued a 10,000-dinars banknote to be used for "larger, and inter-bank transactions". This note was rarely accepted in practice due to fears of looting and counterfeiting. This forced people to carry around stacks of 250-dinars notes for everyday use. The other, smaller bills were so worthless that they largely fell into disuse. This situation meant that Iraq, for the most part, had only one denomination of banknote in wide circulation.
Currency printed before the Gulf War was often called the Swiss dinar. It got its name from the Swiss printing technology that produced banknotes of a considerably higher quality than those later produced under the economic sanctions that were imposed after the first Gulf War. After a change-over period, this currency was disendorsed by the Iraqi government. However, this old currency still circulated in the Kurdish regions of Iraq until it was replaced with the new dinar after the second Gulf War. During this time the Swiss dinar retained its value, whilst the new currency consistently lost value at sometimes 30% per annum.
In 2003, new banknotes were issued consisting of six denominations: 50, 250, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 25,000 dinars. The notes were similar in design to notes issued by the Central Bank of Iraq (CBI) in the 1970s and 1980s. A 500 dinars note was issued a year later, in October 2004. In the Kurdish regions of Iraq, the 50 dinar note is not in circulation.
In March 2014, the CBI began replacing banknotes with anti-counterfeiting enhanced versions that include SPARK optical security features, scanner readable guarantee threads in addition to braille embossing to assist vision-impaired persons.
In February 2015, the CBI announced the removal from circulation on 30 April 2015 of the 50-dinar notes. Persons holding these banknotes were advised to immediately redeem them at their nearest bank for the 250 and higher denomination dinar notes at a one-to-one rate at no charge.
In November 2015, the CBI announced the introduction of a new 50,000-dinar banknote. This is the first new denomination banknote since the new series was first issued in 2003, and also the largest ever printed by the CBI. The current notes no longer depict an image of former Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and now feature inscriptions in both Arabic and Kurdish. The banknotes are printed using new security features from Giesecke & Devrient & De La Rue and measure 156 × 65 mm. They feature an outline map of Iraq showing the Euphrates & Tigris rivers as well as the Great Mosque of Samarra.
Kingdom of Iraq dinar series (1932–1939)
Swiss dinar series (1979–1986)
1990–2003 series
2003–present
Exchange rate
See also
British currency in the Middle East
Central Bank of Iraq
Economy of Iraq
Iraqi art
Iraqi Swiss dinar
Kuwaiti dinar
References
Iraqi Dinar Currency
External links
Central Bank of Iraq homepage
Council on Foreign Relations: benefits of the new Iraqi dinar
Iraqi Dinar Scam – Washington State Department of Financial Institutions warning
Iraqi Dinar Scams – Oklahoma Securities Commission warns residents
Dmoztools.net – Iraqi Dinar
Currencies of Iraq
Economy of Iraq
Currencies introduced in 1932
ISO 4217
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outrider%20%28album%29
|
Outrider (album)
|
Outrider is an album by Jimmy Page, released by Geffen Records on 19 June 1988. It is his first solo studio album (and his only one as of 2022) and the first time since 1969 he has recorded with a record label other than Atlantic Records/Swan Song Records. Page recorded the music at his personal studio The Sol. Robert Plant guests on one track, "The Only One", while John Bonham's son Jason plays drums.
This was originally intended to be a two album release. However, during the early recording stages of this album, Page's house was broken into and amongst the items stolen were the demo tapes which had been recorded up to that point. Page didn't record any demos prior to recording the album itself.
Reception
The album reached No. 26 on the Billboard 200 chart, also peaking at No. 27 on the UK Album Chart.
Years later, Jimmy Page reflected on the album in rather positive terms:
{{quote|Outriders all right. It's demo-like compared with those overproduced albums that came out at the time. It didn't do very well—doesn't matter—but I did tour. I was playing music on that tour going right back to The Yardbirds. Jason [Bonham] was the drummer on that tour.}}
Track listing
PersonnelMusiciansJimmy Page – guitars, synthesizer, backing vocals, production
Tony Franklin – bass guitar on "Wasting My Time"
Felix Krish – bass guitar on "The Only One", "Liquid Mercury", "Emerald Eyes", "Prison Blues", and "Blues Anthem (If I Cannot Have Your Love...)"
Durban Laverde – bass guitar on "Wanna Make Love", "Writes of Winter", and "Hummingbird"
Chris Farlowe – vocals on "Hummingbird", "Prison Blues", and "Blues Anthem (If I Cannot Have Your Love...)"
John Miles – vocals on "Wasting My Time" and "Wanna Make Love"
Robert Plant – vocals on "The Only One"
Barriemore Barlow – drums, percussion on "Liquid Mercury" and "Emerald Eyes"
Jason Bonham – drums, percussionTechnical'''
Peter Ashworth – photography
Dick Beetham – assistant engineering
Steve Hoyland – assistant engineering
JL – artwork and cover co-ordination
George Marino – mastering at Sterling Sound, New York
Leif Mases – engineering, mixing
Charts
Weekly charts
Singles
Certifications
Accolades
Tour
See also
Celebration Day''
The Honeydrippers
Page and Plant
References
1988 debut albums
Albums produced by Jimmy Page
Geffen Records albums
Jimmy Page albums
|
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] |
246637
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive%20health%20insurance%20%28Maine%29
|
Comprehensive health insurance (Maine)
|
In June 2003, the Maine, US Legislature passed a comprehensive health insurance plan, granting low-cost coverage to all state residents by 2009. The law stated that a semi-private agency would provide coverage to uninsured residents, small businesses, municipalities, and the self-employed. Premiums were set at a sliding scale, where individuals making below $27,000 and families making below $55,000 would be eligible for reduced rates, and the law called for the creation of a watchdog group to monitor hospital and doctor costs. The bill passed the Maine House of Representatives 105 to 38, and the Maine Senate 25 to 8.
Impacts
About 15,000 of the 140,000 uninsured have been covered by the program. The original project goals were to pay for the program with savings from reducing inefficiencies in the existing system and not raise taxes, while providing insurance to 140,000 people. Another goal was to make hospital pricing more transparent to customers. Over time, the state was forced to raise taxes over 5% to help pay for this program, and enrollment in the program was ultimately closed due to cost issues.
Analysis
Scholars have identified Maine's health insurance law as one of several state laws from the early 2000s designed to "make insurance available to most of their residents." Other scholars suggested that state healthcare laws, including the Maine health insurance act, indicated that healthcare reform had become an issue of national significance.
See also
Dirigo Health
References
Maine law
Healthcare in Maine
|
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246638
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Cuevas%20%28boxer%29
|
José Cuevas (boxer)
|
José Isidro "Pipino" Cuevas González (born December 27, 1957) is a Mexican former professional boxer. He became world champion in the welterweight division.
Cuevas was inducted into both the International Boxing Hall of Fame, and the World Boxing Hall of Fame.
Professional career
Cuevas turned professional at age 14; he won only seven of his first twelve bouts but eventually put together an eight bout winning streak before losing to Andy Price. On July 17, 1976, he received a shot at the WBA welterweight title against champion Ángel Espada. Cuevas pulled off an upset victory by knocking Espada to the canvas three times in the second round. At age 18, he was the youngest welterweight champion in history. In his first defense, he traveled to Japan and defeated hometown fighter Shoji Tsujimoto by knockout.
One of the greatest wins of his career was against Argentinian Miguel Angel Campanino, who boasted an impressive record (84-4-4), including a thirty-two fight winning streak. Once again, Pipino disposed of his challenger before the end of the second round.
On June 8, 1977, he faced veteran Clyde Gray of Canada who had only been stopped twice in his entire career which included fifty-eight wins. Yet again, Cuevas pulled off another second round knock out. A few months later, Cuevas returned to the ring for a rematch against Espada. This time Cuevas defeated Espada in the eleventh round after he sustained a broken jaw. On March 4, 1978, he disposed of Harold Weston in the ninth round after Weston also sustained a broken jaw like Cuevas' previous challenger. Cuevas then defeated former champion Billy Backus in one round. On September 9, 1978, he defeated hometown favorite Pete Ranzany (40-2-1) in Sacramento, California via a second-round knockout. He defeated Scott Clark (28-1-0) in another second-round knockout. Cuevas next title defense went the distance in a unanimous decision win against the durable Randy Shields (33-5-1). On December 8, 1979, he faced Espada for a third time, stopping him in the tenth round. Cuevas then defeated South African national champion Harold Volbrecht by fifth-round knockout.
Loss of Title
Cuevas finally lost his title in 1980 to the undefeated and up-and-coming hometown hero Thomas Hearns in Detroit. The much taller and lankier Hearns was able to use his reach to his advantage as he kept Cuevas at a distance and knocked him out in the second round. Cuevas' talent began to decline after that loss; the most notable opponent he faced was Roberto Durán, who stopped him in the fourth round in the spring of 1983. He also lost to former world title challenger Jun Sok-Hwang and future or former world champions Jorge Vaca and Lupe Aquino before finally retiring in 1989.
Pipino Cuevas fought during a period when an unusual number of accomplished welterweights were active: Sugar Ray Leonard, Wilfred Benítez, Carlos Palomino, Thomas Hearns, and Roberto Durán, although his reign had nearly come to an end as Leonard, Benítez, Hearns, and Durán emerged as welterweight champions. Cuevas successfully defended his welterweight title eleven times against ten different boxers over a four-year span. During his reign as champion, Cuevas fought the best opposition available to him. In total, the opponents he faced throughout his career had a combined record of 505-70-29. In 2003, The Ring listed Cuevas as number thirty-one on their list of the 100 greatest punchers of all-time. In 2002, Cuevas became a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
Retirement
Cuevas is the owner of a restaurant and a security company in Mexico City. At one point of his career, he was also the owner of a famous sports and luxury car collection, and he was one of the first boxers to sport a golden tooth. Most people probably know him for his nickname Pipino, which is far more used to refer to him than Jose by fight commentators and magazine writers.
He ran into trouble with the law in 2001 when he was accused of racketeering in Mexico, in connection with a Mexican mayor. But he was declared innocent in 2002.
His record as a boxer was of 35 wins and 15 losses, with 31 wins by knockout.
Professional boxing record
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:95%"
|-
!
!Result
!Record
!Opponent
!Type
!Round
!Date
!Location
!Notes
|-
|50
|Loss
|35–15
|align=left| Lupe Aquino
|KO
|2 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|49
|Win
|35–14
|align=left| Martín Martínez
|KO
|1 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|48
|Win
|34–14
|align=left| Francisco Carballo
|KO
|4 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|47
|Win
|33–14
|align=left| Daniel Valenzuela
|KO
|6 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|46
|Loss
|32–14
|align=left| Jorge Vaca
|KO
|2 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|45
|Loss
|32–13
|align=left| Lorenzo Luis García
|MD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|44
|Win
|32–12
|align=left| Luis Mateo
|TKO
|3 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|43
|Loss
|31–12
|align=left| Steve Little
|MD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|42
|Win
|31–11
|align=left| Felipe Vaca
|UD
|4
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|41
|Loss
|30–11
|align=left| Herman Montes
|KO
|3 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|40
|Loss
|30–10
|align=left| Jun-Suk Hwang
|MD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|39
|Win
|30–9
|align=left| Mauricio Bravo
|TKO
|1 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|38
|Loss
|29–9
|align=left| Roberto Durán
|TKO
|4 (12)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|37
|Loss
|29–8
|align=left| Roger Stafford
|UD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|36
|Win
|29–7
|align=left| Jørgen Hansen
|TKO
|1 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|35
|Win
|28–7
|align=left| Bernardo Prada
|KO
|2 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|34
|Loss
|27–7
|align=left| Thomas Hearns
|TKO
|2 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|33
|Win
|27–6
|align=left| Harold Volbrecht
|KO
|5 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|32
|Win
|26–6
|align=left| Ángel Espada
|TKO
|10 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|31
|Win
|25–6
|align=left| Randy Shields
|UD
|15
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|30
|Win
|24–6
|align=left| Scott Clark
|TKO
|2 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|29
|Win
|23–6
|align=left| Pete Ranzany
|TKO
|2 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|28
|Win
|22–6
|align=left| Billy Backus
|TKO
|2 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|27
|Win
|21–6
|align=left| Harold Weston
|TKO
|9 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|26
|Win
|20–6
|align=left| Ángel Espada
|TKO
|12 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|25
|Win
|19–6
|align=left| Clyde Gray
|KO
|2 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|24
|Win
|18–6
|align=left| Miguel Ángel Campanino
|KO
|2 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|23
|Win
|17–6
|align=left| Shoji Tsujimoto
|KO
|6 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|22
|Win
|16–6
|align=left| Ángel Espada
|TKO
|2 (15)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|21
|Loss
|15–6
|align=left| Andy Price
|UD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|20
|Win
|15–5
|align=left| Rafael Piamonte
|KO
|1 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|19
|Win
|14–5
|align=left| José Palacios
|KO
|10 (12)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|18
|Win
|13–5
|align=left| Carlos Obregón
|UD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|17
|Win
|12–5
|align=left| Rubén Vázquez Zamora
|UD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|16
|Win
|11–5
|align=left| Sammy García
|KO
|3 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|15
|Win
|10–5
|align=left| José Luis Pena
|KO
|1 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|14
|Win
|9–5
|align=left| Sugar Sanders
|TKO
|1 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|13
|Win
|8–5
|align=left| Salvador Ruvalcaba
|KO
|1 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|12
|Loss
|7–5
|align=left| Eleazar Delgado
|MD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|11
|Win
|7–4
|align=left| Octavio Amparan
|TKO
|7 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|10
|Win
|6–4
|align=left| José Figueroa
|TKO
|3 (10)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|9
|Loss
|5–4
|align=left| Memo Cruz
|UD
|10
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|8
|Win
|5–3
|align=left| Sergio Alejo
|KO
|4 (8)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|7
|Win
|4–3
|align=left| Raúl Martínez
|KO
|1 (8)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|6
|Loss
|3–3
|align=left| Juan Pablo Oropeza
|MD
|8
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|5
|Win
|3–2
|align=left| Pancho Benítez
|TKO
|2 (8)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|4
|Win
|2–2
|align=left| Rielero Rodríguez
|TKO
|2 (6)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|3
|Loss
|1–2
|align=left| Mario Roman
|MD
|6
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|2
|Win
|1–1
|align=left| José Arias
|TKO
|4 (6)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|1
|Loss
|0–1
|align=left| Alfredo Castro
|KO
|2 (4)
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
See also
List of WBA world champions
List of Mexican boxing world champions
References
External links
1957 births
Living people
Boxers from the State of Mexico
Welterweight boxers
World boxing champions
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Mexican male boxers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Love%20the%20%2780s%20%28American%20TV%20series%29
|
I Love the '80s (American TV series)
|
I Love the '80s is a decade nostalgia television program and the first installment of the I Love the... series that was produced by VH1, based on the BBC series of the same name. The first episode, "I Love 1980", premiered on December 16, 2002, and the final episode, "I Love 1989", premiered on December 20, 2002.
Recurring segments
Makeout Songs: Lionel Richie presents the love songs from each year.
Babes: Bret Michaels (Poison) presents the attractive female celebrities or fictional charcaters from each year.
Hunks: Traci Lords presents the attractive male celebrities from each year.
Public Service Announcements: A public service announcement (PSA) from each year is presented.
Then and Now: "Weird Al" Yankovic compares trends of the given year and the present day.
Mr. & Ms.: Andrew Dice Clay presents a male celebrity and a female celebrity of each year.
Born In: Soleil Moon Frye (Punky Brewster) presents the people, bands, and products that were born in each year.
During the credits of every episode, a clip from a popular music video was played without any type of commentary. These were usually replaced with a show promo by Vh1.
Topics covered by year
1980
The Love Boat
Caddyshack
The Vapors' "Turning Japanese"
Punk and preppy fashion
Strawberry Shortcake
The career of Brooke Shields (The Blue Lagoon and her Calvin Klein ads)
Designer jeans
Air Supply's "All Out of Love"
Pat Benatar and Deborah Harry (of Blondie)
Who shot J.R.?
9 to 5
Urban Cowboy
Queen's "Another One Bites the Dust"
Kenny Rogers
Xanadu
Airplane!
The Sugarhill Gang's "Rapper's Delight"
The Pretenders' "Brass in Pocket"
Mattel Electronic Football
Miracle on Ice
That's Incredible!
The Empire Strikes Back
Makeout Songs of 1980: Air Supply's "Every Woman in the World", Dan Fogelberg's "Longer", and Captain & Tennille's "Do That to Me One More Time"
Babes of 1980: Princess Leia (The Empire Strikes Back), Bo Derek (10), Charlene Tilton (Dallas), Victoria Principal (Dallas), and Suzanne Somers (Three's Company)
Hunks of 1980: Richard Gere (American Gigolo), Jim Palmer (Baltimore Orioles), John Travolta (Urban Cowboy), Erik Estrada (CHiPs), and Greg Evigan (B.J. and the Bear)
PSA of 1980: Give a Kid a Book PSA
Then and Now 1980: Sony Walkman with Cassette (Then: $169.00 / Now: $19.95), Ross Harris (Then: Movie star of Airplane! / Now: Video star of Hootie and the Blowfish's "Sad Caper"), and The Big Gulp (Then: 32 oz. / Now: 64 oz.)
Mr. & Ms. 1980: Ronald Reagan and Daisy Duke (The Dukes of Hazzard)
Born in 1980: Christina Aguilera, Post-it notes, ethnic Barbie dolls, and Macaulay Culkin
End Credit Video is Devo's "Whip It"
1981
Cable television, MTV, and scrambled pornography
Porky's
Reagan assassination attempt
Pope John Paul II assassination attempt
The Royal Wedding
Luke and Laura (characters from General Hospital)
Rick Springfield
Arthur
The Greatest American Hero
DMC DeLorean
Rubik's Cube
Kool & the Gang's "Celebration"
Fridays
Stripes
Bosom Buddies
John McEnroe
Hall & Oates' "Private Eyes"
Members Only jackets
Atari 2600
The Jeffersons
Raiders of the Lost Ark
Makeout Songs of 1981: REO Speedwagon's "Keep on Loving You", Foreigner's "Waiting For a Girl Like You", and Lionel Richie & Diana Ross' "Endless Love"
Babes of 1981: Olivia Newton-John ("Physical"), Donna Dixon (Bosom Buddies), Valerie Bertinelli (One Day at a Time), Kathleen Turner (Body Heat), and Sandra Day O'Connor
Hunks of 1981: Patrick Duffy (Dallas), Burt Reynolds (The Cannonball Run), Harrison Ford (Raiders of the Lost Ark), Mick Jagger (The Rolling Stones), and Richard Simmons
PSA of 1981: Girl Scouts in Gymnastics
Then and Now 1981: Tom Cruise (Then: Endless Love - $33 Million / Now: Endless Cash - $25 Million), Movie Tickets (Then: $3.00 / Now: $10.00), and Suntan Lotion (Then: Tanning oil / Now: Hawaiian Tropic Ozone SPF 70)
Mr. & Ms. 1981: Tom Selleck (Magnum, P.I.) and Sheena Easton
Born in 1981: Alicia Keys, Beyoncé Knowles, the laptop computer, Justin Timberlake, Britney Spears, the thong, Serena Williams, and Metallica
End Credit Video is The Police's "Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic"
1982
Mullets
VJs
Toni Basil's "Mickey"
Fast Times at Ridgemont High
The J. Geils Band's "Centerfold"
Square Pegs
Rocky III
Ozzy Osbourne
Joan Jett's "I Love Rock 'N Roll"
The Dukes of Hazzard
The Go-Go's
Olivia Newton-John's "Physical", Jane Fonda's Workout, and aerobics fashion
A Flock of Seagulls' "I Ran (So Far Away)"
Trivial Pursuit
Keytar
Joanie Loves Chachi
Pac-Man and Ms. Pac-Man
Tommy Tutone's "867-5309/Jenny"
Dungeons & Dragons
Poltergeist
Grandmaster Flash & the Furious Five's "The Message"
Silver Spoons
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial
Makeout Songs of 1982: Joe Cocker & Jennifer Warnes' "Up Where We Belong", and Lionel Richie's "Truly"
Babes of 1982: Kim Wilde, Rae Dawn Chong (Quest for Fire), Kirstie Alley (Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan), Pia Zadora,
and Tootsie
Hunks of 1982: John Stamos (General Hospital), David Lee Roth (Van Halen), Sting (The Police), Bruce Springsteen, and the Soloflex Guy
PSA of 1982: Time for Timer's "Sunshine on a Stick" PSA
Then and Now 1982: Cats (Then: On Broadway now and forever / Now: Gone), Scott Schwartz (Then: Child star of The Toy / Now: Porn star), and Concert Tickets for The Who (Then: Farewell tour - $25.00 / Now: Reunion tour - $250.00)
Mr. & Ms. 1982: Eddie Murphy (48 Hrs.) and Heather Locklear (T.J. Hooker)
Born in 1982: Kirsten Dunst, Prince William, Diet Coke, Public Enemy, and liposuction
End Credit Video is The Human League's "Don't You Want Me"
1983
National Lampoon's Vacation
Family Ties
Nancy Reagan guest stars on Diff'rent Strokes
Cabbage Patch Kids
Michael Jackson's Thriller
Flashdance
Duran Duran
Valley girl
Pat Benatar's "Love Is a Battlefield"
Scarface
The A-Team
Def Leppard's Pyromania
Eddie Murphy Delirious
Dexys Midnight Runners' "Come on Eileen"
Jerry Falwell vs. Larry Flynt
Knight Rider
WarGames
Wacky WallWalker
Styx's "Mr. Roboto"
He-Man and the Masters of the Universe
Return of the Jedi
Makeout Songs of 1983: The Police's "Every Breath You Take", Spandau Ballet's "True", and Marvin Gaye's "Sexual Healing"
Babes of 1983: Maud Adams (Octopussy), Vanity, Joan Collins (Dynasty), Christie Brinkley (National Lampoon's Vacation), and Rebecca De Mornay (Risky Business)
Hunks of 1983: Lee Horsley (Matt Houston), Rob Lowe (Class), Marvin Gaye ("Sexual Healing"), Bruce Boxleitner (Scarecrow and Mrs. King), and Chewbacca (Return of the Jedi)
PSA of 1983: Smokey Bear - Mask of Joanna Cassidy
Then and Now 1983: Talent Shows (Then: Star Search / Now: American Idol), Cellular Phones (Then: $3,000 / Now: Given Away), and Home Video Cameras (Then: Sony Betamovie - 6.5 lbs. / Now: Sony MicroMV Handycam - 12 oz.)
Mr. & Ms. 1983: Tom Cruise (Risky Business) and Ms. Pac-Man
Born in 1983: Michelle Branch, Bon Jovi, the Nintendo Entertainment System, Taylor Hanson, and the Red Hot Chili Peppers
End Credit Video is Madness' "Our House"
1984
Breakdancing and Breakin'
Footloose
Madonna
Corey Hart's "Sunglasses at Night"
"Where's the beef?"
Bruce Springsteen's Born in the U.S.A.
Mary Lou Retton
Webster and Punky Brewster
Huey Lewis and the News
Miami Vice
The Terminator
Transformers and Care Bears
Wham!
Prince
Sixteen Candles
Cyndi Lauper
Michael Jackson's Pepsi commercial disaster
Lionel Richie's "Hello"
This Is Spinal Tap
Makeout Songs of 1984: Mike Reno & Ann Wilson's "Almost Paradise", Phil Collins' "Against All Odds", and John Waite's "Missing You"
Babes of 1984: Paulina Porizkova, Daryl Hannah (Splash), Tina Turner, Heather Thomas (The Fall Guy), and Geraldine Ferraro
Hunks of 1984: Ralph Macchio (The Karate Kid), Matt Dillon, C. Thomas Howell, Duran Duran, and Tom Hulce (Amadeus)
PSA of 1984: "Don't let your lungs go to pot." - Cast of Fame
Then and Now 1984: Recreational Family Vehicles (Then: Chrysler Caravan - $8,669 / Now: Ford Explorer - $24,620), Super Bowl Tickets (Then: $60.00 / Now: $325.00), and The Mac (Then: 131,000 bytes of memory / Now: 500,000,000 bytes of memory)
Mr. & Ms. 1984: Boy George (Culture Club)
Born in 1984: Mandy Moore, Freddy Krueger (A Nightmare on Elm Street), Kelly Osbourne, hair mousse, and Punky Brewster
End Credit Video is Nena's "99 Red Balloons"
1985
WrestleMania
MacGyver
Back to the Future
Mötley Crüe's "Home Sweet Home"
The Goonies
Pee-wee's Big Adventure
Small Wonder
Bryan Adams' "Summer of '69"
Big hair
Fletch
"The Super Bowl Shuffle"
Bartles & Jaymes
Cocoon
Til Tuesday's "Voices Carry"
Live Aid
The Facts of Life
Eddie Murphy's "Party All the Time"
The Breakfast Club and St. Elmo's Fire
Day-Glo and oversized message T-shirts
Pound Puppies
"We Are the World" and Hear 'n Aid
Makeout Songs of 1985: Wham!'s "Careless Whisper", Sade's "Smooth Operator", and Madonna's "Crazy for You"
Babes of 1985: Kelly LeBrock (Weird Science), Kelly McGillis (Witness), Rosanna Arquette (Desperately Seeking Susan), Grace Slick (Starship), and Tipper Gore
Hunks of 1985: Sylvester Stallone (Rambo: First Blood Part II and Rocky IV), William "The Refrigerator" Perry (Chicago Bears), Robert Redford (Out of Africa), Jim McMahon (Chicago Bears), and Pee-wee Herman (Pee-wee's Big Adventure)
PSA of 1985: Contract for Life
Then and Now 1985: Hit Soft Drinks (Then: New Coke / Now: Vanilla Coke), and Pro Wrestling (Then: Hulk Hogan / Now: The Rock)
Mr. & Ms. 1985: Dolph Lundgren (Rocky IV) and Brigitte Nielsen (Rocky IV)
Born in 1985: Zac Hanson, Air Jordans, Frankie Muniz, Lee Press-On Nails, and VH1
End Credit Video is Tears for Fears' "Shout"
1986
Ferris Bueller's Day Off
Wheel of Fortune
Hands Across America
Teddy Ruxpin
ALF
Pretty in Pink
Madonna's "Papa Don't Preach"
Swatch
1986 World Series and the Bill Buckner fielding error
The Cosby Show
Baby On Board
"Crocodile" Dundee
Celebrity marriages (specifically Tommy Lee and Heather Locklear, Arnold Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver, and Tatum O'Neal and John McEnroe)
Whitney Houston
Comic Relief
Janet Jackson
Stand by Me
Run-DMC and Aerosmith's "Walk This Way"
Top Gun
Makeout Songs of 1986: Berlin's "Take My Breath Away", Peter Cetera & Amy Grant's "The Next Time I Fall", and Atlantic Starr's "Secret Lovers"
Babes of 1986: Susanna Hoffs (The Bangles), Kim Basinger (9½ Weeks), Stevie Nicks, Bette Midler (Down and Out in Beverly Hills), and the Statue of Liberty
Hunks of 1986: Tom Cruise (Top Gun), Walter Payton (Chicago Bears), Paul Hogan ("Crocodile" Dundee), Keith Hernandez (New York Mets), and Howard the Duck
PSA of 1986: "Vote With A Friend. Make It Count More" with Quincy Jones and James Ingram
Then and Now 1986: Highest Baseball Salary (Then: Gary Carter - $2 Million / Now: Alex Rodriguez - $22 Million), David Lee Roth & Sammy Hagar (Then: Rivals / Now: Together), and Ted Danson & Kelsey Grammer (Then: Ted Danson - $45,000 an episode on Cheers / Now: Kelsey Grammer - $1,600,000 an episode on Frasier)
Mr. & Ms. 1986: Mike Tyson and Oprah Winfrey (The Oprah Winfrey Show)
Born in 1986: Mary-Kate & Ashley Olsen, the Goo Goo Dolls, Jolt Cola, the Pixies, and the disposable camera
End Credit Video is Mr. Mister's "Kyrie"
1987
Dirty Dancing
Tiffany and Debbie Gibson
Hair crimping
Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam
Fatal Attraction
Hair metal
FOX (specifically The Tracey Ullman Show, Married... with Children, and 21 Jump Street)
R.E.M.'s "It's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine)"
Controversial extra-marital affairs (specifically Oliver North and Fawn Hall, Gary Hart and Donna Rice, Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker and Jessica Hahn)
Wall Street
Beastie Boys' "Fight for Your Right"
Acid wash and Converse
Cheers
Salt-N-Pepa's "Push It"
Hollywood Shuffle
Robert Palmer's "Addicted to Love"
The two Coreys
U2's The Joshua Tree
Makeout Songs of 1987: Billy Vera & The Beaters' "At This Moment", Crowded House's "Don't Dream It's Over", and LL Cool J's "I Need Love"
Babes of 1987: Lisa Bonet (Angel Heart), Sheena Easton, Jody Watley, Tawny Kitaen, and the Church Lady (Saturday Night Live)
Hunks of 1987: LL Cool J, RoboCop, Dennis Quaid (Innerspace), Harry Hamlin (L.A. Law), and Harry (Harry and the Hendersons)
PSA of 1987: Anti-Drug (Marijuana): "I learned it by watching you!"
Then and Now 1987: Richest Person in America (Then: Sam Walton - $4,500,000,000 / Now: Bill Gates - $43,000,000,000), Baby Jessica (Then: Stuck in a well / Now: Well adjusted), and Axl Rose of Guns N' Roses (Then: New face of rock 'n' roll / Now: New face)
Mr. & Ms. 1987: Bruce Willis (Moonlighting and "Respect Yourself") and Cher (Moonstruck, The Witches of Eastwick and Suspect)
Born in 1987: Lil' Bow Wow, Aaron Carter, Nirvana, and condom commercials
End Credit Video is Wang Chung's "Everybody Have Fun Tonight"
1988
Mike Tyson
Child's Play
Roseanne
Rick Astley's "Never Gonna Give You Up"
Guns N' Roses
The Wonder Years
Modern Rock (specifically INXS, The Cure, Morrissey, Depeche Mode, and Erasure)
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
Bobby McFerrin's "Don't Worry Be Happy"
California Raisins
Perfect Strangers
George Michael's Faith
Pictionary and Win, Lose or Draw
UB40's "Red Red Wine"
Working woman's wardrobe and Color Me Beautiful
Yo! MTV Raps, "Parents Just Don't Understand", and N.W.A/the rise of gangsta rap
Who's the Boss?
Terence Trent D'Arby
The neo-hippie movement
Grateful Dead's "Touch of Grey"
Rain Man
Makeout Songs of 1988: Patrick Swayze's "She's Like the Wind", Richard Marx's "Hold On to the Nights", and Cheap Trick's "The Flame"
Babes of 1988: Jessica Rabbit (Who Framed Roger Rabbit), Kari Wuhrer (Remote Control), Samantha Fox ("Naughty Girls (Need Love Too)"), Julia Roberts (Mystic Pizza), and Divine
Hunks of 1988: John F. Kennedy Jr., Donald Trump, Kevin Costner (Bull Durham), Joe Montana (San Francisco 49ers), and Dan Quayle
PSA of 1988: Buckle Up (Car Crash Test Dummies)
Then and Now 1988: A Year of Tuition at Harvard (Then: $12,000 / Now: $35,000), Ricki Lake of Hairspray (Then: 250 lbs. / Now: 120 lbs.), and 100-Meter Sprint (Then: Ben Johnson - 9.79 seconds / Now: Tim Montgomery - 9.78 seconds)
Mr. and Ms. 1988: ALF and Debbie Gibson
Born in 1988: Haley Joel Osment, Teddy Grahams, Miami Heat, En Vogue, and Prozac
End Credit Video is INXS' "Mediate"
1989
New Kids on the Block
Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure
Milli Vanilli
Game Boy and Tetris
COPS
Rob Lowe's sex video
Cher's "If I Could Turn Back Time"
Do the Right Thing
Madonna's "Like a Prayer" music video and the ensuing Pepsi controversy
Say Anything...
The Arsenio Hall Show
The B-52's "Love Shack"
Bobby Brown
Afrocentric clothing
Baywatch
Aerosmith's "Love in an Elevator"
Heathers
Saved by the Bell
Tone Loc's "Funky Cold Medina"
The fall of the Berlin Wall
Makeout Songs of 1989: Richard Marx's "Right Here Waiting", Simply Red's "If You Don't Know Me by Now", and The Cure's "Lovesong"
Babes of 1989: Winona Ryder (Heathers), Paula Abdul ("Straight Up"), Tiffani-Amber Thiessen (Saved by the Bell), Claudia Schiffer, and Barbara Bush
Hunks of 1989: Batman, The Joker (Batman), Johnny Depp (21 Jump Street), Mel Gibson (Lethal Weapon 2), and Leonardo (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)
PSA of 1989: Madonna on AIDS Prevention
Then and Now 1989: Bushes (Then: George H. W. Bush / Now: George W. Bush), Justin Timberlake (Then: Mouseketeer / Now: Michael Jackson), and World Wide Web (Then: Dialing up / Now: Off the hook)
Mr. and Ms. 1989: Fab Morvan (Milli Vanilli) and Meg Ryan (When Harry Met Sally...)
Born in 1989: Daniel Radcliffe, Hole, Hootie & the Blowfish, Lil' Romeo, and American Gladiators
End Credit Video is Madonna's "Express Yourself"
References
External links
I Love the 80s at VH1.com
Nostalgia television shows
Nostalgia television in the United States
VH1 original programming
2000s American television miniseries
2002 American television series debuts
2002 American television series endings
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic%20folk%20music
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Nordic folk music
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Nordic folk music includes a number of traditions of Nordic countries, especially Scandinavian. The Nordic countries are Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland.
The many regions of the Nordic countries share certain traditions, many of which have diverged significantly. It is possible to group together Finland, Estonia, Latvia and northwest Russia as sharing cultural similarities, contrasted with Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the Atlantic islands of Iceland and the Faroe Islands. Greenland's Inuit culture has its own musical traditions, influenced by Scandinavian culture. Finland shares many cultural similarities with both Baltics and the Scandinavian nations. The Saami of Sweden, Norway, Finland and Russia have their own unique culture, with ties to the neighboring cultures.
Scandinavian music
The dulcimer and fiddle are the two most characteristic instruments found throughout Scandinavia. In Norway, the eight- or nine-stringed hardanger fiddle is also found. Gammaldans are a kind of dance song played by harmonica and accordion, popular in both Sweden and Norway in the late 19th and early 20th century.
Circle dancing while singing ballads are a historic part of the folk traditions of all of northern Europe. Only the Faroe Islands have maintained this tradition to the present day, though it has been revived in some other areas. Iceland is home to many ancient musical practices no longer found elsewhere in the Nordic area, such as the use of parallel fifths and organum.
Greenland's Inuit population has their own musical traditions, which have been melded with elements of Nordic music, such as the kalattuut style of Danish polka.
Finland was long ruled by Sweden, so much of Finnish culture is influenced by Swedish. There are a number of Swedes living in Finland, and vice versa. These communities have produced traditional and neo-folk musicians like the Swedish-Finn Scea Jansson and Gjallarhorn, and the Finnish-Swedish Norrlåtar and JP Nyströms.
Baltic psalteries are a family of related plucked box zithers played throughout Finland (kantele), the Baltic states (kannel in Estonia, kanklės in Lithuania and kokles in Latvia respectively) and northwest Russia (krylovidnye gusli). A bowed lyre (Swedish tagelharpa, Estonian talharpa or hiiurootsi kannel, Finnish jouhikko or jouhikantele) was formerly played among Swedes living in Estonia, but usage declined until a recent revival. In the 19th century, all the Baltic states saw an influx of foreign instruments and styles, resulting in fusions like the zither kokles and German-influenced ziņģe singing style of Latvia.
Sami music
The Sami are found in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the northwest corner of Russia. The only traditional Sami instruments are drums and the flute, though modern bands use a variety of instrumentation. Joiks, unrhymed works without definite structure, are the most characteristic kind of song.
Balto-Finnic music
Balto-Finnic music is a category of music of Balto-Finnic people, that overlaps with both Nordic folk music of Nordic countries and Baltic folk music of Baltic states.
Finland's musical ties are primarily to the Balto-Finnic peoples of Russia and Estonia (Cronshaw, 91). Runolaulu (runo-song) is a kind of song found throughout this area. Estonia and Finland both have national epics based on interconnected forms of runo-song, Kalevipoeg and Kalevala, respectively. "Estonian runo-song has the same basic form as the Finnish variety to which it is related: the line has eight beats, the melody rarely spans more than the first five notes of a diatonic scale and its short phrases tend to use descending patterns" (Cronshaw, 16).
See also
Neofolk
Nordic popular music
References
Nettl, Bruno. Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents. 1965. Prentice-Hall. Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Broughton, Simon and Mark Ellingham with James McConnachie and Orla Duane (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. , The Book of Music and Nature: An Anthology of Sounds, Words, Thoughts (Music Culture)
Further reading
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] |
246647
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortwing%20%28bird%29
|
Shortwing (bird)
|
The shortwings are colourful medium-sized mostly insectivorous birds in the genus Brachypteryx of the thrush family Turdidae, although some taxonomists place them in the Old World Flycatcher family Muscicapidae. They show strong sexual plumage dimorphism. All are southeast Asian species.
Most shortwings are place in the genus Brachypteryx.
Rusty-bellied shortwing, Brachypteryx hyperythra
Lesser shortwing, Brachypteryx leucophrys
White-browed shortwing, Brachypteryx montana
Three other species, formerly placed in Brachypteryx, are now in two other genera.
Great shortwing, Heinrichia calligyna
Nilgiri blue robin (also known at Nilgiri shortwing), Myiomela major
Gould's shortwing, Heteroxenicus stellata
Turdidae
Birds by common name
|
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246652
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alethe%20%28bird%29
|
Alethe (bird)
|
Alethe is a genus of small mainly insectivorous birds in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae that occur in West Africa.
The genus was erected by the American ornithologist John Cassin in 1859. The genus was previously placed in the thrush family Turdidae but in 2010 two separate molecular phylogenetic studies found that species in the genus were more closely related to members of the Old World flycatcher family.
The genus contains two species:
White-tailed alethe, Alethe diademata
Fire-crested alethe, Alethe castanea
Formerly in this genus
Four species are now assigned to Pseudalethe, a genus proposed in 2003 and supported by a study published in 2010.
References
Bird genera
Alethe (genus)
Taxa named by John Cassin
|
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246654
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistling%20thrush
|
Whistling thrush
|
The whistling thrushes comprise a genus Myophonus (Myiophoneus) of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae.
They are all medium-sized mostly insectivorous or omnivorous birds. They are all brightly coloured species found in India and southeast Asia. The male is usually blue, and the females are either similar to the male or brown. The brighter blue patches found on the shoulders and sometimes the head, of whistling thrushes, uniquely for a passerine, reflect strongly in the ultraviolet.
Taxonomy
As the English name suggests, the genus was at one time placed in the thrush family Turdidae but in 2010 two separate molecular phylogenetic studies found that members of the genus were more closely related to species in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae.
The genus includes nine species several of which have ranges that are restricted to islands or peninsulas:
Javan, Bornean and brown-winged were formerly lumped as the Sunda whistling thrush, but were split in 2004.
Habits
Whistling thrushes are mostly seen in hilly areas except during winter when they may descend to streams near the plains. They specialize in feeding on snails and their strong hooked bills are used to deal with them. They may choose a particular rock on which they crack the shells.
The nests are usually in crevices of rocks and boulders close to water. The cup nests have moss and twigs and is lined with roots and leaves. The eggs are usually three and sometimes four, elongate with a gray ground colour and marked with speckles.
References
Further reading
Thrushes by Clement and Hathaway,
Myophonus
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed%20power
|
Distributed power
|
In rail transport, distributed power (DP) is a generic term referring to the physical distribution—at intermediate points throughout the length of a train—of separate motive power groups. Such "groups" may be single units or multiple consists, and are remotely controlled from the leading locomotive. The practice allows locomotives to be placed anywhere within the length of a train when standard multiple-unit (MU) operation is impossible or impractical. DP can be achieved by wireless (RF connectivity) or wired (trainlined) means. Wired systems now provided by various suppliers use the cabling already extant throughout an ECP train.
History
Since the 1960s, railroad distributed power technology has been dominated by one company, Harris Controls (originally Harris Corporation — Controls & Composition Division, later purchased by General Electric—the division now known as GE Transportation) who have manufactured and marketed a patented radio-control system with the trade-name of Locotrol, that is the predominant wireless DP system in use around the world today.
With its origins in the early days of SCADA technology for the remote control of pipelines and electric utilities, and from an early concept of Southern Railway President D.W. Brosnan, Locotrol was a product of the North Electric Company (Galion, Ohio) which was later purchased by Radiation Inc. (Melbourne, Florida) and—in turn—purchased by Harris Corporation (also headquartered in Melbourne, FL). The nascent technology was first tested on the Southern Railway in 1963, and the first production systems were installed on the Southern Railway in 1965.
In the early years of this technology, Wabco also had—for a relatively brief period—a competing system called "RMU" (Remote Multiple Uniter) which was installed on a few North American railroads. However this system did not prevail and soon went out of production. Prior to the advent by North Electric of the proprietary "Locotrol" name, the product was referred to as "RCE" (Radio Controlled Equipment) or "RCS" (Radio Control System) and the Lead and Remote units as "master" and "slave". The colloquial "master" and "slave" terms, though, were not formally used by the manufacturer. In some U.S. railroad parlance, Locotrol trains are referred to as "radio trains".
Advantages and disadvantages
The greatest benefit of Distributed Power—and the reason for development of the original concept—is the reduction of draw-gear draft forces, permitting a wholesale increase in the size of trains without exceeding draw-gear strength, through the use of mid- or end-of-train locomotives. There are also potential train-handling benefits. Over an undulating track profile, a skillful operator can manipulate the relative power outputs (as well as dynamic- and air-brake applications) to minimize run-in and run-out of coupler slack throughout the train.
Reduced draft forces along a train will reduce the lateral force between wheel and rail on curves, thus reducing fuel consumption and wear on various running-gear components as well as the potential for a "stringline" derailment.
Another benefit is quicker application of air brakes. With all braking control on a conventional train being established at the head-end, it can take several seconds for brake pipe pressure changes initiated by the operator to propagate along the train. Under radio-controlled DP operation, the brakes are set at remote locomotives almost simultaneously with the command initiated on the lead locomotive, providing a more uniform air brake response throughout the train.
The main disadvantage is the operational time needed, and track configuration required, to add and remove additional locomotive units. Secondary disadvantages are the costs associated with equipping locomotives with the extra control apparatus and the potential for the intermittent loss of the telemetry signal. This latter is known as "Communication Interrupt" and is coped with by fail-safe software program inclusions.
Technology
Distributed Power should not be confused with Multiple Unit operation, which is a capability generally found on all locomotives owned and operated by railroads that connect multiple locomotives directly together via MU cables and air brake control lines. MU operation in North America is designed so that any two locomotives so equipped, and regardless of age and manufacturer, can be coupled together and operated as a single locomotive by one operator in the cab of the lead unit. This is accomplished via a 27-pin MU cable and the connection of three additional air lines separate from the brake pipe (sometimes also called the "train line"). DP is an entirely separate arrangement to control locomotives that are physically separated from the lead unit(s) and therefore impossible to connect via Multiple-Uniting.
The first locomotive at the head of the train is called the "Lead unit", and "Remote units" can be located at separate positions throughout the train. Each DP Remote unit can be MU-connected to other units at that position to provide a "Remote consist" or several Remote consists.
The setup and linking of the DP Lead and Remote units is fairly straightforward, and the air brakes of the Remote units also have to be properly configured to enable the system to function correctly. The system automatically chooses an available frequency during the linking process so that other DP trains nearby are unaffected. In a crowded yard or in hilly or mountainous terrain, it is not uncommon for the link to be temporarily lost and to take some (usually brief) time to re-establish.
As long as there is not an emergency or penalty brake application that eliminates the link, the system will reconnect automatically or the operator can attempt to reconnect manually. Originally the loss of connection would result in the Remote units remaining in their last commanded throttle or dynamic braking position. Later system versions and software updates typically see the Remote unit power setting reduced to Notch 4 by default if the link is lost.
Although the DP signals from Lead to Remote units (and vice versa) are nominally "instantaneous", in reality it generally takes at least a few seconds for a Remote unit to respond to a signal from the Lead and for the change in status to show up on the DP display in the Lead locomotive cab.
Distributed power was originally able to be provided at only one intermediate location within a train. These forerunner systems (Locotrol 102-105 and Locotrol II) required a radio-relay car to be attached via standard MU jumper cabling to the Remote locomotive(s) to provide the radio-control commands and to facilitate feedback signals. Later, Locotrol II evolved into the "Universal" system in which the radio-control equipment was able to be installed on the locomotives themselves. With this option, the relay car—variously referred-to as an RCU (Remote Control Unit) or LRC (Locomotive Remote Control)—was rendered redundant.
Locotrol III was the next development, compatible with both the Knorr-Bremse/New York Air Brake CCB and Wabtec's EPIC electronic locomotive brake equipment, and permitting multiple Remote unit locations as described above. The latest incarnation of this equipment is LEB (Locotrol Electronic Brake), which integrates the GE Locotrol technology with K-B/NYAB's CCBII brake.
Users
Distributed Power (as "Locotrol") is used in the United States and Canada, China, Australia (Queensland, the Pilbara region of Western Australia, and in the southwest of Western Australia), Brazil, Germany, Russia and South Africa. It is also (or has been) in regular unit-train operation in India, Mauritania, and Mexico, and
almost made it into operation in both pre- and post-revolutionary Iran.
In the south of Western Australia, Locotrol is used in the "top-and-tail" configuration rather than specifically for long-train operation. With the recent advent of electronically-controlled pneumatic brakes (ECP)—either hard-wired or radio-controlled—and integrated electronics for locomotive control and operator's cab display systems, DP can now be provided via the ECP brake communication media, and other manufacturers are able to provide this capability. A recent DP system from Wabtec, called PowerLink (which can be either wired or wireless) is in use in Queensland on narrow-gauge coal trains and in the North of Western Australia on standard-gauge iron ore trains.
Distributed Power in a wired configuration (using the ECP trainline) is becoming increasingly common in North American and Australian heavy-haul unit-train operations.
Other similar operations
Top & tail is a phrase used to describe an operation where there is a locomotive at each end of the train, usually to make it easier to change direction at a terminal location where it is not possible to run the motive power "around" the train (i.e. swap the locomotives from one end of the train to the other); this arrangement is not used specifically to operate longer or heavier trains. "Top-and-Tail" operation is not generally utilised with Distributed Power, although such a configuration could be used as such. One use of a distributed power Top-and-Tail configuration has been in Western Australia's wheatbelt, in which Locotrol has been used to provide an operational solution rather than increasing the train size.
The description should not be confused with "push-pull", which refers specifically to a train configuration (usually associated with passenger trains) in which the motive power is located at one end of the train only. In this latter configuration, the train is able to be operated from the "non-powered" end by use of an operator's control position (the "cab-car") located at that end of the train.
Distributed traction
In a distributed traction system there are no locomotives but power is distributed along the train by multiple traction motors. An electric multiple unit is an example of this system.
See also
Locotrol
Remote control locomotive
References
External links
RailWA: Locotrol Workings – Images of Locotrol operations in the south of Western Australia
Locomotives
Radio control
Rail freight transport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bwana%20Devil
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Bwana Devil
|
Bwana Devil is a 1952 American adventure B movie written, directed, and produced by Arch Oboler, and starring Robert Stack, Barbara Britton, and Nigel Bruce. Bwana Devil is based on the true story of the Tsavo maneaters and filmed with the Natural Vision 3D system. The film is notable for sparking the first 3D film craze in the motion picture industry, as well as for being the first feature-length 3D film in color and the first 3D sound feature in English.
The advertising tagline was: "The Miracle of the Age!!! A LION in your lap! A LOVER in your arms!"
Plot
The film is set in British East Africa in the early 20th century. Thousands of workers are building the Uganda Railway, Africa's first railroad, and intense heat and sickness make it a formidable task. Two men in charge of the mission are Bob Hayward and Dr. Angus McLean. A pair of man-eating lions are on the loose and completely disrupt the undertaking. Hayward desperately attempts to overcome the situation, but the slaughter continues.
Britain sends three big-game hunters to kill the lions. With them comes Bob's wife. After the game hunters are killed by the lions, Bob sets out once and for all to kill them. A grim battle between Bob and the lions endangers both Bob and his wife. Bob kills the lions and proves he is not a weakling.
Cast
Historic background
The plot was based on a well-known historical event, that of the Tsavo maneaters, in which many workers building the Uganda Railway were killed by lions. These incidents were also the basis for the book The Man-eaters of Tsavo (1907), the story of the events as written by Lt. Col. J. H. Patterson, the British engineer who killed the animals. The story was also the basis for the film The Ghost and the Darkness (1996) with Michael Douglas and Val Kilmer.
Natural Vision
By 1951 film attendance had fallen dramatically from 90 million in 1948 to 46 million. Television was seen as the culprit and Hollywood was looking for a way to lure audiences back. Cinerama had premiered on September 30, 1952 at the Broadway Theater in New York and was a success there, but its bulky and expensive three-projector system and huge curved screen were impractical, if not impossible, to duplicate in any but the largest theaters.
Former screenwriter Milton Gunzburg and his brother Julian thought they had a solution with their Natural Vision 3D film process. They shopped it around Hollywood. 20th Century Fox was focusing on the introduction of CinemaScope and had no interest in another new process. Both Columbia and Paramount passed it up.
Only John Arnold, who headed the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer camera department, was impressed enough to convince MGM to take an option on it, but they quickly let the option lapse. Milton Gunzburg turned his focus to independent producers and demonstrated Natural Vision to Arch Oboler, producer and writer of the popular Lights Out radio show. Oboler was impressed enough to option it for his next film project.
Oboler said he had overheard Joseph Biroc and the camera crew talking about 3D while filming The Twonky and Oboler became interested.
Production
Oboler announced the project in March 1952. He said it would be called The Lions of Gulu and would include footage shot in Africa several years beforehand. Filming was to start in May. It was always going to be in Natural Vision.
Howard Duff and Hope Miller were the first stars signed.
Eventually Duff and Miller dropped out and were replaced by Robert Stack and Barbara Britton. The title of Oboler's film was changed to Bwana Devil in June 1952. (Oboler already announced he would make a second film in the format, Spear in the Sand with Lisa Howard.)
The film was shot in the San Fernando Valley.
The Paramount Ranch, now located in The Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, sat in for an African savanna. There is now a hiking trail in the area named "The Bwana Trail" to denote the locations used in Bwana Devil. Authentic African footage shot by Arch Oboler in 1948 (in 2D) was incorporated into the film. Ansco Color film was used, instead of the more expensive and cumbersome Technicolor process.
Lloyd Nolan appeared in a prologue for the film.
The film was given Code approval in two dimension but not in three dimension due to a kissing scene. Eventually approval was given.
Release
The film premiered under the banner of "Arch Oboler Productions" on Wednesday, November 26, 1952 with a twin engagement at the Hollywood Paramount Theatre and the Paramount Theatre in downtown Los Angeles. It opened to the public the following day.
At all U.S. screenings of feature-length 3D films in the 1950s, the polarized light method was used and the audience wore 3D glasses with gray Polaroid filters. The anaglyph color filter method was only used for a few short films during these years. The two-strip Natural Vision projection system required making substantial alterations to a theater's projectors and providing its screen with a special non-depolarizing surface.
The film was a critical failure, but a runaway success with audiences. It opened in San Francisco on December 13, Philadelphia, Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio on December 25, and New York on February 18, 1953.
M.L. Gunzburg presents 3D, a short film produced by Bob Clampett and featuring Beany and Cecil, was screened preceding the film. Long thought lost, the short rejoined Bwana Devil for screenings at the Egyptian Theater in 2003 and 2006.
Natural Vision announced they would make 12 follow up films.
United Artists
United Artists bought the rights to Bwana Devil from Arch Oboler Productions for $500,000 and a share of the profits and began a wide release of the film in March as a United Artists film. A lawsuit followed, in which producer Edward L. Alperson Jr. claimed that he was part owner of the film after purchasing a share of it for $1,000,000 USD. The courts decided in Oboler's favor, as Alperson's claim was unsubstantiated and "under the table".
The other major studios reacted by releasing their own 3D films. Warner Brothers optioned the Natural Vision process for House of Wax. It premiered on April 10, 1953 and was advertised as "the first 3D release by a major studio". In truth, Columbia had trumped them by two days with their release of Man in the Dark on April 8, 1953.
Commercial reception
The film grossed $20,000 in its opening day from two theaters and went on to earn $75,000 in its first four days setting house records. It earned $2.7 million in theatrical rentals in the United States and Canada in 1953. United Artists ultimately ended up recording a loss of $200,000 on the film.
Reviews
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times said it was "a clumsy try at an African adventure film, photographed in very poor color in what appear to be the California hills".
Variety summed up the process: "This novelty feature boasts of being the first full-length film in Natural Vision 3D. Although adding backsides to usually flat actors and depth to landscapes, the 3D technique still needs further technical advances."
Hollis Alpert of The Saturday Review wrote on March 14, 1953, "It is the worst movie in my rather faltering memory, and my hangover from it was so painful that I immediately went to see a two-dimensional movie for relief. Part of the hangover was undoubtedly induced by the photography process itself. To get all the wondrous effects of the stereoscopic motion picture one has to wear a pair of polaroid glasses, made—so far as I could determine—from tinted cellophane and cardboard. These keep slipping off, hanging from one ear, or sliding down the nose, all the while setting up extraneous tickling sensations. And once you have them adjusted and begin looking at the movie, you find that the tinted cellophane (or whatever it is) darkens the color of the screen, so that everything seems to be happening in late afternoon on a cloudy day. The people seem to have two faces, one receding behind the other; the screen becomes unaccountably small, as though one is peering in at a scene through a window. Everything keeps getting out of proportion. Nigel Bruce will either loom up before you or look like a puppet. Sometimes there is depth and sometimes there isn't. One thing is certain: it was all horribly unreal."
In popular culture
Life magazine photographer J. R. Eyerman took a series of photos of the audience wearing 3D glasses at the premiere. One of the photos was published as a full page in the magazine and has become iconic. It was also used as the cover of Life, The Second Decade, 1946–1955, a book published in conjunction with an exhibition of photographs from Life held at the International Center of Photography, New York. Another of the photos was used as a symbol of alienation under capitalism, for the American cover of Guy Debord's book The Society of the Spectacle (1973). The photo used for Debord's book shows the audience in "a virtually trance-like state of absorption, their faces grim, their lips pursed". However, in the one chosen by Life, "the spectators are laughing, their expressions of hilarity conveying the pleasure of an uproarious, active spectatorship." The Debord version is also flipped left to right and cropped.
Availability
Bwana Devil played at the Second World 3D Film Expo on September 13, 2006 in two strip polarized 3D at the Egyptian Theater in Hollywood, Ca.
The film was never released on VHS and has not been released on DVD, but is available on Amazon Video (as of October 2020).
References
External links
1952 films
1950s adventure films
American adventure films
American films
English-language films
Films directed by Arch Oboler
Films set in Kenya
Films set in the British Empire
Films set in 1898
Films about lions
Films about hunters
United Artists films
1950s 3D films
Films produced by Sidney W. Pink
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246659
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluebird
|
Bluebird
|
The bluebirds are a group of medium-sized, mostly insectivorous or omnivorous birds in the order of Passerines in the genus Sialia of the thrush family (Turdidae). Bluebirds are one of the few thrush genera in the Americas.
Bluebirds have blue, or blue and rose beige, plumage. Female birds are less brightly colored than males, although color patterns are similar and there is no noticeable difference in size.
Taxonomy and species
The genus Sialia was introduced by the English naturalist William John Swainson in 1827 with the eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) as the type species. A molecular phylogenetic study using mitochondrial sequences published in 2005 found that
Sialia, Myadestes (solitaires) and Neocossyphus (African ant-thrushes) formed a basal clade in the family Turdidae. Within Sialia the mountain bluebird was sister to the eastern bluebird.
The genus contains three species:
Behaviour
Bluebirds are territorial and prefer open grassland with scattered trees. This is similar to the behavior of many species of woodpeckers. Bluebirds can typically produce between two and four broods during the spring and summer (March through August in the Northeastern United States). Males identify potential nest sites and try to attract prospective female mates to those nesting sites with special behaviors that include singing and flapping wings, and then placing some material in a nesting box or cavity. If the female accepts the male and the nesting site, she alone builds the nest and incubates the eggs.
Predators of young bluebirds in the nests can include snakes, cats, and raccoons. Bird species competing with bluebirds for nesting locations include the common starling, American crow, and house sparrow, which take over the nesting sites of bluebirds, killing young, smashing eggs, and probably killing adult bluebirds.
Bluebirds are attracted to platform bird feeders, filled with grubs of the darkling beetle, sold by many online bird product wholesalers as mealworms. Bluebirds will also eat raisins soaked in water. In addition, in winter bluebirds use backyard heated birdbaths.
By the 1970s, bluebird numbers had declined by estimates ranging to 70% due to unsuccessful competition with house sparrows and starlings, both introduced species, for nesting cavities, coupled with a decline in habitat. In late 2005, Cornell University's Laboratory of Ornithology reported bluebird sightings across the southern U.S. as part of its yearly Backyard Bird Count, a strong indication of the bluebird's return to the region. This upsurge can be attributed largely to a movement of volunteers establishing and maintaining bluebird trails.
In the garden
Bluebirds' consumption of insects make them popular with gardeners.
In culture
Iroquois
In traditional Iroquois cosmology, the call of the bluebird is believed to ward off the icy power of Sawiskera, also referred to as Flint, the spirit of the winter. Its call caused Sawiskera to flee in fear and the ice to recede.
As a symbol in songs
"Bluebird of Happiness" is a song composed in 1934 by Sandor Harmati, with words by Edward Heyman and additional lyrics by Harry Parr-Davies.
"(There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover" was composed in 1941 by Walter Kent to lyrics by Nat Burton looking forward to a time when World War II would be over. Burton was unaware that the bluebird was not indigenous to England. Vera Lynn popularised the song with her performances to the troops.
Songwriters have portrayed the bluebird as a muse, as in the song "Voices in the Sky" by the British rock group The Moody Blues, from their 1968 album In Search of the Lost Chord.
"Birdhouse in Your Soul", the 1989 ode to a nightlight by the band They Might Be Giants, references a “bluebird of friendliness” and a “blue canary” in its lyrics.
The titular bluebird of the song "Birds", from the 2013 album Government Plates by the Sacramento-based experimental hip hop group Death Grips, is thought to be referencing Charles Bukowski's poem "Bluebird", wherein bluebirds represent vulnerability that Bukowski felt as a result of child abuse from his father.
See also
Bluebird of happiness
References
External links
Eastern Bluebird at All About Birds, The Cornell Lab—descriptions, including range, calls and physical description
Thrush videos on the Internet Bird Collection
North American Bluebird Society
Sialis—Information on bluebirds and their conservation and restoration.
Birds of North America
Taxa named by William John Swainson
|
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] |
246660
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca
|
Decca
|
Decca may refer to:
Music
Decca Records or Decca Music Group, a record label
Decca Gold, a classical music record label owned by Universal Music Group
Decca Broadway, a musical theater record label
Decca Studios, a recording facility in West Hampstead, England
London Decca, a maker of turntable tonearms and cartridges
Decca tree, a microphone recording system
The Deccas, a guitar-based band from Medway, England
Mpundi Decca, Congolese guitarist
Other
Decca: The Letters of Jessica Mitford, a 2006 book by Jessica Mitford
Decca Navigator System, a defunct marine and aeronautical navigation system
Decca Radar, later Racal-Decca Marine, a defunct marine electronics manufacturer
Decca Sports Ground, a cricket ground in London, England
Decca, old spelling of Dhaka, capital of Bangladesh
See also
Deca (disambiguation)
Deccan (disambiguation), terms related to the Deccan Plateau in southern India
|
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] |
246662
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitaire%20%28bird%29
|
Solitaire (bird)
|
The solitaires are medium-sized mostly insectivorous birds in the genera Myadestes, Cichlopsis and Entomodestes of the thrush family Turdidae.
Taxonomy
Although all three genera of solitaires are morphologically similar, genetic studies have indicated that they are not particularly closely related. The genus Myadestes is in the basal clade of the family Turdidae, along with the genera Sialia (the bluebirds) and Neocossyphus (African ant-thrushes).
Species list
Thrushes in three genera are called "solitaires":
Genus Myadestes 12 species, including 1 now extinct, found in Hawaii, the Americas and the Caribbean
Ōmao, Myadestes obscurus
kāmao, Myadestes myadestinus
Olomao, Myadestes lanaiensis
Puaiohi, Myadestes palmeri
Townsend's solitaire, Myadestes townsendi
Brown-backed solitaire, Myadestes occidentalis
Cuban solitaire, Myadestes elisabeth
Rufous-throated solitaire, Myadestes genibarbis
Black-faced solitaire, Myadestes melanops
Varied solitaire, Myadestes coloratus
Andean solitaire, Myadestes ralloides
Slate-colored solitaire, Myadestes unicolor
Genus Cichlopsis: 1 species, found to South America
Rufous-brown solitaire, Cichlopsis leucogenys
Genus Entomodestes: 2 species, found in South America
White-eared solitaire, Entomodestes leucotis
Black solitaire, Entomodestes coracinus
References
Turdidae
Bird common names
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey%20Jones
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Casey Jones
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John Luther "Casey" Jones (March 14, 1863 – April 30, 1900) was an American railroader who was killed when his passenger train collided with a stalled freight train at Vaughan, Mississippi.
Jones was a locomotive engineer for the Illinois Central Railroad, based in Memphis, Tennessee, and Jackson, Mississippi. He was noted for his exceptionally punctual schedules, which sometimes required a degree of risk, though this was not a factor on his fatal last journey. However, there is some disagreement about the sequence of events on that night, April 29–30, 1900.
He was due to run the southbound passenger service from Memphis to Canton, Mississippi, departing 11.35pm. Owing to engineer absence, he had to take over another service through the day, which may have deprived him of sleep. He eventually departed 75 minutes late, but was confident of making up the time, with the powerful ten-wheeler Engine No. 382, known as "Cannonball".
Approaching Vaughan at high speed, he was unaware that three trains were occupying the station, one of them broken down and directly on his line. Some claim that he ignored a flagman signalling to him, though this person may have been out of sight on a tight bend, or obscured by fog. All are agreed, however, that Jones managed to avert a potentially disastrous crash through his exceptional skill at slowing the engine and saving the lives of the passengers at the cost of his own. For this, he was immortalized in a traditional song, "The Ballad of Casey Jones".
Family background
Jones was born near Cayce, Kentucky, where he acquired the nickname of "Cayce", which he chose to spell as "Casey".
Jones met his wife Mary Joanna "Janie" Brady through her father who owned the boarding house where Jones was staying. Since she was Catholic, he decided to convert and was baptized on November 11, 1886, at St. Bridget's Catholic Church in Whistler, Alabama, to please her. They were married at St. Mary's Catholic Church in Jackson, Tennessee, on November 25, 1886. They bought a house at 211 West Chester Street in Jackson, Tennessee, where they raised their three children. By all accounts he was a devoted family man and teetotaler.
Promotion to engineer
Jones went to work for the Mobile & Ohio Railroad, performed well and was promoted to brakeman on the Columbus, Kentucky, to Jackson, Tennessee, route, and then to fireman on the Jackson, Tennessee, to Mobile, Alabama, route.
In the summer of 1887, a yellow fever epidemic struck many train crews on the neighboring
Illinois Central Railroad (IC) providing an unexpected opportunity for faster promotion of firemen on that line. On March 1, 1888, Jones switched to IC, firing a freight locomotive between Jackson, Tennessee, and Water Valley, Mississippi.
He was promoted to engineer, his lifelong goal, on February 23, 1891. Jones reached the pinnacle of the railroad profession as an expert locomotive engineer for IC. Railroading was a talent, and Jones was recognized by his peers as one of the best engineers in the business. He was known for his insistence that he "get her there on the advertised [time]" and that he never "fall down", meaning he never arrived at his destination behind schedule. He was so punctual, it was said that people set their watches by him.
His work in Jackson primarily involved freight service between Jackson and Water Valley, Mississippi. Both locations were busy and important stops for IC, and he developed close ties with them between 1890 and 1900.
Famous steam whistle
Jones was also famous for his peculiar skill with the train whistle. His whistle was made of six thin tubes bound together, the shortest being half the length of the longest. Its unique sound involved a long-drawn-out note that began softly, rose and then died away to a whisper, a sound that became his trademark. The sound of it was variously described as "a sort of whippoorwill call," or "like the war cry of a Viking." People living along the IC line between Jackson and Water Valley would turn over in their beds late at night upon hearing it and say "There goes Casey Jones" as he roared by.
Service at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893
During the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, Illinois, in 1893, IC was charged with providing commuter service for the thousands of visitors to the fairground. A call was sent out for trainmen who wanted to work there. Jones answered it, spending a pleasant summer there with his wife. He shuttled many people from Van Buren Street to Jackson Park during the exposition. It was his first experience as an engineer in passenger service and he liked it.
At the Exposition, he became acquainted with No. 638, a big new freight engine IC had on display as the latest and greatest technological advancement in locomotives. It had eight drive wheels and two pilot wheels, a 2-8-0 "Consolidation" type. At the closing of the fair, No. 638 was due to be sent to Water Valley for service in the Jackson District. Jones asked for permission to drive the engine back to Water Valley. His request was approved, and No. 638 ran its first with Jones at the throttle to Water Valley. Jones liked No. 638 and liked working in the Jackson District because his family was there. They had once moved to Water Valley, but returned to Jackson, which they felt was home.
Jones drove the engine until he transferred to Memphis in February 1900. No. 638 stayed in Water Valley. That year he drove the engine that became most closely associated with him, for one time. That was Engine No. 382, known affectionately as "Ole 382.", or "Cannonball". It was a steam-driven Rogers 4-6-0 "Ten Wheeler" with six drivers, each approximately six feet (1.8 m) high. Bought new in 1898 from the Rogers Locomotive Works, it was a very powerful engine for the time.
His regular fireman on No. 638 was his close friend, John Wesley McKinnie, with whom he worked exclusively from about 1897 until he went to the passenger run out of Memphis. There he worked with his next and last fireman, Simeon T. "Sim" Webb in 1900.
Rescue of a child from the tracks
A little-known example of Jones's heroic instincts in action is described by his biographer and friend Fred J. Lee in his book Casey Jones: Epic of the American Railroad (1939). He recounts an incident in 1895 as Jones's train approached Michigan City, Mississippi. He had left the cab in charge of fellow engineer Bob Stevenson, who had reduced speed sufficiently for Jones to walk safely out on the running board to oil the relief valves. He advanced from the running board to the steam chest and then to the pilot beam to adjust the spark screen. He had finished well before they arrived at the station, as planned, and was returning to the cab when he noticed a group of small children dart in front of the train some ahead. All cleared the rails easily except for a little girl who suddenly froze in fear at the sight of the oncoming locomotive. Jones shouted to Stevenson to reverse the train and yelled to the girl to get off the tracks in almost the same breath. Realizing that she was still immobile, he raced to the tip of the pilot or cowcatcher and braced himself on it, reaching out as far as he could to pull the frightened but unharmed girl from the rails. The event was partially spoofed in The Brave Engineer, in which the hero rescued a damsel from a cliché bandit.
Baseball player
Jones was an avid baseball fan and watched or participated in the game whenever his schedule allowed. During the 1880s, he had played at Columbus, Kentucky, while he was a club operator on the M & O. One Sunday during the summer of 1898, the Water Valley shop team was scheduled to play the Jackson shop team and Jones got to haul the team to Jackson for the game.
Rules infractions
Jones was issued nine citations for rules infractions in his career, with a total of 145 days suspended. But in the year prior to his death, Jones had not been cited for any rules infractions. Railroaders who worked with Jones liked him but admitted that he was a bit of a risk-taker. Unofficially though, the penalties were far more severe for running behind than breaking the rules. He was by all accounts an ambitious engineer, eager to move up the seniority ranks and serve on the better-paying, more prestigious passenger trains.
Transfer to passenger trains
Jones, in February 1900, was transferred from Jackson, Tennessee, to Memphis, Tennessee, for the passenger run between Memphis and Canton, Mississippi. This was one link of a four-train run between Chicago, Illinois, and New Orleans, Louisiana, the so-called "cannonball" passenger run. "Cannonball" was a contemporary term applied to fast mail and fast passenger trains of those days, but it was a generic term for speed service. This run offered the fastest schedules in the history of American railroading. Some veteran engineers doubted the times could be met and some quit.
Engineer Willard W. "Bill" Hatfield had transferred from Memphis back to a run out of Water Valley, thus opening up trains No. 2 (north) and No. 3 (south) to another engineer. Jones had to move his family to Memphis and give up working with his close friend John Wesley McKinnie on No. 638, but he thought the change was worth it. Jones would drive Hatfield's Engine No. 384 until his death in 1900.
Fatal accident
There is disagreement over the circumstances prior to Casey Jones's fatal last run. In the account given in the book Railroad Avenue by Freeman H. Hubbard, which was based on an interview with fireman Sim Webb, he and Casey had been used extra on trains 3 and 2 to cover for engineer Sam Tate, who had marked off ill. They returned to Memphis at 6:25 a.m. on the morning of April 29, giving them adequate time to be rested for number 1 that night, which was their regular assigned run.
The Fred J. Lee biography Casey Jones contended the men arrived in Memphis on No. 4 at 9 p.m. on the evening of April 29. They were asked to turn right around and take number 1 back to Canton to fill in for Sam Tate, who had marked off. This would have given them little time to rest, as Number 1 was due out at 11:35 p.m. In both of these accounts, Jones's regular run was trains 1 and 4.
In a third account, trains 3 and 2 were Casey and Sim Webb's regular run, and they were asked to fill in for Sam Tate that night on No. 1, having arrived that morning on No. 2.
In any event, they departed Memphis on the fatal run at 12:50 a.m., 75 minutes behind schedule owing to the late arrival of No. 1. The crew felt the conditions of the run, including a fast engine, a good fireman, a light train, and the rainy or damp weather, were ideal for a record-setting run. The weather was foggy that night, reducing visibility, and the run was well known for its tricky curves.
In the first section of the run, Jones drove from Memphis south to Grenada, Mississippi, with an intermediate water stop at Sardis, Mississippi, over a new section of light and shaky rails at speeds of up to . By the time Jones arrived at Grenada for another water stop, he had made up 55 minutes of the 75-minute delay.
Jones made up another 15 minutes in the stretch from Grenada to Winona, Mississippi. By the time he got to Durant, Mississippi Jones was almost on time. He was quite happy, saying at one point, "Sim, the old girl's got her dancing slippers on tonight!" as he leaned on the Johnson bar.
At Durant, he received new orders to take to the siding at Goodman, Mississippi ( south of Durant), wait for the No. 2 passenger train to pass, and then continue on to Vaughan. Furthermore, he was informed he would meet local No. 26 passenger train at Vaughan ( south of Goodman). He was told that No. 26 was in two sections and would be on the siding, so he would take priority over it. Jones pulled out of Goodman only five minutes behind schedule. With of fast track ahead, Jones likely felt that he had a good chance to make it to Canton by 4:05 am "on the advertised".
Unbeknownst to Jones, three separate trains were in the station at Vaughan. The No. 83, a double-header freight train (located to the north and headed south), which had been delayed, and the No. 72, a long freight train (located to the south and headed north), were both on the passing track to the east of the main line. The combined length of the two trains was ten cars longer than the length of the east passing track, causing some of the cars to be stopped on the main line. The two sections of No. 26 had arrived from Canton earlier, and required a saw-by maneuver to get to the house track west of the main line. The saw-by maneuver required that No. 83 back up onto the main line in order to allow No. 72 to move northward and pull its overlapping cars off the main line and onto the east side track from the south switch, thus allowing the two sections of No. 26 to gain access to the house track. The saw-by, however, left the rear cars of No. 83 overlapping above the north switch and on the main line, directly in Jones' path. As workers prepared a second saw-by to let Jones pass, an air hose broke on No. 72, locking its brakes and leaving the last four cars of No. 83 on the main line.
At the same time, Jones, who was almost back on schedule, was running at about toward Vaughan. As Jones and Webb approached the station, they went through a left-hand curve that blocked Jones' view from the engine's right side. Webb's view from the left side was better, and he was first to see the red lights of the caboose on the main line. He alerted Jones, who ordered him to jump from the train. Webb leapt out about before impact, and was knocked unconscious. The last thing he heard as he jumped was the long, piercing whistle used by Jones to warn anyone still in the freight train looming ahead. At that point, Jones was only two minutes behind schedule.
Jones reversed the throttle and slammed the airbrakes into emergency stop, but the engine quickly plowed through several loaded train cars before derailing. He had been able to reduce his speed to about before impact. It's believed Jones' actions prevented any other serious injury and death; Jones was the only fatality of the collision. His watch stopped at the time of impact, 3:52 a.m. Popular legend holds his hands still clutched the whistle cord and brake when his body was pulled from the wreckage.
The next morning, Jones's body was transported to Jackson, Tennessee by the No. 26 passenger train. A funeral service was held on May 2, 1900, at St. Mary's Church, where he and Janie Brady had married fourteen years before. He was buried in Mount Calvary Cemetery. A record fifteen enginemen rode from Water Valley to pay their last respects.
Coverage of the accident
The headlines in The Jackson Sun (Jackson, Tennessee) read: "FATAL WRECK – Engineer Casey Jones, of This City, Killed Near Canton, Miss. – DENSE FOG THE DIRECT CAUSE – Of a Rear End Collision on the Illinois Central. – Fireman and Messenger Injured – Passenger Train Crashed Into a Local Freight Partly on the Siding – Several Cars Demolished."
A Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper report described the accident:
Jones's legend was quickly fueled by headlines such as, "DEAD UNDER HIS CAB: THE SAD END OF ENGINEER CASEY JONES," The Commercial Appeal, Memphis, Tennessee; and "HEROIC ENGINEER – Sticks to his post at cost of life. Railroad Wreck at Vaughan's on Illinois Central Railroad – Terrible Fatality Prevented by Engineer's Loyalty to Duty – A passenger's Story," The Times-Democrat, New Orleans.
The passenger in the article was Adam Hauser, formerly a member of The Times-Democrat telegraph staff. He was in a sleeper on Jones's southbound fast mail and said after the wreck:
Illinois Central Railroad report on accident
A conductor's report filed five hours after the accident stated, "Engineer on No.1 failed to answer flagman who was out proper distance. It is supposed he did not see the flag." This was the position the IC held in its official reports.
The final IC accident report was released on July 13, 1900, by A.S. Sullivan, the General Superintendent of IC. It stated that "Engineer Jones was solely responsible having disregarded the signals given by Flagman Newberry." John M. Newberry was the flagman on the southbound No. 83 that Jones hit. According to the report, he had gone out a distance of , where he had placed warning torpedoes on the rail. He continued north a further distance of 500 to 800 feet (150 to 240 m), where he stood and gave signals to Jones's train No.1. Historians and the press had questions about the official findings.
In the report Fireman Sim Webb states that he heard the torpedo explode, then went to the gangway on the engineer's side and saw the flagman with the red and white lights standing alongside the tracks. Going to the fireman's side, he saw the markers of the caboose of No. 83 and yelled to Jones. But it would have been impossible for him to have seen the flagman if the flagman had been positioned 500–800 feet (150–240 m) before the torpedoes as the report says he was. In any event, some railroad historians have disputed the official account over the years, finding it difficult if not impossible to believe that an engineer of Jones's experience would have ignored a flagman and fusees (flares) and torpedoes exploded on the rail to alert him to danger.
Contrary to what the report claimed, shortly after the accident and until his death Webb maintained, "We saw no flagman or fusees, we heard no torpedoes. Without any warning we plowed into that caboose."
Injuries and losses from wreck
The personal injury and physical damage costs of the wreck were initially estimated as follows:
Simeon T. Webb, Fireman Train No. 1, body bruises from jumping off Engine 382 – $5.00 (equivalent to $ in )
Mrs. W. E. Breaux, passenger, 1472 Rocheblave Street, New Orleans, slight bruises – Not settled
Mrs. Wm. Deto, passenger, No 25 East 33rd Street, Chicago, slight bruises left knee and left hand – Not settled
Wm. Miller, Express Messenger, injuries to back and left side, apparently slight – $25.00 ($ in )
W. L. Whiteside, Postal Clerk, jarred – $1.00 ($ in )
R. A. Ford, Postal Clerk, jarred – $1.00 ($ in )
Engine No. 382; $1,396.25 ($ in )
Mail car No. 51 – $610.00 ($ in )
Baggage car No. 217 – $105.00 ($ in )
Caboose No. 98119 – $430.00 ($ in )
IC box car 11380 – $4000.00 ($ in )
IC box car 24116 – $55.00 ($ in )
Total (property damage only) – $2,996.00 ($ in )
An update indicated an additional $327.50 in property damage ($102.50 in track damage, $100.00 for freight, and $125.00 in wrecking expense) plus a settlement of $1.00 to Mrs. Breaux for her injuries. Mrs. Deto was identified as the spouse of an IC engineer, and in the update her claim for injuries was still unsettled. There are no clearly authentic photographs of the famous wreck in existence.
There has been some controversy about exactly how Jones died. Massena Jones, (former postmaster of Vaughan and director of the now-closed museum there), said "When they found Jones, according to Uncle Will Madison (a section hand who helped remove Jones's body from the wreckage), he had a splinter of wood driven through his head. Now this is contrary to most of the stories, some of which say he had a bolt through his neck, some say he was crushed, some say he was scalded to death."
Later history of engines
For at least ten years after the wreck, the imprint of Jones's engine was clearly visible in the embankment on the east side of the tracks about two-tenths of a mile north of Tucker's Creek, which is where the marker was located. The imprint of the headlight, boiler and the spokes of the wheels could be seen and people would ride up on handcars to view the traces of the famous wreck. Corn that was scattered by the wreck grew for years afterward in the surrounding fields.
The wrecked 382 was brought to the Water Valley shop and rebuilt "just as it had come from the Rogers Locomotive Works in 1898," according to Bruce Gurner. It was soon back in service on the same run with Engineer Harry A. "Dad" Norton in charge—but bad luck seemed to follow it. During its 37 years of service, "Ole 382" was involved in accidents that took 6 lives before it was retired in July 1935. During its career, the 382 was renumbered 212, 2012, and 5012.
January 1903: criminal train wreckers caused 382 to wreck, nearly demolishing the locomotive. Norton's legs were broken and he was badly scalded. His fireman died 3 days later.
September 1905: Norton and the 382 turned over in the Memphis South Yards. This time, however, the train was moving slowly and Norton was uninjured.
January 22, 1912: 382 (now numbered 2012) was involved in a wreck that killed four prominent railroad men and injured several others. It is called the Kinmundy Wreck as it happened near Kinmundy, Illinois. An engineer by the name of Strude was driving.
Jones's beloved Engine No. 638 was sold to the Mexican government in 1921 and still ran there in the 1940s.
Other people involved
Jones's African-American fireman Simeon T. Webb (born May 12, 1874), died in Memphis on July 13, 1957, at age 83.
Jones's widow, Janie Brady Jones (born October 29, 1866), died on November 21, 1958, in Jackson at age 92. At the time of Jones' death at age 36, his son Charles was 12, his daughter Helen was 10 and his youngest son John Lloyd (known as "Casey Junior") was 4.
Jones's wife received $3,000 in insurance payments (Jones was a member of two unions, the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, and had a $1,500 policy with each union) and later settled with IC for an additional $2,650 (Earl Brewer, a Water Valley attorney who would later serve as Governor of Mississippi, represented her in the settlement). Other than these payments Mrs. Jones received nothing as a result of the wreck or Jones's service with the railroad, as the Railroad Retirement Fund was not established until 1937.
Jones's wife said she never had any thought of remarrying. She wore black nearly every day for the rest of her life.
Jones's tombstone in Jackson's Mount Calvary Cemetery gives his birth year as 1864, but according to information his mother wrote in the family Bible, he was born in 1863. The tombstone was donated in 1947 by two out-of-town railroad enthusiasts who accidentally got his birth year wrong. Until then, a simple wooden cross had marked his grave.
Casey Jones references in music
Casey Jones's fame is largely attributed to the traditional song, “The Ballad of Casey Jones”, also known as "Casey Jones, the Brave Engineer", recorded by, among others, Billy Murray, Mississippi John Hurt, Furry Lewis, Johnny Cash, Ed McCurdy, and played live by the Grateful Dead, as well as Jones' friend Wallace Saunders, an African-American engine wiper for the IC.
Songs titled “Casey Jones”, usually about the crash or the engineer, have been recorded by Vernon Dalhart (Edison Disc recorded June 16, 1925), This Bike Is a Pipe Bomb, Feverfew (Blueboy (band)), Tom Russell, The New Christy Minstrels, Skillet Lickers, and the Grateful Dead.
IWW activist Joe Hill wrote and sang a protest song parody of "The Ballad of Casey Jones". ″Casey Jones—the Union Scab″ portrays Jones as a strikebreaker at Southern Pacific. As his engine is badly in disrepair he crashes from a bridge, dies and goes to Heaven. There St. Peter wants him to break a strike of celestial musicians. The rebellious musicians form a local union and throw Casey down into Hell, where Satan urges him to shovel sulphur in the furnaces. Hill's version of the song was later performed and recorded by Utah Phillips, Pete Seeger, in Russian by Leonid Utyosov, and Hungarian by the Szirt Együttes.
Songs about or related to Jones or the crash include:
"J C Cohen" a parody by Allan Sherman
"Casey Jones" – Johnny Cash
"Do The Paranoid Style" – Bad Religion
"Casey Jones" – Grateful Dead
"Talking Casey" – Mississippi John Hurt
"To the Dogs or Whoever" – Josh Ritter from The Historical Conquests of Josh Ritter
"April the 14th Part 1" and "Ruination Day Part 2" – Gillian Welch from Time (The Revelator) — Casey Jones becomes a simile for another great collision, that of the RMS Titanic, on April 14, 1912.
"St Luke's Summer" – Thea Gilmore from Rules For Jokers
"KC Jones" – North Mississippi Allstars
"Ridin' With the Driver" – Motörhead
"Casey Jones Was His Name" – Hank Snow
"Freight Train Boogie" – Marty Stuart
"Knocking Down Casey Jones" – Wilmer Watts
"What's Next to the Moon" – AC/DC
“Casey Jones—the Union Scab” – Joe Hill
"Casey Jones" – Gibson Bros. from "Big Pine Boogie"
"Casey Jones" - This Bike is a Pipe Bomb
"Casey Jones" – The Black
"Casey Jones" – Claudia Lennear
"The Ballad of Casey Jones" – Band of Annuals
"Grist for the Malady Mill" – mewithoutYou
"What Have They Done To The Trains" – Roy Acuff
"Statecny Strojvudce" – Ladislav Vodicka
"Strojvudce Prihoda" – Jiri Voskovec and Jan Werich
"Casey Caught the Cannonball" - Jimbo Mathus
"Casey's Last Ride" - Kris Kristofferson
"Casey's Crazy Train" - DNatureofDTrain
In the lyrics of their 1964 recording of Wabash Cannonball (found on the album Connie Francis and Hank Williams Jr. Sing Great Country Favorites), Connie Francis and Hank Williams Jr. make reference to Jones: "We'll drink a toast to Casey Jones, may his name forever stand".
Casey Jones media references
A 1927 movie, Casey Jones (1927), starred Ralph Lewis as Casey Jones, Kate Price as his wife, and a young Jason Robards Sr. as Casey Jones, Jr.
The Return of Casey Jones was released by Monogram Pictures in 1933. The movie was based upon the novelette written by John Johns, a real New York Central conductor, originally published in the April 1933 issue of Railroad Stories Magazine. The story was reprinted by Bold Venture Press in 2019 in Railroad Stories #7, collecting other stories by John Johns.
In his 1975 painting "Sources of Country Music", Thomas Hart Benton chose Casey Jones' fateful Engine No. 382, the "Cannonball", to represent the influence of railroads on Country Music.
A traditional blues song honoring Casey Jones was performed by many blues singers, including Furry Lewis and Lum Guffin.
A 1970s song called Casey Jones by the famous rock band The Grateful Dead
A 1938 dramatic play by Robert Ardrey called Casey Jones stars a 1930s version of the hero. It was produced on Broadway with a critically heralded locomotive set-piece by Mordecai Gorelik.
In the 1941 Walt Disney movie, Dumbo, a song refers to the circus train as 'Casey Junior' early in the film. This inspired the Casey Jr. Circus Train attractions found at both Disneyland Park in Anaheim and Disneyland Park in Paris and the Casey Jr. Splash 'n' Soak Station at the Magic Kingdom.
In 1950, The Walt Disney Company made a new animated cartoon based on Casey Jones, entitled The Brave Engineer.
From 1954 until 1973, Roger Awsumb played Casey Jones on Lunch With Casey in the Minneapolis/St. Paul market on WTCN-TV.
The 1956 James Bond novel Diamonds Are Forever references Casey Jones during a train chase.
Airing in 1958, Casey Jones was a television series loosely based on Jones's legend. It starred Alan Hale, Jr. as Casey Jones; Hale would later become well remembered for his role as "The Skipper" on the TV series Gilligan's Island. The series only ran for one season, with a total of 32 episodes. Its co-star was Dub Taylor.
Beginning in 1950, Good & Plenty candy began an advertising campaign featuring a cartoon character named "Choo-Choo Charlie," a child railroad engineer who appeared in ads featuring a jingle based on "The Ballad of Casey Jones".
In an episode of Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels titled "The Legend of Devil's Run", the villain's name is Casey Jones.
The 1982 film An Officer and a Gentleman features a coarse cadence call about "Casey Jones" led by Gunnery Sgt. Foley (Louis Gossett Jr.)
Casey Jones is mentioned in Caryl Phillips's stageplay The Shelter (1984).
Casey Jones is the vigilante comrade of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.
An episode of The Real Ghostbusters (titled Last Train To Oblivion) (1987) features the ghost of Casey Jones. He abducts Peter Venkman, and always yells at him for more coal. Peter eventually realizes that Jones wants to repeat the journey that killed him, so that he can avoid the collision this time.
Neil Young's song "Southern Pacific" alludes to the Casey Jones legend by imagining a railroad engineer named "Mr. Jones" who meets a less heroic but in some ways a more tragic fate: when he turns 65 years old, he is compelled into retirement by the railroad company as "company policy."
A 1993 episode of Shining Time Station called "Billy's Runaway Train", includes a play about Casey Jones.
In 1997, The Green Bag published a poem by Brainerd Currie, Casey Jones Redivivus, about a man injured in a railroad accident.
Museums in Casey Jones's honor
The Historic Casey Jones Home & Railroad Museum in Jackson, Tennessee
Water Valley Casey Jones Railroad Museum in Water Valley, Mississippi
Casey Jones Railroad Museum State Park in Vaughan, Mississippi (Museum closed in 2004)
References
A History of Railroad Accidents, Safety Precautions and Operating Practices, by Robert B. Shaw. p290. (1978)
External links
Ballad of Casey Jones
Photo of Sim Webb
Life Magazine Jan 26, 1942 story of Casey Jones
1863 births
1900 deaths
19th-century American people
American people of Welsh descent
Folklore of the Southern United States
Illinois Central Railroad people
Mississippi Blues Trail
People from Fulton County, Kentucky
People from Jackson, Tennessee
Railway accident deaths in the United States
Tall tales
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246670
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ga%20language
|
Ga language
|
Ga is a Kwa language spoken in Ghana, in and around the capital Accra. It has a phonemic distinction between three vowel lengths.
Classification
Ga is a Kwa language, part of the Niger–Congo family. It is very closely related to Adangme, and together they form the Ga–Dangme branch within Kwa.
Ga is the predominant language of the Ga people, an ethnic group of Ghana. Ethnic Ga family names (surnames) include Owoo, Lartey, Nortey, Aryee, Poku, Lamptey, Tetteh, Ankrah, Tetteyfio, Laryea, Ayitey, Okine, Bortey, Quarshie, Quaye, Quaynor, Ashong, Kotei, Clottey, Nai, Sowah, Odoi, Maale, Ako, Adjetey, Annang, Addo, Yemoh, Abbey and Adjei.
Geographic distribution
Ga is spoken in south-eastern Ghana, in and around the capital Accra. It has relatively little dialectal variation. Although English is the official language of Ghana, Ga is one of 16 languages in which the Bureau of Ghana Languages publishes material.
Phonology
Consonants
Ga has 31 consonant phonemes.
is an allophone of which occurs before nasals and is represented with its own digraph in writing.
may be realised as when between a consonant and vowel
has an allophone before nasal vowels
Vowels
Ga has seven oral vowels and five nasal vowels. All of the vowels have three different vowel lengths: short, long or extra long (the latter appears only in the simple future and the simple past negative forms).
Tones
Ga has two tones, high and low. Like many West African languages, it has tone terracing.
Phonotactics
The syllable structure of Ga is , where the second phoneme of an initial consonant cluster can only be and a final consonant may only be a (short or long) nasal consonant, e.g. ekome, "one", V-CV-CV; kakadaŋŋ, "long", CV-CV-CVC; mli, "inside", CCV. Ga syllables may also consist solely of a syllabic nasal, for example in the first syllable of ŋshɔ, "sea".
Writing system
Ga was first written in about 1764, by Christian Jacob Protten (1715–1769), who was the son of a Danish soldier and a Ga woman. Protten was a Gold Coast Euro-African Moravian missionary and educator in the eighteenth century. In the mid-1800s, the Germany missionary, Johannes Zimmermann (1825–1876), assisted by the Gold Coast historian, Carl Christian Reindorf (1834–1917) and others, worked extensively on the grammar of the language, published a dictionary and translated the entire Bible into the Ga language. The orthography has been revised a number of times since 1968, with the most recent review in 1990.
The writing system is a Latin-based alphabet and has 26 letters. It has three additional letter symbols which correspond to the IPA symbols. There are also eleven digraphs and two trigraphs. Vowel length is represented by doubling or tripling the vowel symbol, e.g. 'a', 'aa' and 'aaa'. Tones are not represented. Nasalisation is represented after oral consonants where it distinguishes between minimal pairs.
The Ga alphabet is:
Aa, Bb, Dd, Ee, Ɛɛ, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Ŋŋ, Oo, Ɔɔ, Pp, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Yy, Zz
The following letters represent sounds which do not correspond with the same letter as the IPA symbol (e.g. B represents ):
J j -
Y y -
Digraphs and trigraphs:
Gb gb -
Gw gw -
Hw hw -
Jw jw -
Kp kp -
Kw kw -
Ny ny -
Ŋm ŋm -
Ŋw ŋw - (an allophone rather than a phoneme)
Sh sh -
Ts ts -
Shw shw -
Tsw tsw -
See also
Ga people
Languages of Ghana
Christian Jacob Protten
Carl Christian Reindorf
Johannes Zimmermann
Footnotes
References
External links
My First GaDangme Dictionary kasahorow
Short tutorial on counting in the Ga language
Young boy speaking about Ghanaian tribes in Ga language
Ga–Dangme languages
Languages of Ghana
|
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246673
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Airlines%20Flight%20191
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American Airlines Flight 191
|
American Airlines Flight 191 was a regularly scheduled domestic passenger flight in the United States operated by American Airlines from O'Hare International Airport in Chicago, Illinois, to Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles, California. On the afternoon of May 25, 1979, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 operating this flight was taking off from runway 32R when its left engine detached, causing loss of control, and it crashed less than a mile (1.6 km) from the end of the runway. All 258 passengers and 13 crew on board were killed, along with two people on the ground. With 273 fatalities, it is the deadliest aviation accident to have occurred in the United States.
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) found that as the aircraft was beginning its takeoff rotation, engine number one (the left engine) separated from the left wing, flipping over the top of the wing and landing on the runway. As the engine separated from the aircraft, it severed hydraulic fluid lines that lock the wing's leading-edge slats in place and damaged a section of the left wing's leading edge. Aerodynamic forces acting on the wing resulted in an uncommanded retraction of the outboard slats. As the aircraft began to climb, the damaged left wing – with no engine – produced far less lift (stalled) than the right wing, which had its slats still deployed and its engine providing full takeoff thrust. The disrupted and unbalanced aerodynamics of the aircraft caused it to roll abruptly to the left until it was partially inverted, reaching a bank angle of 112°, before crashing in an open field by a trailer park near the end of the runway. The engine separation was attributed to damage to the pylon structure holding the engine to the wing, caused by improper maintenance procedures used at American Airlines.
Background
Aircraft
The aircraft involved was a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 registered as N110AA. It had been delivered on February 25, 1972, and at the time of the crash, it had logged just under 20,000 hours of flying time over seven years. The jet was powered by three General Electric CF6-6D engines. A review of the aircraft's flight logs and maintenance records showed that no mechanical discrepancies were noted for May 11, 1979. On the day of the accident, in violation of standard procedure, the records were not removed from the aircraft, and were destroyed in the accident.
Flight crew
Captain Walter Lux (age 53) had been flying the DC-10 since its introduction eight years earlier. He had logged around 22,000 flying hours, of which about 3,000 were in a DC-10. He was also qualified to pilot 17 other aircraft, including the DC-6, the DC-7, and the Boeing 727. First Officer James Dillard (age 49), and Flight Engineer Alfred Udovich (56) were also highly experienced: 9,275 hours and 15,000 hours, respectively; between them, they had 1,830 hours' flying experience in the DC-10.
Accident
On the accident flight, just as the aircraft reached takeoff speed, the number-one engine and its pylon assembly separated from the left wing, ripping away a section of the leading edge with it. The combined unit flipped over the top of the wing and landed on the runway. Robert Graham, supervisor of maintenance for American Airlines, stated:
What was said in the cockpit in the 50 seconds leading up to the final impact is not known, as the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) lost power when the engine detached. The only crash-related audio collected by the recorder is a thumping noise (likely the sound of the engine separating), followed by the first officer exclaiming "Damn!", at which point the recording ends. This may also explain why air traffic control was unsuccessful in their attempts to radio the crew and inform them that they had lost an engine. This loss of power did, however, prove useful in the investigation, serving as a marker of exactly what circuit in the DC-10's extensive electrical system had failed.
In addition to the engine's failure, several related systems failed. The number-one hydraulic system, powered by the number-one engine, also failed, but continued to operate through motor pumps that mechanically connected it to hydraulic system three. Hydraulic system three was also damaged and began leaking fluid, but maintained pressure and operation until impact. Hydraulic system two was undamaged. The number-one electrical bus, whose generator was attached to the number-one engine, failed, as well, causing several electrical systems to go offline, most notably the captain's instruments, his stick shaker, and the slat disagreement sensors. A switch in the overhead panel would have allowed the captain to restore power to his instruments, but it was not used. The flight engineer may have been able to reach the backup power switch (as part of an abnormal situation checklist—not as part of their take-off emergency procedure) in an effort to restore electrical power to the number-one electrical bus. That would have worked only if electrical faults were no longer present in the number-one electrical system. To reach that backup power switch, the flight engineer would have had to rotate his seat, release his safety belt, and stand up. Since the aircraft did not get any higher than 350 ft (110 m) above the ground and was only in the air for 50 seconds between the time the engine separated and the moment it crashed, the time was not sufficient to perform such an action. In any event, the first officer was flying the airplane and his instruments continued to function normally.
The aircraft climbed to about above ground level while spewing a white mist trail of fuel and hydraulic fluid from the left wing. The first officer had followed the flight director and raised the nose to 14°, which reduced the airspeed from to the takeoff safety airspeed (V2) of , the speed at which the aircraft could safely climb after sustaining an engine failure.
The engine separation severed the hydraulic fluid lines that controlled the leading-edge slats on the left wing and locked them in place, causing the outboard slats (immediately left of the number-one engine) to retract under air load. The retraction of the slats raised the stall speed of the left wing to about , 6 knots higher than the prescribed takeoff safety airspeed (V2) of 153 knots. As a result, the left wing entered a full aerodynamic stall. With the left wing stalled, the aircraft began banking to the left, rolling over onto its side until it was partially inverted at a 112° bank angle (as seen in the Laughlin photograph) with its right wing over its left wing.
As the cockpit had been equipped with a closed-circuit television camera positioned behind the captain's shoulder and connected to view screens in the passenger cabin, the passengers may have been able to witness these events from the viewpoint of the cockpit as the aircraft dove towards the ground. Whether the camera's view was interrupted by the power loss from the number-one electrical bus is not known. The aircraft eventually slammed into a field around from the end of the runway. Large sections of aircraft debris were hurled by the force of the impact into an adjacent trailer park, destroying five trailers and several cars. The DC-10 had also crashed into an old aircraft hangar located at the edge of the airport at the former site of Ravenswood International Airport, which was used for storage. The aircraft was completely destroyed by the impact force and ignition of a nearly full load of 21,000 gallons of fuel; no sizable components other than the engines and tail section remained.
In addition to the 271 people on board the aircraft, two employees at a nearby repair garage were killed, and two more were severely burned. The crash site is a field located northwest of the intersection of Touhy Avenue (Illinois Route 72) and Mount Prospect Road on the border of the suburbs of Des Plaines and Mount Prospect, Illinois.
Investigation
The disaster and investigation received widespread media coverage. The impact on the public was increased by the dramatic effect of an amateur photo taken of the aircraft rolling that was published on the front page of the Chicago Tribune on the Sunday two days after the crash.
Engine separation
Witnesses to the crash were in universal agreement that the aircraft had not struck any foreign objects on the runway. Also, no pieces of the wing or other aircraft components were found along with the separated engine, other than its supporting pylon, leading investigators to conclude that nothing else had broken free from the airframe and struck the engine. Hence, the engine/pylon assembly separation could only have resulted from a structural failure. The cockpit instrument panels were too badly damaged to provide any useful information.
During the investigation, an examination on the pylon attachment points revealed some damage done to the wing's pylon mounting bracket that matched the bent shape of the pylon's rear attachment fitting. This meant that the pylon attachment fitting had struck the mounting bracket at some point. This was important evidence, as the only way the pylon fitting could strike the wing's mounting bracket in the observed manner was if the bolts that held the pylon to the wing had been removed and the engine/pylon assembly was being supported by something other than the aircraft itself. Therefore, investigators now could conclude that the observed damage to the rear pylon mount had been present before the crash actually occurred, rather than being caused by it.
The NTSB determined that the damage to the left-wing engine pylon had occurred during an earlier engine change at the American Airlines aircraft maintenance facility in Tulsa, Oklahoma, between March 29 and 30, 1979. On those dates, the aircraft had undergone routine service, during which the engine and pylon had been removed from the wing for inspection and maintenance. The removal procedure recommended by McDonnell-Douglas called for the engine to be detached from the pylon before detaching the pylon itself from the wing. However, American Airlines, as well as Continental Airlines and United Airlines, had developed a different procedure that saved about 200 man-hours per aircraft and "more importantly from a safety standpoint, it would reduce the number of disconnects (of systems such as hydraulic and fuel lines, electrical cables, and wiring) from 79 to 27." This new procedure involved the removal of the engine and pylon assembly as a single unit, rather than as individual components. United Airlines' implementation involved the use of an overhead crane to support the engine/pylon assembly during removal and installation. The method chosen by American and Continental relied on supporting the engine/pylon assembly with a large forklift.
If the forklift was incorrectly positioned, the engine/pylon assembly would not be stable as it was being handled, causing it to rock like a see-saw and jam the pylon against the wing's attachment points. Forklift operators were guided only by hand and voice signals, as they could not directly see the junction between the pylon and the wing. Positioning had to be extremely accurate, or structural damage could result. Compounding the problem, maintenance work on N110AA did not go smoothly. The mechanics started to disconnect the engine and pylon as a single unit, but a shift change took place halfway through the job. During this interval, although the forklift remained stationary, the forks supporting the entire weight of the engine and pylon moved downward slightly due to a normal loss of hydraulic pressure associated with the forklift engine being turned off; this caused a misalignment between the engine/pylon and wing. When work was resumed, the pylon was jammed on the wing and the forklift had to be repositioned. Whether damage to the mount was caused by the initial downward movement of the engine/pylon structure or by the realignment attempt is unclear. Regardless of how it happened, the resulting damage, although insufficient to cause an immediate failure, eventually developed into fatigue cracking, worsening with each takeoff and landing cycle during the 8 weeks that followed. When the attachment finally failed, the engine and its pylon broke away from the wing. The structure surrounding the forward pylon mount also failed from the resulting stresses.
Inspection of the DC-10 fleets of the three airlines revealed that while United Airlines' hoist approach seemed to be harmless, several DC-10s at both American and Continental already had fatigue cracking and bending damage to their pylon mounts caused by similar maintenance procedures. The field service representative from McDonnell-Douglas stated the company would "not encourage this procedure due to the element of risk" and had so advised American Airlines. McDonnell-Douglas, however, "does not have the authority to either approve or disapprove the maintenance procedures of its customers."
Inadequate speed
The NTSB determined that the loss of one engine and the asymmetrical drag caused by damage to the wing's leading edge should not have been enough to cause the pilots to lose control of their aircraft; the aircraft should have been capable of returning to the airport using its remaining two engines. The NTSB thus examined the effects that the engine's separation would have on the aircraft's flight control, hydraulic, electrical, and instrumentation systems. Unlike other aircraft designs, the DC-10 did not include a separate mechanism to lock the extended leading-edge slats in place, relying instead solely on the hydraulic pressure within the system. The NTSB determined that the engine tore through hydraulic lines as it separated from the DC-10's wing, causing a loss of hydraulic pressure; airflow over the wings forced the left wing slats to retract, which caused a stall over the left wing. In response to the accident, slat relief valves were mandated to prevent slat retraction in case of hydraulic line damage.
The wreckage was too severely fragmented to determine the exact position of the rudders, elevators, flaps, and slats before impact, and examination of eyewitness photographs showed only that the right wing slats were fully extended as the crew tried unsuccessfully to correct the steep roll they were in. The position of the left wing slats could not be determined from the blurry color photographs, so they were sent to a laboratory in Palo Alto, California, for digital analysis, a process that was pushing the limits of 1970s technology and necessitated large, complicated, and expensive equipment. The photographs were reduced to black-and-white, which made distinguishing the slats from the wing itself possible, thus proving that they were retracted. In addition, the tail section of the aircraft was verified to be undamaged and the landing gear was down.
Wind-tunnel and flight-simulator tests were conducted to help to understand the trajectory of the aircraft after the engine detached and the left wing slats retracted. Those tests established that the damage to the wing's leading edge and retraction of the slats increased the stall speed of the left wing from to . The DC-10 incorporates two warning devices that might have alerted the pilots to the impending stall: the slat disagreement warning light, which should have illuminated after the uncommanded retraction of the slats, and the stick shaker on the captain's control column, which activates close to the stall speed. Both of these warning devices were powered by an electric generator driven by the number-one engine. Both systems became inoperative after the loss of that engine. The first officer's control column was not equipped with a stick shaker; the device was offered by McDonnell Douglas as an option for the first officer, but American Airlines chose not to have it installed on its DC-10 fleet. Stick shakers for both pilots became mandatory in response to this accident.
As the aircraft had reached V1, the crew were committed to takeoff, so followed standard procedures for an engine out situation. This procedure is to climb at the takeoff safety airspeed (V2) and attitude (angle), as directed by the flight director. The partial electrical power failure (produced by the separation of the left engine) meant that neither the stall warning nor the slat retraction indicator was operative. The crew, therefore, did not know that the slats on the left wing were retracting. This retraction significantly raised the stall speed of the left wing. Thus, flying at the takeoff safety airspeed caused the left wing to stall while the right wing was still producing lift, so the aircraft banked sharply and uncontrollably to the left. Simulator recreations held after the accident determined that "had the pilot maintained excess airspeed the accident may not have occurred."
Probable cause
The findings of the investigation by the NTSB were released on December 21, 1979:
Legacy of the DC-10
The crash of Flight 191 brought strong criticism from the media regarding the DC-10's safety and design. The DC-10 had been involved in two accidents related to the design of its cargo doors, American Airlines Flight 96 (1972) and Turkish Airlines Flight 981 (1974). The separation of engine one from its mount, the widespread publication of the dramatic images of the airplane missing its engine seconds before the crash, and a second photo of the fireball resulting from the impact, raised widespread concerns about the safety of the DC-10. The final blow to the airplane's reputation was dealt two weeks after the crash, when the aircraft was grounded by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Although the aircraft itself was later exonerated, the damage in the public's eye was already done.
The investigation also revealed other DC-10s with damage caused by the same faulty maintenance procedure. The faulty procedure was banned, and the aircraft type went on to have a long career as a passenger and cargo aircraft. In response to this accident, American Airlines was fined $500,000 (equivalent to $ million in dollars) by the U.S. government for improper maintenance procedures. Earl Russell Marshall, one of the American Airlines mechanics who had last performed this maintenance procedure on the aircraft, subsequently committed suicide the night before he was to be deposed by McDonnell Douglas attorneys.
On June 6, 1979, two weeks after the crash, the FAA suspended the type certificate for the DC-10, thereby grounding all DC-10s under its jurisdiction. It also enacted a special air regulation banning the DC-10 from U.S. airspace, which prevented foreign DC-10s not under the jurisdiction of the FAA from flying within the country. This was done while the FAA investigated whether the airplane's engine mounting and pylon design met relevant requirements. Once the FAA was satisfied that maintenance issues were primarily at fault and not the actual design of the aircraft, the type certificate was restored on July 13 and the special air regulation repealed. The type certificate was amended, however, stating, "...removal of the engine and pylon as a unit will immediately render the aircraft unairworthy."
In the wake of the grounding, the FAA convened a safety panel under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences to evaluate the design of the DC-10 and the U.S. regulatory system in general. The panel's report, published in June 1980, found "critical deficiencies in the way the government certifies the safety of American-built airliners", focusing on a shortage of FAA expertise during the certification process and a corresponding overreliance on McDonnell Douglas to ensure that the design was safe. Writing for The Air Current, aviation journalist Jon Ostrower likens the panel's conclusions to those of a later commission convened after the 2019 grounding of the Boeing 737 MAX. Ostrower faults both manufacturers for focusing on the letter of the law regarding regulatory standards, taking a design approach that addresses how the pilots could address single-system failures, without adequately considering scenarios in which multiple simultaneous malfunctions of different systems could occur.
On October 31, a DC-10 performing Western Airlines Flight 2605 crashed in Mexico City after a red-eye flight from Los Angeles. The Western crash, however, was due to low visibility and an attempt to land on a closed runway, through, reportedly, confusion of its crew.
The loss of Air New Zealand Flight 901 on November 28, six months after Flight 191, added to the DC-10's negative reputation. The Antarctic sightseeing flight hit a mountain, which was caused by several human and environmental factors not related to the airworthiness of the DC-10, and the aircraft was later completely exonerated.
Ironically, another DC-10 crash 10 years later, United Airlines Flight 232, restored some of the aircraft's reputation. Despite losing an engine, all flight controls, crash landing in a huge fireball (which was caught on video by a local news crew), and killing 112 people, 184 people survived the accident. Experts praised the DC-10's sturdy construction as partly responsible for the high number of survivors.
Orders for DC-10s dropped off sharply after the events of 1979 (the U.S. economic recession of 1979–82 was also a contributing factor in reduced demand for airliners) and from there until the end of production 10 years later, the two largest DC-10 customers were FedEx and the U.S. Air Force (KC-10 Extender). Despite initial safety concerns, DC-10 aircraft continued to serve with passenger airlines for over three decades after the crash of Flight 191. DC-10 production ended in 1988, and many retired passenger DC-10s have since been converted to all-cargo use. The DC-10 freighter, along with its derivative, the MD-11, constitute part of the FedEx Express fleet. The DC-10s have been upgraded with the glass cockpit from the MD-11, thereby turning them into MD-10s. American Airlines retired its last DC-10s in 2000 after 29 years of service. In February 2014, Biman Bangladesh Airlines operated the final DC-10 passenger flights. DC-10s continue to be used extensively in air freight operations, and military variants also remain in service.
Victims
Nationalities of the victims
Passengers
Some of the victims in the crash of Flight 191 were:
Itzhak Bentov, a Czechoslovakia-born Israeli–American biomedical inventor (the cardiac catheter) and New Age author (Stalking the Wild Pendulum and A Cosmic Book)
Leonard Stogel, music business manager/promoter/producer/executive for California Jam, California Jam II, Sweathog, The Cowsills, Sam the Sham, Tommy James and the Shondells, Redbone, Gentle Giant, and other musical groups: Stogel's parents had earlier perished on American Airlines Flight 1.
Memorial
For 32 years, the victims had no permanent memorial. Funding was obtained for a memorial in 2009, through a two-year effort by the sixth-grade class of Decatur Classical School in Chicago. The memorial, a concave wall with interlocking bricks displaying the names of the crash victims, was formally dedicated in a ceremony on October 15, 2011. The memorial is located on the south shore of Lake Opeka, at Lake Park at the northwest corner of Lee and Touhy Avenues, two miles east of the crash site. A remembrance ceremony was held at the memorial on May 25, 2019, the 40th anniversary of the accident.
Depictions in media
The cable/satellite National Geographic channel produced a documentary on the crash, and an episode from Seconds From Disaster titled "Chicago Plane Crash" detailed the crash and included film of the investigation press conferences. The Canadian television series Mayday profiled the crash in the episode "Catastrophe at O'Hare", which subsequently aired in the U.S. on the Smithsonian Channel's television series Air Disasters.
Chicago folk singer Steve Goodman wrote the song "Ballad of Flight 191 (They Know Everything About It)" in response to the crash and the subsequent investigation as the inaugural song for a series of topical songs that aired on National Public Radio in 1979.
A character in the Michael Crichton novel Airframe describes the incident by mentioning how a "good airplane (DC-10)" could be "destroyed by bad press".
See also
List of disasters in the United States by death toll
List of aircraft accidents and incidents by number of ground fatalities
Aviation accidents and incidents
Aviation safety
Similar accidents caused by engine separation
China Airlines Flight 358
El Al Flight 1862
Trans-Air Service Flight 671
Flight 191 - a list of other flights with the same or similar number
References
Further reading
External links
Memorial in Lake Park, Des Plaines
NTSB Accident Report
Alternate link
"Public Lessons Learned from Accidents – American Airlines Flight 191" (Archive)
PlaneCrashInfo.Com – American Airlines Flight 191
Flight 191 Remembered (Fox Chicago website) (Archive)
Pre-crash pictures from Airliners.net
NTSB Probable Cause Report (Alternate, Archive)
News reports at The Museum of Classic Chicago Television
History of Chicago
Airliner accidents and incidents in Illinois
Airliner accidents and incidents caused by in-flight structural failure
Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 1979
1970s in Chicago
1979 in Illinois
Airliner accidents and incidents caused by maintenance errors
191
Disasters in Illinois
Accidents and incidents involving the McDonnell Douglas DC-10
O'Hare International Airport
May 1979 events in the United States
Airliner accidents and incidents involving in-flight engine separations
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weed%20control
|
Weed control
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Weed control is the botanical component of pest control, which attempts to stop weeds, especially noxious weeds, from competing with desired flora and fauna including domesticated plants and livestock, and in natural settings preventing non native species competing with native species.
Weed control is important in agriculture. Methods include hand cultivation with hoes, powered cultivation with cultivators, smothering with mulch, lethal wilting with high heat, burning, and chemical control with herbicides (weed killers).
Need for control
Weeds compete with productive crops or pasture, they can be poisonous, distasteful, produce burrs, thorns or otherwise interfere with the use and management of desirable plants by contaminating harvests or interfering with livestock.
Weeds compete with crops for space, nutrients, water and light. Smaller, slower growing seedlings are more susceptible than those that are larger and more vigorous. Onions are one of the most vulnerable, because they are slow to germinate and produce slender, upright stems. By contrast broad beans produce large seedlings and suffer far fewer effects other than during periods of water shortage at the crucial time when the pods are filling out. Transplanted crops raised in sterile soil or potting compost gain a head start over germinating weeds.
Weeds also vary in their competitive abilities according to conditions and season. Tall-growing vigorous weeds such as fat hen (Chenopodium album) can have the most pronounced effects on adjacent crops, although seedlings of fat hen that appear in late summer produce only small plants. Chickweed (Stellaria media), a low growing plant, can happily co-exist with a tall crop during the summer, but plants that have overwintered will grow rapidly in early spring and may swamp crops such as onions or spring greens.
The presence of weeds does not necessarily mean that they are damaging a crop, especially during the early growth stages when both weeds and crops can grow without interference. However, as growth proceeds they each begin to require greater amounts of water and nutrients. Estimates suggest that weed and crop can co-exist harmoniously for around three weeks before competition becomes significant. One study found that after competition had started, the final yield of onion bulbs was reduced at almost 4% per day.
Perennial weeds with bulbils, such as lesser celandine and oxalis, or with persistent underground stems such as couch grass (Agropyron repens) or creeping buttercup (Ranunculus repens) store reserves of food, and are thus able to persist in drought or through winter. Some perennials such as couch grass exude allelopathic chemicals that inhibit the growth of other nearby plants.
Weeds can also host pests and diseases that can spread to cultivated crops. Charlock and Shepherd's purse may carry clubroot, eelworm can be harboured by chickweed, fat hen and shepherd's purse, while the cucumber mosaic virus, which can devastate the cucurbit family, is carried by a range of different weeds including chickweed and groundsel.
Pests such as cutworms may first attack weeds but then move on to cultivated crops.
Some plants are considered weeds by some farmers and crops by others. Charlock, a common weed in the southeastern US, are weeds according to row crop growers, but are valued by beekeepers, who seek out places where it blooms all winter, thus providing pollen for honeybees and other pollinators. Its bloom resists all but a very hard freeze, and recovers once the freeze ends.
Weed propagation
Seeds
Annual and biennial weeds such as chickweed, annual meadow grass, shepherd's purse, groundsel, fat hen, cleaver, speedwell and hairy bittercress propagate themselves by seeding. Many produce huge numbers of seed several times a season, some all year round. Groundsel can produce 1000 seed, and can continue right through a mild winter, whilst Scentless Mayweed produces over 30,000 seeds per plant. Not all of these will germinate at once, but over several seasons, lying dormant in the soil sometimes for years until exposed to light. Poppy seed can survive 80–100 years, dock 50 or more. There can be many thousands of seeds in a square foot or square metre of ground, thus any soil disturbance will produce a flush of fresh weed seedlings.
Subsurface/surface
The most persistent perennials spread by underground creeping rhizomes that can regrow from a tiny fragment. These include couch grass, bindweed, ground elder, nettles, rosebay willow herb, Japanese knotweed, horsetail and bracken, as well as creeping thistle, whose tap roots can put out lateral roots. Other perennials put out runners that spread along the soil surface. As they creep they set down roots, enabling them to colonise bare ground with great rapidity. These include creeping buttercup and ground ivy. Yet another group of perennials propagate by stolons- stems that arch back into the ground to reroot. The most familiar of these is the bramble.
Methods
Weed control plans typically consist of many methods which are divided into biological, chemical, cultural, and physical/mechanical control.
Physical/mechanical methods
Coverings
In a domestic gardens, methods of weed control include covering an area of ground with a material that creates a hostile environment for weed growth, known as a weed mat.
Several layers of wet newspaper prevent light from reaching plants beneath, which kills them.
In the case of black plastic, the greenhouse effect kills the plants. Although the black plastic sheet is effective at preventing weeds that it covers, it is difficult to achieve complete coverage. Eradicating persistent perennials may require the sheets to be left in place for at least two seasons.
Some plants are said to produce root exudates that suppress herbaceous weeds. Tagetes minuta is claimed to be effective against couch and ground elder, whilst a border of comfrey is also said to act as a barrier against the invasion of some weeds including couch.
A layer of wood chip mulch prevents some weeds from sprouting.
Gravel can serve as an inorganic mulch.
Irrigation is sometimes used as a weed control measure such as in the case of paddy fields to kill any plant other than the water-tolerant rice crop.
Manual removal
Many gardeners still remove weeds by manually pulling them out of the ground, making sure to include the roots that would otherwise allow some to re-sprout.
Hoeing off weed leaves and stems as soon as they appear can eventually weaken and kill perennials, although this will require persistence in the case of plants such as bindweed. Nettle infestations can be tackled by cutting back at least three times a year, repeated over a three-year period. Bramble can be dealt with in a similar way.
A highly successful, mostly manual, removal programme of weed control in natural bush land has been the control of sea spurge by Sea Spurge Remote Area Teams in Tasmania.
Tillage
Ploughing includes tilling of soil, intercultural ploughing and summer ploughing. Ploughing uproots weeds, causing them to die. Summer ploughing also helps in killing pests.
Mechanical tilling with various types of cultivators can remove weeds around crop plants at various points in the growing process.
An Aquamog can be used to remove weeds covering a body of water.
Thermal
Several thermal methods can control weeds.
uses a flame several centimetres/inches away from the weeds to singe them, giving them a sudden and severe heating. The goal of flame weeding is not necessarily burning the plant, but rather causing a lethal wilting by denaturing proteins in the weed. Similarly, hot air weeders can heat up the seeds to the point of destroying them. Flame weeders can be combined with techniques such as stale seedbeds (preparing and watering the seedbed early, then killing the nascent crop of weeds that springs up from it, then sowing the crop seeds) and pre-emergence flaming (doing a flame pass against weed seedlings after the sowing of the crop seeds but before those seedlings emerge from the soil—a span of time that can be days or weeks).
Hot foam causes the cell walls to rupture, killing the plant. Weed burners heat up soil quickly and destroy superficial parts of the plants. Weed seeds are often heat resistant and even react with an increase of growth on dry heat.
Since the 19th century soil steam sterilization has been used to clean weeds completely from soil. Several research results confirm the high effectiveness of humid heat against weeds and its seeds.<ref>Research report of DLR Rheinlandpfalz, September 2010: [http://www.soil-steaming-steam-boiler-blog.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/steaming-research-results_dlr2010.pdf Weed control in seed cultures, especially arugula], Author: Dr. Norbert Laun, Institute "Queckbrunnerhof", Schifferstadt (Germany). Viewed on 14. February 2011.</ref>
Soil solarization in some circumstances is very effective at eliminating weeds while maintaining grass. Planted grass tends to have a higher heat/humidity tolerance than unwanted weeds.
Seed targeting
In 1998, the Australian Herbicide Resistance Initiative debuted. gathered fifteen scientists and technical staff members to conduct field surveys, collect seeds, test for resistance and study the biochemical and genetic mechanisms of resistance. A collaboration with DuPont led to a mandatory herbicide labeling program, in which each mode of action is clearly identified by a letter of the alphabet.
The key innovation of the Australian Herbicide Resistance Initiative has been to focus on weed seeds. Ryegrass seeds last only a few years in soil, so if farmers can prevent new seeds from arriving, the number of sprouts will shrink each year. Until the new approach farmers were unintentionally helping the seeds. Their combines loosen ryegrass seeds from their stalks and spread them over the fields. In the mid-1980s, a few farmers hitched covered trailers, called "chaff carts", behind their combines to catch the chaff and weed seeds. The collected material is then burned.
An alternative is to concentrate the seeds into a half-meter-wide strip called a windrow and burn the windrows after the harvest, destroying the seeds. Since 2003, windrow burning has been adopted by about 70% of farmers in Western Australia.
Yet another approach is the Harrington Seed Destructor, which is an adaptation of a coal pulverizing cage mill that uses steel bars whirling at up to 1500 rpm. It keeps all the organic material in the field and does not involve combustion, but kills 95% of seeds.
Cultural methods
Stale seed bed
Another manual technique is the ‘stale seed bed’, which involves cultivating the soil, then leaving it fallow for a week or so. When the initial weeds sprout, the grower lightly hoes them away before planting the desired crop. However, even a freshly cleared bed is susceptible to airborne seed from elsewhere, as well as seed carried by passing animals on their fur, or from imported manure.
Buried drip irrigation
Buried drip irrigation involves burying drip tape in the subsurface near the planting bed, thereby limiting weeds access to water while also allowing crops to obtain moisture. It is most effective during dry periods.
Crop rotation
Rotating crops with ones that kill weeds by choking them out, such as hemp, Mucuna pruriens'', and other crops, can be a very effective method of weed control. It is a way to avoid the use of herbicides, and to gain the benefits of crop rotation.
Biological methods
A biological weed control regiment can consist of biological control agents, bioherbicides, use of grazing animals, and protection of natural predators. Post-dispersal, weed seed predators, like ground beetles and small vertebrates, can substantially contribute to the weed regulation by removing weed seeds from the soil surface and thus reduce seed bank size. Several studies provided evidence for the role of invertebrates to the biological control of weeds
Animal grazing
Companies using goats to control and eradicate leafy spurge, knapweed, and other toxic weeds have sprouted across the American West.
Chemical methods
"Organic" approaches
Organic weed control involves anything other than applying manufactured chemicals. Typically a combination of methods are used to achieve satisfactory control.
Sulfur in some circumstances is accepted within British Soil Association standards.
Herbicides
The above described methods of weed control use no or very limited chemical inputs. They are preferred by organic gardeners or organic farmers.
However weed control can also be achieved by the use of herbicides. Selective herbicides kill certain targets while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are often based on plant hormones. Herbicides are generally classified as follows:
Contact herbicides destroy only plant tissue that contacts the herbicide. Generally, these are the fastest-acting herbicides. They are ineffective on perennial plants that can re-grow from roots or tubers.
Systemic herbicides are foliar-applied and move through the plant where they destroy a greater amount of tissue. Glyphosate is currently the most used systemic herbicide.
Soil-borne herbicides are applied to the soil and are taken up by the roots of the target plant.
Pre-emergent herbicides are applied to the soil and prevent germination or early growth of weed seeds.
In agriculture large scale and systematic procedures are usually required, often by machines, such as large liquid herbicide 'floater' sprayers, or aerial application.
Bradley method
See also Bradley Method of Bush Regeneration, which uses ecological processes to do much of the work.
Perennial weeds also propagate by seeding; the airborne seed of the dandelion and the rose-bay willow herb parachute far and wide. Dandelion and dock also put down deep tap roots, which, although they do not spread underground, are able to regrow from any remaining piece left in the ground.
Hybrid
One method of maintaining the effectiveness of individual strategies is to combine them with others that work in complete different ways. Thus seed targeting has been combined with herbicides. In Australia seed management has been effectively combined with trifluralin and clethodim.
Resistance
Resistance occurs when a target adapts to circumvent a particular control strategy. It affects not only weed control, but antibiotics, insect control and other domains. In agriculture is mostly considered in reference to pesticides, but can defeat other strategies, e.g., when a target species becomes more drought tolerant via selection pressure.
Farming practices
Herbicide resistance recently became a critical problem as many Australian sheep farmers switched to exclusively growing wheat in their pastures in the 1970s. In wheat fields, introduced varieties of ryegrass, while good for grazing sheep, are intense competitors with wheat. Ryegrasses produce so many seeds that, if left unchecked, they can completely choke a field. Herbicides provided excellent control, while reducing soil disrupting because of less need to plough. Within little more than a decade, ryegrass and other weeds began to develop resistance. Australian farmers evolved again and began diversifying their techniques.
In 1983, patches of ryegrass had become immune to Hoegrass, a family of herbicides that inhibit an enzyme called acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase.
Ryegrass populations were large, and had substantial genetic diversity, because farmers had planted many varieties. Ryegrass is cross-pollinated by wind, so genes shuffle frequently. Farmers sprayed inexpensive Hoegrass year after year, creating selection pressure, but were diluting the herbicide in order to save money, increasing plants survival. Hoegrass was mostly replaced by a group of herbicides that block acetolactate synthase, again helped by poor application practices. Ryegrass evolved a kind of "cross-resistance" that allowed it to rapidly break down a variety of herbicides. Australian farmers lost four classes of herbicides in only a few years. As of 2013 only two herbicide classes, called Photosystem II and long-chain fatty acid inhibitors, had become the last hope.
Strategic weed management
Strategic weed management is a process of managing weeds at a district, regional or national scale.
In Australia the first published weed management strategies were developed in Tasmania, New South Wales and South Australian 1999, followed by the National Weeds Strategy in 1999.
Internationally weed societies help link weed science and management. In North America the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) is the major weed science learned body with European Weed Research Council and Council of Australasian Weed Society serving the same purpose in Australia and New Zealand. There are also regional weed societies in Australasia and North America.
See also
Control of Bramble
Crop weed
Integrated pest management
Invasive species
Mechanical weed control
Mulch
Noxious weed
Pesticide application
References
Agricultural pests
Agronomy
Horticultural techniques
Weeds
Pest control
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Smith%20%28actor%29
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Ian Smith (actor)
|
Ian Smith (born 19 June 1938) is an Australian actor, television producer and screenwriter.
Smith appeared in roles for Crawford Productions, before working as a producer, screenwriter and actor on the cult series Prisoner and the soap opera Neighbours as Harold Bishop from 1987 when the series was taken over by Network Ten until 1991. He returned to the role in 1996 and continued as a series regular until 2009, with subsequent guest appearance in 2011 and 2015.
Biography
Career
Theatre
Smith started his professional acting career in 1959, and although better known for his later roles on television, started as a stage performer with The National Theatre, taking roles in productions including Merry Widow, Camelot, My Fair Lady, Fiddler on the Roof, Anthony and Elizabeth and numerous others.
Television
Smith started appearing in television roles in the late 1960s in guest roles in drama series such as the Crawford Productions police dramas Homicide, Division 4, Matlock Police and Bluey.
Smith, after having appeared in numerous guest parts, gained a regular role in long-running Australian television serial Bellbird, after this he made a guest appearance in serial The Box in 1975.
Prisoner
Having had guest parts in Grundy Production's series Glenview High and Chopper Squad, Smith concurrently worked behind the scenes with Grundys as the associate producer and script editor of cult serial Prisoner, however he also had a semi-regular role in the series as Head of the Corrections Department, Ted Douglas.
I'm a Celebrity
Smith featured in Series 11 of I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! to set the camp-mates challenges. He did not join the camp-mates.
Neighbours
Smith became famous through his portrayal of bumbling Harold Bishop in the soap opera Neighbours from 1987 to 1991, and returning in 1996. He switched to recurring status from 2008 to 2009, becoming one of its longest serving characters after 2,132 episodes. For his portrayal of Harold, Smith received a nomination for a Gold Logie Award in 2009.
In December 2010, Ryan Moloney revealed to TV Week that Smith would be returning to Neighbours in 2011. Smith appeared for six weeks from May 2011. Smith returned to Neighbours in 2015, with former co-star Anne Charleston for the 30th anniversary. He also appeared in a documentary celebrating the anniversary titled Neighbours 30th: The Stars Reunite, which aired in Australia and the UK in March 2015.
In April 2018, Smith admitted that he should have left Neighbours sooner and admits he felt typecast. Smith admitted "he wasn't aware he was becoming 'Harold from Neighbours while he was on the show" and joked that when he auditioned for other roles he would be told "Oh you were in Neighbours, you were Harold, you couldn't possibly be a murdering paedophile".
Personal life
Smith was 54 when his mother Connie Smith, realising she had very little time to live, told him that he had been adopted. After her death, Smith went in search of his natural mother Peg Kline, whom he finally found. According to Kline's story, Smith was conceived when she was fourteen, the product of rape, and was put up for adoption. Kline eventually married and had two children from this marriage. She never told anyone besides her husband about her first son until she was contacted by Smith via a letter. Kline contacted Ian's wife Gail Smith, who mentioned that her husband was a prominent Neighbours actor, to which Kline replied, "I've never seen Neighbours in my life". Smith and Kline were reunited and he built a strong relationship with his mother and two half-brothers, although Smith said that he did not feel a mother–son relationship. He called Kline "one of my best friends". Peg Kline died in May 2005 after a battle with cancer. Smith told his story in an exclusive interview on the biographical documentary series Australian Story in March 2005. He had also described the situation in a BBC interview some years before.
Although Smith was raised as a Roman Catholic, in a 2008 interview, he identified as an atheist.
Filmography
References
External links
Ian Smith as Harold Bishop
Ian Smith in Panto at Grand Opera House York
Male actors from Melbourne
Australian adoptees
Australian male film actors
Australian male soap opera actors
Australian television writers
Australian atheists
Former Roman Catholics
1938 births
Living people
Male television writers
20th-century Australian male actors
21st-century Australian male actors
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%20Motor%20Company
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Maxwell Motor Company
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Maxwell was an American automobile manufacturer which ran from about 1904 to 1925. The present-day successor to the Maxwell company was Chrysler (currently, "Stellantis North America"), which acquired the company in 1925.
History
Maxwell-Briscoe Company
Maxwell automobile production began under the "Maxwell-Briscoe Company" of North Tarrytown, New York. The company was named after founder Jonathan Dixon Maxwell, who earlier had worked for Oldsmobile, and his business partner, Benjamin Briscoe, an automobile industry pioneer and part owner of the Briscoe Brothers Metalworks. Briscoe who was president of Maxwell-Briscoe at its height.
In 1907, following a fire that destroyed the North Tarrytown, NY, factory, Maxwell-Briscoe opened a mammoth automobile factory at 1817 I Ave, New Castle, Indiana. The newspapers reported that the factory "will operate as a whole, like an integral machine, the raw material going in at one end of the plant and the finished cars out the other end." This factory continued as a Chrysler plant following its takeover of Maxwell until its demolition in 2004.
For a time, Maxwell was considered one of the three top automobile firms in America, along with General Motors and Ford. (though the phrase "the Big Three" was not used at the time). Maxwell was the only profitable company of the combine named United States Motor Company, which was formed in 1910. Due to a conflict between two of its backers, the United States Motor Company collapsed in 1913 after the failure of its last supporting car manufacturer, the Brush Motor Company. Maxwell was the only survivor.
Maxwell Motor Company, Inc.
In 1913, the Maxwell assets were overseen by Walter Flanders, who reorganized the company as the "Maxwell Motor Company, Inc." The company moved to Highland Park, Michigan. Some of the Maxwells were also manufactured at two plants in Dayton, Ohio. By 1914, Maxwell had sold 60,000 cars.
The company responded to the increasing number of low-priced cars—including the $600 Ford Model N, the high-volume Oldsmobile Runabout at $650, the $485 Brush Runabout, the Black at $375, the $500 Western Gale Model A, and the bargain-basement Success an amazingly low $250—by introducing the Model 25, their cheapest four yet. At $695, this five-seat touring car had high-tension magneto ignition, electric horn and (optional) electric starter and headlights, and an innovative shock absorber to protect the radiator.
Takeover by Walter Chrysler
Maxwell eventually over-extended and wound up deeply in debt, with over half of its production unsold in the post-World War I recession in 1920. The following year, Walter P. Chrysler arranged to take a controlling interest in Maxwell Motors, subsequently re-incorporating it in West Virginia with himself as the chairman. One of his first tasks was to correct the faults in the Maxwell, whose quality had faltered. This improved version of the car was marketed as the "good Maxwell"
Around the time of Chrysler's takeover, Maxwell was also in the process of merging, awkwardly at best, with the ailing Chalmers Automobile Company. Chalmers ceased production in late 1923.
Phase out
In 1925, Chrysler formed his own company, the Chrysler Corporation. That same year, the Maxwell line was phased out and the Maxwell company assets were absorbed by Chrysler. The Maxwell automobile would continue to live on in another form however, because the new 4-cylinder Chrysler model that was introduced for the 1926 model year was created largely from the design of the previous year's Maxwell. And this former Maxwell would undergo another transformation in 1928, when a second reworking and renaming would bring about the creation of the first Plymouth.
Marketing to women
Maxwell was one of the first car companies to market specifically to women. In 1909, it generated a great deal of publicity when it sponsored Alice Huyler Ramsey, an early advocate of women drivers, as the first woman to drive coast-to-coast across the United States. By 1914, the company had strongly aligned itself with the women's rights movement. That year, it announced its plan to hire as many male sales personnel as female. At that time, it offered a promotional reception at its Manhattan dealership which featured several prominent suffragettes such as Crystal Eastman, while in a showroom window a woman assembled and disassembled a Maxwell engine in front of onlookers.
In media
In 1920, the Maxwell Company contracted with actress and producer Nell Shipman to create a short promotional film featuring the Maxwell. She was able to stretch the money budgeted for the project into a multi-reel feature entitled Something New. The Maxwell's abilities were prominently featured in this melodramatic film, which had Nell Shipman and Bert Van Tuyle escaping a band of Mexican bandits by racing the sturdy little car across the Mexican badlands where they overcame obstacles such as boulders, rivers, gulches, and all other sorts of rough terrain. Maxwell dealers presented this motion picture at various venues to promote the car, often with the now-battered Maxwell on display. The Maxwell Company had assisted in the film's production by supplying a car and by deploying a mechanic to the filming location. The mechanic's job included repeatedly replacing the car's transmission, which kept getting torn up by the harsh desert landscape.
A decrepit old Maxwell was famous as the car Jack Benny drove decades after it had stopped being manufactured. The running joke was that Benny was too stingy to buy himself a new car—or even a newer used car—as long as his old one still ran, however poorly. The sounds used for it were pre-recorded, but when a technical fault prevented one of the records from playing, voice actor Mel Blanc himself improvised the sounds of the sputtering car starting up. His performance was received well enough for him to continue that task permanently. The gag of the Maxwell as Benny car was used in the classic cartoon The Mouse That Jack Built. In one Jack Benny Show gag Rochester tells Benny that he reported to the Police that the Maxwell had been stolen although not for three hours; when Jack asks why Rochester delayed so long, Rochester explains it was because he stopped laughing. Many people erroneously assume that the antique automobile Jack Benny is seen driving during his cameo appearance in the 1962 comedy film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World is a Maxwell; that car is, in fact, a 1931 Cadillac convertible coupe.
In the Twilight Zone episode "MR BEVIS" (Season 1 Episode 33) Bevis (Orson Bean) talking to police office (William Schallert) about him buying his wrecked 1924 Rickenbacker. The officer responds facetiously that has eye on 1927 Maxwell, which is 2 years after the Maxwell company closed.
See also
Carl Breer
List of defunct United States automobile manufacturers
Bibliography
Clymer, Floyd. Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877–1925. New York: Bonanza Books, 1950.
Darke, Paul. "Chrysler: The Baby of the Big Three", in Northey, Tom, ed. World of Automobiles, Vol. 4, pp. 364–9. London: Orbis, 1974.
Kimes, Beverly Rae, and Clark, Henry Austin, Jr. Standard Catalog of American Cars, 1805–1942 (second edition). Krause Publications, Inc. 1989. .
Kimes, Beverly Rae, and Clark, Henry Austin, Jr. Standard Catalog of American Cars, 1805–1942 (third edition). Krause Publications, Inc. 1996. .
Yanik, Anthony J. Maxwell Motor and the Making of the Chrysler Corporation. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2009. .
References
External links
Maxwell: First Builder of Chrysler Cars at Allpar.com
Maxwell/Maxwell-Briscoe with photos of various Maxwells
Early Chrysler history (including Maxwell)
Watch the 1920 movie "Something New" featuring the robust Maxwell-car in a 1-hr. extremely grueling albeit entertaining mountain-terrain ordeal .
Chrysler
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in New York (state)
1910s cars
1920s cars
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Michigan
Defunct manufacturing companies based in New York (state)
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Ohio
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1904
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1925
Brass Era vehicles
Veteran vehicles
History of Dayton, Ohio
Tarrytown, New York
1904 establishments in New York (state)
1925 disestablishments in Michigan
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] |
246681
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20Wish%20II%20%28album%29
|
Death Wish II (album)
|
Death Wish II is a soundtrack album by Jimmy Page, released by Swan Song Records on 15 February 1982, to accompany the film Death Wish II.
Overview
Following the XYZ project, Page was asked by his London neighbour, movie director Michael Winner, to record a soundtrack for the film Death Wish II in late August 1981. Page was given a deadline of a few weeks to write and record the album at his personal studio The Sol and to travel on location to Los Angeles with Winner for songwriting themes. Winner later explained:
Death Wish II starred Charles Bronson, and was set around Los Angeles, which inspired Page to write a blues-flavoured soundtrack. The soundtrack features Dave Mattacks from Fairport Convention, former Pretty Things keyboards player Gordon Edwards, and veteran singer Chris Farlowe, who also later appeared on Page's 1988 solo album Outrider. Page used a Roland guitar synthesizer on a number of the tracks. Tracks from this album were later reused by Winner for Death Wish III. Page was later asked by Winner to compose the soundtrack for Scream for Help (1985), but he declined and suggested John Paul Jones to the director instead.
This album is Page's only solo material to appear on Led Zeppelin's record label Swan Song Records. His two later albums with The Firm were released on Atlantic and Outrider was on Geffen Records. Swan Song ceased operations in 1983.
In Japan a vinyl LP was released that featured rare outtakes from the Sol sessions. Death Wish II was released in CD format in 1999, but all CD versions of the album are now out of print. Today used copies are highly collectible, and can sell for over a hundred dollars.
Even though the track "Prelude" is credited solely to Page himself, it is based on "Prelude No. 4 in E minor (Op. 28)" by Frédéric Chopin.
The album was re-released by Jimmy Page exclusively through JimmyPage.com on 1 December 2011, in a "heavyweight vinyl package includes previously unreleased material, all-new 2011 sleeve notes and updated artwork." Only 1000 copies were released. Numbers 1–109 have been signed by Jimmy Page, while numbers 110–1000 are available unsigned.
Track listing
1999 Compact disc edition
Same track listing and order as the vinyl release.
Personnel
Jimmy Page – vocals, acoustic guitars, electric guitars, guitar synthesizer, synthesizer, theremin, bass, producer
Gordon John Edwards – vocals, electric piano, piano
Stuart Epps – engineer, mixing
Chris Farlowe – Vocals
Dave Lawson – piano, synthesizers
Dave Mattacks – drums, percussion
David Paton – bass
David Sinclair Whittaker – piano
GLC Philharmonic – orchestra
The Sol Symphonic – strings
Charts
References
External links
Action film soundtracks
Albums produced by Jimmy Page
1982 soundtrack albums
Swan Song Records soundtracks
Jimmy Page albums
Death Wish (franchise)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone%20Company
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Gramophone Company
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The Gramophone Company Limited (The Gramophone Co. Ltd.), based in the United Kingdom and founded on behalf of Emil Berliner, was one of the early recording companies, the parent organisation for the His Master's Voice (HMV) label, and the European affiliate of the American Victor Talking Machine Company. Although the company merged with the Columbia Graphophone Company in 1931 to form Electric and Musical Industries Limited (EMI), its name "The Gramophone Company Limited" continued in the UK into the 1970s.
History
First recordings
The Gramophone Company was founded in April 1898 by William Barry Owen and Edmund Trevor Lloyd Wynne Williams in London, England. Owen was acting as agent for Emile Berliner, inventor of the gramophone record, whilst Williams provided the finances. Most of the company's early discs were made in Hanover, Germany at a plant operated by members of Berliner's family, though it had operations around the world.
In 1898, Fred Gaisberg moved from the U.S. to London to set up the first disc recording studio in Europe; it was situated in Maiden Lane. Among early artists he recorded was Syria Lamont, an Australian soprano whose single "Coming through the Rye" was one of the first ever issued. In December 1900, Owen gained the manufacturing rights for the Lambert Typewriter Company, and the Gramophone Company was for a few years renamed the Gramophone & Typewriter Ltd. This was an attempt to diversify the business model, in response to a series of lawsuits by Edison Bell.
Lawsuit impact
In 1900, the U.S. parent of Gramophone lost a patent infringement suit brought on by Columbia Records and Zonophone, and was no longer permitted to produce records in the U.S. Its hardware manufacturer, Eldridge R. Johnson, of the Consolidated Talking Machine Company, left with a large factory and thousands of Gramophones with no records to play on them, filed suit that year to be permitted to make records himself, and won, in spite of the negative verdict against Berliner. This victory by Johnson, which may have been used in naming his reorganized record company the Victor Talking Machine Company the following year, may have been due in part to a patent-pooling handshake agreement with Columbia. The agreement allowed Columbia to produce disc records themselves, which they began doing in 1901; Columbia had previously been manufacturing cylinder records.
Contrary to the belief by some (especially in England), the Victor Talking Machine Company was never a branch or subsidiary of the Gramophone Company, as Johnson's factory, which had been making talking machines for Berliner, was his own enterprise with many patents that he owned, and were valuable in the agreement with Columbia.
Thus, Victor and Columbia began making disc records in the United States, with the UK Gramophone Company and others continuing to do so outside of the US. This left Edison the only major company manufacturing cylinders; Columbia continued to market cylinders in diminishing numbers until 1912. Emile Berliner established Berliner Gramophone in Montreal, where he became Victor's Canadian distributor and held the rights in Canada to the "His Master's Voice" trademark. Edison would eventually join the flat record market with his diamond discs and their players.
Hidden discs
A public relations effort of 1907 involved Alfred Clark, a New York representative of the company. Clark persuaded the Paris Opera to seal and lock 24 records in two iron and lead containers in a basement storage room. These were to be opened in 100 years. In 1912, 24 more records were added in two additional containers, along with a wind-up gramophone and a supply of needles to ensure the records could be played when unsealed.
In 1989, it was discovered that one of the 1912 containers had been opened and emptied and the gramophone stolen. The three remaining containers were moved to the French National Library. When opened in December 2007, some of the records were broken, but copies of the missing and broken records were located in the French National Library. EMI digitized the collection and released it on three compact discs in February 2009 as Les Urnes de l'Opera.
Logo change
In February 1909, the company introduced new labels featuring the famous trademark known as "His Master's Voice", generally referred to as HMV, to distinguish them from earlier labels which featured an outline of the Recording Angel trademark. The latter had been designed by Theodore Birnbaum, an executive of the Gramophone Company pressing plant in Hanover, Germany. While the general public came to refer to the records and company as "His Master's Voice" or "HMV" because of the prominence of the phrase on the record labels, The Gramophone Company was never officially known as the HMV or His Master's Voice Company. The painting "His Master's Voice" was made in the 1890s with the dog Nipper listening to an Edison cylinder phonograph.
In 1899, Owen bought the painting from Francis Barraud, the artist, and asked him to paint out the Edison machine and substitute a Gramophone, which he did. In 1900, Emile Berliner acquired the US rights to the painting and it became the trademark of the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1901. UK rights to the logo were reserved by Gramophone. Nipper the dog lived from 1884 to 1895 and is honoured in England with a celebrated grave marker.
Formation of EMI
In March 1931, Gramophone merged with the English Columbia Graphophone Company to form Electric and Musical Industries Ltd (EMI). The "Gramophone Company, Ltd." name, however, continued to be used for many decades, especially for copyright notices on records. Gramophone Company of India was formed in 1946. The Gramophone Company Ltd legal entity was renamed EMI Records Ltd. in 1973.
Acoustic recordings
From the 1890s to mid-1925, recordings were made without any electrical equipment, relying instead upon the energy inherent in the sound waves generated by the performers, to activate the recording apparatus.
See also
List of record labels
EMI
His Master's Voice
List of phonograph manufacturers
Angel Records
Nipper the dog, and logo variations
Addis v Gramophone Co Ltd [1909] UKHL 1
References
Death of Gramophone Pioneer: Uxbridge & W. Drayton Gazette December 13, 1946
John R. Bennett: A catalogue of vocal recordings from the English catalogues of the Gramophone Company 1898–1899, the Gramophone Company Limited 1899 - 1900, the Gramophone & Typewriter Company Limited 1901–1907 and the Gramophone Company Limited 1907 – 1925. England,Oakwood Press, 1956. Available at archive.org.(reprint: Westport, Conn.,USA, Greenwood Press, 1978. )
Alan Kelly: His master's voice – La voce del padrone|the Italian catalogue; a complete numerical catalogue of Italian gramophone recordings made from 1898 to 1929 in Italy and elsewhere by the Gramophone Company Ltd.. New York; NY [et al.], Greenwood Press, 1988.
Alan Kelly: His master's voice, the French catalogue; a complete numerical catalogue of French gramophone recordings made from 1898 to 1929 in France and elsewhere by the Gramophone Company Ltd. New York; NY [et al.], Greenwood Press, 1990.
Alan Kelly: His master's voice, the German catalogue; a complete numerical catalogue of German gramophone recordings made from 1898 to 1929 in Germany, Austria, and elsewhere by The Gramophone Company Ltd. New York; NY [et al.], Greenwood Press, 1994.
Alan Kelly; Jacques Klöters: His master's voice, the Dutch catalogue; a complete numerical catalogue of Dutch and Belgian gramophone recordings made from 1900 to 1929 in Holland, Belgium, and elsewhere by the Gramophone Company Ltd. Westport, Conn. [et al.], Greenwood Press, 1997.
The voice, the magazine of the Gramophone Co., Ltd., Hayes, Middlesex, 1.1917 - 35.1954
External links
The Gramophone Company's trademark gramophone 1898
British record labels
Jazz record labels
1898 establishments in the United Kingdom
1931 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Record labels established in 1898
Record labels disestablished in 1931
EMI
Phonograph manufacturers
Audio equipment manufacturers of the United Kingdom
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermeer%20Quartet
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Vermeer Quartet
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The Vermeer Quartet was a string quartet founded in 1969 at the Marlboro Music Festival in Vermont and active until 2007.
With performances in practically every major city in North and South America, Europe, the Far East, and Australia, the Vermeer Quartet achieved an international stature as one of the world's finest ensembles. The Vermeer performed at virtually all the most prestigious festivals, including Tanglewood, Aldeburgh, Aspen, Mostly Mozart, Taos, Bath, South Bank, Lucerne, Stresa, Flanders, Kneisel Hall, Caramoor, Santa Fe, Albuquerque, Berlin, Schleswig-Holstein, Orlando, Florida, Daniel, Edinburgh, Great Woods, Spoleto, Ravinia, and the Casals Festival. Based in Chicago, they spent part of each summer on the coast of Maine as the featured ensemble for Bay Chamber Concerts.
The Vermeer Quartet performed well over two hundred works, including nearly all the "standard" string quartets, many lesser-known compositions, a number of contemporary scores, and various other works with guests. Their discography includes the complete string quartets of Beethoven, Tchaikovsky, and Bartók, plus various other works by Haydn, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Brahms, Dvořák, Verdi, Tchaikovsky, Shostakovich, and Schnittke.
In 2003 they received their second Grammy nomination for their CD of the Shostakovich and Schnittke piano quintets with Boris Berman on the Naxos label. Their recording of the six Bartók quartets was released by Naxos in May 2005, and received a 3rd Grammy nomination.
The Vermeer was associated with Northern Illinois University as "resident artist faculty" since 1970, where they trained some of the most gifted young ensembles performing today, including the Shanghai String Quartet, Enso String Quartet, Avalon String Quartet, Pacifica String Quartet, and Arianna String Quartet. They were also Fellows at the Royal Northern College of Music in Manchester, England.
The Seven Last Words of Christ
The Vermeer Quartet's Grammy-nominated CD of Haydn's The Seven Last Words of Christ [Alden Productions: CD 23042] -produced by its violist, Richard Young- features introductions by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., evangelist Billy Graham, Father Virgil Elizondo, Dr. Martin Marty, Elder Dallin Oaks, Rev. Kelly Clem, Pastor T. L. Barrett, Father Raymond Brown, and Jason Robards. Rev. Theodore Hesburgh (President Emeritus of the University of Notre Dame) wrote, "It is difficult to imagine a more appropriate group of theologians and preachers for the Vermeer's Seven Last Words of Christ recording. The makeup of this group suggests not only a certain moral authority, but a spirit of inclusiveness. At the same time, in a most personal and effective manner, it reflects our religious and social diversity." The American Record Guide calls this CD "an experience unlike any other."
The Vermeer played The Seven Last Words of Christ all over the world. Following their very first live radio broadcast of this work in 1988 over WFMT (Chicago), well over a hundred different speakers collaborated with the Vermeer, including some of the most renowned religious figures of our time. Their performances reached an estimated 75 million listeners worldwide, thus demonstrating an enduring appeal that extends far beyond the traditional classical music audience. A book entitled Echoes from Calvary: Meditations on Franz Joseph Haydn's The Seven Last Words of Christ (Rowman & Littlefield, 2005) -written by its violist, Richard Young- chronicles their long-time involvement with this Good Friday masterpiece and offers rare insight from many perspectives.
On April 3, 2012, the Vermeer Quartet in a reunion performance once again performed The Seven Last Words of Christ in a live broadcast on WFMT. Commentators were drawn from those who had collaborated in the performances in earlier years.
Reviews
Switzerland's Suisse wrote, "Out of this alchemy is born a thing of beauty which one can define, without hesitation, as perfection."
About their Beethoven recordings, Stereo Review said, "What these peerless players give us is a heady blend of old-fashioned warmth and communicativeness, with exemplary demonstrations of modern standards of both taste and technique. More persuasive performances of any of these quartets are simply not to be found."
Australia's The Age wrote, "Their performance was magnificent: majestic in style, technically without flaw, and utterly persuasive."
According to Germany's Süddeutsche Zeitung, "This is music-making which reveals much of the inner self: music-making of untamed necessity that goes far beyond that which is merely pleasing to the ear."
The Chicago Tribune wrote: "When presented as poignantly as the Vermeer presents it, the inner core of the piece is left so exposed that both religious and dramatic power radiate from within. The tender loving care that the Vermeer lavishes over every phrase of this unique score is something quite special to behold."
Poland's Ruch Muzyczny summed up, "The Vermeer's interpretation seems so nearly ideal that one can more easily appreciate music as universal harmony."
Members
The Vermeer Quartet's last members were:
Shmuel Ashkenasi, violin
Mathias Tacke, violin
Richard Young, viola
Marc Johnson, cello
Previous members included Pierre Menard, second violin, (1970–1992), followed by Mathias Tacke, (1992–2007). Scott Nikrenz, viola, 1969, followed by Nobuko Imai (until 1978), Jerry Horner (1978–1980), Bernard Zaslav (1980–1985), and Richard Young (1985–2007). Richard Sher, cello (1969–1972), Ron Leonard, 1972, succeeded by Marc Johnson (1973–2007).
Further reading
Interview with Shmuel Ashkenasi and Richard Young, June 21, 1989
Musical groups established in 1969
American string quartets
Cedille Records artists
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] |
246699
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamitu
|
Mamitu
|
Mammitum, Mammitu or Mammi was a Mesopotamian goddess viewed as the wife of Nergal, the god of death. Mammitum's name might mean “oath” or “frost” (based on similarity to the Akkadian word mammû, “ice” or “frost”). In the earliest sources she is Nergal's most commonly attested wife, but from the Kassite period onward she was often replaced in this role by the goddess Las.
As her name is homophonous with Mami, a goddess of birth or "divine midwife," some researchers assume they are one and the same. However, it has been proven that they were separate deities, and they are kept apart in ancient Mesopotamian god lists. A goddess named Mamma known from Mari is most likely related to the divine midwife Mami rather than to Mammitum. Another being from Mesopotamian beliefs with a homophonous name was māmītu, a type of underworld demon with a goat's head and human hands and feet, known from the late text Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince and absent from other sources. Unlike deities, who were generally fully antropomorphic in Mesopotamian beliefs, demonic beings were often hybrids.
Mammitum was worshiped in Kutha, where she was likely introduced alongside Erra, a god syncretised with Nergal. She also received offerings in the Ekur temple complex in Nippur alongside her husband.
The god list An-Anum mentions both Mamitum and Las, and equates them with each other. However, in the so-called Nippur god list Las occurs separately from Nergal, while Mammitum is listed alongside him. In at least one text, a description of a New Year ritual from Babylon during which the gods of Kish (Zababa), Kutha (Nergal) and Borsippa (Nabu) and their entourages were believed to visit Marduk (at the time not yet a major god), both she and Las appear side by side as two separate goddesses.
In the Epic of Erra, Mammitum appears as the wife of the eponymous god, who is referred both as Erra and Nergal at various points in the known manuscripts.
References
Bibliography
Underworld goddesses
Mesopotamian goddesses
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalassocracy
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Thalassocracy
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A thalassocracy or thalattocracy (from , , , and ; giving ), sometimes also maritime empire, is a state with primarily maritime realms, an empire at sea, or a seaborne empire. Traditional thalassocracies seldom dominate interiors, even in their home territories. Examples of this were the Phoenician states of Tyre, Sidon and Carthage, and the Italian maritime republics of Venice and Genoa of the Mediterranean; the Chola dynasty of India and the Austronesian states of Srivijaya, the Omani Empire and Majapahit of Maritime Southeast Asia. Thalassocracies can thus be distinguished from traditional empires, where a state's territories, though possibly linked principally or solely by the sea lanes, generally extend into mainland interiors in a tellurocracy ("land-based hegemony").
The term thalassocracy can also simply refer to naval supremacy, in either military or commercial senses. The Ancient Greeks first used the word thalassocracy to describe the government of the Minoan civilization, whose power depended on its navy. Herodotus distinguishes sea-power from land-power and spoke of the need to counter the Phoenician thalassocracy by developing a Greek "empire of the sea".
Its realization and ideological construct is called maritimism (as in the case of the Estado Novo), contrasting continentalism.
History and examples of thalassocracies
Indo-Pacific
The Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia, who built the first ocean-going ships, developed the Indian Ocean's first true maritime trade network. They established trade routes with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 1500 BC, ushering in an exchange of material culture (like catamarans, outrigger boats, lashed-lug and sewn-plank boats, and paan) and cultigens (like coconuts, sandalwood, bananas, and sugarcane); as well as connecting the material cultures of India and China. Indonesians in particular traded in spices (mainly cinnamon and cassia) with East Africa, using catamaran and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the Westerlies in the Indian Ocean. This trade network expanded west to Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by the first half of the first millennium AD. It continued into historic times, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road.
The first thalassocracies in the Indo-Pacific region began to emerge around the 2nd century AD, through the rise of emporia exploiting the prosperous trade routes between Funan and India through the Malacca Strait using advanced Austronesian sailing technologies. Numerous coastal city-states emerged, centered on trading ports built near or around river mouths which allowed easy access to goods from inland for maritime trade. These city-states established commercial networks with other trading centers in Southeast Asia and beyond. Their rulers also gradually Indianized by adopting the social structures and religions of India to consolidate their power.
The thalassocratic empire of Srivijaya emerged by the 7th century through conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These included Melayu, Kedah, Tarumanagara, and Medang, among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of the Spice Islands, as well as maritime trade-routes between India and China. Srivijaya was in turn subjugated by Singhasari around 1275, before finally being absorbed by the successor thalassocracy of Majapahit (1293–1527).
Europe and the Mediterranean
Phoenicia and the Delian League were early examples of Mediterranean thalassocracies.
The Middle Ages saw multiple thalassocracies, often land-based empires which controlled areas of the sea, the most important of them were the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Pisa. They were known as maritime republics, controlling trade and territories in the Mediterranean Sea for centuries. These contacts were not only commercial, but also cultural and artistic. They also had an essential role in the Crusades.
The Venetian republic was conventionally divided in the fifteenth century into the Dogado of Venice and the Lagoon, the Stato di Terraferma of Venetian holdings in northern Italy, and the Stato da Màr of the Venetian outlands bound by the sea. According to the French historian Fernand Braudel, Venice was a scattered empire, a trading-post empire forming a long capitalist antenna.
From the 12th to the 15th century the Genoese Republic had the monopoly on the Western Mediterranean trade, establishing colonies and trading posts in numerous countries, and eventually came to control regions in the Black Sea as well. It was also one of the largest naval powers of Europe during the Late Middle Ages.
The Early Middle Ages ( 500–1000 AD) saw many of the coastal cities of Southern Italy develop into minor thalassocracies whose chief powers lay in their ports and in their ability to sail navies to defend friendly coasts and to ravage enemy ones. These include the duchies of Gaeta and Amalfi.
During the 14th and 15th centuries, the Crown of Aragon was also a thalassocracy controlling a large portion of present-day eastern Spain, parts of what is now southern France and other territories in the Mediterranean. The extent of the Catalan language is a result of this; it's spoken in Alghero on Sardinia.
Transcontinental
With the modern age, the Age of Exploration saw some transcontinental thalassocracies emerge. Anchored in their European territories, several nations established colonial empires held together by naval supremacy. First among them chronologically was the Portuguese Empire, followed soon by the Spanish Empire, which was challenged by the Dutch Empire, itself replaced on the high seas by the British Empire, which had large landed possessions held together by the greatest navy of its time. With naval arms-races (especially between Germany and Britain), the end of colonialism, and the winning of independence by many colonies, European thalassocracies, which had controlled the world's oceans for centuries, diminished—though Britain's power-projection in the Falklands War of 1982 demonstrated continuing thalassocratic clout.
The Ottoman Empire expanded from a land-based region to dominate the Eastern Mediterranean and to expand into the Indian Ocean as a thalassocracy from the 15th century AD.
List of historical thalassocracies
Ancient Carthage
British Empire
Butuan
Old Brunei
Champa
Chola dynasty
Crown of Aragon
Dál Riata
Delian League
Denmark–Norway
Doric Hexapolis
Dutch Empire
Empire of Japan
Frisian Kingdom
Hanseatic League
Kedah
Kediri Kingdom
Kilwa Sultanate
Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)
Kingdom of the Isles
Kingdom of Tungning
Liburnia
Majapahit
Maritime republics
Medang Kingdom
Maynila
Sultanate of Maguindanao
Melayu Kingdom
Minoan civilization
Muscat and Oman
North Sea Empire
Omani Empire
Phoenicia
Portuguese Empire
Rajahnate of Cebu
Republic of Pirates
Ryukyu Kingdom
Singhasari
Spanish Empire
Srivijaya
Demak Sultanate
Sultanate of Gowa
Johor Sultanate
Sultanate of Maguindanao
Malacca Sultanate
Sultanate of Sulu
Sultanate of Ternate
Sultanate of Tidore
Swedish Empire
Tarumanagara
Tuʻi Tonga Empire
Tundun Kingdom
See also
Alfred Thayer Mahan
Archipelagic state
Blue-water navy
List of countries spanning more than one continent
List of historical countries and empires spanning more than one continent
Maritime power
Naval history
Nomadic empire
Notes
External links
The Fragility of Thalassocracy, Pericles to Heinlein.
History of colonialism
Naval history
Forms of government
Empires
Seas
Coasts
Island countries
Maritime republics
Maritime history
History of water transport
Sea lanes
History of international trade
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] |
246702
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying
|
Flying
|
Flying may refer to:
Flight, the process of flying
Aviation, the creation and operation of aircraft
Music
Albums
Flying (Grammatrain album), 1997
Flying (Jonathan Fagerlund album), 2008
Flying (UFO album), 1971
Flying, by Bae Seul-ki
Flying, by Chas & Dave
Flying, by The Hometown Band
Songs
"Flying" (Beatles song), 1967
"Flying" (Bryan Adams song), 2004
"Flying" (Cast song), 1996
"Flying" (Chas & Dave song), 1982
"Flying", by Anathema from A Natural Disaster
"Flying", by Badfinger from Straight Up
"Flying", by James Newton Howard from the film Peter Pan
"Flying", by Living Colour from Collideøscope
"Flyin'", by Prism from See Forever Eyes
Other uses
Flying (magazine), a monthly publication
Flying (film), a 1986 drama film
"Flying" (The Good Place), an episode of the American comedy television series
See also
Fly (disambiguation)
Flying and gliding animals
|
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246703
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekeko
|
Ekeko
|
The Ekeko is the Tiwanakan (pre Columbian civilization) god of abundance and prosperity in the mythology and folklore of the people from the Peruvian and Bolivian Altiplano Its chief importance in popular culture is as the main figure of the annual Alasitas fair, a cultural event that happens every January 24 in La Paz, Bolivia. The Ekeko is a traditional god of luck and prosperity, popular in all the occident territory of Bolivia. In Peru the main festival is celebrated on May 3 of every year in the city of Puno, on the Machallata hill.
Etymology
The name Ekeko comes from the alteration of the original term Ekhako or Eqaqo, popularized as Ekhekho which was the ancient god of fortune and prosperity in the Qullasuyu. The Ekhako was often invoked when a disgrace disturbed their homes.
Origins
Pre-Columbian references
The scholar Ernesto Cavour in his book Alasitas, makes reference to anthropomorphic and zoomorphic stone, mud and gold figures that were found in the areas belonging to the Bolivian departments of La Paz, Oruro and Potosí. Cavour considers that these figures were made using basalt—extracted from the pre-Columbian mines in the shores of the Lake Poopó—and andesite from the Copacabana peninsula.
Carlos Ponce Sanginés, for his part, focus his researches in the anthropomorphic figures with phallic elements and prominent humps which, in his opinion, go back to the Inca civilization and, according to his observations, they would correspond to the predecessors of the colonial Ekeko.
The historian Antonio Paredes Candia considers that these figures would be the remains of ancient sacred festivities during the summer solstice in the southern hemisphere. Arthur Posnansky also observes that in dates near the 22 December, in the Tiwanaku culture, the population used to worship their deities to ask for good luck, offering miniatures of what they wished to have or achieve.
Characteristics
Description
The Ekeko is depicted as a man with a mustache wearing traditional Andean clothes (especially the poncho) and completely loaded with bags and baskets with grain and food, (compare with the cornucopia of some Greco-Roman deities), household objects, and currency bills, and basically anything that a person is thought to want or need to have a comfortable and prosperous life; he is commonly found as a little statue to be put in some place of the house, preferably a comfortable one, but also as an amulet attached to key rings; modern statues of the god include a circular opening in his mouth in which to place a cigarette for Ekeko's pleasure. Latest tradition has the Ekeko "smoke" a lit cigarette once a year to ensure a full year of prosperity.
Ekeko should be placed in a place of honor at home. Some versions can be carried in necklaces or key chains.
Purpose
Ekeko brings monetary wealth to its worshippers. An offering is generally required before he provides his services. Banknotes are often clipped to the Ekeko as offerings, but some statuettes allow for a cigarette to be lit as an offering. The figurines which allow for cigarette offerings have mouth openings large enough for cigarettes to be inserted. Ekeko additionally provides good harvests when offered grain.
Legend of Ekeko
The legend of the Ekeko, as narrated by Antonio Díaz Villamil, dates around 1781 in La Paz, Bolivia.
At this time, the city of La Paz was under siege by indigenous people, who were still at war with Spanish forces.
The story of the origin of the Ekeko starts with Paulita Tintaya, an Indian girl who worked for Doña Josefa Ursula de Rojas Foronda, in La Paz.
The girl was in love with Isidoro Choquehuanca. Years before, she had left the hacienda where they both had grown up. Before her departure, Isidoro gave her a small statue to protect her. This small statue was the Ekeko, which was known to Andean people to be a god of fortune and luck.
At the time of the siege, people were starving to death. Isidoro was enrolled in the indigenous army, and he manage to reach Paulina's house. Every week, he left her food near the statue, which was placed outside the house, but nobody knew he was doing it. Both Paulina and her boss, Doña Josefa, were able to survive the siege because of the food left near the statue by Isidoro. That is the origin of the beliefs of Ekeko's powers in providing abundance.
Central role in the Alasitas festival
</ref>
In March 2011 Elizabeth Salguero, Minister of Cultures, nominated Alasitas along with two other Bolivian festivals to UNESCO for World Heritage recognition as part of the cultural and intangible heritage of humanity.
People attend the event from all over the city and even travel from other cities inside Bolivia to buy miniature versions of goods to give to others, in the hope that the recipient will receive the real item during the coming year.
Throughout other regions the festival for the Ekeko is held in October and known by the name Calvario.
Notes
External links
Bolivian culture
Peruvian culture
Aymara
South American deities
Fortune gods
Indigenous culture of the Andes
Abundance gods
Puno
|
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246706
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roodmas
|
Roodmas
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Roodmas (from Old English rood "rod", "cross" and mas, Mass; similar to the etymology of Christmas), is a name for the celebration of the Feast of the Cross. It has been applied to both historical commemoration on May 3 and, September 14. It commemorates the finding by Saint Helena of the True Cross in Jerusalem in 355.
History
The feast originally commemorated the dedication of the Martyrium, and was linked with the finding of the Cross shortly thereafter. Saint Helena reportedly found the Cross on September 14, 355. Many legends developed, and the story of the “invention,” or the finding of the cross, enhanced by romances, became a favourite throughout Christendom. The feast entered the Western calendar in the seventh century after Emperor Heraclius recovered the cross from the Persians.
"Invention" (Finding) of the True Cross
Beginning about the seventh century, the Gallican Church, celebrated the Feast of the Cross on May 3. The Feast of the "Invention of the True Cross" commemorates the recovery by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, of a portion of the Holy Cross on 3 May 629, after it fell into the hands of the Persians.
According to Herbert Thurston: [T]he portion of the Holy Cross preserved in Jerusalem afterwards fell into the hands of the Persians, but was recovered and,...was solemnly brought back to Jerusalem on 3 May, 629. This day seems to have attracted special attention among Celtic liturgists in the West and, though disregarded in the East, has passed through Celtic channels (we meet it first in the Lectionary of Silos and in the Bobbio Missal) into general recognition under the mistaken title of "Invention of the Cross. The commemoration of the "Invention of the True Cross', particularly popular in the historical Gallican Rite of the Catholic Church. was kept by the Western Church on 3 May.
Later developments
After the Gallican and Latin Rites were combined, the days were observed individually as the Finding of the Holy Cross (May 3) and the Triumph of the Cross (September 14). Some Protestant churches followed this practice; the Church of England's Book of Common Prayer places Roodmas on May 3. In Devonshire, Roodmas was observed on the first Monday after May 3 with a procession of the bounds of the parish.
In 1960, Pope John XXIII combined both Latin Rite celebrations into the September 14 feast, in line with his revisions to the General Roman Calendar that, among other things, eliminated duplicate feasts. The Church of England followed suit with the adoption of the Common Worship liturgy in 2000.
In the Philippines, the Santacruzan—a ritual pageant commemorating the Finding of the True Cross—is still held in May as the custom originated in the pre-1960 Catholic observance of Roodmas.
Folklore
In Scotland, Roodmas (or Féill Ròid) marks the start of the rutting season of the deer. It was held that if the night before it was wet, it would be followed by a month of dry weather, "and the farmer need be under no apprehension of securing his crops." John Gregorson Campbell described the belling of the red deer among the hills on this night as "magnificent". Market fairs were held in Scotland.
References
Catholic holy days
May observances
September observances
|
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246707
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidit%C3%A0%20della%20nebbia
|
Solidità della nebbia
|
Solidità della nebbia (Solidity of mist) is a piece of electronic music, composed by Juan Maria Solare, for bassett horn and electronic sounds. It was made at the Studio of the Musikhochschule in Cologne with the support of Marcel Schmidt and the guidance of Hans Ulrich Humpert. Based on samples of bassett horn, performed by Michele Marelli, and of his voice. The first performance was by Michele Marelli (corno di bassetto) on 12 October 2000 in the Aula Magna of the Hochschule für Musik at Cologne, opening the festival for the 35th anniversary of the School's Studio for Electronic Music. It was repeated by Michele Marelli on 25 January 2002 in Alessandria (Italy) for the Jazz Association "L' AX". In May 2002 the piece won an award at the Tribuna Argentina de Música Electroacústica (TRIME), organized by the Foundation Encuentros Internacionales de Música Contemporánea (EIMC-SIMC), with the support of the Consejo Argentino de la Música (CAMU-CIM-Unesco).
Compositions by Juan María Solare
|
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] |
246708
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow%20Dog%20Linux
|
Yellow Dog Linux
|
Yellow Dog Linux (YDL) is a discontinued free and open-source operating system for high-performance computing on multi-core processor computer architectures, focusing on GPU systems and computers using the POWER7 processor. The original developer was Terra Soft Solutions, which was acquired by Fixstars in October 2008. Yellow Dog Linux was first released in the spring of 1999 for Apple Macintosh PowerPC-based computers. The most recent version, Yellow Dog Linux 7, was released on August 6, 2012. Yellow Dog Linux lent its name to the popular YUM Linux software updater, derived from YDL's YUP (Yellowdog UPdater) and thus called Yellowdog Updater, Modified.
Features
Yellow Dog Linux is based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux/CentOS and relies on the RPM Package Manager. Its software includes applications such as Ekiga (a voice-over-IP and videoconferencing application), GIMP (a raster graphics editor), Gnash (a free Adobe Flash player), gThumb (an image viewer), the Mozilla Firefox Web browser, the Mozilla Thunderbird e-mail and news client, the OpenOffice.org productivity suite, Pidgin (an instant messaging and IRC client), the Rhythmbox music player, and the KDE Noatun and Totem media players.
Starting with YDL version 5.0 'Phoenix', Enlightenment is the Yellow Dog Linux default desktop environment, although GNOME and KDE are also included.
Like other Linux distributions, Yellow Dog Linux supports software development with GCC (compiled with support for C, C++, Java, and Fortran), the GNU C Library, GDB, GLib, the GTK+ toolkit, Python, the Qt toolkit, Ruby and Tcl. Standard text editors such as Vim and Emacs are complemented with IDEs such as Eclipse and KDevelop, as well as by graphical debuggers such as KDbg. Standard document preparation tools such as TeX and LaTeX are also included.
Yellow Dog Linux includes software for running a Web server (such as Apache/httpd, Perl, and PHP), database server (such as MySQL and PostgreSQL), and network server (NFS and Webmin). Additional software is also included for running an enterprise server or a compute server or cluster, although two separate products from Terra Soft Solutions, called Yellow Dog Enterprise Linux (for enterprise servers) and Y-HPC (for compute servers/clusters), were specifically targeted toward those applications.
Although several other Linux distributions support the Power ISA, Yellow Dog Linux was distinguished for its focus on supporting the Apple Macintosh platform before the Mac transition to Intel processors. Before this transition, Terra Soft Solutions held the unique distinction of being the only company licensed by Apple to resell Apple computers with Linux pre-installed (or for that matter, with any operating system other than Mac OS X). Full support for AirPort (Apple's implementation of the IEEE 802.11b-1999 wireless networking standard), and partial support for AirPort Extreme, are also built into Yellow Dog Linux, as are support for Bluetooth and support for accessing the Internet over cellular phones.
Following the Mac transition to Intel processors, Yellow Dog Linux retargeted Fedora Core 5.0 and later to support the Sony PlayStation 3 and IBM pSeries platforms extensively, while retaining its longstanding support for PowerPC-based Apple hardware.
Distribution
Yellow Dog Linux was sold by Terra Soft Solutions (later Fixstars), who also marketed PlayStation 3 consoles, IBM workstations, and servers with Yellow Dog Linux pre-installed. As is the case with most other Linux distribution vendors, a portion of the revenue from the sale of those boxed distributions went toward development of the operating system and applications, which are made available as source code under various free and open-source licenses.
Notable implementations
Gaurav Khanna, a professor in the Physics Department at the University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, built a message-passing based cluster using YDL and 16 PlayStation 3s. This cluster was the first such to generate published scientific results. Dubbed the "PS3 Gravity Grid", it performs astrophysical simulations of large supermassive black holes capturing smaller compact objects. Khanna claims that the cluster's performance exceeds that of a 100+ Intel Xeon core based traditional Linux cluster on his simulations. The PS3 Gravity Grid gathered significant media attention through 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010.
Release history
References
External links
Yellow Dog Linux on PS3
Yellow Dog Linux home page
penguinppc.org – Linux on PowerPC site
Yellow Dog Linux archive
Reviews
"Software Review: Yellow Dog Linux 5 for PlayStation 3" – BlogCritics Magazine review of YDL version 5.0
"Yellow Dog Linux 5.0 Hands-on" – IGN.com review of YDL version 5.0
"Yellow Dog Linux 4.0: Some Install Notes" – ppcnerds.org review of YDL version 4.0
Cell BE architecture
Discontinued Linux distributions
Platform-specific Linux distributions
PlayStation 3 software
PowerPC operating systems
Linux distributions
|
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] |
246709
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panther%20%28music%29
|
Panther (music)
|
Panther is a speech composition as electronic sounds (electronic music), composed by Juan Maria Solare after a text by Rainer Maria Rilke ("Der Panther"). Commissioned by the "Work-Group in Theater-Dance" (Tanztheater ArbeitsGemeinschaft) from the secondary school "Herder-Gymnasium", in Cologne (group conducted by Ligia Liberatori). The piece would be used for a choreography of the ensemble "Katastrophe Ballet". This composition was designed in Darmstadt and made in Cologne, in the studio of the composer, based on sound-samples of Ligia Liberatori (voice), Holger Müller-Hartmann (fagot), Gustavo Fontes (doublebass), Damian Zangger (tuba); and the voices of the pupils, in April and May 2001. [7'00"]
Compositions by Juan María Solare
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panavia%20Tornado%20ADV
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Panavia Tornado ADV
|
The Panavia Tornado Air Defence Variant (ADV) was a long-range, twin-engine interceptor version of the swing-wing Panavia Tornado. The aircraft's first flight was on 27 October 1979, and it entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1986. It was also previously operated by the Italian Air Force (AMI) and the Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF).
The Tornado ADV was originally designed to intercept Soviet bombers as they were traversing across the North Sea with the aim of preventing a successful air-launched nuclear attack against the United Kingdom. In this capacity, it was equipped with a powerful radar and beyond-visual-range missiles; however, initial aircraft produced to the F2 standard lacked radars due to development issues. The F3 standard was the definitive variant used by the RAF, the RSAF and the AMI (which leased RAF aircraft).
During its service life, the Tornado ADV received several upgrade programmes which enhanced its aerial capabilities and enabled it to perform the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) mission in addition to its interceptor duties. Ultimately, both the RAF and RSAF retired their Tornado ADV fleets; the type has been replaced in both services by the Eurofighter Typhoon.
Design and development
Origins
The Tornado ADV had its origins in an RAF Air Staff Requirement 395 (or ASR.395), which called for a long-range interceptor to replace the English Electric Lightning F6 and McDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR2. The requirement for a modern interceptor was driven by the threat posed by the large Soviet long-range bomber fleet, in particular the supersonic Tupolev Tu-22M. From the beginning of the Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) development in 1968, the possibility of a variant dedicated to air defence had been quietly considered; several American aircraft had been evaluated, but found to be unsuitable. However, the concept proved unattractive to the other European partners on the Tornado project, thus the UK elected to proceed in its development alone. On 4 March 1976, the development of the Tornado ADV was approved and it was announced that 165 of the 385 Tornados that were on order for the RAF would be of the air defence variant.
In 1976, The British Aircraft Corporation was contracted to provide three prototype aircraft. The first prototype was rolled out at Warton on 9 August 1979, before making its maiden flight on 27 October 1979 with David Eagles. The second and third development aircraft made their first flights on 18 July and 18 November 1980, respectively. During the flight testing, the ADV demonstrated noticeably superior supersonic acceleration to the IDS, even while carrying a full weapons loadout. The testing of the prototypes was greatly aided by the use of real-time telemetry being broadcast back to ground technicians from aircraft in flight. The third prototype was primarily used in the testing of the new Marconi/Ferranti AI.24 Foxhunter airborne interception radar.
The Tornado ADV's differences compared to the IDS include a greater sweep angle on the wing gloves, and the deletion of their kruger flaps, deletion of the port cannon, a longer radome for the Foxhunter radar, slightly longer airbrakes and a fuselage stretch of 1.36 m to allow the carriage of four Skyflash semi-active radar homing missiles. The stretch was applied to the Tornado front fuselage being built by the UK, with a plug being added immediately behind the cockpit, which had the unexpected benefit of reducing drag and making space for an additional fuel tank (Tank '0') carrying of fuel. The artificial feel of the flight controls was lighter on the ADV than on the IDS. Various internal avionics, pilot displays, guidance systems and software also differed.
The Tornado F2 was the initial version of the Tornado ADV in Royal Air Force service, with 18 being built. It first flew on 5 March 1984 and was powered by the same RB.199 Mk 103 engines used by the IDS Tornado, capable of four wing sweep settings, and fitted to carry only two underwing Sidewinder missiles. Serious problems were discovered with the Foxhunter radar, which meant that the aircraft were delivered with concrete and lead ballast installed in the nose as an interim measure until they could be fitted with the radar sets. The ballast was nicknamed Blue Circle, which was a play on the Rainbow Codes nomenclature, and a British brand of cement called Blue Circle.
Tornado F3
Production of the Tornado ADV was performed between 1980 and 1993. The Tornado F3 made its maiden flight on 20 November 1985. Enhancements over the F2 included RB.199 Mk 104 engines, which were optimised for high-altitude use with longer afterburner nozzles, the capacity to carry four underwing Sidewinder missiles rather than two, and automatic wing sweep control. The F3's primary armament when it entered into service was the short-range Sidewinder and the medium-range Skyflash missiles, a British design based on the American AIM-7 Sparrow. The F.3 (originally F.Mk3) became operational in 1989, with an automatic maneuver device system incorporated, enabling the flight control computer to automatically adjust the sweeping of the wing to obtain the optimum flight characteristics. This was similar in concept to the automatic sweeping wing (ASW) capability of F-14, a capability that greatly enhanced maneuverability but did not exist on any previous Tornado IDS and ADV models.
Capability Sustainment Programme
In order to maintain the Tornado F3 as an effective platform up to its planned out-of-service date of 2010, the Ministry of Defence initiated the Capability Sustainment Programme (CSP). This £125 million project, announced on 5 March 1996, involved many elements, including the integration of ASRAAM and AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missiles, and radar upgrades to improve multi-target engagement. Additionally, pilot and navigator displays would be improved, along with the replacement of several of the onboard computer systems. The CSP saw the removal of a non-standard state of aircraft; various upgrades, in particular to the Foxhunter radar, had led to a situation described as "fleets within fleets". The Foxhunter radar caused difficulties in the upgrade programme, in particular the integration of the new AMRAAM missile.
Cost saving decisions meant that the CSP did not fully exploit the capabilities of the AMRAAM or ASRAAM missiles. AMRAAM uses two mid-course updates after launch to refresh target information prior to its own seeker taking over; however, the CSP did not include the necessary datalink to provide this capability. The ASRAAM was not fully integrated, which prevented the full off-boresight capability of the missile being used. However, in June 2001, the MoD signed a contract for a further upgrade to allow for these midcourse updates. This upgrade, together with updated IFF, was known as the AMRAAM Optimisation Programme (AOP) and was incorporated in the remaining F3 fleet between December 2003 and September 2006.
A further upgrade, disclosed in early 2003, was the integration of the ALARM anti-radiation missile to enable several Tornado ADVs to conduct Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) missions. The F3's existing radar warning receivers formed the basis of an Emission Location System (ELS), which can be employed to detect and locate operational radar systems in the aircraft's vicinity. These modified aircraft were re-designated Tornado EF3 and operated by No. 11 Squadron RAF.
Performance
According to aviation historian Michael Leek, from the onset of the type's development, the Tornado ADV encountered "...controversy and many questions over the ADV's performance and suitability - controversy which stayed with the aircraft for much of its service life".
The Tornado ADV was designed to serve in the role of an interceptor against the threat of Soviet bombers, rather than as an air superiority fighter for engaging in prolonged air combat manoeuvering with various types of enemy fighters. In order to perform its anti-bomber primary mission, it was equipped with long range beyond visual range missiles such as the Skyflash, and later the AMRAAM; the aircraft also had the ability to stay aloft for long periods and remain over the North Sea and Northern Atlantic in order to maintain its airborne patrol.
The capability of its weapon systems was a dramatic improvement over its predecessors. Compared with the Phantom, the Tornado had greater acceleration, twice the range and loiter time, and was more capable of operating from short 'austere' air strips. Older aircraft were reliant on a network of ground-based radar stations, but the F3's Foxhunter radar was capable of performing much longer and wider scans of surrounding airspace; the Tornado could track and engage targets at far greater distances. The Tornado also had the ability to share its radar and targeting information with other aircraft via JTIDS/Link 16 and was one of the first aircraft to have a digital data bus, used for the transmission of data between onboard computers.
Operational history
Royal Air Force
On 5 November 1984, the first interim Tornado F2 was first delivered to the RAF, and its short career came to an end shortly following the improved Tornado F3 entered service. These aircraft were used primarily for training by No. 229 Operational Conversion Unit RAF until they were placed in storage. The F2s were intended to be updated to Tornado F2A standard (similar to the F3 but without the engine upgrade) but only one F2A, the Tornado Integrated Avionics Research Aircraft (TIARA) was converted, having been customised by QinetiQ for unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) trials at MoD Boscombe Down.
In November 1987, No. 29 (Fighter) Squadron became the first RAF squadron to be declared operational with the Tornado ADV.
The Tornado F3 made its combat debut in the 1991 Gulf War with 18 aircraft deployed to Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The aircraft deployed to the region were later upgraded in a crash program with improved radar and engines, better defensive countermeasures and several adaptions to the weapons systems to improve combat performance in the Iraqi theatre; however, they still lacked modern IFF and secure communications equipment. They therefore flew patrols further back from Iraqi airspace where encounters with enemy aircraft were less likely, and did not get the opportunity to engage any enemy aircraft. From August 1990 to March 1991, the RAF's F3 detachment flew more than 2000 combat air patrol sorties.
Following the Gulf War, the RAF maintained a small squadron of F3s in Saudi Arabia to continue routine patrols of Iraqi no-fly zones. The Tornado F3 saw further combat service, from 1993 to 1995 as escort fighters in Operation Deny Flight over Bosnia, and in 1999 flying combat air patrols during Operation Allied Force in Yugoslavia; during these extended overseas deployments, the F3 proved troublesome to maintain at operational readiness when based outside the UK. Following lengthy delays in the Eurofighter programme to develop a successor to the F3 interceptor, in the late 1990s the RAF initiated a major upgrade program to enhance the aircraft's capabilities, primarily by integrating several newer air-to-air missiles.
In 2003, the Tornado F3 was one of the assets used in Operation Telic, Britain's contribution to the Iraq War. An expeditionary force composed of No. 43 (F) and No. 111 (F) Squadrons (known as Leuchars Fighter Wing) was deployed to the region to carry out offensive counter-air operations. The Tornado F3's of Leuchars Fighter Wing operated all over Iraq, including missions over and around Baghdad, throughout Operation Telic. Due to a lack of airborne threats materialising in the theatre, the F3s were withdrawn and returned to European bases that same year.
As part of the Delivering Security in a Changing World White Paper, on 21 July 2004, Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon detailed plans to reduce the number of Tornado F3 squadrons by one to three squadrons. This represented 16 aircraft and was the first stage in the transition to the F3's replacement, the Eurofighter Typhoon, which entered operational service with the RAF in 2005. In April 2009, it was announced that the Tornado F3 force would be reduced to one squadron of 12 aircraft in September 2009. The last operational Tornado F3s in RAF service were retired when No. 111 (F) Squadron, located at RAF Leuchars, was disbanded on 22 March 2011.
In addition to the RAF's Tornado F3s, in 2007, QinetiQ leased four Tornado F3s from the MOD for the purpose of conducting weapons testing activities. QinetiQ's force of four F3s remained flying beyond the RAF's retirement of the type, in their latter service they were being used for aerial testing of the new MBDA Meteor air-to-air missile, and thus were the only flying examples in the UK for a time. Their final mission was flown on 20 June 2012, and the last three flown to RAF Leeming for scrapping on 9 July 2012.
Italian Air Force
In the early 1990s, the Italian Air Force (Aeronautica Militare Italiana, or AMI) identified a requirement for a fighter to boost its air defence capabilities pending introduction of the Eurofighter Typhoon, expected around 2000. These fighters were to operate alongside the service's obsolescent F-104ASA Starfighters. The Tornado ADV was selected from, amongst others, the F-16. On 17 November 1993, Italy signed an agreement with the RAF to lease 24 Tornado F3s from the RAF for a period of ten years. The lease included 96 Sky Flash TEMP missiles (a lower standard than the version in RAF service), training, logistical supply for ADV-specific equipment and access to the RAF facility at Saint Athan.
First training of AMI pilots began in March 1995 at RAF Coningsby while technicians gained experience at RAF Cottesmore and Coningsby. The first aircraft was accepted on 5 July 1995 and flown to its Italian base the same day. Delivery of the first batch was completed by 1996; these aircraft were deployed at Gioia del Colle in Southern Italy. The second batch was delivered between February and July 1997, these aircraft were of a slightly higher specification. In early 1997, the AMI cancelled a series of scheduled upgrades to its Tornado fleet, stating that it was placing priority for funding on the developing Eurofighter instead.
The Tornado proved unreliable in Italian service, achieving serviceability rates of 50% or less. Air Forces Monthly this ascribed to the AMI underestimating the different support requirements versus the Tornado IDS, a lack of spare engines (which were not included in the lease agreement), and a lack of equipment.
In 2000, with major delays hampering the Eurofighter, the AMI began a search for another interim fighter. While the Tornado itself was considered, any long term extension to the lease would have involved upgrade to RAF CSP standard and structural modifications to extend the airframes' service life and thus was not considered cost effective. In February 2001, Italy announced its arrangement to lease 35 F-16s from the United States. The AMI returned its Tornados to the RAF, with the final aircraft arriving at RAF Saint Athan on 7 December 2004. One aircraft was retained by the Italian Air Force for static display purposes.
Royal Saudi Air Force
On 26 September 1985, Saudi Arabia and Britain signed a memorandum of understanding towards what would be widely known as the Al-Yamamah arms deal, for the provision of various military equipment and services. The September 1985 deal involved the purchase of a large number of Tornado aircraft; including the Tornado ADV variant, along with armaments, radar equipment, spare parts and a pilot-training programme for the inbound fleet, in exchange for providing 600,000 barrels of oil per day over the course of several years. The first Al-Yamamah agreement ordered 24 Tornado ADVs and 48 Tornado IDSs. The RSAF received its first ADV on 9 February 1989.
U.S. analyst Anthony Cordesman commented that "the Tornado ADV did not prove to be a successful air defence fighter... The RSAF's experience with the first eight Tornado ADVs was negative". In 1990, the RSAF signed several agreements with the US to later receive deliveries of the McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle, and thus had a reduced need for the Tornado ADV; Saudi Arabia chose to convert further orders for up to 60 Tornado ADVs to the IDS strike variant instead.
In 1991, during Operation Desert Storm over neighbouring Iraq, RSAF Tornado ADVs flew 451 air-defence sorties, operating in conjunction with RSAF F-15s. In 2006, it was announced that, in addition to Saudi Arabia's contract to purchase the Eurofighter Typhoon, both the Tornado IDS and ADV fleets would undergo a £2.5 billion program of upgrades, allowing them to remain in service to at least 2020. The Eurofighter has now replaced the Tornado ADV in the air-defence role.
Variants
Tornado F2 Two-seat all-weather interceptor fighter aircraft, powered by two Turbo-Union RB.199-34R Mk 103 turbofan engines. Initial production version, 18 built.
Tornado F2A F2 upgrade to F3 standard, but retaining F2 engines, one converted.
Tornado F3 Improved version, powered by two Turbo-Union RB.199-34R Mk 104 engines, with automatic wing sweep control, increased AIM-9 carriage and avionics upgrades. 171 built for the Royal Air force (RAF) and Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF).
Tornado EF3 Unofficial designation for F3 aircraft modified with ALARM missile capability.
Operators
Italian Air Force (1995–2004)
Gioia del Colle Air Base, Bari
12° Gruppo (1995–2004)
21° Gruppo (1999–2001)
Cameri Air Base, Novara
21° Gruppo (1997–1999)
Royal Saudi Air Force (1989–2006)
Dhahran Airfield, Eastern Province
29th Squadron (1989–2006)
34th Squadron (1989–1992)
Royal Air Force (1979–2011)
RAF Coningsby, Lincolnshire, England
No. V (AC) Squadron (1987–2003)
No. 29 (F) Squadron (1987–1998)
No. 41 (R) Squadron (2006–2011)
No. 65 (R) Squadron (Shadow identity of No. 229 OCU) (1986–1992)
No. 56 (R) Squadron (1992–2003)
No. 229 Operational Conversion Unit RAF (1984–2003)
RAF Leeming, North Yorkshire, England
No. XI (F) Squadron (1988–2005)
No. 23 (F) Squadron (1988–1994)
No. XXV (F) Squadron (1989–2008)
RAF Leuchars, Fife, Scotland
No. 43 (F) Squadron (1989–2009)
No. 56 (R) Squadron (2003–2008)
No. 111 (F) Squadron (1990–2011)
RAF Mount Pleasant, East Falkland, Falkland Islands
No. 1435 Flight (1992–2009)
Specifications (Tornado F3)
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
Aeroguide 21: Panavia Tornado F Mk 2/Mk 3. Ongar, UK: Linewrights Ltd. 1988. .
Butler, Tony. British Secret Projects: Jet Fighters Since 1950. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2001. .
Cordesman, Anthony. Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-first Century: The military and international security dimensions. Greenwood Publishing, 2003. .
Eagles, J.D. "Preparing a Bomber Destroyer: The Panavia Tornado ADV." Putnam Aeronautical Review (Naval Institute Press), Volume 2, 1991, pp. 88–93.
Evans, Andy. Panavia Tornado. Wiltshire UK: Crowood Press, 1999. .
Jackson, Robert. Air War at Night. Charlottesville, Virginia: Howell Press Inc. 2000. (see pp. 139–144).
Lake, Jon. "Panavia Tornado Variant Briefing:Part Two". World Air Power Journal, Volume 31, Winter 1997. London: Aerospace Publishing. pp. 114–131. . ISSN 0959-7050.
Lambert, Mark. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1993–94. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Data Division, 1993. .
Laming, Tim. Fight's On: Airborne with the Aggressors. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 1996. .
Leek, Michael. The Panavia Tornado: A Photographic Tribute. Pen and Sword, 2015. .
Nicholas, Jack C. "Sustaining the F.3". Air International, July 2000, Vol 59 No 1. pp. 28–31. ISSN 0306-5634.
Mason, Francis K. The British Fighter since 1912. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1992. .
Moir, Ian and Allan Seabridge. Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, Electrical and Avionics Subsystems Integration. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2011. .
Smith, Dan. The defence of the realm in the 1980s. Taylor & Francis, 1980. .
Szejnmann, Claus-Christian W. Rethinking History, Dictatorship and War: New Approaches and Interpretations. Continuum International, 2010. .
External links
Panavia website
BAe Tornado at FAS.org
Tornado ADV at Aerospaceweb.org
Unofficial Panavia Tornado site
1970s British fighter aircraft
1970s international fighter aircraft
Variable-sweep-wing aircraft
Twinjets
Panavia Tornado
Aircraft first flown in 1979
Fourth-generation jet fighter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%20%28TV%20series%29
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Prisoner (TV series)
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Prisoner (known in the UK and North America as Prisoner: Cell Block H) is an Australian television soap opera, which broadcast on Network Ten (originally The 0-10 Network) from February 1979 to December 1986, running eight seasons and 692 episodes.
The series produced by the Grundy Organisation, was conceived by Reg Watson and filmed at the then Network Ten Melbourne Studios at Nunawading and on location.
The series garnered an international cult following, and was one of the most successful media exports particularly performing well in the United States and Canada (billed as Prisoner: Cell Block H). It also built a large audience in the United Kingdom and other European countries, most especially Sweden.
Sammy Davis Jr. was a major fan and visited the set.
The series was so popular in the United States, in Los Angeles, it was the second-highest-rated show after Charlie's Angels and was the second-highest rating programme at KTLA-5 amongst 65 primetime programmes transmitted through eleven Los Angeles–based stations on Wednesday evenings at 8:30 p.m.
Prisoner" Cell Block H, by 1980 had been in syndication in eight major US cities, including New York, where it rated higher than late-night staple The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and reruns of legendary series M*A*S*H, it paved the way for other popular Australian produced shows including miniseries Against the Wind and The Sullivans to be sold to overseas markets.
At the time The 0-10 Network did not have a cult drama series and were looking for a serial with controversial subject matter and also wanted to establish a show based primarily among a female cast as 1979 was The Year of the Woman. Another spin-off however would be a male counterpart version called Punishment and starring Mel Gibson, although it was not successful.
Its cultural impact has inspired numerous contemporary adaptions and the re-imaging series Wentworth launched by Foxtel.
Background
Ian Bradley served as original producer and then executive producer, from series 2, whilst associate producer and screenwriter was Ian Smith, who appeared as an actor in the series as Head of the Department Ted Douglas, prior to becoming famous as the character Harold Bishop in Neighbours; another screenwriter, Anne Lucas, also acted in the series as Faye Quinn.
The series is loosely based on British prison drama series Within These Walls, although it focuses more on the prisoners or inmates, rather than the prison staff led by officious governor Faye Boswell, played by Googie Withers, who was even approached by producers of Prisoner to play the governor.
The series set in the fictional Wentworth Detention Centre, in the fictional suburb of Wentworth, in Melbourne, Victoria and follows the lives of the prisoners and staff, and (to a lesser extent others on the outside, example family members etc). within the division of "H Block", numerous scenes also took place outside the compound exploring the lives of the inmates and staff outside of the centre, and in particular "Driscoll House", a half-way house where inmates were housed after being released, or neighbouring correction institutions like "Barnhurst" and "Blackmoor".
The series gained a positive reception. Initially conceived as a stand-alone miniseries of 16 episodes, its popularity meant it was developed into an ongoing series. It has since endured worldwide, acquiring cult classic status, particularly for its somewhat outrageous acting and plotlines.
Creation and production
Prisoner was created by Reg Watson, who had produced the British soap opera Crossroads from 1964 to 1973 and would create Australian soaps The Young Doctors, Sons and Daughters and Neighbours. Inspired by the British television drama Within These Walls, the show was initially conceived as a 16-episode series, with a pilot episode bearing the working title "Women Behind Bars". Its storylines focused on the lives of the prisoners and, to a lesser extent, the officers and other prison staff. When the initial episodes met an enthusiastic reception, it was felt that Prisoner could be developed into an ongoing soap opera. The early storylines were developed and expanded, with assistance from the Corrective Services Department.
The show's themes, often radical, included feminism, homosexuality and social reform. Prisoner began in early 1979 with the advertising slogan, "If you think prison is hell for a man, imagine what it's like for a woman". The series examined how women dealt with incarceration and separation from their families, and the common phenomenon of released inmates re-offending. Within the prison, major themes were interpersonal relationships, power struggles, friendships and rivalries. The prisoners became a surrogate family, with self-styled "Queen Bea", Bea Smith and the elderly "Mum" (Jeanette) Brooks emerging as central matriarch figures. Several lesbian characters were introduced on the show, including prisoners Franky Doyle (played by Carol Burns) and Judy Bryant (played by Betty Bobbitt), as well as corrupt and sinister officer Joan Ferguson (Maggie Kirkpatrick).
Continuity
Characters and story exposition were often 'retconned' in order to expand potential storylines. Initially there was a men's prison "next door" to Wentworth, but it was never mentioned again after the early episodes. Barnhurst was originally a co-ed prison, soon becoming a women's facility. Its security status varied considerably with it being described as an 'open prison farm' by the end of the run; although it was often described as "low-security", serial murderers Bea Smith and Marie Winter were housed there for long periods. Although Blackmoor Prison was initially described as a brand new, state-of-the-art maximum-security prison, it was depicted as a Victorian-era workhouse when finally seen. Wentworth was variously described as either new or built during World War II, with aged infrastructure.
During the show's run, several recurring characters were played by multiple actresses and actors.Anderson, Scott. Campbell, Barry. Cope, Rob. Behind the Bars: The Unofficial Prisoner Cell Block H Companion. Tomahawk Press; UK ed. edition (12 August 2013). . Pages 49 & 60 Meg Morris' son and stepdaughter, Marty Jackson and Tracey Morris, were each played by multiple different actors—Ronald Korosy, Andrew McKaige, and Michael Winchester as Marty, and Sue Devine and Michelle Thomas as Tracey.Horace Newcomb (editor) In the closing year, Nicki Paull's character Lisa Mullins was taken over by Terrie Waddell.
Synopsis
Viewers' introduction to the Wentworth Detention Centre featured the arrival of two new prisoners, Karen Travers (Peta Toppano) and Lynn Warner (Kerry Armstrong). Travers was charged with murdering her husband in a crime of passion after he was found in-bed with another woman (her flashback featured a shower scene that was a nod to Alfred Hitchcock's classic Psycho), whilst Warner insisted she was innocent despite her conviction for the abduction and attempted murder of a child. Both women were sent to the prison's maximum-security wing (H Block), where they were horrified by their new surroundings. Karen was confronted with a former lover—prison doctor Greg Miller (Barry Quin)—and was sexually harassed by violent lesbian cellmate Franky Doyle. Lynn was ostracised by the other prisoners because of her crime (prisoners are known for their intolerance of offenders against children) and terrorised by Bea Smith, who burnt her hand in the laundry's steam press in one of the series' most iconic early scenes.
Other, less volatile prisoners included elderly, garden-loving Jeanette "Mum" Brooks who was incarcerated for the euthanasia of her husband who had terminal cancer, teddy-clutching misfit and childlike Doreen Anderson (Colette Mann), alcoholic former cook recidivist Lizzie Birdsworth (Sheila Florance), who apparently poisoned a group of shearers, and seductive prostitute Gladys "Marilyn" Mason (Margaret Laurence), who seduced prison electrician Eddie Cook (Richard Moir). The prison officers (or "screws", as the prisoners call them) included firm-but--heeled governor Erica Davidson (Patsy King); dour deputy governor Vera Bennett (Fiona Spence), who was always wanting to become Governor and was nicknamed "Vinegar Tits" by Franky; and firm but compassionate senior officer Meg Jackson (later Morris) (Elspeth Ballantyne).
Early episodes featured a high level of violence: Lynn Warner's press burning; a prisoner hanging herself in her cell; a fatal stabbing; and a flashback sequence inspired by which Karen Travers stabbed her abusive husband to death in the shower. The series' first major story arc was the turf war between Bea and Franky, in a bid to become the prison's "Top Dog" (unofficial leader), culminating by Episode 3 in a riot where Meg was held hostage and her husband—prison social worker Bill Jackson (Don Barker)—was stabbed to death by inmate Chrissie Latham (Amanda Muggleton).
Series extension
Prisoner premiered in Australia on 27 February 1979. Its success prompted the producers to extend the series, first from 16 to 20 episodes and then indefinitely. The production schedule increased from one to two-hour-long episodes per week; Carol Burns left the show after 20 episodes, feeling that she could not continue playing Franky Doyle with the tighter schedule. Her storyline sees her as an escapee from Wentworth with fellow inmate Doreen Anderson, and after being on the run for three weeks, she is shot dead by an officer
New story arcs were introduced. Karen Travers appealed against her sentence and was eventually released, allowing her to resume her relationship with Greg Miller and becoming involved in prison reform. As original characters began leaving the series (Mum Brooks, Lynn Warner, Karen and Greg appeared beyond the initial sixteen episodes, but most had left by the end of the 1979 season; Greg left in early 1980), new characters arrived: hulking husband-beater Monica Ferguson (Lesley Baker), career criminal Noeline Bourke (Jude Kuring), troubled murderess Roslyn Coulson (Sigrid Thornton) and imprisoned mother Pat O'Connell (Monica Maughan), in addition to shorter-term inmates with brief storylines. Prostitute Chrissie Latham, a minor character in the early episodes, returned in a more central antagonistic role and a male deputy governor, Jim Fletcher (Gerard Maguire), joined the female-dominated cast.
Final season
Ratings had been declining for some time, and when they continued to fall in 1986, Network Ten decided in July not to renew the series. Production ended on 5 September, and the final episode aired in Melbourne on 11 December 1986. The producers had several weeks' notice that the series was ending, enabling them to construct strong concluding storylines (including the ultimate defeat of Joan "the Freak" Ferguson). Prisoner final episodes dealt with the redemption of the misunderstood Kath Maxwell and concluded the ongoing dynamic between Rita Connors (played by Glenda Linscott) and Joan Ferguson (Maggie Kirkpatrick).
Cast
Episodes
Days and times listed are for ATV-10 in Melbourne; days and times may vary in other regions of Australia.
Spin-offs, remakes and specials
Spin-offs
Willow B: Women in Prison
A pilot for an unproduced American version of Prisoner was produced by Lorimar in 1980, entitled Willow B: Women in Prison. The cast included Ruth Roman, Virginia Capers, Carol Lynley, and Sally Kirkland. The pilot aired on ABC-TV on 29 June 1980.
Wentworth
In March 2012, it was announced that Foxtel would produce a contemporary "re-imagining" of Prisoner, Wentworth, set in modern-day Australia. Wentworth recounts the rise of Bea Smith (Danielle Cormack) from her arrival at Wentworth as a remand prisoner to "top dog". The series is filmed at a new, purpose-built prison set in the Melbourne suburb of Clayton.
Wentworth features contemporary versions of vintage characters along with new characters. Characters and cast members include Bea Smith (Danielle Cormack), crime matriarch Jacs Holt (Kris McQuade), Liz Birdsworth (Celia Ireland), Doreen Anderson (Shareena Clanton), Franky Doyle (Nicole da Silva), Sue "Boomer" Jenkins (Katrina Milosevic), social worker Erica Davidson (Leeanna Walsman), officer Will Jackson (Robbie Magasiva), officer Matthew Fletcher (Aaron Jeffery), deputy governor Vera Bennett (Kate Atkinson), and governor Meg Jackson (Catherine McClements), as well as Linda Miles (Jacquie Brennan), Joan Ferguson (Pamela Rabe), Sean Brody (Rick Donald), Greg Miller (David de Lautour), Marie Winter (Susie Porter), Rita Connors (Leah Purcell).
None of the original cast was initially scheduled to return for the first series, but on 29 November 2012 it was confirmed that Anne Charleston (who appeared in the original series) would make a guest appearance, as well as Sigrid Thornton who was in the original series as Ros Coulson, Thornton would play Sonia Stevens. Wentworth premiered in Australia on Foxtel's SoHo channel on 1 May 2013. As of 2018, the series was still in production, with a sixth season premiering on 19 June 2018, while a seventh season had been announced and due to air in 2019. Season 7 aired in May 2019. While Wentworth was confirmed for a 2021 ending, it won't surpass Prisoner in episodes, but will surpass the show in years on air.
Spoofs
In 1980 Saturday Night Live aired a parody of the series, "Debs Behind Bars". In the sketch, the inmates (including guest host Teri Garr) are spoiled debutantes who complain about "icky" living conditions in prison. During the early 1990s, Seven Network's comedy sketch program Fast Forward parodied Prisoner; Gina Riley (Bea Smith), Jane Turner (Lizzie Birdsworth), Magda Szubanski (Doreen) and Marg Downey as officer (Joan Ferguson) gave scenes from the series a comedic twist.
Other series to have featured Prisoner spoofs included The Paul Hogan Show, Let the Blood Run Free, Naked Video and The Krypton Factor.
Prisoner-inspired shows
In 1991, Prisoner was reprised for the American market as Dangerous Women. The US version borrowed heavily from the Australian original for characters and was created and written by Reg Watson, who had also created the original Australian series. In Dangerous Women, the emphasis was outside the prison, focusing on prisoner relationships in a halfway house. It is remembered now mainly for the early appearance of actor Casper Van Dien in the role of Brad Morris. In 1997, Prisoner was revised in a German-language version, Hinter Gittern – Der Frauenknast (Behind Bars). The series ran from 1997 to 2007 for 16 series and 403 episodes.Talking Prisoner'''
On the 18th of June 2021 Producer Matt Batten created the Talking Prisoner Podcast/YouTube Channel. Matt’s co-host is Ken Mulholland who was the head cameraman on Prisoner from episode 1 to episode 692. Ken and Matt interview all cast and crew from Prisoner which are in depth. The channel can be found on YouTube – Talking Prisoner
Merchandise
There have been several tie-in books and video and DVD releases. Prisoner theme song ("On the Inside", sung by Lynne Hamilton) reached number one in Australia in 1979 and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart in 1989. "On the Inside" was re-released as a digital download and CD single in March 2012. The song was featured as a B-side on punkabilly group The Living End's EP, Second Solution / Prisoner of Society.
Books (tie-in publications)
Based on the series
There has been numerous publications on the series, including tie-in paperback novels, including publication's by Pinnacle Books, which in 1980, led by the actors union the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance and represented by cast member Val Lehman (Bea Smith), which saw the cast go on strike due to the content in the United States: soft-core pornography at odds with the series. Six books were published: Prisoner: Cell Block H, The Franky Doyle Story, The Karen Travers Story, The Frustrations of Vera, The Reign of Queen Bea and The Trials of Erica.
Two behind-the-scenes books were published in the UK during the early 1990s. Prisoner: Cell Block H – Behind the Scenes was written by Terry Bourke and published by Angus & Robertson Publishers, who published similar books about soap opera's Neighbours and Home and Away. Bourke documents the show's genesis and development, and the book has many stills and character profiles. Hilary Kingsley's Prisoner Cell Block H – The Inside Story emphasises more on plot and characters.
A limited-edition book, The Inside Story, was published in 2007 as part of the full-series DVD release in Australia. Written by TV journalists Andrew Mercado and Michael Idato, the commemorative book has the series' background, year-by-year storylines, character details and quotes by cast and crew. It was available as part of The Complete Collection DVD set.
Cast members
There are also several biographies/memoirs of cast members
Sheila Florance: On the Inside
In 2011, Betty Bobbitt self-published From the Outside, her memoirs of her career which included playing the role of Judy Bryant on Prisoner.
Maggie Kirkpatrick, published The Glove Are Off in 2019
DVD releases
The complete series of Prisoner is available on DVD format in both Australia and the United Kingdom. On Region 4 in Australia, distribution company Shock Records released the series over forty volumes, and a complete collection, comprising these volumes; the UK editions, from FremantleMedia, made the series available over twenty volumes (doubling-up on the Australian sets). In 2016, ViaVision acquired the rights to re-release the series in Australia and made the decision to release the series in their original season formats. See above for a full listing of VHS and DVD sets available. The following is an overview of Prisoner releases in their seasons formats.
Overseas sales
Sweden
The show was shown in Sweden on TV4 beginning on 7 September 1994 as Kvinnofängelset (The Women's Prison). A fan club organises an annual get-together, and collected several thousand signatures (including that of actress Elspeth Ballantyne) to convince TV4 to repeat the show in 2000. After the series ended that year, work began to persuade TV4 to air the show again. TV4 originally screened the series in a late-night (1am) slot three times a week, on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, airing the final episode on 3 February 2000. During a repeat run from 2000 to October 2004, Prisoner aired at 2:15am four times a week: Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays. The episodes were repeated over the weekend: the Monday and Tuesday episodes on Friday and the other two on Saturday. In May 2014 TV4 Guld began rerunning the series again Monday to Thursday at 10pm, with episode 32 shown on 3 July. The broadcast schedule was later changed to five nights a week at midnight. Season 8 started airing on Sjuan in September 2017 at 3pm.
United Kingdom
A stage version of Prisoner, based on the original scripts, was produced in 1989 and toured the United Kingdom. Elspeth Ballantyne (Meg Morris) and Patsy King (Erica Davidson) reprised their characters and Glenda Linscott (Rita Connors) played a new character, Angela Mason. A second tour, with Fiona Spence (Vera Bennett) and Jane Clifton (Margo Gaffney), followed in 1990; Jacqui Gordon (Susie Driscoll) played new character Kath Evans.
A musical version followed, with Maggie Kirkpatrick reprising her role as Joan (the Freak) Ferguson and Lily Savage as an inmate. The musical, a parody of Prisoner kitschier aspects, toured and had a West End run in 1995 and 1997. Val Lehman (Bea) was critical of the production, questioning why a drag queen would be in a women's prison.
Due to Prisoner popularity in the UK during the late 1980s, its British fan club organised personal-appearance tours for several actresses including Val Lehman (Bea Smith), Carol Burns (Franky Doyle), Betty Bobbitt (Judy Bryant), Sheila Florance (Lizzie Birdsworth), Amanda Muggleton (Chrissie Latham) and Judy McBurney (Pixie Mason). A TV special, The Great Escape, was produced in 1990. The programme, which featured Val Lehman, Sheila Florance, Amanda Muggleton and Carol Burns on their 1990 UK visit, includes extensive footage of their on-stage interview with TV presenter Anna Soubry in which the cast members discuss their time on the series. Recorded at the Derby Assembly Rooms in Derby, it was briefly available in the UK on VHS video.
Several Prisoner actors have appeared in British stage drama and pantomime, including Val Lehman (The Wizard of Oz, Beatrix Potter and Misery), Peta Toppano, Fiona Spence, Maggie Dence (Bev Baker), Debra Lawrance (Daphne Graham), Linda Hartley (Roach Waters), Ian Smith (Ted Douglas) and Maggie Millar (Marie Winter). In 1997 a Prisoner clip from its second episode (Franky Doyle and Lynn Warner's fight in the garden) appeared on the BBC sitcom Birds of a Feather, and the series was mentioned several times during Birds of a Feather seven-and-a-half-year run. The theme song was played briefly in episode three of BBC sitcom One Foot in the Grave. Prisoner has also been referenced in British sitcoms 2point4 Children, Absolutely Fabulous and Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps, as well as the soap operas Coronation Street, Brookside and EastEnders.
ITV regional schedulingPrisoner began airing on Yorkshire Television on 8 October 1984, with the franchise cutting scenes involving hanging (including the attempted hanging of Sandy Edwards and the hanging of Eve Wilder). Yorkshire also heavily edited the episode 326 fight scene with Joan and Bea. Several other regions also cut scenes deemed inappropriate despite its time slot, well past the 9 pm watershed.
The TVS region followed in October 1985. In 1987 Central, Thames, Scottish and TSW began the series; most other regions began broadcasting it in 1988, nearly two years after it finished production. Ulster began broadcasting Prisoner in late 1989, usually airing after their Friday night local talk show "Kelly" which aired at 10.40pm, would have a tradition of "Prisoner" following at 11.40pm. When the Kelly Show extended to a 90-minute version from the autumn of 1990, Prisoner would air at 12.10am. Maggie Kirkpatrick and Val Lehman both appeared on the Kelly Show on occasions, such was the popularity of the show airing after "Kelly" every Friday night.
Each ITV region decided when (and how often) Prisoner would be broadcast. Central Television screened three episodes weekly, finishing on 16 December 1991 before rerunning the first 95 episodes (from 1993 to 1995). Most other stations also completed the series: Granada Television and Border Television on 9 February 1995, Grampian Television on 11 March 1996, HTV on 25 April 1996, STV on 19 November 1996, Yorkshire Television and Tyne Tees Television on 7 April 1997. When Border, Grampian and Granada TV screened the final episode in the UK, continuity announcer John McKenzie conducted a telephone interview with Maggie Kirkpatrick (Joan "the Freak" Ferguson).
Some UK regions did not see the entire series; Channel Television began the series on 16 January 1986 with episode 10, when it aligned its schedule with TVS; it was previously aligned with TSW, which did not broadcast the series in its own region until 1987. Regional alignment meant that around the end of 1992, some episodes were skipped; Tyne Tees skipped 293 and 294 and Border Television omitted 71 episodes, 477 to 547. Furthermore, in some regions, the series was discontinued prior to its final episode in later runs: in Ulster, Prisoner ended on Ulster Television with episode 562 on 15 December 1997. In London, where the series ran on Thames and subsequently Carlton Television, viewers were told after episode 598 on 20 August 1998 that the series would resume after a summer break however the series was then discontinued from screening in London. The last ITV Prisoner episode was shown on Meridian, which finished an initial run with episode 586 on 12 July 1999.
UK ITV end of year episode numbers
Original, UK, Sweden and UK repeat air dates of significant episodes
Channel 5
Early on 31 March 1997 Channel 5, which had begun broadcasting at 6 p.m. the previous evening, began a full run of Prisoner while later episodes were still appearing in many ITV regions. Except for an airing of the fire episode (326), as part of a 1995 Channel 4 soap weekend, it was the series' first UK network broadcast and gave some areas their first full run of the series. Although the schedule varied during the Channel 5 run, episodes were typically shown about five times a week in the 4:40 a.m. slot. It briefly moved to a late-night slot, usually around 11:30pm, before returning to the 4:40 a.m. slot. The Channel 5 run ended on 11 February 2001, with a double bill of the penultimate and final episodes. Channel 5 have no plans to re-run the series, despite viewer requests. For most of the Channel 5 run the programme was sponsored by Pot Noodle, with humorous Prisoner-esque sequences (set in a prison cell and playing on the series' wobbly scenery and props) played before and after the episodes and in the leads into and out of commercial breaks.
The Channel 5 broadcasts included commentary over the closing credits, usually from chief continuity announcer Bill Buckley but sometimes from deputy announcers such as Stuart McWilliam. This began in the early-100s episodes (when Prisoner briefly moved to the late-night slot), when Buckley would deliver a quip about the episode before making continuity announcements. This developed into humorous observations about the episode just shown, and the reading of letters and depicting of trivia sent in by viewers (which Buckley called "snippets"). Due to its early-morning slot, when most viewers relied on VCRs to follow the series, upcoming schedule changes were announced as part of the commentary.
United States
The series was first aired in the United States on KTLA in Los Angeles on 8 August 1979, initially under the original name, Prisoner. Shown Wednesdays at 8pm, it was the first Australian series broadcast in prime time in the United States. The series, whose first two episodes were screened as a two-hour special, was viewed by a quarter of all television viewers in the Los Angeles market and was in second place for the night, beaten only by ABC's Charlie's Angels.
The series would later be repackaged into a daily half-hour format, as Prisoner: Cell Block H, syndicated directly to local stations through Firestone Program Syndication Company during the early 1980s (particularly 1980 to '81). Apart from KTLA, known stations to have aired Prisoner: Cell Block H included WPIX in New York City, WGN-TV in Chicago, KRIV in Houston, Texas, KTVT in Dallas/Ft. Worth, WLVI in Boston, KWGN in Denver, KSTP-TV in Minneapolis/St. Paul, KYW-TV in Philadelphia, KPLR in St. Louis, MO, KTVU in the San Francisco Bay Area, KSTW in Tacoma / Seattle, KVOS-TV Bellingham, Washington, KOB-TV in Albuquerque, WTOG in St. Petersburg/Tampa, Florida, WTTV in Indianapolis, KPHO in Phoenix, WATL in Atlanta, WCKT in Miami, FL, WIVB in Buffalo, WDRB in Louisville, Ky., WKYT in Lexington, KY, KVVU in Las Vegas, NV and WTTG in Washington, D.C. Under the half-hour format, the original episodes were broadcast in two parts, though some scenes were censored or removed for the US telecast. KTLA, however, continued to broadcast the series in a weekly hour format, though now Tuesdays at 8pm, and under the Prisoner: Cell Block H name. Picked up in at least 38 markets in early 1980, the program would leave the American airwaves by spring 1982, after the few stations that were still carrying the program, such as KOB-TV and WGN-TV, removed Prisoner from their schedules.
During the spring and summer of 1985, the series was screened nationally on USA Network, weekdays at 11am ET, also in a half-hour format. It is unknown which episodes were televised.
Canada
In Canada, Prisoner began on 10 September 1979 as Caged Women on Global Television Network, at the time a small television network serving southern and eastern Ontario; the program was seen weekly on Monday nights at 9pm
The show would move to Tuesdays at 9 p.m. in the fall of 1980, continuing with the Caged Women title. The show would be off the schedule by the 1981–1982 television season, but by the fall of 1982, Global would reintroduce the show to the schedule, still as Caged Women, in the half-hour format, weeknights at midnight and 12:30am. The program would be off the schedule by the start of the 1983–1984 season.
Curiously, Global's use of Caged Women would continue even after the show debuted in the United States as Prisoner: Cell Block H, which led to viewers in the communities along the Ontario / Michigan border to watch the same program under two different titles: Caged Women on Global, and Prisoner: Cell Block H on WKBD-TV Detroit.
In Vancouver, Victoria and the Lower Mainland of British Columbia, Prisoner: Cell Block H was telecasted under that title weekdays at 1pm during 1980 and 1981 on KVOS-TV, an independent station in Bellingham, Washington that included the greater Vancouver / Victoria region as part of its viewing area.
Other countries
The series began in New Zealand in May 1981 on TV One, showing twice a week at 2:30 p.m., and was later rerun on SKY 1.
In South Africa, public television network SABC 1 began airing the series in 1998, screening Thursday nights at 9 p.m. and a repeat showing on Fridays at 10:45; it was cancelled on 2 October 2000, after episode 156.
In Brazil, Prisoner aired as As Prisioneiras around the end of 1980 and early 1981 by TVS (since renamed SBT), Sundays at 10 p.m. The show was dubbed into Brazilian Portuguese locally by TVS and was cancelled after episode 82 had screened.
Australian reruns
Network Ten began rerunning Prisoner on 8 May 1995; the series was cancelled, despite promises that it would return after the 1996 Christmas break. BBC UKTV began airing it from the beginning on 30 November 1997, at 12:15am on Tuesday and Thursday and 11:30pm on Saturday and Sunday. A repeat was broadcast at 2pm on Monday.
Foxtel channel 111 channel began airing the series on 7 March 2011 at 6:30pm AEDT, later moving to 5:30pm AEDT on 10 December 2012. Each episode was repeated the following afternoon, with the final episode on the initial run airing on 11 November 2013. The next day, the channel began a repeat run from episode one at 3:00pm AEDT, later moving to 1:00pm AEST on 7 July 2014. Foxtel held unlimited screening rights to the series until 2019, airing the series 4 times back to back (from 2011-2019). Foxtel’s final broadcast was on September 11, 2019.
The series' popularity on Foxtel inspired plans for a modern-day remake.
Believing that Prisoner would resonate with new audiences, in 2010 111 group programming director Darren Chau planned to replay the series against the introduction of digital channel Eleven and Network Ten's plan to move Neighbours to Eleven. The channel ran a promotional campaign highlighting the rerun, with a new version of the theme song by Ella Hooper and a cast reunion.
Awards and nominations
Logie Awards
Best Lead Actress in a Series—Carol Burns (1980)
Best New Drama Series—Prisoner (1980)
Best Lead Actress in a Series—Sheila Florance (1981)
Best Drama Program—Prisoner (1981)
Most Popular Show in Victoria—Prisoner (1981)
Most Popular Actress—Val Lehman (1982)
Best Lead Actress in a Series—Val Lehman (1982)
Best Drama Program—Prisoner (1982)
Best Lead Actress in a Series—Val Lehman (1983)
Best Supporting Actress in a Series—Sheila Florance (1983)
Most Popular Show in Victoria—Prisoner (1985)
Nominated: Best Supporting Actress in a Series—Colette Mann (1981)
Nominated: Best Supporting Actor in a Series—Gerard Maguire (1981)
Nominated: Best Lead Actress in a Series—Betty Bobbitt (1982)
Nominated: Best Lead Actress in a Series—Maggie Kirkpatrick (1984)
Nominated: Best Supporting Actress in a Series—Gerda Nicolson (1985)
Nominated: Best Performance by a Juvenile—Robert Summers (1985)
Nominated: Most Popular Actress in a Series—Maggie Kirkpatrick (1986)
Penguin Awards
Best Sustained Performance by an Actress in a Series—Carol Burns (1979)
Special Commendation Outstanding Ensemble Acting—Val Lehman, Sheila Florance, Colette Mann and Betty Bobbitt (1981)
Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series—Anne Phelan (1984)
Best Series Actress—Anne Phelan (1985)
Best Sustained Performance—Gerda Nicolson (1985)
Certificate of Commendation—Maggie Kirkpatrick (1985)
Certificate of Commendation—Genevieve Lemon (1985)
Certificate of Commendation—Joy Westmore (1985)
Best Drama Serial—Prisoner (1986)
Best Performance by an Actress in a Series—Glenda Linscott (1986)
Sammy Awards
Best Actress in a Series—Sheila Florance (1980)
See also
Bad Girls Orange Is the New Black''
Explanatory notes
References
External links
On the Inside – official fan club
Fan site with list of cuts in DVDs
Who's who in Wentworth? – fan site with complete episode guide
Prisoner Cell Block H World – fan site with news and more
Aussie Soap Archive: Prisoner – overview and review
1979 Australian television series debuts
1986 Australian television series endings
1970s Australian crime television series
1970s Australian drama television series
1970s crime drama television series
1970s LGBT-related television series
1970s prison television series
1970s television soap operas
1980s Australian crime television series
1980s Australian drama television series
1980s crime drama television series
1980s LGBT-related television series
1980s prison television series
1980s television soap operas
Australian LGBT-related television shows
Australian prison television series
Australian television soap operas
English-language television shows
Imprisonment and detention of women
LGBT-related drama television series
Network 10 original programming
Television shows set in Melbourne
Television series produced by The Reg Grundy Organisation
Lesbian-related television shows
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] |
246717
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSB
|
LSB
|
LSB may refer to:
Basketball Leagues
Liga Sudamericana de Básquetbol, South America's prime international basketball league
Liga Superior de Baloncesto, Cuba's top basketball league
Organisations
Legal Services Board, independent body responsible for overseeing the regulation of lawyers in England and Wales
Lending Standards Board, promote fair lending and increase consumer protection in the UK; by proactively monitoring and enforcing the Standards of Lending Practice.
Lexington State Bank, a banking company based in Lexington, North Carolina
Local services board (Ontario), local government in the Canadian province of Ontario
Lån & Spar Bank, a banking company based in Copenhagen, Denmark
Education
Lavelle School for the Blind, school in New York City
London School Board, former local government and education
Luxembourg School of Business, a business school in Luxembourg
Lyceum of Subic Bay, a college in the Philippines
Science, medicine and technology
Lauryl tryptose broth, a biological selective medium
Lower sideband, a band of frequencies in radio communications
Long spine board, a device for casualty lifting and spine trauma prehospital care
Low-surface-brightness galaxy, in astronomy
Lysergic acid 2-butyl amide, a psychoactive compound related to LSD
Computing
Least significant bit, the bit with the lowest significance in a word
Least significant byte, the lowest byte in a multi-byte number
Linux Standard Base, a standardisation project for Linux distributions
Other
Lenguaje de Señas Bolivianas, Bolivian Sign Language
Lutheran Service Book, hymnal for the Lutheran Church
|
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] |
246720
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live%20at%20the%20Greek
|
Live at the Greek
|
Live at the Greek: Excess All Areas is a double live album by Jimmy Page and the Black Crowes, released by musicmaker.com on 29 February 2000 and reissued by TVT Records on 4 July 2000.
In October 1999, Page teamed up with the Crowes for a two-night performance of material from the Led Zeppelin catalogue and old blues and rock standards. "I didn't really have that much fun doing it," grumbled singer Chris Robinson. "It was alright, and Jimmy's a phenomenal guitarist, but to me it was just a job. I'm not a big fan of Robert Plant's lyrics or his singing, so that part of it was a little boring for me."
Contractual problems with their record company prevented the Crowes issuing any of their own songs played at the Greek shows. Also featuring Page with the band, these included "Wiser Time", "No Speak No Slave", "Remedy", and "Hard to Handle".
The double CD released in 2000 featured a different running order, an extra song, an enhanced QuickTime video and photographs taken during the concert. The Japanese version of the album adds "Misty Mountain Hop" and "In the Light", recorded in 2000.
Bassist Sven Pipien, who was fired between the two different releases of the album, was airbrushed out of the group shot that features in the centrefold of the TVT Records version and all subsequent vinyl reissues. The original image appears on the musicmaker.com CD and can also be seen on a Jimmy Page blog.
Track listing
TVT version
musicmaker.com version
Disc one
"Heartbreaker" (Bonham, Jones, Page, Plant) – 6:03
"In My Time of Dying" (Traditional; arr./adap. Bonham, Jones, Page, Plant) – 9:45
"What Is and What Should Never Be" (Page, Plant) – 5:31
"Custard Pie" (Page, Plant) – 5:26
"Celebration Day" (Jones, Page, Plant) – 3:38
"Out on the Tiles" / "Whole Lotta Love" (Medley) (Bonham, Page, Plant / Bonham, Dixon, Jones, Page, Plant) – 9:12
"Nobody's Fault but Mine" (Page, Plant) – 6:52
"You Shook Me" (Dixon, Lenoir) – 8:29
Disc two
"The Lemon Song" (Bonham, Wolf, Jones, Page, Plant) – 9:01
"Your Time Is Gonna Come" (Jones, Page) – 6:01
"Ten Years Gone" (Page, Plant) – 6:38
"Sick Again" (Page, Plant) – 4:39
"Hey Hey What Can I Do" (Bonham, Jones, Page, Plant) – 3:39
"Shake Your Money Maker" (James) – 4:31
"Woke Up This Morning" (King, Taub) – 4:19
"Shapes of Things to Come" (McCarty, Relf, Samwell-Smith) – 3:18
"Sloppy Drunk" (Rogers) – 6:07
"Oh Well" (Green) – 4:24
Personnel
The Black Crowes
Chris Robinson – vocals
Rich Robinson – guitar, vocals
Audley Freed – guitar
Sven Pipien – bass
Steve Gorman – drums
Eddie Harsch – keyboards
Greg Rzab – bass (bonus tracks only)
with
Jimmy Page – electric guitar, acoustic guitar
Production
Kevin Shirley – production, mixing
Butch Belair – photography
Ian R. Drury – inside booklet design
J.C. & A.F. – art direction and design
George Marino – mastering at Sterling Sound, New York
Joe Newton – cover illustration
Leonard B. Johnson - A&R
Accolades
Charts
Album (digital download)
Certifications
References
2000 live albums
Albums produced by Kevin Shirley
Albums recorded at the Greek Theatre (Los Angeles)
Live blues rock albums
Collaborative albums
Covers albums
Jimmy Page albums
Led Zeppelin tribute albums
The Black Crowes live albums
TVT Records live albums
|
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246722
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator%20norm
|
Operator norm
|
In mathematics, the operator norm measures the "size" of certain linear operators by assigning each a real number called its . Formally, it is a norm defined on the space of bounded linear operators between two given normed vector spaces.
Introduction and definition
Given two normed vector spaces and (over the same base field, either the real numbers or the complex numbers ), a linear map is continuous if and only if there exists a real number such that
The norm on the left is the one in and the norm on the right is the one in .
Intuitively, the continuous operator never increases the length of any vector by more than a factor of Thus the image of a bounded set under a continuous operator is also bounded. Because of this property, the continuous linear operators are also known as bounded operators.
In order to "measure the size" of one can take the infimum of the numbers such that the above inequality holds for all
This number represents the maximum scalar factor by which "lengthens" vectors.
In other words, the "size" of is measured by how much it "lengthens" vectors in the "biggest" case. So we define the operator norm of as
The infimum is attained as the set of all such is closed, nonempty, and bounded from below.
It is important to bear in mind that this operator norm depends on the choice of norms for the normed vector spaces and W.
Examples
Every real -by- matrix corresponds to a linear map from to Each pair of the plethora of (vector) norms applicable to real vector spaces induces an operator norm for all -by- matrices of real numbers; these induced norms form a subset of matrix norms.
If we specifically choose the Euclidean norm on both and then the matrix norm given to a matrix is the square root of the largest eigenvalue of the matrix (where denotes the conjugate transpose of ).
This is equivalent to assigning the largest singular value of
Passing to a typical infinite-dimensional example, consider the sequence space which is an Lp space, defined by
This can be viewed as an infinite-dimensional analogue of the Euclidean space
Now consider a bounded sequence The sequence is an element of the space with a norm given by
Define an operator by pointwise multiplication:
The operator is bounded with operator norm
This discussion extends directly to the case where is replaced by a general space with and replaced by
Equivalent definitions
Let be a linear operator between normed spaces. The first four definitions are always equivalent, and if in addition then they are all equivalent:
If then the sets in the last two rows will be empty, and consequently their supremums over the set will equal instead of the correct value of If the supremum is taken over the set instead, then the supremum of the empty set is and the formulas hold for any
If is bounded then
and
where is the transpose of which is the linear operator defined by
Properties
The operator norm is indeed a norm on the space of all bounded operators between and . This means
The following inequality is an immediate consequence of the definition:
The operator norm is also compatible with the composition, or multiplication, of operators: if , and are three normed spaces over the same base field, and and are two bounded operators, then it is a sub-multiplicative norm, that is:
For bounded operators on , this implies that operator multiplication is jointly continuous.
It follows from the definition that if a sequence of operators converges in operator norm, it converges uniformly on bounded sets.
Table of common operator norms
Some common operator norms are easy to calculate, and others are NP-hard.
Except for the NP-hard norms, all these norms can be calculated in operations (for an matrix), with the exception of the norm (which requires operations for the exact answer, or fewer if you approximate it with the power method or Lanczos iterations).
The norm of the adjoint or transpose can be computed as follows.
We have that for any then where are Hölder conjugate to that is, and
Operators on a Hilbert space
Suppose is a real or complex Hilbert space. If is a bounded linear operator, then we have
and
where denotes the adjoint operator of (which in Euclidean spaces with the standard inner product corresponds to the conjugate transpose of the matrix ).
In general, the spectral radius of is bounded above by the operator norm of :
To see why equality may not always hold, consider the Jordan canonical form of a matrix in the finite-dimensional case. Because there are non-zero entries on the superdiagonal, equality may be violated. The quasinilpotent operators is one class of such examples. A nonzero quasinilpotent operator has spectrum So while
However, when a matrix is normal, its Jordan canonical form is diagonal (up to unitary equivalence); this is the spectral theorem. In that case it is easy to see that
This formula can sometimes be used to compute the operator norm of a given bounded operator : define the Hermitian operator determine its spectral radius, and take the square root to obtain the operator norm of
The space of bounded operators on with the topology induced by operator norm, is not separable.
For example, consider the Lp space which is a Hilbert space.
For let be the characteristic function of and be the multiplication operator given by that is,
Then each is a bounded operator with operator norm 1 and
But is an uncountable set.
This implies the space of bounded operators on is not separable, in operator norm.
One can compare this with the fact that the sequence space is not separable.
The associative algebra of all bounded operators on a Hilbert space, together with the operator norm and the adjoint operation, yields a C*-algebra.
See also
Notes
Bibliography
References
.
Operator theory
Norms (mathematics)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symposium%20%28Plato%29
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Symposium (Plato)
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The Symposium (, ) is a philosophical text by Plato dated . It depicts a friendly contest of extemporaneous speeches given by a group of notable men attending a banquet. The men include the philosopher Socrates, the general and political figure Alcibiades, and the comic playwright Aristophanes. The speeches are to be given in praise of Eros, the god of love and desire.
In the Symposium, Eros is recognized both as erotic love and as a phenomenon capable of inspiring courage, valor, great deeds and works, and vanquishing man's natural fear of death. It is seen as transcending its earthly origins and attaining spiritual heights. This extraordinary elevation of the concept of love raises a question of whether some of the most extreme extents of meaning might be intended as humor or farce. Eros is almost always translated as "love", and the English word has its own varieties and ambiguities that provide additional challenges to the effort to understand the Eros of ancient Athens.
This dialogue is one of Plato's major works, and is appreciated for both its philosophical content and its literary qualities.
Literary form
The Symposium is considered a dialogue – a form used by Plato in more than thirty works – but in fact, it is predominantly a series of essay-like speeches from differing points of view. So dialogue plays a smaller role in the Symposium than it does in Plato's other dialogues. Socrates is renowned for his dialectic approach to knowledge (often referred to as the Socratic Method), which involves posing questions that encourage others to think deeply about what they care about and articulate their ideas. In the Symposium, the dialectic exists among the speeches: in seeing how the ideas conflict from speech-to-speech, and in the effort to resolve the contradictions and see the philosophy that underlies them all.
The Symposium is, like all of Plato's dialogues, fiction. The characters and the settings are to some degree based on history, but they are not reports of events that actually occurred or words that were actually spoken. There is no reason to think they were not composed entirely by Plato. The reader, understanding that Plato was not governed by the historical record, can read the Symposium, and ask why the author, Plato, arranged the story the way he did, and what he meant by including the various aspects of setting, composition, characters, and theme, etc.
For a very long time, it was widely believed that Socrates was presented in the dialogues by his admiring disciple, Plato, as an ideal philosopher and ideal human being. It was thought that what Socrates said was what Plato agreed with or approved of. Then in the late 20th century, another interpretation began to challenge that idea. This new idea considers that the Symposium is intended to criticize Socrates, and his philosophy, and to reject certain aspects of his behavior. It also considers that Socratic philosophy may have lost touch with the actual individual as it devoted itself to abstract principles.
The above view, attributed to Martha Nussbaum, can, however, be challenged in favor of the traditional one. The portrayal of Socrates in the Symposium (for instance his refusal to give in to Alcibiades' sexual advances) is consistent with the account of Socrates put forward by Xenophon and the theories that Socrates defends throughout the Platonic corpus. Plato shows off his master as a man of high moral standards, unwavered by baser urges and fully committed to the study and practice of proper self-government in both individuals and communities (the so-called "royal science"). The dialogue's ending contrasts Socrates' intellectual and emotional self-mastery with Alcibiades' debauchery and lack of moderation to explain the latter's reckless political career, disastrous military campaigns, and eventual demise. Alcibiades is corrupted by his physical beauty and the advantages thereof; he ultimately fails to ascend to the Form of Beauty through philosophy.
One critic, James Arieti, considers that the Symposium resembles a drama, with emotional and dramatic events occurring especially when Alcibiades crashes the banquet. Arieti suggests that it should be studied more as a drama, with a focus on character and actions, and less as an exploration of philosophical ideas. This suggests that the characters speak, as in a play, not as the author, but as themselves. This theory, Arieti has found, reveals how much each of the speakers of the Symposium resembles the god, Eros, that they each are describing. It may be Plato's point to suggest that when humankind talks about god, they are drawn towards creating that god in their own image.
Andrew Dalby considers the opening pages of the Symposium the best depiction in any ancient Greek source of the way texts are transmitted by oral tradition without writing. It shows how an oral text may have no simple origin, and how it can be passed along by repeated tellings, and by different narrators, and how it can be sometimes verified, and sometimes corrupted. The story of the symposium is being told by Apollodorus to his friend. Apollodorus was not himself at the banquet, but he heard the story from Aristodemus, a man who was there. Also, Apollodorus was able to confirm parts of the story with Socrates himself, who was one of the speakers at the banquet. A story that Socrates narrates, when it is his turn to speak, was told to Socrates by a woman named Diotima, a philosopher and a priestess.
Setting and historical context
The event depicted in the Symposium is a banquet attended by a group of men, who have come to the symposium, which was, in ancient Greece, a traditional part of the same banquet that took place after the meal, when drinking for pleasure was accompanied by music, dancing, recitals, or conversation. The setting means that the participants would be drinking wine, meaning that the men might be induced to say things they would not say elsewhere or when sober. They might speak more frankly, or take more risks, or else be prone to hubris—they might even be inspired to make speeches that are particularly heartfelt and noble. This is, of course, excluding Socrates, as Alcibiades claims in his speech that "no one has ever seen Socrates drunk" (C. Gill, pp. 61). Implying that these are subjects which Socrates holds personally dear regardless, as evident elsewhere in the book as well, like with his account of the conversation between himself and Diotima of Mantinea.
Eryximachus has challenged the men to deliver, each, in turn, an encomium—in this case, a speech in praise of Love (Eros). Though other participants comply with this challenge, Socrates notably refuses to participate in such an act of praise and instead takes a very different approach to the topic. The party takes place at the house of the tragedian Agathon in Athens.
It is considered that the work was written no earlier than 385 BCE, and the party to which it makes reference has been fixed in 416 BCE, the year in which the host Agathon had the dramatic triumph mentioned in the text. The disastrous expedition to Syracuse, of which Alcibiades was a commander, took place the following year, after which Alcibiades deserted to Sparta, Athens' archenemy.
Hamilton remarks that Plato takes care to portray Alcibiades and Socrates and their relationship in a way that makes it clear that Socrates had not been a bad influence on Alcibiades. Plato does this to free his teacher from the guilt of corrupting the minds of prominent youths, which had, in fact, earned Socrates the death sentence in 399 BC.
As a response to Aristophanes
Aristophanes' comedy, The Frogs (405 BC), attacks the new tragedy of Agathon and Euripides, and opposes it to the old tragedy of Aeschylus. In The Frogs, Dionysus, the god of theatre and wine, descends into Hades and observes a heated dispute between Aeschylus and Euripides over who is the best in tragedy. Dionysus is engaged to be the judge, and decides the outcome, not based on the merits of the two tragedians, but based on their political stance regarding the political figure, Alcibiades. Since Aeschylus prefers Alcibiades, Dionysus declares Aeschylus the winner.
That contest provides the basic structure on which the Symposium is modeled as a kind of sequel: In the Symposium, Agathon has just celebrated a victory the day before and is now hosting another kind of debate, this time it is between a tragedian, a comic poet, and Socrates. At the beginning of the Symposium, Agathon asserts that "Dionysus will be the judge", and Dionysus is, though Alcibiades performs as a surrogate for the god. So the character, Alcibiades, who was the deciding factor in the debate in The Frogs, becomes the judge in the Symposium, and he now rules in favor of Socrates, who had been attacked by Aristophanes in The Clouds. The Symposium is a response to The Frogs, and shows Socrates winning not only over Aristophanes, who was the author of both The Frogs, and The Clouds, but also over the tragic poet who was portrayed in that comedy as the victor.
Synopsis
The dialogue's seven main characters, who deliver major speeches, are:
Phaedrus (speech begins 178a): an Athenian aristocrat associated with the inner-circle of the philosopher Socrates, familiar from Phaedrus and other dialogues
Pausanias (speech begins 180c): the legal expert
Eryximachus (speech begins 186a): a physician
Aristophanes (speech begins 189c): the eminent comic playwright
Agathon (speech begins 195a): a tragic poet, host of the banquet, that celebrates the triumph of his first tragedy
Socrates (speech begins 201d): the eminent philosopher and Plato's teacher
Alcibiades (speech begins 214e): a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general
The story of the banquet is narrated by Apollodorus, but before the narration proper begins, it is shown that Apollodorus is telling the story to a friend of his that is not named, and also that the story of this banquet has been told before by others, as well as previously by Apollodorus himself. This section previews the story of the banquet, letting the reader know what to expect, and it provides information regarding the context and the date. The banquet was hosted by the poet Agathon to celebrate his first victory in a dramatic competition: the Dionysia of 416 BCE. Apollodorus was not present at the event, which occurred when he was a boy, but he heard the story from Aristodemus, who was present. Apollodorus later checked parts of the story with Socrates, who was also there. In this brief introductory passage, it is shown that the narrator, Apollodorus, has a reputation for being somewhat mad, that he is a passionate follower of Socrates, and that he spends his days either listening to Socrates or else telling others of what he has learned from Socrates. The story, as told by Apollodorus, then moves to the banquet at Agathon's home, where Agathon challenges each of the men to speak in praise of the Greek god, Eros.
Socrates is late to arrive because he became lost in thought on the way. When they are done eating, Eryximachus takes the suggestion made by Phaedrus, that they should all make a speech in praise of Eros, the god of love and desire. It will be a competition of speeches to be judged by Dionysus. It is anticipated that the speeches will ultimately be bested by Socrates, who speaks last.
Phaedrus starts by pointing out that Eros is the oldest of the gods, and that Eros promotes virtue in people. Next, Pausanias contrasts common desire with a "heavenly" love between an older man and a young man (before the age when his beard starts to grow), in which the two exchange sexual pleasure while the older man imparts wisdom to the younger one. He distinguishes between this virtuous love, and the love of an older man for a young (immature) boy, which he says should be forbidden on the grounds that love should be based on qualities of intelligence and virtue that are not yet part of a boy's makeup and may not develop. Eryximachus has the next speech (although he has switched with Aristophanes) and suggests that Eros encourages "sophrosyne", or soundness of mind and character, and is not only about human behavior, but also occurs in music, medicine, and many other areas of life.
The fourth speech is from Aristophanes, who tells a comic, fantastical story about how humans were at one time two people conjoined, but this was seen as threatening to the gods, so Zeus cut everyone in half just like fish is cut in two parts. The irony in his storytelling is obvious (he praises the "confidence, courage and manliness" of males searching for males "and there is good evidence for this in the fact that only males of this type, when they are grown up, prove to be real men in politics" - which is highly ironical for such a critic of the times' politicians as Aristophanes himself).
Love is the desire we have to find our other half, in order to become whole. Agathon follows Aristophanes, and his speech sees Eros as youthful, beautiful, and wise; and as the source of all human virtues.
Before Socrates gives his speech he asks some questions of Agathon regarding the nature of love. Socrates then relates a story he was told by a wise woman called Diotima. According to her, Eros is not a god but is a spirit that mediates between humans and their objects of desire. Love itself is not wise or beautiful but is the desire for those things. Love is expressed through propagation and reproduction: either physical love or the exchanging and reproducing of ideas. The greatest knowledge, Diotima says, is knowledge of the "form of beauty", which humans must try to achieve.
When Socrates is nearly done, Alcibiades crashes in, terribly drunk, and delivers an encomium to Socrates himself. No matter how hard he has tried, he says, he has never been able to seduce Socrates, because Socrates has no interest in physical pleasure. Despite this speech, Agathon lies down next to Socrates, much to Alcibiades' chagrin. The party becomes wild and drunken, with the symposium coming to an end. Many of the main characters take the opportunity to depart and return home. Aristodemus goes to sleep. When he wakes up the next morning and prepares to leave the house, Socrates is still awake, proclaiming to Agathon and Aristophanes that a skillful playwright should be able to write comedy as well as tragedy (223d). When Agathon and Aristophanes fall asleep, Socrates rises up and walks to the Lyceum to wash and tend to his daily business as usual, not going home to sleep until that evening (223d).
Phaedrus
Phaedrus opens by citing Hesiod, Acusilaus and Parmenides for the claim that Eros is the oldest of the gods. He confers great benefits, inspiring a lover to earn the admiration of his beloved, for example by showing bravery on the battlefield, since nothing shames a man more than to be seen by his beloved committing an inglorious act (178d-179b). "A handful of such men, fighting side by side, would defeat practically the whole world." Lovers sometimes sacrifice their lives for their beloved. As evidence for this, he mentions some mythological heroes and lovers. Even Achilles, who was the beloved of Patroclus, sacrificed himself to avenge his lover, and Alcestis was willing to die for her husband Admetus.
Phaedrus concludes his short speech in proper rhetorical fashion, reiterating his statements that love is one of the most ancient gods, the most honored, the most powerful in helping men gain honor and blessedness – and sacrificing one's self for love will result in rewards from the gods.
Pausanias
Pausanias, the legal expert of the group, introduces a distinction between a nobler and a baser kind of love, which anticipates Socrates' discourse. The base lover is in search of sexual gratification, and his objects are women and boys. He is inspired by Aphrodite Pandemos (Aphrodite common to the whole city). The noble lover directs his affection towards young men, establishing lifelong relationships, productive of the benefits described by Phaedrus. This love is related to Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly Aphrodite) and is based on honoring one's partner's intelligence and wisdom.
He then analyses the attitudes of different city-states relative to homosexuality. The first distinction he makes is between the cities that clearly establish what is and what is not admitted, and those that are not so explicitly clear, like Athens. In the first group there are cities favorable to homosexuality, like Elis, Boeotia and Sparta, or unfavorable to it like Ionia and Persia. The case of Athens is analyzed with many examples of what would be acceptable and what would not, and at the end, he makes the assertion that Athens' code of behavior favors the nobler type of love and discourages the baser.
Eryximachus
Eryximachus speaks next, though it is Aristophanes' turn, as the latter has not recovered from his hiccups enough to take his place in the sequence. First Eryximachus starts out by claiming that love affects everything in the universe, including plants and animals, believing that once love is attained it should be protected. The god of Love not only directs everything on the human plane, but also on the divine (186b). Two forms of love occur in the human body – one is healthy, the other unhealthy (186bc). Love might be capable of curing the diseased. Love governs medicine, music, and astronomy (187a), and regulates hot and cold and wet and dry, which when in balance result in health (188a). Eryximachus here evokes the theory of the humor. He concludes: "Love as a whole has ... total ... power ... and is the source of all happiness. It enables us to associate, and be friends, with each other and with the gods" (188d Transl. Gill). He comes across as someone who cannot resist the temptation to praise his own profession: "a good practitioner knows how to treat the body and how to transform its desires" (186d).
Aristophanes
W. Hamilton considers that Aristophanes' speech, which comes next, is one of Plato's most brilliant literary achievements. The speech has become a focus of subsequent scholarly debate, as it has been seen as mere comic relief, and sometimes as satire: the creation myth Aristophanes puts forward to account for sexuality may be read as poking fun at the myths concerning the origins of humanity, numerous in classical Greek mythology.
Before starting his speech, Aristophanes warns the group that his eulogy to love may be more absurd than funny. His speech is an explanation of why people in love say they feel "whole" when they have found their love partner. He begins by explaining that people must understand human nature before they can interpret the origins of love and how it affects their own times. This is, he says because in primal times people had doubled bodies, with faces and limbs turned away from one another. As spherical creatures who wheeled around like clowns doing cartwheels (190a), these original people were very powerful. There were three sexes: the all male, the all female, and the "androgynous," who was half male, half female. The males were said to have descended from the sun, the females from the earth and the androgynous couples from the moon. These creatures tried to scale the heights of Olympus and planned to set upon the gods (190b-c). Zeus thought about blasting them with thunderbolts but did not want to deprive himself of their devotions and offerings, so he decided to cripple them by chopping them in half, in effect separating the two bodies.
Ever since that time, people run around saying they are looking for their other half because they are really trying to recover their primal nature. The women who were separated from women run after their own kind, thus creating lesbians. The men split from other men also run after their own kind and love being embraced by other men (191e). Those that come from original androgynous beings are the men and women that engage in heterosexual love. He says some people think homosexuals are shameless, but he thinks they are the bravest, most manly of all, as evidenced by the fact that only they grow up to be politicians (192a), and that many heterosexuals are adulterous and unfaithful (191e). Aristophanes then claims that when two people who were separated from each other find each other, they never again want to be separated (192c). This feeling is like a riddle, and cannot be explained. Aristophanes ends on a cautionary note. He says that men should fear the gods, and not neglect to worship them, lest they wield the ax again and we have to go about hopping on one leg, split apart again (193a). If a man works with the god of Love, they will escape this fate and instead find wholeness.
Agathon
His speech may be regarded as self-consciously poetic and rhetorical, composed in the way of the sophists, gently mocked by Socrates.
Agathon complains that the previous speakers have made the mistake of congratulating mankind on the blessings of love, failing to give due praise to the god himself (194e). He says that love is the youngest of the gods and is an enemy of old age (195b). He says that the god of love shuns the very sight of senility and clings to youth. Agathon says love is dainty and likes to tiptoe through the flowers and never settles where there is no "bud to bloom" (196b). It would seem that none of the characters at the party, with the possible exception of Agathon himself, would be candidates for love's companionship. Socrates, probably the oldest member of the party, seems certain to be ruled out. He also implies that love creates justice, moderation, courage, and wisdom. These are the cardinal virtues in ancient Greece. Although devoid of philosophical content, the speech Plato puts in the mouth of Agathon is a beautiful formal one, and Agathon contributes to the Platonic love theory with the idea that the object of love is beauty.
Socrates
Socrates turns politely to Agathon and, after expressing admiration for his speech, asks whether he could examine his positions further. What follows is a series of questions and answers, typical of Plato's earlier dialogues, featuring Socrates' famous method of dialectics. First, he asks Agathon whether it is reasonable for someone to desire what they already have, like for example someone who is in perfect health to wish he were healthy (200a-e). Agathon agrees with Socrates that this would be irrational, but is quickly reminded of his own definition of Love's true desires: youth and beauty. Putting the two together then, for Love to desire youth he must not have it himself, thus making him old, and for him to desire beauty, he himself must be ugly. Agathon has no choice but to agree.
After this exchange, Socrates switches to storytelling, a departure from the earlier dialogues where he is mostly heard refuting his opponent's arguments through rational debating. Socrates tells of a conversation he had with a woman from Mantinea, called Diotima, who plays the same inquiring/instructing role that Socrates played with Agathon.
Diotima first explains that Love is neither a god, as was previously claimed by the other guests, nor a mortal but a daemon, a spirit halfway between god and man, who was born during a banquet thrown by the gods to celebrate the birth of Aphrodite. One of the guests was Porus (mythology), the god of resource or plenty, who was passed out from drinking too much nectar, and it so happened that another deity arrived, Poverty, who came to the banquet to beg, and upon seeing Plutus lying unconscious took the chance to sleep with him, conceiving a child in the process: Love. Having been born at Aphrodite's birthday party, he became her follower and servant, but through his real origins Love acquired a kind of double nature. From his mother, Love became poor, ugly, and with no place to sleep (203c-d), while from his father he inherited the knowledge of beauty, as well as the cunningness to pursue it. Being of an intermediary nature, Love is also halfway between wisdom and ignorance, knowing just enough to understand his ignorance and try to overcome it. Beauty then is the perennial philosopher, the "lover of wisdom" (the Greek word "philia" being one of the four words for love).
After describing Love's origins, that provide clues to its nature, Diotima asks Socrates why is it, as he had previously agreed, that love is always that "of beautiful things" (204b). For if love affects everyone indiscriminately, then why is it that only some appear to pursue beauty throughout their lives? Socrates does not have the answer and so Diotima reveals it: Beauty is not the end but the means to something greater, the achievement of a certain reproduction and birth (206c), the only claim that mortals can have on immortality. This is true for men as well as animals that seek an appropriate place to give birth, preferring to roam in pain until they find it. Some men are pregnant in body alone and, just like animals, enjoy the company of women with whom they can have children that will pass on their existence. Others are pregnant in both body and mind, and instead of children they carry wisdom, virtue, and above all, the art of civic order (209a). Beauty is also their guide, but it will be towards the knowledge needed to accomplish their spiritual births.
In conclusion, Diotima gives Socrates a guide on how a man of this class should be brought up from a young age. First, he should start by loving a particular body he finds beautiful, but as time goes by, he will relax his passion and pass to the love of all bodies. From this point, he will pass to the love of beautiful minds, and then to that of knowledge. Finally, he will reach the ultimate goal, which is to witness beauty in itself, rather than representations (211a-b), the true Form of Beauty in Platonic terms.
This speech, in the interpretation of Marsilio Ficino in De Amore (1484), is the origin of the concept of Platonic love.
Alcibiades
Entering upon the scene late and inebriated, Alcibiades pays tribute to Socrates. Like Agathon and Aristophanes, Alcibiades is a historical person from ancient Athens. A year after the events of the Symposium, his political enemies would drive him to flee Athens under fear of being sentenced to death for sacrilege and turn traitor to the Spartans. By his own admission, he is very handsome.
Finding himself seated on a couch with Socrates and Agathon, Alcibiades exclaims that Socrates, again, has managed to sit next to the most handsome man in the room. Socrates asks Agathon to protect him from the jealous rage of Alcibiades, asking Alcibiades to forgive him (213d). Wondering why everyone seems sober, Alcibiades is informed of the night's agreement (213e, c); after Socrates was ending his drunken ramblings, Alcibiades hopes that no one will believe a word Socrates was talking about, Alcibiades proposes to offer an encomium to Socrates (214c-e).
Alcibiades begins by comparing Socrates to a statue of Silenus; the statue is ugly and hollow, and inside it is full of tiny golden statues of the gods (215a-b). Alcibiades then compares Socrates to a satyr. Satyrs were often portrayed with the sexual appetite, manners, and features of wild beasts, and often with a large erection.
Alcibiades states that when he hears Socrates speak, he feels overwhelmed. The words of Socrates are the only ones to have ever upset him so deeply that his soul started to realize that his aristocratic life was no better than a slave's (215e). Socrates is the only man who has ever made Alcibiades feel shame (216b). Yet all this is the least of it (216c)- Alcibiades was intrigued to allow himself to follow Socrates (216d). Most people, he continues, do not know what Socrates is like on the inside:
He was deeply curious towards Socrates' intelligence and wisdom, but Alcibiades really wanted him sexually at the time that Socrates, a man that gave only platonic love to everyone he has encountered, gave up teaching everything he knew towards Alcibiades because of his pride, lust, and immoral conduct upon him(217a). Yet Socrates made no move, and Alcibiades began to pursue Socrates "as if I were the lover and he my young prey!" (217c). When Socrates continually rebuffed him, Alcibiades began to fantasize a view towards Socrates as the only true and worthy lover he had ever had. So he told Socrates that it seemed to him now that nothing could be more important than becoming the best man he could be, and Socrates was best fit to help him reach that aim (218c-d). Socrates responded that if he did have this power, why would he exchange his true (inner) beauty for the image of beauty that Alcibiades would provide. Furthermore, Alcibiades was wrong and Socrates knows there is no use in him (218e-219a). Alcibiades spent the night sleeping beside Socrates yet, in his deep humiliation, Alcibiades made no sexual attempt (219b-d).
In his speech, Alcibiades goes on to describe Socrates' virtues, his incomparable valor in battle, his immunity to cold or fear. On one occasion he even saved Alcibiades' life and then refused to accept honors for it (219e-221c). Socrates, he concludes, is unique in his ideas and accomplishments, unrivaled by any man from the past or present (221c).
Authors and works cited in the Symposium
Acusilaus
Aeschylus
Aristophanes, The Clouds
Euripides, Melanippe
Heraclitus
Hesiod, Theogony
Homer, Cypria, Iliad
Parmenides
Prodicus of Ceos, Praise of Heracles
unspecified (likely lost) philosophical discourse on the utility of Salt
See also
Platonic love
Xenophon's Symposium
Diotima of Mantinea
Erik Satie's Socrate
"The Origin of Love", a song from Hedwig and the Angry Inch
Symposium
Greek love
Bernstein's Serenade after "Symposium"
Stages on Life's Way, a book which includes In Vino Veritas, Søren Kierkegaard's dialogue on love based on Symposium
References
Sources
Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues As Drama. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers (1991).
Cobb, William S., "The Symposium" in The Symposium and the Phaedrus: Plato's Erotic Dialogues, State Univ of New York Pr (July 1993). .
Leitao, David D., The Pregnant Male as Myth and Metaphor in Classical Greek Literature, Cambridge Univ Pr (2012).
Nussbaum, Martha C. The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press (2001).
Current texts, translations, commentaries
Plato, The Symposium, trans. by W. Hamilton. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1951.
Plato, The Symposium, Greek text with commentary by Kenneth Dover. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. .
Plato, The Symposium, Greek text with trans. by Tom Griffith. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. .
Plato, The Symposium, trans. with commentary by R. E. Allen. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. .
Plato, The Symposium, trans. by Christopher Gill. London: Penguin, 2003. .
Plato, The Symposium, trans. by Alexander Nehamas and Paul Woodruff (from Plato: Complete Works, ed. by John M. Cooper, pp. 457–506. ); available separately: .
Plato, The Symposium, trans. by Robin Waterfield. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. .
Plato, The Symposium, trans. by Avi Sharon. Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing, 1998. .
Plato, The Symposium, trans. by Seth Benardete with essays by Seth Benardete and Allan Bloom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. .
Plato, The Symposium, trans. by Percy Bysshe Shelley, Provincetown, Pagan Press, 2001, .
Plato, The Symposium, trans. by M. C. Howatson edited by Frisbee C. C. Sheffield, Cambridge University Press, 2008,
Online translations
The Internet Classics Archive: Symposium by Plato, trans. by Benjamin Jowett
Project Gutenberg: Symposium by Plato, trans. by Benjamin Jowett
Questia.com: Symposium by Plato, trans. by Suzy Q. Groden
Perseus Digital Library : Symposium by Plato, trans. by Harold N. Fowler with facing Greek text ed. by Burnet (optional).
G. Theodoridis, 2015: full-text translation
Further reading
Blondell, Ruby and Luc Brisson and others, Plato's Symposium: Issues in Interpretation and Reception. Center for Hellenic Studies, 2007. .
Hunter, Richard, Plato's Symposium (Oxford Approaches to Classical Literature). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. .
Lilar, Suzanne, Le Couple (1963), Paris, Grasset; Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin, New York, McGraw-Hill, LC 65-19851.
Lilar, Suzanne (1967), A propos de Sartre et de l'amour Paris: Grasset.
Scott, Gary Alan, and William A. Welton, "Erotic Wisdom: philosophy and intermediacy in Plato's Symposium". State University of New York Press, 2008. .
Sheffield, Frisbee (2009), Plato's Symposium: The Ethics of Desire (Oxford Classical Monograph)
Strauss, Leo, Leo Strauss on Plato's Symposium. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
Worthen, Thomas D., "Socrates and Aristodemos, the automaton agathoi of the Symposium: Gentlemen go to parties on their own say-so," New England Classical Journal 26.5 (1999), 15–21.
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner. Penguin, 1954.
External links
English translation of Plato's Symposium by Benjamin Jowett at Gutenberg.
Longer summary of the Symposium by Glyn Hughes
English translation by Harold N. Fowler linked to commentary by R. G. Bury and others
Angela Hobbs' podcast interview on Erotic Love in the Symposium
Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues
BBC In Our Time: Plato's Symposium. (Radio programme discussing the Symposium)
Dialogues of Plato
LGBT history in Greece
Ancient LGBT history
Books about the philosophy of love
Social philosophy literature
Gay male literature
Classical Greek philosophical literature
Hellenistic philosophical literature
Fiction set in the 5th century BC
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M2%20Browning
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M2 Browning
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The M2 machine gun or Browning .50 caliber machine gun is a heavy machine gun designed toward the end of World War I by John Browning. Its design is similar to Browning's earlier M1919 Browning machine gun, which was chambered for the .30-06 cartridge. The M2 uses the much larger and much more powerful .50 BMG (12.7 mm) cartridge, which was developed alongside and takes its name from the gun itself (BMG standing for Browning machine gun). It has been referred to as "Ma Deuce", in reference to its M2 nomenclature. The design has had many specific designations; the official US military designation for the current infantry type is Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, Flexible. It is effective against infantry, unarmored or lightly armored vehicles and boats, light fortifications, and low-flying aircraft.
The Browning .50 caliber machine gun has been used extensively as a vehicle weapon and for aircraft armament by the United States from the 1930s to the present day. It was heavily used during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Falklands War, the Soviet–Afghan War, the Gulf War, the Iraq War, and the War in Afghanistan in the 2000s and 2010s. It is the primary heavy machine gun of NATO countries and has been used by many other countries as well. The M2 has been in use longer than any other firearm in U.S. inventory except the .45 ACP M1911 pistol, also designed by John Browning.
The current M2HB (heavy barrel) is manufactured in the U.S. by General Dynamics Ohio Ordnance Works, and U.S. Ordnance for use by the U.S. government, and for allies via Foreign Military Sales, as well as by foreign manufacturers such as FN Herstal.
History
Machine guns were heavily used in World War I, and weapons of larger than rifle caliber began appearing on both sides of the conflict. The larger rounds were needed to defeat the armor that was being introduced to the battlefield, both on the ground and in the air. During the war, the Germans introduced a heavily armored airplane, the Junkers J.I. The armor made aircraft machine guns using conventional rifle ammunition (such as the .30-06) ineffective. Consequently, the American Expeditionary Force's commander General John J. Pershing asked for a larger caliber machine gun. Pershing asked the Army Ordnance Department to develop a machine gun with a caliber of at least and a muzzle velocity of at least .
Around July 1917, John M. Browning started redesigning his .30-06 M1917 machine gun for a larger and more powerful round. Winchester worked on the cartridge, which was a scaled-up version of the .30-06. Winchester initially added a rim to the cartridge because the company wanted to use the cartridge in an anti-tank rifle, but Pershing insisted the cartridge be rimless. The first .50 caliber machine gun underwent trials on 15 October 1918. It fired at less than 500 rounds per minute, and the muzzle velocity was only . Cartridge improvements were promised. The gun was heavy, difficult to control, fired too slowly for the anti-personnel role, and was not powerful enough against armor.
While the .50 caliber was being developed, some German T Gewehr 1918 anti-tank rifles and ammunition were seized. The German rounds had a muzzle velocity of , an bullet, and could penetrate armor thick at a range of . Winchester improved the .50 caliber round to have similar performance. Ultimately, the muzzle velocity was .
Efforts by John M. Browning and Fred T. Moore resulted in the water-cooled, .50 caliber M1921 Browning machine gun and an aircraft version. These guns were used experimentally from 1921 until 1937. They had light-weight barrels and the ammunition fed only from the left side. Service trials raised doubts about whether the guns would be suitable for aircraft or for anti-aircraft use. A heavy barrel M1921 was considered for ground vehicles.
John M. Browning died in 1926. Between 1927 and 1932, S.H. Green studied the design problems of the M1921 and the needs of the armed services. The result was a single receiver design that could be turned into seven types of .50 caliber machine guns by using different jackets, barrels, and other components. The new receiver allowed right or left side feed. In 1933, Colt manufactured several prototype Browning machine guns (including what would be known as the M1921A1 and M1921E2). With support from the Navy, Colt started manufacturing the M2 in 1933. FN Herstal (Fabrique Nationale) has manufactured the M2 machine gun since the 1930s. General Dynamics, U.S. Ordnance and Ohio Ordnance Works Inc. are other current manufacturers.
A variant without a water jacket, but with a thicker-walled, air-cooled barrel was designated the M2 HB (HB for Heavy Barrel). The added mass and surface area of the heavy barrel compensated somewhat for the loss of water-cooling, while reducing bulk and weight: the M2 weighs with a water jacket, but the M2 HB weighs . Due to the long procedure for changing the barrel, an improved system was developed called QCB (quick change barrel). The lightweight "Army/Navy" prefixed AN/M2 "light-barrel" version of the Browning M2 weighing was also developed, and became the standard .50-caliber aviation machine gun of the World War II-era for American military aircraft of nearly every type, readily replacing Browning's own air-cooled .30 caliber machine gun design in nearly all American aircraft installations.
Design details
The Browning M2 is an air-cooled, belt-fed machine gun. The M2 fires from a closed bolt, operated on the short recoil principle. The M2 fires the .50 BMG cartridge, which offers long range, accuracy, and immense stopping power. The closed bolt firing cycle made the M2 usable as a synchronized machine gun on aircraft before and during World War II, as on the early versions of the Curtiss P-40 fighter. The M2 is a scaled-up version of John Browning's M1917 .30 caliber machine gun.
Features
The M2 has varying cyclic rates of fire, depending on the model. The M2HB (heavy barrel) air-cooled ground gun has a cyclical rate of 450–575 rounds per minute. The early M2 water-cooled AA guns had a cyclical rate of around 450–600 rpm. The AN/M2 aircraft gun has a cyclic rate of 750–850 rpm; this increases to 1,200 rpm for AN/M3 aircraft guns. These maximum rates of fire are generally not achieved in use, as sustained fire at that rate will wear out the bore within a few thousand rounds, necessitating replacement. In addition to full automatic, the M2HB can be selected to fire single-shots or at less than 40 rounds per minute, or rapid fire for more than 40 rounds per minute. Slow and rapid firing modes use 5–7 round bursts with different lengths of pause between bursts.
The M2 has an effective range of and a maximum effective range of when fired from the M3 tripod. In its ground-portable, crew-served role as the M2HB, the gun itself weighs and the assembled M3 tripod another . In this configuration, the V-shaped "butterfly" trigger is located at the very rear of the weapon with a "spade handle" hand-grip on either side of it and the bolt release in the center. The spade handles are gripped and the butterfly trigger is depressed with one or both thumbs. Recently, new rear buffer assemblies have used squeeze triggers mounted to the hand grips, doing away with the butterfly triggers.
When the bolt release is locked down by the bolt latch release lock on the buffer tube sleeve, the gun functions in fully automatic mode. Conversely, the bolt release can be unlocked into the up position resulting in single-shot firing (the gunner must press the bolt latch release to send the bolt forward). Unlike virtually all other modern machine guns, it has no safety (although a sliding safety switch has recently been fielded to USMC armorers for installation on their weapons and is standard-issue for the U.S. Army for all M2s). Troops in the field have been known to add an improvised safety measure against accidental firing by slipping an expended shell casing under the butterfly trigger. The upgraded M2A1 has a manual trigger block safety.
Because the M2 was designed to operate in many configurations, it can be adapted to feed from the left or right side of the weapon by exchanging the belt-holding pawls, and the front and rear cartridge stops (three-piece set to include link stripper), then reversing the bolt switch. The operator must also convert the top-cover belt feed slide assembly from left to right-hand feed as well as the spring and plunger in the feed arm. This will take a well-trained individual less than two minutes to perform.
The charging assembly may be changed from left to right-hand charge. A right-hand charging handle spring, lock wire, and a little "know-how" are all that is required to accomplish this. The M2 can be battle-ready and easily interchanged if it is preemptively fitted with a retracting slide assembly on both sides of the weapon system. This eliminates the need to have the weapon removed from service to accomplish this task.
At some point during World War 2 the Frankford Arsenal developed a squeeze bore version of the M2HB which reduced the bullet size from .50 to .30 caliber.
Ammunition
There are several different types of ammunition used in the M2HB and AN aircraft guns. From World War II through the Vietnam War, the big Browning was used with standard ball, armor-piercing (AP), armor-piercing incendiary (API), and armor-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) rounds. All .50 ammunition designated "armor-piercing" was required to completely perforate of hardened steel armor plate at a distance of and at . The API and APIT rounds left a flash, report, and smoke on contact, useful in detecting strikes on enemy targets; they were primarily intended to incapacitate thin-skinned and lightly armored vehicles and aircraft, while igniting their fuel tanks.
Current ammunition types include M33 Ball (706.7 grain) for personnel and light material targets, M17 tracer, M8 API (622.5 grain), M20 API-T (619 grain), and M962 SLAP-T. The latter ammunition along with the M903 SLAP (Saboted Light Armor Penetrator) round can perforate of FHA (face-hardened steel plate) at , at , and at . This is achieved by using a tungsten penetrator. The SLAP-T adds a tracer charge to the base of the ammunition. This ammunition was type classified in 1993.
When firing blanks, a large blank-firing adapter (BFA) of a special type must be used to allow the recoil-operated action to cycle. This functions on the principle of a recoil booster, to increase the recoil force acting on the short recoil action. This is the exact antithesis of a muzzle brake. Without this adaptor, the reduced-charge blank cartridge would develop too little recoil to cycle the action fully. The adapter is very distinctive, attaching to the muzzle with three rods extending back to the base. The BFA can often be seen on M2s during peacetime operations.
Deployment
The M2 .50 Browning machine gun has been used for various roles:
A medium infantry support weapon
As a light anti-aircraft (AA) gun in some ships; up to six M2 guns could be mounted on the same turret.
As an anti-aircraft gun on the ground. The original water-cooled version of the M2 was used on a tall AA tripod or vehicle-mounted anti-aircraft weapon on a sturdy pedestal mount. In later variants, twin and quadruple M2HB Brownings were used, such as the M45 Quadmount (aka "meat chopper") used on the US M16 half-track carrier. Twin or quad-mount .50 M2 guns normally used alternating left-hand and right-hand feed.
Primary or secondary weapon on an armored fighting vehicle.
Primary or secondary weapon on a naval patrol boat.
Spotting for the primary weapon on some armored fighting vehicles.
Secondary weapon for anti-boat defense on large naval vessels (corvettes, frigates, destroyers, cruisers, etc.).
Coaxial gun or independent mounting in some tanks, including but not limited to: the M47 Patton, M48 Patton, M4 Sherman, M24 Chaffee, Heavy tank M6, Heavy Tank T29, M1 Abrams, M60 Patton, M46 Patton, and the M26 Pershing.
Fixed-mounted forward-firing primary aircraft armament (AN/M2 and AN/M3 light-barrel versions only). The AN/M2 was used as primary armament in almost all World War II U.S. pursuit aircraft (such as the North American P-51 Mustang, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, Lockheed P-38 Lightning, Bell P-39 Airacobra, Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, Grumman F6F Hellcat, and Vought F4U Corsair). It was also used in fixed mountings in bombers and ground attack aircraft like the Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bomber, Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bomber, and medium bombers such as North American B-25 Mitchell, Martin B-26 Marauder, and Douglas A-26 Invader; usually 4–8 per aircraft but the bombers could mount 12 or more in certain configurations. The later, faster-firing electrically feed-boosted AN/M3 was used in many Korean War-era USAF fighter aircraft such as the Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star, Republic F-84 Thunderjet, North American F-86 Sabre, and early versions of the Martin B-57 Canberra bomber. The US Navy had largely completed their move to the (unrelated) M2/AN 20mm autocannon for aircraft armament by this time.
Turret-mount or flexible-mounted defensive armament, again only with the AN/M2 light-barrel version, in almost all US World War II-era bombers and patrol aircraft such as the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, Consolidated B-24 Liberator and Boeing B-29 Superfortress heavy bombers, North American B-25 Mitchell and Marin B-26 Marauder medium bombers, Consolidated PBY Catalina patrol flying boats, Goodyear K- and M-class blimps, Grumman TBF/TBM Avenger torpedo bombers, and in a combined offensive/defensive turret mounting in many Northrop P-61 Black Widow night fighters. The AN/M3 was used as a flexible, quad-mounted, radar-directed tail-defence gun as late as 1980 on the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, until replaced by 20mm M61 Vulcan Gatling-type cannon on the H model.
Variants of the AN/M3 are used as flexible door guns or as flexible remotely-controlled armament subsystems on many US Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard helicopters, such as the Bell UH-1 Iroquois, Sikorsky UH-60 Blackhawk and variants, Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion, Bell OH-58 Kiowa, and others.
United States
At the outbreak of the Second World War, the United States had versions of the M2 in service as fixed aircraft guns, anti-aircraft defensive guns (on aircraft, ships, or boats), infantry (tripod-mounted) guns, and as dual purpose anti-aircraft and anti-vehicular weapons on vehicles.
The .50 AN/M2 light-barrel aircraft Browning used in planes had a rate of fire of approximately 800 rounds per minute and was used singly or in groups of up to eight guns for aircraft ranging from the P-47 Thunderbolt to the B-25 Mitchell bomber, which in the last J-version of the Mitchell could have up to fourteen M2s firing forward for ground attack missions – eight in a solid metal-structure nose, four more mounted in a pair of conformal twin-gunned gun pods on the lower cockpit sides, and two more if the forward dorsal turret's pair of M2 guns were also aimed straight forward. The later A-26 bested this with up to a maximum of 16/18 machine guns, 8 in the nose, four more per wing in flush-mount pods, plus 2 guns in the dorsal turret.
In the dual-purpose vehicle mount, the M2HB (heavy barrel) proved extremely effective in U.S. service: the Browning's .50 caliber AP and API rounds could easily penetrate the engine block or fuel tanks of a German Bf 109 fighter attacking at low altitude, or perforate the hull plates and fuel tanks of a German half-track or light armored car. It could even penetrate the sides and rear of the Panzer I, Panzer II, Panzer III, and Panzer IV tanks. While the dual-purpose mounting was undeniably useful, it did normally require the operator to stand when using the M2 in a ground role, exposing him to return fire. Units in the field often modified the mountings on their vehicles, especially tanks and tank destroyers, to provide more operator protection in the anti-vehicular and anti-personnel role. The weapon was particularly hated by the Germans, whose attacks and ambushes against otherwise helpless stalled motor convoys were frequently broken up by .50 caliber machine gun fire. Vehicles would frequently "recon by fire" with the M2 Browning, i.e. they would fire continuously at suspected points of ambush while moving through areas still containing enemy forces. One vehicle would fire exclusively to the right, the following vehicle to the left, the next one to the right, and so on in order to cover both flanks of the advancing convoy.
Besides vehicle-mounted weapons, the heavy weapons companies in a World War II U.S. Army infantry battalion or regiment were each issued one M2 Browning with tripod (ground) mount. Mounted on a heavily sandbagged tripod, the M2HB proved very useful in either a defensive role or to interdict or block road intersections from use by German infantry and motorized forces. Hearing the sound of an M2 could often cause enemy infantry to take cover. There are numerous instances of the M2 Browning being used against enemy personnel, particularly infantry assaults or for interdiction or elimination of enemy artillery observers or snipers at distances too great for ordinary infantry weapons.
The M2HB was not widely used in the Pacific campaign for several reasons, including the weight of the gun, the nature of infantry jungle combat, and because road intersections were usually easily outflanked. However, it was used by fast-moving motorized forces in the Philippines to destroy Japanese blocking units on the advance to Manila. The quad mount .50 was also used to destroy Japanese emplacements.
The M2HB was used in Korea and Vietnam, and later in both Operation Desert Storm, the Afghan theater of Operation Enduring Freedom and in Iraq. In 2003, U.S. Army SFC Paul Ray Smith used his M2HB mounted on an M113 armored personnel carrier to kill 20 to 50 enemies who were attacking a U.S. outpost, preventing an aid station from being overrun and allowing wounded soldiers to be evacuated, SFC Smith was killed during the firefight and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
M45 Quadmount
The M45 Quadmount was a mounting of four .50 M2HB guns with a single gunner situated behind an armored housing. This was used by U.S. AA battalions, fitted either on a towed trailer or mounted in a half-track carrier (M16 AA half-track). With 200 rounds per gun in a powered tracking mount, the guns proved very effective against low-flying aircraft. The use of four guns adequately compensated for the fact that the individual M2HB's rate of fire (450–550 rounds per minute) was low for an effective anti-aircraft weapon.
Towards the end of the war, as Luftwaffe attacks became less frequent, the quad .50 (nicknamed the Meat Chopper or Krautmower) was increasingly used in an anti-personnel role, similarly to the earlier-introduced (1940) and more powerful—but much more difficult to keep well-fed with ammunition when in action—German 20 mm Flakvierling. Snipers firing from trees were engaged by the quad gunner at trunk level; the weapon would cut down and destroy the entire tree, and the sniper with it.
The M45 Quadmount was still in use during the Vietnam War.
Commonwealth and other forces
Commonwealth use of the M2 Browning .50 caliber machine gun (known as the .5 Browning in British and Commonwealth service) began in World War II, though from 1942 it was standard armament on US-built AFVs provided under lend-lease such as the M4 Sherman, M7 Priest, M8 Greyhound, or M10 tank destroyer variously used by British, Canadian, Australian, South African, and New Zealand units. Nevertheless, the heavy Browning's effectiveness was praised by many British and Commonwealth soldiers in infantry, armored, and ordnance branches. Many commanders thought that the .50 Browning the best weapon in its class, certainly the best of the American weapons, including the M1 Garand and M1 Carbine. In North Africa, after Commonwealth units began to obtain sufficient parts, manuals, gauges, and ammunition for the new weapon, the .50 Browning was increasingly used, eventually replacing the 15 mm Besa, but in Italy it was often deleted from top turret mountings because the mount exposed the operator to low branches and enemy fire. All LRDGs, and some SAS units used the aircraft (AN/M2) version of the gun, while beam/waist-mounted and turret-mounted Brownings were used later in the war in such aircraft as the Short Sunderland and Lancaster bomber.
After World War II, the .50 Browning continued to see action in Korea and other theaters, in aircraft, tripod (ground), ground AA (hip-ring), and vehicle mounts. One of its most notable actions in a ground role was in a fierce battle with a nine-man Special Air Service team at the Battle of Mirbat in Oman in July 1972, where the heavy Browning and its API ammunition was used to help repulse an assault by 250 Yemeni Adoo guerrillas, though the more famous weapon from the battle is a 25 pounder gun. The Scots Guards used the weapon in the 1982 Falklands War.
A .50 caliber Browning was installed along with a .30 caliber Browning machine gun in each compact one-man turret on M113 APCs used by the Royal Australian Armoured Corps in South Vietnam.
The M2HB has been in service with the Israel Defense Forces since its establishment and has served in all of Israel's wars, operations, and conflicts. In 2012, the IDF upgraded its M2HB machine guns to the M2HQCB model, with a heavy quick-change barrel. Today the M2 serves as an infantry crew-served heavy machine gun, as a remote-controlled external coaxial gun on Merkava main battle tanks, as the main weapon on the Samson RCWS, and as a secondary weapon on Israeli Sea Corps gunboats and missile boats.
Nigerian troops have extensively deployed the 50 caliber Browning, mounted on Otokar Cobra APCs, Panhard VBL M11s and Landcruiser gun-trucks in counterinsurgency operations in the Niger Delta, N.E Nigeria, the Jos Plateau, and in Mali.
M2 as a sniper rifle
The M2 machine gun has also been used as a long-range sniper rifle when equipped with a telescopic sight. Soldiers during the Korean War used scoped M2s in the role of a sniper rifle, but the practice was most notably used by US Marine Corps sniper Carlos Hathcock during the Vietnam War. Using an Unertl telescopic sight and a mounting bracket of his own design, Hathcock could quickly convert the M2 into a sniper rifle, using the traversing-and-elevating (T&E) mechanism attached to the tripod. When firing semi-automatically, Hathcock hit man-size targets beyond —twice the range of the standard-caliber sniper rifle of the time (a .30-06 Winchester Model 70). Hathcock set the record for the longest confirmed kill at , a record which stood until 2002, when it was broken in Afghanistan by Canadian Army sniper Arron Perry.
Prohibition of M2 Browning use against personnel
There has been much controversy surrounding the use of the M2 against enemy personnel, due to the explosive and incendiary Raufoss Mk 211 ammunition commonly fired by guns of its caliber. The Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868 the "military or naval" use of explosive or incendiary projectiles with a mass of under 400 grams is forbidden by its signatory parties. This was superseded by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which was signed by a far wider circle of nations – do permit the use of such ammunition for auto-cannons and heavy machine guns.
It is often stated, sometimes by military trainers, that the M2 is illegal under the Geneva Convention to use against enemy personnel since it would cause "unnecessary suffering". However, there is no provision in the Geneva Convention that forbids the use of the M2 on personnel. One possible source of the misconception is from World War II, when American half-track units in Germany were told to stop firing their M2s at ground targets, to conserve ammunition in case of a Luftwaffe attack. Also, U.S. troops were told to use their M2s only against enemy equipment due to shortages of ammunition during the Korean or Vietnam War. It is also possible that a restriction during the latter period limiting the use of the M40 recoilless rifle's .50-caliber spotting gun to destroy enemy equipment only, since the M40 was meant to be used against armor and firing it at personnel would give away their position before it could be used as intended, was mistakenly applied to all .50 caliber weapons.
Variants and derivatives
M2 variants
The basic M2 was deployed in U.S. service in a number of subvariants, all with separate complete designations as per the US Army system. The basic designation as mentioned in the introduction is Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, with others as described below.
The development of the M1921 water-cooled machine gun which led to the M2, meant that the initial M2s were, in fact, water-cooled. These weapons were designated Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, Water-Cooled, Flexible. There was no fixed water-cooled version.
Improved air-cooled heavy barrel versions came in three subtypes. The basic infantry model, Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, Flexible, a fixed developed for use on the M6 Heavy Tank designated Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, Fixed, and a "turret type" whereby "Flexible" M2s were modified slightly for use in tank turrets. The subvariant designation Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, TT was only used for manufacturing, supply, and administration identification and separation from flexible M2s.
A number of additional subvariants were developed after the end of World War II. The M2 Heavy Barrel, M48 Turret Type was developed for the commander's cupola on the M48 Patton tank. The cupola mount on the M48A2 and M48A3 was thoroughly disliked by most tankers, as it proved unreliable in service. An externally mounted M2 was later adopted for the commander's position on the M1 Abrams tanks. Three subvariants were also developed for use by the U.S. Navy on a variety of ships and watercraft including the soft mount and fixed type versions. The fixed types fire from a solenoid trigger and come in left- or right-hand feed variants for use on the Mk 56 Mod 0 dual mount and other mounts.
Huaqing Machinery has made a clone of the M2HB known as the CS/LM6, which was released publicly in 2010 in foreign weapons expo conventions. It was made with a picatinny rail on the receiver in order to have quick installation of various optics. The original M2HB tripod and parts can be used on the CS/LM6.
M2A1
When the M2 was first being designed, John Browning faced two design challenges. With the machine tools available at that time, the dimensions that established the location of the bolt face and the depth of the chamber could not be held tightly enough to control the fit of the cartridge in the chamber. The round can be too tight in the chamber and the gun would not shoot, or be too loose in the chamber, resulting in a stoppage or ruptured cartridge. The other dimension that could not be held close enough was when the firing pin would fall. The solution to these problems was adjustable timing and headspace ("headspace" is the distance between the face of the bolt and the base of the cartridge case, fully seated in the chamber); the operator had to screw the barrel into the barrel extension, moving the barrel toward the bolt face to reach the proper headspace with simple gauges to allow the operator to adjust to the proper dimensions. By the late 20th century, the M2 was the only adjustable headspace weapon in the U.S. inventory. With rising reports of injuries from improperly headspaced weapons, the U.S. military held a competition for a quick change barrel conversion kit with fixed timing and headspace in 1997. Three companies offered kits and Saco Defense won the competition. However, funding was lost before the design could be fully evaluated and the program ended. In 2007, the military found money to start a new competition. Saco Defense had since been acquired by General Dynamics, which won the competition.
On October 15, 2010, the M2A1 heavy machine gun was type classified by the U.S. Army. Formerly known as the M2E2, the M2A1 incorporates improvements to the design including a quick change barrel (QCB) with a removable carrying handle, a new slotted flash suppressor that reduces muzzle flash by 95 percent, fixed headspace and timing, a modified bolt, and a manual trigger block safety. "Timing" is the adjustment of the gun so that firing takes place when the recoiling parts are in the correct position for firing. When a standard M2 had a barrel change, the headspace and timing had to be manually set. Improper adjustment could damage the weapon and cause serious injury to the user. Fixed headspace and timing reduces risk, and the carrying handle allows the barrel to be switched in seconds. In June 2011, the Army began conversion of M2HB machine guns to M2A1s. The M2A1 was named one of the greatest Army inventions of 2011. As of November 30, 2012, 8,300 built or converted M2A1s had been fielded by the U.S. Army; the program will upgrade the Army's entire M2 inventory of more than 54,000 guns. The U.S. Marine Corps plans to upgrade all of their ground-mounted M2s to M2A1 standard from 2016 to 2018. The first phase of conversions was completed in March 2017, with 3,600 M2A1s planned to be fielded by the Marines in total. The Israel Defense Forces adopted the M2-HQCB (the commercial version of the M2A1) in 2012 as a replacement to the M2HB.
FN Browning M.1939
An important derivative of the M2 Browning is the Mitrailleuse d´Avion Browning - F.N. Calibre 13,2 mm, more commonly known as the FN Browning M.1939. The FN Browning M.1939 was a heavily modified M2 Browning for aircraft use designed by FN Herstal for export. Their aim was to make a light, reliable heavy machine gun with the same damage output as a 20 mm autocannon. To achieve this they raised the firing rate to 1080 rpm and gave it a more powerful cartridge in form of the 13.2x99 mm Hotchkiss. This cartridge was basically a .50 BMG but with a 13.2 mm bullet (.52 in) and more explosive propellant. Besides the new cartridge, they designed a new bullet exclusively for this gun. The bullet was of a high explosive type and was designed to take down a small aircraft with a single hit. Tests showed that it was very effective against both cloth and aluminum skinned aircraft.
Due to the aforementioned improvements, the gun received interest from numerous nations when it entered the export market in 1939. Due to the start of World War 2 and the invasion of Belgium it was exported to only Romania and Sweden. Sweden was able to buy the majority of the weapons along with the blueprints to produce the weapon on their own without paying for a license. In Sweden the weapon received the designation Automatkanon m/39, short Akan m/39, meaning Autocannon m/39 and was later produced by Ericsson as the Akan m/39A. Sweden also gave the blueprints to Finland so they could produce the weapon. Since Finland was already producing 12.7 mm ammunition, the Finnish variant was rechambered to 12.7 mm (.50 bmg). The Finnish variant was designated VKT 12,70 LKk/42 and was produced by the state of Finland.
Aircraft guns
.50 Browning AN/M2
The M2 machine gun was widely used during World War II, and in later postwar conflicts, as a remote or flexible aircraft gun. For fixed (offensive) or flexible (defensive) guns used in aircraft, a dedicated M2 version was developed called the ".50 Browning AN/M2" or the "12.7 mm AN/M2". The "AN" stands for "Army/Navy", since the gun was developed jointly for use by both services. The AN/M2 designation was also used for other aircraft guns and therefore it is important to write the caliber before the designation.
The 12.7 mm AN/M2 had a cyclic rate of 600–800 rounds per minute, with the ability to be fired from an electrically operated remote-mount solenoid trigger when installed as a fixed gun. Cooled by the aircraft's slip-stream, the air-cooled 12.7 mm AN/M2 was fitted with a substantially lighter length barrel, reducing the weight of the complete unit to , which also had the effect of increasing the rate of fire. The full official designation for this weapon was "Browning Machine Gun, Aircraft, Cal. .50, AN/M2" (Fixed) or (Flexible).
The 12.7 mm AN/M2 was used on many aircraft during WWII, as it served as the main aircraft armament in the US military. Most US fighter aircraft were armed with four, six or eight AN/M2 MGs mounted in the wings. Some famous examples being the P-40, P-47, and P-51 for the USAAF and the F4F, F6F, and F4U for the US Navy. For bombers, the AN/M2 was used in both flexible and fixed positions for both offensive and defensive use. In flexible defensive positions, the B-17G Flying Fortress heavy bomber was armed with 13x AN/M2 guns in both turreted and flexible positions. In fixed offensive configurations, like on the B-25 Mitchell, commonly carried 6 to 12 fixed guns for strafing.
In foreign use the AN/M2 is often just referred to as the M2 Browning. In Sweden it was re-designated 12,7 mm automatkanon m/45 (short 12.7mm akan m/45) meaning 12.7 mm autocannon m/45. Note the Swedish Air Force used a different designation system which recognized the incendiary rounds as grenades, thus it was called autocannon. The AN/M2 was also produced in Finland under the export name Colt MG 53-2.
M296
The XM296/M296 is a further development of the AN/M2 machine gun for the OH-58 Kiowa Warrior helicopter. The M296 differs from previous remote firing variants in that it has an adjustable firing rate (500–850 rpm), while lacking a bolt latch (allowing single-shot operation). As an air-cooled gun used aboard a relatively slow rotary-wing aircraft, the M296 has a burst restriction rate of 50 rounds per minute sustained fire or 150 rounds per minute maximum while conducting peacetime training requirements; the combat firing rate is unrestricted but a ten-minute cooling period after prolonged firing is mandated to avoid stoppages due to overheating.
XM213/M213, XM218, GAU-15/A, GAU-16/A, and GAU-18/A
The XM213/M213 was a modernization and adaptation of existing .50 caliber AN/M2s in inventory for use as a pintle-mounted door gun on helicopters using the M59 armament subsystem.
The GAU-15/A, formerly identified as the XM218, is a lightweight member of the M2/M3 family. The GAU-16/A was an improved GAU-15/A with modified grip and sight assemblies for similar applications. Both of these weapons were used as a part of the A/A49E-11 armament subsystem (also known as the Defensive Armament System).
The GAU-18/A is a lightweight variant of the M2/M3 and is used on the USAF's MH-53 Pave Low and HH-60 Pave Hawk helicopters. These weapons use the M2HB barrel and are typically set up as left-hand feed, right-hand charging weapons, but on the HH-60 Pave Hawks that use the EGMS (External Gun Mount System) the gun is isolated from the shooter by a recoil-absorbing cradle and all weapons are set up as right-hand charge but vary between left- and right-hand feed depending on what side of the aircraft it is on. A feed chute adapter is attached to the left- or right-hand feed pawl bracket allowing the weapon to receive ammunition through a feed chute system connected to externally mounted ammunition containers holding 600 rounds each.
AN/M3, GAU-21/A, and M3P
During World War II, a faster-firing Browning was developed for aircraft use. The AN/M3 increased the rate of fire to around 1,200 rounds per minute while firing the same round with minimal change in weight or size. The AN/M3 was used in Korea on the P-51D-30, F-82 Twin Mustang (the XP-82 mounted a total of 14 AN/M3 machine guns), F-86 Sabre, F-84 Thunderjet, and F-80 Shooting Star, and in Vietnam in the XM14/SUU-12/A gun pod. Nowadays, two (2) can be found installed Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano aircraft as a fixed wing mounted standard weapon as designated as M3W with minor modification with reduced weight barrel, electronic box triggered from the cockpit with 250 rounds each.
The M3 series is used by the U.S. military in two versions, the M3M and M3P. The fixed, remote-firing version, the FN M3P, is employed on the Avenger Air Defense System and was used on the OH-58D, augmenting the XM296 .50 cal. machine gun. The M3M flexible machine gun has been adopted by USN under the designation GAU-21/A for use on helicopters. The GAU-21/A is also being used by the U.S. Marine Corps to upgrade from the XM-218/GAU-16 .50 cal. machine gun for the CH-53E, on the UH-1Y Venom, and on the Canadian Forces' CH-146 Griffon via the INGRESS upgrade. The Air Force is looking to replace the GAU-18 on the HH-60G Pave Hawk with the GAU-21 because of its higher 1,100 rpm rate of fire, longer 10,000-round barrel life, and lower recoil through the use of a soft mount. The M3M is also the primary machine gun used by the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm for helicopter armament on Wildcat and Merlin aircraft.
Users
The M2 family has been widely used abroad, primarily in its basic infantry configuration. A brief listing of designations for M2 family weapons follows:
See also
DShK, NSV, and Kord 12.7 mm machine guns, Soviet/Russian equivalents.
FN BRG-15 15.5 mm caliber machine gun
HMG PK-16, 12.7×108mm Pakistani equivalent
KPV heavy machine gun 14.5 mm caliber machine gun
List of crew-served weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
List of U.S. Army weapons by supply catalog designation
M85 machine gun, a vehicle-borne replacement for the M2 that proved unreliable and was removed from service
MG 131 machine gun, World War II 13 mm German aircraft-mounted gun
MG 18 TuF, a German 13.2 mm machine gun from WWI
Type 77/85, W85, Type 89, Type 171 12.7 mm machine guns, Chinese equivalents.
References
Citations
General bibliography
External links
.50 BMG machine guns
Cold War firearms of the United States
Short recoil firearms
World War II infantry weapons of the United States
World War II firearms of the United States
Machine guns of the United States
World War II machine guns
Weapons of the Philippine Army
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.50%20BMG
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.50 BMG
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The .50 Browning Machine Gun (.50 BMG, 12.7×99mm NATO and designated as the 50 Browning by the C.I.P.) is a caliber cartridge developed for the M2 Browning machine gun in the late 1910s, entering official service in 1921. Under STANAG 4383, it is a standard service cartridge for NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries. The cartridge itself has been made in many variants: multiple generations of regular ball, tracer, armor-piercing (AP), incendiary, and saboted sub-caliber rounds. The rounds intended for machine guns are made into a continuous belt using metallic links.
The .50 BMG cartridge is also used in anti-materiel rifles. A wide variety of ammunition is available, and the availability of match grade ammunition has increased the usefulness of .50 caliber rifles by allowing more accurate fire than lower quality rounds.
History
In response to the need for new anti-aircraft weaponry during World War I, John Browning developed the .50 BMG. He wanted the round to be used in a machine gun, and wanted the machine gun to be based on a scaled-up version of the M1917 Browning.
The development of the .50 BMG round is sometimes confused with the German 13.2 mm TuF, which was developed by Germany for an anti-tank rifle to combat British tanks during WWI and against aircraft. According to the American Rifleman: "Actually, the Browning .50 originated in the Great War. American interest in an armor-piercing cartridge was influenced by the marginal French 11 mm design, prompting U.S. Army Ordnance officers to consult Browning. They wanted a heavy projectile at 2700 feet per second (f.p.s.), but the ammunition did not exist. Browning pondered the situation and, according to his son John, replied, 'Well, the cartridge sounds pretty good to start. You make up some cartridges and we'll do some shooting.'"
The American Rifleman further explains that development was "[r]eputedly influenced by Germany's 13.2x92 mm SR (.53-cal.) anti-tank rifle" and that then "Ordnance contracted with Winchester to design a .50-cal. cartridge. Subsequently, Frankford Arsenal took over from Winchester, producing the historic .50 BMG or 12.7x99 mm cartridge. The Army then returned to John Browning for the actual gun. Teamed with Colt, he produced prototypes ready for testing and, ironically, completed them by Nov. 11, 1918—the Great War's end."
The round was put into use in the M1921 Browning machine gun. This gun was later developed into the M2HB Browning which with its .50 caliber armor-piercing cartridges went on to function as an anti-aircraft and anti-vehicular machine gun, capable of penetrating of face-hardened armor steel plate at , of rolled homogeneous armor at the same range, and at .
During World War II the .50 BMG was primarily used in the M2 Browning machine gun, in both its "light barrel" aircraft mount version and the "heavy barrel" (HB) version on ground vehicles, for anti-aircraft purposes. An upgraded variant of the M2 Browning HB machine gun used during World War II is still in use today. Since the mid-1950s, some armored personnel carriers and utility vehicles have been made to withstand 12.7 mm machine gun fire, restricting the destructive capability of the M2. It still has more penetrating power than lighter weapons such as general-purpose machine guns, though it is significantly heavier and more cumbersome to transport. Its range and accuracy, however, are superior to light machine guns when fixed on tripods, and it has not been replaced as the standard caliber for Western vehicle-mounted machine guns (Soviet and CIS armored vehicles mount 12.7×108mm NSVs, which are ballistically similar to .50 BMGs).
Decades later, the .50 BMG was chambered in high-powered rifles as well. The Barrett M82 .50 caliber rifle and later variants were developed during the 1980s and have upgraded the anti-materiel power of the military sniper. A skilled sniper can effectively neutralize an infantry unit by eliminating several targets (soldiers or equipment) without revealing his precise location. The long range (over one mile) between firing position and target allows time for the sniper to avoid enemy retaliation by either changing positions repeatedly, or by safely retreating.
Power
A common method for understanding the actual power of a cartridge is comparison of muzzle energies. The .30-06 Springfield, the standard caliber for American soldiers in both World Wars and a popular caliber amongst American hunters, can produce muzzle energies between . The .50 BMG round can produce between , depending on its powder and bullet type, as well as the weapon it is fired from. Due to the high ballistic coefficient of the bullet, the .50 BMG's trajectory also suffers less "drift" from cross-winds than smaller and lighter calibers, making the .50 BMG a good choice for high-powered sniper rifles.
Cartridge dimensions
The .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO) cartridge has a capacity of . The round is a scaled-up version of the .30-06 Springfield but uses a case wall with a long taper to facilitate feeding and extraction in various weapons.
The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 1 in , with eight lands and grooves. The primer type specified for this ammunition is a boxer primer that has a single centralized ignition point (US and NATO countries). However, some other countries produce the ammunition with Berdan primers that have two flash holes.
The average chamber pressure in this round as listed in TM43-0001-27, the U.S. Army Ammunition Data Sheets — Small Caliber Ammunition, not including plastic practice, short cased spotter, or proof/test loads, is . The proof/test pressure is listed as .
Military cartridge types
The .50 BMG cartridge is also produced commercially in a wide range of specifications, including armor piercing, tracing, and incendiary.
Cartridge, caliber .50, tracer, M1
This tracer is used for observing fire, signaling, target designation, and incendiary purposes. This bullet has a red tip.
Cartridge, caliber .50, incendiary, M1
This cartridge is used against unarmored, flammable targets. The incendiary bullet has a light blue tip
Cartridge, caliber .50, ball, M2
This cartridge is used against personnel and unarmored targets. This bullet has an unpainted tip.
Cartridge, caliber .50, armor piercing (AP), M2
This cartridge is used against lightly armored vehicles, protective shelters, and personnel, and can be identified by its black tip.
Cartridge, caliber .50, armor-piercing incendiary (API), M8
This cartridge is used, in place of the armor-piercing round, against armored, flammable targets. The bullet has a silver tip.
Cartridge, caliber .50, tracer, M10
Tracer for observing fire, signaling, target designation, and incendiary purposes. Designed to be less intense than the M1 tracer, the M10 has an orange tip.
Cartridge, caliber .50, tracer, M17
Tracer for observing fire, signaling, target designation, and incendiary purposes. Can be fired from the M82/M107 series of rifles.
Cartridge, caliber .50, armor-piercing incendiary tracer (API-T), M20
This cartridge is used in place of the armor-piercing round against armored, flammable targets, with a tracer element for observation purposes. This cartridge is effectively a variant of the M8 armor-piercing incendiary with the added tracer element. Can be fired from the M82/M107 series of rifles. This bullet has a red tip with a ring of aluminum paint.
Cartridge, caliber .50, tracer, headlight, M21
Tracer for use in observing fire during air-to-air combat. Designed to be more visible, the M21 is three times more brilliant than the M1 tracer.
Cartridge, caliber .50, incendiary, M23
This cartridge is used against unarmored, flammable targets. The tip of the bullet is painted blue with a light blue ring.
Cartridge, caliber .50, ball, M33
This cartridge is used against personnel and unarmored targets. Can be fired from the M82/M107 series of rifles.
Cartridge, caliber .50, saboted light armor penetrator (SLAP), M903
This cartridge has a 355 – 360 gr (23.00 – 23.33 g) heavy metal (tungsten) penetrator that is sabot-launched at a muzzle velocity of 4,000 ft/s (1,219 m/s). The 0.50 in (12.7 mm) diameter sabot is designed to separate after leaving the muzzle, releasing the 0.30 (7.62 mm) penetrator. It is injection molded of special high strength plastic and is reinforced with an aluminum insert in the base section. The cartridge is identified by an amber sabot (Ultem 1000). For use only in the M2 series of machine guns. This round can penetrate 0.75in (19 mm) of steel armor at .
Cartridge, caliber .50, saboted light armor penetrator tracer (SLAP-T), M962
Like the M903, this is a SLAP round, with the only difference being that the M962 also has a tracer element for observing fire, target designation, and incendiary purposes. It has a red plastic sabot for identification, and is used only in the M2 series of machine guns.
Cartridge, caliber .50, ball, XM1022
A long-range match cartridge specifically designed for long-range work using the M107 rifle.
Cartridge, caliber .50, M1022 long-range sniper
The .50 caliber M1022 has an olive green bullet coating with no tip ID coloration. The projectile is of standard ball design. It is designed for long-range sniper training and tactical use against targets that do not require armor-piercing or incendiary effects. It exhibits superior long range accuracy and is trajectory matched to MK211 grade A. The M1022 is ideal for use in all .50 caliber bolt-action and semi-automatic sniper rifles. The bullet remains supersonic out to from to .
Cartridge, caliber .50, high-explosive incendiary armor-piercing (HEIAP), Mk 211 Mod 0
A "combined effects" cartridge, the Raufoss Mk 211 Mod 0 HEIAP cartridge contains a .30 caliber tungsten penetrator, zirconium powder, and Composition A explosive. It can be used in any .50 caliber weapon in the US inventory with the exception of the M85 machine gun. The cartridge is identified by a green tip with a gray ring.
Cartridge, caliber .50, armor-piercing incendiary dim tracer (API-DT), Mk 257
The .50 caliber Mk 257 API-DT has a purple bullet tip. The bullet has a hardened steel core and incendiary tip. It is used in the M2, M3, and M85. Dim trace reduces the possibility of the weapon being located during night fire and is visible only with night-vision devices.
Cartridge, caliber .50, armor-piercing (AP), Mk 263 Mod 2
The .50 caliber Mk 263 has a black tip. The bullet has a hardened steel core and features double valleys to reduce bearing surface thereby decreasing friction and increasing stability. It is used in the M2, M3, and M85.
Cartridge, caliber .50, armor-piercing incendiary tracer (API-T), Mk 300 Mod 0
as with the Mk 211 Mod 0, but with a tracer component. This cartridge likely can be used in any .50 caliber weapon in the US inventory with the exception of the M85 machine gun, as with the Mk 211 Mod 0.
Cartridge, caliber .50, armor piercing explosive incendiary (APEI), Mk 169 Mod 2
This cartridge is used against hardened targets such as bunkers, for suppressive fire against lightly armored vehicles, and ground and aerial threat suppression. It is generally fired either from pilot-aimed aircraft-mounted guns or anti-aircraft platforms, both produced by FN Herstal. It is identified by a gray over yellow tip. A tracer variant of it also exists.
Cartridge, caliber .50, ball, Mk 323 Mod 0
Created by the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division, this cartridge uses M33 ball projectiles in polymer cases instead of brass. It has a clear polymer case, with a standard brass head fused at the bottom. The Mk 323 can be fired from M2HB/M2A1 machine guns and GAU-21/A aircraft guns with the same performance. It gives a 25 percent weight savings over brass-cased ammunition and allows 40 percent more ammunition to be carried for the same weight. The Mk 323's polymer casing is applied to tracer, AP, API, and SLAP projectiles.
DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) contracted with Teledyne Scientific Company to develop the EXACTO program, including a .50-caliber guided bullet. Videos published by DARPA show the guided bullet diverting to strike a moving target.
Links used for feeding machine guns
Two distinct and non-compatible metallic links have been used for the .50 BMG cartridge, depending upon the machine gun which will be firing the cartridges. The M2 and M9 links, "pull-out" designs, are used in the Browning M2 and M3 machine guns.
Pull-out cloth belts were also used at one time, but have been obsolete since 1945. The M15-series "push-through" links were used in the M85 machine gun.
Legal issues
The specified maximum diameter of an unfired .50 BMG bullet is ; while this appears to be over the .50 inch (12.7 mm) maximum allowed for non-sporting Title I firearms under the U.S. National Firearms Act, the barrel of a .50 BMG rifle is only .50 inch (12.7 mm) across the rifling lands and slightly larger in the grooves. The oversized bullet is formed to the bore size upon firing, forming a tight seal and engaging the rifling, a mechanism which in firearm terms is known as swaging. Subject to political controversy due to the great power of the cartridge (it is the most powerful commonly available cartridge not considered a destructive device under the National Firearms Act), it remains popular among long-range shooters for its accuracy and external ballistics. While the .50 BMG round is able to deliver accurate shot placement (if match grade ammunition is used) at ranges over , smaller caliber rifles produce better scores and tighter groups in competitions.
In response to legal action against the .50 BMG in the United States and Europe, an alternative chambering was developed. The .510 DTC Europ uses the same bullet, but has slightly different case dimensions. .510 DTC cases can be made by fire-forming .50 BMG cases in a .510 DTC chambered rifle. The new round has almost identical ballistics, but because of the different dimensions, rifles chambered for .50 BMG cannot fire the .510 DTC, and therefore rifles chambered for .510 DTC do not fall under many of the same legal prohibitions. Barrett offers a similar alternative, the .416 Barrett, which is based on a shortened .50 BMG case necked down to .416 caliber (10.3 mm).
A 1999 Justice Department Office of Special Investigations briefing on .50 caliber rifle crime identified several instances of the .50 BMG being involved in criminal activities. Most of the instances of criminal activity cited in the Office of Special Investigations briefing involved the illegal possession of a .50 BMG rifle. The briefing did not identify any instance of a .50 BMG rifle being used in the commission of a murder.
In the United States, Washington, D.C. disallows registration of .50 BMG rifles, thus rendering civilian possession unlawful. California prohibits the private purchase of a rifle capable of firing the .50 BMG through the .50 Caliber BMG Regulation Act of 2004. Connecticut specifically bans the Barrett 82A1 .50 BMG rifle. However, .50 BMG rifles registered prior to the enacted bans remain lawful to possess in California and Connecticut. Maryland imposes additional regulations on the sale and transfer of .50 BMG rifles and other "regulated firearms", and limits purchases of any firearm within this class to one per month, but does not impose registration requirements or any form of categorical ban.
Within the United Kingdom, it is legal to own a bolt action .50 BMG rifle with a section 1 Firearms Certificate. Applications requesting firearms in this caliber are assessed by the same criteria as smaller calibers; with the applicant having to prove they have a valid reason for owning such a weapon.
Contrary to a persistent misconception within the United States Armed Forces, using .50 BMG directly against enemy personnel is not prohibited by the laws of war. Writing for the Marine Corps Gazette, Maj Hays Parks states that "No treaty language exists (either generally or specifically) to support a limitation on [the use of .50 BMG] against personnel, and its widespread, longstanding use in this role suggests that such antipersonnel employment is the customary practice of nations." Parks theorizes that the misconception originated in historical doctrine discouraging the use of the M8C spotting rifle—an integral .50-caliber aiming aid for the M40 recoilless rifle—in the antipersonnel role. This limitation was entirely tactical in nature and was intended to hide the vulnerable M40 and its crew from the enemy until the main anti-tank gun was ready for firing; however, Parks concludes that some U.S. troops assumed the existence of a legal limitation on the use of .50-caliber projectiles more generally.
On May 1, 2020, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced a ban on various "military-style" firearms in Canada. This ban includes firearms that chamber the .50 BMG. The ban includes a two-year amnesty period before the firearms must be surrendered, with an as-yet-unannounced compensation program in the works.
Typical uses
The primary military use of this round is in the Browning M2HB heavy machine gun and the Barrett M82 anti-materiel rifle.
The U.S. Coast Guard uses .50 BMG rifles to disable outboard engines from armed helicopters during interdictions. Similarly, .50 BMG weapons have attracted attention from law enforcement agencies; they have been adopted by the New York City Police Department as well as the Pittsburgh Police. A .50 BMG round can effectively disable a vehicle when fired into the engine block. If it is necessary to breach barriers, a .50 BMG round will penetrate most commercial brick walls and concrete cinder blocks.
The .50 BMG round has been used as a sniper round as early as the Korean War. The former record for a confirmed long-distance kill was set by U.S. Marine sniper Carlos Hathcock in 1967 during the Vietnam War, at a distance of ; Hathcock used the .50 BMG in an M2 Browning Machine Gun equipped with a telescopic sight. This weapon was used by other snipers, and eventually purpose-built sniper rifles were developed specifically for this round.
In June 2017, a McMillan Tac-50 was used by a sniper with Canada's Joint Task Force 2 to kill an Islamic State insurgent in Iraq, setting the world record for the longest confirmed kill shot in military history at . Before that record, Canadian Army Corporal Rob Furlong of the PPCLI achieved what was then the longest-range confirmed sniper kill in history when he shot a Taliban combatant at during the 2002 campaign in the Afghanistan War. This was surpassed in 2009 by a British sniper in Afghanistan with using a .338 Lapua Magnum (8.58×70 mm) rifle.
In addition to long-range and anti-materiel sniping, the U.S. military uses .50 BMG weapons to detonate unexploded ordnance from a safe distance. It can disable most unarmored and lightly armored vehicles.
Some civilians use .50 caliber rifles for long-range target shooting: the US-based Fifty Caliber Shooters Association holds .50 BMG shooting matches.
Partial list of .50 BMG firearms
Carbines
Barrett M82CQ (a carbine version of the M82A3)
Bushmaster BA50 carbine (22" barrel version of the BA50)
Serbu Firearms BFG-50 Carbine (22" barrel version of the BFG-50 single-shot bolt-action)
Rifles
Accuracy International AS50
Accuracy International AW50
Accuracy International AX50
ArmaLite AR-50
Arms Tech Ltd. TTR-50
Barrett M82/M107
Barrett M95
Barrett M99
Bushmaster BA50
Desert Tech HTI
DSR-50
Gepárd anti-materiel rifle
McMillan TAC-50
OM 50 Nemesis
PGM Hécate II
Pindad SPR-2
Ramo M600
Robar RC-50
Serbu Firearms BFG-50 (single-shot bolt-action)
Serbu Firearms BFG-50a (magazine fed semi-automatic)
Serbu Firearms RN-50 (single-shot modified break-action)
Snipex M
Snipex Rhino Hunter
Steyr HS .50
WKW Wilk
Zastava M93 Black Arrow
Machine guns
GAU-19
M1921 Browning machine gun
M2 Browning machine gun
M85 machine gun
Rolls-Royce Experimental Machine Gun - only built as prototype
STK 50MG
XM218
XM312
XM806 (LW50)
Kord machine gun - export variant
Pistols
Triple Action Thunder
Chain gun
Profense PF 50
See also
.50 caliber handguns
12 mm caliber
12.7×108mm (Russian equivalent)
14.5×114mm
List of firearms
List of rifle cartridges
Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
High Explosive Incendiary/Armor Piercing Ammunition
.510 DTC EUROP
.510 Whisper
NATO EPVAT testing
Gun laws in the United States (by state)
.50 Caliber BMG Regulation Act of 2004
References
50 BMG
50 BMG
NATO cartridges
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1921
Winchester Repeating Arms Company cartridges
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIA%20C3
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VIA C3
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The VIA C3 is a family of x86 central processing units for personal computers designed by Centaur Technology and sold by VIA Technologies. The different CPU cores are built following the design methodology of Centaur Technology.
In addition to x86 instructions, VIA C3 CPUs contain an undocumented Alternate Instruction Set allowing lower-level access to the CPU and in some cases privilege escalation.
Cores
Samuel 2 and Ezra cores
VIA Cyrix III was renamed VIA C3 with the switch to the advanced "Samuel 2" (C5B) core. The addition of an on-die L2 cache improved performance somewhat. As it was not built upon Cyrix technology at all, the new name was just a logical step. To improve power consumption and reduce manufacturing costs, Samuel 2 was produced with 150 nm process technology.
The VIA C3 processor continued an emphasis on minimizing power consumption with the next die shrink to a mixed 130/150 nm process. "Ezra" (C5C) and "Ezra-T" (C5N) were only new revisions of the "Samuel 2" core with some minor modifications to the bus protocol of "Ezra-T" to match compatibility with Intel's Pentium III "Tualatin" cores. VIA enjoyed the lowest power usage in the x86 CPU market for several years. Performance, however, fell behind due to the lack of improvements to the design.
Uniquely, the retail C3 CPU shipped inside a decorative tin.
Nehemiah cores
The "Nehemiah" (C5XL) was a major core revision. At the time, VIA's marketing efforts did not fully reflect the changes that had taken place. The company addressed numerous design shortcomings of the older cores, including the half-speed FPU. The number of pipeline stages was increased from 12 to 16, to allow for continued increases in clock speed. Additionally, it implemented the cmov instruction, making it a 686-class processor. The Linux kernel refers to this core as the C3-2. It also removes 3DNow! instructions in favour of implementing SSE. However, it was still based upon the aging Socket 370, running the single data rate front-side bus at just 133 MHz.
Because the embedded system marketplace prefers low-power, low-cost CPU designs, VIA began targeting this segment more aggressively because the C3 fit those traits rather well. Centaur Technology concentrated on adding features attractive to the embedded marketplace. An example built into the first "Nehemiah" (C5XL) core were the twin hardware random number generators. (These generators are erroneously called “quantum-based” in VIA's marketing literature. Detailed analysis of the generator makes it clear that the source of randomness is thermal, not quantum.)
The "Nehemiah+" (C5P) (stepping 8) revision brought a few more advancements, including a high-performance AES encryption engine along with a notably small ball grid array chip package the size of a US 1 cent coin. At the time VIA also boosted the FSB to 200 MHz and introduced new chipsets such as the CN400 to support it. The new 200 MHz FSB chips are only available in BGA packages, as they are not compatible with existing Socket 370 motherboards.
When this architecture was marketed it was often referred to as the "VIA C5".
Technical information
Comparative die size
Design methodology
While slower than x86 CPUs being sold by AMD and Intel, both in absolute terms and on a clock-for-clock basis, VIA's chips were much smaller, cheaper to manufacture, and lower power. This made them highly attractive in the embedded marketplace.
This also enabled VIA to continue to scale the frequencies of their chips with each manufacturing process die shrink, while competitive products from Intel (such as the P4 Prescott) encountered severe thermal management issues, although the later Intel Core generation of chips were substantially cooler.
C3
Because memory performance is the limiting factor in many benchmarks, VIA processors implement large primary caches, large TLBs, and aggressive prefetching, among other enhancements. While these features are not unique to VIA, memory access optimization is one area where they have not dropped features to save die space.
Clock frequency is in general terms favored over increasing instructions per cycle. Complex features such as out-of-order instruction execution are deliberately not implemented, because they impact the ability to increase the clock rate, require a lot of extra die space and power, and have little impact on performance in several common application scenarios.
The pipeline is arranged to provide one-clock execution of the heavily used register–memory and memory–register forms of x86 instructions. Several frequently used instructions require fewer pipeline clocks than on other x86 processors.
Infrequently used x86 instructions are implemented in microcode and emulated. This saves die space and reduces power consumption. The impact upon the majority of real-world application scenarios is minimized.
These design guidelines are derivative from the original RISC advocates, who stated a smaller set of instructions, better optimized, would deliver faster overall CPU performance. As it makes heavy use of memory operands, both as source and destination, the C3 design itself cannot qualify as RISC however.
Business
Contracts
VIA's embedded platform products have reportedly (2005) been adopted in Nissan's car series, the Lafesta, Murano, and Presage. These and other high volume industrial applications are starting to generate big profits for VIA as the small form factor and low power advantages close embedded deals.
Legal issues
On the basis of the IDT Centaur acquisition, VIA appears to have come into possession of at least three patents, which cover key aspects of processor technology used by Intel. On the basis of the negotiating leverage these patents offered, in 2003 VIA arrived at an agreement with Intel that allowed for a ten-year patent cross license, enabling VIA to continue to design and manufacture x86 compatible CPUs. VIA was also granted a three-year period of grace in which it could continue to use Intel socket infrastructure.
See also
List of VIA C3 microprocessors
List of VIA Eden microprocessors
List of VIA microprocessors
References
Further reading
External links
VIA-C3-Nehemiah review
VIA C3 Gold CPU - 1 GHz
VIA's Small & Quiet Eden Platform
GHz_processor_review/ VIA C3 1 GHz Processor Review
BlueSmoke - Review : VIA C3 Processor
http://www.cpushack.com/VIA.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20070717014946/http://www.sandpile.org/impl/c5.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20060615180950/http://www.sandpile.org/impl/c5xl.htm
VIA C3 Kernel for FreeBSD
C3
Embedded microprocessors
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[
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] |
246731
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebert
|
Ebert
|
Ebert is a surname of German origin. Notable people with the surname include:
Alex Ebert (born 1978), lead singer for the band Ima Robot
Anton Ebert (1845–1896), Austrian painter
Beanie Ebert (1902–1980), American football player
Blanche Ebert Seaver (1891–1994), American philanthropist and musician
Brad Ebert (born 1990), Australian football player
Brett Ebert (born 1983), Australian football player
Carl Ebert (1887–1980), opera manager and director
Carl Ebert (painter) (1821–1885), German landscape painter
Friedrich Adolf Ebert (1791–1834), German bibliothekar
Friedrich Ebert (1871–1925), German politician (SPD)
Friedrich Ebert Jr. (1894–1979), German politician (SPD and SED)
Gabriel Ebert (born 1988), American actor
Hermann Ebert (1861–1913), German physicist
Jakob Ebert (1549–1614), German theologian and poet
Johann Arnold Ebert (1723–1795), German writer and translator
Johann Jakob Ebert (1737–1805), German mathematician and author
Karl Ebert (1916–1974), Catholic theologian and auxiliary bishop
Karl Egon Ebert (1801–1882), Bohemian German poet
Patrick Ebert (born 1987), German footballer
Roger Ebert (1942–2013), American film critic
Russell Ebert (1949–2021), Australian rules football player
Ute Ebert, German and Dutch physicist
See also
Eberts (disambiguation)
German-language surnames
|
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] |
246740
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMS
|
MMS
|
MMS may refer to:
Science and technology
Network communication protocols
Multimedia Messaging Service for mobile phones
Microsoft Media Server, a content-streaming protocol (mms://)
Manufacturing Message Specification for real time process data
Other
Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission, NASA
Massachusetts Medical Society
Methyl methanesulfonate
Moment magnitude scale of earthquake energy
Multiscale Modeling and Simulation journal
Schools
Modern Montessori School, Amman, Jordan
Marshall Middle School (Pittsburgh), US
Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, US, formerly Mayo Medical School
Margaret Mace School, the only school of the North Wildwood School District
Government and politics
Minerals Management Service, former U.S. agency
Movimento Mérito e Sociedade (Merit and Society Movement), Portuguese political party
Other uses
M&M's
Machinist's mate (shop mechanic), US Navy
Miracle Mineral Supplement, bleach fraudulently sold as medicine
M.M.S. (Mobile Missile System), a G.I. Joe playset
Metropolitan mountaineering society, Philippines
Metro Manila Subway, an under-construction rapid transit line in Philippines
Medical Mission Sisters, a religious congregation
MMS-class minesweeper, a class of British warships
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant%20salamander
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Giant salamander
|
The Cryptobranchidae are a family of fully aquatic salamanders commonly known as the giant salamanders. They include the largest living amphibians. The family is native to China, Japan, and the eastern United States. They constitute one of two living families within the Cryptobranchoidea, one of two main divisions of living salamanders, the other being the Asiatic salamanders belonging to the family Hynobiidae.
The largest species are in the genus Andrias, native to east Asia. The South China giant salamander (Andrias sligoi), can reach a length of . The Japanese giant salamander (Andrias japonicus) reaches up to in length, feeds at night on fish and crustaceans, and has been known to live for more than 50 years in captivity.
The hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) inhabits the eastern United States and is the only member of the genus Cryptobranchus.
Taxonomy
The family name is from the Ancient Greek krypto ("hidden"), and branch ("gill"), which refer to how the members absorb oxygen through capillaries of their side-frills, which function as gills.
Clade Pancryptobrancha (Cryptobranchidae + Ukrainurus)
Genus †Ukrainurus Ukraine, Miocene
†Ukrainurus hypsognathus
Genus †Chunerpeton? China, Middle Jurassic
†Chunerpeton tianyiensis
Family Cryptobranchidae
Genus Cryptobranchus (hellbenders)
†Cryptobranchus saskatchewanensis? Ravenscrag Formation, Canada, Paleocene
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis (hellbender)
Genus Andrias (Asian giant salamanders; sometimes classified among the Cryptobranchus)
Andrias davidianus (Chinese giant salamander) – (Simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: ) (may actually be a species complex of 5 different species)
Andrias sligoi (South China giant salamander)
Andrias japonicus (Japanese giant salamander) – ()
†Andrias matthewi North America, Miocene
†Andrias scheuchzeri Europe, Oligocene-Pliocene
Genus †Eoscapherpeton Central Asia, Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Campanian)
Genus †Aviturus Mongolia, Paleocene
†Aviturus exsecratus
Genus †Ulanurus Mongolia, Paleocene
†Ulanurus fractus
Genus †Zaissanurus Kazakhstan, Oligocene
†Zaissanurus beliajevae
Fossil record
Extant species in the family Cryptobranchidae are the modern-day members of a lineage that extends back tens millions of years. The oldest known fossils of cryptobranchoids are known from the Middle Jurassic of China. Chunerpeton from the Middle Jurassic of China has been suggested to represent the oldest known cryptobranchid. However, some studies have found it to be a more basal cryptobranchoid not more closely related to Cryptobranchidae than to Hynobiidae. The next oldest cryptobranchid is Eoscapherpeton, known from numerous Late Cretaceous deposits in Central Asia, which is suggested to represent a stem-group to modern cryptobranchids. Modern crown group representatives appear during the Paleocene.
As the fossil record for the Cryptobranchidae shows an Asian origin for the family, how these salamanders made it to the eastern US has been a point of scientific interest. Research has indicated a dispersal via land bridge, with waves of adaptive radiation seeming to have swept the Americas from north to south.
In 1726, the Swiss physician Johann Jakob Scheuchzer described a fossil as Homo diluvii testis (Latin: Evidence of a diluvian human), believing it to be the remains of a human being who drowned in the biblical flood. The Teylers Museum in Haarlem, Netherlands, bought the fossil in 1802, where it is still exhibited. In 1812, the fossil was examined by Georges Cuvier, who recognized that it was not human. After being identified as a salamander, it was renamed Salamandra scheuchzeri by Holl in 1831. The genus Andrias was coined six years later by Tschudi. In doing so, both the genus, Andrias (which means "image of man"), and the specific name, scheuchzeri, ended up honouring Scheuchzer and his beliefs. It and the extant A. davidianus cannot be mutually distinguished, and the latter, only described in 1871, is therefore sometimes considered a synonym of the former.
Description
Cryptobranchids are large salamanders, with large folds of skin along their flanks. These help increase the animals' surface area, allowing them to absorb more oxygen from the water. They have four toes on the fore limbs, and five on the hind limbs. They have paedomorphic traits, meaning their metamorphosis from the larval stage is incomplete, so the adults retain gill slits (although they also have lungs), and lack eyelids. They have a stout body with a heavy, laterally compressed tail. They have bad eyesight. They can reach a length of , though most are considerably smaller today.
Distribution and habitat
In Japan, their natural habitats are threatened by dam-building. Ramps and staircases have been added to some dams to allow them to move upstream to areas where they spawn.
Behavior
A Japanese giant salamander lived for 52 years in captivity.
Feeding
The Chinese giant salamander eats aquatic insects, fish, frogs, crabs, and shrimp. They hunt mainly at night. As they have poor eyesight, they use sensory nodes on their heads and bodies to detect minute changes in water pressure, enabling them to find their prey.
Reproduction
During mating season, the salamanders travel upstream, where the female lays two strings of over 200 eggs each. Lacking the stereotypical courtship behaviors found in other species, the male fertilizes the eggs externally by releasing his sperm onto them, and then guards them for at least three months, until they hatch. Tail fanning also occurs in order to increase the oxygen supply for the eggs. At this point, the larvae live off their noticeable stored fat until ready to hunt. Once ready, they hunt as a group rather than individually.
Scientists at Hiroshima City Asa Zoological Park in Japan have recently discovered the male salamander will spawn with more than one female in his den. Only large males can occupy and guard a den. They guard the den against other males and sexually inactive females. Those that are sexually active are welcomed. On occasion, the male "den master" will also allow a second male (smaller male salamanders, named "satellite males", who do not have their own den) into the den; the reason for this is unclear.
References
External links
BBC article with video on Giant salamanders from Japan
Cryptobranchid Interest Group
Tree of Life: Cryptobranchidae
Chinese Giant Salamander
Japanese Giant Salamander
Cryptobranchoidea
Extant Middle Jurassic first appearances
Taxa named by Leopold Fitzinger
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-theory
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K-theory
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In mathematics, K-theory is, roughly speaking, the study of a ring generated by vector bundles over a topological space or scheme. In algebraic topology, it is a cohomology theory known as topological K-theory. In algebra and algebraic geometry, it is referred to as algebraic K-theory. It is also a fundamental tool in the field of operator algebras. It can be seen as the study of certain kinds of invariants of large matrices.
K-theory involves the construction of families of K-functors that map from topological spaces or schemes to associated rings; these rings reflect some aspects of the structure of the original spaces or schemes. As with functors to groups in algebraic topology, the reason for this functorial mapping is that it is easier to compute some topological properties from the mapped rings than from the original spaces or schemes. Examples of results gleaned from the K-theory approach include the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem, Bott periodicity, the Atiyah–Singer index theorem, and the Adams operations.
In high energy physics, K-theory and in particular twisted K-theory have appeared in Type II string theory where it has been conjectured that they classify D-branes, Ramond–Ramond field strengths and also certain spinors on generalized complex manifolds. In condensed matter physics K-theory has been used to classify topological insulators, superconductors and stable Fermi surfaces. For more details, see K-theory (physics).
Grothendieck completion
The Grothendieck completion of an abelian monoid into an abelian group is a necessary ingredient for defining K-theory since all definitions start by constructing an abelian monoid from a suitable category and turning it into an abelian group through this universal construction. Given an abelian monoid let be the relation on defined by
if there exists a such that Then, the set has the structure of a group where:
Equivalence classes in this group should be thought of as formal differences of elements in the abelian monoid. This group is also associated with a monoid homomorphism given by which has a certain universal property.
To get a better understanding of this group, consider some equivalence classes of the abelian monoid . Here we will denote the identity element of by so that will be the identity element of First, for any since we can set and apply the equation from the equivalence relation to get This implies
hence we have an additive inverse for each element in . This should give us the hint that we should be thinking of the equivalence classes as formal differences Another useful observation is the invariance of equivalence classes under scaling:
for any
The Grothendieck completion can be viewed as a functor and it has the property that it is left adjoint to the corresponding forgetful functor That means that, given a morphism of an abelian monoid to the underlying abelian monoid of an abelian group there exists a unique abelian group morphism
Example for natural numbers
An illustrative example to look at is the Grothendieck completion of . We can see that For any pair we can find a minimal representative by using the invariance under scaling. For example, we can see from the scaling invariance that
In general, if then
which is of the form or
This shows that we should think of the as positive integers and the as negative integers.
Definitions
There are a number of basic definitions of K-theory: two coming from topology and two from algebraic geometry.
Grothendieck group for compact Hausdorff spaces
Given a compact Hausdorff space consider the set of isomorphism classes of finite-dimensional vector bundles over , denoted and let the isomorphism class of a vector bundle be denoted . Since isomorphism classes of vector bundles behave well with respect to direct sums, we can write these operations on isomorphism classes by
It should be clear that is an abelian monoid where the unit is given by the trivial vector bundle . We can then apply the Grothendieck completion to get an abelian group from this abelian monoid. This is called the K-theory of and is denoted .
We can use the Serre–Swan theorem and some algebra to get an alternative description of vector bundles over the ring of continuous complex-valued functions as projective modules. Then, these can be identified with idempotent matrices in some ring of matrices . We can define equivalence classes of idempotent matrices and form an abelian monoid . Its Grothendieck completion is also called . One of the main techniques for computing the Grothendieck group for topological spaces comes from the Atiyah–Hirzebruch spectral sequence, which makes it very accessible. The only required computations for understanding the spectral sequences are computing the group for the spheres pg 51-110.
Grothendieck group of vector bundles in algebraic geometry
There is an analogous construction by considering vector bundles in algebraic geometry. For a Noetherian scheme there is a set of all isomorphism classes of algebraic vector bundles on . Then, as before, the direct sum of isomorphisms classes of vector bundles is well-defined, giving an abelian monoid . Then, the Grothendieck group is defined by the application of the Grothendieck construction on this abelian monoid.
Grothendieck group of coherent sheaves in algebraic geometry
In algebraic geometry, the same construction can be applied to algebraic vector bundles over a smooth scheme. But, there is an alternative construction for any Noetherian scheme . If we look at the isomorphism classes of coherent sheaves we can mod out by the relation if there is a short exact sequence
This gives the Grothendieck-group which is isomorphic to if is smooth. The group is special because there is also a ring structure: we define it as
Using the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem, we have that
is an isomorphism of rings. Hence we can use for intersection theory.
Early history
The subject can be said to begin with Alexander Grothendieck (1957), who used it to formulate his Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem. It takes its name from the German Klasse, meaning "class". Grothendieck needed to work with coherent sheaves on an algebraic variety X. Rather than working directly with the sheaves, he defined a group using isomorphism classes of sheaves as generators of the group, subject to a relation that identifies any extension of two sheaves with their sum. The resulting group is called K(X) when only locally free sheaves are used, or G(X) when all are coherent sheaves. Either of these two constructions is referred to as the Grothendieck group; K(X) has cohomological behavior and G(X) has homological behavior.
If X is a smooth variety, the two groups are the same. If it is a smooth affine variety, then all extensions of locally free sheaves split, so the group has an alternative definition.
In topology, by applying the same construction to vector bundles, Michael Atiyah and Friedrich Hirzebruch defined K(X) for a topological space X in 1959, and using the Bott periodicity theorem they made it the basis of an extraordinary cohomology theory. It played a major role in the second proof of the Atiyah–Singer index theorem (circa 1962). Furthermore, this approach led to a noncommutative K-theory for C*-algebras.
Already in 1955, Jean-Pierre Serre had used the analogy of vector bundles with projective modules to formulate Serre's conjecture, which states that every finitely generated projective module over a polynomial ring is free; this assertion is correct, but was not settled until 20 years later. (Swan's theorem is another aspect of this analogy.)
Developments
The other historical origin of algebraic K-theory was the work of J. H. C. Whitehead and others on what later became known as Whitehead torsion.
There followed a period in which there were various partial definitions of higher K-theory functors. Finally, two useful and equivalent definitions were given by Daniel Quillen using homotopy theory in 1969 and 1972. A variant was also given by Friedhelm Waldhausen in order to study the algebraic K-theory of spaces, which is related to the study of pseudo-isotopies. Much modern research on higher K-theory is related to algebraic geometry and the study of motivic cohomology.
The corresponding constructions involving an auxiliary quadratic form received the general name L-theory. It is a major tool of surgery theory.
In string theory, the K-theory classification of Ramond–Ramond field strengths and the charges of stable D-branes was first proposed in 1997.
Examples and properties
K0 of a field
The easiest example of the Grothendieck group is the Grothendieck group of a point for a field . Since a vector bundle over this space is just a finite dimensional vector space, which is a free object in the category of coherent sheaves, hence projective, the monoid of isomorphism classes is corresponding to the dimension of the vector space. It is an easy exercise to show that the Grothendieck group is then .
K0 of an Artinian algebra over a field
One important property of the Grothendieck group of a Noetherian scheme is that it is invariant under reduction, hence . Hence the Grothendieck group of any Artinian -algebra is a direct sum of copies of , one for each connected component of its spectrum. For example,
K0 of projective space
One of the most commonly used computations of the Grothendieck group is with the computation of for projective space over a field. This is because the intersection numbers of a projective can be computed by embedding and using the push pull formula . This makes it possible to do concrete calculations with elements in without having to explicitly know its structure since
One technique for determining the Grothendieck group of comes from its stratification as
since the Grothendieck group of coherent sheaves on affine spaces are isomorphic to , and the intersection of is generically
for .
K0 of a projective bundle
Another important formula for the Grothendieck group is the projective bundle formula: given a rank r vector bundle over a Noetherian scheme , the Grothendieck group of the projective bundle is a free -module of rank r with basis . This formula allows one to compute the Grothendieck group of . This make it possible to compute the or Hirzebruch surfaces. In addition, this can be used to compute the Grothendieck group by observing it is a projective bundle over the field .
K0 of singular spaces and spaces with isolated quotient singularities
One recent technique for computing the Grothendieck group of spaces with minor singularities comes from evaluating the difference between and , which comes from the fact every vector bundle can be equivalently described as a coherent sheaf. This is done using the Grothendieck group of the Singularity category from derived noncommutative algebraic geometry. It gives a long exact sequence starting with
where the higher terms come from higher K-theory. Note that vector bundles on a singular are given by vector bundles on the smooth locus . This makes it possible to compute the Grothendieck group on weighted projective spaces since they typically have isolated quotient singularities. In particular, if these singularities have isotropy groups then the map
is injective and the cokernel is annihilated by for pg 3.
K0 of a smooth projective curve
For a smooth projective curve the Grothendieck group is
for Picard group of . This follows from the Brown-Gersten-Quillen spectral sequencepg 72 of algebraic K-theory. For a regular scheme of finite type over a field, there is a convergent spectral sequence
for the set of codimension points, meaning the set of subschemes of codimension , and the algebraic function field of the subscheme. This spectral sequence has the propertypg 80
for the Chow ring of , essentially giving the computation of . Note that because has no codimension points, the only nontrivial parts of the spectral sequence are , hence
The coniveau filtration can then be used to determine as the desired explicit direct sum since it gives an exact sequence
where the left hand term is isomorphic to and the right hand term is isomorphic to . Since , we have the sequence of abelian groups above splits, giving the isomorphism. Note that if is a smooth projective curve of genus over , then
Moreover, the techniques above using the derived category of singularities for isolated singularities can be extended to isolated Cohen-Macaulay singularities, giving techniques for computing the Grothendieck group of any singular algebraic curve. This is because reduction gives a generically smooth curve, and all singularities are Cohen-Macaulay.
Applications
Virtual bundles
One useful application of the Grothendieck-group is to define virtual vector bundles. For example, if we have an embedding of smooth spaces then there is a short exact sequence
where is the conormal bundle of in . If we have a singular space embedded into a smooth space we define the virtual conormal bundle as
Another useful application of virtual bundles is with the definition of a virtual tangent bundle of an intersection of spaces: Let be projective subvarieties of a smooth projective variety. Then, we can define the virtual tangent bundle of their intersection as
Kontsevich uses this construction in one of his papers.
Chern characters
Chern classes can be used to construct a homomorphism of rings from the topological K-theory of a space to (the completion of) its rational cohomology. For a line bundle L, the Chern character ch is defined by
More generally, if is a direct sum of line bundles, with first Chern classes the Chern character is defined additively
The Chern character is useful in part because it facilitates the computation of the Chern class of a tensor product. The Chern character is used in the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem.
Equivariant K-theory
The equivariant algebraic K-theory is an algebraic K-theory associated to the category of equivariant coherent sheaves on an algebraic scheme with action of a linear algebraic group , via Quillen's Q-construction; thus, by definition,
In particular, is the Grothendieck group of . The theory was developed by R. W. Thomason in 1980s. Specifically, he proved equivariant analogs of fundamental theorems such as the localization theorem.
See also
Bott periodicity
KK-theory
KR-theory
List of cohomology theories
Algebraic K-theory
Topological K-theory
Operator K-theory
Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem
Notes
References
External links
Grothendieck-Riemann-Roch
Max Karoubi's Page
K-theory preprint archive
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Ossian%20Flipper
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Henry Ossian Flipper
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Henry Ossian Flipper (March 21, 1856 – April 26, 1940) was an American soldier, engineer, former slave and in 1877, the first African American to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point, earning a commission as a second lieutenant in the United States Army. He was also an author who wrote about scientific topics and his life experiences.
After his commissioning, he was assigned to one of the all-black regiments in the U.S. Army, which were historically led by white officers. Assigned to 'A' Troop under the command of Captain Nicholas M. Nolan, he became the first nonwhite officer to lead buffalo soldiers of the 10th Cavalry. Flipper served with competency and distinction during the Apache Wars and the Victorio Campaign, but was haunted by rumors alleging improprieties. Eventually, he was court-martialed and dismissed from the U.S. Army.
After losing his commission in the Army, Flipper worked throughout Mexico and Latin America as an assistant to the Secretary of the Interior. He retired to Atlanta in 1931 and died of natural causes in 1940.
In 1994, his descendants applied to the U.S. military for a review of Flipper's court-martial and dismissal. A review found the conviction and punishment were "unduly harsh and unjust" and recommended Flipper's dismissal be changed to a good conduct discharge. Shortly afterwards, an application for pardon was filed with the Secretary of the Army, which was forwarded to the Department of Justice. President Bill Clinton posthumously pardoned Lieutenant Henry O. Flipper on February 19, 1999, 118 years after his conviction.
Early life and education
Flipper was born into slavery in Thomasville, Georgia, the eldest of five brothers including Joseph Simeon. His mother, Isabelle Flipper, and his father, Festus Flipper, a shoemaker and carriage-trimmer, were owned by Ephraim G. Ponder, a wealthy slave dealer.
Flipper attended Atlanta University during Reconstruction. There, as a freshman, he was appointed by Representative James C. Freeman to attend West Point, where four other black cadets were already attending. The small group had a difficult time at the academy, where they were rejected by white students. Nevertheless, Flipper persevered, and in 1877, became the first of the group to graduate, earning a commission as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army cavalry. He was assigned to the 10th Cavalry Regiment, one of the four all-black "buffalo soldier" regiments in the Army, and became the first black officer to command regular troops in the U.S. Army (all-black regiments had been commanded by white officers).
10th Cavalry Regiment
In July 1877, Flipper reported to Fort Sill in the Indian Territory, for assignment with the 10th Cavalry. But the 10th was not at Fort Sill, they were at Fort Concho. He was not assigned to a cavalry troop, but given work assignments including engineering a ditch to drain a swamp that was malaria-infested. He supervised the construction of roads and telegraph lines. Finally, Flipper received orders to report to Fort Concho in West Texas in October 1877 and was assigned to 'A' Troop. He was the first nonwhite officer to lead buffalo soldiers of the 10th Cavalry.
Captain Nicholas M. Nolan, the commander of 'A' troop, was the officer assigned to teach him about being a cavalry officer. Nolan was censured by several white officers for allowing Flipper into his quarters for dinner, where his daughter Kate was present. Nolan defended his action by stating that Flipper was an "officer and a gentleman" just like any other officer present.
In August 1878, Captain Nolan married his second wife, Anne Eleanor Dwyer, in San Antonio, Texas. They had one child, a girl. Anne's sister, Miss Mollie Dwyer, arrived shortly after Troop A moved to Fort Elliott in Texas in early 1879. Mollie Dwyer and Flipper became friends and often went riding together. Nolan was the de facto commander of Fort Elliott and he made Flipper his adjutant. Flipper received high marks from his commander. However, rumors and letters hinted at improprieties against Flipper, an African American and Dwyer, a Caucasian. It was the beginning of a smear campaign. During the next many months, he sent and received letters from Mollie.
In the fall of 1879, a Federal Marshal named Norton, armed with blank warrants, began a quarrel with a county judge. Other county officials stepped in to defend the judge and Norton arrested all of them with his armed men. Norton took the county men to Fort Elliott to be placed in the guardhouse. Nolan was required by law to accept the prisoners, and Nolan apparently talked with the Wheeler County Judge. The telegraph lines then were suddenly cut and Nolan decided to act. Flipper gathered the prisoners in the middle of the night, and with two soldiers, set off for another fort in Indian Territory.
Norton captured the entire party and arrested Flipper and one of his soldiers. The other soldier ran back to the fort to report what had happened. Norton then set off for Dallas, Texas. Nolan mounted a detail of men and took off in pursuit. He caught up to the party and made it clearly known that no prisoners would be shot while trying to escape because the federal marshal and his prisoners were now under military escort. A federal judge dismissed the warrants and Norton filed federal charges of "interfering with the process of the law" against the two officers. The two officers were quickly tried and found guilty. Both were fined $1,000, which was an enormous fine for its time (). Norton was satisfied, then left. The federal judge then suspended payment and dismissed the two military officers. Army relations in Wheeler County improved tremendously. Nolan had Flipper under his wing for the first part of the Apache Wars in early 1879 until he was reassigned to G Troop. Until November 1879, during his captain's four-month leave, Flipper commanded this unit by himself and received a well done.
In May 1880, Flipper and Nolan reunited during the Victorio Campaign. It was the last time the two met. Throughout this period, his military career was encumbered by racism in the military, though he did have the support of some officers, such as Nolan, and many of the white civilians he encountered who were impressed by his competency. In the later part of 1880, Flipper was transferred to Fort Davis in West Texas and assigned as the post quartermaster and commissary officer.
End of military career
Colonel William Rufus Shafter assumed command at Fort Davis in March 1881. He had been the commander of the First Infantry Regiment at Fort Davis. Shafter had a reputation as harassing officers he disliked. Flipper was dismissed without cause as quartermaster within days. Then Shafter "asked" Flipper to keep the quartermaster's safe in his quarters. Being "asked" by a superior officer was a de facto order and Flipper complied. In July 1881, Flipper found a shortage of over $2,000.00 (). Realizing this could be used against him by officers intent on forcing him out of the army, he attempted to hide the discrepancy, which was later discovered, and then lied about it when confronted. In August, he was arrested by Shafter for embezzling government funds. Word quickly spread about the missing money. Many felt it was a setup and soldiers and the community came up with the money to replace what was missing within four days. Shafter accepted the money, then convened a court-martial on September 17, 1881.
In December 1881, the court-martial found Flipper innocent of the main charge, but another charge was added during the trial, and he was found guilty "of conduct unbecoming an officer and gentleman", and sentenced to be "dismissed from the service of the United States". It was more than a harsh sentence. In two prior situations involving white officers who had been found guilty of embezzlement, neither officer was dismissed nor dishonored. The letters exchanged between Mollie Dwyer (Nolan's sister-in-law) and Flipper were used against Flipper. Relationships between whites and blacks were strictly forbidden in the viewpoint of the white officers on the board. Despite appeals, and with the denial of a lighter sentence from President Chester A. Arthur, Flipper was drummed out of the army with a dismissal, the officer equivalent of a dishonorable discharge, on June 30, 1882. For the rest of his life, Flipper contested the charges and fought to regain his commission.
After the military
After his dismissal, Flipper remained in Texas, working as a civil engineer in El Paso. In 1898, he volunteered to serve in the Spanish–American War, but requests to restore his commission were ignored by Congress. Flipper spent time in Mexico where, according to folklorist J. Frank Dobie, he attempted to discover the location of the legendary lost silver mine of Tayopa. Upon returning to the United States, he served as an adviser to Senator Albert Fall on Mexican politics. When Senator Fall became Secretary of the Interior in 1921, he brought Flipper with him to Washington, D.C., to serve as his assistant.
In 1923, Flipper went to work in Venezuela as an engineer in the petroleum industry. He retired to Atlanta in 1931, and died in 1940. He was buried in the family plot at South-View Cemetery, but in February 1978 he was exhumed and reburied in his home town of Thomasville.
Legacy
In 1976, descendants and supporters applied to the Army Board for the Correction of Military Records on behalf of Flipper. The board, after stating it did not have the authority to overturn his court-martial conviction, concluded the conviction and punishment were "unduly harsh and unjust" and recommended that Flipper's dismissal be changed to a good conduct discharge. The Assistant Secretary of the Army (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) and the Adjutant General approved the board's findings, conclusions, and recommendations, and directed the Department of the Army to issue Flipper a Certificate of Honorable Discharge, dated June 30, 1882, in lieu of his dismissal on the same date. On October 21, 1997, a private law firm, Arnold & Porter, filed an application of pardon with the Secretary of the Army on Flipper's behalf. Seven months later, the application was forwarded by the Acting Assistant Secretary of the Army (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) to the Office of the Pardon Attorney at the Department of Justice with a recommendation that the pardon be approved. Many pardon applications had been rejected in the past – as a matter of policy – because the intended recipients were deceased. However, President Bill Clinton pardoned Flipper on February 19, 1999.
After his discharge was changed, a bust of Flipper was unveiled at West Point. Since then, an annual Henry O. Flipper Award has been granted to graduating cadets at the academy who exhibit "leadership, self-discipline, and perseverance in the face of unusual difficulties."
Throughout his life, Flipper was a prolific author, writing about scientific topics, the history of the Southwest, and his own experiences. In The Colored Cadet at West Point (1878) he describes his experiences at the military academy. In the posthumous Negro Frontiersman: The Western Memoirs of Henry O. Flipper (1963), he describes his life in Texas and Arizona after his discharge from the Army.
See also
James Webster Smith, first black cadet at West Point
List of African-American firsts
List of people pardoned by Bill Clinton
Dreyfus affair
References
Further reading
The Colored Cadet at West Point. Autobiography of Lieut. Henry Ossian Flipper, U.S. A., First Graduate of Color from the U.S. Military Academy. New York: Homer Lee & Co., 1878.
Lieutenant Henry Ossian Flipper, U.S. Army 1856–1940 at the United States Army Center of Military History
Additional information on famous presidential pardons.
Henry O. Flipper Collection Finding Aid at the Archives Research Center of the Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center.
External links
Lt. Flipper: The First Black Graduate of West Point
Henry O. Flipper Dinner
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Flipper, Henry O.
Henry Flipper: Groundbreaking Graduate U.S. Army
Lt Henry O. Flipper's Quest for Justice
Fort Concho National Historic Landmark and museum.
The Colored Cadet at West Point. Autobiography of Lieut. Henry Ossian Flipper, U. S. A., first graduate of color from the U. S. Military Academy
1856 births
1940 deaths
19th-century American military personnel
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
19th-century American slaves
Buffalo Soldiers
Clark Atlanta University alumni
Military personnel from Georgia (U.S. state)
People from Thomasville, Georgia
People who have received posthumous pardons
Recipients of American presidential pardons
United States Army officers
United States Army personnel who were court-martialed
United States Military Academy alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Inge
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William Inge
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William Motter Inge (; May 3, 1913 – June 10, 1973) was an American playwright and novelist, whose works typically feature solitary protagonists encumbered with strained sexual relations. In the early 1950s he had a string of memorable Broadway productions, including Picnic, which earned him a Pulitzer Prize. With his portraits of small-town life and settings rooted in the American heartland, Inge became known as the "Playwright of the Midwest".
Early years
Inge was born in Independence, Kansas, the fifth child of Maude Sarah Gibson-Inge and Luther Clay Inge. William attended Independence Community College and graduated from the University of Kansas in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Speech and Drama. At the University of Kansas he was a member of the Nu chapter of Sigma Nu. Offered a scholarship to work on a Master of Arts degree, Inge moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to attend the George Peabody College for Teachers, but later dropped out.
Back in Kansas, he worked as a laborer on state highways and as a Wichita news announcer. From 1937 to 1938 he taught English and drama at Cherokee County Community High School in Columbus, Kansas. After returning and completing his Master's at Peabody in 1938, he taught at Stephens College in Columbia, Missouri, from 1938 to 1943.
Career
Inge began as a drama critic at the St. Louis Star-Times in 1943. With Tennessee Williams's encouragement, Inge wrote his first play, Farther Off from Heaven (1947), which was staged at Margo Jones' Theatre '47 in Dallas, Texas. As a teacher at Washington University in St. Louis between 1946 and 1949, he wrote Come Back, Little Sheba. It ran on Broadway for 190 performances in 1950, winning Tony Awards for Shirley Booth and Sidney Blackmer. (The 1952 film adaptation won both an Oscar and a Golden Globe for Shirley Booth. Willy van Hemert directed a 1955 adaptation for Dutch television, and NBC aired another TV production in 1977.) During his time teaching at Washington University, Inge's struggles with alcoholism became more acute; in 1947, he joined Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). It was through AA that Inge met the wife of a member of his AA group whose name was Lola and, who through name as well as personal characteristics, was the person upon whom one of the lead characters in Come Back, Little Sheba, "Lola", was based. Even as Come Back, Little Sheba was in a pre-Broadway run in early 1950, Inge was filled with some doubt as to its success. He expressed in a letter to his sponsor in Alcoholics Anonymous, "If Sheba makes it in Hartford I guess it will go on to Broadway and if it doesn't I suppose I'll be back in St. Louis. If it does make it to Broadway, I don't know when I'll be back." Inge never had to return to St. Louis.
In 1953, Inge received a Pulitzer Prize for Picnic, a play based on women he had known as a small child:
When I was a boy in Kansas, my mother had a boarding house. There were three women school teachers living in the house. I was four years old, and they were nice to me. I liked them. I saw their attempts, and, even as a child, I sensed every woman’s failure. I began to sense the sorrow and the emptiness in their lives, and it touched me.
Picnic had a successful Broadway run from February 19, 1953, to April 10, 1954. A film adaptation made in 1955 was directed by Joshua Logan and won two Academy Awards.
In 1953, Inge's short play Glory in the Flower was telecast on Omnibus with a cast of Hume Cronyn, Jessica Tandy, and James Dean.
In 1955 his play Bus Stop premiered. Inge's inspiration of boy-pursuing-girl came from a similar situation he'd seen on a bus trip to Kansas City. Nominated for four Tony Awards including Best Play, it was made into a 1956 film starring Marilyn Monroe.
In 1957 he wrote The Dark at the Top of the Stairs, an expansion of his earlier Farther Off from Heaven. The play was nominated for five Tony Awards, including Best Play, and was adapted as a film in 1960.
His 1959 play A Loss of Roses, with Carol Haney, Warren Beatty, and Betty Field, was filmed as The Stripper (1963), with Joanne Woodward, Richard Beymer, and Claire Trevor, and a popular Jerry Goldsmith score.
Natural Affection had the misfortune to open on Broadway during the 1962 New York City newspaper strike, which lasted from December 8, 1962, until April 1, 1963. Thus, few were aware of the play, and fewer bought tickets. It lasted only 36 performances, from January 31, 1963, to March 2, 1963. What theatergoers missed was a drama exploring themes of fragmented families and random violence. As with Truman Capote's In Cold Blood, the inspiration for Natural Affection came from a newspaper account of a seemingly meaningless and unmotivated murder. The play centers on a single mother, Chicago department store buyer Sue Barker (Kim Stanley). While troubled teen Donnie (Gregory Rozakis), Sue's illegitimate son, has been away at reform school, she has entered into a relationship with Cadillac salesman Bernie Slovenk (Harry Guardino). With Donnie's unexpected return to her Chicago apartment, conflicts escalate, and Donnie finds himself on an emotional precipice. The closing five minutes of the play introduces a new character, a young woman Donnie meets in the apartment hallway. He invites her into the apartment and, without warning, kills her as the curtains close. The Broadway production, directed by Tony Richardson, benefited from composer John Lewis's made-to-order background music, which was provided via tape recordings, rather than live performance, and worked in the same fashion as a film score. A highly successful revival of Natural Affection was mounted in 2005 at Chicago's The Artistic Home. Directed by John Mossman, it was named by the Chicago Tribune one of the year's best productions.
Inge's The Last Pad premiered in Phoenix, Arizona, in 1972. Originally titled The Disposal, the world premiere of The Last Pad was produced by Robert L. "Bob" Johnson and directed by Keith A. Anderson through the Southwest Ensemble Theatre. The production starred Nick Nolte with Jim Matz and Richard Elmore (Elmer). The production moved to Los Angeles and opened just days after Inge died by suicide. The original production in Phoenix was proclaimed the Best Play of 1972 by the Arizona Republic, while the Los Angeles production brought awards to Nolte and helped introduce him to the film industry and catapult his subsequent film career.
The Last Pad is one of three of Inge's plays that either have openly gay characters or address homosexuality directly. The Boy in the Basement, a one-act play written in the early 1950s, but not published until 1962, is his only play that addresses homosexuality overtly, while Archie in The Last Pad and Pinky in Where's Daddy? (1966) are gay characters. Inge himself was closeted.
Summer Brave, produced posthumously on Broadway in 1975, is Inge's reworking of Picnic, as he noted:
It would be fair to say that Summer Brave is the original version of Picnic. I have written before that I never completely fulfilled my original intentions in writing Picnic before we went into production in 1953, and that I wrote what some considered a fortuitous ending in order to have a finished play to go into rehearsal. A couple of years after Picnic had closed on Broadway, after the film version had made its success, I got the early version out of my files and began to rework it, just for my own satisfaction. Summer Brave is the result. I admit that I prefer it to the version of the play that was produced, but I don't necessarily expect others to agree. Summer Brave might not have enjoyed any success on Broadway whatever, nor won any of the prizes that were bestowed upon Picnic. But I feel that it is more humorously true than Picnic, and it does fulfill my original intentions.
About two dozen unperformed plays by Inge began receiving wider attention in 2009. They were available for viewing, but not copying or borrowing, in the collection of his papers at Independence Community College. One, a three-act play titled Off the Main Road, was read at the Flea Theater in New York City on May 11, 2009, with Sigourney Weaver, Jay O. Sanders, and Frances Sternhagen in the cast. Another, The Killing, a one-act play, directed by José Angel Santana, and starring Neal Huff and J.J. Kandel, was performed at the 59E59 Theater, in New York City, through August 27, 2009. It is not yet known how many of these additional plays are complete. Besides Off the Main Road and The Killing, six others were performed in April 2009 at the William Inge Theater Festival, in Independence, Kansas. These six were published in A Complex Evening: Six Short Plays by William Inge.
Television and film
In 1961 Inge won an Academy Award for Splendor in the Grass (Best Writing, Story and Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screen). He made his film debut as a reverend in the film. John Frankenheimer directed All Fall Down (1962), Inge's screenplay adaptation of the novel by James Leo Herlihy. Inge was unhappy with changes made to his screenplay for Bus Riley's Back in Town (1965), so at his insistence, the writing credit on the film is "Walter Gage".
During the 1961–62 television season, Inge was the script supervisor of ABC's Bus Stop TV series, an adaptation of his play. With Marilyn Maxwell as Grace Sherwood, the owner of Sherwood's Bus Station and Diner in a fictitious Colorado town, the series presented dramas about the townspeople and travelers who passed through the diner in 25 one-hour episodes. The sixth episode, "Cherie", with Tuesday Weld, Gary Lockwood and Joseph Cotten, was an abbreviated version of the original Bus Stop play. Robert Altman directed eight episodes, and one of these, "A Lion Walks Among Us", led to a Congressional hearing on violence. The episode, which starred Fabian Forte as a maniacal axe-wielding serial killer, was adapted from Tom Wicker's novel Told By an Idiot.
In 1963 Inge met with CBS to consider a one-hour filmed television drama about a family in a Midwestern town. The series, with six continuing characters, had the tentative title All Over Town, and was planned for the 1964–65 season. Instead, Inge did a play, Out on the Outskirts of Town, which was seen November 6, 1964, on NBC as part of the Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre series. It starred Anne Bancroft and Jack Warden with Inge taking the role of the town doctor. NBC gave the play a repeat on June 25, 1965.
Novels
Inge wrote two novels, both set in the fictional town of Freedom, Kansas. In Good Luck, Miss Wyckoff (Atlantic-Little, Brown, 1970), high-school Latin teacher Evelyn Wyckoff loses her job because she has an affair with the school's black janitor. The novel's themes include spinsterhood, racism, sexual tension and public humiliation during the late 1950s. Polly Platt wrote the screenplay for the 1979 film adaptation starring Anne Heywood as Evelyn Wyckoff. The film was released under several titles: The Shaming, The Sin, Secret Yearnings and Good Luck, Miss Wyckoff.
My Son Is a Splendid Driver (Atlantic-Little, Brown, 1971) is an autobiographical novel that traces the Hansen family from 1919 into the second half of the 20th century. The novel received praise from Kirkus Reviews:
Mr. Inge's novel, told in the form of a memoir, is a little more extended than Good Luck, Miss Wyckoff and though there's a slackening of structure and splintering of content towards the second half, the first part is immaculate in both design and focus. It features the early years of Joey, the narrator here, and there are lovely scenes, as clear as the summer sunlight, with his family and on visits to assorted relatives. The time lag between Joey and his older brother Jule—his mother's favorite, my son the splendid driver, and an attractive playboy of this midwestern world—will never be reconciled. Even long after Jule's early death from a wanton incidental. Here Act I breaks away from Act II, a whole psychic anatomy of Joey's years as a young man in compressed and fractured incidents—one replayed from Miss Wyckoff and one which seems unnecessary (his parents' syphilis). Thus Joey grows up impaired, never resolving his relationship with his absentee father or insufficiently loving mother, and ends up with his "aloneness like a corridor that has no end". Inge has told his story of life and death and all those spaces in between with a gentleness and probity which gives his novel a persistence few writers achieve.
During the early 1970s Inge lived in Los Angeles, where he taught playwriting at the University of California, Irvine. His last several plays attracted little notice or critical acclaim, and he fell into a deep depression, convinced he would never be able to write well again.
Death and legacy
Inge died of suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning on June 10, 1973, at the Hollywood home he shared with his sister, Helene. He was 60 years old. Inge is buried at Mt. Hope Cemetery in his hometown of Independence, Kansas.
Inge has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.
Beginning with the premiere of Come Back, Little Sheba in 1950, Inge became wealthy from the success of his plays and movies. On the advice of his financial advisors, he began to buy works of contemporary art so he could reduce his taxes by donating them to museums. According to his biographer, “He bought only what he liked, but had excellent fortune in choosing what was going to become valuable...” [e.g. works by de Kooning, Pollock, and Modigliani]. Inge liked the modern art he bought because, “...in its abstractions and distortions” he saw “a reflection of the distorted times in which he...lived, the times he...tried to portray” in his written work. He donated a total of ten contemporary paintings to the Nelson Gallery in Kansas City, Missouri.
There is a black box theater named for William Inge in Murphy Hall at the University of Kansas.
Inge is a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame, inducted posthumously in 1979.
Since 1982, Independence Community College's William Inge Center for the Arts in his hometown, has sponsored the annual William Inge Theatre Festival to honor playwrights. The William Inge Collection at the college is the most extensive collection of Inge material, including 400 manuscripts, films, correspondence, theater programs, and other related items.
The March 2008 issue of The Brooklyn Rail featured interviews by playwright Adam Kraar of former Inge House resident playwrights Marcia Cebulska, Catherine Filloux, Caridad Svich, Lydia Stryk, and Alice Tuan, relating how Inge's life and work has influenced them.
Works
Plays
1950: Come Back, Little Sheba
1953: Picnic
1955: Bus Stop
1957: The Dark at the Top of the Stairs
1959: A Loss of Roses
1962: Summer Brave (a reworking of Picnic)
1963: Natural Affection
1966: Where's Daddy?
1973: The Last Pad
Off the Main Road
Short Plays
To Bobolink, for Her Spirit
People in the Wind
A Social Event
The Boy in the Basement
The Tiny Closet
Memory of Summer
Bus Riley's Back in Town
The Rainy Afternoon
The Mall
An Incident at the Standish Arms
The Strains of Triumph
1953: Glory in the Flower
The Killing
The Love Death
The Silent Call
Bad Breath
Morning on the Beach
Moving In
A Murder
Film and TV
1952: Come Back Little Sheba
1955: Picnic
1956: Bus Stop
1960: The Dark at the Top of the Stairs
1961: Splendor in the Grass - Reverend Whitman (uncredited)
1963: All Fall Down
1964: Out on the Outskirts of Town (a reworking of Off the Main Road) - Doctor (final appearance)
1965: Bus Riley's Back in Town (as Walter Gage)
Novels
1970: Good Luck, Miss Wyckoff
1971: My Son Is a Splendid Driver
See also
References
Further reading
Johnson, Jeff. William Inge and the Subversion of Gender: Rewriting Stereotypes in the Plays, Novels, and Screenplays. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland and Company, 2005.
Radavich, David. "William Inge's Dramatic Mindscape." South Dakota Review 42:3 (Fall 2004): 49–69.
Voss, Ralph F. A Life of William Inge: The Strains of Triumph. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2000.
Listen to
Natural Affection audio scenes and interview
External links
William Inge Center for the Arts, at Independence Community College, in Independence, Kansas.
William Motter Inge Collection at Pittsburg State University (Pittsburg, Kansas)
St. Louis Walk of Fame
William Inge Collection at the Kenneth Spencer Research Library at the University of Kansas
New York Public Library Blog about William Inge and Barbara Baxley
1913 births
1973 suicides
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American male screenwriters
Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners
American gay writers
Writers from Kansas
Novelists from Missouri
People from Independence, Kansas
Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners
Stephens College faculty
Suicides by carbon monoxide poisoning
Suicides in Kansas
University of Kansas alumni
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
Independence Community College alumni
LGBT dramatists and playwrights
American LGBT novelists
LGBT people from Kansas
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters
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] |
246753
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux%20Standard%20Base
|
Linux Standard Base
|
The Linux Standard Base (LSB) was a joint project by several Linux distributions under the organizational structure of the Linux Foundation to standardize the software system structure, including the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard used in the Linux kernel. LSB was based on the POSIX specification, the Single UNIX Specification (SUS), and several other open standards, but extended them in certain areas.
According to LSB:
The goal of the LSB is to develop and promote a set of open standards that will increase compatibility among Linux distributions and enable software applications to run on any compliant system even in binary form. In addition, the LSB will help coordinate efforts to recruit software vendors to port and write products for Linux Operating Systems.
LSB compliance might be certified for a product by a certification procedure.
LSB specified standard libraries (centered around the ), a number of commands and utilities that extend the POSIX standard, the layout of the file system hierarchy, run levels, the printing system, including spoolers such as CUPS and tools like Foomatic, and several extensions to the X Window System. It also specified boot facilities, such as $local_fs, $network, which were used to indicate service dependencies in System V-style initialization scripts. A machine readable comment block at the top of a script provided the information necessary to determine at which point of the initialization process the script should be invoked; it was called the LSB header.
The command lsb_release -a was available in many systems to get the LSB version details, or could be made available by installing an appropriate package, for example the redhat-lsb package in Red-Hat-flavored distributions such as Fedora, or the lsb-release package in Debian-based distributions.
The standard stopped being updated in 2015 and current Linux distributions do not adhere to or offer it; however, the lsb_release command is sometimes still available.
Backward compatibility
LSB was designed to be binary-compatible and produced a stable application binary interface (ABI) for independent software vendors. To achieve backward compatibility, each subsequent version was purely additive. In other words, interfaces were only added; no interfaces were removed. The LSB adopted an interface deprecation policy to give application developers enough time in case an interface was removed from LSB.
This allowed the developer to rely on every interface in LSB for a known time and also to plan for changes. Interfaces were only removed after having been marked "deprecated" for at least three major versions, or roughly eleven years.
LSB 5.0 was the first major release that broke backward compatibility with earlier versions.
Version history
1.0: Initial release June 29, 2001.
1.1: Released January 22, 2002. Added hardware-specific specifications (IA-32).
1.2: Released June 28, 2002. Added hardware-specific specifications (PowerPC 32-bit). Certification began July 2002.
1.2.1: Released October 2002. Added Itanium.
1.3: Released December 17, 2002. Added hardware-specific specifications (Itanium, Enterprise System Architecture/390, z/Architecture).
2.0: Released August 31, 2004
LSB is modularized to LSB-Core, LSB-CXX, LSB-Graphics, and LSB-I18n (not released)
New hardware-specific specifications (PowerPC 64-bit, AMD64)
Synchronized to Single UNIX Specification (SUS) version 3
2.0.1: Released October 21, 2004, ISO version of LSB 2.0, which included specification for all hardware architectures (except LSB-Graphics, of which only a generic version is available).
2.1: Released March 11, 2005.
3.0: Released July 1, 2005. Among other library changes:
GNU C Library version 2.3.4
C++ ABI is changed to the one used by gcc 3.4
The core specification is updated to ISO POSIX (2003)
Technical Corrigenda 1: 2005
3.1: Released October 31, 2005. This version has been submitted as ISO/IEC 23360.
3.2: Released January 28, 2008. This version has been submitted as ISO/IEC 23360.
4.0: Released November 11, 2008. This version contains the following features:
GNU C Library version 2.4
Binary compatibility with LSB 3.x
Easier to use SDK
Support for newer versions of GTK and Cairo graphical libraries
Java (optional module)
Simpler ways of creating LSB-compliant RPM packages
Crypto API (via the Network Security Services library) (optional module)
4.1: Released February 16, 2011:
Java removed
"Trial Use" modules from LSB 4.0, covering multimedia (ALSA), security (NSS) and desktop miscellaneous (xdg-utils) have been promoted as required submodules
Updated GTK+, Cairo and CUPS libraries
Three new test suites added
5.0: Released June 2, 2015
GNU C Library version 2.10 (for psiginfo)
First major release that breaks backward compatibility with earlier versions (compatible with LSB 3.0, and mostly compatible with LSB 3.1 and later, with some exceptions)
Incorporates the changes made in FHS 3.0
Qt 3 library has been removed
Evolved module strategy; LSB is modularized to LSB Core, LSB Desktop, LSB Languages, LSB Imaging, and LSB Trial Use
ISO standard
The LSB, version 3.1, is registered as an official ISO/IEC international standard. The main parts of it are:
ISO/IEC 23360-1:2006 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1 — Part 1: Generic specification
ISO/IEC 23360-2:2006 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1 — Part 2: Specification for IA-32 architecture
ISO/IEC 23360-3:2006 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1 — Part 3: Specification for IA-64 architecture
ISO/IEC 23360-4:2006 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1 — Part 4: Specification for AMD64 architecture
ISO/IEC 23360-5:2006 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1 — Part 5: Specification for PPC32 architecture
ISO/IEC 23360-6:2006 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1 — Part 6: Specification for PPC64 architecture
ISO/IEC 23360-7:2006 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1 — Part 7: Specification for S390 architecture
ISO/IEC 23360-8:2006 Linux Standard Base (LSB) core specification 3.1 — Part 8: Specification for S390X architecture
There is also ISO/IEC TR 24715:2006 which identifies areas of conflict between ISO/IEC 23360 (the Linux Standard Base 3.1 specification) and the ISO/IEC 9945:2003 (POSIX) International Standard.
ISO/IEC 23360 and ISO/IEC TR 24715 can be freely downloaded from ISO website.
Reception
While LSB was a standard and without a competitor, it was followed only by few Linux distributions. For instance, only 21 distribution releases (versions) were certified for LSB version 4.0, notably Red Flag Linux Desktop 6.0, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6.0, SUSE Linux Enterprise 11, and Ubuntu 9.04 (Jaunty Jackalope); even fewer were certified for version 4.1.
The LSB was criticized for not taking input from projects, most notably the Debian project, outside the sphere of its member companies.
Choice of the RPM package format
LSB specified that software packages should either be delivered as an LSB-compliant installer, or (preferably) be delivered in a restricted form of the RPM Package Manager format.
This choice of package format precluded the use of other existing package formats not compatible with RPM. To address this, the standard did not dictate which package format the system must use for its own packages, merely that RPM must be supported to allow packages from third-party distributors to be installed on a conforming system.
Limitations on Debian
Debian included optional support for LSB early on, at version 1.1 in "woody" (3.0; July 19, 2002), 2.0 in "sarge" (3.1; June 6, 2005), 3.1 in "etch" (4.0; April 8, 2007), 3.2 in "lenny" (5.0; February 14, 2009) and 4.1 in "wheezy" (7; May 4, 2013). To use foreign LSB-compliant RPM packages, the end-user needs to use Debian's Alien program to transform them into the native package format and then install them.
The LSB-specified RPM format had a restricted subset of RPM features—to block usage of RPM features that would be untranslatable to .deb with Alien or other package conversion programs, and vice versa, as each format has capabilities the other lacks. In practice, not all Linux binary packages were necessarily LSB-compliant, so while most could be converted between .rpm and .deb, this operation was restricted to a subset of packages.
By using Alien, Debian was LSB-compatible for all intents and purposes, but according to the description of their lsb package, the presence of the package "does not imply that we believe that Debian fully complies with the Linux Standard Base, and should not be construed as a statement that Debian is LSB-compliant."
Debian strived to comply with the LSB, but with many limitations. However, this effort ceased around July 2015 due to lack of interest and workforce inside the project. In September 2015, the Debian project confirmed that while support for Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) would continue, support for LSB had been dropped. Ubuntu followed Debian in November 2015.
Quality of compliance test suites
Additionally, the compliance test suites were criticized for being buggy and incomplete—most notably, in 2005 Ulrich Drepper criticized the LSB for poorly written tests which can cause incompatibility between LSB-certified distributions when some implement incorrect behavior to make buggy tests work, while others apply for and receive waivers from complying with the tests. He also denounced a lack of application testing, pointing out that testing only distributions can never solve the problem of applications relying on implementation-defined behavior.
For the vendors considering LSB certifications in their portability efforts, the Linux Foundation sponsored a tool that analyzed and provided guidance on symbols and libraries that go beyond the LSB.
See also
Intel Binary Compatibility Standard (iBCS)
POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface)
References
External links
linuxfoundation.org archives of the specification
OLVER Test Suite for LSB - Open Linux Verification project
Media
Four Linux Vendors Agree On An LSB Implementation (slashdot)
August 26, 1998 press release describing the breakdown of teams (at the time) and who was involved, of historical interest
Yes, the LSB Has Value – response to Drepper (2005) by Jeff Licquia
Interfaces of the Linux kernel
ISO standards
Linux
Linux APIs
Linux Foundation
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246755
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20Standards%20Group
|
Free Standards Group
|
The Free Standards Group was an industry non-profit consortium chartered to primarily specify and drive the adoption of open source standards. It was founded in 1998.
All standards developed by the Free Standards Group (FSG) were released under open terms (the GNU Free Documentation License with no cover texts or invariant sections) and test suites, sample implementations and other software were released as free software.
On January 22, 2007, the Free Standards Group and the OSDL merged to form The Linux Foundation, narrowing their respective focuses to that of promoting Linux in competition with Microsoft Windows.
Work groups
FSG responsibility for the following work groups has now transferred to The Linux Foundation:
The Linux Standard Base (LSB), a set of interface standards allowing for the ultimate portability of applications across various Linux versions and distributions. Conformance with this specification is certified by The Open Group (under contract with the Free Standards Group).
The Open Internationalization Initiative (OpenI18N), a standard that creates a foundation for language globalization of compliant distributions and applications
The Linux Assigned Names and Numbers Authority (LANANA)
OpenPrinting, creating a scalable printing architecture and high-level requirements for a standardized printing system
Accessibility, developing accessibility standards for free and open source platforms
Open Cluster, defining a set of clustering interface standards
The DWARF Debugging Format Standard
Corporate members
Advanced Micro Devices
Dell
Hewlett-Packard
Intel Corporation
International Business Machines
Mandriva
Miracle Linux
Google
MontaVista
Oracle Corporation (Platinum Member)
Red Hat
SCO Group
Sun Microsystems
Novell (through its acquisition of SUSE)
Turbolinux
VA Software
Not-for-profit members
(JLA)
Linux International (LI)
Linux Professional Institute (LPI)
Open Source Development Labs (OSDL)
PC Open Architecture Developers' Group (OADG)
Software in the Public Interest (SPI)
Software Liberty Association of Taiwan (SLAT)
The Open Group
USENIX Association
The Free Standards Group also had individual memberships; the board of directors was elected annually by all of the membership.
References
Organizations disestablished in 2007
Free and open-source software organizations
Linux Foundation
Standards organizations in the United States
Companies established in 1998
|
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] |
246762
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BS12
|
BS12
|
BS12 may refer to:
IBM Business System 12, an early relational database management system
BS 12 Specification for Portland Cement, a British Standard
Bonomi BS.12 Roma, a primary glider
Omega BS-12, a utility helicopter
|
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] |
246763
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makoto%20Yamaguchi
|
Makoto Yamaguchi
|
, the Chairperson of Origami House, has taken an active part in origami as a professional creator after working with the Nippon Origami Association. In 1989, he opened "Gallery Origami House", a venue to showcase the works of origami creators. He has worked hard to encourage young creators to continue to improve their models, to interchange with foreign groups and creators abroad. His enthusiasm for origami has led him to become involved with origami associations around the world. JOAS (Japanese Origami Academic Society) Board of Directors President; Board member of NOA (Nippon Origami Association); lifetime member of OrigamiUSA, member of British Origami Society and Chief Editor of "Origami Tanteidan" magazine.
Books
Let's Enjoy Paper Folding Vol. 1: Origami Flowers and Vegetables,
Let's Enjoy Paper Folding Vol. 2: Animals,
Kusudama Ball Origami,
Tanoshii Origami Tenshu,
Joyful Life with Origami/Kurashi ni Yakudatsu Jitsuyou Origami,
Origami in English,
External links
British Origami Society
Gallery Origamihouse(in japanese)
Origami artists
1944 births
Living people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trentino-Alto%20Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol
|
Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
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Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol (, ; ; ; ) is an autonomous region of Italy, located in the northern part of the country. The region has a population of 1.1 million, of whom 62% speak Italian as their mother tongue, 30% speak German dialects and several foreign languages are spoken by immigrant communities. Since the 1970s, most legislative and administrative powers have been transferred to the two self-governing provinces that make up the region: the Province of Trento, commonly known as Trentino, and the Province of Bolzano, commonly known as South Tyrol (Alto Adige in Italian).
From the 9th century until 1801, the region was part of the Holy Roman Empire. After being part of the short-lived Napoleonic Republic of Italy and Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, the region was part of the Austrian Empire and its successor Austria-Hungary from 1815 until its 1919 transfer to Italy in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye at the end of World War I. Together with the Austrian state of Tyrol it is represented by the Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino.
In English, the region is known as Trentino-South Tyrol or by its Italian name Trentino-Alto Adige.
History
The region was conquered by the Romans in 15 BC. After the end of the Western Roman Empire, it was divided between the invading Germanic tribes in the Lombard Duchy of Tridentum (today's Trentino), the Alamannic Vinschgau, and the Bavarians (who took the remaining part). After the creation of the Kingdom of Italy under Charlemagne, the Marquisate of Verona included the areas south of Bolzano, while the Duchy of Bavaria received the remaining part.
From the 11th century onwards, part of the region was governed by the prince-bishops of Trent and Brixen, to whom the Holy Roman Emperors had given extensive temporal powers over their bishoprics. Soon, they were overruled by the Counts of Tyrol and Counts of Görz, who also controlled the Puster Valley: in 1363 its last titular, Margarete, Countess of Tyrol ceded the region to the House of Habsburg. The regions north of Salorno were largely Germanized in the early Middle Ages, and important German poets like Arbeo of Freising and Oswald von Wolkenstein were born and lived in the southern part of Tyrol.
The two bishoprics were secularized by the Treaty of Lunéville of 1803 and given to the Habsburgs. Two years later, following the Austrian defeat at Austerlitz, the region was given to Napoleon's ally Bavaria (Treaty of Pressburg, 1805). The new rulers provoked a popular rebellion in 1809, led by Andreas Hofer, a landlord from St. Leonhard in Passeier; this rebellion was crushed the same year. At the resulting Treaty of Paris (28 February 1810), Bavaria ceded the southern part of Tyrol (Trentino and the city of Bolzano) to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. During French control of the region, it was called officially Haut Adige (literally "High Adige", Italian: "Alto Adige"; German: "Hochetsch") in order to avoid any reference to the historical County of Tyrol. After Napoleon's defeat, in 1815, the region returned to Austria.
Under Austrian rule the territory of today's province of South Tyrol was called südliches Tirol or Deutschsüdtirol, but was occasionally also referred to as Mitteltirol, i.e. Middle Tyrol, due to its geographic position, while Südtirol (), i.e. South Tyrol, indicated mostly today's province of Trentino. Trentino was also called ("Romance Tyrol", ) or ("Romance South Tyrol", ). Sometimes Südtirol also indicated the whole of the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region.
During the First World War, major battles were fought high in the Alps and Dolomites between Austro-Hungarian Kaiserjäger and Italian Alpini, for whom control of the region was a key strategic objective. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian war effort enabled Italian troops to occupy the region in 1918 and its annexation was confirmed in the post-war treaties, which awarded the region to Italy under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain.
Under the dictatorship of Benito Mussolini, the Fascist dictator of Italy (ruled 1922–1943), the German population was subjected to an increased forced programme of Italianization: all references to old Tyrol were banned and the region was referred to as Venezia Tridentina between 1919 and 1947, in an attempt to justify the Italian claims to the area by historically linking the region to one of the Roman Regions of Italy (Regio X Venetia et Histria). Hitler and Mussolini agreed in 1938 that the German-speaking population would be transferred to German-ruled territory or dispersed around Italy, but the outbreak of the Second World War prevented them from fully carrying out the relocation. Nevertheless, thousands of people were relocated to the Third Reich and only with great difficulties managed to return to their ancestral land after the end of the war.
In 1943, when the Italian government signed an armistice with the Allies, the region was occupied by Germany, which reorganised it as the Operation Zone of the Alpine Foothills and put it under the administration of Gauleiter Franz Hofer. The region was de facto annexed to the German Reich (with the addition of the province of Belluno) until the end of the war. This status ended along with the Nazi regime and Italian rule was restored in 1945.
Italy and Austria negotiated the Gruber-De Gasperi Agreement in 1946, put into effect in 1947 when the new republican Italian constitution was promulgated, that the region would be granted considerable autonomy. German and Italian were both made official languages, and German-language education was permitted once more. The region was called Trentino-Alto Adige/Tiroler Etschland between 1947 and 1972.
However, the implementation of the agreement was seen as satisfactory by neither the German-speaking population nor the Austrian government. The issue became the cause of significant friction between the two countries and was taken up by the United Nations in 1960. A fresh round of negotiations took place in 1961 but proved unsuccessful, partly because of popular discontent and a campaign of terrorism and bombings by German-speaking autonomists and separatists led by the South Tyrolean Liberation Committee.
The issue was resolved in 1971, when a new Austro-Italian treaty was signed and ratified. It stipulated that disputes in South Tyrol would be submitted for settlement to the International Court of Justice in The Hague, that the province would receive greater autonomy within Italy, and that Austria would not interfere in South Tyrol's internal affairs. The new agreement proved broadly satisfactory to the parties involved and the separatist tensions soon eased. Matters were helped further by Austria's accession to the European Union in 1995, which has helped to improve cross-border cooperation.
In May 2006, senator-for-life Francesco Cossiga introduced a bill that would allow the region to hold a referendum, in which the local electorate could decide whether to stay within the Italian Republic, become fully independent or return to Austria. All parties, including the separatists, rejected this measure as potentially causing a revival of ethnic tensions.
Geography
The region is bordered by East and North Tyrol (Austria) to the north-east and north respectively, by Graubünden (Switzerland) to the north-west, and by the Italian regions of Lombardy to the west and Veneto to the south and south-east. It covers . It is extremely mountainous, covering a large part of the Dolomites and the southern Alps.
The region is composed of two provinces, Trentino in the south and South Tyrol in the north.
Trentino has an area of , most of it mountainous land (20% is over and 70% over 1,000 m) and covered by vast forests (50% of the territory). The climate is various through the province, from an alpine climate to subcontinental one, with warm and variable summers and cold and quite snowy winters. The region has always been a favourite destination for tourists, both in winter for skiing in the high mountains and in summer to visit the wide valleys and many lakes (the largest being Lake Garda).
South Tyrol has an area of , all of it mountainous land and covered by vast forests. The climate is of the continental type, owing to the influence of the many mountain ranges which stand at well over above sea level and the wide valleys through which flow the main river, the Adige, from north to south and its numerous tributaries. In the city of Bolzano, capital of the province, the average air temperature stands at and the average rainfall at . The lowest pass across the Alps, the Brenner Pass, is located at the far north of the region on the border with Austria.
Politics
The region is divided into two autonomous provinces: Trentino (Autonomous Province of Trento) and South Tyrol (Autonomous Province of Bolzano). The Italian Republic recognised a certain degree of autonomy for the region and its two constituent provinces, which was the result of the Gruber–De Gasperi Agreement of 1946, as well as of the special status of autonomy approved by constitutional law in 1948. This statute gave the region the right to initiate its own laws on a wide range of subjects and to carry out respective administrative functions.
In 1972, the introduction of the second Statute of Autonomy, which was in the centre of the discussions between the Italian and Austrian governments, meant the transfer of the main competencies from the region to the two provinces. The autonomy recognized by the special statute covers the political, legislative, administrative, and fiscal institutions. The second statute turned the region de facto into a loose commonwealth with devolved powers to the two autonomous provinces, with very limited legislative or executive competencies left.
The capital city is Trento, although the two provincial capitals alternate biennially (the other being Bolzano) as the site of the regional assembly.
Administration
Economy
The fertile valleys of the region produce wine, fruit, dairy products and timber, while its industries include paper, chemical and metal production. The region is a major exporter of hydroelectric power. The most important features of the region's economic structure are the strength of tourism and the special system of co-operation between agriculture and industry. In the last decade, tourism became a very important component of the province's economy. The region, which is a staging-post between the countries of northern Europe and central and southern Italy, has found its true vocation in this leading branch of the services sector with all its spin-offs. The region has a higher concentration of hotels than any other region (6,178 establishments in 2001 with 236,864 hotel beds). The total accommodation capacity of the region counts for 651,426 beds available in hotels and other establishments.
Demographics
The region has a population of about 1,072,276 people (541,098 in Trentino and 531,178 in South Tyrol). The population density in the region is low compared to Italy as a whole. In 2008, it equalled to , whereas the average figure for Italy was . The population density in Trentino was , slightly higher than the one registered in South Tyrol that was equal to . , the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 90,321 foreigners lived in the region altogether, equal to 8.55% of the total regional population.
Languages
The main language groups are Italian and German, with small minorities speaking Ladin, Lombard, Mòcheno and Cimbrian. The latter two are Bavarian dialects.
In Trentino the majority language is Italian, although there are Cimbrian minorities in the municipality of Luserna and four Mòcheno municipalities in the Mòcheni Valley. There are also Ladin-speaking minorities living in the Fassa Valley and in Non Valley (3.5% of the population). While in Fassa Valley Ladin already enjoys official status, in Non Valley it still does not, despite there being more Ladin speakers in the latter than in the former. Sole Valley also historically belongs to the Ladin area.
In South Tyrol the majority language is German (62% of the population), although in the capital city Bolzano 73% of the population speaks Italian as its maternal language due to internal immigration from other regions of Italy. Italian speakers are also a significant component in other major urban centres of the province, such as in Merano (49% Italian as the mother language) and Brixen (26% mother language). More than 90% of the 120,000 Italian speakers live in Bozen/Bolzano, Merano, Leifers and Brixen, and the greater part of the rest in the small towns south of the capital just north of the border with Trentino or scattered about in very small numbers throughout the rest of the province. The Italian language is a majority in 5 of 116 municipalities. Italian is the first language of 26% of the population (down from 35% in 1960) of the population of 453,000 recorded in the 2011 census, not counting the 51,000 who listed Language as 'Other' who are immigrants. Ladin is the additional official language in some municipalities and a majority in 8. According to the census of 2001, 103 out of 116 communes have a majority of German native speakers, eight of Ladin speakers and five of Italian. Today both German and Italian have the status of co-official languages in South Tyrol.
Heraldry
The coat of arms quarters the arms of Trentino (black eagle) and the arms of South Tyrol (red eagle).
See also
Tyrol
Trentino
South Tyrol
Districts of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
References
External links
Official site of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
Autonomous regions of Italy
German diaspora in Italy
German-speaking countries and territories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biliran
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Biliran
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Biliran, officially the Province of Biliran (Waray-Waray: Probinsya han Biliran; ; ), is an island province in the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region (Region VIII). Biliran is one of the country's smallest and newest provinces. Formerly a sub-province of Leyte, it became an independent province in 1992.
Biliran lies less than a kilometer north of the island of Leyte. A bridge-causeway fixed link over Poro Island in the gateway town of Biliran connects the province to Leyte. Its capital is the municipality of Naval on the western coast of the island.
History
Etymology
During the early Spanish era, what is now called Biliran was known as Isla de Panamao. The present name, believed to be adopted sometime between the late 17th century and the early 18th century, was, according to many publications, derived from a native grass called borobiliran which once grew abundantly on the island's plains. A contending theory states that the name came from the word bilir, which was defined in an old Visayan dictionary to be the “corner or edge of a boat, vase or anything protruding, like veins, or the furrow made by the plow.” The dictionary also gives biliran as an alternate spelling for bilir. This theory is supported by the fact that Biliran was site of the first large-scale shipyard, built in the 17th century. Galleons were built to support the Galleon trade between Manila and Acapulco in Mexico.
Foundation
The first town, named Biliran, was founded in 1712 after petitioning for a municipality and parish status. During this time, the island was a part of Cebu Province. Biliran, together with the islands of Samar and Leyte, were constituted into a separate province in 1735. Later when Samar and Leyte were split into two provinces in 1768, Biliran became part of Leyte Province as its sub-province. The first parish priest was assigned in 1765, but its parish status was apparently withdrawn because of Padre Gaspar's apostasy. The parish was re-established on February 22, 1782.
Moro raids
In May 1735, representative inhabitants of Leyte petitioned Governor General Fernando Valdes y Tamon to allow them to resettle Biliran Island. They claimed it had been abandoned for the past 50 years and was presently inhabited by bagamundos (vagabonds) due to the frequent Moro raids.
On May 26, 1754, the Moros destroyed Biliran and the town of Catbalogan in Samar. Panamao was reportedly razed to the ground and only the gobernadorcillo (mayor) of Biliran town escaped capture by the raiders. The settlements of Biliran, Caybiran, Mapuyo and Maripipi were also destroyed by the Moros.
The Moros staged their attack by marching inland along a river named Anas for a distance of 1.5-2 leguas (leagues). Having covered part of the interior around a mountain, they managed to capture the inhabitants, with the exception of the gobernadorcillo who escaped. The houses and property of the natives were burned or destroyed. The church building suffered the same fate and its valuables were taken away by the raiders.
Post-Moro invasion
When the Moro raiders were neutralized in the early 19th century, the local inhabitants went into the business of organizing new towns (then called "pueblos") in the present geography of Biliran Province.
In 1828, Caibiran on the east became an independent municipality and parish, the second to be created in Biliran Island.
Naval became the third town, carved out of the territory of Biliran town. It first became a separate parish in 1860. The Spanish colonial government officially recognized its municipality status on September 23, 1869, following the petition submitted around 1861.
Almeria became a separate town in 1886 and was named after the City of Almería in Spain.
Maripipi used to be a barrio of Naval. It was officially inaugurated as a town in 1867, two years ahead of its mother town, then folded up and was reduced into a barrio of Almeria, and then became a town again in 1899. Maripipi and the new towns of San Clemente (later Kawayan), Culaba and Esperanza (later Cabucgayan) were created around 1899 by the revolutionary government under Pres. Emilio Aguinaldo.
World War II
During the World War II, Biliran had its own guerrilla forces under the Leyte command of Colonel Ruperto Kangleon. The guerrilla operation was of invaluable assistance to the successful landing of the American liberation forces at Palo, Leyte, on October 20, 1944, just before the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
In 1945, Biliran was liberated by the Philippine Commonwealth forces of the 9th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army who landed in Biliran. Aided by the local guerrilla forces, they attacked the Japanese troops on the island during the Battle of Biliran during World War II.
Provincehood
On April 8, 1959, Republic Act No. 2141 was signed into law effectively making Biliran a sub-province of Leyte. The island became an independent province on May 11, 1992, through Republic Act No. 7160, making it one of the newest provinces in the country.
Geography
Biliran has a total land area of , making it the fourth smallest province in the Philippines. The island lies off the northern coast of Leyte island across Biliran Strait. To the southeast is Carigara Bay, to the northeast is the Samar Sea, and across this sea is Samar. To the west is the Visayan Sea and Masbate lies to the northwest. The province is composed of two major volcanic islands: the main island also named Biliran and Maripipi, a smaller island to the northwest. Other smaller islands include Higatangan and Dalutan.
Topography
The main volcanic island of Biliran features mountainous interiors with very narrow coastal areas. Only the municipalities of Naval and Caibiran have wide plains extending about from the coast suitable for agriculture. Mount Suiro, an inactive volcano, is the highest point on Biliran Island with an elevation of .
The only known historical volcanic activity at Biliran was a phreatic eruption and possible debris avalanche at a thermal area on September 26, 1939. Ashfalls were reported at Caibiran and adjoining areas with maximum deposits at thick. There are five active solfatara fields on the island. The solfatara on the west side of Mt. Giron contained more than 400 tones of sulfur in 1880.
Maripipi is a volcanic island with the Maripipi Volcano located in the center and the Municipality of Maripipi surrounding its shores and lower slopes. The volcano is classified as potentially active but has had no historical eruptions.
Climate
Biliran has a combination of warm and cool climatic zones, thus the prevailing climate is ideal for the cultivation of a wide range of agricultural crops. There is no distinct dry season but the heavy wet season generally occurs in December.
Administrative divisions
Biliran is subdivided into 8 municipalities, with a total of 132 barangays. All municipalities are located on Biliran Island, with the exception of Maripipi, which is an island municipality located to the northwest. The largest among the towns in terms of land area is the provincial capital Naval, while the smallest is Maripipi.
Demographics
The population of Biliran in the was people, with a density of .
Based on the May 2000 census, the province had a total population of 140,274, which made it the fifth least populous province in the country, and the smallest in the region. There were 27,907 households in the province with an average size of 5.02 persons, slightly higher than the national average of 4.99. 87.05% of the population was Roman Catholic.
Languages
The inhabitants of Biliran predominantly speak Waray. It is primarily spoken in Caibiran, Culaba, Cabucgayan, Biliran and Maripipi. Whereas the towns of Naval, Almeria and Kawayan speak Cebuano. Both are Visayan languages.
The majority of the residents also speak and understand English and Filipino.
Economy
The economy of Biliran is largely based on fishing. Most of its towns, especially Naval and Biliran, have excellent seaports. There are of brackish water fish ponds which produce prawns, shrimps and milkfish. Another of seawater are suitable for seaweed farming and 10 more hectares for fishcage culture.
Being mountainous, Biliran can support various agricultural crops. The warm lowlands are conducive to palay production and other tropical crops. The cool highlands are favorable to high-value crops such as cut flowers and varieties of vegetables traditionally grown in Baguio or Tagaytay.
The inhabitants also engage in hunting, lumber, and manufacturing. The principal raw material produced is copra and coconut oil. Processed goods include white clay ceramics, dried fish, raw gulaman, and citronella oil.
The untapped natural resources of the island include geothermal power and the abundant sulfur and gypsum deposits.
Major industries includes fashion bags, Romblon bags, shellcrafts, placemats, hot pads, baskets, beverage coasters and trays.
Recently, Biliran has been eyed as an emerging destination for mountaineers, bikers, canyoneers, hikers, and other adventure seekers. For example, Sampao River in the municipality of Almeria has been developed into a canyoning venue.
Points of interest
Bagongbong Falls
It is also called Bagumbong falls, crystal-clear and ice-cold rapids of water coming from the cathedral-like falls nestled in a forested area of Almeria town.
Ulan-ulan Falls
Derived from the Visayan dialect which means “rain," the falls' cascading waters form a catch basin with water sufficient for swimming.
Recoletos Falls
The waterfall which is approximately 15 meters high, has a wide pool with deep water that is perfect for swimming and cliff jumping. The wide and flat stones surrounding the basin of water is perfect for picnic.
Kasabangan Falls
The nice ambience of the waterfall adds to its attraction, and its cold water is refreshing and relaxing. There are 13 layers of this waterfall from its highest level up in the mountain.
Tingkasan Bat Cave
The bat cave is a favorite stop for tourists going to Sambawan island. The place is ideal for spelunking, diving and spearfishing.
Iyusan Rice Terraces
A manmade agricultural landform and tourist attraction found in Barangay Iyusan, Almeria, Biliran.
See also
List of islands of the Philippines
References
External links
Biliran Island
Provincial Government of Biliran
Provinces of the Philippines
Island provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1992
1992 establishments in the Philippines
Former sub-provinces of the Philippines
|
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246769
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker%20v.%20Carr
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Baker v. Carr
|
Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that redistricting qualifies as a justiciable question under the Fourteenth Amendment, thus enabling federal courts to hear Fourteenth Amendment-based redistricting cases. The court summarized its Baker holding in a later decision as follows: "Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment limits the authority of a State Legislature in designing the geographical districts from which representatives are chosen either for the State Legislature or for the Federal House of Representatives." (Gray v. Sanders, ). The court had previously held in Gomillion v. Lightfoot that districting claims over racial discrimination could be brought under the Fifteenth Amendment.
The case arose from a lawsuit against the state of Tennessee, which had not conducted redistricting since 1901. The state of Tennessee argued that the composition of legislative districts constituted a nonjusticiable political question, as the U.S. Supreme Court had held in Colegrove v. Green (1946). In a majority opinion joined by five other justices, Associate Justice William J. Brennan Jr. held that redistricting did not qualify as a political question, though he remanded the case to the federal district court for further proceedings. Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter strongly dissented, arguing that the Court's decision cast aside history and judicial restraint and violated the separation of powers between legislatures and courts.
The case did not have any immediate effect on electoral districts, but it set an important precedent regarding the power of federal courts to address redistricting. In 1964, the Supreme Court would hand down two cases, Wesberry v. Sanders and Reynolds v. Sims, which required the United States House of Representatives and state legislatures to establish electoral districts of equal population on the principle of one person, one vote.
Background
Plaintiff Charles Baker was a Republican who lived in Shelby County, Tennessee, and had served as the mayor of Millington, Tennessee, near Memphis. The Tennessee State Constitution required that legislative districts for the Tennessee General Assembly be redrawn every ten years to provide for districts of substantially equal population (as was to be done for congressional districts). Baker's complaint was that Tennessee had not redistricted since 1901, in response to the 1900 census.
By the time of Baker's lawsuit, the population had shifted such that his district in Shelby County had about ten times as many residents as some of the rural districts. The votes of rural citizens were overrepresented compared to those of urban citizens. Baker's argument was that this discrepancy was causing him to fail to receive the "equal protection of the laws" required by the Fourteenth Amendment. Defendant Joe Carr was sued in his position as Secretary of State for Tennessee. Carr was not the person who set the district lines – the state legislature had done that – but was sued ex officio as the person who was ultimately responsible for the conduct of elections in the state and for the publication of district maps.
The state of Tennessee argued that the composition of legislative districts was essentially a political question, not a judicial one, as had been held by Colegrove v. Green, a plurality opinion of the Court in which Justice Felix Frankfurter declared that "Courts ought not to enter this political thicket." Frankfurter believed that relief for legislative malapportionment had to be won through the political process.
Decision
The decision of Baker v. Carr was one of the most wrenching in the Court's history. The case had to be put over for reargument because in conference no clear majority emerged for either side of the case. Associate Justice Charles Evans Whittaker was so torn over the case that he eventually had to recuse himself for health reasons. The arduous decisional process in Baker is often blamed for Whittaker's subsequent health problems, which forced him to retire from the Court in 1962.
The opinion was finally handed down in March 1962, nearly a year after it was initially argued. The Court split 6 to 2 in ruling that Baker's case was justiciable, producing, in addition to the opinion of the Court by Justice William J. Brennan, three concurring opinions and two dissenting opinions. Brennan reformulated the political question doctrine, identifying six factors to help in determining which questions were "political" in nature. Cases that are political in nature are marked by:
"Textually demonstrable constitutional commitment of the issue to a coordinate political department;" as an example of this, Brennan cited issues of foreign affairs and executive war powers, arguing that cases involving such matters would be "political questions"
"A lack of judicially discoverable and manageable standards for resolving it;"
"The impossibility of deciding without an initial policy determination of a kind clearly for nonjudicial discretion;"
"The impossibility of a court's undertaking independent resolution without expressing lack of the respect due coordinate branches of government;"
"An unusual need for unquestioning adherence to a political decision already made;"
"The potentiality of embarrassment from multifarious pronouncements by various departments on one question."
Justice Tom C. Clark switched his vote at the last minute to a concurrence on the substance of Baker's claims, which would have enabled a majority which could have granted relief for Baker. Instead the Supreme Court remanded the case to the District Court.
The large majority in this case can in many ways be attributed to Justice Brennan, who convinced Potter Stewart that the case was a narrow ruling dealing only with the right to challenge the statute. Brennan also talked down Justices Black and Douglas from their usual absolutist positions to achieve a compromise.
Dissent by Justices Frankfurter and Harlan
Frankfurter, joined by Justice John Marshall Harlan II, dissented vigorously and at length, arguing that the Court had cast aside history and judicial restraint, and violated the separation of powers between legislatures and Courts. He wrote:
Appellants invoke the right to vote and to have their votes counted. But they are permitted to vote and their votes are counted. They go to the polls, they cast their ballots, they send their representatives to the state councils. Their complaint is simply that the representatives are not sufficiently numerous or powerful.
Aftermath
Having declared redistricting issues justiciable in Baker, the court laid out a new test for evaluating such claims. The Court formulated the famous "one person, one vote" standard under American jurisprudence for legislative redistricting, holding that each individual had to be weighted equally in legislative apportionment. This affected numerous state legislatures that had not redistricted congressional districts for decades, despite major population shifts. It also ultimately affected the composition of state legislative districts as well, which in Alabama and numerous other states had overrepresented rural districts and underrepresented urban districts with much greater populations.
This principle was formally enunciated in Reynolds v. Sims (1964). The Court decided that in states with bicameral legislatures, as had Alabama, the state in this suit, both houses had to be apportioned on this standard. This voided the provision of the Alabama Constitution which had provided for two state senators from each county and similar provisions elsewhere. Similarly, the Tennessee Constitution had a provision that prevented counties from being split and portions of a county being attached to other counties or parts of counties in the creation of a legislative district. This was overridden under the principle of basing districts on population. Today counties are frequently split among districts in forming Tennessee State Senate districts. "One person, one vote" was first applied as a standard for Congressional districts. State legislatures were supposed to redistrict according to changes in population but many had not for decades.
Baker v. Carr and subsequent cases fundamentally changed the nature of political representation in the United States, requiring not just Tennessee but nearly every state to redistrict during the 1960s, often several times. This re-apportionment increased the political power of urban areas with greater population and reduced the influence of more rural areas. After he left the Court, Chief Justice Earl Warren called the Baker v. Carr line of cases the most important in his tenure as Chief Justice.
See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 369
Colegrove v. Green, : Disparities in Congressional districts are non-judiciable. "The remedy for unfairness in districting is to secure State legislatures that will apportion properly, or to invoke the ample powers of Congress." (Illinois).
Colegrove v. Barrett, : Dismissed for want of a substantial federal question. (Suit regarding disparities in State Legislative Districts). (Illinois).
Baker v. Carr, : Overturning Colegrove; Redistricting qualifies as a justiciable question. As summarized in Gray, the decision established that Equal Protection "...limits the authority of a State Legislature in designing the geographical districts from which representatives are chosen either for the State Legislature or for the Federal House of Representatives." (Tennessee).
Subsequent Cases Regarding Size/Proportionality:
Gray v. Sanders, : Statewide elections (US Senator, Governor, etc.) must not employ a geographical-unit system that renders some votes greater than others because it "violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment" and that "...once a geographical unit for which a representative is to be chosen is designated, all who participate in the election must have an equal vote..." (Georgia).
Wesberry v. Sanders, : Districts for United States House of Representatives must be approximately equal in population as established by Article 1, Section 2 of the Constitution. (Georgia).
Reynolds v. Sims, : Districts for State Legislatures (both chambers) must be approximately equal in population as established by Equal Protection. (Alabama).
WMCA, Inc. v. Lomenzo, : A formula with a built-in bias against voters residing in the more populous counties cannot be constitutionally condoned. (New York).
Maryland Committee v. Tawes, : Validity of the apportionment of one house of a bicameral legislature must include evaluating the actual apportionment of the other. (Maryland).
Roman v. Sincock, : Rigid mathematical standards neither practicable nor desirable. (Delaware).
Lucas v. Forty-Fourth Gen. Assembly of Colorado, : The "federal analogy" relied upon with regard to the Senate apportionment plan is without factual or legal merit. (Colorado).
Swann v. Adams, : See below & (Florida).
Swann v. Adams, : See below (Florida).
Burns v. Richardson, : (Hawaii).
Swann v. Adams, : The State's failure to articulate acceptable reasons for population variances between districts invalidates the reapportionment plan. (Florida).
Kilgarlin v. Hill, : State senatorial districts not proportional enough; respecting county lines is not enough of a counterbalancing interest. (Texas).
Kirkpatrick v. Preisler, : For its Congressional districts, states must justify each variance, no matter how small. (Missouri).
Whitcomb v. Chavis, : Multi-member not inherently invidious or violative of equal protection, variance in house districts of 24.78% are probably unconstitutional. (Indiana).
Abate v. Mundt, 403 U.S. 182 (1971): (Rockland County, New York)
Connor v. Johnson, : (Mississippi).
Mahan v. Howell, 410 U.S. 315 (1973): (Virginia).
Gaffney v. Cummings, : (Connecticut).
White v. Weiser, : (Texas).
White v. Regester, : (Texas).
Chapman v. Meier, : (North Dakota).
Connor v. Finch, : (Mississippi).
Karcher v. Daggett, : The "equal representation" standard of Art. I, § 2, requires that congressional districts be apportioned to achieve population equality as nearly as is practicable. (New Jersey).
Brown v. Thomson, . State Legislative district deviating by as much as 89% may be constitutional given "an unusually strong example of [] population variations [] which are entirely the result of [] consistent and nondiscriminatory [] legitimate state policy." (Wyoming).
Evenwel v. Abbott, District maps drawn using total population are valid even when the result is wide deviation (~40%) in eligible voting population. Ruling withheld as to whether states may alternatively draw district maps using eligible voters (rather than total population). (Texas).
Subsequent Cases Regarding Racial Composition:
City of Mobile v. Bolden, A municipal electoral system is constitutional if it does not have a discriminatory purpose, even if it has a discriminatory effect. (Alabama)
Thornburg v. Gingles, : Three preconditions required to find a redistricting plan violates VRA §2[a]: (1) the minority group is "sufficiently large and geographically compact to constitute a majority in a single-member district," (2) is "politically cohesive" and (3) the "majority votes sufficiently as a bloc to enable it [to] usually to defeat the minority's preferred candidate." (North Carolina).
Shaw v. Reno, : Attempt to create an additional majority-minority Congressional district challenged and held invalid because Redistricting based on race must be held to a standard of strict scrutiny under the equal protection clause. (North Carolina).
Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995): Attempt to create an additional majority-minority Congressional district challenged held invalid because it required the creation of a "geographic monstrosity" thereby violating Equal Protection of the majority, Justice Department "maximization" policy not enough of a compelling governmental interest (Georgia).
Georgia v. Ashcroft, 539 U.S. 461 (2003): The District Court failed to consider all the relevant factors in evaluating 1997 State Senate districting plan - remanded for additional scrutiny (Georgia).
Bartlett v. Strickland, : "Cross-over" voters (members of a majority who tend to vote for the preferred candidate of the minority) should not be attributed to the minority group when calculating whether the minority constitutes a numerical majority of the voting-age population (relative to Gingles 1st criteria). (North Carolina).
Alabama Legislative Black Caucus v. Alabama, : Racial gerrymandering claims must be considered district-by-district, rather than by looking at the state as an undifferentiated whole. (Alabama).
References
Further reading
External links
Baker v. Carr Case Brief, Lawnix.com
"Supreme Court Landmark Case Baker v. Carr" from C-SPAN's Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions
The Political Thicket a podcast episode on the case from Radiolab More Perfect, WNYC Studios
United States Constitution Article Three case law
United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court
United States electoral redistricting case law
United States One Person, One Vote Legal Doctrine
United States political question doctrine case law
Civil rights movement case law
African-American history of Tennessee
Legal history of Tennessee
Tennessee General Assembly
1962 in United States case law
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah%20Henson
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Josiah Henson
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Josiah Henson (June 15, 1789 – May 5, 1883) was an author, abolitionist, and minister. Born into slavery, in Port Tobacco, Charles County, Maryland, he escaped to Upper Canada (now Ontario) in 1830, and founded a settlement and laborer's school for other fugitive slaves at Dawn, near Dresden, in Kent County, Upper Canada, of Ontario. Henson's autobiography, The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself (1849), is believed to have inspired the title character of Harriet Beecher Stowe's 1852 novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852). Following the success of Stowe's novel, Henson issued an expanded version of his memoir in 1858, Truth Stranger Than Fiction. Father Henson's Story of His Own Life (published Boston: John P. Jewett & Company, 1858). Interest in his life continued, and nearly two decades later, his life story was updated and published as Uncle Tom's Story of His Life: An Autobiography of the Rev. Josiah Henson (1876).
Early life and slavery
Josiah Henson was born on a farm near Port Tobacco, Charles County, Maryland, on a plantation owned by Francis Newman, where Henson experienced slave atrocities. Henson's father was enslaved by Francis Newman whereas Josiah Henson, his mother, and his siblings were enslaved by Dr. Josiah McPherson. When he was a boy, his father was punished for standing up to a slave overseer, for which he received one hundred lashes. In addition, his right ear was nailed to the whipping post and then cut off. His father was sold away to Alabama. Josiah Henson experienced hardships and sufferings at the hands of his masters as well, including having his arms broken and an injury to his back. Following his family's master's death, young Josiah was separated from his mother, brothers, and sisters. At the slave auction, Henson's siblings were sold first. His mother was bought by Issac Riley of Montgomery County and when she pleaded to her new owner to purchase Josiah Henson, Riley responded by hitting and kicking her. Josiah Henson was sold to Adam Robb of Rockville, Montgomery County. Adam Robb encountered Issac Riley and struck a deal which resulted in Henson being sold to Riley and was reunited with his mother. Josiah Henson became very ill. His mother pleaded with her owner, Isaac Riley, and Riley agreed to buy back Henson so she could at least have her youngest child with her, on the condition that he would work in the fields.
Riley would not regret his decision, for Henson rose in his owners' esteem, and was eventually entrusted as the supervisor of his master's farm, located in Montgomery County, Maryland (in what is now North Bethesda). In 1825, Mr. Riley fell onto economic hardship and was sued by a brother-in-law. Desperate, he begged Henson, with tears in his eyes, to promise to help him. Duty bound, Henson agreed. Mr. Riley then told him that he needed to take his eighteen slaves to his brother in Kentucky by foot. They arrived in Daviess County, Kentucky, in the middle of April 1825 at the plantation of Mr. Amos Riley. In September 1828, Henson returned to Maryland in an attempt to buy his freedom from Issac Riley. He tried to buy his freedom by giving his master $350, which he had saved up, and a note promising a further $100. Originally, Henson only needed to pay the extra $100 by note. Mr. Riley, however, added an extra zero to the paper and changed the fee to $1000. Cheated of his money, Henson returned to Kentucky and then escaped to Kent County, Upper Canada, in 1830, after learning that he might be sold again. In the last of these attempts to attain freedom, Amos Riley agreed to give Josiah his freedom in exchange for $300. Josiah raised the money only to find that his master had raised the fee. Soon after, Henson learned that Riley planned to sell him in New Orleans, Louisiana, separating him from his wife and four children. When he found this out, Henson became determined to escape to Canada and freedom. He took his family with him, including his wife and their children to start the new life northward.
Escape from slavery
After convincing his wife to escape with him, Henson's wife created a knapsack large enough to carry both of their smallest children; the eldest two would accompany his wife. The Henson family left Kentucky, traveling through the night, and sleeping in the woods throughout the day. They crossed into Indiana, then into Cincinnati, where they were safely welcomed in a home for a few days. As the Henson family was crossing Hull's Road in Ohio, Josiah's wife fainted from exhaustion. As they continued on, they encountered Indians, and were reinvigorated with food and rest. After crossing a lake in Ohio, Josiah encountered Captain Burnham, a ship captain, who agreed to transport the Henson family to Buffalo, New York; from there they would cross the river into Canada. Upon setting foot into Canada, Josiah Henson described the ecstatic feelings of liberation by throwing himself onto the ground and rejoicing with his family. On October 28, 1830, Josiah Henson became a liberated man.
Slavery policy in Canada
Upper Canada had become a refuge for slaves who had escaped from the United States after 1793, when Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe passed "An Act to prevent the further introduction of Slaves, and limit the Term of Contracts for Servitude within this Province". The legislation did not immediately end slavery in the colony, but it did prevent the importation of slaves. As a result, any U.S. slave who set foot in what would eventually become Ontario was free. By the time Henson arrived, others had already made Upper Canada their home, including Black Loyalists from the American Revolution and refugees from the War of 1812. In 1833, slavery was outlawed in the British Empire. At this time, Canadians were still a part of colonial British Canada.
Later life
Josiah Henson first worked on farms near Fort Erie, then Waterloo, moving with friends to Colchester in 1834 to set up a Black settlement on rented land. After earning enough, Henson was able to send his eldest son Tom to school, who in turn taught Josiah how to read. Henson became literate and was able to lead the growing community of fugitive slaves in Canada. Through contacts and financial assistance there, he was able to purchase in Dawn Township, in neighbouring Kent County, to realize his vision of a self-sufficient community. The Dawn Settlement eventually reached a population of 500 at its height, exporting black walnut lumber to the United States and Britain. Henson purchased an additional next to the Settlement, where his family lived. Henson also became an active Methodist preacher and spoke as an abolitionist on routes between Tennessee and Ontario. He also served in the Canadian Army as a military officer, having led a Black militia unit in the Canadian Rebellion of 1837. In 1838, Henson and the militia successfully captured the rebel ship Anne, cutting off their supply lines to southwestern Upper Canada. Though many residents of the Dawn Settlement returned to the United States after slavery was abolished there, Henson and his wife continued to live in Dawn for the rest of their lives. Henson became the spiritual leader within the community and embarked on several trips to the United States and Great Britain where he met with Queen Victoria. While in Britain, Josiah publicly spoke to audiences and raised funds for the community back in Canada. Henson conducted several trips back to Kentucky to guide other slaves to freedom.
In 1878, Rev. Henson was described as "a jovial old man", who "considering his age is pretty active".
Works
The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself. 1849
Truth Stranger Than Fiction. Father Henson's Story of His Own Life. 1858
Uncle Tom's Story of His Life: An Autobiography of the Rev. Josiah Henson. 1876
Miscellaneous
Josiah Henson is the first black man to be featured on a Canadian stamp. He was also recognized by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada in 1999 as a National Historic Person. A federal plaque to him is located in the Henson family cemetery, next to Uncle Tom's Cabin Historic Site.
A 2018 documentary titled Redeeming Uncle Tom: The Josiah Henson Story covers his life.
Historic sites
Josiah Henson Museum & Park—North Bethesda, Maryland
The actual cabin in which Josiah Henson and other slaves were housed no longer exists. The Riley family house, however, remains and is currently in a residential development in Rockville, Montgomery County, Maryland. After having remained in the hands of private owners for nearly two centuries, on January 6, 2006, the Montgomery Planning Board agreed to purchase the property and the acre of land on which it stands for $1,000,000. The house was opened to the public for one weekend in 2006. As of March 2009, the site has received an additional $50,000 from the Maryland state Board of Public Works for the planning and design phase of a multiyear restoration project. An additional $100,000 may come from the Federal government that would go towards restoration and planning. The site was planned to be opened permanently to the public in 2012, until then there were guided tours four times a year.
As of 2018, the Josiah Henson Museum & Park, in North Bethesda, Maryland, contains the Riley/Bolton house, where Henson's owner lived. The Montgomery County park site (construction/restoration) reopened to the public on April 23, 2021, after the completion of the renovations and installation of new exhibits and building of the visitor center. "Ongoing archaeological excavations seek to find where Josiah Henson may have lived on the site."
Uncle Tom's Cabin Historic Site
Located near Dresden, Ontario, in Canada, Uncle Tom's Cabin Historic Site includes the cabin that was home to Josiah Henson during much of his time in the area, from 1841 until his death in 1883. The five-acre complex includes Henson's cabin, an interpretive centre about Henson and the Dawn settlement, an exhibit gallery about the Underground Railroad, outbuildings, a 19th-century historic house, a cemetery and a gift shop.
Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin
Harriet Beecher Stowe published the anti-slavery novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin, in 1852. During the first year of being published, over one million copies were sold in Great Britain and the United States, which led it to become the best selling novel of the 19th-century. Stowe had the intentions of this novel being published when she wrote it; she had taken out a copyright for Uncle Tom's Cabin before it appeared in The National Era. Stowe knew in order for her novel to play a pivotal role in the development of American culture; focusing on racism, slavery, and gender, she had to make a larger impact than the abolitionists of the press. Established by a Russian journalist, Stowe used "defamiliarization" to create new perspectives when it came to the issues she focused on, by presenting them in unfamiliar ways so people can see it in a different way. This helped support her endorsing domestic family values of all races, and presented the prejudicial assumption options about cultural differences in the 19th-century.
See also
List of enslaved people
References
External links
Uncle Tom's Story of His Life. An Autobiography of the Rev. Josiah Henson (Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom"). From 1789 to 1876. With a Preface by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, and an Introductory Note by George Sturge London: Christian Age Office, 1876.
The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself. Boston: A. D. Phelps, 1849.
Truth Stranger Than Fiction. Father Henson's Story of His Own Life. Boston: John P. Jewett, 1858.
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
Josiah Henson commemorative stamp
Digital History: Josiah Henson
Josiah Henson
Uncle Tom's Cabin Historic Site, near Dresden, Ontario
National Historic Person plaque, and cemetery photo near Dresden, Ontario
Henson, Josiah (1789-1883).The life of Josiah Henson, formerly a slave. London: Charles Gilpin; Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black; Dublin: James Bernard Gilpin, 1852. This freely downloadable PDF was accessed February 15, 2014.
The Life of Josiah Henson From the Collections at the Library of Congress
1789 births
1883 deaths
People from Port Tobacco Village, Maryland
African-American abolitionists
19th-century American slaves
Uncle Tom's Cabin
Slave cabins and quarters in the United States
Black Canadian writers
Canadian autobiographers
Canadian Militia officers
Methodist ministers
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
People from Chatham-Kent
Pre-Confederation Ontario people
American emigrants to pre-Confederation Ontario
Canadian people of African-American descent
Upper Canada Rebellion people
Writers from Maryland
Writers from Ontario
Methodist abolitionists
18th-century American slaves
People who wrote slave narratives
Fugitive American slaves that reached Canada
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246773
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abecedarium
|
Abecedarium
|
An abecedarium (also known as an abecedary or ABCs or simply an ABC) is an inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet, almost always listed in order. Typically, abecedaria (or abecedaries) are practice exercises.
Non-Latin alphabets
Some abecedaria include obsolete letters which are not otherwise attested in inscriptions. For example, abecedaria in the Etruscan alphabet from Marsiliana (the Tuscana town) include the letters B, D, and O, which indicate sounds not present in the Etruscan language and are therefore not found in Etruscan inscriptions. Others, such as those known from Safaitic inscriptions, list the letters of the alphabet in different orders, suggesting that the script was casually rather than formally learned.
Some abecedaria found in the Athenian Agora appear to be deliberately incomplete, consisting of only the first three to six letters of the Greek alphabet, and these may have had a magical or ritual significance. A deliberately incomplete abecedarium found at Hymettos in Attica may have been a votive offering.
Latin alphabet
Near the beginning of the Christian era, the Latin alphabet had already undergone its principal changes, and had become a definite system. The Greek alphabet was growing closer to the Latin alphabet. Towards the 8th century of Rome, the letters assumed their artistic forms and lost their older, narrower ones. The three letters added by Emperor Claudius have never been found in use in Christian inscriptions. The letters fell into disuse after Claudius's death. The alphabet used for monumental inscriptions was very different from the cursive. The uncial, occurring very rarely on sculptured monuments, and reserved for writing, did not appear until the 4th century. The majority of objects bearing the abecedaria are not of Christian origin, with the exception of two vases found at Carthage. These objects included tablets used by stone-cutters' apprentices while learning their trade. Stones have also been found in the catacombs, bearing the symbols A, B, C, etc. These are arranged, sometimes, in combinations which have puzzled scholars. One such stone, found in the cemetery of St. Alexander, in the Via Nomentana, is inscribed as follows:
AXBVCTESDR . . . . . .BCCEECHI
EQGPH. . . .M MNOPQ
RSTVXYZ
This can be compared with a denarius of L. Cassius Caecinianus, which has the following inscription:
AX, BV, CT, DS, ER, FQ, GP, HO, IN, LM
Jerome explained this similarity. Children were made to learn the alphabet in pairs of letters, joining the first letter of the alphabet with the last letter (AX), the second letter with the second to last (BV), and so on. A stone found at Rome in 1877, and dating from the 6th or 7th century, seems to have been used in a school, as a model for learning the alphabet, and points to the continuance of old methods of teaching.
Ecclesiastical use
An Abecedary, a full alphabet carved in stone or written in book form, was historically found in churches, monasteries and other ecclesiastical buildings. Abecedaries are generally considered to be medieval teaching aids, particularly for the illiterate. The alphabet may have been thought to possess supernatural powers along the lines of the runic alphabet. Each letter would have had a symbolic meaning to the devout.
An example, the first seven letters or so of which were found in 1967, is from the long demolished Church of St Mary of the Grey Friars in Dumfries, Scotland. In this case the letters are inscribed in the Lombardic script of the 1260s and the complete structure would probably have stood near the high altar.
One of the oldest examples is now in use as a gravestone in Kilmalkedar, near Dingle, Ireland. It has the appearance of a standing stone and is known as the Alphabet stone, displaying as it does an alphabet dating from early Christian times.
Abecedarian psalms and hymns exist, these are compositions like Psalm 119 in Hebrew, and the Akathist hymn in Greek, in which distinct stanzas or verses commence with successive letters of the alphabet.
The New England Primer, a schoolbook first printed in 17th-century Boston, includes an abecedary of rhyming couplets in iambic dimeter, beginning with:
In Adam’s fall,
We sinned all.
Thy life to mend,
This Book attend.
The Cat doth play,
And after slay.
See also
A Researcher's Guide to Local History Terminology
Fayum alphabet
Alphabet book
References
Inscriptions by type
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mondino%20de%20Luzzi
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Mondino de Luzzi
|
Mondino de Luzzi, or de Liuzzi or de Lucci, (c. 1270 – 1326), also known as Mundinus, was an Italian physician, anatomist and professor of surgery, who lived and worked in Bologna. He is often credited as the restorer of anatomy because he made seminal contributions to the field by reintroducing the practice of public dissection of human cadavers and writing the first modern anatomical text.
Life
He was born around 1270 into the prominent Florentine de Luzzi family with loyalties to the Ghibellines and inscribed to the Società dei Toschi, a medieval institution of Bologna for people from Tuscany. His father, Nerino, and grandfather Albizzio were both pharmacists in Bologna, and his uncle Luzio (also Liuzzo or Lucio) was a professor of Medicine. Mondino studied at the University of Bologna in the College of Medicine and the College of Philosophy, graduated around 1290, and he was employed as a public lecturer in practical medicine and surgery at the university from 1306 to 1324. During his schooling, Mondino was a pupil of Thaddeus of Florence (Taddeo Alderotti), who made significant contributions to the development of medicine at Bologna, and a fellow student of Henri de Monteville. In addition to his achievements as an anatomist, Mondino was highly regarded as a diplomat. He was involved in city government and served as an Ambassador of Bologna to John, the son of King Robert of Naples. Mondino died in Bologna in 1326 and was buried in the parochial church of San Vitale e Agricola along with his uncle Leuzzo, who was also a lecturer in medicine. His granite tomb is adorned with a bas-relief, sculpted by Boso of Parma, which depicts an instructor seated in a large chair lecturing to students.
Teaching methods
Mondino was the first to incorporate a systematic study of anatomy and dissection into a medical curriculum. The dissection of human cadavers was a hallmark of the Alexandrian school, but declined after 200 A.D. due to legal and religious proscriptions. These bans were eventually lifted, allowing Mondino to perform his first public dissection in Bologna in January 1315 in the presence of medical students and other spectators; the subject was mostly likely a female executed criminal. It was common practice for the professor of anatomy to sit in a large, ornate chair elevated above the dissection proceedings, reading from an anatomical text and providing commentary, while a demonstrator, or surgeon, physically performed the dissection. Additionally, an ostensor was present to point out the specific parts of the body that were being examined. Mondino's teaching methods were unique because he often performed dissections in person and served the role of demonstrator himself, carefully studying the cadaver and incorporating this personal experience into his text and teaching.
Dissection theory
His dissection practices were guided by his adherence to a tripartite division of the human body. He theorized that the body was composed of three distinct containers: the skull, or superior ventricle, which enclosed the "animal members"; the thorax, or middle ventricle, which contained "spiritual members" such as the heart and lungs; and finally the abdomen, or inferior ventricle, which housed "natural members" including the liver and other visceral organs. Mondino utilized the differences between animal, spiritual, and natural members to classify distinct aspects of physiological activity. He also asserted that certain parts of the body are innately superior to others; according to that hierarchical arrangement, the abdomen should be dissected first because its organs are "the most confused and least noble", followed by the thorax, and finally the head, which contains "higher and better organized" anatomical structures. Additionally, Mondino argued that distinct dissection methods should be applied to simple structures (such as bones, muscles, nerves, veins, and arteries) as compared to more complex composite parts (for example, the eye, ear, liver, and spleen. He also suggested that when to study the muscles of the limbs, a sun-dried body be used as an alternative to the more laborious practice of dissecting a rapidly-decaying cadaver.
Contributions to anatomy
Mondino's major work, Anathomia corporis humani, written in 1316, is considered the first example of a modern dissection manual and the first true anatomical text. The earliest edition of the work was printed in Padua between 1475 and 1478, and more than 40 editions are thought to exist. By the 14th century, the practice of anatomy had come to involve the dissection of a cadaver according to prescribed rules; Anathomia was intended as a handbook to guide this process. Anathomia remained the most widely used anatomical text for 250 years (through the 16th century) because it clearly and concisely provided the important technical indications involved in the dissection process, including the steps involved and the reasoning behind the organization of these procedures. Unlike his predecessors, Mondino focuses specifically on anatomical descriptions rather than engaging in a larger discourse on pathology and surgery in general.
Anathomia opens with the assertion that human beings are superior to all other creatures because of their intellect, reasoning ability, tool-making abilities, and upright stature; because he possesses these noble qualities, man is worthy to be studied. Mondino goes on to describe the organs in the order in which they present themselves during the dissection process. Dissection began with the opening of the abdominal cavity via vertical incision running from the stomach to the pectoral muscles and a horizontal cut above the navel. First, the musculature of the intestinal tract is described in detail, followed by an extensive discussion of the form, function, and position of the stomach. According to the text, the stomach is spherical; the stomach wall has an internal lining, which is "the seat of sensation", and an external fleshy coat that is involved in digestion. In order to access the spleen, which was thought to secrete black bile into the stomach through imaginary canals, the dissector was required to remove the "false ribs". The liver is said to have five lobes, the gallbladder is described as the seat of yellow bile, and the cecum is described with no mention of the vermiform appendix. Though Anathomia only vaguely describes the pancreas, the pancreatic duct is discussed in greater detail. He also makes new observations regarding the anatomy of the bladder and the enlargement of the uterus during both menstruation and pregnancy.
Mondino's description of the human heart, though inaccurate, is fairly detailed. He discusses three chambers: the right ventricle, the left ventricle, and a middle ventricle within the septum. The right ventricle is purported to contain a large opening, through which the heart draws blood originating in the liver, as well as the opening of the vena arterialis toward the lung. The left ventricle contains an orifice with three valves and the bivalvular opening of the arteria venalis, which allows the passage of a smoke-like vapor from the lungs. Despite these anatomical shortcomings, the vena chili (Mondino's name for the vena cava) is noteworthy in its accuracy. He then moves on to the lungs, describing the course of the vena arterialis (pulmonary artery) and the arteria venalis (pulmonary vein). This section of Anathomia also describes the pleura and notes the importance of distinguishing between pulmonary pathologies including true pleurisy, false pleurisy, and pneumonia. His descriptions of the larynx and epiglottis are very rudimentary.
Mondino describes the closure of an incised intestinal wound by having large ants bite on its edges and then cutting off their heads, which one scholar interprets as an anticipation of the use of staples in surgery. Anathomia also includes a detailed passage on the surgical treatment of a hernia, both with and without castration, as well as a description of a type of cataract surgery.
Mondino's treatment of the skull provides only inexact directions for its dissection, suggesting that the cranial cavity was opened infrequently and with little technical skill. Nonetheless, Anathomia contains a description of the cranial nerves derived from Galen's Uses of the parts of the body of man. Furthermore, the brain is divided into three vesicles, with the anterior vesicle serving as the meeting place of the senses, the middle vesicle housing the imagination, and the posterior vesicle containing the memory. Movement of the choroid plexus is said to control mental processes by opening and closing passages between the ventricles. Mondino follows Galen and the Islamic commentators in placing the lens in the center of the eye.
Much of the medical information included in Anathomia is derived from commentaries on Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen written by Islamic scholars. Although Mondino makes frequent references to his personal dissection experiences, he nonetheless repeats numerous fallacies reported by these textual authorities. For example, he propagates the incorrect Galenic notion that a rete mirabile ("miraculous network") of blood vessels exists at the base of the human brain when it is in fact present only in ungulates. Other errors contained in Anathomia are the result of an attempt to reconcile the teachings of Galen and Aristotle. This is exemplified by Mondino's description of the heart: he combines Aristotle's notion of a triventricular heart with Galen's claim that a portion of the blood can flow directly from one side of the heart to the other though a permeable interventricular septum. He also propagates information about the human reproductive system that is not corroborated by anatomical evidence, including the existence of a seven-celled uterus with hornlike appendages.
Legacy
He made lasting, even if not entirely accurate, contributions to the fields of anatomy and physiology. Anathomia quickly became a classic text and, after his death, Mondino was regarded as a "divine master" to such an extent that anything differing from the descriptions in his book was regarded as anomalous or even monstrous. For three centuries, the statutes of many medical schools required lecturers on anatomy to use Anathomia as their textbook. Jacopo Berengario da Carpi, a 16th-century professor of anatomy at Bologna, wrote an extensive commentary on Mondino's work, and the text of Anathomia was incorporated into Ketham's 1493 text Fasciculus medicinae.
Notes
References
The International Centre for the History of Universities and Science (CIS), University of Bologna
External links
Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Mondino de Luzzi in .jpg and .tiff format.
Francesco Moscheni & Giovanni Battista Negri D. (1550) " Matthaei Curtii ... In Mundini Anatomen explicatio" by Mondino de Luzzi
1270 births
1326 deaths
Physicians from Bologna
Italian anatomists
History of anatomy
13th-century Italian physicians
14th-century Italian physicians
14th-century Italian writers
14th-century Latin writers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Super%20Dimension%20Fortress%20Macross%3A%20Flash%20Back%202012
|
The Super Dimension Fortress Macross: Flash Back 2012
|
is a 1987 collection of music videos from The Super Dimension Fortress Macross animated television series (1982–1983) and the Macross: Do You Remember Love? theatrical film remake (1984). Released to commemorate the fifth anniversary of the series, it also contains several minutes of new footage that depicted story-events that were initially planned, but not animated for the endings of the television series (the launch of the Megaroad colonization ship captained by Misa Ichijyo), and the film (the final concert on Earth for Lynn Minmay). Preliminary designs were created for these story events in the production of the earlier works, but Flash Back 2012 was the first time that these events were animated (The earlier preliminary designs were replaced with new designs by the original director/mechanical designer Shoji Kawamori, original character designer Haruhiko Mikimoto, and original mechanical designer Kazutaka Miyatake).
The premise of the collection is a farewell concert by Lynn Minmay, who is leaving the Earth on its first long-distance colony vessel, Megaroad-01.
SDF-2 Megaroad-01
It was designed by Mechanical Designer Kazutaka Miyatake.
In the fictional setting of Macross, the SDF-2 Megaroad-01 was initially slated to be the second Macross-class Super Dimension Fortress space battleship, but went on to become the first long-distance Megaroad-class colony ship.
A completely indigenous ship design based on feedback gleaned from 'Over-Technology' found on the "ASS-1" (later rechristened SDF-1 Macross) and the needs of Earth's forces, the completed SDF-2 Megaroad-01 is vastly different in size, hull design and capacity for war. Also, unlike the SDF-1 Macross, Megaroad-class colony ships lack modular transformation as its designers deemed it unnecessary after realising and overcoming the many problems that so plagued the SDF-1 following its launch. Command of the Megaroad-01 was given to war hero Misa Hayase Ichijyo. Aboard the fleet were her husband, Hikaru Ichijyo, leading the entire Skull group, and the famous idol singer Lynn Minmay.
The Megaroad-01 set out towards the center of the galaxy in 2012. However, in July 2016, barely four years into its voyage toward the center of the Milky Way, all contact with the fleet abruptly ceased. This information was never made known to the general public for fear it would jeopardize all ongoing and subsequent colonization efforts. The many victories and momentous events involving Minmay and the Skull Team during the Space War have been played up over and again to the point of legend ever since, just so everyone not already in the know would believe Megaroad-01 and its fleet are still in active contact with Command. A direct result of this is the release of the film "Super Dimension Fortress Macross: Do You Remember Love" in 2031 to remind the masses of the fragile peace they now enjoy with themes like the near extinction of humanity and some of the momentous events leading up to the end of War with the Zentradi and ending with 'Actual' footage of Minmay's Goodbye Concert Tour.
The name Megaroad originated in a pre-production name for the first Macross series, namely "Battle City Megaroad". This pre-production name was written as a deliberate wordplay on "Megaroad" (a long journey through space) and "Megaload" (a massive cargo in the form of a civilian city). After the first Macross series went into production, an additional wordplay, "Megalord," was considered for the second super dimension fortress before the name SDF-2 Megaroad-01 was finalized. There were plans for a splashy ending to the original Macross series, one that would have shown Misa Hayase and Hikaru Ichijyo blasting off in the SDF-2 ship, but the sequence was scrapped due to lack of time and budget. Due to fan demand this sequence was later used in the Macross Flashback 2012 OVA (1987). However, the Macross Perfect Memory Japanese reference book for the original series that was released in 1983 includes a profile and artwork for the first SDF-2 "Megalord" design.
References
External links
Official Macross website
Macross Mecha Manual A website profiling the fictional vehicles of the Macross series
Flash Back 2012 entry on Macross Compendium
1987 anime OVAs
Fiction set in 2012
Flash Back 2012
Tatsunoko Production
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macross
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Macross
|
is a Japanese science fiction mecha anime media franchise/media mix, created by Studio Nue (most prominently mecha designer, writer and producer Shōji Kawamori) and Artland in 1982. The franchise features a fictional history of Earth and the human race after the year 1999, as well as the history of humanoid civilization in the Milky Way. It consists of four TV series, four movies, six OVAs, one light novel, and five manga series, all sponsored by Big West Advertising, in addition to 40 video games set in the Macross universe, two crossover games, and a wide variety of physical merchandise.
Within the series, the term Macross is used to denote the main capital ship. This theme began in the original Macross, the SDF-1 Macross.
Overtechnology refers to the scientific advances discovered in an alien starship ASS-1 (Alien Star Ship - One later renamed Super Dimension Fortress - One Macross) that crashed on South Ataria island. Humans were able to reverse engineer the technology to create the mecha (variable fighters and destroids), faster-than-light space fold drive for starships and other advanced technologies that the series features. The first TV series was adapted into the first season of Robotech in 1985, with edited content and a revised script.
Title
The series title comes from the name of the main human spacecraft (which is usually shortened from Super Dimension Fortress to SDF-1 Macross as it is the first). The original name for the Macross project was Battle City Megarodo (or Battle City Megaroad, as the Japanese transliteration to either "L" or "R" gives the title a double meaning in reference to the story line: Megaload, referring to the spacecraft containing an entire city of people; and Megaroad, referring to the long journey through space back to Earth); however, one of the sponsors of the project, Big West Advertising, was a fan of Shakespeare and wanted the series and the spacecraft to be named . A compromise was made with the title due to its similar pronunciation to Macbeth in Japanese and because it still contained connotations to the original title. The word Macross comes from a wordplay combination of the prefix "macro" in reference to its massive size in comparison to human vehicles (though when compared with the alien ships in the series, it is a relatively small gun destroyer) and the distance they must cross.
Themes
The following are themes commonly seen and established among the various series in the Macross franchise.
U.N. Spacy
The is a fictional space military arm of the . It was established by the successor to the modern United Nations in order to defend Earth from a possible attack by hostile aliens, and was involved in Space War I against an extraterrestrial race called the Zentradi. Later operations of the U.N. Spacy expanded into interstellar colonization and general peacekeeping of off-world Earth settlements.
The term "Spacy" is a portmanteau of the terms Space and Army or Navy. Some Japanese sources also use the term Space Army and some English-language sources use the term Space Navy, suggesting that the term is a contraction.
Variable fighters
A variable fighter (also known as a "veritech" fighter in the Robotech adaptation of the series), is one of a series of transformable aerospace fighters, primarily designed by franchise creator Shōji Kawamori and Kazutaka Miyatake. They are generally able to transform into jet/space fighters, a humanoid robot and a hybrid of the two modes, better known as Gerwalk (Guardian). The original VF-1 Valkyrie was actually named "Valkyrie", but the craft have generically been referred to as such in the series since then.
Music
Music is integral part to almost every Macross title by having significances in a series' antagonists behavior towards it. Music idols also play a central role to various Macross stories. Often, the protagonist will be involved in a love triangle with a series' music idol; most notably, Lynn Minmay.
Space fold
Space folding permits nearly-instantaneous ultra-long distance travel: a space-fold transports a spacecraft in a very short amount of time by first swapping the location of the spacecraft with super dimension space or subspace, and then swapping the Super Dimension space with the space at the destination.
According to U.N. Spacy First Lieutenant Hayase Misa during Space War I (2009–2012) an hour passes in super dimension space as approximately ten days passes in normal space. One of the latest Macross TV series, Macross Frontier, further expands on that concept by introducing fold faults or dislocations, which further retard fold travel and interfere with fold communications. Also explained in Macross Frontier are the limitations of space folding, such as the geometric increase in energy requirement with the mass of the object to be folded, which prevents very large objects from being folded with ease across vast distances.
The act of entering Super Dimension space is called "fold in". When arriving at the destination, the act of leaving Super Dimension space is called a "defold" or a "fold out".
Ancient astronauts
The metaplot of the franchise is centered on a purportedly extinct humanoid alien race called the . It was first conceptualized during the pre-production of The Super Dimension Fortress Macross when the creators were researching cultural studies to develop concepts used in the plot.
According to official sources, the Protoculture was the first advanced humanoid race in the universe—advanced Protoculture civilization started 500,000 years ago—and is the creator of the Zentradi and homo sapiens. Phases of colonization resulted in the establishment of an "Interstellar Republic", (similar to a galactic empire) which covers much of the Milky Way galaxy 2800 years after Protoculture civilization started (498,000 years ago).
A civil war happened sixty years later, resulting in a split in the Republic. One of the factions' created "super-Zentradi" forces, which was later possessed by interdimensional beings—these forces are later called the "Protodeviln", which feeds on life energy of both Protoculture and Zentradi; some of both the Protoculture and Zentradi was later brainwashed into the "Supervision Army".
The Supervision Army continued to battle both the Protoculture and Zentradi, which resulted in the dwindling of Protoculture population; they revoked the prime directive that banned Zentradi to attack the Supervision Army. This, however, made the war even more intense, and the Protoculture population sharply decreased; to avoid extinction, they seeded uninhabited planets by means of pantropy and avoided any conflict as much as possible. This action included the genetic engineering of homo sapiens on Earth by combining Protoculture genes with native genes; a "sub-Protoculture" race meant for preparing the Earth for a future Protoculture colonization. The genetic engineering crew, however, was immediately destroyed by anti-Interstellar Republic military ships.
The final blow of the war happened because of the Protoculture lost control of the Zentradi; 475,000 years ago, the Protoculture was believed extinct. However it was discovered that 10,000 years ago, the Protoculture remnants made contact with humans in "Mayan Island", genetically re-engineering the native inhabitants to utilize the artifacts left by them. This included the "Bird Human" bio-mecha, tasked to destroy humanity if they are still in war.
Other elements
The franchise also explores minor themes including culture shock, capitalism, coming of age and nostalgia.
The new era following the end of Space War I is part of the ongoing fictional time-line of the Macross franchise. The most recent series, Macross Delta, is set 59 years after the start of the war with the Zentradi. Its main plot is about the spread of a rage virus on a star system and the combined efforts of singing idols and valkyrie fighters to stop it spreading.
Along with Gundam, a real robot mecha series of which Shoji Kawamori is a fan, Macross explored how individuals cope with warfare. Whereas Gundam is far more political and direct on the horrors of war, each Macross television series is unique for never depicting the antagonists as inherently evil and proved in the end that love, culture, and music can be used to resolve their conflicts.
Series chronology
Several sequel series and one prequel have followed. Most use a chronology created by the Studio Nue creators, and those that followed their own chronologies were regarded as "parallel storylines" by the studio. Several different studios were involved with Studio Nue in the Macross franchise along the years, but since 2002's Macross Zero, production has been handled exclusively between Nue and Satelight, from which Shōji Kawamori is one of the main key members. The main of Macross production consists of (in chronological release order):
A feature film, subtitled 'Do You Remember Love? (愛・おぼえていますか Ai Oboete Imasu ka), was released in 1984, with a condensed version of the storyline and cutting-edge animation. This movie was later described as a "historical drama" movie within the Macross universe (similar to World War II films in the real world). In Macross Plus and Macross 7, it is revealed that there was a movie produced after Space War I (the original Earth-Zentradi conflict). Kawamori described the relation between the two depictions of Space War I: "The real Macross is out there, somewhere. If I tell the story in the length of a TV series, it looks one way, and if I tell it as a movie-length story, it's organized another way." (An edited, English-dubbed version of the feature was also released to video as Clash of the Bionoids.)
Macross II, the only animated project without Studio Nue's direct involvement, was declared a parallel-world story by Studio Nue.
In March 2007, Studio Victor placed a casting call for a voice actress to play the heroine, Ranka Lee, in a then untitled new Macross series. Eighteen-year-old Nakajima Megumi was selected in the nationwide singing and acting audition for the role of Ranka Lee in Japan. The project was given the tentative title of Macross 25. Later, as part of the 25th anniversary concert, a trailer was shown that revealed the new tentative title of Macross F (Frontier). During the concert, Kawamori Shoji mentioned that the timeframe of Macross Frontier was about 2070 AD. Kawamori also announced that Yoko Kanno would be the music co-composer of the new Macross series. According to Newtype Magazine, this new series were supposed to take place in a school. The pilot episode aired on December 23, 2007. The new series were finally set in the year 2059 AD and took place in a new Macross Colony Fleet called "Macross Frontier". The new show was produced by Satelight and its episodes began their regular broadcast on April 4, 2008, in MBS channel of Japan. The final episode aired on September 25, 2008, what brought the series to a total of 25 episodes. A Macross Frontier Movie Edition was announced just after the ending of the new TV animated series.
The Kanto area rerun of the Macross Frontier anime television series during early 2014 in Japan ended with a teaser announcement that a new Macross TV series is in the works, and later in the year was tentatively titled Macross Δ (Delta). Just like in Macross Frontier, a casting call was held for the series' main singer who also became part of the cast. The winner of the contest as well of the rest of the cast and characters were revealed in a special event held on October 29, 2015. A new Macross anime television series was to premiere in 2018, but still wasn't released (as of May 2021).
Macross fictional chronology
Several sequel series and prequels have followed in Macross. The main Macross productions consists of (in fictional chronological timeline order):
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Time Period
!Title (original)
!Work
!Release Dates
!Episodes
|-
|1999||The Super Dimension Fortress Macross (Prologue only)Original work adapted by Harmony Gold to become Robotech: The Macross Saga in 1985.||TV series||1982/10 to 1983/6||36
|-
|2002–2010||Misa Hayase: White Reminiscences||Novels||1984/2||
|-
|2008||Macross ZeroOriginal Macross origin story||OVA series||2002/12 to 2004/10||5
|-
|2009||Dreaming Prelude: My Fair Minmay||Novels||1983/4||
|-
|2009–2012||The Super Dimension Fortress MacrossOriginal work adapted by Harmony Gold to become Robotech: The Macross Saga in 1985.||TV series||1982/10 to 1983/6||36
|-
|2009–2012||Macross: The FirstComic format alternate telling of the events in The Super Dimension Fortress Macross serialized in Macross Ace magazine and actually Newtype Ace.||Manga||2009/2 – Ongoing||
|-
|2010||Macross Inside Story: Macross Classic||Audio drama||1996/8||4
|-
|2012, 2031(story within a story)||Macross: Do You Remember Love?Alternate telling of the events in The Super Dimension Fortress Macross, specifically episodes 2 through 27. Canon in-universe as a fictional movie.||Movie||1984/7||
|-
|2012||The Super Dimension Fortress Macross: Flash Back 2012Epilogue of the Macross: Do You Remember Love?, segments were added in the movie's definitive "Perfect Edition".||OVA||1987/6||
|-
|2014–2030||Macross M3||Video game||2001/2||
|-
|2040||Macross PlusOriginal Macross sequel OVA created by Studio Nue. A side-story.||OVA series||1994/8 to 1995/9||5
|-
|2043||Macross: True Love Song||Video game||2000/3||
|-
|2045||Macross 7 Docking Festival: Singing Saves the Galaxy!?||Audio drama||1995/3||
|-
|2045–2046||Macross 7TV series sequel to The Super Dimension Fortress Macross. First of the sequels to touch upon the metaplot. Features a new cast of characters, and only three returning characters from the original series.||TV series||1994/10 to 1995/9||49
|-
|2046||Macross 7: Trash||Manga||1995/5 to 2001/7||8 volumes
|-
|2046||Macross 7 The Movie: The Galaxy Is Calling Me!||Movie||1995/9||
|-
|2046||Macross 7: EncoreOVA series sequel to Macross 7||OVA series||1995/12 to 1996/2||3
|-
|2046||Macross Generation||Audio drama||1997/4||10
|-
|2047||Macross Digital Mission VF-X||Video game||1997/2||
|-
|2047||Macross Dynamite 7Macross 7 OVA sequel||OVA series||1997/12 to 1998/8||4
|-
|2050||Macross VF-X2||Video game||1999/9||
|-
|2058||Macross The Ride||Novels||2010/12 to 2011/11||12
|-
|2059||Macross Frontier||TV series||2008/4 to 2008/9||25
|-
|2059||Super Dimension Song Maiden Ranka||Manga||2008/10||1 volume
|-
|2059||Macross Frontier The Movie: The False SongstressMacross Frontier theatrical movie adaptation.||Movie||2009/11||
|-
|2059||Sheryl: Kiss in the Galaxy||Manga||2010/9 to 2012/10||4 volumes
|-
|2059||Macross Frontier Movie: The Wings of GoodbyeMacross Frontier theatrical movie adaptation and sequel to The False Songstress.||Movie||2011/2||
|-
|2059||Macross Frontier: Hold Me Tightly to the Edge of the Galaxy||Manga||2012/9||1 volume
|-
|2059||Macross FB 7: Ore no Uta o Kike!Macross 7 & Macross Frontier crossover special.||Movie||2012/10||
|-
|2059||Macross Fortissimo||Manga||2013/3||1 volume
|-
|2060||Macross 30: Voices across the Galaxy||Video game||2013/2||
|-
|2062||Macross The MusicaltureMacross 30th anniversary live music show.||Musical||2012/10||
|-
|2067||Macross DeltaTV sequel to both Macross 30 and Macross Frontier.||TV series||2016/04 to 2016/09||26
|-
|2067||Macross Delta the Movie: Passionate WalküreCompilation movie of Macross Delta, with some changes.||Movie||2018/02/09||
|-
|2067||Macross Delta the Movie: Absolute Live!!!!!!Sequel to Macross Delta.||Movie||2021/08/08||
|-
|2092||Macross IIOriginal Macross sequel OVA created without Studio Nue and considered an alternate universe by them.||OVA series||1992/5 to 1992/11||6
|}
Video games
Macross video games are based on its universe, sometimes expanding it with original characters and sidestories; latest games often include newly created anime footage, and all of them were exclusively released in Japan; except a Takatoku Toys handheld electronic game distributed by Incoming Trading, a Banpresto arcade game licensed by Fabtek, and a Bandai Visual PlayStation game whose debuted North American localization was eventually cancelled probably due to copyrights issues involving Harmony Gold.
See the list of Macross video games for all the official and crossover releases from the 1980s up to the 2010s.
Legal complications with international distribution
Harmony Gold purchased the international distribution rights for the Macross series and between 1999 and 2003 filed trademarks on the distribution of Macross merchandise and media outside of Japan. Harmony Gold's international distribution rights are under dispute however as they bought the rights from the Japanese company, Tatsunoko Productions, which in a court ruling against companies, Studio Nue and Big West, was ruled to have only the rights to the international distribution of The Super Dimension Fortress Macross and no legal claim to the rest of the franchise; those belonging to the latter companies. Harmony Gold claims that the case does not apply to them since it occurred in Japan and does not apply to the international distribution rights. Harmony Gold continues to re-affirm their claim to the international distribution through cease and desist letters,[ resulting in later Macross series not being distributed outside of Japan.
On March 1, 2021, Big West, Studio Nue, and Harmony Gold have agreed to work together and distribute Macross properties outside Japan alongside Robotech. The signed agreement also mentions that Big West will allow Harmony Gold to release their upcoming Robotech film in Japan.
LegacyMacross was the basis for the Robotech franchise in North America. Super Dimension Fortress Macross was adapted into the first saga of the Robotech television series (19851986), called The Macross Saga, which spawned the Robotech franchise. Robotech was influential in the Western world, helping to introduce the anime medium to North America.Macross popularized the concept of transforming mecha, which can transform between a standard vehicle (such as a fighter plane or transport truck) and a fighting mecha robot. Shōji Kawamori introduced the concept with Diaclone in 1980 and then popularized it with Macross. Kawamori then went on to design transforming mecha for Transformers (1986). The transforming mecha concept became popular in the mid-1980s, with Macross: Do You Remember Love? (1984) and Zeta Gundam (1985) in Japan, and with Robotech and Transformers in the West. Transformers went on to influence the Hollywood movie industry.
In contrast to earlier mecha anime which focused on combatants, Macross portrayed mecha conflict from the perspective of non-combatant civilians, such as the fictional singer Lynn Minmay. She went on to become the first virtual idol. Voiced by Mari Iijima, Minmay was the first fictional idol singer to garner major real-world success, with the theme song "Do You Remember Love?" (from the film Macross: Do You Remember Love?) reaching number seven on the Oricon music charts in Japan. This was later further explored in Macross Plus with the virtual idol Sharon Apple, an artificial intelligence (AI) computer program who takes the form of an intergalactic pop star, and in Macross 7 with the virtual band Fire Bomber who became a commercial success and spawned multiple CDs released in Japan. Macross set the template for later virtual idols in the early 21st century, such as Hatsune Miku and Kizuna AI.
Another innovative character concept in Macross was the role of Misa Hayase in Super Dimension Fortress Macross (called Lisa Hayes in Robotech), who was one of the main commanders of the Macross battleship. She was the boss and commanding officer of the fighter pilot protagonist Hikaru Ichijyo (called Rick Hunter in Robotech), and later his love interest. This was a scenario Kawamori came up with which he had not seen in any Hollywood movies before. A similar scenario, however, later appeared in the Hollywood movie Top Gun (1986). According to Kawamori, "Many people pointed out that later films like Top Gun'' copied that idea and setting, as well as including the combination of many songs and fighters too."
References
External links
Macross episode reviews at MAHQ
Macross Compendium
Macross World
Japanese
New Official website
Macross 30th Anniversary Official Site
Macross F Official
Big West
Bandai Visual
Extraterrestrials in anime and manga
Faster-than-light travel in fiction
Mecha anime and manga
Military in anime and manga
Military science fiction
Space opera
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giro%20d%27Italia
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Giro d'Italia
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The Giro d'Italia (; ; also known as the Giro) is an annual multiple-stage bicycle race primarily held in Italy, while also starting in, or passing through, other countries. The first race was organized in 1909 to increase sales of the newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport; and is still run by a subsidiary of that paper's owner. The race has been held annually since its first edition in 1909, except during the two world wars. As the Giro gained prominence and popularity the race was lengthened, and the peloton expanded from primarily Italian participation to riders from all over the world. The Giro is a UCI World Tour event, which means that the teams that compete in the race are mostly UCI WorldTeams, with some additional teams invited as 'wild cards'.
Along with the Tour de France and Vuelta a España, the Giro is one of cycling's prestigious three-week-long Grand Tours. The Giro is usually held during May, sometimes continuing into early June. While the route changes each year, the format of the race stays the same, with at least two time trials, and a passage through the mountains of the Alps, including the Dolomites. Like the other Grand Tours, the modern editions of the Giro d'Italia normally consist of 21 stages over a 23 or 24-day period that includes two or three rest days.
The rider with the lowest aggregate time is the leader of the general classification and wears the pink jersey. While the general classification gathers the most attention, stage wins are prestigious of themselves, and there are other contests held within the Giro: the points classification, the mountains classification for the climbers, young rider classification for the riders under the age of 25, and the team classification.
History
The idea of the holding a bicycle race that navigated around Italy was first suggested when La Gazzetta dello Sport editor Tullo Morgagni sent a telegram to both the paper's owner, Emilio Costamagna, and cycling editor, Armando Cougnet, stating the need for an Italian tour. At the time La Gazzetta'''s rival, Corriere della Sera was planning on holding a bicycle race of its own, after the success they had gained from holding an automobile race. Morgagni then decided to try and hold their race before Corriere della Sera could hold theirs, but La Gazzetta lacked the money. However, after the success La Gazzetta had with creating the Giro di Lombardia and Milan–San Remo, the owner Costamagna decided to go through with the idea. Their bike race was announced on 7 August 1908 in the first page of that day's edition of La Gazzetta dello Sport. The race was to be held in May of 1909. The idea of the race was inspired by the Tour de France and the success that L'Auto had gained from it.
Since the organizers lacked the funds, 25,000 lire, needed to hold the race, they consulted Primo Bongrani, an accountant at the bank Cassa di Risparmio and friend of the three organizers. Bongrani proceeded to go around Italy asking for donations to help hold the race. Bongrani's efforts were largely successful, he had procured enough money to cover the operating costs. The money that was to be given out as prizes came from a casino in San Remo after Francesco Sghirla, a former Gazzetta employee, encouraged it to contribute to the race. Even Corriere, La Gazzetta's rival, gave 3,000 lire to the race's fund.
On 13 May 1909 at 02:53 am 127 riders started the first Giro d'Italia at Loreto Place in Milan. The race was split into eight stages covering . A total of 49 riders finished, with Italian Luigi Ganna winning. Ganna won three individual stages and the General Classification. Ganna received 5325 lira as a winner's prize, with the last rider in the general classification receiving 300 lira. The Giro's director received only 150 lira a month, 150 lira fewer than the last-placed rider.
The first Giro was won by Luigi Ganna, while Carlo Galetti won the two following Giros. In 1912, there was no individual classification, instead there was only a team classification, which was won by Team Atala. The 1912 Giro is the only time the competition has not had an individual classification. From 1914 onwards the scoring format was changed from a points-based system to a time-based system, in which the cyclist who had the lowest aggregate time at the end of the race would win. The Giro was suspended for four years from 1915 to 1918, due to the First World War. Costante Girardengo was the winner of the first Giro after the war in 1919.
The dominant figure in the 1920s was Alfredo Binda, who won his first Giro in 1925 and followed this up with another victory in 1927, in which he won 12 of the 15 stages. Victory in 1929 came courtesy of eight successive stage wins. At the height of his dominance Binda was called to the head office of La Gazzetta dello Sport in 1930; the newspaper accused him of ruining the race and offered him 22,000 lira to be less dominant, which he refused. Binda won five Giros before he was usurped as the dominant cyclist by Gino Bartali. Nicknamed the "Iron Man of Tuscany" for his endurance, Bartali won two Giros during the 1930s, in 1936 and 1937. Bartali's dominance was challenged in 1940, the last Giro before the Second World War, when he was defeated by his 20-year-old teammate Fausto Coppi.
The rivalry between Bartali and Coppi intensified after the war. Bartali won his last Giro in 1946, with Coppi winning his second the following year. Coppi won a further three Giros and in 1952 he became the first cyclist to win the Tour de France and Giro in the same year. Swiss Hugo Koblet became the first non-Italian to win the race in 1950. No one dominated the tour during the 1950s, Coppi, Charly Gaul and Fiorenzo Magni each won two Giros during the decade. The 1960s were similar, five-time Tour de France winner Jacques Anquetil won in 1960, and 1964, while Franco Balmamion won two successive Giros in 1962 and 1963.
Belgian Eddy Merckx was the dominant figure during the 1970s. His first victory came in 1968; another triumph in 1970 was followed by three successive victories from 1972 to 1974, which is the record for the most successive victories in the Giro. Merckx was also wearing the Maglia Rosa late in the 1969 edition when he was accused of doping in one of the most controversial scandals in Giro history. The UCI would lift his suspension almost immediately but Merckx was not allowed to start stage 17 and Felice Gimondi outperformed all of the remaining riders to claim the victory. Unfortunately in 1976 a rider died in an accident early in the race which stunned the riders, fans and race officials equally. By the third week it seemed as though Belgian rider Johan De Muynck was going to claim victory, but much to the delight of the Tifosi Gimondi rode a very strong final Individual Time Trial and won his third Giro by a very small margin in rather stunning fashion as he was getting older and not even considered a pre-race favorite. Belgians Michel Pollentier and Johan De Muynck won the two subsequent Giros in 1977 and 1978. In 1980, Frenchman Bernard Hinault became France's first winner since Anquetil in 1964. He would win another two Giros in 1982 and 1985.
American Andrew Hampsten became the first non-European winner in 1988, and the first South American winner was Nairo Quintana of Colombia in 2014. Spaniard Miguel Indurain, winner of five Tours, won successive Giros in 1991 and 1992. Ivan Gotti's wins in 1997 and 1999 were either side of the first win by Marco Pantani's win in 1998, a year in which he completed the Tour and Giro double.
Gilberto Simoni was the winner in 2001 and 2003, with Paolo Savoldelli victorious in 2002 and 2005. Other repeat winners this century have been Ivan Basso (2006 and 2010), Spaniard Alberto Contador in 2008 and 2015 and Vincenzo Nibali in 2013 and 2016. Contador also looked to have won the 2011 edition, a race during which Wouter Weylandt suffered a fatal crash on the third stage, but he was later stripped of the title after he was found guilty of doping in the 2010 Tour de France, and runner-up Michele Scarponi was awarded the victory. In 2017 Tom Dumoulin became the first Dutch rider to win the Giro and in 2019 Richard Carapaz from Ecuador became the first rider from his country to win it.
In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic forced the postponement of the Giro to October, marking the only time in the race's history that it was not raced in May or June.
Classifications
A few riders from each team aim to win overall but there are three further competitions to draw riders of all specialties: points, mountains, and a classification for young riders with general classification aspirations. The oldest of the four classifications is the general classification. The leader of each aforementioned classifications wears a distinctive jersey. If a rider leads more than one classification that awards, he wears the jersey of the most prestigious classification. The abandoned jersey is worn by the rider who is second in the competition.
General classification
The most sought after classification in the Giro d'Italia is the general classification. All of the stages are timed to the finish, after finishing the riders' times are compounded with their previous stage times; so the rider with the lowest aggregate time is the leader of the race. The leader is determined after each stage's conclusion. The leader of the race also has the privilege to wear the race leader's pink jersey. The jersey is presented to the leader rider on a podium in the stage's finishing town. If a rider is leading more than one classification that awards a jersey, he will wear the maglia rosa since the general classification is the most important one in the race. The lead can change after each stage.
The color pink was chosen as the magazine that created the Giro, La Gazzetta dello Sport, printed its newspapers on pink paper. The pink jersey was added to the race in the 1931 edition and it has since become a symbol of the Giro d'Italia. The first rider to wear the pink jersey was Learco Guerra. Riders usually try to make the extra effort to keep the jersey for as long as possible in order to get more publicity for the team and the sponsor(s) of the team. Eddy Merckx wore the jersey for 78 stages, more than any other rider in the history of the Giro d'Italia. Three riders have won the general classification five times in their career: Alfredo Binda, Fausto Coppi, and Eddy Merckx.
The general classification winner was not always determined by a time system. In the inaugural Giro d'Italia the organizers chose to have a points system over a system based around elapsed time after the scandal that engulfed the 1904 Tour de France. In addition to that, the organizers chose the point system since it would be cheaper to count the placings of the riders rather than clocking the riders during each stage. The race leader was calculated by adding up each rider's placings in each stage and the rider with the lowest total was the leader; if a rider placed second in the first stage and third in the second stage, he would have five points total. The system was modified a year later to give the riders who placed 51st or higher in a stage 51 points and keep the point distribution system the same for the riders who placed 1st through 50th in a stage. The calculation remained unmodified until 1912 where the organizers chose to have the race be centered around teams, while still keeping the point system. The next year race organizers chose to revert to the system used in 1911. In 1914, the organizers shifted to the system used nowadays, where riders would have their finishing times for each stage totaled together to determine the overall leader.
These are the time bonuses that the riders receive for crossing the lines in the first few positions:
Mountains classification
The mountains classification is the second oldest jersey awarding classification in the Giro d'Italia. The mountains classification was added to the Giro d'Italia in 1933 Giro d'Italia and was first won by Alfredo Binda. During mountain stages of the race, points are awarded to the rider who is first to reach the top of each significant climb. Points are also awarded for riders who closely follow the leader up each climb. The number of points awarded varies according to the hill classification, which is determined by the steepness and length of the course.
The climbers' jersey is worn by the rider who, at the start of each stage, has the largest number of climbing points. If a rider leads two or more of the categories, the climbers' jersey is worn by the rider in second, or third, place in that contest. At the end of the Giro, the rider holding the most climbing points wins the classification. In fact, some riders, particularly those who are neither sprinters nor particularly good at time-trialing, may attempt only to win this particular competition within the race. The Giro has four categories of mountains. They range from category 4, the easiest, to category 1, the hardest. There is also the Cima Coppi, the highest point reached in a particular Giro, which is worth more points than the race's other first-category climbs. Gino Bartali has won the mountains classification a record seven times.
The classification awarded no jersey to the leader until the 1974 Giro d'Italia, when the organizers decided to award a green jersey to the leader. The green jersey was used until 2012, when the classification's sponsor, Banca Mediolanum, renewed its sponsorship for another four years and desired the jersey to be blue rather than green.
The point distribution for the mountains is as follows:
Points classification
The points classification is the third oldest of the four jersey current awarding classifications in the Giro d'Italia. It was introduced in the 1966 Giro d'Italia and was first won by Gianni Motta. Points are given to the rider who is first to reach the end of, or determined places during, any stage of the Giro. The red jersey is worn by the rider who at the start of each stage, has the largest number of points. The rider who, at the end of the Giro, holds the most points, wins the points competition. Each stage win, regardless of the stage's categorization, awards 25 points, second place is worth 20 points, third 16, fourth 14, fifth 12, sixth 10, and one point less per place down the line, to a single point for fifteenth. This means that a true sprinter might not always win the points classification. The classification was added to draw the participation of the sprinters. The classification has been won four times by two riders: Francesco Moser and Giuseppe Saronni.
In addition, stages can have one or more intermediate sprints: 8, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1 point(s) are/is awarded to the first six cyclists passing these lines. These points also count toward the TV classification (Traguardo Volante, or "flying sprint"), a separate award.
The first year the points classification was used, it had no jersey that was given to the leader of the classification. In the 1967 Giro d'Italia, the red jersey was added for the leader of the classification. However, in 1969 the red jersey was changed to a cyclamen (purple) colored jersey. It remained that color until 2010 when the organizers chose to change the jersey back to the color red; in a return to the original color scheme for the three minor classifications, which reflected the colors of the Italian flag. However, in April 2017 RCS Sport, the organisers of the Giro, announced that the maglia ciclamino would be revived for the 2017 Giro d'Italia.
The point distribution for the sprints are as follows:
Young rider classification
The Young rider classification is restricted to the riders that are under the age of 25. The leader of the classification is determined the same way as the general classification, with the riders' times being added up after each stage and the eligible rider with lowest aggregate time is dubbed the leader. This classification was added to the Giro d'Italia in the 1976 edition, with Alfio Vandi being the first to win the classification after placing seventh overall. The classification was not contested between the years of 1995 and 2006. The classification was reintroduced in the 2007, and has been in each Giro since. The Giro d'Italia awards a white jersey to the leader of the classification. Evgeni Berzin, Nairo Quintana and Tao Geoghegan Hart win the young rider classification and the general classification in the same year : in 1994, 2014 and 2020. Four riders have won the young rider classification twice in their respective careers: Vladimir Poulnikov, Pavel Tonkov, Bob Jungels and Miguel Ángel López.
Team classifications
There are two team classifications that are contested at the Giro d'Italia: the Trofeo Fast Team and the Trofeo Super Team. The Trofeo Fast Team is the older of the two as it was introduced in the first Giro d'Italia. It was first won by Atala. The Trofeo Fast Team is calculate by adding the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time. The classification just called the team classification in each edition until the organizers changed it to the Trofeo Fast Team for the 1994 Giro d'Italia. won the Trofeo Fast Team classification in 2018.
The Trofeo Super Team was introduced at the 1993 Giro d'Italia. The name Trofeo Super Team was adopted for the 1994 edition of the Giro and been used ever since. The classification was first won by Ariostea in 1993. The classification is a team points classification, with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points (20 for first place, 19 for second place and so on, down to a single point for 20th) for their team. The Trofeo Super Team classification was discontinued in 2017, when it was won by .
Minor classifications
Other less well-known classifications, whose leaders did not receive a special jersey, are awarded during the Giro. These awards were based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour. Each mass-start stage had one intermediate sprint, the Traguardo Volante, or T.V. The T.V. gave bonus seconds towards the general classification, points towards the regular points classification, and also points towards the T.V. classification. This award was known by various names in previous years, and was previously time-based. In 2013 this classification was renamed to the sprints classification and was won by Rafael Andriato.
Other awards include the Combativity classification, which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints, mountain passes and stage finishes. It was won by Mark Cavendish in 2013. The Azzurri d'Italia classification is based on finishing order; however, points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage. It was also most recently won by Mark Cavendish. Additionally, the Trofeo Fuga Pinarello rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field, each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear. 's Rafael Andriato was first in this competition in 2013. Teams were given penalty points for minor technical infringements. Several teams tied for the Fair Play classification in 2018 (and also in 2021), not receiving any points (the team's best placed rider in the General Classification then serves as a tie-breaker).
Defunct classifications
In 1946 the maglia nera (black jersey) was introduced and awarded the cyclist who was last in the general classification. Riders sometimes deliberately wasted time in order to become last overall and so wear the black jersey. The classification was short lived, as it was last contested in the 1951 Giro d'Italia. The classification was won twice by Luigi Malabrocca, who won the classification in 1946 and 1947. The last winner of the maglia nera was Giovanni Pinarello.
The intergiro classification was introduced in 1989 and first won by Yugoslavian Jure Pavlič. In each stage there would be a point, before the finish, where the riders would be timed until they crossed the line. The times from each stage would then be added together for each rider to determine the leader of the classification. The leader of the classification was awarded a blue jersey. The classification was run each year since its addition until 2005. The last winner of the classification was Stefano Zanini. Fabrizio Guidi won the classification three times, the most by any rider. Guidi won the classification in 1996, 1999, and 2000.
There was also a combination classification that was introduced in the 1985 Giro d'Italia and was first won by Urs Freuler. The classification was discontinued after the 1988 Giro d'Italia. For the 1988 edition of the Giro, the classification awarded a blue jersey. However, the classification was reintroduced for the 2006 Giro d'Italia and was won by Paolo Savoldelli. The classification was not brought back in the 2007 Giro d'Italia.
The race
The Giro d'Italia contains either twenty-one stages or twenty stages and a prologue (an individual time trial under in length) and two or three rest days. There are three types of stages that are used in the Giro d'Italia: the mass-start stages, individual time trials, and team time trials. The mass-start stages make up most of the twenty-one racing days of each year's Giro d'Italia, there are usually two time trials in each edition of the Giro d'Italia, and sometimes three if there is a prologue or team time trial. In mass start stages there are time bonuses of ten, six and four seconds for the first three finishers, and, in some years, bonuses of three, two and one seconds at intermediate sprints. Italian Mario Cipollini holds the record of 42 stage victories.
The Giro d'Italia is known for its steep and difficult climbs. Each race features a few stages that contain many climbs of high severity. The race traditionally passes through the Alps with some of the longest climbs in the Dolomites. The first Alpine pass included was the Sestriere in 1911. The Dolomites were first included in the Giro in 1937, when the race crossed over the Rolle Pass and the Passo di Costalunga. Some of the most famous mountains used in the Giro are the Passo dello Stelvio, Passo Pordoi, and the Passo di Gavia. Since 1965 the highest point in the Giro d'Italia has been dubbed the Cima Coppi in honor of the great Italian climber Fausto Coppi.
The first Giro time trial was over between Bologna and Ferrara in 1933 and was won by Alfredo Binda. A time trial is sometimes used as the penultimate or final stage, and some editions have featured a mountain time trial stage. The first stage in modern Giros is often a short trial, a prologue, to decide who wears pink on the opening day. The first prologue occurred in the 1968 Giro d'Italia. The route stretched around the streets of Campione d'Italia and was won by the Frenchman Charly Grosskost. The riders raced the course in an unusual format, with the riders racing in ten groups of thirteen and the time not being counted towards their overall time.
The first team time trial occurred in the 1937 Giro d'Italia and was won by the Italian team, Legnano. The course was in length and stretched from Viareggio to Marina di Massa.
The Giro takes place mainly in Italy, but some stages have departure or conclusion locations in, or pass through, the neighboring countries of San Marino, France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia and Vatican City State. The other countries visited, usually in connection with the opening stages of the race, are Belgium, Luxembourg, Croatia, Denmark, Ireland, Germany, Greece, Israel, Netherlands, Monaco and the United Kingdom.
The start and finish of the Giro
For nearly half a century, the Giro started and finished by Milan, the city where the headquarters of the Gazzetta dello Sport is located. In 1911 these events took place in Rome to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Italy's unification. With the occasional exception, the start and finish in Milan were the standard for the Giro d'Italia. However, since the 1960s the place of departure has changed each year and finishes in cities such as Verona, Brescia, Trieste, Turin and Rome have become more frequent.
The start of the Giro d'Italia (La Grande Partenza'') is a significant occasion and cities invest heavily, hoping to recoup the cost in tourism, exposure and other benefits: Denmark spent an estimated $3.86 million to host the opening stages of the 2012 edition.
Starts outside Italy
For the first 47 editions of the race, the race started on Italian soil. In 1965 the race made its first foreign start in San Marino, and has since had twelve more foreign starts. The 2018 start in Jerusalem, Israel was met with controversy as activists called for the race to be moved, claiming that the race whitewashes Israel's human rights record. Ultimately, the race went ahead as scheduled and every team selected for the Giro took part, including two teams of Arabic ownership; the Bahrain-Mérida team and the United Arab Emirates team. The intended start of the 2020 race in Hungary was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
See also
Giro d'Italia Femminile
List of Giro d'Italia general classification winners
UCI ProTour
References
External links
Cycle races in Italy
Recurring sporting events established in 1909
UCI ProTour races
UCI World Tour races
1909 establishments in Italy
Grand Tour (cycling)
Annual sporting events in Italy
May sporting events
June sporting events
Challenge Desgrange-Colombo races
Super Prestige Pernod races
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteen%20Holy%20Helpers
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Fourteen Holy Helpers
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The Fourteen Holy Helpers () are a group of saints venerated together by Roman Catholic Christians because their intercession is believed to be particularly effective, especially against various diseases. This group of Nothelfer ("helpers in need") originated in the 14th century at first in the Rhineland, largely as a result of the epidemic (probably of bubonic plague) that became known as the Black Death.
History of veneration
Devotion to the fourteen "Auxiliary Saints" began in Rhineland, now part of Germany, in the time of the Black Death.
At the heart of the fourteen were three virgin martyrs:
Sankt Margaretha mit dem Wurm,
Sankt Barbara mit dem Turm,
Sankt Catharina mit dem Radl,
das sind die heiligen drei Madl.
Saint Margaret with the dragon
Saint Barbara with the tower
Saint Catherine with the wheel
those are the three holy maids.
As the other saints began to be invoked along with these three virgin martyrs, they were represented together in works of art. Popular veneration of these saints often began in a monastery that held their relics. All of the saints except Giles were accounted martyrs.
Saint Christopher and Saint Giles were invoked against the plague itself. Saint Denis was prayed to for relief from headache, Saint Blaise for ills of the throat, Saint Elmo, for abdominal maladies, Saint Barbara for fever, and Saint Vitus against epilepsy. Saint Pantaleon was the patron of physicians, Saint Cyriacus invoked against temptation on the deathbed, and Saints Christopher, Barbara, and Catherine for protection against a sudden and unprovided-for death. Saint Giles was prayed to for a good confession, and Saint Eustace as healer of family troubles. Domestic animals were also attacked by the plague, and so Saints George, Elmo, Pantaleon, and Vitus were invoked for their protection. Saint Margaret of Antioch is the patron of safe childbirth.
As the saints' joint cultus spread in the fifteenth century, Pope Nicholas V attached indulgences to devotion of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, though these no longer apply. While each had a separate feast day, the Fourteen Holy Helpers were in some places celebrated as a group on 8 August, but this celebration never became part of the General Roman Calendar for universal veneration. When that calendar was revised in 1969, the individual celebrations of St Barbara, St Catherine of Alexandria, St Christopher, and St Margaret of Antioch were dropped, but in 2004 Pope John Paul II reinstated the 25 November optional memorial of Catherine of Alexandria, whose voice was heard by Saint Joan of Arc. The individual celebrations of all fourteen are included in the General Roman Calendar as in 1954, the General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII and the General Roman Calendar of 1960.
Comparable to the devotion of the Fourteen Holy Helpers was that of the Four Holy Marshals, who were also venerated in the Rhineland as "Marshals of God." These were Quirinus of Neuss, Saint Anthony the Great, Pope Cornelius, and Saint Hubert.
The Auxiliary Saints
The fourteen saints are:
Half the saints are regarded as historical figures (Blaise, Cyriacus, Erasmus, George, Giles, Pantaleon, Vitus) while the other may only be legends (Agathius, Barbara, Catherine of Alexandria, Christopher, Denis, Eustace, Margaret of Antioch).
For one or another of the saints in the original set, Anthony the Anchorite, Leonard of Noblac, Nicholas, Sebastian, Oswald the King, Pope Sixtus II, Apollonia, Dorothea of Caesarea, Wolfgang of Regensburg or Roch were sometimes substituted. In France an extra "helper" is added: the Virgin Mary.
The Basilica of the Vierzehnheiligen
The Fourteen Holy Helpers are honored in Bavaria as the "vierzehn Heiligen," and the Basilica of the Vierzehnheiligen is dedicated to these "Helper Saints." The Rococo pilgrimage church near the town of Bad Staffelstein was designed by Balthasar Neumann and built between 1743 and 1772.
Devotion to these saints began in that region on 24 September 1445 when Hermann Leicht, the young shepherd of a nearby Franciscan monastery, saw a crying child in a field that belonged to the nearby Cistercian monastery of Langheim. As he bent down to pick up the child, it abruptly disappeared. A short time later, the child reappeared in the same spot. This time, two candles were burning next to it. In June 1446, Leicht saw the child a third time. This time, the child bore a red cross on its chest and was accompanied by thirteen other children. The child said: "We are the fourteen helpers and wish to erect a chapel here, where we can rest. If you will be our servant, we will be yours!" Shortly after, Leicht saw two burning candles descending to this spot. It is alleged that miraculous healings soon began, through the intervention of the fourteen saints.
The Cistercian brothers to whom the land belonged erected a chapel, which immediately attracted pilgrims. An altar was consecrated as early as 1448. Pilgrimages to the Vierzehnheiligen continue to the present day between May and October.
Depiction in culture
One of the group depictions of the "Fourteen Saints" is a 1503 altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald for the monastery in Lichtenfels in Upper Franconia.
The "fourteen angels" of the lost children's prayer in Engelbert Humperdinck's fairy opera, 'Hansel and Gretel', are the Fourteen Holy Helpers. The English words are familiar:
Gallery
See also
Franciscan Monastery in Kadaň – a Franciscan monastery in the Czech Republic with a church dedicated to the Holy Helpers.
Langheim Abbey – an abbey in Lichtenfels, Bavaria where Matthias Grünewald painted his "Holy Helpers" altarpiece.
Patron saints of ailments, illness, and dangers – the category of Roman Catholic saints to which the Holy Helpers belong.
References
External links
Invocation and litany to the Fourteen Holy Helpers
Das Ökumenische Heiligenlexikon – Heilige Nothelfer
Basilika Vierzehnheiligen
WebShots slideshow of the Basilika Vierzehnheiligen
Groups of Roman Catholic saints
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246789
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopalong%20Casualty
|
Hopalong Casualty
|
Hopalong Casualty is a 1960 Warner Bros. Looney Tunes theatrical animated short, directed by Chuck Jones. The short was released on October 8, 1960, and stars Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner. The title is a play on the Hopalong Cassidy western series of books written by author Clarence E. Mulford.
Plot
As usual, Wile E. Coyote (Hard-headipus ravenus) has gone in pursuit of The Road Runner (Speedipus Rex). The title shows just before the Coyote gains on the Road Runner. He lunges, leaping and grabbing his quarry by the throat. A two-second wrestling match follows, with both combatants in a round ball rolling down the road from the force of their running, but Wile E. emerges "holding" only a smoke outline of the bird. The confused coyote looks in his hands just as the Road Runner speeds up behind Wile E. He beeps, sending the Coyote flying through the air and leaves him hanging on a telephone pole. When he slides back down, the Road Runner beeps again, sending not only Wile E. in the air, but also the telephone pole, which escapes Wile E.'s grip. He then looks relieved, but because of the power lines, the pole zooms back to Wile E. and drives him into the ground. He then comes out of a nearby manhole, flattened and humiliated. Of course, there is nothing left to do but plan more schemes.
First, the Coyote goes simple by waiting behind a rock face, and when he hears the "beep-beep" of the Road Runner, he jumps out into the middle of the road, only to be flattened by an approaching truck.
Next, the Coyote sets up a rope and rock trap, but when he pulls the string, he ends up squashing himself (but not his feet).
The Coyote now places dynamite in a tunnel under the road, but as he goes deeper into the tunnel, the detonator handle pushes down further, and eventually the dynamite explodes on the Coyote.
Now, the Coyote uses an Acme Christmas Packaging Machine. He puts it in a pit with a sign that says "DETOUR". The Coyote snickers gleefully, but then the Road Runner, as expected, pops up behind the coyote and beeps. The startled Coyote leaps in the air and into the Christmas Packaging Machine. The result is a neatly packaged Wile E. Coyote. Humiliated, the boxed Coyote tiptoes off the screen.
This time, the Coyote uses dynamite on a fishing line. When he hears the Road Runner, he jerks back the rod and prepares to cast the line. He jerks a bit too hard, however; the dynamite gets stuck in a cactus, and eventually, the Coyote gets wound around the cactus with the line. He then sees that the dynamite is about to go off, and tries to blow out the fuse, but instead makes it burn down faster, and it then explodes.
Finally, the Coyote scatters some Acme Earthquake Pills on the road, hoping that the Road Runner can mistake them for birdseed. The Road Runner obligingly eats them, but they have no effect as he zooms away. In disgust, the Coyote swallows an earthquake pill himself, and then even more disgustedly swallows all of the remaining pills. After jumping up and down several times in an attempt to trigger an earthquake, he contemptuously chucks the empty bottle over his shoulder, but immediately leaps after the bottle with bulging eyes to catch it before it shatters in the middle of the road. Wile E. is just in time to read the fine print at the bottom of the bottle's label: "Caution: Not effective on Road Runners". As soon as he sees this, he gulps nervously, now knowing what he faces. As he gingerly takes his first step to get out of the middle of the road, the product takes effect on him, causing him to shake, rattle and jerk helplessly across the landscape, getting flattened by a huge boulder and almost falling off a narrow rocky arch in the process. When the product finally wears off, the Coyote feels so relieved that he steps out without looking where he's going, and walks over a cliff's edge, falling to the ground. The Road Runner then beeps once more and takes off, with the trail of smoke left behind him, forming the words "The End".
Crew
Story: Chuck Jones
Animation: Tom Ray, Ken Harris, Richard Thompson & Bob Bransford
Layouts: Maurice Noble
Backgrounds: Philip DeGuard
Film Editor: Treg Brown
Music: Milt Franklyn
Produced by David H. DePatie & John W. Burton
Directed by Chuck Jones
References
External links
Looney Tunes shorts
American films
Short films directed by Chuck Jones
Wile E. Coyote and The Road Runner
1960 animated films
1960s American animated films
Films scored by Milt Franklyn
1960 films
Animated films about animals
Animated films about birds
Animated films without speech
|
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