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249973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika%20Samoa | Amerika Samoa | Amerika Samoa is the regional anthem of American Samoa. Composed by Napoleon Andrew Tuiteleleapaga and written by Mariota Tiumalu Tuiasosopo, it was officially adopted in 1950.
Samoan lyrics
Amerika Samoa
Lo’u Atunu’u pele ‘oe
Oute tiu I lou igoa
O ‘oe o lo’u fa’amoemoe
O ‘oe ole Penina ole Pasefika
E mo’omia o motu e lima
E ua ta’uta’ua au aga I fanua
Ma ou tala mai anamua
Tutuila ma Manu’a
Ala mai ia tu I luga
Tautua ma punou I lou Malo
Ia manuia ia ulu ola
Amerika Samoa
Ole Malo ole sa’olotoga
(repeat)
Tautua ma punou I lou Malo
Ia manuia ia ulu ola
Amerika Samoa
Ole Malo ole sa’olotoga
English lyrics
English Translation
American Samoa
You are my beloved country
Your name I shan't search for
You are my hope
You are the pearl of the Pacific
That is the lure of the five islands
Your customs and legends
are well known
Tutuila and Manu'a
Stand up and be counted
Serve and bow down to your country
Let it be blessed and grow
American Samoa
The land of the free
(repeat)
Serve and bow down to your country
Let it be blessed and grow
American Samoa
The land of the free
References
American Samoan music
Politics of American Samoa
Anthems of insular areas of the United States
Oceanian anthems
1950 establishments in American Samoa
National anthem compositions in A-flat major | [
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249974 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Dun%20Nechtain | Battle of Dun Nechtain | The Battle of Dun Nechtain or Battle of Nechtansmere (Scottish Gaelic: Blàr Dhùn Neachdain, Old Irish: Dún Nechtain, Old Welsh: Gueith Linn Garan, Modern Welsh: Gwaith Llyn Garan, Old English: Nechtansmere) was fought between the Picts, led by King Bridei Mac Bili, and the Northumbrians, led by King Ecgfrith, on 20 May 685.
The Northumbrian hegemony over northern Britain, won by Ecgfrith's predecessors, had begun to disintegrate. Several of Northumbria's subject nations had rebelled in recent years, leading to a number of large-scale battles against the Picts, Mercians and Irish, with varied success. After sieges of neighbouring territories carried out by the Picts, Ecgfrith led his forces against them, despite advice to the contrary, in an effort to reassert his suzerainty over the Pictish nations.
A feigned retreat by the Picts drew the Northumbrians into an ambush at Dun Nechtain near the lake of Linn Garan. The battle site has long been thought to have been near the present-day village of Dunnichen in Angus. Recent research, however, has suggested a more northerly location near Dunachton, on the shores of Loch Insh in Badenoch and Strathspey.
The battle ended with a decisive Pictish victory which severely weakened Northumbria's power in northern Britain. Ecgfrith was killed in battle, along with the greater part of his army. The Pictish victory marked their independence from Northumbria, who never regained their dominance in the north.
Background
During the seventh century AD, the Northumbrians gradually extended their territory to the north. The Annals of Tigernach record a siege of "Etain" in 638, which has been interpreted as Northumbria's conquest of Eidyn (Edinburgh) during the reign of Oswald, marking the annexation of Gododdin territories to the south of the River Forth.
To the north of the Forth, the Pictish nations consisted at this time of the Kingdom of Fortriu to the north of the Mounth, and a "Southern Pictish Zone" between there and the Forth. Evidence from the eighth century Anglo-Saxon historian Bede points to the Picts also being subjugated by the Northumbrians during Oswald's reign, and suggests that this subjugation continued into the reign of his successor, Oswiu.
Ecgfrith succeeded Oswiu as king of Northumbria in 670. Soon after, the Picts rose in rebellion against Northumbrian subjugation at the Battle of Two Rivers, recorded in the 8th century by Stephen of Ripon, hagiographer of Wilfrid. Ecgfrith was aided by a sub-king, Beornhæth, who may have been a leader of the Southern Picts, and the rebellion ended in disaster for the Northern Picts of Fortriu. Their king, Drest mac Donuel, was deposed and was replaced by Bridei mac Bili.
By 679, the Northumbrian hegemony seems to have started to fall apart. The Irish annals record a Mercian victory over Ecgfrith at which Ecgfrith's brother, Ælfwine of Deira, was killed. Sieges were recorded at Dunnottar, in the northernmost region of the "Southern Pictish Zone" near Stonehaven in 680, and at Dundurn in Strathearn in 682. The antagonists in these sieges are not recorded, but the most reasonable interpretation is thought to be that Bridei's forces were the assailants.
Bridei is also recorded as having "destroyed" the Orkney Islands in 681, at a time when the Northumbrian church was undergoing major religious reform. It had followed the traditions of the Columban church of Iona until the Synod of Whitby in 664 at which it pledged loyalty to the Roman Church. The Northumbrian diocese was divided and a number of new episcopal sees created. One of these was founded at Abercorn on the south coast of the Firth of Forth, and Trumwine was consecrated as Bishop of the Picts. Bridei, who was enthusiastically involved with the church of Iona, is unlikely to have viewed an encroachment of the Northumbrian-sponsored Roman church favourably.
The attacks on the Southern Pictish Zone at Dunnottar and Dundurn represented a major threat to Ecgfrith's suzerainty. Ecgfrith was contending with other challenges to his overlordship. In June 684, countering a Gaelic-Briton alliance, he sent his armies, led by Berhtred, son of Beornhæth, to Brega in Ireland. Ecgfrith's force decimated the local population and destroyed many churches, actions which are treated with scorn by Bede.
Account of the battle
While none of the historical sources explicitly state Ecgfrith's reason for attacking Fortriu in 685, the consensus is that it was to reassert Northumbria's control over the Picts. The most thorough description of the battle is given by Bede in his 8th-century work Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People), but this is still brief. Additional detail is given in the Irish annals of Ulster and Tigernach, and by the early Welsh historian Nennius in his Historia Brittonum (written around a century later).
Ecgfrith's attack on Fortriu was made against the counsel of his advisors, including Cuthbert, who had recently been made Bishop of Lindisfarne. The Picts, led by Bridei, feigned retreat and drew Ecgfrith's Northumbrian force into an ambush on Saturday, 20 May 685 at a lake in mountains near Duin Nechtain. The Northumbrian army was defeated and Ecgfrith slain.
Location
The site of the battle is uncertain. Until relatively recently the battle was most commonly known by its Northumbrian name, the Battle of Nechtansmere, from the Old English for 'Nechtan's lake', following 12th-century English historian Symeon of Durham. The location of the battle near a lake is reinforced by Nennius' record of the conflict as Gueith Linn Garan, Old Welsh for 'Battle of Crane Lake'. It is likely that Linn Garan was the original Pictish name for the lake.
The most complete narrative of the battle itself is given by Bede, who nevertheless fails to inform us of the location other than his mention that it took place 'in straits of inaccessible mountains'.
The Irish Annals have provided perhaps the most useful resource for identifying the battle site, giving the location as Dún Nechtain, 'Nechtan's Fort', a name that has survived into modern usage in two separate instances.
Dunnichen
Dunnichen in Angus was first identified as a possible location for the battle by antiquarian George Chalmers in the early 19th century. Chalmers notes that the name 'Dunnichen' can be found in early charters of Arbroath Abbey as 'Dun Nechtan'. He further suggests a site, 'Dunnichen Moss' (), to the east of the village, which he informs us had recently been drained but can be seen in old maps as a small lake. Earlier local tradition, related by Headrick in the Second Statistical Account, claimed that the site was the location of the Battle of Camlann, where King Arthur fought Mordred.
More recent suggestions for the battle site include the valley to the north of Dunnichen Hill, centering on Rescobie Loch () and Restenneth Loch (), which is now much reduced following drainage in the 18th century.
The battle scene inscribed on the Aberlemno kirk yard stone is often cited as evidence for the battle site. This interpretation was made based on the stone's proximity to Dunnichen, only to the north, but while the short distance seems compelling, the stone is unlikely to be any earlier than mid-8th century, and the ornamentation of the stone, including the animal forms used and the style of weaponry depicted, suggests it may be as late as the mid-9th century. Prior to being linked with the Battle of Nechtansmere, the Aberlemno stone had been cited as evidence for the Battle of Barry (now known to be historically inauthentic), and there are a number of other possible interpretations for the carving.
Dunachton
In a paper published in 2006, historian Alex Woolf gives a number of reasons for doubting Dunnichen as the battle site, most notably the absence of "inaccessible mountains" in mid-Angus. He makes a case for an alternative site at Dunachton in Badenoch (), on the north-western shore of Loch Insh, which shares Dunnichen's toponymical origin of Dún Nechtain. James Fraser of Edinburgh University suggests that, while it is too early to discount Dunnichen as a potential battle site, locating it there requires an amount of "special pleading" that Dunachton does not need.
Aftermath
Ecgfrith's defeat at Dun Nechtain devastated Northumbria's power and influence in the North of Britain. Bede recounts that the Picts recovered their lands that had been held by the Northumbrians and Dál Riatan Scots. He goes on to tell how the Northumbrians who did not flee the Pictish territory were killed or enslaved.
The Northumbrian/Roman diocese of the Picts was abandoned, with Trumwine and his monks fleeing to Whitby, stalling Roman Catholic expansion in Scotland.
While further battles between the Northumbrians and Picts are recorded, for example in 697 when Beornhæth's son Berhtred was killed, the Battle of Dunnichen marks the point in which Pictish independence from Northumbria was permanently secured.
Notes
References
External links
Dunnichen Moss as it is now
The monument at Dunnichen
Loch Insh. Dunachton is to the left of the picture
Mountains to south of Loch Insh
680s conflicts
685
7th century in Scotland
Battles involving Northumbria
Battles involving the Picts
History of Angus | [
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249976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20gran%20Carlemany | El gran Carlemany | "El gran Carlemany" (; ) is the national anthem of the Principality of Andorra. Enric Marfany Bons composed the music, while the lyrics were authored by Joan Benlloch i Vivó, written in a first-person narrative from the point of view of Andorra. It was adopted as the national anthem on 8 September 1921, which is also the national day of Andorra. The lyrics make reference to several key aspects of Andorran culture and history, such as the heritage of the Carolingian Empire.
Lyrics
History
"El Gran Carlemany" was composed by Enric Marfany Bons (1871–1942), who was a priest. The lyrics to the song were penned by Juan Benlloch i Vivó (1864–1926), who served as the Bishop of Urgell from 1906 to 1919. This position also made him an ex officio Co–Prince of Andorra. The song was officially designated as the country's national anthem on September 8, 1921, when it was sung at the country's cathedral for the first time. The day it was adopted – September 8 – is the National Day of Andorra. This coincides with the feast day of Our Lady of Meritxell, the country's patron saint who is mentioned in the lyrics.
Context of lyrics
The lyrics of "El Gran Carlemany" give a short account of Andorra's history "in a first-person narrative". It recounts the traditional Andorran legend that Charlemagne reconquered the region from the Moors between 788 and 790, after the Catalan people had guided his army through the rugged valleys, which Charlemagne compensated with granting Andorra its independence, and its first borders were delineated that same year. It formed part of the Marca Hispanica, a buffer zone formed by Charlemagne in order to protect his state (the Carolingian Empire). According to legend, he was responsible for restructuring the country, reintroducing Christianity to its people and overseeing the construction of monasteries. Because of these accomplishments, he was given "a mythical aura" and is regarded as the founder of Andorra.
The hymn begins with "El gran Carlemany mon pare" ("Great Charlemagne my father"), and memorializes this view and celebrates the country's status as "the only remaining daughter of the Carolingian empire," since it is the only remnant of the Marca Hispanica.
Notes
References
External links
Recording by the New Japan Philharmonic (former linked source stale.)
European anthems
National symbols of Andorra
Andorran songs
20th-century establishments in Andorra
Cultural depictions of Charlemagne
1921 songs
National anthems
Songs about kings
Songs about emperors
Songs about celebrities
National anthem compositions in G major | [
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249980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola%20Avante | Angola Avante | "Angola Avante" (, ) is the national anthem of Angola. Rui Alberto Vieira Dias Mingas composed the music, while the lyrics were authored by Manuel Rui Alves Monteiro. It was adopted as the national anthem in November 1975, when the country gained its independence from Portugal. The lyrics make reference to several key events of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which has been in power since independence and was the only party in Angola until 1992.
History
"Angola Avante" was composed by . The lyrics to the song were penned by Manuel Rui Alves Monteiro (1941–), an author who studied in Huambo and is affiliated with both the country's Writer Union and Union of Artists and Composers. He is one of the best-selling writers in the capital city Luanda – according to an "informal survey" conducted in July 2003 – and writes about "everyday life" in the country using satire and irony. The song was officially designated as the country's national anthem in 1975, when the country gained independence on November 11 of that year. It is enshrined under Article 164 of the constitution of Angola.
Proposed changes
Its lyrics refer to several key events in the history of the MPLA. However, this has been rendered "obsolete" since the end of the one-party state in 1992. As a result, there have been efforts to modify the national anthem, along with other national symbols. However, none of these have come to fruition, and the anthem remains unchanged as of 2014.
Context of lyrics
The lyrics of "Angola Avante" allude to how the country and its people will progress forward in the future. It has been classified by The Daily Telegraph′s Ivan Hewett as one of several contemporary national anthems that convey "a more martial tone" inspired by "La Marseillaise".
Lyrics
Portuguese (official language)
Kikongo (national language)
English translation
Oh Fatherland, we shall never forget
The heroes of the Fourth of February.
Oh Fatherland, we salute your children
Who died for our Independence.
𝄆 We honour the past and our History,
As by our work we build the New Man. 𝄇
Chorus:
𝄆 Forward, Angola!
Revolution through the power of the People:
A United Country, Freedom,
One People, one Nation! 𝄇
Let us raise our liberated voices
For the glory of the peoples of Africa.
We shall march, Angolan fighters,
In solidarity with oppressed peoples.
𝄆 We shall fight proudly for Peace
Along with the progressive forces of the world. 𝄇
Chorus:
𝄆 Forward, Angola!
Revolution through the power of the People:
A United Country, Freedom,
One People, one Nation! 𝄇
In popular culture
The name of the national anthem is used as a nickname for an inter-community association football competition held to boost sports activities both in Angola and among people from the Portuguese-speaking African countries (PALOP) living in Portugal. Hosted in Portugal in 2011 and 2013, the latter tournament featured teams from Brazil, Mozambique, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe. The 2011 sporting event coincided with and honoured the 36th anniversary of the independence of Angola.
Notes
References
External links
MP3 file
Angolan music
African anthems
National symbols of Angola
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249986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair%20Antigua%2C%20We%20Salute%20Thee | Fair Antigua, We Salute Thee | "Fair Antigua, We Salute Thee" is the national anthem of Antigua and Barbuda. Written by Novelle Hamilton Richards and composed by Walter Garnet Picart Chambers, it was adopted in 1967 while Antigua and Barbuda were still a British colony. It was adopted as the national anthem upon independence in 1981.
Lyrics
Fair Antigua and Barbuda.
We thy sons and daughters stand
Strong and firm in peace or danger
To safeguard our native land
We commit ourselves to building
A true nation brave and free;
Ever striving, ever seeking,
Dwell in love and unity
Raise the standard! Raise it boldly!
Answer now to duty's call
To the service of thy country,
Sparing nothing, giving all;
Gird your loins and join the battle
'Gainst fear, hate and poverty,
Each endeavouring, all achieving,
Live in peace where man is free.
God of nations, let Thy blessings
Fall upon this land of ours;
Rain and sunshine ever sending,
Fill her fields with crops and flowers;
We her children do implore Thee,
Give us strength, faith, loyalty,
Never failing, all enduring
To defend her liberty.
References
External links
Streaming audio of Fair Antigua, We Salute Thee with lyrics and information
National symbols of Antigua and Barbuda
North American anthems
1967 songs
National anthems | [
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249988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custody%20and%20repatriation | Custody and repatriation | Custody and repatriation (C&R; ) was an administrative procedure, established in 1982 and abolished in 2003, by which the police in the People's Republic of China (usually cities) could detain people if they did not have a residence permit (hukou) or temporary living permit (zanzhuzheng), and return them to the place where they could legally live or work (usually rural areas). At times the requirement included possession of a valid national identity card. The system was abolished in 2003 after the death of Sun Zhigang, a migrant worker who died from physical abuse while being detained under the C&R system in Guangzhou.
Background
In China there were reported to be some 800 detention camps in 2000 (not including Beijing), and by then several million people had been through them. As well as migrant workers, the Chinese camps usually contained vagrants, beggars, petitioners, and criminals, and the police (Public Security Bureau) earned income by this traffic and sometimes workers' unpaid labor. Often the detentions were unfairly long.
History
The ostensible reason for the C&R regulation in 1982 in China was to ameliorate the situation of people in the cities who were beggars or homeless. Originally it applied to "three withouts persons", those with "no fixed place of residence, no means of livelihood and no permits to live in the city in question" but later it was applied in 1991 to others without just the residence or work permits. It built on a 1961 party directive implementing the hukou system of residence (traditional family registers found in several Asian countries), work permits (issued by police on behalf of work units or employers) to prevent uncontrolled population movements, as passports and visas do internationally, and Resident Identity Cards. In turn, this regulation extended older rules that were used to enforce extrajudicial movements of Nationalist troops away from liberated cities. But as the economic development of cities in the east later required increased domestic migrant workers, the regulations were not adequately adapted or were unfairly enforced, by the Public Security Bureau (police, supposed to be in charge of deportation) instead of the Ministry of Civil Affairs (supposed to be in charge of detention). These abuses became apparent in years before 2003 and there were internal and external warnings and discussion, with some improvements but little effect overall. There were some unpublicized deaths similar to what later occurred.
Debate and abolition
The legal procedure of C&R for migrant workers was ended by the central government in 2003 after the death of Sun Zhigang, a migrant worker who died from physical abuse while being detained under the C&R system in Guangzhou.
In reaction to Sun's death, two groups of senior Chinese legal scholars wrote to the National People's Congress, questioning the constitutionality of the custody and repatriation regulation. One particular problem with the regulations was said to be that they had been adopted as regulations by the State Council and not as a law by the full Congress. As a result, it was argued, the C&R law for migrant workers was unconstitutional, on the grounds that it violated citizens' rights articles of the Constitution. As in many other countries, Chinese law does not provide for constitutional judicial review, and — as in systems without a constitution, such as the UK — the legislature or administration instead of judges must change laws deemed unconstitutional. There has been some movement by legal reformers to use courts and bureaucracy to experiment with constitutionalism.
A similar argument was that the custody and repatriation regulations "violate the 1996 Administrative Punishment Law, which states that administrative punishments which restrict personal freedom may only be authorized by laws passed by the [full] Congress." Both criticisms echoed statements published in earlier years by lawyers and legal scholars.
In addition to the legal arguments, some reports by those with contact with the detention centers (including an official report) indicated that not only were the conditions worse than prisons or reeducation camps (including beatings and prolonged detentions without trial), but also sometimes the police used the system to kidnap and extort more than expenses from the families of the accused. These reports echoed earlier ignored warnings.
On 20 June 2003, Premier Wen Jiabao announced that the abolition of the custody and repatriation system, effective August 1. The detention centers would be replaced by service stations to care for poor beggars or homeless persons under the new Measures for Assisting Vagrants and Beggars with No Means of Support in Cities. The centers for vagrants are not allowed to collect fees from families nor require them to work. The legal system of hukou and residency and work permits for migrant workers was unchanged.
See also
Re-education through labor
Law enforcement in the People's Republic of China
Constitution of the People's Republic of China
Notes
Further reading
Susan Jakes, "Hostages of the State", Time, 16 June 2003
The Law Library of Congress, "Detention and Repatriation System Abolished", World Law Bulletin, July 2003.
Chinese law
Law enforcement in China
Family registers
History of the People's Republic of China | [
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249992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20logarithm | Binary logarithm | In mathematics, the binary logarithm () is the power to which the number must be raised to obtain the value . That is, for any real number ,
For example, the binary logarithm of is , the binary logarithm of is , the binary logarithm of is , and the binary logarithm of is .
The binary logarithm is the logarithm to the base and is the inverse function of the power of two function. As well as , the alternative notation for a binary logarithm (the notation preferred by ISO 31-11 and ISO 80000-2).
Historically, the first application of binary logarithms was in music theory, by Leonhard Euler: the binary logarithm of a frequency ratio of two musical tones gives the number of octaves by which the tones differ. Binary logarithms can be used to calculate the length of the representation of a number in the binary numeral system, or the number of bits needed to encode a message in information theory. In computer science, they count the number of steps needed for binary search and related algorithms. Other areas
in which the binary logarithm is frequently used include combinatorics, bioinformatics, the design of sports tournaments, and photography.
Binary logarithms are included in the standard C mathematical functions and other mathematical software packages.
The integer part of a binary logarithm can be found using the find first set operation on an integer value, or by looking up the exponent of a floating point value.
The fractional part of the logarithm can be calculated efficiently.
History
The powers of two have been known since antiquity; for instance, they appear in Euclid's Elements, Props. IX.32 (on the factorization of powers of two) and IX.36 (half of the Euclid–Euler theorem, on the structure of even perfect numbers).
And the binary logarithm of a power of two is just its position in the ordered sequence of powers of two.
On this basis, Michael Stifel has been credited with publishing the first known table of binary logarithms in 1544. His book Arithmetica Integra contains several tables that show the integers with their corresponding powers of two. Reversing the rows of these tables allow them to be interpreted as tables of binary logarithms.
Earlier than Stifel, the 8th century Jain mathematician Virasena is credited with a precursor to the binary logarithm. Virasena's concept of ardhacheda has been defined as the number of times a given number can be divided evenly by two. This definition gives rise to a function that coincides with the binary logarithm on the powers of two, but it is different for other integers, giving the 2-adic order rather than the logarithm.
The modern form of a binary logarithm, applying to any number (not just powers of two) was considered explicitly by Leonhard Euler in 1739. Euler established the application of binary logarithms to music theory, long before their applications in information theory and computer science became known. As part of his work in this area, Euler published a table of binary logarithms of the integers from 1 to 8, to seven decimal digits of accuracy.
Definition and properties
The binary logarithm function may be defined as the inverse function to the power of two function, which is a strictly increasing function over the positive real numbers and therefore has a unique inverse.
Alternatively, it may be defined as , where is the natural logarithm, defined in any of its standard ways. Using the complex logarithm in this definition allows the binary logarithm to be extended to the complex numbers.
As with other logarithms, the binary logarithm obeys the following equations, which can be used to simplify formulas that combine binary logarithms with multiplication or exponentiation:
For more, see list of logarithmic identities.
Notation
In mathematics, the binary logarithm of a number is often written as . However, several other notations for this function have been used or proposed, especially in application areas.
Some authors write the binary logarithm as , the notation listed in The Chicago Manual of Style. Donald Knuth credits this notation to a suggestion of Edward Reingold, but its use in both information theory and computer science dates to before Reingold was active. The binary logarithm has also been written as with a prior statement that the default base for the logarithm is . Another notation that is often used for the same function (especially in the German scientific literature) is , from Latin logarithmus dualis or logarithmus dyadis.
The , ISO 31-11 and ISO 80000-2 standards recommend yet another notation, . According to these standards, should not be used for the binary logarithm, as it is instead reserved for the common logarithm .
Applications
Information theory
The number of digits (bits) in the binary representation of a positive integer is the integral part of , i.e.
In information theory, the definition of the amount of self-information and information entropy is often expressed with the binary logarithm, corresponding to making the bit the fundamental unit of information. With these units, the Shannon–Hartley theorem expresses the information capacity of a channel as the binary logarithm of its signal-to-noise ratio, plus one. However, the natural logarithm and the nat are also used in alternative notations for these definitions.
Combinatorics
Although the natural logarithm is more important than the binary logarithm in many areas of pure mathematics such as number theory and mathematical analysis, the binary logarithm has several applications in combinatorics:
Every binary tree with leaves has height at least , with equality when is a power of two and the tree is a complete binary tree. Relatedly, the Strahler number of a river system with tributary streams is at most .
Every family of sets with different sets has at least elements in its union, with equality when the family is a power set.
Every partial cube with vertices has isometric dimension at least , and has at most edges, with equality when the partial cube is a hypercube graph.
According to Ramsey's theorem, every -vertex undirected graph has either a clique or an independent set of size logarithmic in . The precise size that can be guaranteed is not known, but the best bounds known on its size involve binary logarithms. In particular, all graphs have a clique or independent set of size at least and almost all graphs do not have a clique or independent set of size larger than .
From a mathematical analysis of the Gilbert–Shannon–Reeds model of random shuffles, one can show that the number of times one needs to shuffle an -card deck of cards, using riffle shuffles, to get a distribution on permutations that is close to uniformly random, is approximately . This calculation forms the basis for a recommendation that 52-card decks should be shuffled seven times.
Computational complexity
The binary logarithm also frequently appears in the analysis of algorithms, not only because of the frequent use of binary number arithmetic in algorithms, but also because binary logarithms occur in the analysis of algorithms based on two-way branching. If a problem initially has choices for its solution, and each iteration of the algorithm reduces the number of choices by a factor of two, then the number of iterations needed to select a single choice is again the integral part of . This idea is used in the analysis of several algorithms and data structures. For example, in binary search, the size of the problem to be solved is halved with each iteration, and therefore roughly iterations are needed to obtain a solution for a problem of size . Similarly, a perfectly balanced binary search tree containing elements has height .
The running time of an algorithm is usually expressed in big O notation, which is used to simplify expressions by omitting their constant factors and lower-order terms. Because logarithms in different bases differ from each other only by a constant factor, algorithms that run in time can also be said to run in, say, time. The base of the logarithm in expressions such as or is therefore not important and can be omitted. However, for logarithms that appear in the exponent of a time bound, the base of the logarithm cannot be omitted. For example, is not the same as because the former is equal to and the latter to .
Algorithms with running time are sometimes called linearithmic. Some examples of algorithms with running time or are:
Average time quicksort and other comparison sort algorithms
Searching in balanced binary search trees
Exponentiation by squaring
Longest increasing subsequence
Binary logarithms also occur in the exponents of the time bounds for some divide and conquer algorithms, such as the Karatsuba algorithm for multiplying -bit numbers in time ,
and the Strassen algorithm for multiplying matrices in time
. The occurrence of binary logarithms in these running times can be explained by reference to the master theorem for divide-and-conquer recurrences.
Bioinformatics
In bioinformatics, microarrays are used to measure how strongly different genes are expressed in a sample of biological material. Different rates of expression of a gene are often compared by using the binary logarithm of the ratio of expression rates: the log ratio of two expression rates is defined as the binary logarithm of the ratio of the two rates. Binary logarithms allow for a convenient comparison of expression rates: a doubled expression rate can be described by a log ratio of , a halved expression rate can be described by a log ratio of , and an unchanged expression rate can be described by a log ratio of zero, for instance.
Data points obtained in this way are often visualized as a scatterplot in which one or both of the coordinate axes are binary logarithms of intensity ratios, or in visualizations such as the MA plot and RA plot that rotate and scale these log ratio scatterplots.
Music theory
In music theory, the interval or perceptual difference between two tones is determined by the ratio of their frequencies. Intervals coming from rational number ratios with small numerators and denominators are perceived as particularly euphonious. The simplest and most important of these intervals is the octave, a frequency ratio of . The number of octaves by which two tones differ is the binary logarithm of their frequency ratio.
To study tuning systems and other aspects of music theory that require finer distinctions between tones, it is helpful to have a measure of the size of an interval that is finer than an octave and is additive (as logarithms are) rather than multiplicative (as frequency ratios are). That is, if tones , , and form a rising sequence of tones, then the measure of the interval from to plus the measure of the interval from to should equal the measure of the interval from to . Such a measure is given by the cent, which divides the octave into equal intervals ( semitones of cents each). Mathematically, given tones with frequencies and , the number of cents in the interval from to is
The millioctave is defined in the same way, but with a multiplier of instead of .
Sports scheduling
In competitive games and sports involving two players or teams in each game or match, the binary logarithm indicates the number of rounds necessary in a single-elimination tournament required to determine a winner. For example, a tournament of players requires rounds to determine the winner, a tournament of teams requires rounds, etc. In this case, for players/teams where is not a power of 2, is rounded up since it is necessary to have at least one round in which not all remaining competitors play. For example, is approximately , which rounds up to , indicating that a tournament of teams requires rounds (either two teams sit out the first round, or one team sits out the second round). The same number of rounds is also necessary to determine a clear winner in a Swiss-system tournament.
Photography
In photography, exposure values are measured in terms of the binary logarithm of the amount of light reaching the film or sensor, in accordance with the Weber–Fechner law describing a logarithmic response of the human visual system to light. A single stop of exposure is one unit on a base- logarithmic scale. More precisely, the exposure value of a photograph is defined as
where is the f-number measuring the aperture of the lens during the exposure, and is the number of seconds of exposure.
Binary logarithms (expressed as stops) are also used in densitometry, to express the dynamic range of light-sensitive materials or digital sensors.
Calculation
Conversion from other bases
An easy way to calculate on calculators that do not have a function is to use the natural logarithm () or the common logarithm ( or ) functions, which are found on most scientific calculators. The specific change of logarithm base formulae for this are:
or approximately
Integer rounding
The binary logarithm can be made into a function from integers and to integers by rounding it up or down. These two forms of integer binary logarithm are related by this formula:
The definition can be extended by defining . Extended in this way, this function is related to the number of leading zeros of the 32-bit unsigned binary representation of , .
The integer binary logarithm can be interpreted as the zero-based index of the most significant bit in the input. In this sense it is the complement of the find first set operation, which finds the index of the least significant bit. Many hardware platforms include support for finding the number of leading zeros, or equivalent operations, which can be used to quickly find the binary logarithm. The fls and flsl functions in the Linux kernel and in some versions of the libc software library also compute the binary logarithm (rounded up to an integer, plus one).
Iterative approximation
For a general positive real number, the binary logarithm may be computed in two parts.
First, one computes the integer part, (called the characteristic of the logarithm).
This reduces the problem to one where the argument of the logarithm is in a restricted range, the interval , simplifying the second step of computing the fractional part (the mantissa of the logarithm).
For any , there exists a unique integer such that , or equivalently . Now the integer part of the logarithm is simply , and the fractional part is . In other words:
For normalized floating-point numbers, the integer part is given by the floating-point exponent, and for integers it can be determined by performing a count leading zeros operation.
The fractional part of the result is and can be computed iteratively, using only elementary multiplication and division.
The algorithm for computing the fractional part can be described in pseudocode as follows:
Start with a real number in the half-open interval . If , then the algorithm is done, and the fractional part is zero.
Otherwise, square repeatedly until the result lies in the interval . Let be the number of squarings needed. That is, with chosen such that is in .
Taking the logarithm of both sides and doing some algebra:
Once again is a real number in the interval . Return to step 1 and compute the binary logarithm of using the same method.
The result of this is expressed by the following recursive formulas, in which is the number of squarings required in the i-th iteration of the algorithm:
In the special case where the fractional part in step 1 is found to be zero, this is a finite sequence terminating at some point. Otherwise, it is an infinite series that converges according to the ratio test, since each term is strictly less than the previous one (since every ). For practical use, this infinite series must be truncated to reach an approximate result. If the series is truncated after the -th term, then the error in the result is less than .
Software library support
The log2 function is included in the standard C mathematical functions. The default version of this function takes double precision arguments but variants of it allow the argument to be single-precision or to be a long double. In computing environments supporting complex numbers and implicit type conversion such as MATLAB the argument to the log2 function is allowed to be a negative number, returning a complex one.
References
External links
Feynman and the Connection Machine
Binary arithmetic
Calculus
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249993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gneisenau | Gneisenau | Gneisenau may refer to:
August von Gneisenau (1760–1831), Prussian field marshal
One of the German naval ships named after him:
, iron-hulled three-masted frigate, wrecked in 1900
, World War I armoured cruiser, launched in 1906 and sunk in 1914
, a Norddeutscher Lloyd ocean liner, scrapped in 1950
, a World War II battleship launched in 1936 and scuttled as a blockship in 1945; sister ship to Scharnhorst
Operation Gneisenau, part of the 1918 German Spring Offensive in World War I
Gneisenaustraße (Berlin U-Bahn), station on the Berliner U-Bahn (underground railway) | [
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250000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Kong%20Museum%20of%20History | Hong Kong Museum of History | The Hong Kong Museum of History is a museum that preserves Hong Kong's historical and cultural heritage. It is located next to the Hong Kong Science Museum, in Tsim Sha Tsui East, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
The collections of the museum encompass natural history, archaeology, ethnography and local history.
History
The museum was established by the Urban Council in July 1975 when the City Museum and Art Gallery was split into the Hong Kong Museum of History and Hong Kong Museum of Art; some of the Museum of History's collections were on display at the City Museum and Art Gallery's original 1962 location at the City Hall.
From 1975 to 1983, the Hong Kong Museum of History was housed in a 700 m2 rented space within Star House. In 1983, the Museum was moved to a temporary location (which now houses Hong Kong Heritage Discovery Centre) in Kowloon Park. It was moved to its present premises near Hong Kong Science Museum on Chatham Road South, Tsim Sha Tsui in 1998. It is currently managed by the Leisure and Cultural Services Department of Hong Kong Government.
The Hong Kong Story
The Hong Kong Story permanent exhibition is a showcase of the history and development of Hong Kong. Occupying an area of 7,000 m2, The Hong Kong Story comprises 8 galleries located on two floors. Through the display of over 4,000 exhibits with the use of 750 graphic panels, a number of dioramas and multi-media programmes, and enhanced with special audio-visual and lighting effects, The Hong Kong Story outlines the natural environment, folk culture, and historical development of Hong Kong. The exhibition, starts from the Devonian period 400 million years ago and concludes with the Handover of Hong Kong in 1997. The museum exhibits prehistoric fossils, colonial documents from the 19th Century and Ancient Chinese pottery
Branch museums
The museum runs five branch museums: Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence at Shau Kei Wan, Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum at Sham Shui Po, and Law Uk Folk Museum at Chai Wan, Fireboat Alexander Grantham Exhibition Gallery inside the Quarry Bay Park and Dr. Sun Yat-sen Museum at Mid-Levels in Central.
Public transport
The museum is accessible within walking distance West from Hung Hom station of MTR.
See also
Government Records Service
Heritage conservation in Hong Kong
History of Hong Kong
Hong Kong Archaeological Society
Hong Kong Heritage Museum
List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong
List of museums in Hong Kong
References
Further reading
External links
Hong Kong Museum of History
e-book
1975 establishments in Hong Kong
History museums in Hong Kong
History of Hong Kong
Museums established in 1975
Tsim Sha Tsui East | [
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250001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular%20clock | Molecular clock | The molecular clock is a figurative term for a technique that uses the mutation rate of biomolecules to deduce the time in prehistory when two or more life forms diverged. The biomolecular data used for such calculations are usually nucleotide sequences for DNA, RNA, or amino acid sequences for proteins. The benchmarks for determining the mutation rate are often fossil or archaeological dates. The molecular clock was first tested in 1962 on the hemoglobin protein variants of various animals, and is commonly used in molecular evolution to estimate times of speciation or radiation. It is sometimes called a gene clock or an evolutionary clock.
Early discovery and genetic equidistance
The notion of the existence of a so-called "molecular clock" was first attributed to Émile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling who, in 1962, noticed that the number of amino acid differences in hemoglobin between different lineages changes roughly linearly with time, as estimated from fossil evidence. They generalized this observation to assert that the rate of evolutionary change of any specified protein was approximately constant over time and over different lineages (known as the molecular clock hypothesis).
The genetic equidistance phenomenon was first noted in 1963 by Emanuel Margoliash, who wrote: "It appears that the number of residue differences between cytochrome c of any two species is mostly conditioned by the time elapsed since the lines of evolution leading to these two species originally diverged. If this is correct, the cytochrome c of all mammals should be equally different from the cytochrome c of all birds. Since fish diverges from the main stem of vertebrate evolution earlier than either birds or mammals, the cytochrome c of both mammals and birds should be equally different from the cytochrome c of fish. Similarly, all vertebrate cytochrome c should be equally different from the yeast protein." For example, the difference between the cytochrome c of a carp and a frog, turtle, chicken, rabbit, and horse is a very constant 13% to 14%. Similarly, the difference between the cytochrome c of a bacterium and yeast, wheat, moth, tuna, pigeon, and horse ranges from 64% to 69%. Together with the work of Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, the genetic equidistance result directly led to the formal postulation of the molecular clock hypothesis in the early 1960s.
Similarly, Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson in 1967 demonstrated that molecular differences among modern Primates in albumin proteins showed that approximately constant rates of change had occurred in all the lineages they assessed. The basic logic of their analysis involved recognizing that if one species lineage had evolved more quickly than a sister species lineage since their common ancestor, then the molecular differences between an outgroup (more distantly related) species and the faster-evolving species should be larger (since more molecular changes would have accumulated on that lineage) than the molecular differences between the outgroup species and the slower-evolving species. This method is known as the relative rate test. Sarich and Wilson's paper reported, for example, that human (Homo sapiens) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) albumin immunological cross-reactions suggested they were about equally different from Ceboidea (New World Monkey) species (within experimental error). This meant that they had both accumulated approximately equal changes in albumin since their shared common ancestor. This pattern was also found for all the primate comparisons they tested. When calibrated with the few well-documented fossil branch points (such as no Primate fossils of modern aspect found before the K-T boundary), this led Sarich and Wilson to argue that the human-chimp divergence probably occurred only ~4–6 million years ago.
Relationship with neutral theory
The observation of a clock-like rate of molecular change was originally purely phenomenological. Later, the work of Motoo Kimura developed the neutral theory of molecular evolution, which predicted a molecular clock. Let there be N individuals, and to keep this calculation simple, let the individuals be haploid (i.e. have one copy of each gene). Let the rate of neutral mutations (i.e. mutations with no effect on fitness) in a new individual be . The probability that this new mutation will become fixed in the population is then 1/N, since each copy of the gene is as good as any other. Every generation, each individual can have new mutations, so there are N new neutral mutations in the population as a whole. That means that each generation, new neutral mutations will become fixed. If most changes seen during molecular evolution are neutral, then fixations in a population will accumulate at a clock-rate that is equal to the rate of neutral mutations in an individual.
Calibration
The molecular clock alone can only say that one time period is twice as long as another: it cannot assign concrete dates. For viral phylogenetics and ancient DNA studies—two areas of evolutionary biology where it is possible to sample sequences over an evolutionary timescale—the dates of the intermediate samples can be used to more precisely calibrate the molecular clock. However, most phylogenies require that the molecular clock be calibrated against independent evidence about dates, such as the fossil record. There are two general methods for calibrating the molecular clock using fossil data: node calibration and tip calibration.
Node calibration
Sometimes referred to as node dating, node calibration is a method for phylogeny calibration that is done by placing fossil constraints at nodes. A node calibration fossil is the oldest discovered representative of that clade, which is used to constrain its minimum age. Due to the fragmentary nature of the fossil record, the true most recent common ancestor of a clade will likely never be found. In order to account for this in node calibration analyses, a maximum clade age must be estimated. Determining the maximum clade age is challenging because it relies on negative evidence—the absence of older fossils in that clade. There are a number of methods for deriving the maximum clade age using birth-death models, fossil stratigraphic distribution analyses, or taphonomic controls. Alternatively, instead of a maximum and a minimum, a prior probability of the divergence time can be established and used to calibrate the clock. There are several prior probability distributions including normal, lognormal, exponential, gamma, uniform, etc.) that can be used to express the probability of the true age of divergence relative to the age of the fossil; however, there are very few methods for estimating the shape and parameters of the probability distribution empirically. The placement of calibration nodes on the tree informs the placement of the unconstrained nodes, giving divergence date estimates across the phylogeny. Historical methods of clock calibration could only make use of a single fossil constraint (non-parametric rate smoothing), while modern analyses (BEAST and r8s) allow for the use of multiple fossils to calibrate the molecular clock. Simulation studies have shown that increasing the number of fossil constraints increases the accuracy of divergence time estimation.
Tip calibration
Sometimes referred to as tip dating, tip calibration is a method of molecular clock calibration in which fossils are treated as taxa and placed on the tips of the tree. This is achieved by creating a matrix that includes a molecular dataset for the extant taxa along with a morphological dataset for both the extinct and the extant taxa. Unlike node calibration, this method reconstructs the tree topology and places the fossils simultaneously. Molecular and morphological models work together simultaneously, allowing morphology to inform the placement of fossils. Tip calibration makes use of all relevant fossil taxa during clock calibration, rather than relying on only the oldest fossil of each clade. This method does not rely on the interpretation of negative evidence to infer maximum clade ages.
Expansion calibration
Demographic changes in populations can be detected as fluctuations in historical coalescent effective population size from a sample of extant genetic variation in the population using coalescent theory. Ancient population expansions that are well documented and dated in the geological record can be used to calibrate a rate of molecular evolution in a manner similar to node calibration. However, instead of calibrating from the known age of a node, expansion calibration uses a two-epoch model of constant population size followed by population growth, with the time of transition between epochs being the parameter of interest for calibration. Expansion calibration works at shorter, intraspecific timescales in comparison to node calibration, because expansions can only be detected after the most recent common ancestor of the species in question. Expansion dating has been used to show that molecular clock rates can be inflated at short timescales (< 1 MY) due to incomplete fixation of alleles, as discussed below
Total evidence dating
This approach to tip calibration goes a step further by simultaneously estimating fossil placement, topology, and the evolutionary timescale. In this method, the age of a fossil can inform its phylogenetic position in addition to morphology. By allowing all aspects of tree reconstruction to occur simultaneously, the risk of biased results is decreased. This approach has been improved upon by pairing it with different models. One current method of molecular clock calibration is total evidence dating paired with the fossilized birth-death (FBD) model and a model of morphological evolution. The FBD model is novel in that it allows for “sampled ancestors,” which are fossil taxa that are the direct ancestor of a living taxon or lineage. This allows fossils to be placed on a branch above an extant organism, rather than being confined to the tips.
Methods
Bayesian methods can provide more appropriate estimates of divergence times, especially if large datasets—such as those yielded by phylogenomics—are employed.
Non-constant rate of molecular clock
Sometimes only a single divergence date can be estimated from fossils, with all other dates inferred from that. Other sets of species have abundant fossils available, allowing the hypothesis of constant divergence rates to be tested. DNA sequences experiencing low levels of negative selection showed divergence rates of 0.7–0.8% per Myr in bacteria, mammals, invertebrates, and plants. In the same study, genomic regions experiencing very high negative or purifying selection (encoding rRNA) were considerably slower (1% per 50 Myr).
In addition to such variation in rate with genomic position, since the early 1990s variation among taxa has proven fertile ground for research too, even over comparatively short periods of evolutionary time (for example mockingbirds). Tube-nosed seabirds have molecular clocks that on average run at half speed of many other birds, possibly due to long generation times, and many turtles have a molecular clock running at one-eighth the speed it does in small mammals, or even slower. Effects of small population size are also likely to confound molecular clock analyses. Researchers such as Francisco J. Ayala have more fundamentally challenged the molecular clock hypothesis. According to Ayala's 1999 study, five factors combine to limit the application of molecular clock models:
Changing generation times (If the rate of new mutations depends at least partly on the number of generations rather than the number of years)
Population size (Genetic drift is stronger in small populations, and so more mutations are effectively neutral)
Species-specific differences (due to differing metabolism, ecology, evolutionary history, ...)
Change in function of the protein studied (can be avoided in closely related species by utilizing non-coding DNA sequences or emphasizing silent mutations)
Changes in the intensity of natural selection.
Molecular clock users have developed workaround solutions using a number of statistical approaches including maximum likelihood techniques and later Bayesian modeling. In particular, models that take into account rate variation across lineages have been proposed in order to obtain better estimates of divergence times. These models are called relaxed molecular clocks because they represent an intermediate position between the 'strict' molecular clock hypothesis and Joseph Felsenstein's many-rates model and are made possible through MCMC techniques that explore a weighted range of tree topologies and simultaneously estimate parameters of the chosen substitution model. It must be remembered that divergence dates inferred using a molecular clock are based on statistical inference and not on direct evidence.
The molecular clock runs into particular challenges at very short and very long timescales. At long timescales, the problem is saturation. When enough time has passed, many sites have undergone more than one change, but it is impossible to detect more than one. This means that the observed number of changes is no longer linear with time, but instead flattens out. Even at intermediate genetic distances, with phylogenetic data still sufficient to estimate topology, signal for the overall scale of the tree can be weak under complex likelihood models, leading to highly uncertain molecular clock estimates.
At very short time scales, many differences between samples do not represent fixation of different sequences in the different populations. Instead, they represent alternative alleles that were both present as part of a polymorphism in the common ancestor. The inclusion of differences that have not yet become fixed
leads to a potentially dramatic inflation of the apparent rate of the molecular clock at very short timescales.
Uses
The molecular clock technique is an important tool in molecular systematics, the use of molecular genetics information to determine the correct scientific classification of organisms or to study variation in selective forces. Knowledge of approximately constant rate of molecular evolution in particular sets of lineages also facilitates estimation of the dates of phylogenetic events, including those not documented by fossils, such as the divergences between living taxa. In these cases—especially over long stretches of time—the limitations of the molecular clock hypothesis (above) must be considered; such estimates may be off by 50% or more.
See also
Charles Darwin
Gene orders
Human mitochondrial molecular clock
Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam
Models of DNA evolution
Molecular evolution
Neutral theory of molecular evolution
References
Further reading
External links
Allan Wilson and the molecular clock
Molecular clock explanation of the molecular equidistance phenomenon
Date-a-Clade service for the molecular tree of life
Evolutionary biology concepts
Molecular evolution
Molecular genetics
Phylogenetics | [
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250002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20for%20Europe%20and%20Foreign%20Affairs | Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs | The Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs () is the ministry of the Government of France that handles France's foreign relations. Since 1855, its headquarters have been located at 37 Quai d'Orsay, close to the National Assembly. The term Quai d'Orsay is often used as a metonym for the ministry. Its cabinet minister, the Minister of Europe and Foreign Affairs () is responsible for the foreign relations of France. The current officeholder, Jean-Yves Le Drian, was appointed in 2017.
In 1547, royal secretaries became specialised, writing correspondence to foreign governments and negotiating peace treaties. The four French secretaries of state where foreign relations were divided by region, in 1589, became centralised with one becoming first secretary responsible for international relations. The Ancien Régime position of Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs became Foreign Minister around 1723; it was renamed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1791 in the aftermath of early stages of the French Revolution. All ministerial positions were abolished in 1794 by the National Convention and reestablished with the Directory.
For a brief period in the 1980s, the office was retitled Minister for External Relations. As of 17 May 2017, it is designated as Minister of Europe and Foreign Affairs and occupied by Jean-Yves Le Drian, who is assisted by two Secretaries of State, currently Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne and Clément Beaune.
Central administration
There are multiple services under its authority, along with that of some other ministers. Under the authority of the Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Development, that of Cooperation and European Affairs, and that of Foreign and European Affairs, there are numerous services directly related to the ministers. Here is a list of those services.
The ministers' cabinet
The office of cabinets, which gathers a personnel in charge of the administrative and logistics aspects of the three ministers' cabinets
The budget control service (CBCM)
General inspection of foreign affairs (IGAE)
The prospective office (DP)
The Protocole, upon which the President's protocole cell relies on
The Crisis management Department (CDC)
Secretaries of State (1547–1723)
Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs (1718–1791)
Ministers of Foreign Affairs (1791–2007)
Consulate and First Empire
First Restoration and the Hundred Days
Second Restoration
July Monarchy
Second Republic
Second Empire
Third Republic
Vichy Regime
Free French Commissioners
Fourth Republic
Fifth Republic
Ministers of Foreign and European Affairs (2007–2012)
Ministers of Foreign Affairs and International Development (2012–2017)
Minister of Europe and Foreign Affairs (2017–present)
See also
History of French foreign relations to 1980
Foreign relations of France Since 1980
References
Further reading
Feske, Victor H. "The Road To Suez: The British Foreign Office and the Quai D’Orsay, 1951–1957" in The Diplomats, 1939-1979 (2019) pp. 167–200; online
External links
140 Ministries of Foreign Affairs (1589–2000) on the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs website.
Official site of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Official treaty database of France
Dictionnaire historique des institutions, mœurs et coutumes de la France, Adolphe Chéruel, L. Hachette et cie, 1855
"Ministries 1700–1870", Rulers.org
Minister of Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs
France | [
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] |
250003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20naval%20ships%20of%20Germany | List of naval ships of Germany | The list of naval ships of Germany includes all naval ships which have been in service of the German Navy or its predecessors.
See also:
List of German Imperial Navy ships
List of Kriegsmarine ships
List of German Federal Navy ships
List of German Navy ships
List of German Navy ship classes
List of U-boats of Germany
List of battleships of Germany
A
Acheron: hulk, launched 1877
Acheron: submarine tender, launched 1919
Acheron: minesweeper, launched 1967
Adam Kuckhoff: torpedo boat
Adam Kuckhoff: torpedo boat
Adeline Hugo Stinnes 3; seaplane tender
Adjutant: tender, launched 1905
: auxiliary mine-layer, launched 1937
: 880 ton gunboat, launched 1883
Adler: training vessel, launched 1908
Adler:
: 12,000 ton heavy cruiser, launched 1933
: 14,000 ton heavy cruiser, launched 1937
: 12,000 ton heavy cruiser, launched 1934
Adolf Bestelmeyer: experimental craft, launched 1943
: Fleet tender, launched 20 February 1939, commissioned 11 June 1940
: 3,700 ton : launched 1895
Ahrenshoop (GS08): minesweeper
: Type 1923 torpedo boat, launched 15 July 1926, commissioned 5 May 1927, beached 9 April 1940
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1975
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Albatros: submarine chaser
: gunboat, launched 1871
: 2,000 ton : launched 1907
Albert Gast (734): missile boat
Albert Leo Schlageter: Sail training ship, launched 1937, became Portuguese training ship in 1961
Albin Köbis: training vessel, ex-Ernst Thälmann
Albin Köbis (S-712): missile boat
Albin Köbis (571): corvette
Aldebaran: minesweeper, launched 1941
Alders: tender, launched 1918
: corvette, launched 1885
Alfred Merz: buoy tender
Algol: minesweeper, launched 1943
Algol: minesweeper, launched 1963
Alice Roosevelt: torpedo boat, launched 1886
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1960—1974
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: NATO research vessel under German flag, in service since 1988
Alster: survey vessel, launched 1961
: (Type 423) fleet service, surveillance, and ELINT ship
Altenburg (314): minesweeper
Altentreptow (GS04): minesweeper
Altmark (H11): support ship
: 3-masted sail corvette of the Prussian Navy
: 2,700 ton light cruiser
Amazone: minesweeper, launched 1963
Ammerland: submarine tender, launched 1921
: (Type 703) small coastal tanker
Amrum: tug
Angeln: transport, launched 1954
:
Anklam: minesweeper
Anklam (S426): minesweeper
: landing craft
Answald: seaplane tender
Anton Saefkow (826): torpedo boat
Anton Saefkow (853): torpedo boat
: Type 1936 destroyer, launched 1938
: frigate, launched 1858
: corvette, launched 1885
: 2,700 ton light cruiser, launched 22 April 1902, commissioned 12 May 1903, recommissioned 27 May 1940 as a floating anti-aircraft battery, scrapped 1948
: corvette, launched 1871
: 2,700 ton light cruiser, launched 1900
Ariadne: minesweeper
Arkona: experimental craft, launched 1918
Arkona: Sperling-class buoy tender
Arkona (D113): buoy tender
Arkturus: minesweeper, launched 1943
: Unique ironclad warship
Artur Becker (828): torpedo boat
Artur Becker (816): torpedo boat
Arvid Harnack (821): torpedo boat
Arvid Harnack (813): torpedo boat
Atair: minesweeper, launched 1941
Atair: minesweeper, launched 1961
: 17,000 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
Atlantis: minesweeper, launched 1961
Aue: minesweeper
: (Type 352) minesweeper
(cruiser): 4,400 ton light cruiser, launched 1909
: (Type 120) frigate, commissioned 1962 to 1988
: (Type 122) frigate
: corvette
August Lüttgens (732): missile boat
Ayesha: schooner, launched 1907
B
: (Type 332) minehunter
Bad Doberan (242): submarine chaser
Bad Doberan (222): corvette
: (Type 332) minehunter
: 7,800 ton , la-unched 1880
: 29,000 ton , launched 1915
: (Type 722) tug
Bansin (G446): minesweeper
Bant: Experimental craft; Stollergrund-class
Barbara, training vessel, launched 1915
: converted ocean-liner, commissioned 1849
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
: gunboat, launched 1862
: armoured gunboat, launched 1878
: 7,800 ton , launched 1878
: 29,000 ton , launched 1915
: (Type 101A) destroyer, decommissioned
: (Type 123) frigate
Belchen, supply vessel, launched 1932
: 3,700 ton , launched 1890
Beowulf, training vessel, launched 1916
Bergen: Sicherungsboot; Todendorf-class
Bergen: Habicht-class mine-warfare vessel
Bergen (S425): minesweeper
Bergen (213): corvette
: 3,300 ton light cruiser
Berlin, auxiliary cruiser, launched 1908
Berlin, Krake-class mine-warfare vessel, launched 1957
Berlin — Hauptstadt der DDR (412): coastal protection vessel, launched 1979
: (Type 702) replenishment and combat support ship^
Bernau (343): minesweeper
, Type 1934A destroyer, launched 1936
Bernhard Bästlein (827): torpedo boat
Bernhard Bästlein (836): torpedo boat
Bernhard von Tschirschky: Air control ship; Krischan-class
: armoured gunboat, launched 1876
Biene, escort vessel, launched 1941
: 3,000 ton , launched 1877
: 42,000 ton , launched 1939
Bitterfeld (332): minesweeper
Blauort: harbour tug; Klasse 729
: gunboat, launched 1862
: aviso, launched 1882
Blitz, remote controlled craft, launched 1910
Blitz: buoy tender
: 3,000 ton , launched 1877
: 15,800 ton unique heavy cruiser, launched 1908
: 14,000 ton heavy cruiser, launched 1937
Bochum, mine-layer, launched 1944
Bodensee, tanker, launched 1955
Boelke: air control ship; K-V-class
Börde (H72): support ship
Boltenhagen (GS09): minesweeper
: gunboat, launched 1833
: (Type 702) replenishment and combat support ship (ordered)
Borkum, tanker, launched 1939
Borna: minesweeper
Bottrop, mine-layer, launched 1944
: , commissioned 1984
: 10,500 ton , launched 1891
Brandenburg, mine warfare vessel, launched 1936
Brandenburg: minesweeper
: (Type 123) frigate
Brandtaucher, experimental submarine
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
(battleship): 13,000 ton , launched 1902
: (Type 120) frigate, commissioned 1964 to 1989
: (Type 130) corvette, launched 2006, commissioned 2008
Breitgrund: experimental craft; Stollergrund-class
Breitling (D26): buoy tender
: corvette, launched 1842
(cruiser): 3,300 ton light cruiser, launched 1903
: (Type 122) frigate (in commission 1982 to 2014)
: armoured gunboat, launched 1884
(cruiser): 4,400 ton mine-laying cruiser, launched 1916
(auxiliary): Auxiliary gunnery training ship, launched 1931, commissioned 14 July 1932, sunk 7 August 1941
Bremse, training vessel, launched 1940
: light cruiser, launched 1911
Brommy, auxiliary, launched 1916
: frigate, former Royal Navy , commissioned 1959 to 1965
: armoured gunboat, launched 1884
(cruiser): 4,400 ton mine-laying cruiser, launched 1915
(auxiliary): Auxiliary gunnery training ship, launched 29 May 1935, commissioned 8 February 1936, sunk 15 April 1940
(minelayer): Minelayer, former Norwegian , captured 9 April 1940
Brummer: training vessel; Wespe-class
, Type 1934A destroyer, launched 1936
Buéa: E-boat tender
Bruno Kühn (822): torpedo boat
Bruno Kühn (823): torpedo boat
Bützow (244): submarine chaser
Bützow (244): coastal protection vessel
Buk: tug
Bukarest: seaplane tender
Burg: minesweeper
(cruiser): 1,650 ton light cruiser, launched 1890
Bussard: seaplane tender; Bussard-class
Bussard: submarine chaser
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1975
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
C
Calbe: minesweeper
: gunboat, launched 1860
: armoured gunboat, launched 1878
: 27,500 tonnes converted from ocean liner to troop ship, launched 1927, sunk 1945
: , auxiliary cruiser, launched 1913, sunk 1914
Capella: minesweeper; R-boat
Capella: minesweeper; Schütze-class
Carl F. Gauss: survey vessel; Kondor-II-class
: fleet tender, launched 13 April 1939, commissioned 6 January 1940
Carl Zeiss: training vessel, launched 1939
: torpedo boat, launched 1886
: corvette, launched 1880
:R-boat, commissioned 1944—1962
: (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1962—1990)
: corvette, launched 1885
Claus von Bevern: experimental craft, launched 1911
Cobra: mine warfare vessel, launched 1926
: (Type 701) replenishment ship
: 4,400 ton light cruiser, launched 1909
: 5,600 ton light cruiser, launched 1916
Colberg: guard ship
: gunboat, launched 1860, commissioned 1861—1881
: aviso, launched 1892
Concordia: gun sloop, launched 1848
: cruiser, launched 1892
: light cruiser, launched 1892, scuttled 1914
: auxiliary cruiser, scuttled 1917
: 11,000 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
Cottbus: minesweeper
Cottbus (614): landing craft
: gunboat, launched 1860
: armoured gunboat, launched 1879
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1976, upgraded to Type 331, recommissioned 1979 to 2000
: gunboat, launched 1860
: dock ship, launched 1916
D
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1962—1983
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
Dänholm: buoy tender, ex-Leitholm
: gunboat, launched 1825
: corvette, launched 1851
: 3,300 ton light cruiser, launched 1905
Darss (E441): supply ship
Darsser Ort: buoy tender
Darsser Ort (D22): buoy tender
: (Type 332) minehunter
: gunboat, launched 1860
Delphin (1906): artillery tender and training vessel
Delphin (1918): artillery training vessel
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Delphin (A47): salvage tug
Demmin (GS02): minesweeper
Deneb (1943), mine warfare vessel
Deneb (1961), mine warfare vessel
: 27,000 ton , launched 1913
: corvette, launched 1848
Dessau (331): minesweeper
: (Type 321) minesweeper, commissioned 1960 to 1969
Deutschland: frigate
: 7,600 ton , launched 1872
: 13,000 ton , launched 1904
: Auxiliary minelayer
: 21,000 ton ocean liner converted in hospital ship, launched 1923, sunk 1945
: School ship
(cruiser): 12,000 ton heavy cruiser, launched 1931, renamed Lützow in 1939
: Training cruiser
, , launched 1966
, Type 1936 destroyer, launched 1937, scuttled 1940
Dietrich von Bern,
: (Type 332) minehunter
(1937): supply ship
Dithmarschen (1955): supply ship
: mine warfare vessel, launched 1926, sunk 1943
: fast attack craft, commissioned 1961—1974
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Donau (1921), submarine tender
: (Type 401) tender
: (Type 404) replenishment ship
Dornbusch: buoy tender
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
: gunboat, launched 1865
Drache (1908): artillery tender and training vessel
Drache: mine-warfare ships
: 3,700 ton light cruiser, launched 1907
: 5,600 ton light cruiser, launched 1917
Dresden: minesweeper
Dr. Richard Sorge (713): missile boat
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1979, upgraded to Type 351, recommissioned 1989 to 2000
Dwarsläufer: mine-warfare ships; Sesia-class
E
: gunboat, launched 1887
: , launched 6 June 1903, commissioned 15 August 1903, burned 26 October 1917
Eberswalde: landing craft
Eberswalde/Finow (634): landing craft
Eckernförde (1843): frigate, later renamed Gefion
Eduard Jungmann (1907): training craft
Egerland (1939): supply ship
Eidechse (1944): landing craft
Eider: customs steamer
: (Type 139) trawler, former Royal Navy
Eifel: tanker; Klasse 766
Eilenburg (344): minesweeper
: (Type 721) icebreaker, decommissioned 1997
Eisbär: icebreaker, taken by the Soviet Union in 1946, decommissioned in 1979
Eisenach: minesweeper
Eisenhüttenstadt: landing craft
Eisenhüttenstadt (615): landing craft
Eisleben: minesweeper
Eisleben (312): minesweeper
: Schnellboot fast attack craft, commissioned 1956—1967
: (Type 721) icebreaker
Eisvogel: icebreaker, taken by the Soviet Union in 1946, decommissioned in 1972
: schooner, launched 1831
Elbe: R-boat tender
: (Type 401) tender
: (Type 404) replenishment ship
: light cruiser, launched 1914
: frigate, 1868
Ellerbek: harbour tug; Neuende-class
: 13,000 ton , launched 1903
Elsaß (1930): mine warfare vessel
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1960—1974
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Elster: submarine chaser
: 3,700 ton light cruiser, launched 1908
: light cruiser, launched 1916
(cruiser): 6,000 ton unique light cruiser, launched 1925
: (Type 120) frigate, commissioned 1961 to 1983
: (Type 122) frigate
Ems (1940): tender
Emsland (1943): tanker
: (Type 352) minesweeper
Erfurt: minesweeper
: (Type 130) corvette, commissioned 2013
: Type 1934A destroyer
: Type 1934A destroyer
Erich Kuttner (863): torpedo boat
: Type 1934A destroyer
Ermland (1939): supply ship
Ernst Grube (833): torpedo boat
Ernst Schneller (864): torpedo boat
Ernst Schneller(851): torpedo boat
Ernst Thälmann (141): frigate
Erwin Wassner (1938): submarine escort vessel
Erzherzog Johann: corvette, launched 1840
Esau (1941): fast attack craft
Esper Ort (D28): buoy tender
ESSO Hamburg (1939): tanker
Etkar André (822): torpedo boat
Etkar André (811): torpedo boat
Eutin (1943): tanker
: , commissioned 1984
F
: aviso, launched 1865
: cruiser, launched 1891
: torpedo boat; Raubvogel-class
Falke: seaplane tender; Bussard-class
Fasana: mine-warfare ships; Fasana-class
Flink: torpedo boat; Schütze-class
Föhr: harbour tug; Sylt-class
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1975
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Falke: submarine chaser
: (Type 720) tug
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Fiete Schulze (863): torpedo boat
Fiete Schulze (854): torpedo boat
Fische (1959): mine-sweeping vessel
Flensburg: Schooner lightship, built 1910
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1970, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1972 to 1991
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Förde (1967): support vessel
Forst: minesweeper
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Franken (1939): supply ship
Frankenland (1950): tanker
: (Type 332) minehunter
: light cruiser, launched 1915
Frankfurt: Frankfurt-class
: (Type 702) replenishment and combat support ship
Frankfurt/Oder: minesweeper
Frankfurt/Oder (613): landing craft
: schooner, launched 1855
: 2,700 ton light cruiser
: light cruiser, cancelled 1919
Frauenlob (1919): tender
Frauenlob (1965): mine-sweeping vessel
Freiberg: minesweeper
: (Type 701) replenishment ship
Freesendorf: buoy tender
Freesendorf: buoy tender
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1963—1983
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
Freundschaft: cutter
: corvette, launched 1874
: 5,700 ton protected cruiser, launched 1897
Freya (1960): mine-sweeping vessel
Freyr (1912): training vessel
Friedrich Bremse (1936): supply ship
: armoured frigate, launched 1867
: 9,000 ton armored cruiser, launched 1902
: 6,800 ton , launched 1874
: 25,000 ton , launched 1911
: Type 1934A destroyer
Friedrich Engels (123): frigate
: Type 1934A destroyer
: Type 202 submarine
: experimental submarine
Friesenland: seaplane tender
: 3,700 ton , launched 1891
Frithjof (1916): training vessel
Fritz Behn (841): torpedo boat
Fritz Behn (851): torpedo boat
Fritz Gast (714): missile boat
Fritz Globis (573): coastal protection vessel
Fritz Heckert (866): torpedo boat
Fritz Heckert (834): torpedo boat
Fritz Lesch (865): torpedo boat
Fritz Riedel (825): torpedo boat
: gunboat, launched 1860
Fuchs (1905): artillery tender and training vessel
Fuchs (1919): anti-aircraft training vessel
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959—1973
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: 10,700 ton unique armored cruiser, launched 1897
: , laid down in 1915 but never completed
Fürstenberg: training vessel
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1960 to present, upgraded to Type 331, not decommissioned for upgrade
: (Type 332) minehunter
G
Gadebusch (211): submarine chaser
(211): corvette
: frigate, launched 1859
: 2,700 ton light cruiser, launched 1898
Gazelle (1919): tender
Gazelle (1963): mine-sweeper
Gedania (1919): supply ship
: frigate
: 3,700 ton unique light cruiser, launched 1893
Gefion (1963): mine-sweeper
: 1,900 ton cruiser, launched 1894
: auxiliary cruiser
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1975
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Gellen (D112): buoy tender
Gemma (1959): mine-sweeper
Gentin (V812): minesweeper
: Type 1934 destroyer
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1963—1982
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
Gera: minesweeper
Germania (1848): gun sloop
: (Type 701) replenishment ship
Glyndwr: seaplane tender
: 3,000 ton , launched 1879
(armored cruiser): 11,600 ton armored cruiser, launched 1906
(battleship): 35,000 ton , launched 1936
: , former Royal Navy , commissioned 1958 to 1966
: 23,000 ton , launched 1911
Görlitz: minesweeper
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1958 to 1976, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1979 to 1997
Gollwitz (D25): buoy tender
: Sail training ship, launched 1933, became Soviet training ship Tovarishch
: Type 441 unique sail training barque, launched 1958
Gotha: minesweeper
Graal-Müritz (G424): minesweeper
(battlecruiser): , not completed
: Type 138 frigate, commissioned 1959 to 1964
Graf von Götzen: commissioned 1914
: 28,000 ton , launched 1938 but never completed
Granitz: supply ship
Gransee (313): minesweeper
Grasort (D27): buoy tender
: light cruiser, launched 1913
: cruiser, launched 1886
: auxiliary cruiser
Greif (1926): torpedo boat
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1976
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Greif: air control ship
Greifswald: minesweeper
Greifswald (V814): minesweeper
Greiz: minesweeper
Grevesmühlen (213): submarine chaser
(212): corvette
: aviso, launched 1857
Grille (1916): experimental craft
: aviso, launched 1936
Grimma (336): minesweeper
Grimmen: landing craft
Grimmen (616): landing craft
: 6,800 ton , launched 1875
: 26,000 ton , launched 1913
: corvette, launched 1848
: (Type 332) minehunter
Güstrow: minesweeper
(223): corvette
Gunther Plüschow: air control ship
Gustav Nachtigal (1940): S-boat tender
H
: gunboat, launched 1860
: gunboat, launched 1879
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1976
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Habicht: submarine chaser
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1960—1974
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: 3,700 ton , launched 1893
Hagen (1921): training craft
Hagenow: minesweeper
Hagenow (632): landing craft
Hai (1935): escort vessel
: Type 240 submarine, former Kriegsmarine
Hai: Type M-9-463 salvage tug
Halle: minesweeper
Halle (143): frigate
: corvette, launched 1841
(cruiser): 3,300 ton light cruiser, launched 1903
: (Type 101A) destroyer, decommissioned
: (Type 124) frigate
(1959): (Type 321) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1963
: (Type 352) minesweeper
Hanno Günther (845): torpedo boat
: 13,000 ton , launched 1905
Hans Albrecht Wedel: air control ship; K-VI-class
Hans Beimler (862): torpedo boat
Hans Beimler (575): corvette
Hans Bürkner (1961): support vessel
Hans Christian Oderstedt (1943): experimental craft
Hans Coppi (863): torpedo boat
Hans Coppi (812): torpedo boat
: Type 1934A destroyer
: Type 1936 destroyer
Hans Rolshoven: air control ship
: Type 202 submarine
: frigate, launched 1847
: armoured corvette, launched 1872
: 5,700 ton protected cruiser, launched 1898
(auxiliary cruiser): 19,200 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
Hansa (1957): minesweeper
Hansestadt Danzig: mine-warfare ships
Harz (1953): tanker
Harz: (H31): supply ship
Havel (1919): tender
Havelland (H51): supply ship
: gunboat, launched 1860
: gunboat, launched 1881
Hay (1907): artillery tender and training vessel
Hecht (1917): experimental craft
: Type 240 submarine, former Kriegsmarine
: 3,700 ton , launched 1892
Heimdall: training craft
Heinrich Dorrenbach (711): missile boat
Heinz Kapelle (823): torpedo boat
Heinz Kapelle (811): torpedo boat
Heinz Roggenkamp (1952): experimental craft
: schooner, launched 1853
: 2,000 ton unique aviso, launched 1895
Hela (1919): fleet tender
Hela (1938): fleet tender
(battleship): 23,000 ton , launched 1909
: (Type 720) tug, decommissioned 1997
Heppens: harbour tug; Neuende-class
Herbert Balzer (825): torpedo boat
Herbert Norkus (1939): sailing school ship
Herkules (1960): minesweeper
: Type 1936 destroyer
: Type 1934A destroyer
Hermann von Helmholtz (1943): experimental craft
Hermann von Wissmann (1940): tender
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1962—1983
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
: captured Greek destroyer Vasilefs Georgios
: submarine chaser, launched 1960
: (Type 332) minehunter
: frigate, launched 1864
: 5,700 ton protected cruiser, launched 1897
Hertha (1961): minesweeper
(battleship): 13,000 ton , launched 1903
: (Type 101A) destroyer, decommissioned
: (Type 124) frigate, commissioned 2006
Hettstadt (315): minesweeper
Hiddensee: Project 35 tanker
Hiddensee: corvette; Tarantul-I-class
: 3,700 ton , possibly not completed
Hildebrand (1921): training craft
Hille (1917): minesweeper tender
: 27,000 ton , launched 1915
: frigate, former Royal Navy , commissioned 1959 to 1964
Hohenzollern (1876): imperial yacht
Hohenzollern (1892): imperial yacht
Hohenzollern (1914): imperial yacht
Holnis (1965): minesweeper
: (Type 332) minehunter
Horst Wessel: Sail training ship, launched 1936, became United States Coast Guard
Hoyerswerda: landing craft
Hoyerswerda (611): landing craft
Hugin (1917): training craft
: Nasty class (Type 152) fast attack craft, commissioned 1960 to 1973
Hugo Ecken (A114): air control vessel
Hugo Zeye' (1940): torpedo training vessel
: armoured gunboat, launched 1881
Hummel (1940): escort vessel
: gunboat, launched 1860
: gunboat, launched 1878
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1963—1984
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
Hydrograph: survey vessel
I
Ida (1859): armed steam ship
Ill (1928): supply ship
Ilmenau: minesweeper
: gunboat
(gunboat): , launched 4 August 1898, commissioned 1 December 1898 to 28 August 1914
Iltis (1905): auxiliary cruiser
Iltis (1927): torpedo boat
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1957—1975
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Immelmann: air control ship; K V-class
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Irben (1935): mine-warfare vessel
: 5,000 ton protected cruiser, launched 1887
Isar (1930): submarine tender
: (Type 402) tender
J
Jade (1967): support ship
: gunboat, launched 1860
: torpedo gunboat
: aviso, launched 1888
Jagd (1919): tender
Jagd (1935): escort vessel
(gunboat): , launched 19 August 1898, commissioned 4 April 1899, scuttled 7 November 1914
Jaguar (1928): torpedo boat
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1957 to 1973
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Jasmund (K41): survey vessel
Jena: minesweeper
Jeverland (1937): tanker
Jeverland (1940): replenishment ship
Joh. L. Krüger: Project RL 234 research vessel
Johann Wittenborg: experimental craft; Minesweeper 1916
Jordan: survey vessel
Jordan: survey vessel
Josef Römer: torpedo boat
Josef Schares (753): missile boat
Jüterbog (342): minesweeper
Juist (1968): diver training vessel
: (Type 722) tug
Julius Adler: torpedo boat
Juminda (1894): mine warfare vessel
Jungingen (1919): tender
: harbour craft, launched 1874
Jupiter (1944): minesweeper
Jupiter (1961): minesweeper
K
Kärnten (1914): supply ship
Kaiser: Agamemnon-class
: 7,600 ton , launched 1874
: 25,000 ton , launched 1911
Kaiser: mine-warfare ship
: 11,600 ton , launched 1900
: 11,600 ton , launched 1896
: 11,600 ton , launched 1899
: 11,600 ton , launched 1897
: auxiliary cruiser
: 11,600 ton , launched 1899
: aviso
: light cruiser, later renamed Seeadler : 25,000 ton , launched 1911
: 6,000 ton unique heavy cruiser, launched 1892
Kalkgrund II: Schooner lightship, built 1910
Kalkgrund: experimental craft; Stollergrund-class
Karl F. Gauss: survey vessel
: Type 1936 destroyer
Karl Kolls (1903): experimental craft
Kamerun: Norwegian minesweeper captured in April 1940, re-designated as Vorpostenboot, later to minelayer.
Kamenz minesweeper
Kamenz (S321): minesweeper
Karl Liebknecht (123): frigate
Karl Marx (142): frigate
Karl Meseberg (733): missile boat
Karl-Marx-Stadt minesweeper
Karl Meyer: air control ship; K V-class
: light cruiser, launched 1912
: light cruiser, launched 1916
(1927): 7,200 ton light cruiser, launched 1927
Karlsruhe (F223): Köln-class frigate
: (Type 122) frigate
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Kehrwieder: mine-warfare ships; Minesweeper 1916
Kiebitz (1938): mine warfare vessel
Kiel: paddle steamer
Kirchdorf (G425): minesweeper
Klütz (G416): minesweeper
Knechtsand: harbour tug; Lütje Hörn-class
Knechtsand: harbour tug; Nordstrand-class
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1958 to 1975, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1978 to 1999
(cruiser): 7,200 ton light cruiser, launched 1928
: (Type 120) frigate, commissioned 1961 to 1982
: (Type 122) frigate
: 26,000 ton , launched 1913
: 25,000 ton , launched 1912
: unique armoured frigate, 9,700 tons, launched 1868; rebuilt 1897 into heavy cruiser
: auxiliary mine warfare vessel
Königin Luise (1934): mine warfare vessel
Königin Luise (1935): escort vessel
: light cruiser, launched 1905
: light cruiser, launched 1915
(1927): 7,200 ton light cruiser, launched 1925
Köthen minesweeper
: 4,400 ton light cruiser, launched 1908
Kollicker Ort (D116): buoy tender
Komet (1913): remote control craft
: 7,500 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruise
Komet minesweeper
Kondor (1926): torpedo boat
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1976
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1980, upgraded to Type 351 and recommissioned 1989 to 2000
(auxiliary cruiser): 19,000 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1976
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Kormoran (A68): salvage tug
Kormoran submarine chaser
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1973
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Kranich submarine chaser
: (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1973
Kreta: fighter control vessel
Krischan der Große: anti-aircraft vessel
Krischan II (from 1936 Gunther Plüschow): air control ship
Krischan III (from 1936 Bernhard von Tschirschk): air control ship
Krischan: air control ship
Kriemhild (1939): Danube escort craft
Krokodil: Eidechse-class landing craft
Krokodill (1994): landing craft
: Unique ironclad, commissioned September 1867
: Original name for 1914 battleship
(battleship): 26,000 ton , renamed from in 1918
(auxiliary cruiser): 24,900 ton auxiliary cruiser, built as a civilian liner in 1901, commissioned as an auxiliary cruiser in 1914, surrendered to the US in 1915
Kühlung (P441): support ship
Kühlungsborn (GS07): minesweeper
: torpedo boat
: (Type 332) minehunter
: 10,500 ton , launched 1891
Kyritz (321): minesweeper
L
: (Type 332) minehunter, decommissioned 28 March 2012
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships
: (Type 403) tender
Landtief ( D115): buoy tender
Langeness: harbour tug; Lütje Hörn-class
Langeness: harbour tug; Nordstrand-class
: (Type 722) tug
Lauenburg: weather ship
: Type 1934 destroyer
Lech: submarine tender
: (Type 403) tender
: , launched 1875
: 3,300 ton light cruiser, launched 1905
: , launched 1918, not completed
(1929): 8,000 ton , launched 1929
Leipzig : minesweeper
Leitholm: buoy tender
Leopard: auxiliary cruiser
Leopard: torpedo boat; Raubtier-class
Leopard: torpedo boat; Sleipner-class
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1958—1973
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Libben ( V661): torpedo recovery vessel
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1958 to 1975, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1978 to 2000
Linz: mine-warfare ships
Löwe: bewaffneter Raddampfer
: aviso, launched 1859
: gunboat, launched 1885
Loreley: Stationsschiff
Loreley: Minesweeper; Frauenlob-class
Lothringen: Mine-warfare ships
: 13,000 ton , launched 1904
: Norwegian captured on 9 April 1940, re-designated as torpedo boat.
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959—1975
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
(1899): Gunboat, launched 18 October 1899, commissioned 15 April 1900, blown up 28 August 1914
Luchs: torpedo boat; Raubtier-class
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1958—1972
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Luckenwalde minesweeper
: (Type 130) corvette, commissioned 2013
Ludwigslust ( 247): submarine chaser
Ludwigslust ( 232): corvette
Lübben : landing craft
Lübben ( 631): landing craft
: corvette, launched 1844
(cruiser): 3,300 ton light cruiser, launched 1904
: (Type 120) frigate, commissioned 1963 to 1988
: (Type 122) frigate
Lübz ( 246): submarine chaser
Lübz ( 221): corvette
: (Type 701) replenishment ship
Lütje Hörn: harbour tug; Lütje Hörn-class
Lütje Hörn: harbour tug; Nordstrand-class
: (Type 103B) destroyer, decommissioned
(battlecruiser): 27,000 ton , launched 1913
: 14,000 ton modified heavy cruiser, sold before completion to Soviet Union in 1939, never commissioned
: 12,000 ton heavy cruiser, renamed from Deutschland in 1939
: corvette, launched 1872
Lumme (923): Diving vessel
M
: , launched 1917, not completed
(cruiser): light cruiser, launched 1911
: , launched 1917
Magdeburg, minesweeper
: (Type 130) corvette, launched 2006, commissioned 2008
: (Type 401) tender
: (Type 404) replenishment ship
: 4,400 ton light cruiser, launched 1909
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Malchin (GS03): minesweeper
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1976, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1979 to 2000
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959—1972
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: corvette, launched 1881
: 26,000 ton , launched 1913
: (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1961—1992)
Max Reichpietsch (751): missile boat
Max Roscher (846): torpedo boat
: Type 1934 destroyer
: 12,000 ton , launched 1901
Mecklenburg, buoy tender
: (Type 123) frigate
: corvette, launched 1864
: 2,700 ton light cruiser
: (Type 701) replenishment ship
Meiningen, minesweeper
Meissen, minesweeper
: corvette, launched 1847
: gunboat, launched 1865
: aviso, launched 1890
: gunboat, launched 1915
Meteor, survey vessel
: 11,000 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1960 to 1975, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1978 to 1997
: (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1960—1973) is for sale click for details: – here
: (Type 103B) destroyer, decommissioned
Mönchgut (E111): supply ship
Möwe, submarine chaser
: gunboat, launched 1879
: auxiliary cruiser
: 3,000 ton , launched 1877
: 23,000 ton , launched 1910
: 238 ton , launched 1872
: (Type 402) tender
: (Type 404) replenishment ship
: Type 742 diver support ship
: 3,300 ton light cruiser, launched 1904
: Nasty class (Type 152) fast attack craft, commissioned 1960 to 1964
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
: brigg, launched 1851
N
Najade: submarine chaser; Thetis-class
: 19,000 ton , launched 1908
: gunboat, launched 1860
: armoured gunboat, launched 1880
Natter: submarine chaser
Natter: Otter-class
Nauen: minesweeper
: gunboat, launched 1871
: 2,000 ton , launched 1907
Nautilus: experimental craft; minesweeper 1915
Nautilus: minesweeper; Frauenlob-class
: (Type 401) tender
Neiße: submarine tender
Neptun: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1963—1982
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
Nettelbeck: minesweeper
Neubrandenburg: minesweeper
Neubrandenburg (633): landing craft
Neuende: harbour tug; Neuende-class
Neuruppin (345): minesweeper
Neumark: Neumark-class
Neuwerk: harbour tug; Sylt-class
Neustrelitz (G412): minesweeper
Niedersachsen: mine-warfare ships
: (Type 122) frigate
Nienburg: supply ship; Lüneburg-class
: schooner, launched 1849
(cruiser): 2,700 ton light cruiser
Niobe: Sail training ship, launched 1913
Niobe: training vessel, Holland-class
Niobe: experimental craft
: aviso, launched 1850
: corvette, launched 1885
Nixe: minesweeper; Ariadne-class
: (Type 722) tug, decommissioned
Nordperd (E171): replenishment vessel
Nordsee: tender
Nordstern: tanker
Nordstrand: harbour tug; Lütje-Hörn-class
Nordstrand: harbour tug; Nordstrand-class
Nordwind: sail training vessel; Kriegsfischkutter; border guard
Notus: torpedo boat, tug
Novara: frigate
: light cruiser, launched 1906
: light cruiser, launched 1916
(cruiser): 8,000 ton , launched 1934, became Soviet
: corvette, launched 1863
(cruiser): 2,700 ton light cruiser
Nymphe (coastal defense ship): Norwegian captured in April 1940, re-designated as Flak ship.
O
: (Type 760) ammunition transport ship, decommissioned
: 3,700 ton , launched 1894
Odin: Odin-class
Odin: minesweeper, Vorpostenboot; fish trawler
: (Type 701) replenishment ship
: (Type 423) fleet service, surveillance, and ELINT ship
Oker: Oker-class
: 5,250 ton unique coastal armored ship, launched 1884
: 23,000 ton , launched 1910
Oldenburg: mine-warfare ships; Sesia-class
: (Type 130) corvette, commissioned 2013
: Training ship
Oranienburg (341): minesweeper
(auxiliary cruiser): 15,000 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
Orion: R-boat
(minesweeper): (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1962—1990
Oste: tender, Faettenfjord-class
: (Type 423) fleet service, surveillance, and ELINT ship
: 23,000 ton , launched 1909
Ostmark: seaplane tender
Ostmark: mine-warfare ships
Ostseeland (II): representation yacht
Ostseeland: representation yacht; Kondor-II-class
Oswald: tender, Seaplane tender
: gunboat, launched 1877
: river gunboat, launched 1909
Otter: mine-warfare ship; Irben-class
Otter: Otter-class
Otto Braun: experimental craft; Minesweeper 1916
Otto Tost (731): missile boat
Otto von Guericke (A46): salvage tug
Otto Wünsche: submarine tender; Wilhelm-Bauer-class
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1963—1984
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
P
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1958 to 1979, upgraded to Type 351, recommissioned 1989 to 2000
Palmer Ort (D39):
(gunboat): , launched 1 April 1901, commissioned 15 March 1903, sold 1931, scrapped
Panther (destroyer), Norwegian captured on 9 April 1940, re-designated as torpedo boat.
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1958—1973
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Parchim (215): submarine chaser
Parchim (242): corvette
Pasewalk (GS05): minesweeper
Passat: mine-warfare ships, supply ship
Passat: harbour tug; Klasse 729
(minesweeper): (Type 321) minesweeper, commissioned 1960 to 1963
: (Type 332) minehunter
Paul Eisenschneider (574): corvette
Paul Eisenschneider (713): missile boat
: Type 1934A destroyer
Paul Schulz (752): missile boat
Paul Wieczorek (754): missile boat
Pegasus: minesweeper; R-boat
Pegasus: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: (Type 352) minesweeper
Pelikan: transport, mine-warfare ships, RM
Pelikan: experimental craft; Minesweeper 1915
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1960—1974
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Pellworm: harbour tug; Klasse 729
Perleberg (245): submarine chaser
Perleberg (243): corvette
Perseus: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: 28,000 ton , never launched
Pfälzerland: transport; Klasse 785
: gunboat, launched 1860
: aviso, launched 1882
: Vosper (Type 153) fast attack craft, commissioned 1962—1965
Phoenix: air control ship
Piercer: customs cutter
: light cruiser, launched 1914
(auxiliary cruiser): 17,600 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1961—1973
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Pionier: sea cutter
Planet: survey vessel; Planet-class
Planet: research vessel
Planet: research vessel
Planet: (Type 752), commissioned 2005
Plön: harbour tug; Klasse 729
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Pluto: minesweeper; Schütze-class
Poel: Project 35 tanker
Pössneck: minesweeper
Pollux: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1961—1992)
Pommern: mine-warfare ships
Preußen: mine-warfare ships
Preußen: mine-warfare ships
: aviso, launched 1864
: 13,000 ton , launched 1905
: 19,000 ton , launched 1908
Potsdam: minesweeper
Prenzlau: Project 2 training ship
Prenzlau: minesweeper
Prenzlau (231): corvette
Prerow (G413): minesweeper
: 6,800 ton , launched 1873
: 13,000 ton , launched 1903
: aviso, launched 1846
: Unique ironclad, originally ordered by the Confederate States Navy
: corvette, launched 1876
: 9,000 ton armored cruiser, 1901
: cruiser
: 14,000 ton modified heavy cruiser, launched 1938
: 9,000 ton unique armored cruiser, 1900
: cruiser, launched 1887
: 25,000 ton , launched 1911
Pritzwalk (325): minesweeper
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1962—1981
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
Putlos: Todendorf-class
R
Ranzow (D114): buoy tender
Rathenow (326): minesweeper
: Schnellboot fast attack craft, commissioned 1956—1967
Raule: R-boat tender, minesweeper
: frigate, former Royal Navy , commissioned through 1967
: light cruiser, launched 1914
Regulus: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1962—1990)
Reiher: launched 1909 as freighter, minesweeper, 1939-1945
Reiher: launched 1938 as freighter & passenger liner, command ship, 1939-945
Reiher: submarine chaser
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1960—1973
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: Landing craft, decommissioned
Rendsburg: armed trawler
Renown: artillery training vessel
Rerik (G426): minesweeper
Restaurador: gun boat
Rhein: mine steamer; Rhein-class
Rhein: mine transport; Irben-class
: 238 ton , launched 1872
: (Type 401) tender
: (Type 404) replenishment ship
: 19,000 ton , launched 1908
: (Type 122) frigate
: (Type 704) tanker
Ribnitz-Damgarten (216): submarine chaser
Ribnitz-Damgarten (233):
: Type 1934 destroyer
Richthofen: air control ship; K-VI-class
Riems: Project 35 tanker
Riesa (322): minesweeper
Rigel: minesweeper; R-boatder WM
Rigel: minesweeper; Schütze-class
Rival: torpedo boat, tug
Robbe: Type M-9-463
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Röbel (324): minesweeper
Roland: mine-warfare ships
: (Type 103B) destroyer, decommissioned
: 10,000 ton armored cruiser, launched 1903
Rosslau (V813): minesweeper
: light cruiser, launched 1912
: , launched 1918, not completed
Rostock: minesweeper
Rostock (141): frigate
: (Type 332) minehunter
: brigg, launched 1853
Ruden: Project RL 235 supply ship
Rudi André (824): torpedo boat
Rudolf Breitscheid (842): torpedo boat
Rudolf Breitscheid (852): torpedo boat
Rudolf Diesel: experimental craft; YMS-class* Rudolf Eglhofer (572): corvette
Rudolf Eglhofer (751): missile boat
Rugard: R-boat tender
: (Type 401) tender
S
: Großes Torpedoboot 1916 class, launched 1918
: submarine tender
: (Type 402) tender
: (Type 701) replenishment ship
: 7,800 ton , launched 1877
: 29,000 ton , not completed
: (Type 124) frigate
Sachsenwald: mine transport, Sachsenwald-class
: aviso, launched 1850
: gunboat, launched 1860
: armoured gunboat, launched 1880
Salamander: landing craft; Eidechse-class
: Landing craft, decommissioned
Santa Elena: seaplane tender
Sassnitz (91): missile boat
Sassnitz: minesweeper
Saturn: minesweeper; R-boat
Sauerland: transport; Klasse 785
Schamien: river gunboat
Scharf: torpedo boat; Schütze-class
Scharhörn: harbour tug; Lütje-Hörn-class
Scharhörn: harbour tug; Nordstrand-class
(armored cruiser): 11,600 ton armored cruiser, launched 1906
(battleship): 35,000 ton , launched 1936
: frigate, former Royal Navy , commissioned 1959 to 1968
: Type 138 frigate, commissioned 1959 to 1967
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships
: 13,000 ton , launched 1906
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1958 to 1979, upgraded to Type 351, recommissioned 1989 to 2000
(battleship): 13,000 ton , launched 1906
: (Type 101A) destroyer, decommissioned
: (Type 123) frigate
Schneewittchen: torpedo boat, station yacht
Schönebeck (314): minesweeper
Schütze: torpedo boat; Schütze-class
Schütze: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: 12,000 ton , launched 1901
Schwabenland: seaplane tender
: gunboat, launched 1860
: cruiser, launched 1887
: (Type 706) replenishment ship
Schwedt: landing craft
Schwedt (636): landing craft
Schwerin: troop transport, mine-warfare ships
Schwerin: minesweeper
Schwerin (612): landing craft
: gunboat, launched 1860
: armoured gunboat, launched 1877
Sedan: Leipzig-class corvette
(cruiser): 1,650 ton light cruiser, launched 1892
Seeadler: torpedo boat; Raubvogel-class
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1958 to 1976
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Seehund: minesweeper; Seelöwe-class
Seeigel: minesweeper; Seelöwe-class
Seelöwe: minesweeper; Seelöwe-class
Seepferd: minesweeper; Seelöwe-class
Seeschlange: minesweeper; Seelöwe-class
Seeschwalbe: fast attack craft; Silbermöwe-class
Seestern: minesweeper; Seelöwe-class
Senftenberg: minesweeper
(battlecruiser): 25,000 ton unique battlecruiser, launched 1912
(cruiser): 14,000 ton modified heavy cruiser, selected while under construction for conversion to an aircraft carrier, never completed
: (Type 352) minesweeper
: (Type 321) minesweeper, commissioned 1960 to 1963
: 3,700 ton , launched 1889
Sicher: torpedo boat; Schütze-class
Sigfrid: minesweeper, Vorpostenboot; fish trawler
: Schnellboot fast attack craft, commissioned 1956 to 1967
: battleship, launched 1878
Sirius: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1961 to 1990
Skagerrak: mine-warfare ships
Skorpion: Führer- und Wohnschiff für Vorpostenboote; erbeutete britische Personenfähre
Skorpion: minesweeper; R-boat
Skorpion: minesweeper; Schütze-class
Sleipner: torpedo boat, RM
Solidarität: sea cutter
Sömmerda (311): minesweeper
Sonneberg: minesweeper
: corvette, launched 1881
Sovetskaya Ukraina: Captured from the Soviet Union under construction, not completed
: gunboat, launched 1860
: cruiser, launched 1888
Sperber: seaplane tender; Luftwaffe
Sperber: submarine chaser
: (Type 141) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1976
: (Type 143) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: (Type 704) tanker
Spica: training vessel
Spica: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: (Type 340) minesweeper, commissioned 1961 to 1992
: (Type 722) tug
Steigerwald: mine transport, Sachsenwald-class
: 3,000 ton , launched 1879
Steinbock: minesweeper; Schütze-class
Stendal: minesweeper
Sternberg: minesweeper
Sternberg (212: submarine chaser
: light cruiser, launched 1907
: 11,000 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
Stier: minesweeper, mine diving vessel Schütze-class
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Störtebeker: experimental craft; Minesweeper 1916
Stollergrund: experimental craft; Stollergrund-class
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1960 to 1974
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: 3,000 ton , launched 1877
: Vosper (Type 153) fast attack craft, commissioned 1962 to 1967
: schooner, launched 1816
: light cruiser, launched 1911
Strahl: experimental craft
Stralsund: mine-warfare ships
Stralsund: minesweeper
Stralsund (334): minesweeper
Strasburg (346): minesweeper
: light cruiser, launched 1911
Strelasund (V662): torpedo recovery vessel
Stubbenkammer:
: Schnellboot fast attack craft, commissioned 1956—1967
: light cruiser, launched 1906
Südperd (E172): replenishment vessel
Suhl: minesweeper
: (Type 332) minehunter
Sylt: harbour tug; Sylt-class
T
Taku: minesweeper 1916
Tanga: E-boat tender
Tangerhütte (333): minesweeper
Tannenberg: mine-warfare ships
Tapfer: torpedo boat; Schütze-class
Taucher I: K11 Project 24 diving vessel
Taucher II: K47/K74: Project 24 diving vessel
: (Type 703) small coastal tanker
Templin (GS06): minesweeper
Teterow (241: submarine chaser
Teterow (234): corvette
Thale: Project 17
: Type 1934A destroyer
: frigate, launched 1846
(cruiser): 2,700 ton light cruiser
Thetis (Flak ship): Norwegian captured in April 1940, re-designated as Flak ship.
Theseus: submarine chaser; Thetis-class
Thetis: submarine chaser; Thetis-class
: 10,000 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
Thielbek: 2,800 ton Converted from freighter to transport ship, sunk 1945
: river gunboat, launched 1826
: 23,000 ton , launched 1909
: gunboat, launched 1860
(gunboat): , launched 15 August 1899, commissioned 3 April 1900, scuttled 29 October 1914
Tiger: torpedo boat; Raubtier-class
, Norwegian captured in April 1940, re-designated as torpedo boat.
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1958 to 1974
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Timmendorf: supply ship
: 42,000 ton , launched 1939
Todendorf: Sicherungsboot; Todendorf-class; Wehrbereichskommando Küste
, Norwegian minesweeper captured in April 1940, re-designated as Vorpostenboot, later to minelayer
Togo: nightfighter control ship
Torgau: minesweeper
: (Type 139 patrol trawler)
Trave: Schul- und Begleitschiff, später Messboot; Eider-class
Trischen: harbour tug; Lütje-Hörn-class
: river gunboat, launched 1903
Triton: survey vessel
Triton: submarine chaser; Thetis-class
Tsingtau: E-boat tender
Tummler: cutter, training vessel
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1958 to 1975, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1978 to 1997
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
U
Uckermark (H91): Ohre-class
: (Type 332) minehunter
Ueckermünde (GS01): minesweeper
Ulan: torpedo testing ship, tender
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned (1959 to 1978, upgraded to Type 351, recommissioned 1989 to 1999
: brigg, launched 1869
: 2,700 ton light cruiser, launched 1902
Undine: minesweeper; Frauenlob-class
Uranus: minesweeper; Schütze-class
Usedom: tanker
V
: river gunboat, launched 1903
: (Type 321) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1963
Versailles: mine-warfare ships
: 5,700 ton protected cruiser, launched 1897
Victoria: corvette; Augusta-class
Vilm: Project RL 235 tanker
: frigate, launched 1863
: 5,700 ton protected cruiser, launched 1897
Vineta: minesweeper; Ariadne-class
: armoured gunboat, launched 1876
Viper: landing craft; Eidechse-class
Vitte (G421): minesweeper
Vogelsand: harbour tug; Lütje-Hörn-class
Vogelsand: harbour tug; Nordstrand-class
Vogtland (H71): Ohre-class
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1960 to 1976, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1979 to 1999
Volker: minesweeper, Vorpostenboot; fish trawler
Von der Groeben: R-boat tender; minesweeper 1916
Von der Lippe: R-boat tender; minesweeper 1916
: steam-powered gunboat, 1848 to 1862
(battlescruiser): 19,400 ton unique battlecruiser, launched 1909
Vulkan: submarine salvage vessel
: river gunboat, launched 1899
Vorwärts: torpedo boat; Schütze-class
W
: gunboat
: gunboat
: auxiliary cruiser
: auxiliary cruiser
Wolf: torpedo boat; Raubtier-class
Wolf: Buoy tender
Wolja: russische Imperatriza Marija-class
Wotan: Werkstattschiff; Odin-class, Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung
Wotan: minesweeper, Vorpostenboot; fish trawler
Waage: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: aviso, launched 1887
Wacht: tender; Minesweeper 1916
: (Type 703) small coastal tanker, decommissioned
Waldemar Kophamel: submarine tender; Wilhelm-Bauer-class
Walfisch, ex-Borwin: tug
Walter Husemann (856): torpedo boat
Walter Krämer (712): missile boat
Walther von Ledebur: experimental craft
: (Type 722) tug
Waren: minesweeper
Waren (224): corvette
Wega: minesweeper; R-boat
Wega: minesweeper; Schütze-class
Weichsel: submarine tender
: (Type 332) minehunter, commissioned 1993 to 2006
Weihe: submarine chaser
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1959 to 1972
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1959 to 1976, upgraded to Type 331 and recommissioned 1978 to 1995
: (Type 332) minehunter
Weimar: minesweeper
: 10,500 ton , launched 1891
Weisswasser: minesweeper
Welle: experimental craft
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Werdau: submarine chaser
(tender): (Type 401) tender
: (Type 404) replenishment ship
: (Type 401) tender
Weser: fishery protection vessel, minesweeper tender
: gunboat, launched 1860
: gunboat, launched 1876
Wespe: training vessel; Wespe-class
: (Type 703) small coastal tanker, decommissioned
: (Type 760) ammunition transport ship
: 19,000 ton , launched 1908
Westfalen: seaplane tender
: 12,000 ton , launched 1900
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1958 to 1976, upgraded to Type 331
: (Type 331, upgraded Type 320 Lindau-class) minesweepers, commissioned 1978 to 1995
: 16,000 ton unique auxiliary merchant cruiser
Widder: minesweeper; Schütze-class
: light cruiser, launched 1915
: , launched 1917, not completed
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1962—1984
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
: Schnellboot fast attack craft, commissioned 1957—1964
: Type 241 submarine, former Kriegsmarine
Wilhelm Bauer: submarine tender Wilhelm-Bauer-class
Wilhelm Florin (815): torpedo boat
: Type 1936 destroyer
Wilhelm Leuschner (824): torpedo boat
Wilhelm Pieck (S61): training ship
Wilhem-Pieck-Stadt Guben (323): minesweeper
Willi Bänsch (844): torpedo boat
Willi Bänsch (831): torpedo boat
Wische: Ohre-class
Wismar: Project 4
Wismar (214: submarine chaser
Wismar (241): corvette
: 12,000 ton , launched 1900
Wittensee: tanker; Klasse 763
Wittow (E661): supply ship
Wittstock (315): minesweeper
: gunboat, launched 1860
: gunboat, launched 1878
: (Type 140) fast attack craft, commissioned 1958—1975
: (Type 148) fast attack craft, decommissioned
Wolfgang Thiess (866): torpedo boat
: Type 1934A destroyer
: (Type 320) minesweeper, commissioned 1958 to 1979, upgraded to Type 351, recommissioned 1989 to 2000
Wolgast: minesweeper
Wolgast (V811): minesweeper
: (Type 321) minesweeper, commissioned 1960 to 1963
: 10,500 ton , launched 1892
: 7,800 ton , launched 1878
: 29,000 ton , not completed
Wurzen: minesweeper
Y
: 10,000 ton armored cruiser, launched 1904
Z
: 12,000 ton , launched 1901
Zander (A45): salvage tug
: (Type 520) utility landing craft, used as transport ships (decommissioned)
Zeitz: minesweeper
Zeitz (314): minesweeper
Zephir: torpedo boat, Tug
Zerbst (335): minesweeper
Zick, Norwegian captured in 1940, re-designated as Vorpostenboot.
: aviso, launched 1876
Zieten: tender, fishery protection vessel, minesweeper
Zingst (G444): minesweeper
: (Type 142) fast attack craft, commissioned 1961—1982
: (Type 143A) fast attack craft
Zwickau: minesweeper
Unnamed by Number
For unnamed submarines see: List of U-boats of Germany
: Schnellboot fast attack craft (former Kriegsmarine S116), commissioned 1957 to 1964
: 1051 ton , launched 1914
: 1051 ton Großes Torpedoboot 1913 class, launched 1914
: 1051 ton Großes Torpedoboot 1913 class, launched 1915
: 1051 ton Großes Torpedoboot 1913 class, launched 1915
: 1051 ton Großes Torpedoboot 1913 class, launched 1915
: 1051 ton Großes Torpedoboot 1913 class, launched 1915
: 1051 ton Großes Torpedoboot 1913 class, launched 1915
: Schnellboot fast attack craft (former Kriegsmarine S130), commissioned 1957 to 1993
: Schnellboot fast attack craft (former Kriegsmarine S208), commissioned 1957 to 1964
: 76-ton experimental submarine
V108'':
: , former United States Navy , commissioned 1959 to 1972
: , former United States Navy , commissioned 1959 to 1981
: , former United States Navy , commissioned 1959 to 1980
: , former United States Navy , commissioned 1959 to 1981
: , former United States Navy , commissioned 1960 to 1982
: , former United States Navy , commissioned 1960 to 1967
through : Type 1936A destroyers
through : Type 1936A (Mob) destroyers
through : Type 1936B destroyers
through : Type 1936A (Mob) destroyers
through : Type 1936B destroyers
: German Type 1942 destroyer launched 1944
See also
List of German Navy ship classes
List of ships of the Second World War
References
Hansen, Hans Jürgen, "Die Schiffe der deutschen Flotten 1848–1945" (Urbes, Gräfelfing vor München, 1974, ).
Gibbons, Tony, "The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships" (Salamander Books, London, 1983, ).
Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung, "Schiffsnummernverzeichnis für Schiffe, Boote und Betriebsfahrzeuge der Deutschen Marine und des Wehrtechnischen Bereichs", 2002
External links
Deutsche Marine – Schiffsliste janmaat.de
Kriegsmarine ships
Naval | [
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250004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATR%20%28aircraft%20manufacturer%29 | ATR (aircraft manufacturer) | ATR (Aerei da Trasporto Regionale or Avions de transport régional; Regional Transport Airplanes in English) is a Franco-Italian aircraft manufacturer headquartered on the grounds of Toulouse Blagnac International Airport in Blagnac, France.
It was formed during 1981 as a joint venture between Aérospatiale of France (now Airbus) and Aeritalia (now Leonardo) of Italy. The company's principal products are the ATR 42 and ATR 72 aircraft, of which it has developed multiple variants of both types. ATR has sold more than 1,600 aircraft and has over 200 operators in more than 100 countries.
Manufacturing
Leonardo's manufacturing facilities in Pomigliano d'Arco, near Naples, Italy, produce the aircraft's fuselage and tail sections. Aircraft wings are assembled at Sogerma in Bordeaux in western France by Airbus France. Final assembly, flight-testing, certification and deliveries are the responsibility of ATR in Toulouse, France.
History
1980s
During the 1960s and 1970s, European aircraft manufacturers had, for the most part, undergone considerable corporate restructuring, including mergers and consolidations, as well as moved towards collaborative multi-national programmes, such as the newly launched Airbus A300. In line with this trend towards intra-European cooperation, French aerospace company Aérospatiale and Italian aviation conglomerate Aeritalia commenced discussions on the topic of working together to develop an all-new regional airliner. Prior to this, both companies had been independently conducting studies for their own aircraft concepts, the AS 35 design in the case of Aerospatiale and the AIT 230 for Aeritalia, to conform with demand within this sector of the market as early as 1978.
On 4 November 1981, a formal Cooperation Agreement was signed by Aeritalia chairman Renato Bonifacio and Aérospatiale chairman Jacques Mitterrand in Paris, France. This agreement signaled not only the merger of their efforts but of their separate concept designs together into a single complete aircraft design for the purpose of pursuing its development and manufacture as a collaborative joint venture. The consortium targeted a similar unit cost but a fuel consumption over a sector, nearly half the required by its 40-50 seat competitors, the British Aerospace HS.748 and Fokker F.27, and planned a 58-seat ATR XX stretch.
This agreement served not only as the basis and origins of the ATR company, but also as the effective launch point of what would become the fledgling firm's first aircraft, which was designated as the ATR 42. By 1983, ATR's customer services division has been set up, readying infrastructure worldwide to provide support for ATR's upcoming aircraft to any customer regardless of location.
On 16 August 1984, the first model of the type, known as the ATR 42–200, conducted its maiden flight from Toulouse Airport, France. During September 1985, both the French Directorate General for Civil Aviation (DGCA) and the Italian Italian Civil Aviation Authority awarded type certification for the type, clearing it to commence operational service. On 3 December 1985, the first production aircraft, designated as the ATR 42-300, was delivered to French launch customer Air Littoral; the first revenue service was performed later that same month. During January 1986, already confident of the ATR 42's success and of the demand for an enlarged version of the aircraft, ATR announced that the launch of a programme to develop such an aircraft, which was designated as the ATR 72 to reflect its increased passenger capacity.
During 1988, the 200th ATR was delivered to Thai Airways. During September 1989, it was announced that ATR had achieved its original target of 400 sales of the ATR. That same year, deliveries of the enlarged ATR 72 commenced; shortly thereafter, it became common for both types to be ordered together. Since the smaller ATR 42 is assembled on the same production line as the ATR 72, along with sharing the majority of subsystems, components, and manufacturing techniques, the two types support each other to remain in production. This factor may have been crucial as, by 2015, the ATR 42 was the only 50-seat regional aircraft that was still being manufactured.
1990s
During September 1992, the 300th ATR was delivered to Finnish airline Karair.
The 500th ATR was delivered to American Eagle, USA on 5 September 1997.
In order to maintain a technological edge on the highly competitive market for regional airliners during the 1990s, several modifications and improved versions of the ATR 42 were progressively introduced. The initial ATR 42-300 model remained in production until 1996, while the first upgraded (and broadly similar) model, designated as the ATR 42-320, was also produced until 1996. The -320 variant principally differed in that it was powered by a pair of the more-powerful PW121 engines, giving it improved performance over the 300. Another variant, the ATR 42-300QC, was a dedicated 'quick-change' (convertible) freight/passenger version of the standard −300 series.
The next major production version was the ATR 42−500 series, the development of which having been originally announced on 14 June 1993. Performing its maiden flight on 16 September 1994, and awarded certification by the British Civil Aviation Authority and France's (DGCA) during July 1995; the -500 model was an upgraded aircraft, equipped with new PW127 engines, new six-bladed propellers, improved hot and high performance, increased weight capacity and an improved passenger cabin. On 31 October 1995, the first ATR 42-500 was delivered to Italian operator Air Dolomiti; on 19 January 1996, the first revenue service to be performed by the type was conducted. In addition to new aircraft models, various organisational changes were also implemented. On 10 July 1998, ATR launched its new Asset Management Department.
2000s
On 28 April 2000, the 600th ATR, an ATR 72-500, was delivered to Italian operator Air Dolomiti.
The 700th aircraft, an ATR 72-500, was delivered to Indian airline Simplify Deccan, on 8 September 2006.
In June 2001, EADS and Alenia Aeronautica, ATR's parent companies, decided to reinforce their partnership, regrouping all industrial activities related to regional airliners underneath the ATR consortium. On 3 October 2003, ATR became one of the first aircraft manufacturers to be certified under ISO 9001-2000 and EN/AS/JISQ 9100, the worldwide quality standard for the aeronautics industry. During July 2004, ATR and Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Embraer announced a cooperation agreement on the AEROChain Portal for the purpose of delivering improved customer service. During April 2009, ATR announces the launch of its 'Door-2-Door' service as a new option in its comprehensive customer services range.
On 2 October 2007, ATR CEO Stéphane Mayer announced the launch of the −600 series aircraft; the ATR 42–600 and ATR 72–600 featured various improvements to increase efficiency, dispatch reliability, lower fuel burn and operating costs. While broadly similar to the earlier -500 model; differences include the adoption of improved PW127M engines, a new glass cockpit, and a variety of other minor improvements. Using the test registration F-WWLY, the prototype ATR 42–600 first flew on 4 March 2010.
2010s
The 900th aircraft, an ATR 72-500, was delivered to Brazilian airline TRIP Linhas Aéreas on 10 September 2010. During 2011, Royal Air Maroc took delivery of the first ATR 72-600. The 1,000th aircraft was delivered to Spain's Air Nostrum on May 3, 2012. On 15 June 2015, Japan Air Commuter signed a contract for ATR's 1,500th aircraft.
On 1 February 2016, ATR signed a major agreement with Iran Air for 40 ATR 72-600s. The 1,300th ATR, an ATR 72-600, was delivered to NAC for operation by Irish airline Stobart Air on 14 June 2016; that same year, ATR delivered the first ever ATR 72-600 High Capacity aircraft (78 seats) to Cebu Pacific. In October 2016, Christian Scherer was appointed CEO.
In 2017, ATR celebrated its 35th anniversary. On 1 February, ATR and Sweden's BRA performed the first ATR biofuel flight. During August 2017, US regional carrier Silver Airways signed a letter of intent for up to 50 ATR 42, a return in the continental US market since 1997 when American Airlines converted 12 ATR 72 options, due to the rise of regional jets and the American Eagle Flight 4184 crash in 1994. ATR lowered its output to 80 deliveries a year from 2017 and boasts a nearly three-year backlog after FedEx Express' November 2017 order. In 2017, ATR booked 113 firm orders and 40 options, and delivered 80 aircraft: 70 new ATR 72-600s, 8 new ATR 42-600s and 2 second hand ATRs.
By April 2018, the fleet was flying more than 5,000 times per day and had operated 30 million flight hours. By the end of June 2018, Leonardo S.p.A. had shipped the 1,500th ATR fuselage while nearly 1,700 airliners had been ordered; ATR reportedly led the turboprop regional airliner market since 2010 with a 75% share. The company's aircraft were being operated in nearly 100 countries by 200 airlines and 30 million flights has been completed; it was also claimed that an ATR airliner takes off or lands every 8 seconds.
On 13 September, Scherer left its CEO role to replace Eric Schulz as Airbus' Chief Commercial Officer.
ATR replaced Scherer as its chief executive with Stefano Bortoli, president of ATR's board and Leonardo aircraft's senior vice-president for strategy and marketing.
At the end of October, the 1,500th ATR was delivered, an ATR 72-600 to Japan Air Commuter, after nearly 500 ATR 42s and more than 1,000 ATR 72s deliveries to over 200 operators in 100 countries. During 2018, ATR delivered 76 aircraft; the rate of production has held at a stable rate. The company opted to pursue a low-risk strategy, avoiding disruptive measures while opting to integrate relatively straightforward enhancements onto its aircraft, such as the Elbit Systems ClearVision wearable enhanced vision system.
Products
Proposed
ATR 82 – During the mid-1980s, the company investigated a 78-seat derivative of the ATR 72. This would have been powered by two Allison AE2100 turboprops (turbofans were also studied for a time) and would have a cruising speed as high as . The ATR-82 project (as it was dubbed) was suspended when Aero International (Regional) () was formed in early 1996.
ATR stretch – In 2007, as a response to the Q400X proposal, ATR floated the idea of a 90–99 seater stretch. As of 2009, it was considered part of the future -900 series ATR family. In 2011, the 90-seater was proposed to shareholders. As of 2012, a new clean-sheet design has been considered in the 90-seat segment, for a 2017 launch.
For a 2,000–2,500-unit demand over 20 years, developing a 90-seater would cost more than $5bn and should achieve at least a 30% fuel-burn reduction and the unit price needs to stay in the low-to-mid-$20m range, below small jets.
Leonardo S.p.A. prefers a clean-sheet 90-100 seater with new turboprops, wings and cockpit available soon but Airbus favours a medium-term introduction with disruptive hybrid electric engines, structural advanced materials and automation.
In January 2018, Leonardo abandoned the 100 seater prospect, favouring existing ATR 42 and 72 models which dominate the turboprop market with a 75% share.
References
https://www.atr-aircraft.com/presspost/air-new-zealand-receives-atrs-1600th-delivery/
External links
Airbus joint ventures
Multinational aircraft manufacturers
Companies based in Toulouse
France–Italy relations
Aerospace companies of Italy
Aerospace companies of France
Aircraft manufacturers
Italian companies established in 1981
French companies established in 1981 | [
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] |
250008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dillingen%20%28district%29 | Dillingen (district) | Dillingen is a Landkreis (district) in Swabia, Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Donau-Ries, Augsburg and Günzburg, and by the state of Baden-Württemberg (district of Heidenheim).
History
In ancient times the Danube river was a border between the Roman empire and the Germanic tribes north of the river. The Roman camp of Phoebiana (now Faimingen) was a bridgehead crossing the danube. There was an Apollo temple being one of the largest buildings north of the Alps in that time.
In medieval times the county of Dillingen was established. The counts of Dillingen ruled from the 10th to the 13th century, then (1258) the territory was turned over to the Prince Bishops of Augsburg, who gained several villages for their clerical state, hence subdividing the region into several patches, which were dissolved in the early 19th century. In 1804 Dillingen and its area became part of the state of Bavaria.
The district was established in 1972 by merging the former district of Dillingen (which had existed since 1804) with the western half of the former district of Wertingen. The city of Dillingen lost its status as a district-free city and became the capital of the newly established district.
Geography
The district is crossed by the river Danube, which enters the district in the southwest and leaves to the east. All cities in the district except for Wertingen are located along the Danube.
Coat of arms
The white lion was part of the arms of the medieval county of Dillingen. The black lion in the middle is taken from the arms of the dissolved district of Wertingen. The fleur-de-lis is from the arms of the city of Dillingen.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Bavaria | [
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250009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20and%20South%20Western%20Railway | London and South Western Railway | The London and South Western Railway (LSWR or L&SWR) was a railway company in England from 1838 to 1922. Starting as the London and Southampton Railway, its network extended from London to Plymouth via Salisbury and Exeter, with branches to Ilfracombe and Padstow and via Southampton to Bournemouth and Weymouth. It also had many routes connecting towns in Hampshire and Berkshire, including Portsmouth and Reading. In the grouping of railways in 1923 the LSWR amalgamated with other railways to create the Southern Railway.
Among significant achievements of the LSWR were the electrification of suburban lines, the introduction of power signalling, the development of Southampton Docks, the rebuilding of London Waterloo station as one of the great stations of the world, and the handling of the massive traffic involved in the First World War.
Spreading car ownership led to a rapid decline of passenger traffic in Devon and Cornwall from about 1960 to the end of that decade so short mid-distance-from-London branches and the remote peninsular sections of route closed under the Beeching Report, except the line to Penzance from Exeter which had since the very outset been the main preserve of the Great Western Railway, chiefly due to that company's initial laying of track there and doing so on broad gauge and encouraging Devon and Cornish companies to do so under the 'Gauge War'.
General overview
The London and South Western Railway originated as a renaming of the London and Southampton Railway, which opened in May 1840 to connect the port of Southampton with London. Its original London terminus was Nine Elms, on the south bank of the river Thames, the route being laid through Wimbledon, Surbiton, Woking, Basingstoke and Winchester, using what became the standard track gauge of .
The railway was an immediate success, and this encouraged the company to think of extensions, to Windsor, to Gosport (for Portsmouth) and to Salisbury. The company then saw potential from the area westward, which put it in direct competition with the Great Western Railway: it was important to secure lines and stations to seek to keep the competitor out. As the Great Western Railway used the broad gauge (), any gauge adopted by independent smaller lines dictated their permissibility for joint running, and this territorial competition became known as the gauge wars. The Nine Elms terminus was obviously inconvenient to most Londoners and the line was extended north-eastwards to Waterloo via the Nine Elms to Waterloo Viaduct in 1848; later the LSWR built its own tube railway—the Waterloo & City line—to connect to City station close to the Bank of England building in the City of London.
The Great Western Railway secured access early on to Exeter and Plymouth through its allied companies, and the LSWR aspired to build its own competing route to reach Devon and Cornwall, which would offer considerable traffic potential. It made a slow start but eventually had its own line from Basingstoke to Salisbury and Exeter, continuing by a northerly arc to Plymouth, and to north Devon and north Cornwall. Coming later than the Great Western to the area, it never achieved the solid prosperity there of its broad gauge neighbour.
The Southampton line had been extended to Weymouth via Ringwood, and the LSWR consolidated its home area building branches closer to London, and direct lines to Portsmouth, and to Reading. It also became joint owner, with the Midland Railway, of the Somerset and Dorset Railway, responsible for infrastructure and coaching stock on the latterly famous route. Shipping became significant also, with passenger and freight services to the Channel Islands, to Saint-Malo in France, and to the Isle of Wight.
In the twentieth century, it embarked on a programme of electrifying the suburban routes, at 600 V DC using a third rail. Eventually this covered the entire suburban area. Freight traffic, especially from the West Country was important, but the emphasis on suburban electrification led to weaker development of steam traction for fast passenger and goods services to Devon and Cornwall, and to Portsmouth, Bournemouth and Weymouth.
At the grouping of the railways, the LSWR amalgamated with other railways to create the Southern Railway, and the independent Isle of Wight railways were absorbed, becoming part of the former LSWR section within the Southern Railway. Its enlightened and unorthodox Chief Mechanical Engineer, Oliver Bulleid, put in hand the construction of a fleet of powerful express steam locomotives, the Merchant Navy class, followed by a larger fleet of so-called light pacifics, built with lighter axle loading to give access to branch lines with weaker track and bridge strengths; this enabled radical improvements to main line passenger services, and the streamlined profile of the new fleet made an impact as a modern design, and it remained an iconic image. At the same time they revolutionised express passenger train speeds to Weymouth and the West Country, although their technical innovation incorporated a number of difficulties. Electrification of the Portsmouth line was now carried out.
Capital infrastructure works were also undertaken, including the Feltham marshalling yard, major improvements to Southampton Docks and Waterloo station, a new locomotive workshop at Eastleigh, and grade separated junctions on the main line, as well as signalling modernisation schemes. A concrete manufacturing works was established at Exmouth Junction in Exeter, producing standardised precast components such as platform units, lamp posts and platelayers' huts; the designs became familiar throughout Southern Railway territory.
Nationalisation of the railways in 1948 brought relatively little immediate change to the former LSWR system, now part of the Southern Operating Area of British Railways, later the Southern Region, although national centralisation of locomotive design made Bulleid's position untenable and he retired. However, in 1966 the geographical limits of the British Railways regions was rationalised, and the Devon and Cornwall lines were transferred to the Western Region. Many of the branch lines had declined in traffic in the 1950s and were considered uneconomic, and following the Beeching Report, the Reshaping of British Railways, many of the branches were closed, as was the Plymouth main line.
The Bournemouth line was electrified in 1967, at first with converted steam coaching stock, later replaced by purpose built stock; the electrification was extended to Weymouth in 1988. In recent years the system has remained constant, with gradually increasing train frequency from about 1990 now forming a limitation.
When international train services from London to Paris and Brussels were initiated in 1994, they required space for very long trains, and this was provided at Waterloo: the Eurostar terminal was built on the north side of the station with the international trains using the first of the LSWR main line before diverging. The services were transferred to St Pancras International in 2007 and the Eurostar terminal, having sat dormant for a decade, is being developed for re-opening and use by Windsor and Reading services.
The first main line
The London and South Western Railway arose out of the London and Southampton Railway (L&SR), which was promoted to connect Southampton to the capital; the company envisaged a considerable reduction in the price of coal and agricultural necessities to places served, as well as imported produce through Southampton Docks, and passenger traffic.
Construction probably started on 6 October 1834 under Francis Giles, but progress was slow. Joseph Locke was brought in as engineer, and the rate of construction improved; the first part of the line opened to the public between and Woking Common on 21 May 1838, and it was opened throughout on 11 May 1840. The terminals were at Nine Elms, south of the River Thames and a mile or so southwest of Trafalgar Square, and a terminal station at Southampton close to the docks, which were also directly served by goods trains.
The railway was immediately successful, and road coaches from points further west altered their routes so as to connect with the new railway at convenient interchange points, although goods traffic was slower to develop.
First new branch, and change of name
The London and Southampton Railway promoters had intended to build a branch from Basingstoke to Bristol, but this proposal was rejected by Parliament in favour of the competing Great Western Railway's route. The parliamentary fight had been bitter, and a combination of resentment and the commercial attraction of expanding westwards remained in the company's thoughts.
A more immediate opportunity was taken up, of serving Portsmouth by a branch line. Interests friendly to the L&SR promoted a Portsmouth Junction Railway, which would have run from Bishopstoke (Eastleigh) via Botley and Fareham to Portsmouth. However resentment in Portsmouth—which considered Southampton a rival port—at being given simply as branch and thereby a roundabout route to London, killed the prospects of such a line. Portsmouth people wanted their own direct line, but in trying to play off the L&SR against the London & Brighton Railway they were unable to secure the committed funds they needed.
The L&SR now promoted a cheaper line to Gosport, on the opposite side of Portsmouth Harbour, shorter and simpler than the earlier proposal. Approval had recently been given for the construction of a floating bridge (chain ferry) giving connection between Gosport and Portsmouth, and the L&SR secured its Act of Parliament on 4 June 1839. To soothe feelings in Portsmouth, the L&SR included in its bill a change of name to the London and South Western Railway under Section 2.
Construction of the Gosport branch was at first quick and simple under Thomas Brassey. Stations were built at Bishopstoke (the new junction station; later renamed Eastleigh) and . An extremely elaborate station was built at , tendered at £10,980, seven times the tender price for Bishopstoke. However, there was a tunnel at Fareham, and on 15 July 1841 there was a disastrous earth slip at the north end. Opening of the line had been advertised for 11 days later, but the setback forced a delay until 29 November; the ground slipped again four days later, and passenger services were suspended until 7 February 1842.
Isle of Wight ferry operators altered some sailings to leave from Gosport instead of Portsmouth. Queen Victoria was fond of travelling to Osborne House on the island, and on 13 September 1845 a branch to the Royal Clarence Victualling Establishment was opened for her convenience.
Gauge wars
Between the first proposal for a railway from London to Southampton and the construction, interested parties were considering rail connections to other, more distant, towns that might be served by extensions of the railway. Reaching Bath and Bristol via Newbury was an early objective. The Great Western Railway (GWR) also planned to reach Bath and Bristol, and it obtained its Act of Parliament on 31 August 1835, which for the time being removed those cities from the LSWR's immediate plans. There remained much attractive territory in the South West, the West of England, and even the West Midlands, and the LSWR and its allies continually fought the GWR and its allies to be the first to build a line in a new area.
The GWR was built on the broad gauge of while the LSWR gauge was standard gauge (), and the allegiance of any proposed independent railway was made clear by its intended gauge. The gauge was generally specified in the authorising Act of Parliament, and bitter and protracted competition took place to secure authorisation for new lines of the preferred gauge, and to bring about parliamentary rejection of proposals from the rival faction. This rivalry between the GWR and the standard gauge companies became called the gauge wars.
In the early days government held that several competing railways could not be sustained in any particular area of the country, and a commission of experts referred to informally as the "Five Kings" was established by the Board of Trade to determine the preferred development, and therefore the preferred company, in certain districts, and this was formalised in the Railway Regulation Act 1844.
Suburban lines
The LSWR was the second British railway company to begin running what could be described as a commuter service, after the London and Greenwich Railway had opened in 1836.
When the first main line opened, the LSWR built a station called Kingston, somewhat to the east of the present-day Surbiton station and this quickly attracted business travel from residents of Kingston upon Thames. The availability of fast travel into London encouraged new housing development close to the new station. Residents of Richmond upon Thames observed the popularity of this facility, and promoted a railway from their town to Waterloo; the branch opened in July 1846 and became part of the LSWR later that year. Already a suburban network was developing, and this gathered pace in the following decades.
Branches off the main line were made to in 1848 and in 1851, while the Richmond line was extended, reaching in 1851, while a loop line from via rejoining the Windsor line near had been opened in 1850. In 1856 a friendly company, the Staines, Wokingham and Woking Junction Railway, opened its line from to , and running powers over the line shared by the South Eastern Railway and the Great Western Railway gave access for LSWR trains over the remaining few miles from Wokingham to .
South of the main line, the important towns of Epsom and Leatherhead needed to be served; the rival London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) reached first (from ), but in 1859 the LSWR opened a line from , closely paralleling the main line as far as the present-day and then turning south to Epsom. Between Epsom and a joint line with the LB&SCR was built, also opening in 1859.
Parts of Kingston were from station and in 1863 the town got its own terminal station, reached westward via . A single-track branch was laid in 1864 to reach westwards up the Thames Valley to . In 1869 the Kingston line was formed into a loop by the extension from Kingston to .
The daily inconvenience of the LSWR London terminal at Waterloo, close to Whitehall via Westminster Bridge but poorly connected at the time to the City of London, became increasingly prominent as daily commuting increased. This was partly alleviated when friendly relations with the LB&SCR and the London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LC&DR) gave access for LSWR trains to its Ludgate Hill (City) station from Wimbledon via Tooting, Streatham and Herne Hill: this service commenced in 1869, and in the same year the LSWR opened a new route from Waterloo to Richmond via and on the West London Extension Railway, over new track through and the present-day and . Although circuitous, this route swept up considerable inner-suburban business.
At the end of the independent life of the LSWR its trains reached, with the help of running powers and friendly companies, to today's suburban destinations. The railway was only convenient for Westminster as to commuters, lacking an underground station, and made strenuous exertions to get direct access for its trains to the City of London, the destination of the majority of business customers in the later decades of the nineteenth century, but in most cases these were circuitous and thus slow. The problem was resolved by the opening of the Waterloo & City Railway, an electric tube railway, in 1898.
Quadrupling, grade-separated junctions, and electrification all enhanced the efficiency of the service offered.
Westward
The Southampton and Dorchester Railway
The London and Southampton Railway promoters had lost the first battle for authorisation to make a line to Bristol, but the objective of opening up the country in the southwest and west of England remained prominent. In fact it was an independent promoter, Charles Castleman, a solicitor of Wimborne Minster, who assembled support in the South West, and on 2 February 1844 proposed to the LSWR that a line might be built from Southampton to Dorchester: he was rebuffed by the LSWR, who were looking towards Exeter as their next objective. Castleman went ahead and developed his scheme, but relations between his supporters and the LSWR were extremely tense, and Castleman formed a Southampton and Dorchester Railway, and negotiated with the Great Western Railway instead. The Bristol & Exeter Railway, a broad gauge company allied to the GWR, reached Exeter on 1 May 1844, and the GWR was promoting the Wilts, Somerset and Weymouth Railway which was to connect the GWR to Weymouth. It seemed to the LSWR that on all sides they were losing territory in the Westcountry that they considered rightfully theirs, and they hastily prepared plans for their own lines crossing from Bishopstoke to Taunton. Much was made of the roundabout route of the Southampton and Dorchester line, and it was mockingly referred to as Castleman's corkscrew or the water snake.
The Five Kings (referred to above) published their decision, that most of the broad gauge lines should have preference, as well as the Southampton and Dorchester line which was to be built on the narrow gauge. Formal agreement was reached on 16 January 1845 between the LSWR, the GWR and the Southampton & Dorchester, agreeing exclusive areas of influence for future railway construction as between the parties. The Southampton and Dorchester line was authorised on 21 July 1845; there was to be an interchange station at Dorchester to transfer to the broad-gauge WS&W line, which was to be required to lay mixed gauge to to give narrow gauge trains from Southampton access. To demonstrate impartiality the Southampton and Dorchester would be required to lay mixed gauge on its line for the same distance east of Dorchester, even though this did not lead to any source of traffic as there were no stations or goods sidings on the dual-gauge section. Interests in Southampton had also forced a clause in the Act requiring the S&DR to build a station at Blechynden Terrace, in central Southampton. This became the present day ; the Southampton and Dorchester was to terminate at the original LSWR terminus in Southampton.
The line opened on 1 June 1847 from a temporary station at Blechynden Terrace westwards, as the tunnel between there and the LSWR station at Southampton had slipped; that section was finally opened on the night of 5–6 August 1847, for a mail train.
Powers were taken for the LSWR to amalgamate with the Southampton & Dorchester, and this took effect on 11 October 1848.
The Southampton and Dorchester line ran from in a northerly sweep through and , bypassing Bournemouth (which had not yet developed as an important town) and Poole; the port of Poole was served by a spur line to Lower Hamworthy on the opposite side of Holes Bay. It then continued via to a terminus at Dorchester which was sited to facilitate a further extension in the direction of Exeter. The link to the WS&W line was awkwardly sited due to the presence of Maumbury Rings, requiring through trains to to either reverse in and out of Dorchester station or skip it altogether.
Salisbury
While Castleman was developing his Southampton and Dorchester line, the LSWR was planning to reach the important city of Salisbury. This was done by a branch from by way of and the Dean Valley. By launching from Bishopstoke, the Company wished to connect the ports of Southampton and Portsmouth with Salisbury, but this made the route to London somewhat circuitous. The necessary Act was obtained on 4 July 1844, but land acquisition delays and inefficient contract arrangements delayed the opening until 27 January 1847, and then only for goods trains; passengers were conveyed from 1 March 1847. The Salisbury station was at Milford, on the east side of the city.
Business interests in Andover were disappointed that the Salisbury line was not to pass through their town, and a London to Salisbury and Yeovil line through Andover was being promoted; it might ally with a line from Yeovil to Exeter with a Dorchester branch, forming a new, competing London to Exeter line, so that the LSWR territorial agreement with the GWR would be worthless. When the LSWR indicated that they would themselves build a line from Salisbury to Exeter, the GWR complained bitterly that this broke the 16 January 1845 territorial agreement, and the Southampton and Dorchester complained too that this new line would abstract traffic from them. As the railway mania was now at its height, a frenzy of competing schemes was now proposed. The LSWR itself felt obliged to promote doubtful schemes in self-defence, but by 1848 the financial bubble of the mania had burst, and suddenly railway capital was difficult to find. In that year, only a few more realistic schemes gained Parliamentary authority: the Exeter, Yeovil and Dorchester Railway, for a narrow-gauge line from Exeter to Yeovil, and the Salisbury and Yeovil Railway.
At the end of 1847, work had begun on the LSWR's own line from to via Andover, and the scene seemed at last to be set for LSWR trains to reach Exeter. This apparent resolution of the conflict was deceptive, and in the following years a succession of disruptive pressures exerted themselves. The Southampton and Dorchester Railway insisted that it should be the route to Exeter via Bridport; the GWR and its allies were proposing new schemes intersecting the LSWR's route west; the Wilts, Somerset and Weymouth line resumed construction and appeared to threaten the LSWR's future traffic; the Andover and Southampton Canal was to be converted to a broad gauge railway; and residents of towns on the proposed LSWR route were angry at the delay in actually providing the new line.
The outcome of all this was that the Salisbury and Yeovil Railway was authorised on 7 August 1854; the LSWR line from Basingstoke resumed construction, and was opened to Andover on 3 July 1854, but it took until 1 May 1857 for the line to open from there to Salisbury (Milford). The LSWR had given undertakings to extend to Exeter and it was compelled to honour these, obtaining the Act on 21 July 1856. The narrative "West of Salisbury" is continued below.
London terminal stations
The company's first London terminus was at Nine Elms on the southwestern edge of the built-up area. The wharf frontage on the Thames was advantageous to the railway's objective of competing with coastal shipping transits, but the site was inconvenient for passengers, who had to travel on to London either by road or by steamer.
The "Metropolitan Extension" to a more central location had been discussed as early as 1836, and a four-track extension to was authorised by Act of Parliament on 31 July 1845 with a supplementary Act of 1847; the capital authorised was £950,000. The line had an intermediate station at .
Opening was planned for 30 June 1848, but the Board of Trade inspector did not approve some of the large-span bridges at the eastern end, however his superior was satisfied by later load tests, and the line opened on 11 July 1848. At first incoming trains stopped outside the station and were pulled in by capstan after the locomotive had been detached.
The Nine Elms site became dedicated to goods traffic and was much extended to fill the triangle of land eastwards to Wandsworth Road. The independent Richmond Railway was promoted, joining the LSWR at Falcon Road (near the present-day Clapham Junction). The LSWR adopted the Richmond line and there were four tracks from Falcon Road to Waterloo Bridge. There were four platforms with six platform faces, about where platforms 9 to 12 are today. They were doubled in length soon after opening.
In 1854 the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Company opened its one-platform station adjacent to Waterloo on the south side between York Street and Westminster Bridge Road. The company arranged for the transport of the dead and the funeral parties, to a burial site near Brookwood, using LSWR locomotives.
More platforms at Waterloo
On 3 August 1860 four additional platforms were opened on the north-west side of the original station, separated from it by a cab road. This became known as the Windsor station and served the Windsor line and outer suburban traffic.
The LSWR was aware that Waterloo Bridge, being on the South Bank, was still not convenient for the increasing number of business people travelling to the City of London; the company tried repeatedly to get access independently, but these plans were dropped on the grounds of expense. The Charing Cross Railway (CCR), supported by the South Eastern Railway (SER), opened a line from London Bridge to Charing Cross on 11 January 1864, and was obliged to make a connection from that line to the LSWR Waterloo station. It did so but declined to operate any trains over the connection.
The single line connected through the station concourse and ran between platforms 2 and 3; there was a movable bridge across the track. In 1865 a circular service started from Euston via Willesden and Waterloo to London Bridge. The SER was clearly reluctant to encourage this service, and diverted to Cannon Street it struggled on until ceasing on 31 December 1867. A few van shunts, and also the Royal Train, were the only movements over the line after that.
By opposing a parliamentary bill that was important to the SER, the LSWR got that company's agreement to build a Waterloo station on its Charing Cross line, and this, at first called Waterloo Junction, opened on 1 January 1869; this is the present-day station.
More widening, and renaming to "Waterloo"
Further widening in the throat area of the station took place in 1875, and the Necropolis platform was taken for this work, a new platform for them being provided nearer to Westminster Bridge Road. On 16 December 1878 a two-sided platform was added becoming the South station. In November 1885 six more platforms, the North station, for the Staines (Windsor and Reading) lines opened. The original four tracks therefore fed into 16 platforms and between 1886 and 1892 for the course to Surbiton an additional two tracks were added, followed by one more in 1900 and another in 1905 of much shorter distance.
In 1886 the station name was changed to Waterloo.
Connecting to the City
A number of independent schemes to reach the City of London were promoted, and in 1893 a Waterloo & City Railway obtained its Act of Parliament, to build a tube railway (then an extremely novel concept) from below Waterloo station to a City station at the Mansion House. This was successfully built, and it opened in 1898, running electric trains at frequent intervals. Through ticketing from LSWR stations were available, and the LSWR worked the line. The City station was later renamed Bank to match the adjacent tube stations of the Central London Railway and the City & South London Railway.
Major expansion at Waterloo
The incremental expansion of Waterloo station in the nineteenth century had led to a chaotic and difficult terminal installation, and in 1899 the company obtained powers for a major reconstruction and further expansion of the station; subsequent Acts further extended the powers. A considerable land take was involved, and the Necropolis station had to be moved, again, this time to the west of Westminster Bridge Road, where it opened with two platforms on 16 February 1902; the Waterloo & City Railway station was largely to be built over. The huge task cost £2 million, and was largely implemented in the years 1906 to 1916, although some work was not complete until 1922.
It was only as part of this work that the defunct through line to the SER route was finally removed, authorised by Act of 1911; Westminster Bridge Road bridge was widened to carry 11 tracks. The numbering sequence of platforms was rationalised, and the new platforms 1 to 3 opened, on new ground, on 24 January 1909, followed by platform 4 on 25 July 1909, roughly on the site of the southernmost of the former platforms; platform 5 followed on 6 March 1910.
As well as platform accommodation, a new mechanical departure indicator was provided, and there were spacious new offices for the LSWR headquarters. The new roof over platforms 1 to 15 was built, with its bays transverse to the tracks; the roof over what became platforms 16 to 21 retained the longitudinal roof built in 1885, making the Windsor line station obviously different. The last of the new platforms was commissioned on 28 February 1915. The new station was formally opened by Queen Mary on 21 March 1922; the cost of the reconstruction had been £2,269,354.
West of Salisbury
To Exeter
After a long period of conflict, the LSWR's route to the West of England was clear; the earlier connection to Milford station at Salisbury from Bishopstoke had been opened on 17 January 1847. The route from London was shortened by the route from Basingstoke via Andover on 2 May 1859, with a more convenient station at Salisbury Fisherton Street. The conflict had centred around the best route to reach Devon and Cornwall, and this had finally been agreed to be the so-called "central route" via Yeovil. The Salisbury and Yeovil Railway opened its line, from Salisbury to on 1 May 1859; from there to on 7 May 1860, and finally to on 1 June 1860.
The controversy over the route to Exeter having been resolved, the LSWR itself had obtained authority to extend from Yeovil to Exeter, and constructing it swiftly, it opened on 19 July 1860 to its there.
Exeter to Barnstaple
Local railways towards North Devon had already opened: the Exeter and Crediton Railway opened on 12 May 1851, and the North Devon Railway from to opened on 1 August 1854. Both lines were constructed on the broad gauge. The LSWR acquired an interest in these lines in 1862–63 and then bought them in 1865. The Bristol and Exeter railway had reached Exeter at St Davids station on 1 May 1844 and the South Devon Railway had extended southwards in 1846. The LSWR Queen Street station was high above St Davids station, and a westward extension required the line to descend and cross the other lines.
The LSWR built a connecting line that descended to St Davids station by a steep falling gradient of 1 in 37 (2.7%). The authorising Act required the Bristol and Exeter Railway to lay narrow gauge rails as far as Cowley Bridge Junction, a short distance north of St Davids where the North Devon line diverged. Under the terms of this concession, all LSWR passenger trains were required to make calls at St Davids station. LSWR trains to London ran southwards through St Davids station, while broad gauge trains to London ran northwards.
Plymouth
The North Devon line formed a convenient launching point for an independent LSWR line to Plymouth. The LSWR encouraged local interests, and the Devon and Cornwall Railway opened from Coleford Junction to on 1 November 1865, and in stages from there to Lidford (later ) on 12 October 1874. The LSWR obtained running powers over the South Devon and Launceston Railway, giving it access to Plymouth over that line.
Another nominally independent company, the Plymouth, Devonport and South Western Junction Railway built a line from Lidford to , and the LSWR leased and operated the line, gaining independent access to Devonport, and its own passenger terminal at .
Holsworthy and Bude
The line from Okehampton to Lydford itself provided a good starting point for a branch to , in northwest Devon, and this opened on 20 January 1879, and was extended to in Cornwall on 10 August 1898.
North Cornwall
The line to Holsworthy itself provided a further starting point for a branch to what became the LSWR's most westerly point at , from Waterloo). The line was promoted by the North Cornwall Railway, and opened in stages, finally being completed on 27 March 1899.
Branches east of Exeter
The topography of the line from Salisbury to Exeter is such that the main line passed by many significant communities. Local communities were disappointed by the omission of their town from railway connection, and, in many cases encouraged by the LSWR, they promoted independent branch lines. These lines were worked, and sooner or later absorbed, by the LSWR, so that in time the main line had a series of connecting branches.
West of Salisbury there were branch lines to:
Yeovil; the line ran from to station;
Bath and Bournemouth; with a junction at , the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway ran north to and south to ; this line was leased to the LSWR and the Midland Railway jointly for 999 years from 1 November 1875, and operated jointly by the two companies;
Chard; the branch opened on 8 May 1863, from Chard Road (later ) to ;
Lyme Regis; the branch line from to opened on 24 August 1903;
Seaton; a branch line from to opened on 16 March 1868;
Sidmouth and Exmouth; a line opened from Feniton, later , to on 6 July 1874; a branch was constructed from Tipton St Johns to , opening on 15 May 1897, and extended from there to , opening on 1 June 1903;
Exmouth; this branch opened from Exmouth Junction on 1 May 1861.
Routes in Hampshire
Portsmouth
The London and Southampton Railway main line linked the Hampshire towns of Basingstoke, Winchester and Southampton, and from 1841 Portsmouth was served by a branch line from Bishopstoke () to the neighbour of Portsmouth ( via ferry).
In 1847 the rival LB&SCR opened a true but even longer Portsmouth route via its due south line via to Portsmouth and Southsea.
Portsmouth interests were disappointed: their lines to London were indirect, either via Hove or Bishopstoke and so promoted a private venture to build a direct southwest route from the LSWR's station at – the line became known as the Portsmouth Direct Line. It reached in 1858, sparking a two-year legal, pragmatic and, at times, physical 'battle' between the LB&SCR and the LSWR (who managed the services over the independently owned line). This was resolved by a bypassing omnibus to (North Portsmouth) from a ''New Havant' terminus' and from 1859 the line was wholly acquired by the LSWR and LB&SCR admitted practical defeat to its arguably monopolistic obstruction.
Christchurch and Bournemouth
Alton
Meanwhile, in northern Hampshire the company had opened its line to Alton in 1852. Initially this was from a single branch from , but in 1865 a new fast line from the main line at Brookwood through . An independent company, the Alton, Alresford and Winchester Railway Company, had built a line between those places which also opened in 1865, with the LSWR running the trains, which worked through Alton station. In 1884 the LSWR bought out the AA&WR, becoming the full owner of the Alton to Winchester line.
Bishops Waltham
In 1863 the company took over the Bishops Waltham Railway Company, which had built the Bishops Waltham branch between that village and the LSWR's Botley station on the Eastleigh to Fareham Line. The branch had not opened at the time that the BWR was taken over, so the LSWR was the first to operate services on the line.
Southampton, Netley, Fareham and Portsmouth Harbour
In 1866 the LSWR built its short branch from Southampton to Netley to service the newly opened Royal Victoria Military Hospital. A decade later, in 1876 the Portsmouth Direct Line was extended further south to reach Southsea and further west to serve the Naval Dockyard with a new station, Portsmouth Harbour.
With all the major towns and cities in Hampshire now connected, the LSWR carried out little new building in the 1880s. A short section of line from the Netley branch to Fareham finally completing the West Coastway Line between Southampton and Brighton in 1889. A branch from Fratton station, terminating at East Southsea station in Portsmouth was opened in 1885 but was never successful and closed in 1914. For its last few years after 1903 it was worked by rail motors.
Alton, Winchester and Gosport extensions
Hampshire saw a brief but significant burst of new-line building in the 1890s. In 1891 the link was opened between the Southampton main line and the newly built Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway (over the Hockley viaduct, the longest in the county). In 1894 a new line from Gosport station to Lee-on-the-Solent was built to take advantage of the growth in tourist traffic to the Isle of Wight. However the most significant new routes came about as the LSWR acted to block its greatest rival, the Great Western Railway from building its own line to Portsmouth from Reading. This blocking action took the form of two lines. The Basingstoke and Alton Light Railway was a minor route – the first in the country to be built under the terms of the Light Railways Act 1896. The second line was the Meon Valley Railway between and Fareham, built to main-line standards as a second London to Gosport route. The new lines opened in 1901 and 1903 respectively, these being the last lines in Hampshire to be built by the LSWR before the 1923 grouping.
Lymington
Dorset lines
Swanage
The town of Swanage was bypassed by the Dorchester line, and local interests set about securing a branch line. After false starts this was achieved when the Swanage Railway Act got royal assent on 18 July 1881 for a line from Worgret Junction, west of , to with an intermediate station at . Wareham station had been a simple wayside structure, and a new interchange station was built west of the level crossing for the purposes of the branch. The line opened on 20 May 1885, and the LSWR acquired the line from 25 June 1886.
Portland
Electrification
In the early years of the 20th century electric traction was adopted by a number of urban railways in the United States. The London and North Western Railway adopted a four-rail system and started operating electric trains to over the LSWR from , and soon the Metropolitan District Railway was doing so as well. In the face of declining suburban passenger income, for some time the LSWR failed to respond, but in 1913 Herbert Walker was appointed Chairman, and he soon implemented an electrification scheme in the LSWR suburban area.
A third rail system was used, with a line voltage of 600 V DC. The rolling stock consisted of 84 three-car units, all formed from converted steam stock, and the system was an immediate success when it opened in 1915–16. In fact, overcrowding was experienced in busy periods and trains were augmented by a number of two-car non driving trailer units from 1919, also converted from steam stock, which were formed between two of the three-car units, forming an eight-car train. All the electric trains provided first and third class accommodation only.
The routes electrified were in the inner suburban area—a second stage scheme had been prepared but was frustrated by the First World War—but extended as far as on the New Guildford line; this was operated at first as an interchange point, but the section was discontinued as an electrified route when overcrowding nearer London occurred, the electric stock being used there and the Claygate line reverting to steam operation.
Concomitant with the electrification, the route between Vauxhall and Nine Elms was widened to eight tracks, and a flyover for the Hampton Court line was constructed, opening for traffic on 4 July 1915.
Southampton Docks
When the company was founded it showed interest in Southampton Docks. The first docks had already been built and the development of the port of Southampton was accelerated by the arrival of the railway. In 1843 the LSWR started running ships from Southampton as the New South Western Steam Navigation Company. Later, the LSWR took over the vessels and in 1892 it bought the docks and continued the rapid development of them.
Eastleigh Works
In 1891, the works at Eastleigh, in Hampshire, were opened with the transfer of the carriage and wagon works from Nine Elms in London. The locomotive works were transferred from Nine Elms under Drummond, opening in 1909.
LSWR infrastructure
For details of the LSWR main line routes, see:
South West Main Line
West of England Main Line
Exeter to Plymouth railway of the LSWR
North Devon Railway
Waterloo & City line
Notable people
Notable people connected with the LSWR include:
Chairmen of the board of directors
1832–1833: Sir Thomas Baring
1834–1836: John Wright
1837–1840: Sir John Easthope
1841–1842: Robert Garnet, MP
1843–1852: William Chaplin
1853: The Hon. Francis Scott
1854: Sir William Heathcote
1854–1858: William Chaplin (again)
1859–1872: Captain Charles Mangles
1873–1874: Charles Castleman
1875–1892: The Hon. Ralph H. Dutton
1892–1899: Wyndham S. Portal
1899–1904: Lt. Col. the Hon. H. W. Campbell
1904–1910: Sir Charles Scotter
1911–1922: Sir Hugh Drummond
General managers
1839–1852: Cornelius Stovin (as traffic manager)
1852–1885: Archibald Scott (as traffic manager 1852–1870)
1885–1898: Sir Charles Scotter
1898–1912: Sir Charles Owens
1912–1922: Sir Herbert Walker
Resident engineers
1837–1849: Albinus [Albino] Martin
1849–1853: John Bass
1853–1870: John Strapp
1870–1887: William Jacomb (1832–1887)
1887–1901: E. Andrews
1901–1914: J. W. Jacomb-Hood
1914–1922: Alfred Weeks Szlumper
Consulting engineers
1834–1837: Francis Giles
1837–1849: Joseph Locke
1849–1862: John Edward Errington
1862–1907: W. R. Galbraith
Locomotive engineers, works and corporate liveries
1838–1840: Joseph Woods (as Locomotive Superintendent)
1841–1850: John Viret Gooch (as Locomotive Superintendent)
1850–1871: Joseph Hamilton Beattie (as Locomotive Superintendent)
1871–1877: William George Beattie (as Locomotive Superintendent)
1877–1895: William Adams (as Locomotive Superintendent)
1895–1912: Dugald Drummond (as Chief Mechanical Engineer from 1904)
1912–1922: Robert Urie (as Locomotive Engineer)
Locomotive works
The locomotive works were at Nine Elms from 1838 to 1908. Under Drummond they were moved to a new spacious site at Eastleigh in 1909.
List of locomotive classes
Locomotive liveries
Liveries for painting of locomotives adopted by the successive Mechanical Engineers:
To 1850 (John Viret Gooch)
Little information is available although from 1844 dark green with red and white lining, black wheels and red buffer beams seems to have become standard.
1850–1866 (Joseph Hamilton Beattie)
Passenger classes – Indian red with black panelling inside white. Driving splashers and cylinders lined white. Black wheels, smokebox and chimney. Vermilion buffer beams and buff footplate interior.
Goods classes – unlined Indian red. Older engines painted black until 1859.
1866–1872 (Joseph Hamilton Beattie)
All engines dark chocolate brown with black bands edged internally in white and externally by vermilion. Tender sides divided into three panels.
1872–1878 (William George Beattie)
Paler chocolate (known as purple brown) with the same lining. From 1874 the white lining was replaced by yellow ochre and the vermilion by crimson.
1878–1885 (William Adams)
Umber brown with a black band externally and bright green line internally. Boiler bands black with white edging. Buffer beams vermilion. Smokebox, chimney, frames etc. black.
1885–1895 (William Adams)
Passenger classes – pea green with black borders edged with a fine white line. Boiler bands black with a fine white line to either side.
Goods classes – holly green with black borders edged by a fine bright green line.
1895–1914 (Dugald Drummond)
Passenger classes – royal mint green lined in chocolate, triple lined in white, black and white. Boiler bands black lined in white with tan stripes to either side. Outside cylinders with black borders and white lining. Smokebox, chimney, exterior frames, tops of splashers, platform etc. black. Inside of the main frames tan. Buffer beams vermilion and cab interiors grained pine.
Goods classes – holly green edged in black and lined in light green. Boiler bands black edged in light green.
1914–1917 (Robert Urie)
Passenger classes – olive green with Drummond lining.
Goods classes – holly green with black edging and white lining.
1917–1922 (Robert Urie)
Passenger classes – olive green with a black border and white edging.
Goods classes – holly green often without lining until 1918.
Accidents and incidents
On 11 September 1880, a passenger train collided with a light engine at Nine Elms Locomotive Junction due to errors by signalmen and the fireman of the light engine. Seven people were killed.
On 6 August 1888, a light engine and a passenger train were in a head-on collision at station due to a signalman's error. Four people were killed and fifteen were injured.
1906 Salisbury rail crash: On 1 July 1906, an express passenger train was derailed at due to excessive speed on a curve. Twenty-eight people were killed and eleven were injured.
Shipping services
As the London and South Western Railway served Portsmouth, Southampton and Weymouth, it developed a number of shipping routes, operating them with its own vessels.
Other details
The Waterloo and City Railway was built by the LSWR to give them access to the City of London. This is now part of London Underground
Disregarding the Waterloo & City line, the longest tunnel is Honiton Tunnel ; there were six others longer than
The LSWR and the Midland Railway were joint owners of the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway
The anglicised script version of the Russian word for railway station is 'vokzal'. A longstanding legend has it that a party from Russia planning their own railway system arrived in London around the time that the LSWR's Vauxhall station was opened. They saw the station nameboards, thought the word was the English word for railway station and took it back home. In fact, the first Russian railway station was built on the site of pleasure gardens based on those at Vauxhall – nothing to do with the English railway station. (Fuller details are in the Vauxhall article.)
See also
List of early British railway companies
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
www.lswr.org – South Western Circle: The Historical Society for the London & South Western Railway
Railway companies established in 1838
Railway lines opened in 1840
Railway companies disestablished in 1923
Pre-grouping British railway companies
West Country
History of rail transport in London
1838 establishments in England
1923 disestablishments in England
British companies established in 1838
British companies disestablished in 1923 | [
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250011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TDK%20%28disambiguation%29 | TDK (disambiguation) | TDK Corporation is a Japanese electronics manufacturer. TDK may also refer to:
TDK Australian Audio Book Awards
Team Dragon Knights, disbanded League of Legends team
TDK Electronics, German subsidiary of TDK Corporation
Mark Knight (musician)
Turkish Language Association (Turkish: Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), official authority
TDK SC, a Japanese football team
TDK - the IATA airport code for Taldykorgan Airport, Kazakhstan | [
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250012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pale%20Rider | Pale Rider | Pale Rider is a 1985 American fantasy Western film produced and directed by Clint Eastwood, who also stars in the lead role. The title is a reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, as the pale horse's ghost rider (Eastwood) represents Death. The film, which took in nearly $41 million at the box office, became the highest grossing Western of the 1980s.
Plot
Outside the snowy mountain town of LaHood, California, armed men working for mining baron Coy LaHood destroy the camp of independent prospectors and their families. One of them shoots a dog belonging to 14-year-old Megan Wheeler. After burying her dog in the woods, she prays, asking God for deliverance, "If You don't help us, we're all going to die. Please, just one miracle." Thunder rolls, and a lone horseman astride a fine, pale horse, appears, riding easily but with inexorable purpose toward Carbon Valley.
Megan's mother, Sarah, is being courted by Hull Barret, who stepped in when Megan's father abandoned them. When Hull heads to town to pick up supplies, four of Lahood's men beat him with axe handles before the stranger fights them off. Hull then invites his rescuer to dinner and, while the stranger is washing, notices what appears to be six bullet wounds in his back. When the stranger arrives at the dining table, he is wearing a clerical collar and is thereafter referred to as "Preacher".
Coy LaHood's son, Joshua, attempts to scare off the Preacher with a show of strength from a workman named Club, who breaks a large rock in half with a single hammer blow and then tries to attack him. The Preacher strikes Club in the face and groin, before gently helping him onto his horse and sending the two men away. Afterwards, the miners work together to smash the rest of the boulder and mine its contents.
Meanwhile, Coy returns from Sacramento and is furious to learn of the Preacher's arrival, realizing that his presence will only strengthen the resolve of the prospectors to hold onto their claims. Failing to bribe and threaten the Preacher, LaHood is persuaded to offer the miners $1,000 per claim provided they evacuate within 24 hours. LaHood says he plans to hire the services of a corrupt marshal named Stockburn to clear them out if they refuse. The miners initially consider the offer but, when Hull reminds them of their purpose and sacrifices, they decide to stay on and fight.
Next morning, the Preacher leaves without notice, retrieves his two revolvers from a bank box, and replaces them with his collar. Meanwhile, the miners find that LaHood's men have dammed the creek running through their camp. They agree to stay for two more days and continue panning the drying creek bed. Megan rides into the LaHood mining camp, where Joshua tries to rape her while the other workers cheer him on. The Preacher arrives on horseback and rescues Megan, disarming Joshua and shooting him through the hand when he pulls his gun.
Stockburn and his six deputies arrive in LaHood. Coy gives him a rough description of the Preacher, which startles Stockburn. When Coy presses him, he says the Preacher reminds him of a man he once knew, but that it cannot possibly be the same person since the man he knew is dead.
Spider Conway, one of the miners and Coy's old partner from back when he first started prospecting, recovers a large gold nugget and rides into town, where he yells drunken abuse at LaHood from the street. Stockburn and his deputies gun him down, and Stockburn tells Spider's sons to take their father's body back to the camp and tell the Preacher to meet him in town the next morning. Sarah goes to the barn where the Preacher is staying, asking him not to go. He refuses, and she kisses him saying that she intends to marry Hull despite her feelings for the Preacher.
The following day, the Preacher and Hull blow up LaHood's mining site with dynamite. To stop Hull from following him, the Preacher scares off Hull's horse and rides into town alone. In the gunfight that follows, he kills all but the two of LaHood's men who run away, and then, one by one, all six of Stockburn's deputies as they spread themselves throughout the town searching for him. When he goes face-to-face with Stockburn, the latter recognizes him in disbelief and goes for his gun. The Preacher draws first, sending six bullets through his torso before shooting him in the head. LaHood, watching from his office, aims a rifle at the Preacher but is surprised and shot dead by Hull.
The Preacher nods at Hull and remarks, "Long walk", before leading his horse from the stable and riding toward the snow-capped mountains. Megan, who had previously been rejected by the Preacher when she admitted her desire to marry him, drives into town too late and shouts her love and thanks to the Preacher. Her words echo through the canyon as he rides off.
Cast
Clint Eastwood as The Preacher
Michael Moriarty as Hull Barret
Carrie Snodgress as Sarah Wheeler
Richard Dysart as Coy LaHood
Chris Penn as Josh LaHood
Sydney Penny as Megan Wheeler
John Russell as Marshal Stockburn
Richard Kiel as "Club"
Doug McGrath as "Spider" Conway
Chuck Lafont as Eddie Conway
Billy Drago as Deputy Mather
Jeffrey Weissman as Teddy Conway
Charles Hallahan as McGill
Marvin J. McIntyre as Jagou
Fran Ryan as Ma Blankenship
Richard Hamilton as Pa Blankenship
Terrence Evans as Jake Henderson
Production
Pale Rider was primarily filmed in the Boulder Mountains and the Sawtooth National Recreation Area in central Idaho, just north of Sun Valley in late 1984. The opening credits scene featured the jagged Sawtooth Mountains south of Stanley. Train-station scenes were filmed in Tuolumne County, California, near Jamestown. Scenes of a more established Gold Rush town (in which Eastwood's character picks up his pistol at a Wells Fargo office) were filmed in the real Gold Rush town of Columbia, also in Tuolumne County.
Crew
Clint Eastwood: Producer/director/star
Lennie Niehaus: Composer
Bruce Surtees: Director of photography
Joel Cox: Film editing
Edward Carfagno: Production design
Chuck Gaspar: Special effects
Buddy Van Horn: Stunt coordinator
Jack N. Green: Camera operator
Marcia Reed: Still photographer
Deborah Hopper: Costume designer/wardrobe: women
Religious themes
In an audio interview, Clint Eastwood said that his character Preacher "is an out-and-out ghost." However, whereas Eastwood's 1973 western, High Plains Drifter, resolves its storyline by means of a series of unfolding flashback narratives (although ambiguity still remains), Pale Rider does not include any such obvious clues to the nature and past of the Preacher other than six bullet wound scars on his back and his relationship with Stockburn, who claims he once knew a man like the Preacher. Viewers are left to draw their own conclusions regarding the overall story line and its meaning.
The movie's title is taken from the Book of Revelation, chapter 6, verse 8: "And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him." The reading of the biblical passage describing this character is neatly choreographed to correspond with the sudden appearance of the Preacher, who arrived as a result of a prayer from Megan, in which she quoted Psalm 23. Preacher's comment after beating one of the villains is, "Well, the Lord certainly does work in mysterious ways." After Coy offers to let him establish a lucrative ministry in his town, the Preacher replies, "You can't serve God and Mammon both, Mammon being money." According to Robert Jewett, the film's dialogue parallels Paul the Apostle's teaching on divine retribution (Romans 12:19–21).
Reception
Box office
Pale Rider was released in the United States in June 1985, and became one of the highest-grossing Westerns of the 1980s. It was the first mainstream Hollywood Western to be produced after the massive financial failure of Heaven's Gate (1980).
The movie was a success at the North American box office, grossing $41,410,568 against a $6,900,000 budget.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 93% based on reviews from 27 critics. On Metacritic the film has a score of 61% based on reviews from 13 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Vincent Canby's review in The New York Times praised Clint Eastwood saying, "This veteran movie icon handles both jobs [lead actor and director] with such intelligence and facility I'm just now beginning to realize that, though Mr. Eastwood may have been improving over the years, it's also taken all these years for most of us to recognize his very consistent grace and wit as a film maker." He concludes, ". . .it's so evocative of a fabled time and place that it never allows the movie to self-destruct in parody. Pale Rider is the first decent western in a very long time."
Roger Ebert praised the film, giving it four out of four stars. Further, he stated, "Pale Rider is, overall, a considerable achievement, a classic Western of style and excitement."
Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune noted that Westerns were out of fashion "but fresh and challenging westerns with Clint Eastwood always will be in vogue"
Rita Kemply of The Washington Post was highly critical saying, "The trail is all too familiar and pretty soon we recollect why westerns lost their appeal. . .[the] movie is real pretty, full of little gold aspens and snow-capped mountains, but it is slow, dark and badly timed."
The film was entered into the 1985 Cannes Film Festival.
Pale Rider was included in the Western nominations for the American Film Institute's 10 Top 10 lists.
Trailer music
The music used in the film's trailer was a stock piece by British composer Alan Hawkshaw known to British viewers for its use as the title theme for Channel 4 News. Unusually, Channel 4 News did not secure permanent exclusivity rights to Hawkshaw's theme, titled "Best Endeavours", resulting in it also being used for the trailer for Pale Rider.
References
Further reading
External links
1985 films
1985 Western (genre) films
American films
American Western (genre) fantasy films
English-language films
Mining in film
Films directed by Clint Eastwood
Films produced by Clint Eastwood
Malpaso Productions films
Warner Bros. films
Films shot in Idaho
Films set in California
Films set in the 1880s
Films scored by Lennie Niehaus
Revisionist Western (genre) films | [
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250014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herapathite | Herapathite | Herapathite, or iodoquinine sulfate, is a chemical compound whose crystals are dichroic and thus can be used for polarizing light.
According to Edwin H. Land, it was discovered in 1852 by William Bird Herapath, a Bristol surgeon and chemist. One of his pupils found that adding iodine to the urine of a dog that had been fed quinine produced unusual green crystals. Herapath noticed while studying the crystals under a microscope that they appeared to polarize light.
In the 1930s, Prof. Ferdinand Bernauer invented a process to grow single herapathite crystals large enough to be sandwiched between two sheets of glass to create a polarizing filter; these were sold under the Bernotar name by Carl Zeiss. Herapathite can be formed by precipitation by dissolving quinine sulphate in acetic acid and adding iodine tincture.
Herapathite's dichroic properties came to the attention of Sir David Brewster, and were later used by Land in 1929 to construct the first type of Polaroid sheet polarizer. He did this by embedding herapathite crystals in a polymer instead of growing a single large crystal.
References
Further readings
Bernauer, F. (1935). "Neue Wege zur Herstellung von Polarisatoren". Forschritte der Mineralogie, Kristallographie und Petrographie Neunzehnter Band.
Nitrogen heterocycles
Organoiodides
Polarization (waves)
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250016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Necropolis%20Company | London Necropolis Company | The London Necropolis Company (LNC), formally the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Company until 1927, was a cemetery operator established by Act of Parliament in 1852 in reaction to the crisis caused by the closure of London's graveyards in 1851. The LNC intended to establish a single cemetery large enough to accommodate all of London's future burials in perpetuity. The company's founders recognised that the recently invented technology of the railway provided the ability to conduct burials a long distance from populated areas, mitigating concerns over public health risks from living near burial sites. Accordingly, the company bought a very large tract of land in Brookwood, Surrey, around from London, and converted a portion of it into Brookwood Cemetery. A dedicated railway line, the London Necropolis Railway, linked the new cemetery to the city.
Financial mismanagement and internal disputes led to delays in the project. By the time Brookwood Cemetery opened in late 1854, a number of other cemeteries had opened nearer to London or were in the process of opening. While some parishes in London did arrange for the LNC to handle the burials of their dead, many preferred to use nearer cemeteries. The LNC had anticipated handling between 10,000 and 50,000 burials per year, but the number never rose above 4,100 per year, and in its first 150 years of operations only 231,730 burials had been conducted. Buying the land for Brookwood Cemetery and building the cemetery and railway had been very expensive, and by the time the cemetery opened the LNC was already on the verge of bankruptcy. The LNC remained solvent by selling surplus parts of its land, but as the land had been chosen in the first place for its remoteness, sales were low.
From the 1880s the LNC began a more aggressive programme to maximise its income. The process for the sale of surplus land was improved, resulting in increased income. The LNC redeveloped its lands at Hook Heath, Woking into housing and a golf course, creating a new suburb of Woking and providing a steady income from rentals. After an 1884 ruling that cremation was lawful in England the LNC also took advantage of its proximity to Woking Crematorium by providing transport for bodies and mourners on its railway line and after 1910 by interring ashes in a dedicated columbarium. The LNC also provided the land for a number of significant military cemeteries and memorials at Brookwood after both World Wars. In 1941 London Necropolis railway station, the LNC's London railway terminus, was badly damaged by bombing, and the London Necropolis Railway was abandoned.
Rising property prices in Surrey in the 1940s and 1950s made the LNC increasingly valuable, but also made it a target for property speculators. In 1959 a hostile takeover succeeded, and LNC's independence came to an end. From 1959 to 1985 a succession of owners stripped the profitable parts of the business from the company, leaving a rump residual company operating the increasingly derelict cemetery. In 1985 what remained of the company came into the ownership of Ramadan Güney, who set about reviving what remained. Links were formed with London's Muslim communities in an effort to encourage new burials, and a slow programme of clearing and restoring the derelict sections of the cemetery commenced. Although it was never as successful as planned, the LNC was very influential in both the funeral industry and in the development of the area around Woking, and Brookwood Cemetery remains the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom.
Background
Since the conversion of London to Christianity in the early 7th century, the city's dead had been buried in and around the local churches. With a limited amount of space for burials, the oldest graves were regularly exhumed to free space for new burials, and the remains of the previous occupants transferred to charnel houses for storage. From the 14th century onwards the charnel houses themselves were overwhelmed, and exhumed bones were scattered where they had been dug up or reburied in pits. Despite this practice, by the mid 17th century the city was running seriously short of burial space. A proposal by Christopher Wren to use the reconstruction following the 1666 Great Fire of London as an opportunity to cease burials in the churchyards and establish new cemeteries outside the city was approved by the King and Parliament but vetoed by the Corporation of London, and burials continued at the newly rebuilt churches.
In the first half of the 19th century the population of London more than doubled, from a little under a million people in 1801 to almost two and a half million in 1851. Despite this rapid growth in population, the amount of land set aside for use as graveyards remained unchanged at approximately , spread across around 200 small sites. The difficulty of digging without disturbing existing graves led to bodies often simply being stacked on top of each other to fit the available space and covered with a layer of earth. In more crowded areas even relatively fresh graves had to be exhumed to free up space for new burials, their contents being unearthed and scattered to free up space. In some cases large pits were dug on existing burial grounds, unearthing the previous burials, and fresh corpses crammed into the available space. Intact material from burials was sold on a thriving market in second hand coffin furniture, coffin wood was burned as household fuel, and exhumed bones were shipped in bulk to the north of England to be sold as fertiliser. Decaying corpses contaminated the water supply and the city suffered regular epidemics of cholera, smallpox, measles and typhoid; in 1842 the mean working life of a London professional man was 30 years and of a London labourer just 17 years.
Public health policy at this time was shaped by the miasma theory (the belief that airborne particles released by decaying flesh were the primary factor in the spread of contagious illness), and the bad smells and risks of disease caused by piled bodies and exhumed rotting corpses caused great public concern. A Royal Commission established in 1842 to investigate the problem concluded that London's burial grounds had become so overcrowded that it was impossible to dig a new grave without cutting through an existing one. Commissioner and sanitation campaigner Edwin Chadwick testified that each year, 20,000 adults and 30,000 children were being buried in less than of already full burial grounds; the Commission heard that one cemetery, Spa Fields in Clerkenwell, designed to hold 1,000 bodies, contained 80,000 graves, and that gravediggers throughout London were obliged to shred bodies in order to cram the remains into available grave space. In 1848–49 a cholera epidemic killed 14,601 people in London and overwhelmed the burial system completely. Bodies were left stacked in heaps awaiting burial, and even relatively recent graves were exhumed to make way for new burials.
Proposed solutions to the burial crisis
In the wake of public concerns following the cholera epidemic and the findings of the Royal Commission, the Act to Amend the Laws Concerning the Burial of the Dead in the Metropolis (Burials Act) was passed in 1851. Under the Burials Act, new burials were prohibited in what were then the built-up areas of London. Seven large cemeteries had recently opened a short distance from London or were in the process of opening, and temporarily became London's main burial grounds. A proposal by Francis Seymour Haden to ship the bodies of London's dead to the Thames Estuary for use in land reclamation met with little approval, and the government sought alternative means to prevent the constantly increasing number of deaths in London from overwhelming the new cemeteries in the same manner in which it had overwhelmed the traditional burial grounds.
The new suburban cemeteries had a combined size of just , and the Board of Health did not consider any of them suitable for long-term use. As a long term solution to the crisis, Edwin Chadwick proposed the closure of all existing burial grounds in the vicinity of London other than the privately owned Kensal Green Cemetery in west London. Kensal Green Cemetery was to be nationalised and greatly enlarged to provide a single burial ground for west London. A large tract of land on the Thames around southeast of London in Abbey Wood (on the site of present-day Thamesmead) was to become a single burial ground for east London. All bodies would be shipped by river and canal to the new cemeteries, bringing an end to burials in London itself.
The Treasury was sceptical that Chadwick's scheme would ever be financially viable. It also met with widespread public concerns about the impact of monopoly control of the burial industry, and about the government taking control of an industry previously controlled by religious bodies and private entrepreneurs. The process of decomposition was still poorly understood and it was generally believed that (92%) of a decaying corpse is dispersed as gas; local authorities in the vicinity of the proposed new cemeteries were horrified at the prospect of an estimated per year of miasma (disease-carrying vapour) spreading from the cemeteries across surrounding areas. Although the Metropolitan Interments Act 1850 authorised Chadwick's scheme to proceed, the Metropolitan Interment Amendment Act 1852 repealed the authorisation.
Richard Broun and Richard Sprye
While the negotiations over the state taking control of burials were ongoing, an alternative proposal was being drawn up by Richard Broun and Richard Sprye. Broun and Sprye intended to use the emerging technology of mechanised land transport to provide a final solution to the problem of London's dead. They envisaged buying a single very large tract of land around from London in Brookwood near Woking, Surrey, to be called Brookwood Cemetery or the London Necropolis. At this distance, the land would be far beyond the maximum projected size of the city's growth, greatly reducing any potential hazards from miasma. In the 18th century this land had been nicknamed "the Waste of Woking", and with poor quality gravel soil it was of little use in farming and thus available very cheaply. The London and South Western Railway (LSWR)—which had connected London to Woking in 1838—would enable bodies and mourners to be shipped from London to the site easily and cheaply. Broun envisaged dedicated coffin trains, each carrying 50–60 bodies, travelling from London to the new Necropolis in the early morning or late at night, and the coffins being stored on the cemetery site until the time of the funeral. Mourners would then be carried to the appropriate part of the cemetery by a dedicated passenger train during the day.
Broun calculated that a site would accommodate a total of 5,830,500 individual graves in a single layer. The legislation authorising Brookwood Cemetery did not permit mass graves at the site, and burials were restricted to one family per grave. If the practice of only burying a single family in each grave were abandoned and the traditional practice for pauper burials of ten burials per grave were adopted, the site was capable of accommodating 28,500,000 bodies. Assuming 50,000 deaths per year and presuming that families would often choose to share a grave, Broun calculated that even with the prohibition of mass graves it would take over 350 years to fill a single layer of the cemetery. Although the Brookwood site was a long distance from London, Broun and Sprye argued that the railway made it both quicker and cheaper to reach than the seven existing cemeteries, all of which required a slow and expensive horse-drawn hearse to carry the body and mourners from London to the burial site.
Opposition
Shareholders in the LSWR were concerned at the impact the cemetery scheme would have on the normal operations of the railway. At a shareholders' meeting in August 1852 concerns were raised about the impact of funeral trains on normal traffic and of the secrecy in which negotiations between the LSWR and the promoters of the cemetery were conducted. The LSWR management pledged that no concessions would be made to the cemetery operators, other than promising them the use of one train each day. Charles James Blomfield, Bishop of London was hostile in general to railway funeral schemes, arguing that the noise and speed of the railways was incompatible with the solemnity of the Christian burial service. Blomfield also considered it inappropriate that the families of people from very different backgrounds would potentially have to share a train, and felt that it demeaned the dignity of the deceased for the bodies of respectable members of the community to be carried on a train also carrying the bodies and relatives of those who had led immoral lives. Meanwhile, Henry Drummond, Member of Parliament for the West Surrey constituency which covered the Brookwood site, James Mangles, MP for the nearby constituency of Guildford, and labour reform campaigner Lord Ashley (later Lord Shaftesbury) lobbied against the proposal. Drummond considered the scheme a front for land speculation, believing that the promoters only intended to use for the cemetery and to develop the remaining 80% for building; Mangles felt that the people of Woking were not being fairly compensated for the loss of their historic rights to use the common lands; Ashley felt that the Metropolitan Interments Act 1850 had been a victory for the campaign to end private profiteering from death and that the new scheme would reverse these gains, and was also concerned about the health implications of diseased bodies being transported to and stored at the London terminus in large numbers while awaiting trains to Brookwood.
Formation of the London Necropolis Company
Despite the opposition, on 30 June 1852 the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Act 1852 was passed, giving the Brookwood scheme Parliamentary consent to proceed. The former Woking Common at Brookwood, owned by the Earl of Onslow, was chosen as the site for the new cemetery. To prevent the LSWR from exploiting its monopoly on access to the cemetery, the private Act of Parliament authorising the scheme bound the LSWR to carry corpses and mourners to the cemetery in perpetuity and set a maximum tariff which could be levied on funeral traffic, but did not specify details of how the funeral trains were to operate.
By this time, Broun and Sprye had lost control of the scheme. On 1 April 1851 a group of trustees led by Poor Law Commissioner William Voules purchased the rights to the scheme from Broun and Sprye for £20,000 (about £ in terms of consumer spending power) and, once the Act of Parliament had been passed, founded the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Company on their own without regard to their agreement with the original promoters. These trustees proved inept, wasting large sums of money; meanwhile Richard Broun lobbied vigorously against the "misrepresentations and ambiguous assertions" of the new trustees. With financiers sceptical of the scheme's viability Voules and his trustees were unable to raise the funds to buy the proposed site from Lord Onslow. In early 1853, amid widespread allegations of voting irregularities and with the company unable to pay promised dividends, a number of the directors resigned, including Voules, and the remaining public confidence in the scheme collapsed.
Broun's scheme had envisaged the cemetery running along both sides of the LSWR main line and divided by religion, with separate private railway halts on the main line, each incorporating a chapel, to serve each religion's section. The new consulting engineer to the company, William Cubitt, rejected this idea and recommended a single site to the south of the railway line, served by a private branch line through the cemetery. The company also considered Broun's plan for dedicated coffin trains unrealistic, arguing that relatives would not want the coffins to be shipped separately from the deceased's family.
Brookwood Cemetery
In September 1853 a Committee of Enquiry into the mismanagement of the company recommended the expulsion of the four remaining trustees and the reform of the company under a new board of directors. This was unanimously approved by the shareholders, and work finally began on the scheme. A tract of land stretching from Woking to Brookwood was purchased from Lord Onslow. The westernmost , at the Brookwood end, were designated the initial cemetery site, and a branch railway line was built from the LSWR main line into this section. A plot of land between Westminster Bridge Road and York Street (now Leake Street) was chosen as the site for the London railway terminus. Architect William Tite and engineer William Cubitt drew up a design for a station, which was approved in June 1854, and completed in October 1854. In July 1854 work began on the drainage of the marshlands designated as the initial cemetery site, and on the construction of the embankment carrying the railway branch into the cemetery.
With the ambition to become London's sole burial site in perpetuity, the LNC were aware that if their plans were successful, their Necropolis would become a site of major national importance. As a consequence, the cemetery was designed with attractiveness in mind, in contrast to the squalid and congested London burial grounds and the newer suburban cemeteries which were already becoming crowded. The LNC aimed to create an atmosphere of perpetual spring in the cemetery, and chose the plants for the cemetery accordingly. It had already been noted that evergreen plants from North America thrived in the local soil. Robert Donald, the owner of an arboretum near Woking, was contracted to supply the trees and shrubs for the cemetery. The railway line through the cemetery and the major roads and paths within the cemetery were lined with giant sequoia trees, the first significant planting of these trees (only introduced to Europe in 1853) in Britain. As well as the giant sequoias, the grounds were heavily planted with magnolia, rhododendron, coastal redwood, azalea, andromeda and monkeypuzzle, with the intention of creating perpetual greenery with large numbers of flowers and a strong floral scent throughout the cemetery.
On 7 November 1854 the new cemetery opened and the southern Anglican section was consecrated by Charles Sumner, Bishop of Winchester. At the time it was the largest cemetery in the world. On 13 November the first scheduled train left the new London Necropolis railway station for the cemetery, and the first burial (that of the stillborn twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street, Borough) took place.
Cemetery railway line
As the Brookwood site had been intentionally chosen for its distance from London, at the time of its opening the only practical way to reach the cemetery was by railway. William Cubitt decided the terrain of the initial cemetery site was best suited to a railway branch from the LSWR at the west of the cemetery, and work began on the earthworks and rails for the new branch in early September 1854. The single-track branch was completed in time for the opening two months later. The junction with the LSWR, known as Necropolis Junction, was west-facing, meaning that trains to and from London were obliged to reverse in and out of the branch to the two stations in the cemetery. The poor quality gravel soil, which had been the initial reason for the site's cheapness and its selection as the site for the cemetery, was poorly suited as a railway trackbed. The rails, and in particular the sleepers, deteriorated rapidly and needed constantly to be replaced.
London rail stations
A site for the London terminus near Waterloo had been suggested by Richard Broun. Its proximity to the Thames meant that bodies could be cheaply transported to the terminus by water from much of London, while being situated near three major Thames bridges the area was easily accessed from both north and south of the river. The arches of the huge brick viaduct carrying the LSWR into Waterloo Bridge station (now London Waterloo station) were easily converted into mortuaries. Broun also felt that the journey out of London from Waterloo Bridge would be less distressing for mourners; while most of the rail routes out of London ran through tunnels and deep cuttings or through densely populated areas, at this time the urban development of what is now south London had not taken place and the LSWR route ran almost entirely through parkland and countryside. In March 1854 the LNC purchased a plot of land between Westminster Bridge Road and York Street (now Leake Street). Architect William Tite and engineer William Cubitt drew up a design for a station, which was approved in June 1854 and completed in October of that year.
As the station abutted the arches of the LSWR's viaduct, it acted as an obstacle to any increase in the number of lines serving Waterloo station (renamed from Waterloo Bridge station in 1886). Urban growth in the area of what is now south west London, through which trains from Waterloo ran, led to congestion at the station and in 1896 the LSWR formally presented the LNC with a proposal to provide the LNC with a new station in return for the existing station. The LNC agreed to the proposals, in return for the LSWR granting the LNC control of the design of the new station and leasing the new station to the LNC for a token rent in perpetuity, providing new rolling stock, removing any limit on the number of passengers using the Necropolis service, and providing the free carriage of machinery and equipment to be used in the cemetery. Although the LSWR was extremely unhappy at what they considered excessive demands, in May 1899 the companies signed an agreement, in which the LSWR gave in to every LNC demand. In addition the LSWR paid £12,000 compensation (about £ in terms of consumer spending power) for the inconvenience of relocating the LNC station and offices, and agreed that mourners returning from the cemetery could travel on any LSWR train to Waterloo, Vauxhall or Clapham Junction. A site for the replacement terminus was bought by the LSWR in 1899, south of the existing site and on the opposite side of Westminster Bridge Road. The new station was completed on 8 February 1902, and the LSWR viaduct was widened to serve a greatly enlarged Waterloo station, destroying all traces of the original LNC terminus.
Cemetery rail stations
The two stations in the cemetery were very similar in design. North station served the Nonconformist section of the cemetery, and South station served the Anglican section. On William Cubitt's advice the two stations in the cemetery were built as temporary structures, in the expectation that they would need to be rebuilt once the railway was operational and the issues with operating a railway of this unique nature became clearer. Other than brick platform faces, chimneys and foundations, the stations were built entirely of wood. Each station held first class and ordinary reception rooms for mourners, a first class and an ordinary refreshment room, and a set of apartments for LNC staff. To provide an attractive first view of the cemetery for visitors arriving at the stations, the areas around the stations and their associated chapels were planted with groves of bay, Cedar of Lebanon, rhododendron and Portuguese laurel.
At the time the cemetery opened, the nearest railway station other than those on the cemetery branch was Woking railway station, away. As only one train per day ran from London to the cemetery stations and back, and even that ran only when funerals were due to take place, access to the cemetery was difficult for mourners and LNC staff. Although in the negotiations leading to the creation of the cemetery the LSWR had told the LNC that they planned to build a main line station near the cemetery, they had not done so. On 1 June 1864 the LSWR finally opened Brookwood railway station on their main line, immediately adjacent to the cemetery. A substantial commuter village grew around the northern (i.e. non-cemetery) side of the new station.
Burials
The London Necropolis Company offered three classes of funerals:
A first class funeral allowed its buyer to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery; at the time of opening prices began at £2 10s (about £ in terms) for a basic with no special coffin specifications. It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral.
Second class funerals cost £1 (about £ in terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings (about £ in terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future.
Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves (other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased, third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site. (The families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial, but this practice was rare.) Despite this, Brookwood's pauper graves granted more dignity to the deceased than did other graveyards and cemeteries of the period, all of which other than Brookwood continued the practice of mass graves for the poor.
Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays, which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day off work. As theatrical performances were banned on Sundays at this time, it also made Brookwood a popular choice for the burial of actors for the same reason, to the extent that actors were provided with a dedicated section of the cemetery near the station entrance.
While the majority of burials conducted by the LNC (around 80%) were pauper funerals on behalf of London parishes, the LNC also reached agreement with a number of societies, guilds, religious bodies and similar organisations. The LNC provided dedicated sections of the cemetery for these groups, on the basis that those who had lived or worked together in life could remain together after death. Although the LNC was never able to gain the domination of London's funeral industry for which its founders had hoped, it was very successful at targeting specialist groups of artisans and trades, to the extent that it became nicknamed "the Westminster Abbey of the middle classes". A large number of these dedicated plots were established, ranging from Chelsea Pensioners and the Ancient Order of Foresters to the Corps of Commissionaires and the LSWR. The Nonconformist cemetery also includes a Parsee burial ground established in 1862, which remains the only Zoroastrian burial ground in Europe. Dedicated sections in the Anglican cemetery were also reserved for burials from those parishes which had made burial arrangements with the LNC.
Immediately after its foundation the LNC used existing firms of London undertakers to arrange funerals, but over time took over all aspects of the arrangements from coffin-making to masonry. LNC funerals were intentionally kept as similar as possible to those of traditional undertakers, with the exception that a railway carriage was used in place of a hearse. On being commissioned to provide a funeral, invitations would be sent out either by the deceased's family or from the LNC offices. These letters specified the waiting room to be used, the time of the train to Brookwood, and the expected return time to London. If the funeral was to be held in London, a traditional hearse and carriage would take the deceased to their parish church for the service, and then on to the London railway terminus; if the funeral was to take place in the terminus or in Brookwood, the procession would come directly to the terminus.
Funerals
On arrival at the terminus the mourners would be led either to one of the dedicated first class waiting rooms (for first and second class funerals) or to the communal third class waiting room. The coffin would be discreetly unloaded from the hearse and sent to the platform level by lift. Those attending first and second class funerals would be permitted to watch the coffins being loaded onto the train if they so wished. (After the relocation to the new London terminus in 1902, some funeral services would be held in a Chapelle Ardente on platform level, for those cases where mourners were unable to make the journey to Brookwood.) Each door of the waiting train would be labelled with the name of the deceased, to ensure all passengers travelled with the correct funeral party; the names of the deceased being carried on the train would be called in turn, and that person's mourners would board the train.
At the time the service was inaugurated, the LNC's trains were divided both by class and by religion, with separate Anglican and Nonconformist sections of the train. This distinction applied to both living and deceased passengers. Intended to prevent persons from different social background from mixing and potentially distressing mourners and to prevent bodies of persons from different social classes being carried in the same compartment rather than to provide different facilities, the carriages intended for all classes and religions were very similar in design, and the primary difference was different ornamentation on the compartment doors.
At 11.35 am (11.20 am on Sundays) the train would leave London for Brookwood, arriving at Necropolis Junction at 12.25 pm (12.20 pm on Sundays).
On arrival at North or South station coffins would usually be unloaded onto a hand-drawn bier and pulled by LNC staff to the appropriate chapel. While this was taking place the mourners were escorted to the waiting rooms at the station. On arrival at the chapels first and second class funerals would generally have a brief service (third class funerals had a single service in the appropriate chapel for all those being buried). For those burials where the funeral service had already been held at either a parish church or the LNC's London terminus the coffins would be taken directly from the train to the grave.
The return trains to London generally left South station at 2.15 pm and Necropolis Junction at 2.30 pm; the return journey initially took around an hour owing to the need to stop to refill the engine with water, but following the construction of the water tower in the cemetery this fell to around 40 minutes. An 1854 agreement between the LNC and LSWR gave consent for the LNC to operate two or three funeral trains each day if demand warranted it, but traffic levels never rose to a sufficient level to activate this clause.
The train ran only if there was a coffin or passengers at the London terminus waiting to use it, and both the journey from London to Brookwood and the later return would be cancelled if nobody was due to leave London that morning. It would not run if there was only a single third or second class coffin to be carried, and in these cases the coffin and funeral party would be held until the next service. Generally the trains ran direct from London to the cemetery, other than occasional stops to take on water. Between 1890 and 1910 the trains also sometimes stopped at Vauxhall and Clapham Junction for the benefit of mourners from south west London who did not want to travel via Waterloo, but these intermediate stops were discontinued and never reinstated. After 1 October 1900 the Sunday trains were discontinued, and from 1902 the daily train service was ended and trains ran only as required. On some occasions where there were very large numbers of mourners the LSWR would provide special passenger trains from Waterloo to their own station at Brookwood to carry additional mourners to the vicinity of the cemetery.
As well as intending to conduct those burials which would previously have taken place in London's now-closed graveyards, the LNC also envisaged the physical relocation of the closed burial grounds to their Necropolis, to provide a final solution to the problems caused by burials in built-up areas. The massive London civil engineering projects of the mid-19th century—the railways, the sewer system and from the 1860s the precursors to the London Underground—often necessitated the demolition of existing churchyards. The first major relocation took place in 1862, when the construction of Charing Cross railway station and the routes into it necessitated the demolition of the burial ground of Cure's College in Southwark. Around of earth was displaced, uncovering at least 7,950 bodies. These were packed into 220 large containers, each containing 26 adults plus children, and shipped on the London Necropolis Railway to Brookwood for reburial, along with at least some of the existing headstones from the cemetery, at a cost of around 3 shillings per body. At least 21 London burial grounds were relocated to Brookwood via the railway, along with numerous others relocated by road following the railway's closure. The LNC's exhumation and relocation business, split from the LNC in 1973 and renamed "Necropolis", continued to operate until 2002.
Developments and difficulties
The success of the LNC relied on taking over all, or at least a significant portion, of the burials of London's dead. However, while the Metropolitan Interment Amendment Act 1852 had repealed Chadwick's scheme for two very large cemeteries near London, it had also permitted London's parishes to make their own arrangements for the burial of their dead. Each parish could make arrangements with the cemetery of its choosing, or use money from the rates to create their own cemeteries. The financial mismanagement and internal disputes within the LNC had delayed the opening of Brookwood Cemetery by 18 months, and during this period new cemeteries nearer London had opened or were nearing completion. While some parishes did choose Brookwood as their burial site, many preferred either to make arrangements with less distant cemeteries, or to buy land on the outskirts of London and open their own suburban cemeteries. Concerns over the financial irregularities and the viability of the scheme had led to only 15,000 of the 25,000 LNC shares being sold, severely limiting the company's working capital and forcing it to take out large loans. Buying the land from Lord Onslow, compensating local residents for the loss of rights over Woking Common, draining and landscaping the portion to be used for the initial cemetery, and building the railway lines and stations were all expensive undertakings. With far fewer burial contracts with London parishes than had been anticipated, by the time Brookwood Cemetery opened in November 1854 the LNC was on the verge of bankruptcy.
Recognising their financial predicament, the LNC lobbied Parliament for a new Act of Parliament to allow the venture to survive. On 23 July 1855 the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Amendment Act 1855 received Royal Assent. This Act released the LNC from those compulsory purchases of land which had been mandated by the 1852 Act but had not yet been completed, easing the immediate financial burden. It also allowed a ten-year window for the LNC to sell certain parts of the land bought from Lord Onslow which were not required for the cemetery, to provide a source of income.
Although the 1855 Act permitted the LNC to sell land, this proved difficult. Of the site, around were occupied by the initial Necropolis site and the adjacent reserve site, and a further retained their common land rights and could not be developed in any way, rendering them worthless to prospective buyers. While this left theoretically able to be sold, the Brookwood site had been chosen for its remoteness and there were few prospective buyers. While were bought by the government as sites for prisons and a lunatic asylum, the LNC struggled to sell the remainder. By the time the ten-year window for land sales expired in 1865, only had been sold.
With the majority of the surplus lands still unsold, as the ten-year window expired the LNC successfully petitioned for a further five-year extension. The LNC was by this time in serious financial difficulties, and dependent on loans from its own directors to settle outstanding debts. The business had been established on the basis that the cemetery would handle between 10,000 and 50,000 burials per year, but the number never exceeded 4,100 and over its first 20 years of operations averaged just 3,200. As the five-year extension expired the financial difficulties remained, and under pressure from shareholders the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Amendment Act 1869 was passed. This removed all restrictions on land sales, other than within the existing cemetery and the adjacent reserve site. Despite the releasing of restrictions in the 1869 Act, land sales remained disappointing. By 1887 less than half the surplus land had been sold, much of it at very low prices.
Cremation
In 1878 the Cremation Society of Great Britain bought an isolated piece of the LNC's Brookwood land and built Woking Crematorium on the site. The crematorium was completed in 1879 but Richard Cross, the Home Secretary, bowed to strong protests from local residents and threatened to prosecute if any cremations were conducted. As a consequence the crematorium was not used other than for the experimental incineration of livestock. The 1884 trial of William Price established that human cremation was not unlawful in England, and on 26 March 1885 the first human cremation took place at Woking. Although the LNC was hostile to the idea of cremation, Woking Crematorium was the only operational crematorium in the country. Since the Necropolis Railway provided the easiest way to transport bodies and mourners from London to the Woking area, transport to and from Woking Crematorium soon began to provide a significant source of revenue for the LNC.
Cremation remained unusual and very expensive; the cost of a cremation at Woking was £6, not including transport and funeral costs, more than twice the £2 10s cost of a first class burial at Brookwood. By 1891 only 177 people had been cremated at Woking. Cyril Tubbs recognised that a potential increase in cremations once the practice became accepted represented an opportunity for the LNC. In July 1891 he proposed that the LNC build its own crematorium and columbarium (building for the storage of cremated remains) within the cemetery, with the ultimate goal of taking over all funeral arrangements for the Cremation Society. The Cremation Society were keen to prevent a competitor to Woking Crematorium, and sought to cooperate with the LNC. The fares for the transport of mourners and coffins on the London Necropolis Railway had been fixed by Parliament in 1852 at 6s for a living first class passenger and £1 for a first class coffin (in 1891 worth about £ and £ respectively in consumer terms). Rival firms of undertakers were not permitted to use the LNC's trains to Brookwood Cemetery and had to pay the much more expensive LSWR fares to transport coffins and mourners from Waterloo to Woking, giving the LNC a significant advantage in carriage to the crematorium. While the LNC never built its own crematorium, in 1910 Lord Cadogan decided he no longer wanted to be interred in the mausoleum he had commissioned at Brookwood. This building, the largest mausoleum in the cemetery, was bought by the LNC, fitted with shelves and niches to hold urns, and used as a dedicated columbarium from then on.
Cyril Tubbs
In December 1887 the LNC appointed Cyril Tubbs to supervise the LNC estate. Tubbs was given a broad remit to "advance the company's interests", including buying and selling land, supervising the railway stations, advertising the cemetery and liaising with the LSWR. Tubbs set about restructuring the design of Brookwood Cemetery to make it more appealing to mourners and visitors. The cemetery was divided into numbered sections, separated by an expanded network of avenues. These avenues were all named, and signposts were erected along them, to allow visitors easily to find their way around the sprawling Brookwood site, and to locate particular graves; the naming and numbering system devised by Tubbs has remained in use ever since.
Tubbs established a masonry works and showroom near the centre of the cemetery, allowing the LNC to provide grave markers without the difficulty of shipping them from London, and opened a LNC-owned nursery in the grounds for the sale of plants and wreaths. This increased the practice of mourners planting flowers and shrubs around graves, which was in turn used by the LNC in their promotional material to promote Brookwood as a "Garden of Sleep". In around 1904 the masonry works was expanded and equipped with a siding from the railway branch line, allowing the LNC to sell its gravestones and funerary art to cemeteries nationwide.
Tubbs also oversaw a restructuring of the ailing programme to sell the LNC's surplus lands. The estate was partitioned into three sections, and separate estate agents appointed to oversee the disposal of each. Many of the lands near Woking railway station and around Brookwood were sold, at much higher prices than the LNC disposals had previously fetched. No suitable agent could be found to oversee the sale of the third portion of LNC land, Hook Heath, and as a consequence Tubbs kept it under LNC control and oversaw its development himself. Over the 1890s the site was subdivided into plots for large detached houses, and a golf course was built to attract residents and visitors.
In August 1914, on the outbreak of the First World War, the LNC offered to donate to the War Office of land "for the free interment of soldiers and sailors who have returned from the front wounded and may subsequently die". The offer was not taken up until 1917, when a section of the cemetery was set aside as Brookwood Military Cemetery, used for the burials of service personnel who died in the London District. In 1921 this area was sold to the Imperial War Graves Commission (later the Commonwealth War Graves Commission), and since then the military cemeteries have been administered and maintained by the IWGC/CWGC and its equivalents for other nations whose military are buried there. In September 1922 the LNC sold an area adjacent to the Military Cemetery to the US government. The LNC was hired by the US government to landscape this area and build a chapel, creating the American Military Cemetery (later the Brookwood American Cemetery and Memorial), the only burial ground in Britain for US casualties of the First World War. Although built by the LNC, since 1923 the American Military Cemetery has been administered by the American Battle Monuments Commission. After the Second World War the military cemeteries were extended to include dedicated sections for many of the Allied nations, and in 1958 the Brookwood Memorial, commemorating 3,500 Commonwealth casualties of the Second World War with no known grave, was dedicated at the site. Between them, the military cemeteries occupy around of the site.
Closure of the London Necropolis Railway
On 13 April 1927 Cyril Tubbs died, after almost 40 years as surveyor, general manager and later a director of the LNC. Shortly afterwards, during meetings of the LNC's shareholders on 16 June and 14 July 1927, the words "National Mausoleum" were formally dropped from the LNC's name, the company being officially renamed the London Necropolis Company. On 28 December 1927 George Barratt, who had worked for the LNC for 63 years and been Superintendent of Brookwood Cemetery for 41 years, also died. Although the number of burials was gradually declining, it remained relatively steady. However, by this time mechanical hearses had begun to affect the numbers of people using the London Necropolis Railway. Trains still ran to the cemetery when there was demand, but the service which had previously operated almost every day was now generally running only around twice a week. By now the trees planted by the LNC in its early years of operations were mature, and Brookwood Cemetery was becoming a tourist attraction in its own right, often featuring in excursion guides of the 1920s and 1930s.
During the Second World War Waterloo station and the nearby Thames bridges were a significant target for bombing, and there were several near-misses on the station during the London Blitz of 1940–41. Although there were several interruptions to the Necropolis train service owing to enemy action elsewhere on the line, the Necropolis station was undamaged during the early stages of the bombing campaign. During the night of 16–17 April 1941, in one of the last major air raids on London, this good fortune came to an end. As bombs repeatedly fell on the Waterloo area, the rolling stock parked in the Necropolis siding was burned, and the railway arch connecting the main line to the Necropolis terminus was badly damaged. Multiple incendiary devices and high explosive bombs struck the central section of the terminus building. While the LNC's office building and the station platforms survived, the central section of the station was reduced to rubble. On 11 May 1941 the station was officially declared closed.
The Southern Railway (SR), which had absorbed the LSWR in 1923, offered the LNC the temporary use of Waterloo station to allow the Necropolis Railway service to be continued, but refused to allow the LNC to continue to sell cheap tickets to visitors travelling to and from the cemetery stations other than those involved in a funeral that day, meaning those visiting the cemetery had little reason to choose the LNC's irregular and infrequent trains to the cemetery stations over the SR's fast and frequent services to Brookwood. The LNC attempted to negotiate a deal by which genuine mourners could still travel cheaply to the cemetery on the 11.57 am service to Brookwood (the SR service closest to the LNC's traditional departure time), but the SR management (themselves under severe financial pressure owing to wartime constraints and damage) refused to entertain any compromise. In September 1945, following the end of hostilities, the directors of the LNC met to consider whether to rebuild the terminus and reopen the London Necropolis Railway. Although the main line from Waterloo to Brookwood had remained in use throughout the war and was in good condition, the branch line from Brookwood into the cemetery had been almost unused since the destruction of the London terminus. With the soil of the cemetery causing the branch to deteriorate even when it had been in use and regularly maintained, the branch line was in extremely poor condition.
Although Richard Broun had calculated that over its first century of operations the cemetery would have seen around five million burials at a rate of 50,000 per year, at the time the last train ran on 11 April 1941 only 203,041 people had been buried at Brookwood in almost 87 years of operations. Increased use of motorised road transport had damaged the profitability of the railway for the LNC, and faced with the costs of rebuilding the cemetery branch line, building a new London terminus and replacing the rolling stock damaged or destroyed in the air raid, the directors concluded that "past experience and present changed conditions made the running of the Necropolis private train obsolete". In mid-1946 the LNC formally informed the SR that the Westminster Bridge Road terminus would not be reopened.
The decision prompted complicated negotiations with the SR over the future of the LNC facilities in London. In December 1946 the directors of the two companies finally reached agreement. The railway-related portions of the LNC site (the waiting rooms, the caretaker's flat and the platforms themselves) would pass into the direct ownership of the SR, while the remaining surviving portions of the site (the office block on Westminster Bridge Road, the driveway and the ruined central portion of the site) would pass to the LNC to use or dispose of as they saw fit. The LNC sold the site to the British Humane Association in May 1947 for £21,000 (about £ in terms of consumer spending power), and the offices of the LNC were transferred to the Superintendent's Office at Brookwood. The SR continued to use the surviving sections of the track as occasional sidings into the 1950s, before clearing what remained of their section of the site.
While most of the LNC's business was now operated by road, an agreement on 13 May 1946 allowed the LNC to make use of SR services from Waterloo to Brookwood station for funerals, subject to the condition that should the service be heavily used the SR (British Railways after 1948) reserved the right to restrict the number of funeral parties on any given train. Although one of the LNC's hearse carriages had survived the bombing it is unlikely that this was ever used, and coffins were carried in the luggage space of the SR's coaches. Coffins would either be shipped to Brookwood ahead of the funeral party and transported by road to one of the mortuaries at the disused cemetery stations, or travel on the same SR train as the funeral party to Brookwood and be transported from Brookwood station to the burial site or chapel by road.
Although the LNC proposed to convert the cemetery branch line into a grand avenue running from Brookwood station through the cemetery, this never took place. The rails and sleepers of the branch were removed in around 1947, and the trackbed became a dirt road and footpath. The run-around loop and stub of the branch line west of Brookwood station remained operational as sidings, before being dismantled on 30 November 1964. After the closure of the branch line the buildings of the two cemetery stations remained open as refreshment kiosks, and were renamed North Bar and South Bar. On the retirement in 1956 of a Mr and Mrs Dendy, who operated North Bar from 1948 to 1956 and lived in the station apartment, North station was abandoned, and demolished in the 1960s owing to dry rot. South Bar continued to operate as a refreshment kiosk.
End of LNC independence
After 1945 cremation, up to that time an uncommon practice, became increasingly popular in Britain. In 1946 the LNC obtained consent to build their own crematorium on a section of the Nonconformist cemetery which had been set aside for pauper burials, but chose not to proceed. Instead, in 1945 the LNC began the construction of the Glades of Remembrance, a wooded area dedicated to the burial of cremated remains. These were dedicated by Henry Campbell, Bishop of Guildford in 1950. Intentionally designed for informality, traditional gravestones and memorials were prohibited, and burials were marked only by small stones.
Although at its founding the LNC had hoped to handle 50,000 burials per year and even without being granted a monopoly on London burials had planned for 10,000 per year, Brookwood Cemetery was never as popular as hoped. At the time of the railway's closure only 203,041 burials had been conducted, and the rate was steadily falling; on the LNC's 150th anniversary in November 1994, a total of 231,730 burials had been conducted. Even with the unusually large individual grave sites offered by the LNC for even the cheapest burials, the site had been planned to accommodate 5,000,000 burials, and much of the land was empty.
Despite the decline in burials from an already low level, rising land values in the post war years meant that the LNC was a valuable and successful company. In the 1940s it bought out a number of other firms of funeral directors, particularly those catering for the expanding and prosperous suburbs of south west London within easy reach of Brookwood by road. The LNC continued to lobby the SR and its 1948 successor British Railways until the 1950s on the matter of cheap fares for visitors to the cemetery, but were unable to come to any agreement. In 1957 the Southern Region of British Railways considered allowing the LNC to sell discounted fares of 7s 6d (compared to the standard rate of 9s 4d) for return tickets for same-day travel from London to Brookwood and back. By this time most visitors to the cemetery were travelling by road. The LNC felt that the relatively minor difference between the fares would not be sufficient to attract visitors back to the railway, and the proposal was abandoned.
Owing to Henry Drummond's concerns in 1852 that the LNC was a front for land speculation, the sale of LNC-owned land for building had been expressly forbidden by the Act of Parliament establishing the LNC, and consequently much of the land not in use for burials remained undeveloped, aside from the land sold in the 1850s and 1860s, and the areas sold by Cyril Tubbs.
By the 1950s, with the area around Woking by this time heavily populated, rental income from the LNC's land holdings was an extremely valuable asset, and in May 1955 the Alliance Property Company launched a hostile takeover bid with the aim of using the cemetery's land for property development. The bid failed, but prompted the LNC to secure the passing of the London Necropolis Act 1956, allowing the sale of all remaining surplus land. A new company, the Brookwood Estates Realisation Company, was founded to oversee the disposal of the remaining unsold lands as well as the cemetery reserve, finally formally recognising that Brookwood Cemetery would never expand beyond its original boundaries.
The former South station was near the A322 road making it one of the most easily accessed parts of the cemetery once the railway had closed, and the land surrounding it was now redundant. As part of the London Necropolis Act 1956 the LNC obtained Parliamentary consent to convert the disused Anglican chapel of 1854 into a crematorium, using a newer chapel built by Cyril Tubbs in 1908–09 for funeral services and the station building for coffin storage and as a refreshment room for those attending cremations. Suffering cash flow problems and distracted by the hostile takeover bid, the LNC management never proceeded with the scheme.
Repeated takeover bids from various companies were unsuccessfully attempted in 1956 and 1957, until in December 1957 Alliance Property announced that it controlled a majority of the shares of the Brookwood Estates Realisation Company. In January 1959 Alliance Property announced the successful takeover of the London Necropolis Company itself, bringing over a century of independence to an end.
After the takeover
Historically the LNC had invested much of its income from burials and fares, and used the dividends from these investments to pay for cemetery upkeep. Although Alliance Property kept the name "London Necropolis Company" for its funeral business, it was a property developer with no interest in the funeral industry, and saw little reason to spend large amounts maintaining the cemetery, proceeding with the proposed crematorium, or promoting new burials of bodies or cremated remains. The rising popularity of cremation meant the rate of burials was at a historic low, while the Victorian character of the cemetery had fallen out of fashion. The income from burials was insufficient to maintain the cemetery grounds, and the cemetery began to revert to wilderness. Over the course of the 1960s most undertaking work at Brookwood came to an end.
After Alliance Property's land sales, the London Necropolis Company had been reduced to Brookwood Cemetery itself and Frederick W. Paine, a Kingston-upon-Thames firm of funeral directors which had been bought by the LNC in 1947. In 1970 Alliance Property sold the LNC to Cornwall Property (Holdings) Ltd. The following year Cornwall Property sold it on to the Great Southern Group, the owners of Streatham Park Cemetery, South London Crematorium and a chain of funeral directors in central London.
The Great Southern Group dismantled much of what remained of the company. Frederick W. Paine was detached from the LNC, along with the specialist division overseeing the exhumation and relocation of existing burial grounds to allow property development on formerly consecrated sites. All that remained of the LNC was Brookwood Cemetery itself, by this time moribund and becoming heavily overgrown. Considered virtually worthless, Great Southern sold the LNC to property speculators Maximillian Investments in July 1973 for £400,000.
Legacy
As Alliance Property and the Great Southern Group had between them stripped all assets other than the cemetery itself and development within the cemetery was prohibited, the LNC had little apparent value. However, Maximilian Investments secured passage of the Brookwood Cemetery Act 1975, authorising them to sell land within the operational area of the cemetery. The former Superintendent's office housing the LNC's offices, near the level crossing where the Necropolis Railway had passed between the northern and southern cemeteries, was sold for office development. Following the sale the offices of the LNC, renamed Brookwood Cemetery Ltd at this time, were moved into a small former caretaker's lodge. With little storage space in the new makeshift offices, the majority of the LNC's records were destroyed during the move. Tracts of land within the cemetery were sold to various religious groups and to wealthy families for use as private burial grounds, and a tract of unused land south of the Glades of Remembrance was sold to Woking Clay Pigeon Club. The masonry works remained operational until the early 1980s, although not under LNC management after the early 1960s, and were then converted into office buildings and named Stonemason's Court.
Although the Act of 1975 had specified that a portion of the profits from land sales be used to maintain the remaining cemetery, little restoration work was done and the cemetery continued to revert to wilderness. With the new owners of the land interested only in redeveloping those parts of the cemetery not currently in use, the cemetery itself sank further into neglect.
The last operators of the refreshment kiosk in the former South station retired in the late 1960s and from then on the station building was used as a cemetery storeroom. Around half the building was destroyed by fire in September 1972. The building was popular with railway and architectural enthusiasts as a distinctive piece of Victorian railway architecture, but despite a lobbying campaign to preserve the surviving sections of the station the remaining buildings (other than the platform itself) were demolished shortly afterwards. By the time of its demolition the "temporary" structure was 118 years old. In 1982 as part of the programme of land sales the station site, the two derelict Anglican chapels and of land around it were sold to the St. Edward Brotherhood, an order of Russian Orthodox monks. The Brotherhood set about restoring the chapels for religious use. The original 1854 chapel is used as a visitor's centre and living quarters for the monastery, while the larger Anglican chapel built by Cyril Tubbs in 1908–09 immediately north of the station is now the Russian Orthodox Church of St. Edward the Martyr, and houses the relics and shrine of Edward the Martyr, king of England from 975–978. The main monastery has been built on the site of the former station building, while the platform itself remains intact and now marks the boundary of the monastic enclosure.
In March 1985 the company was bought by Ramadan Güney, whose family owned the cemetery until it was purchased by Woking Borough Council in December 2014. The Guney family embarked on a programme of building links with London's mosques to encourage new burials in the cemetery. Guney began a slow programme of clearing the overgrown sections of the cemetery and restoring significant memorials. The Guney family's efforts to attract new custom have been successful, to the extent that some of the lands sold off in the 1970s have now been repurchased by the cemetery. In June 1989 the cemetery was designated a Conservation Area, and was subsequently declared a Site of Special Scientific Interest. In 1992 the Brookwood Cemetery Society was formed to improve awareness of the cemetery; the Society holds open days, guided walks and other events, restores damaged memorials, and maintains and improves the signage within the cemetery.It is with these intentions that Woking Borough Council agreed at a Special Council Meeting on 24 November 2014 that it should secure the Cemetery by establishing Woking Necropolis and Mausoleum Limited, as a subsidiary within its Thameswey Group of companies.
While it was never as successful as planned, the London Necropolis Company had a significant impact on the funeral industry, and the principles established by the LNC influenced the design of many other cemeteries worldwide. The village of Brookwood has grown on the northern (non-cemetery) side of the LSWR railway line, focused on the 1864 railway station which remains heavily used both by commuters and by visitors to the cemetery. Brookwood Cemetery remains the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom and one of the largest in the world. Although not the world's only dedicated funeral railway line, the London Necropolis Railway was the first, the longest lasting and by far the best known. While the growth of the part of Surrey around the cemetery was heavily influenced by the LNC, some iron columns in Newnham Terrace SW1 which once supported the Necropolis Railway viaduct and the LNC's surviving office building at 121 Westminster Bridge Road are the only surviving London Necropolis Company structures in London itself.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Brookwood Cemetery, successor to the London Necropolis Company
The Brookwood Cemetery Society, a group dedicated to the preservation and documentation of the cemetery
Saint Edward Brotherhood, owners of the former South station site
Cemeteries in London
Anglican cemeteries in the United Kingdom
Companies established in 1852
Defunct companies based in London
Woking
1852 establishments in England
1959 disestablishments in England | [
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250017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookwood%20Cemetery | Brookwood Cemetery | Brookwood Cemetery, also known as the London Necropolis, is a burial ground in Brookwood, Surrey, England. It is the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom and one of the largest in Europe. The cemetery is listed a Grade I site in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.
History
Background
Brookwood Cemetery was conceived by the London Necropolis Company (LNC) in 1849 to house London's deceased, at a time when the capital was finding it difficult to accommodate its increasing population, of living and dead. The cemetery is said to have been landscaped by architect William Tite, but this is disputed.
In 1854, Brookwood was the largest cemetery in the world but it is no longer. Its initial owner being incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1852, Brookwood Cemetery (apart from its northern section, reserved for Nonconformists) was consecrated by Charles Sumner, Bishop of Winchester, on 7 November 1854. It was opened to the public on 13 November 1854 when the first burials took place.
In 1858 the London Necropolis Company sold 64 acres of the extra land to the government for the building of Woking Convict Invalid Prison.
Necropolis Railway
Brookwood originally was accessible by rail from a special station – the London Necropolis railway station – next to Waterloo station in Central London. Trains had passenger carriages reserved for different classes and other carriages for coffins (also for different classes), and ran into the cemetery on a dedicated branch from the adjoining South West Main Line – there was a junction just to the west of Brookwood station. From there, passengers and coffins were transported by horse-drawn vehicles. The original London Necropolis station was relocated in 1902 but its successor was demolished after suffering bomb damage during World War II. Return tickets were issued for mourners and single tickets for the dead.
There were two stations in the cemetery: North for non-conformists and South for Anglicans. Their platforms still exist along the path called Railway Avenue. For visitors wishing to use the South West Main Line, Brookwood station has provided direct access since June 1864. A very short piece of commemorative track, with signpost and plaque, purposefully gives way to a grass field and recollects the old final stage of the journey of the deceased.
It was the cholera epidemic of 1848 that led two industrialists to develop this high burial site. It was at first a controversial project. The Bishop of London condemned the "offensive" despatch of first-, second- and third-class corpses in the same carriages, so this had to be modified.
Early burials
The LNC offered three classes of funerals:
A first class funeral allowed buyers to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery. The LNC charged extra for burials in some designated special sites. At the time of opening prices began at £2 10s (about £ in terms) for a basic with no special coffin specifications. It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral.
Second class funerals cost £1 (about £ in terms) and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings (about £ in terms); if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re-use the grave in future.
Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves (other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased, third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site. (The families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial, but this practice was rare.) Despite this, Brookwood's pauper graves granted more dignity to the deceased than did other graveyards and cemeteries of the period, all of which other than Brookwood continued the practice of mass graves for the poor.
Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays, which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day off work. As theatrical performances were banned on Sundays at this time, it also made Brookwood a popular choice for the burial of actors for the same reason, to the extent that actors were provided with a dedicated section of the cemetery near the station entrance.
While the majority of burials conducted by the LNC (around 80%) were pauper funerals on behalf of London parishes and prisons, the LNC also reached agreement with a number of societies, guilds, religious bodies and similar organisations (such as Woking Convict Invalid Prison and Tothill). The LNC provided dedicated sections of the cemetery for these groups, on the basis that those who had lived or worked together in life could remain together after death. Although the LNC was never able to gain the domination of London's funeral industry for which its founders had hoped, it was very successful at targeting specialist groups of artisans and trades, to the extent that it became nicknamed "the Westminster Abbey of the middle classes". The Royal Hospital Chelsea, which previously buried their inmate pensioners at Brompton Cemetery in Chelsea, have used Brookwood Cemetery, where they have two plots, since 1893.
A large number of these dedicated plots were established, ranging from Chelsea Pensioners and the Ancient Order of Foresters to the Corps of Commissionaires and the LSWR. The Nonconformist cemetery also includes a Parsee burial ground established in 1862, which remained the only Zoroastrian burial ground in Europe. Dedicated sections in the Anglican cemetery were also reserved for burials from those parishes which had made burial arrangements with the LNC.
The first burial was of the stillborn twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street, Southwark Borough. The Hore twins, along with the other burials on the first day, were pauper funerals and buried in unmarked graves. The first burial at Brookwood with a permanent memorial was that of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Goldfinch, buried on 25 November 1854, the 26th person to be buried in the cemetery. The first permanent memorial erected in the Nonconformist section of the cemetery was that of Charles Milligan Hogg, son of botanist Robert Hogg, buried on 12 December 1854. Goldfinch and Hogg's graves are not the oldest monuments in the cemetery, as on occasion gravestones were relocated and re-erected during the relocation of existing burial grounds to Brookwood.
Over 235,000 people have been buried there.
Reburials
The massive London civil engineering projects of the mid-19th century—the railways, the sewer system and from the 1860s the precursors to the London Underground—often necessitated the demolition of existing churchyards. The first major relocation took place in 1862, when the construction of Charing Cross railway station and the routes into it necessitated the demolition of the burial ground of Cure's College in Southwark, which uncovered at least 7,950 bodies. These were packed into 220 large containers, each containing 26 adults plus children, and shipped on the London Necropolis Railway to Brookwood for reburial, along with at least some of the existing headstones from the cemetery.
At least 21 London burial grounds were relocated to Brookwood via the railway, along with numerous others relocated by road following the railway's closure. Churches whose graves were relocated included:
St Antholin, Budge Row (demolished 1875)
All-Hallows-the-Great (demolished 1894)
St Magnus-the-Martyr (remains removed from crypt 1894)
All-Hallows-the-Less (destroyed in the Great Fire of London, remains removed 1896)
St Michael Wood Street (demolished 1897)
St Mildred, Bread Street (remains removed 1898, church destroyed in London Blitz 1941)
St George Botolph Lane (demolished 1904)
St Marylebone Parish Church (remains from crypt removed 1987)
Brookwood Cemetery and cremation
In 1878, the LNC sold an isolated piece of its land at Brookwood, close to St John's village, to the Cremation Society of Great Britain, on which they built Woking Crematorium, the first in Britain, in 1879. While the LNC never built its own crematorium, in 1910, Lord Cadogan decided he no longer wanted to be interred in the mausoleum he had commissioned at Brookwood. This building, the largest mausoleum in the cemetery, was bought by the LNC, fitted with shelves and niches to hold urns, and used as a dedicated columbarium from then on.
After 1945 cremation, up to that time an uncommon practice, became increasingly popular in Britain. In 1946, the LNC obtained consent to build their own crematorium on a section of the Nonconformist cemetery which had been set aside for pauper burials, but chose not to proceed. Instead, in 1945, the LNC began the construction of the Glades of Remembrance, a wooded area dedicated to the burial of cremated remains. These were dedicated by Henry Montgomery Campbell, Bishop of Guildford in 1950. Intentionally designed for informality, traditional gravestones and memorials were prohibited, and burials were marked only by small stones.
In the next decade the cemetery came closest to having its own crematorium. Following the closure of the two Brookwood railway stations, the land surrounding the site of South station and the station's two Anglican chapels was redundant. As part of the London Necropolis Act 1956 the LNC obtained Parliamentary consent to convert the disused original Anglican chapel into a crematorium, using the newer chapel for funeral services and the station building for coffin storage and as a refreshment room for those attending cremations. Suffering cash flow problems and distracted by a succession of hostile takeover bids, the LNC management never proceeded with the scheme and the buildings fell into disuse. The station building was demolished after being damaged by a fire in 1972, although the platform remained intact.
Horticultural
With the ambition for it to become London's sole burial site in perpetuity, the LNC were aware that if their plans were successful, their Necropolis would become a site of major national importance. As a consequence, the cemetery was designed with attractiveness in mind, in contrast to the squalid and congested London burial grounds and the newer suburban cemeteries which were already becoming crowded.
The LNC aimed to create an atmosphere of perpetual spring in the cemetery, and chose the plants for the cemetery accordingly. It had already been noted that evergreen plants from North America thrived in the local soil. Robert Donald, the owner of an arboretum near Woking, was contracted to supply the trees and shrubs for the cemetery. The railway line through the cemetery and the major roads and paths within the cemetery were lined with giant sequoia trees, the first significant planting of these trees (only introduced to Europe in 1853) in Britain. As well as the giant sequoias (also known as Wellingtonia after the recently deceased Duke of Wellington), the grounds were heavily planted with magnolia, rhododendron, coastal redwood, azalea, andromeda and monkeypuzzle, with the intention of creating perpetual greenery with large numbers of flowers and a strong floral scent throughout the cemetery.
In later years the original planting of the cemetery was supplemented by numerous other tree species planted by the LNC, as well as many plants planted by mourners at burial sites and around mausolea. Between the end of LNC independence in 1959 and the cemetery's purchase by Ramadan Güney in 1985 cemetery maintenance was drastically reduced, and the spread of various plant types caused many of the non-military sections of the cemetery to revert to wilderness in this period.
20th and 21st centuries
In August 1914, on the outbreak of the First World War, the LNC offered to donate to the War Office of land "for the free interment of soldiers and sailors who have returned from the front wounded and may subsequently die". The offer was not taken up until 1917, when a section of the cemetery was set aside as Brookwood Military Cemetery, used for the burials of service personnel who died in the London District. This purpose built cemetery came to accommodate further dead from World War II.
In the meantime, 141 Commonwealth service personnel were buried from London in scattered graves throughout the cemetery, apart from a small Nurses' Plot in St Peter's Avenue in the Westminster field (where are buried nurses from Millbank Military Hospital) and an Indian plot (including one unidentified soldier) in the North-West corner.
In World War II 51 Commonwealth service personnel were buried in the civilian cemetery, where there are also buried five foreign national servicemen whose graves the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) additionally care for. A military memorial to the missing from that war was built in 1958 by the CWGC.
Memorialised here too came to be Edward the Martyr, King of England, whose relics are kept nearby in St Edward the Martyr Orthodox Church.
The London Necropolis Company was taken over by Alliance Property in 1959 and the company was gradually divested of land and investments until by 1973, the cemetery was an independent entity. The cemetery changed hands between various development companies in the 1970s, during which time the cemetery maintenance was neglected: 1970 Cornwall Property (Holdings) Ltd, 1971 Great Southern Group, 1973 Maximillian Investments. Maximillian investments secured the passing of the Brookwood Cemetery Act 1975 which authorised them to sell unused parts of the cemetery and a few areas were sold for development.
In 1985, Ramadan Güney acquired Brookwood Cemetery from the owner Mr D. J. T. Dally, who was previously the cemetery manager . The purchase evolved from Güney's role as Chairman of the UK Turkish Islamic Trust, which wanted suitable burial facilities for its members. The Brookwood Cemetery Society was founded in 1992 to organise events, promote the site's history and support restoration work. After Güney's death in 2006 he was buried in the cemetery and ownership passed to his children (by his late wife) and operated by his son Erkin, a director at the cemetery for almost 30 years. Diane Holliday, Güney's partner of 6 years, was "frozen out" from the operating company and then dismissed. In 2011, the inheritance of the cemetery was successfully challenged by Diane Holliday and her adult son Kevin. This decision was upheld by the High Court on appeal in 2012. In 2014, Diane Holliday sold the cemetery to Woking Council.
Brookwood Military Cemetery and memorials
Brookwood Military Cemetery covers about and is the largest Commonwealth war cemetery in the United Kingdom. The land was set aside during World War I to provide a burial site for men and women of Commonwealth and American armed forces who died in the United Kingdom of wounds and other causes. It now contains 1,601 Commonwealth burials from World War I and 3,476 from World War II (the latter including 3 unidentified British and 2 unidentified Canadian airmen).
Within this, there is a particularly large Canadian section, which includes 43 men who died of wounds following the Dieppe Raid in August 1942. Two dozen Muslim dead were also later transferred here in 1968 from the Muslim Burial Ground at Horsell Common. There is a large Royal Air Force section in the southeast corner of the cemetery which includes graves of Czech and United States nationals who died serving in the RAF.
The cemetery also has 786 non-Commonwealth war graves, including 28 unidentified French, besides eight German dead from World War I and 46 from World War II. It also contains Polish (84 graves), Czech, Belgian (46 graves), Dutch (seven graves) and Italian (over 300 graves) sections. Except for Christmas Day and New Year's Day, this cemetery is open to the public from 8am to sunset Monday to Friday, and 9am to sunset Saturdays and Sundays.
The United Kingdom 1914–1918 Memorial originally stood at the northeastern end of the 1914–1918 Plot. The new memorial that replaced it was created in 2004, and currently (9 February 2022) commemorates 338 Commonwealth service personnel who died in the First World War in the United Kingdom but have no known grave. The majority of the casualties commemorated on the Brookwood 1914–1918 Memorial are servicemen and women identified by the In From The Cold Project as having died while in care of their families and were not commemorated by the Commission at the time. (Those whose graves are subsequently discovered become commemorated under the respective cemetery.)
The Brookwood Memorial stands at the southern end of the Canadian section of the cemetery and commemorates 3,428 Commonwealth men and women who died during the Second World War and have no known grave. This includes commandos killed in the Dieppe and St Nazaire Raids; and Special Operations Executive personnel who died in occupied Europe. The Brookwood Memorial also honours 199 Canadian servicemen and women. The memorial was placed within a military cemetery near the theatre of operations.
The Brookwood (Russia) Memorial was erected in 1983 and dismantled in 2015. It commemorated forces of the British Commonwealth who died in Russia in World War I and World War II and were buried there. The memorial was erected originally because during the Cold War those graves were inaccessible.
Brookwood American Cemetery and Memorial
This site lies to the west of the civilian cemetery. It contains the graves, from World War I of 468 American military dead and a further 563 with no known grave are commemorated.
After the entry of the United States into the Second World War the American cemetery was enlarged, with burials of US servicemen beginning in April 1942. With large numbers of American personnel based in the west of England, a dedicated rail service for the transport of bodies operated from Devonport to Brookwood. By August 1944, over 3,600 bodies had been buried in the American Military Cemetery. At this time burials were discontinued, and US casualties were from then on buried at Cambridge American Cemetery.
On the authority of the Quartermaster General of the United States Army, the US servicemen buried at Brookwood during the Second World War were exhumed in January–May 1948. Those whose next of kin requested it were shipped to the United States for reburial, and the remaining bodies were transferred to the new cemetery outside Cambridge.
Brookwood American Cemetery had also been the burial site for those US servicemen executed while serving in the United Kingdom, whose bodies had been carried to Brookwood by rail from the American execution facilities at Shepton Mallet. They were not transferred to Cambridge in 1948, but instead reburied in unmarked graves at Oise-Aisne American Cemetery Plot E, a dedicated site for US servicemen executed during the Second World War. (One of those executed, David Cobb, was not transferred to Plot E but was repatriated to the US and reburied in Dothan, Alabama in 1949.) Following the removal of the US war graves, the site in which they had been buried was divided into cemeteries for the Free French forces and Italian prisoners of war.
It is administered by the American Battle Monuments Commission. Close by are military cemeteries and monuments of the British Commonwealth and other allied nations.
Notable graves
List of people buried in Brookwood Cemetery
(Listed in order of date of death)
Edward the Martyr (c. 962–978), King of England (reburied from Shaftesbury Abbey 1984)
Daniel Carlsson Solander (1733–1782), Swedish naturalist, apostle of Carl Linnaeus and scientist on James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean aboard the Endeavour’’ (reburied from Swedish Church, Wapping in 1900s)
Admiral Sir Edward Codrington (1770–1851), naval hero of Battles of Trafalgar and Navarino (reburied from St Peter's Church, Eaton Square 1954)
Sir Henry Goldfinch (1781–1854), Peninsular War veteran and one of the first to be buried at the cemetery
Thomas Manders (1797–1859), low comedian and stage actor
Robert Knox (1791–1862), notable anatomist and racial theorist involved with the Burke and Hare murders
John Lynch (c. 1833–1866), Irish nationalist
Gustav von Franck (1807-1860), writer, painter, founding-member Savage Club
Rebecca Isaacs, (1828–1877), the operatic soprano
Horatia Johnson (née Ward) (1833–1890), granddaughter of Horatio Nelson and Emma Hamilton
Charles Bradlaugh (1833–1891), atheist and political activist and his daughter Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner (1858–1935), peace activist, author, atheist and freethinker (latter after cremation)
The 1st Viscount Sherbrooke (1811–1892), statesman
Henri Van Laun (1820–1896), author and translator
Alfred William Hunt (1830–1896), landscape painter, and daughter Violet Hunt (1863–1942), authoress and literary hostess
Mary Frances Scott-Siddons (1840-1896), actress, and great-granddaughter of Sarah Siddons.
Daniel Nicols (1833–1897), founder of the Café Royal
Giulio Salviati (1843–1898), glassmaker of the Salviati family
Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner (1840–1899), Anglo-Hungarian orientalist
Elaine Maynard Falkiner née Farmer (1871–1900), society beauty and first wife of Leslie Falkiner
Samuel Johnson (1830–1900) Shakespearean comedy actor
Alexander William Williamson (1824–1904), chemical theorist, originator of the Williamson ether synthesis, and head of the chemistry department at University College, London
Jamsetji Tata (1839–1904), Indian Industrialist and Founder of Tata Group
Ross Lowis Mangles (1833–1905), the first civilian to be awarded the VC and one of 12 holders of the same award who are buried in the cemetery
Lord Edward Clinton (1836–1907), politician and soldier
Robert Ashington Bullen (1850–1912), priest, geologist and conchologist
Dugald Drummond (1840–1912), Scottish locomotive engineer
Allan Octavian Hume (1829–1912), Founder of Indian National Congress, civil servant, political reformer and amateur ornithologist and horticulturalist in British India
Arthur Dukinfield Darbishire FRSE (1879–1915), geneticist
Bernhard Ringrose Wise (1858–1916), Australian politician and Attorney General, amateur mile champion of Great Britain, 1879–81, Co-Founder of the Amateur Athletic Association
John Wrightson (1840–1916), pioneer in agricultural education and reputedly Britain's first surfer
William De Morgan (1839–1917), potter and tile designer
Commander the 5th Baron Abinger (1871–1917), hereditary peer and naval officer, one of the WWI war graves here
Sir John Wolfe Barry (1836–1918), civil engineer, architect of Barry Docks, Wales
Lieutenant Dudley Beaumont (1877–1918), army officer, painter and husband of the Dame of Sark
Sir Ratanji Tata (1871–1918), Indian businessman and philanthropist
Edward Compton (1854–1918), actor-manager
Edmund Baron Hartley (1847–1919), Victoria Cross recipient
Evelyn De Morgan (1855–1919), English painter
Edith Thompson (1893–1923), executed in Holloway prison in 1923. Exhumed in 2018 and buried with her parents in City of London Cemetery
John Singer Sargent (1856–1925), American artist
Alexis Theodorovich Aladin (1873–1927), Russian politician who formed and led the Trudoviks
Luke Fildes (1843–1927), painter
Sarah Eleanor Smith (née Pennington) (1861–1931) wife of the captain of the Titanic Edward J. Smith, buried a few feet from Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon
Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon (1862–1931) baronet, sportsman and Titanic survivor
Abdul Rahman Andak (1859–1931), senior Malaysian civil servant, exiled to London in 1909
Sir Dorabji Tata (1859–1932), Indian philanthropist
Abdullah Quilliam (1856–1932), 19th-century convert from Christianity to Islam, noted for founding England's first mosque and Islamic centre
Field Marshal Sir William Robert Robertson, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, DSO (1860–1933), Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) during the First World War
Ernest William Moir (1862–1933), civil engineer, 1st Baronet of Whitehanger and Margaret, Lady Moir (1864 – 1942) engineer and campaigner for women's rights
Shapurji Saklatvala (1874–1936), Indian-born British Labour and Communist MP, and nephew of Jamsetji Tata (following cremation)
Marmaduke Pickthall (1875–1936), Western Islamic scholar
Michael O'Dwyer (1864–1940), assassinated former Lieutenant Governor of Punjab
Stanley Spooner (1856–1940), editor and journalist. The creator of Flight magazine.
J. P. B. Jeejeebhoy (1891-1950), first Indian pilot in the Royal Flying Corps
Abdullah Yusuf Ali (1872–1953), a translator of the Quran
Caroll Gibbons (1903–1954), pianist and composer
Styllou Christofi (1900–1954), penultimate woman executed in Britain (reburied from HMP Holloway 1971)
A memorial to the victims in the Turkish Airforce plot (1959)
Sir Thomas Beecham (1879–1961), conductor. Initially buried here, owing to changes at Brookwood, his remains were exhumed in 1991 and reburied in St Peter's Churchyard at Limpsfield, Surrey.
F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas (1902–1964), World War II Special Operations Executive (SOE) agent
Said Bin Taimur (1910–1972), Sultan of Muscat and Oman 1932–1970; body later repatriated and reburied at Royal Cemetery, Muscat
Aftab Ali (1907–1972), Bengali politician and social reformer
Dennis Wheatley (1897–1977), occult and mystery writer (after cremation)
Rebecca West (1892–1983), novelist, feminist and journalist
Alfred Bestall (1892–1986), author and illustrator of Rupert Bear Naji al-Ali (1937?–1987), Palestinian political cartoonist
Hamid Mirza (1918–1988), Heir Presumptive of the Qajar Dynasty
Brigadier J. O. E. Vandeleur (1903–1988), DSO and Bar, ON, British Army officer in World War II, served with the Irish Guards
Margaret, Duchess of Argyll (1912–1993)
Idries Shah (1924–1996), Sufi master and writer
Muhammad al-Badr (1926–1996) last King of Yemen
Dodi Fayed (1955–1997), film producer, (original burial site, subsequently moved to the Al-Fayed estate in Surrey)
Christopher Hewett (1921–2001), actor, played Mr. Belvedere
Ramadan Güney (1932–2006), owner of Brookwood Cemetery, 1985–2006
Zdeňka Pokorná (1905–2007), Czech liberation campaigner (following cremation)
Maqbool Fida Husain (1915–2011), Indian painter
Boris Berezovsky (1946–2013), Russian tycoon
Dame Zaha Hadid (1950–2016), Iraqi-born British architect
Location
Brookwood Cemetery is served by Brookwood railway station, and is located on both sides of Cemetery Pales in Woking. The Cemetery office is located in Glades House.
See also
Canadian war cemeteries
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Clarke, John M. An Introduction to Brookwood Cemetery'' 2nd Edition
External links
The Brookwood Cemetery Society
Report on Brookwood – commissioned by the Home Office.
English Heritage Listed Garden Entry
Brookwood Military Cemeteries – Images of all sections of the military cemetery and burial plots and memorials. Includes allied nationals, Chelsea Pensioners, QA Nurses as well as German and Italian plots.
Memorandum to the Select Committee on Environment, Transport and Regional Affairs by Brookwood Cemetery Ltd
Aerial view from 1926, from the English Heritage "Britain from Above" archive
Cemeteries in Surrey
Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in England
American Battle Monuments Commission
Grade I listed parks and gardens in Surrey
World War I cemeteries in the United Kingdom
World War II cemeteries in the United Kingdom
Disused railway stations in Surrey
London Necropolis Company
1852 establishments in England
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1854
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1941 | [
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250019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potometer | Potometer | A potometer (from Greek ποτό = drunken, and μέτρο = measure), sometimes known as transpirometer, is a device used for measuring the rate of water uptake of a leafy shoot which is almost equal to the water lost through transpiration. The causes of water uptake are photosynthesis and transpiration.
The rate of transpiration can be estimated in two ways:
Indirectly - by measuring the distance the water level drops in the graduated tube over a measured length of time. It is assumed that this is due to the cutting taking in water which in turn is necessary to replace an equal volume of water lost by transpiration.
Directly - by measuring the reduction in mass of the potometer over a period of time. Here it is assumed that any loss in mass is due to transpiration.
There are two main types of potometers: the bubble potometer (as detailed below), and the mass potometer. The mass potometer consists of a plant with its root submerged in a beaker. This beaker is then placed on a digital balance; readings can be made to determine the amount of water lost by the plant.
The Limitations in using the potometer:
Introducing the air bubbles is not very easy.
The twig may not remain for a long time.
Any change in the outside air temperature may affect the position of the air bubble on the capillary tube.
Potometer do not measure the lost water during the transpiration, but measures the water uptaken by the cut shoot.
Design
Potometers come in a variety of designs, but all follow the same basic principle.A length of capillary tube. A bubble is introduced to the capillary; as water is taken up by the plant, the bubble moves. By marking regular gradations on the tube, it is possible to measure water uptake. A reservoir. Typically a funnel with a tap; turning the tap on the reservoir resets the bubble. Some designs use a syringe instead.
A tube for holding the shoot'''. The shoot must be held in contact with the water; additionally, the surface of the water should not be exposed to the air. Otherwise, evaporation will interfere with measurements. A rubber bung greased with petroleum jelly suffices.
Preparation
Cut a leafy'' shoot for a plant and plunge its base into water. This prevents the xylem from taking up any air. Wetting the leaves themselves will alter the rate of transpiration.
Immerse the whole of the potometer into the sink. Move it about until all the air bubbles come out.
Recut the shoot's stem underwater. Put it into the bung; grease the bung with plenty of petroleum jelly if it doesn't stay and then put the bung into the potometer.
Make sure the tap is closed, then lift the whole assembly out of the water.
Leave the end of the capillary tube out of the water until an air bubble forms, then put the end into a beaker of water.
Types of potometers
Bubble potometer
Mass potometer
Ganong's potometer
Darwin's potometer
Use
Set up the conditions of the experiment, such as alterations to lighting (placing the plant in bright light or shadow), wind (directing a fan at the plant), and humidity.
Precautions
When a twig is cut from a plant, it should be immediately put under water (only the cut portion). Then, a small part is cut under water. This prevents entry of air into the xylem vessels.
The conditions of the potometer, other than the alteration that is being tested, should not be changed during a test, as outside conditions (such as temperature) determine water uptake.
Everything must be completely watertight so that no leakage occurs.
Limitations
The potometer does not measure the rate of transpiration accurately because not all of the water that is taken by the plant is used for transpiration (water taken might be used for photosynthesis or by the cells to maintain turgidity). The potometer measures the rate of uptake of water. To measure transpiration rate directly, rather than the rate of water uptake, utilize a scientific instrument which quantifies water transfer at the leaves.
The water retained by the plant is so minute that it can be neglected.
Introducing an air bubble may not be easy.
A twig may not be active for a long time.
References
Plant physiology
Measuring instruments | [
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250020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 8th Annual Grammy Awards | The 8th Annual Grammy Awards were held March 15, 1966, at Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville and New York. They recognized accomplishments of musicians for the year 1965. Roger Miller topped off the Grammys by winning 5 awards, whereas Herb Alpert and Frank Sinatra each won 4 awards.
Award winners
Record of the Year
Jerry Moss (producer) & Herb Alpert (producer and artist) for "A Taste of Honey" performed by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass
Album of the Year
Sonny Burke (producer) & Frank Sinatra for September of My Years
Song of the Year
Johnny Mandel & Paul Francis Webster (songwriters) for "The Shadow of Your Smile" (Love Theme From The Sandpiper) performed by Tony Bennett
Best New Artist
Tom Jones
Children's
Best Recording for Children
Marvin Miller for Dr. Seuss Presents "Fox in Socks" and "Green Eggs and Ham"
Classical
Best Classical Performance - Orchestra
Leopold Stokowski (conductor) & the American Symphony Orchestra for Ives: Symphony No. 4
Best Classical Vocal Soloist Performance
Erich Leinsdorf (conductor), Leontyne Price & the Boston Symphony Orchestra for Strauss: Salome (Dance of the Seven Veils, Interlude, Final Scene)/The Egyptian Helen (Awakening Scene)
Best Opera Recording
Karl Böhm (conductor), Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Evelyn Lear, Fritz Wunderlich & the German Opera Orchestra & Chorus for Berg: Wozzeck
Best Classical Choral Performance (other than opera)
Robert Shaw (conductor), the Robert Shaw Chorale & the RCA Victor Symphony Orchestra for Stravinsky: Symphony of Psalms/Poulenc: Gloria
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with orchestra)
Erich Leinsdorf (conductor), Arthur Rubinstein & the Boston Symphony Orchestra for Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 4 in G
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (without orchestra)
Vladimir Horowitz for Horowitz at Carnegie Hall - An Historic Return
Best Classical Chamber Music Performance - Instrumental or Vocal
The Juilliard String Quartet for Bartók: The Six String Quartets
Best Composition by a Contemporary Classical Composer
Charles Ives (composer) for Ives: Symphony No. 4 conducted by Leopold Stokowski
Album of the Year - Classical
Thomas Frost (producer) & Vladimir Horowitz for Horowitz at Carnegie Hall - An Historic Return
Most Promising New Classical Recording Artist
Peter Serkin
Comedy
Best Comedy Performance
Bill Cosby for Why Is There Air?
Composing and arranging
Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or Television Show
Johnny Mandel (composer) for The Sandpiper performed by the Robert Armbruster Orchestra
Best Instrumental Arrangement
Herb Alpert (arranger) for "A Taste of Honey" performed by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass
Best Arrangement Accompanying a Vocalist or Instrumentalist
Gordon Jenkins (arranger) for "It Was a Very Good Year" performed by Frank Sinatra
Country
Best Country & Western Vocal Performance - Female
Jody Miller for "Queen of the House"
Best Country and Western Vocal Performance, Male
Roger Miller for "King of the Road"
Best Country & Western Single
Roger Miller for "King of the Road"
Best Country & Western Album
Roger Miller for The Return of Roger Miller
Best New Country & Western Artist
The Statler Brothers
Folk
Best Folk Recording
Harry Belafonte & Miriam Makeba for An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba
Gospel
Best Gospel or Other Religious Recording (Musical)
Anita Kerr & George Beverly Shea for Southland Favorites
Jazz
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance - Small Group or Soloist With Small Group
Ramsey Lewis for "The "In" Crowd" performed by the Ramsey Lewis Trio
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance - Large Group or Soloist with Large Group
Duke Ellington for Ellington '66
Best Original Jazz Composition
Lalo Schifrin (composer) for Jazz Suite on the Mass Texts performed by Paul Horn
Musical show
Best Score from an Original Cast Show Album
Alan J. Lerner, Burton Lane (composers), & the original cast (Barbara Harris, John Cullum, Tito Vandis, Byron Webster & William Daniels) for On a Clear Day
Packaging and notes
Best Album Cover, Graphic Arts
George Estes (art director) & James Alexander (graphic artist) for Bartók: Concerto No. 2 for Violin/Stravinsky: Concerto for Violin performed by Joseph Silverstein & conducted by Erich Leinsdorf
Best Album Cover, Photography
Robert M. Jones (art director) & Ken Whitmore (photographer) for Jazz Suite on the Mass Texts performed by Paul Horn
Best Album Notes
Stan Cornyn (notes writer) for September of My Years performed by Frank Sinatra
Pop
Best Vocal Performance, Female
Barbra Streisand for My Name Is Barbra
Best Vocal Performance, Male
Frank Sinatra for "It Was a Very Good Year"
Best Performance by a Vocal Group
The Anita Kerr Singers for "We Dig Mancini"
Best Performance by a Chorus
Ward Swingle for Anyone for Mozart? performed by the Swingle Singers
Best Instrumental Performance
Herb Alpert for "A Taste of Honey" performed by Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass
Best Contemporary (R&R) Vocal Performance - Female
Petula Clark for "I Know a Place"
Best Contemporary (R&R) Vocal Performance - Male
Roger Miller for "King of the Road"
Best Contemporary (R&R) Performance - Group (Vocal or Instrumental)
The Statler Brothers for "Flowers on the Wall"
Best Contemporary (R&R) Single
Roger Miller for "King of the Road"
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Recording - Non-Classical
Larry Levine (engineer) for "A Taste of Honey" performed by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass
Best Engineered Recording, Classical
Fred Plaut (engineer) & Vladimir Horowitz for Horowitz at Carnegie Hall - An Historic Return
R&B
Best Rhythm & Blues Recording
James Brown for "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag"
Spoken
Best Spoken Word or Drama Recording
Goddard Lieberson (producer) for John F. Kennedy - As We Remember Him
References
008
1966 in California
1966 in Illinois
1966 in Tennessee
1966 music awards
20th century in Chicago
1966 in Los Angeles
20th century in Nashville, Tennessee
1966 in New York City
1966 in American music
March 1966 events in the United States | [
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250021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 9th Annual Grammy Awards | The 9th Annual Grammy Awards were held on March 2, 1967, at Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville and New York. They recognized accomplishments of musicians for the year 1966. The 9th Grammy Awards is notable for not presenting the Grammy Award for Best New Artist. Frank Sinatra won 5 awards.
Award winners
Record of the Year
Jimmy Bowen (producer) & Frank Sinatra for "Strangers in the Night"
Album of the Year
Sonny Burke (producer) & Frank Sinatra for A Man and His Music
Song of the Year
John Lennon & Paul McCartney (songwriters) for "Michelle" performed by The Beatles
Children's
Best Recording for Children
Marvin Miller for Dr. Seuss Presents - "If I Ran the Zoo" and "Sleep Book"
Classical
Best Classical Performance - Orchestra
Erich Leinsdorf (conductor) & the Boston Symphony Orchestra for Mahler: Symphony No. 6 in A Minor
Best Classical Vocal Soloist Performance (with or without orchestra)
Francesco Molinari-Pradelli (conductor), Leontyne Price & the RCA Italiana Opera Orchestra for Prima Donna (Works of Barber, Purcell, etc.)
Best Opera Recording
Georg Solti (conductor), Régine Crespin, Hans Hotter, James King, Christa Ludwig, Birgit Nilsson, & the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra for Wagner: Die Walkure
Best Classical Choral Performance (other than opera)
Robert Shaw (conductor) & the Robert Shaw Orchestra & Chorale for Handel: Messiah
George Bragg (conductor), Gregg Smith (choir director), the Gregg Smith Singers, the Ithaca College Concert Choir, the Texas Boys Choir & the Columbia Chamber Orchestra for Ives: Music for Chorus
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with or without orchestra)
Julian Bream for Baroque Guitar (Works of Bach, Sanz, Weiss, etc.)
Best Chamber Music Performance - Instrumental or Vocal
Boston Symphony Chamber Players for Boston Symphony Chamber Players - Works of Mozart, Brahms, Beethoven, Fine, Copland, Carter, Piston
Album of the Year - Classical
Howard Scott (producer), Morton Gould (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Ives: Symphony No. 1 in D Minor
Comedy
Best Comedy Performance
Bill Cosby for Wonderfulness
Composing and arranging
Best Instrumental Theme
Neal Hefti (composer) for "Batman Theme"
Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or Television Show
Maurice Jarre (composer) for Dr. Zhivago
Best Instrumental Arrangement
Herb Alpert (arranger) for "What Now My Love" performed by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass
Best Arrangement Accompanying a Vocalist or Instrumentalist
Ernie Freeman (arranger) for "Strangers in the Night" performed by Frank Sinatra
Country
Best Country & Western Vocal Performance - Female
Jeannie Seely for "Don't Touch Me"
Best Country and Western Vocal Performance, Male
David Houston for "Almost Persuaded"
Best Country & Western Recording
David Houston for "Almost Persuaded"
Best Country & Western Song
Billy Sherrill & Glenn Sutton (songwriters) for "Almost Persuaded" performed by David Houston
Folk
Best Folk Recording
Cortelia Clark for Blues in the Street
Gospel
Best Sacred Recording (Musical)
Porter Wagoner & the Blackwood Brothers for Grand Old Gospel
Jazz
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance - Group or Soloist with Group
Wes Montgomery for "Goin' Out of My Head"
Best Original Jazz Composition
Duke Ellington for "In the Beginning God"
Musical show
Best Score From an Original Cast Show Album
Jerry Herman (composer) & the original cast (Angela Lansbury, Bea Arthur, Jane Connell, Charles Braswell, Jerry Lanning & Frankie Michaels ) for Mame
Packaging and notes
Best Album Cover, Graphic Arts
Klaus Voormann (graphic artist) for Revolver performed by The Beatles
Best Album Cover, Photography
Robert M. Jones (art director) & Les Leverette (photographer) for Confessions of a Broken Man performed by Porter Wagoner
Best Album Notes
Stan Cornyn (notes writer) for Sinatra at the Sands performed by Frank Sinatra
Pop
Best Vocal Performance, Female
Eydie Gorme for "If He Walked Into My Life Today"
Best Vocal Performance, Male
Frank Sinatra for "Strangers in the Night"
Best Performance by a Vocal Group
Anita Kerr for "A Man and a Woman" performed by the Anita Kerr Singers
Best Performance by a Chorus
Ray Conniff (choir director) for "Somewhere My Love (Lara's Theme From Dr. Zhivago)" performed by the Ray Conniff Singers
Best Instrumental Performance (Other Than Jazz)
Herb Alpert for "What Now My Love" performed by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass
Best Contemporary (R&R) Solo Vocal Performance - Male or Female
Paul McCartney for "Eleanor Rigby"
Best Contemporary (R&R) Group Performance, Vocal or Instrumental
The Mamas & the Papas for "Monday, Monday"
Best Contemporary (R&R) Recording
New Vaudeville Band for "Winchester Cathedral"
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Recording - Non-Classical
Eddie Brackett & Lee Herschberg (engineers) for "Strangers in the Night" performed by Frank Sinatra
Best Engineered Recording - Classical
Anthony Salvatore (engineer), Erich Leinsdorf (conductor), the Pro Musica Chorus & the Boston Symphony Orchestra for Wagner: Lohengrin
R&B
Best R&B Solo Vocal Performance, Male or Female
Ray Charles for "Crying Time"
Best Rhythm & Blues Group Performance, Vocal or Instrumental
Ramsey Lewis for "Hold It Right There"
Best R&B Performance
Ray Charles for "Crying Time"
Spoken
Best Spoken Word, Documentary or Drama Recording
Edward R. Murrow for Edward R. Murrow - A Reporter Remembers, Vol. I The War Years
References
009
1967 in California
1967 in Illinois
1967 in Tennessee
1967 music awards
20th century in Chicago
20th century in Nashville, Tennessee
1967 in New York City
1967 in American music
1967 in Los Angeles
March 1967 events in the United States | [
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250022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningbo | Ningbo | Ningbo (; , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), formerly romanized as Ningpo, is a major sub-provincial city in northeast Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. It comprises 6 urban districts, 2 satellite county-level cities, and 2 rural counties including several islands in Hangzhou Bay and the East China Sea. Ningbo is the southern economic center of the Yangtze Delta megalopolis, and is also the core city and center of the Ningbo Metropolitan Area. To the north, Hangzhou Bay separates Ningbo from Shanghai; to the east lies Zhoushan in the East China Sea; on the west and south, Ningbo borders Shaoxing and Taizhou respectively. As of the 2020 Chinese National Census, the entire administrated area of Ningbo City had a population of 9.4 million (9,404,283). whom 4,479,635 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of its five urban districts. One can notice than within a few years, Cixi, Yunhao and Fenghua cities will also be conurbated, making then the Ningbo metro area reach 8,140,660 inhabitants.
Ningbo is one of the 15 sub-provincial cities in China, and is one of the 5 separate state-planning cities in China (the other four are Dalian, Qingdao, Xiamen, and Shenzhen), with the municipality possesses a separate state-planning status in many economic departments, rather than being governed by Zhejiang Province. Therefore, Ningbo has the provincial-level autonomy in making economic and financial policies.
In 2020, the GDP of Ningbo is CNY 1240.87 billion (US$191.68 billion), and it was ranked 12th among 300 cities in China. Moreover, Ningbo is among the wealthiest cities in China, it ranked 8th in terms of average yearly disposable income in the year of 2020. Up till 2020, Ningbo has had global headquarters and registered offices of over 100 listed companies, and many regional business headquarters. In 2021, Ningbo was ranked 7th city in China in terms of the number of listed companies. Furthermore, Ningbo was among the top 10 Chinese cities in the Urban Business Environment Report released by the Chinese state media China Central Television (CCTV) in 2019.
As a city with rich culture and a long history dating back to Jingtou Mountain Culture in 6300 BC and the Hemudu culture in 4800 BC, Ningbo was awarded "City of Culture in East Asia" by the governments of China, of Japan, and of Korea in 2016.
Its port, the port of Ningbo–Zhoushan, spread across several locations, is among the busiest in the world. The port of Ningbo-Zhoushan has been world's No. 1 busiest port by cargo tonnage and world's No. 3 busiest container port since 2010.
Etymology
The first character in the city's name ning ( or ) means "serene", while its second character bo () translates to "wave". The city is abbreviated "" () for the eponymous "Yong Hill" (), a prominent coastal hill near the city, and the Yong River that flows through Ningbo. (The abbreviation Ning is used more commonly for Nanjing.)
It was once named Mingzhou (). The first character () is composed of two parts, representing two lakes inside the city wall: the Sun Lake () and the Moon Lake () dating back to Tang Dynasty 636 AD. Today, only the Moon Lake remains, and the old Sun Lake dried up in 19 century. In 2002, Ningbo government re-built the Sun Lake as one of the city parks.
History
Ningbo is one of China's oldest cities, with a history dating to the Jingtou Mountain Culture in 6300 BC and Hemudu culture in 4800 BC. Ningbo was known as a trade city on the silk road at least two thousand years ago, and then as a major port for foreign trade along with Yangzhou and Guangzhou in the Tang Dynasty, and Quanzhou and Guangzhou in the Sung dynasty.
From ancient times to the Sui Dynasty
As of 2020, the earliest relics of human activity discovered in Ningbo City are the Jingtou Mountain site discovered in Yuyao, dating back to 6300 BC, evidencing early human consumption of seafood and rice. Since then, a large number of cultivated rice, farming tools, remains of dry fence buildings, remains of domestic livestock, and primitive religious items have been unearthed from related sites of the Hemudu culture (5000-4500 BC), evidencing the existence of human settlement and culture in the eastern part of the Ningshao Plain, where modern-day Ningbo is located.
Before the Han Dynasty, the area where Ningbo City is located today was sparsely populated. In the Xia Dynasty, the location of Ningbo was called "Yin". In the Chun Qiu period, the area where Ningbo belonged was the Yue State . At that time, the Yue King Goujian built the Juzhang City in the present-day Cicheng Town and became the earliest city in Ningbo. After the middle of the Warring States period, the area of Ningbo became the jurisdiction of Chu State . In 221 BC, Qin unified the six states and Ningbo area belonged to Kuaiji Commandery , with 3 counties of Yin, Yin, and Juzhang (some studies assert there were 4 counties of Yin, Yin, Juzhang, and Yuyao). In the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, Kuaiji Commandery where Ningbo was located once belonged to the Kingdom of Jing and Wu. After the Seven Kingdoms was settled, Kuaiji Commandery was restored. In 589 AD (Sui Kai Huang nine years) Yin, Mao, Yuyao County 4 county were merged under the Wu State.
Buddhism began to influence Ningbo during the period of Three Kingdoms, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties. The earliest Buddhist temple Puji Temple was built during the Three Kingdoms period. The two major Buddhist temples, Ashoka Temple and Tiantong Temple, can be traced back to the Western Jin Dynasty. Ningbo's coastal defense also started from that period. 132 AD ( the Western Han Yang Jia first year), as a safeguard against Zeng Jing rebels, Jia mouth (now the town of Haikou) set up the first garrison to garrison. In the Spring and Autumn Period before this, Juzhang Port has become an important military port.
Tang and Song dynasty
Since the Tang dynasty Ningbo has been an important commercial port. Arab traders lived in Ningbo during the Song dynasty when it was known as Mingzhou, as the ocean-going trade passages took precedence over land trade during this time. Another name for Mingzhou/Ningbo was Siming. It was a well known center of ocean-going commerce with the foreign world. These merchants did not intermingle with native Chinese, instead practicing their own customs and religion and inhabiting ghettos. They did not try to proselytize Islam to the Chinese.
Jews also lived in Ningbo, as evidenced by the fact that, after a major flood destroyed Torah scrolls in Kaifeng in 1642, a replacement was sent to the Kaifeng Jews by the Ningbo Jewish community.
Ming dynasty
The city of Ningbo was known in Europe for a long time under the name of Liampó. This is the usual spelling used e.g. in the standard Portuguese history, João de Barros's Décadas da Ásia, although Barros explained that Liampó was a Portuguese "corruption" of the more correct Nimpó. The spelling Liampó is also attested in the Peregrination (Peregrinação) by Fernão Mendes Pinto, a (so-called) autobiography written in Portuguese during the 16th century. For the mid-16th-century Portuguese, the nearby promontory, which they called the cape of Liampó, after the nearby "illustrious city" was the easternmost known point of the mainland Asia. The Portuguese began trading in Ningbo around 1522. By 1542, the Portuguese had a sizable community in Ningbo (or, more likely, on nearby small islands such as Shuangyu). Portuguese activities from their Ningbo base included pillaging and attacking multiple Chinese port cities around Ningbo for plunder and spoil. They also enslaved people during their raids. The Portuguese were ousted from the Ningbo area in 1548.
Qing dynasty
Ningbo was one of the five Chinese treaty ports opened by the Treaty of Nanjing (signed in 1842) at the end of the First Opium War between Britain and China. During the war, British forces briefly took possession of the walled city of Ningbo after storming the fortified town of Zhenhai at the mouth of the Yong River on October 10, 1841. The British subsequently repulsed a Chinese attempt to retake the city in the Battle of Ningpo on March 10, 1842. In 1861, the forces of the Taiping Rebellion took the city relatively unopposed as the defending garrison fled; they held the town for six months. In March 1885, during the Sino-French War, Admiral Courbet's naval squadron blockaded several Chinese warships in Zhenhai Bay and exchanged fire with the shore defenses.
Ningbo was also once famed for traditional Chinese furniture production. During the Qing dynasty, western encyclopedias described Ningbo as a center of craftsmanship and industry.
During the late Qing dynasty, in the 1800s, the Ningbo authorities contracted Cantonese pirates to exterminate and massacre Portuguese pirates who had raided Cantonese shipping around Ningbo. The massacre was "successful", with 40 Portuguese dead and only 2 Chinese dead, being dubbed "The Ningpo Massacre" by an English correspondent, who noted that the Portuguese pirates had behaved savagely towards the Chinese, and that the Portuguese authorities at Macau should have reined in the pirates.
During late Qing era, Western missionaries set up a Presbyterian Church in Ningbo. Li Veng-eing was a Reverend of the Ningpo Church. The Ningpo College was managed by Rev. Robert F. Fitch. The four trustees were natives of Ningbo, three of them had Taotai rank. Rev. George Evans Moule, B. A. was appointed a missionary to China by the Church of England Missionary Society, and arrived at Ningpo with Mrs. Moule in February 1858. He then began a mission station at Hang-chow, between which and Ningpo his time had been chiefly divided. He wrote Christian publications in the Ningbo dialect.
Republican era
During World War II in 1940, Japan bombed Ningbo with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying the bubonic plague. According to Daniel Barenblatt, Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda received, with Prince Mikasa, a special screening by Shiro Ishii of a film showing imperial planes loading germ bombs for bubonic dissemination over Ningbo in 1940.
"It has been said of the Ningbo fishermen that, 'no people in the world apparently made so great an advance in the art of fishing; and for centuries past no people have made so little further progress.'"
Between 80% to 90% of Ningbo's population fled the city during the Japanese invasion.
On April 18, 1942, two of the Doolittle Raid planes crashed near the coast of Ningbo.
Geography
Ningbo ranges in latitude from 28° 51' to 30° 33' N and in longitude from 120° 55' to 122° 16' E, bounded on the east by the East China Sea and Zhoushan Archipelago, on the north by Hangzhou Bay, across which it faces Jiaxing and Shanghai, on the west by Shaoxing, and on the south by Taizhou. Its land area is , while oceanic territory amounts to ; there is a total of coastline including of mainland coastline and of island coastline, together accounting for one-third of the entire provincial coastline. There are 531 islands accounting for under the city's administration.
Ningbo's city proper is sandwiched between the ocean and low-lying mountains to the southwest, with coastal plain and valleys in between. Important peninsulas include the Chuanshan Peninsula (), located in Beilun District and containing mainland Zhejiang's easternmost point, and the Xiangshan Peninsula () in Xiangshan County. The Siming Mountains () run north from Mount Tiantai and within Ningbo City, traverse Yuyao City, Haishu District, and Fenghua District, reaching a height of .
Tidal flat ecosystems occur adjacent to the city, however, a large areas have been reclaimed for agricultural purposes.
Climate
Ningbo has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) with four distinctive seasons, characterized by hot, humid summers and chilly, cloudy and dry winters (with occasional snow). The mean annual temperature is , with monthly daily averages ranging from in January to in July. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 12 January 1955 to on 8 August 2013. The city receives an average annual rainfall of and is affected by the plum rains of the Asian monsoon in June, when average relative humidity also peaks. From August to October, Ningbo experiences the effects of typhoons, and is affected by an average 1.8 storms annually, though the city is not often struck directly by these systems. A 2012 OECD study lists Ningbo among the top 20 cities worldwide most at risk of flooding due to anthropogenic climate change.
Administrative structure and divisions
Local officers of Ningbo
The Secretary of Party in Ningbo is Peng Jiaxue, who is first-in-charge of the city.
The Mayor of Ningbo is Qiu Dongyao, who is second-in command of the city, and the Vice Secretary of Party in Ningbo.
Administrative divisions of Ningbo
The sub-provincial city of Ningbo is as whole an urban group with one central group, one northern group, and one southern group.
It has direct jurisdiction over the following:
Six districts (central group): Haishu District, Yinzhou District, Jiangbei District, Beilun District, Zhenhai District, Fenghua District
Two county-level cities (northern group): Yuyao, Cixi
Two counties (southern group): Xiangshan, Ninghai
Defunct: Jiangdong District
Economy
Ningbo is an important port city located south of Shanghai. The city's export industry dates back to the 7th century. Today, Ningbo is a major exporter of electrical products, textiles, food, and industrial tools. The city's private sector is especially well-developed, contributing 80 percent of total GDP in 2013.
Historically, Ningbo was somewhat geographically isolated from other major cities. In 2007 the Hangzhou Bay Bridge was built, cutting highway transit time between Ningbo and Shanghai from four hours to two and a half. The city now serves as the economic center for the southern Yangtze River Delta and has been ranked among the most competitive cities in China.
In 2009, Ningbo's economic activity reached US$60.8 billion, down 10.4% from 2008. The exports totaled US$38.65 billion, down 16.6% from the previous year. In addition, Ningbo imported US$22.16 billion of goods, up 3.1% from the previous year.
Ningbo's economy grew 9.26% in 2013 to 712.89 billion yuan (US$115.12 billion). In 2009, the city's per capita output was US$10,833, about three times the national average.
Ningbo is famous for the Si Lan Nong Xiang flower, which is used for dying cloth. In 2008, Ningbo's cloth exports were responsible for 3% of its economic growth.
Foreign investment
With several important development zones established in or around Ningbo, the city has received considerable foreign investment. Over 60 domestic and foreign-invested financial institutions have established operations in the city, which has also attracted more than 10,000 foreigners. The municipal government offers preferential policies designed to encourage investment in international trade, new strategic industries, manufacturing, information services, and creative industries.
Economic and technological development zones
Ningbo Economic & Technological Development Zone
Located in the north-east of Ningbo, behind Beilun Port, NETD is away from the city center. With more than 20 years of great effort, NETD has already formed the general framework for large scale construction and development, and established the perfect investment environment. It is situated close to the Ningbo Port and Ningbo Lishe International Airport. Major Investors include Exxon Mobile, Dupont and Dow Chemical.
Ningbo Daxie Development Zone
The Ningbo Daxie Development Zone was approved in 1993 and covers an area of . Over more than ten years of development and construction, industrial and logistical foundations have been established in the zone for the transshipment of energy, liquid chemicals and containers.
Ningbo National Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone
Ningbo National Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone was founded in 1999 and was upgraded to a national level zone in January 2007. It is from Ningbo International Airport and away from Ningbo Port. The zone serves as the important technical innovation base of Yangtze River Delta. Industries encouraged include chemicals production and processing, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, raw material processing, Research and Development.
Ningbo Free Trade Zone
Ningbo Free Trade Zone is one of the 15 free trade zones authorized by the State Council of China, and is the only free trade zone in Zhejiang Province. It was established by State Council in 1992, covering the area of . It lies in the middle of the coastline of Mainland China, at the south of Yangtze River Delta. In 2008, its industrial output value was RMB 53.33 billion and grew at 19.8% as compared to 2007.
Nordic Industrial Park
The Nordic Industrial Park Co. Ltd. (NIP) is one of the first wholly foreign-owned industrial parks in China located in Ningbo, Zhejiang Province. NIP is managed and operated by a Scandinavian management team.
Ningbo Advertising Park
The Ningbo Advertising Park is a national level pilot park located in the Ningbo Southern Business District. The financial incentives have attracted over 300 relevant firms to establish operations.
Ningbo Port
Ningbo is not just an ordinary city—it has the same authority as provincial governments for economic administration—and has a port second only to Shanghai around the world in terms of annual cargo throughput. Unlike Shanghai, the port is deep-water and capable of handling 300,000 ton vessels. The port is located mainly in Beilun district and Zhenhai district. In 2006, Ningbo Port started its expansion towards the neighboring island city of Zhoushan for the purpose of building an even larger port with higher capacity to compete with neighboring ports in the region, such as Shanghai's Yangshan Deep-Water Port. The statistics in 2010 showed that total cargo throughput was 627,000,000 tons and container throughput 13,144,000 TEUs. With bulk container breakdowns, hugely improved logistics, and massive chemical and foodstuff, processing developments, Ningbo could win the race against Shanghai for the preeminent Chinese east coast port.
Ningbo is part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to the south, via Singapore towards the southern tip of India, via Mombasa to the Mediterranean, there via Athens to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and the Eastern Europe.
Tourism
Due to its long history and the prosperity in economics, Ningbo is a city with very rich rich tourist resources. Here is a list of the main tourist attractions that have been authorized by the Ningbo Municipal Bureau of Culture, Radio, Television and Tourism in each subdivisions of Ningbo city.
Main tourist attractions in 6 urban districts
Main tourist attractions in Haishu District
Moon Lake Park (Yuehu Park): Moon Lake (Yuehu) is a reservoir excavated in the Tang Dynasty (636 AD) at the center of Haishu District, which is the historic old Ningbo in ancient times. The park includes the lake itself, some small islands on the lake, and many ancient Chinese architectures and historical sites, such as:
Tianyi Pavilion (Tianyi Ge or Tianyi Chamber): One of Ningbo's most popular and famous tourist attractions, located in the vicinity of the Moon Lake (Yuehu). Built in 1516 AD, it is the oldest library existent in Asia and is one of the top 3 oldest private libraries in the world. The collection dates back to the 11th century and includes woodblock and handwritten copies of the Confucian classics, rare local histories and lists of the candidates successful in imperial examinations. The currently Tianyi Pavilion refers to the whole museum complex that includes:
The historical library-related buildings
The ancient Chinese mansion of the library's first owner, Fan Qing, built in Ming Dynasty (1516 AD)
A traditional Chinese Garden as part of Fan's mansion
An ancient private theater of Chinese plays as part of Fan's mansion
A small Mahjong (麻将) museum, since Ningbo is regarded one of the birthplace of Mahjong.
The Yuehu Mosque (Moon Lake Mosque): A historical monument it was built in 1003 AD in Song Dynasty.
Buddhist Jushi Lin: A 700-year old Buddhist residence located on the beautiful Liutingzhou (an island of the Moon Lake), the lake scenery and cultural landscape of the area.
Shuize Stele: A stone stele which is used to measure water level in Pingqiao River near the Moon Lake. It was firstly built in 1242 AD, South Song Dynasty, and protected by a pavilion which was built during the Qing Dynasty
He Mijian Ci (贺秘监祠): A cultural relic protection built in honor of a Chinese poet named He Zhizhang (賀知章, 659 AD–744 AD) in Tang Dynasty. He called himself the "Siming Crazy Guest", where "Siming" is the name of a mountain in Ningbo. The building was completed in Song Dynasty (1144 AD) and repaired in Qing Dynasty (1865 AD)
Ancient Korean Embassy: It was built to welcome the Korean envoys and business groups during the Northern Song Dynasty. Destroyed by war in 1130 AD, the site of the Korean embassy was announced as a cultural relics protection unit in 1984. Now It is a showroom for the history of relations between Mingzhou (ancient name of Ningbo) and Korea.
Central Lake Temple, Central Lake East Bridge, Zhenming Ridge and Xuanmiao Temple: A Ningbo-born novelist Qu You wrote a fiction called Peony Dengji (牡丹灯记, Janpanese: Botan Dōrō also known as 怪談牡丹灯籠 Tales of the Peony Lantern ) (in the collection of Jiandeng Xinhua). It describes a love story between ghost and a man during Fang Guozhen period. The story took place at the Moon Lake. Japanese scholar Koyama Issei identified many of the locations, including Central Lake Temple, Central Lake East Bridge, Zhenming Ridge and Xuanmiao temple, that would fit geographically and architecturally of the places mentioned in the story. The story was adapted as one of one of three Kaidan tales in Japan.
Drum Tower Complex (Haishu Tower): Constructed during the Tang Dynasty, it is the only remaining ruin of an old city gate tower in Ningbo. At the top, there is a six-meter high Romanesque bell tower added in the Republic period. Around the base of the tower is a commercial area where all the buildings are reconstructed in the traditional style.
Chenghuang Temple (Ningbo County Temple): An ancient commercial center in downtown Ningbo.
Tianfeng Pagoda: The national cultural relics protection site is a typical Song-style loft-style brick-wood structure tower unique to Jiangnan in China. This hexagonal building is a landmark and the tallest ancient structure in the city. It appears as a seven-story tower with another seven stories underground and is renowned for its long history, architectural value and ancient artifacts. The tower was first built in 695 in the Tang Dynasty (618 AD -907 AD);
Tianyi Square: located in the bustling old downtown of Ningbo City with the nationwide famous shopping complex, named after the Tianyi Ge (Chamber), the oldest private library in Asia
Nantang Old Street: An old commercial street by the river with many folk-custom shops, souvenir stores and small-eating restaurants. Previously, Nantang Street acted like a place for local pelple to have fairs and flea markets. In 2013, the street is renovated to become a tourist sites.
Liangzhu Cultural Park: A thema park of the story of Liang and Zhu, one of the four folklores in China, and is reputed as the oriental version of the famous play Romeo and Juliet.
Baiyun Manor: An ancient academy where Huang Zongxi (黄宗羲) gave lectures. Huang, whose style name is Taichong, is a distinguished thinker, writer and historian of the late Ming and early Qing periods.
Tashan Weir: An ancient dam erected during the Tang Dynasty.
Ningbo Wulongtan Scenic Scenic Resort: Also called Five-dragon Pools Scenic Resort, it is one of the Ten New Sceneries in Ningbo, a National AAAA rated scenic area.
Main tourist attractions in Yinzhou District
Ningbo Museum (Yinzhou Museum, or Ningbo Historic Museum): A museum focuses on Ningbo area history and traditional customs, considered the masterwork of Wang Shu, who is the first Chinese citizen to win the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 2012.
Romon U-Park: One of the largest urban indoor theme parks in the world
Ningbo Eastern New Town: Newly developed area of Ningbo City, with a well-designed CBD (including two 400m skyscrapers and other headquarters of many listed company and government offices), several museums, galleries, and shopping centers, including:
Ningbo Urban Planning Exhibition Center
Ningbo Hankyu Commercial Complex: Opened in 2021, it is the first overseas outlet of Hankyu, the famous Japanese department store.
Ningbo New Library
Yinzhou Park and Ningbo Southern CBD
Dongqian Lake: The largest natural freshwater lake in Zhejiang Province. The earliest historical record of the lake dates back to West Jin Dynasty, and there are several natural sceneries and historical attractions around the lake:
Little Putuo: An island on the lake with several temples built in Song Dynasty by a prime minister called Shihao .
Yuefei Temple: A temple built in Song Dynasty in memory of Yuefei.
Taogong Island: The place where Fanli and Xishi once lived according to folklore.
Southern Song Dynasty Rock Carving Park: won the "National Cultural Relics Conservation Best Project Award" awarded by the China National Architecture Research Association and the China Cultural Relics Conservation Foundation
Fuquan Mountain: a mountain with a Chinese tea theme park
Ningbo Hanling Old Street: an ancient street with a history thousands of years. It was once called Hanling City. The 'city' here means bazaar.
Qita Temple, a Zen Buddhist temple complex first consecrated during the Tang Dynasty in the downtown area of Ningbo city.
Tianhou Temple, a former temple of Mazu as the "Empress of Heaven" once used by Fujianese merchants as their guild hall (Qing'an Huiguan). In the 19th century, it was accounted by S. Wells Williams as the most beautiful place in Ningbo and by John Thomson as one of the most beautiful temples in China, but that structure was destroyed during the Chinese Civil War. It has been reconstructed with many of its original works of art, however, to form the East Zhejiang Maritime Affairs and Folk Customs Museum.
Temple of King Ashoka: a Buddhist temple first established in Western Jin Dynasty (282 AD).
Tiantong Temple: One of the "Five Chan Buddhism Temples". Tiantong Temple is the cradle of the Sōtō school (曹洞宗, Sōtō-shū) of Japanese Buddhism.
Ningbo Ocean World: An aquarium with an ocean theater
Ningbo Youngor Zoo
Ningbo Sakura Park (Zhongxing Sakura Park): A sakura park built to commemorate the friendship city between Ningbo City and Nagaoka City, Japan
Main tourist attractions in Jiangbei District
Sanjiangkou: Located on the borders of 3 urban districts of Ningbo city: Haishu District, Yingzhou District, and Jiangbei District. The place where the Yong River, Yaojiang River and Fenghua River meet, and it is also the heart of old Ningbo city.
Old Bund (Old Waitan): A waterfront area and a protected historical district in central of Ningbo, built earlier than the Bund of Shanghai, with lots of early 19th century architectures, stores and restaurants.
Baoguo Temple: The oldest intact wooden structure in eastern China. It is in the first batch of National Key Cultural Relics Protection Sites in China. Currently, it is the Baoguo Temple Ancient Architecture Museum, and has become a teaching and research base for many top architectural universities
Ningbo Museum of Art
Ningbo Museum of Garden (宁波园林博物馆)
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Ningbo
Cicheng Ancient Town: A very well-maintained ancient Chinese ancient walled city built in 8th century, including ancient-time schools, courts, temples, houses, commercial areas. In December 2009, the ancient buildings in Cicheng received the honorary award of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards for Culture Heritage Conservation by UNESCO.
Yaojiang Park
Main tourist attractions in Zhenhai District
Jiulong Lake
Zhaobao Mountain
The Seventeen Houses of Zheng's: The seventeen Houses of Zheng's represented the classical style of residences in Ming and Qing Dynasty in the south part of Yangtze River Basin. Every room constitutes its own system with unique layout and scientific structure and fine workmanship, which implies a great significance for research and sightseeing.
Ningbo Bang Museum and Culture Park: It mainly displays exhibits related to the Ningbo Gang (Ningbo Merchants Group), and the development history of the business gang. It was one of the ten largest commercial groups during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and it became the biggest commercial regional group of China in the Late Qing dynasty.
Yugang Bao's Old House
Main tourist attractions in Beilun District
Port Museum of China
Main tourist attractions in Fenghua District
Xuedou Temple
Main tourist attractions in 2 counties
Main tourist attractions in Xiangshan County
Yushan Islands
Nantian Island
Xiangshan Movie and Television Theme City
Main tourist attractions in Ninghai County
The Zhedong Grand Canyon
Nanxi Hot Spring
Qiantong Old Town
Main tourist attractions in 2 county-level cities
Main tourist attractions in Yuyao City (County)
Hemudu Culture Relics Site and Museum: The relic cite and museum of a Neolithic culture that flourished just south of the Hangzhou Bay The culture may be divided into early and late phases, before and after 4000 BC respectively. The site at Hemudu, 22 km northwest of Ningbo, was discovered in 1973. Hemudu sites were also discovered at Tianluoshan in Yuyao city, and on the islands of Zhoushan. Hemudu are said to have differed physically from inhabitants of the Yellow River sites to the north. Some authors propose that the Hemudu Culture was a source of the pre-Austronesian cultures.
Main tourist attractions in Cixi City (County)
Dapeng Mountain
Notable people
Many well known Chinese came from Ningbo or have Ningbo as their ancestral home.
People in mainland China
Zhang Jianhong, freelance writer, playwright, poet, and also a democracy activist
Pan Tianshou, an artist in Chinese painting
Zhou Xinfang, an artist in Peking opera
Sha Menghai, a master calligrapher
Tu Youyou, a scientist awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
People in Hong Kong
Run Run Shaw
Tung Chee Hwa
Tung Chao Yung
Chen Din Hwa
Stephen Chow
Sammo Hung
Yue-Kong Pao
People in Taiwan
Chiang Kai-shek, former President of the Republic of China, political and military leader of 20th century China
Chiang Ching-kuo, Chiang Kai-shek's son
Morris Chang
People overseas
Shien Biau Woo
Yo Yo Ma
Kin Yamei
Transportation
Bridge
As there are three main rivers running through Ningbo, it is crucial to build bridges to improve the efficiency of the transport network in Ningbo. The Ling Bridge which connects Haishu district and Jiangdong District is the earliest modern bridge built in Ningbo, designed by German engineers. Since the late 1980s, 16 bridges have been built on the three rivers. Currently another 27 bridges are under construction.
The Hangzhou Bay Bridge, a combination cable-stayed bridge and causeway across Hangzhou Bay, opened to the public on May 1, 2008. This bridge connects the municipalities of Shanghai and Ningbo, and is considered the longest trans-oceanic bridge in the world. It is the world's second-longest bridge, after the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in Louisiana, United States.
The Jintang Bridge, a 4 lane sea crossing bridge linking Jintang Island of Zhoushan and Zhenhai district, is a long opened on December 26, 2009.
The Xiangshan Harbor Bridge opened to traffic on December 29, 2012, connecting Ningbo with Xiangshan. The long project includes as the main body of the bridge and a 8 kilometer-long tunnel.
Sea
The port of Ningbo is one of the world's busiest ports. It was ranked number 1 in total Cargo Volume and number 3 in total container traffic since 2019.
Air
Ningbo Lishe International Airport connects Ningbo by air to the rest of China, with regularly scheduled domestic and international flights. In 2009, new air routes between Ningbo and Taiwan were opened. Jetstar Asia launched a new route between Ningbo and Singapore in September 2011. Tiger Air planned to begin flying this route from 26 December 2013.
Railway
Three railway lines intersect in Ningbo: the Xiaoshan–Ningbo Railway (Xiaoyong Line), which runs west to Hangzhou, the Ningbo–Taizhou–Wenzhou (Yongtaiwen) Railway, which runs south to Wenzhou, and the Hangzhou–Ningbo High-Speed Railway, which runs parallel to the Xiaoyong Line providing high-speed railway service.
With the booming economy in the region, the Xiaoyong Railway, a conventional railway built in the 1950s, could not meet the demand for railway travel between Zhejiang's two largest cities, so construction of a new high-speed railway line between Hangzhou and Ningbo started in 2009. The new railway line was finished by 2013 and reduced travel time between Ningbo and Hangzhou to 50 minutes.
The Ningbo–Taizhou–Wenzhou Railway is a high-speed railway that opened in September 2009. It connects Ningbo with cities along the coast to the south to Fujian Province. High-speed trains on this line operate at speeds of up to .
Ningbo re-opened the Ningbo railway station after three years of construction on December 28, 2013. With a construction area of more than 120,000 m2, it is one of the largest railway stations in China.
Expressway
Seven expressways connect Ningbo with its surrounding cities:
The Hangyong expressway, built in the 1990s, connects Hangzhou and Ningbo, now part of Hangzhou Bay ring expressway (G9211).
The Yongtaiwen expressway (G15), opened in 2000, connects Ningbo with Taizhou and Wenzhou.
The Yongjin expressway (G1512) connects Ningbo and Jinhua.
The Huyong expressway (G15) connects Ningbo and Shanghai via the Hangzhou Bay bridge.
The Yongzhou expressway (G9211) via Jintang Bridge.
The G1501 Ningbo Ring Expressway
The G15W2 Ningbo–Dongguan Expressway
Rapid rail transit and subway
Ningbo has multiple metro lines in service, under construction, and under authorized planning:
Since the Metro lines above serve mainly 6 urban districts of Ningbo, so Ningbo government announced several future plans to built further rapid transit to connect 6 urban districts with the county-level cities and counties.
Military
Ningbo serves as the headquarters of the East Sea Fleet of the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy.
Culture
As a city with giant ports, Ningbo influenced many countries near China, such as Japan.
Language
Ningbo speech is a dialect of Wu Chinese that has preserved many aspects of ancient Chinese phonology. Its original wording mode can be found in classical reference books. It can be found that the trisyllable and tetrasyllable phrases or proverbs in Ningbo dialect make it most unusual and dynamic. Moreover, the onomatopoeia, assonance words, collocations, inversions, and other language characteristics within Ningbo dialect all add spice to people's life. After the unequal treaty port opening, western culture gradually permeated Ningbo. Thus the prefix " yang" before the nouns of imported goods is a special language phenomenon of Ningbo dialect.
Food
Ningbo is known for Ningbo Tangyuan, small stuffed buns which are boiled. The stuffing is usually ground sesame mixed with sugar. It can also be mixed with pork fat. The stuffing is wrapped with sticky rice powder.
Even more so, Ningbo is famous throughout China for its seafood. Seafood markets are abundant, carrying countless varieties of fish, crabs/lobsters/shrimp, shellfish, snails, jellyfish and other invertebrates, and sea vegetables in all stages of preparation from "still swimming," to cleaned and ready to cook, to fully cooked.
Festivals
Ningbo has many traditional Han Chinese festivals same as other provinces in China. However, the date of Mid-Autumn Festival is different from others. Han Chinese will have Mid-Autumn Festival on Lunar Calendar August 15, but Ningbo will have on August 16th. The most creditable history for this is that long ago, the whole city waited for Shih Hao, a Southern Sung prime minister.
Education
At the end of the year 2020, there were 1,896 schools of all levels and types in the city, with a total of 1,418,000 students. Among them, there are 15 colleges and universities in Ningbo with 177,000 full-time students; 86 regular high schools with 93,000 students; 35 vocational schools with 69,000 students; 230 junior high schools with 21.7 (should this be 217,000 students? It is not 21.7 people) students. There are 427 primary schools with 517,000 students. At the end of the year, there were 838 full-time private primary and secondary schools (including kindergartens) in the city, with 258,000 students in school (including kindergartens), accounting for 21.7% of the city's full-time primary and secondary school (including kindergartens) students. In the compulsory education section, there are 288,000 children of migrant workers go to schools in Ningbo.
In the whole year of 2020, the city attract 1,372 more workers with doctoral degrees, with a total of 9,265; newly attracted 67,000 highly skilled talents, with a total of 551,000; newly attracted 35 post-doctoral research stations, with a total of 224; newly built skilled master jobs There are 10 offices, totaling 100. Throughout the year, 327,000 skilled personnel were trained in the city. In the whole year of 2020, 166,000 university graduates were attracted to Ningbo City, a year-on-year increase of 20.5%.
Higher-Educational institutions
Ningbo has 15 universities and colleges as of May 2021. Besides, Ningbo has many research institutions that offers graduate degree programs. Here is a list of current universities and colleges in Ningbo.
As of 2020, many famous universities and research institutions have an operating campus or institutes in Ningbo, most of them have been offering graduate degrees programs.
Compared to other 14 sub-provincial cities in China, Ningbo has the smallest number of higher-educational institutions.
Secondary and primary education
Compulsory education (basic education in Chinese terms) is from the ages 6 to 15. Students are catered to in a variety of state and private schools. Studying for the gaokao(高考), a test of a student's skill, is optional. At the end of the year 2020, there were 86 regular high schools with 93,000 students in Ningbo; 35 vocational schools with 69,000 students; 230 junior high schools with 21.7 students. There are 427 primary schools with 517,000 students. At the end of the year, there were 838 full-time private primary and secondary schools (including kindergartens) in the city, with 258,000 students in school (including kindergartens), accounting for 21.7% of the city's full-time primary and secondary school (including kindergartens) students. In the compulsory education section, there are 288,000 children of migrant workers go to schools in Ningbo.
International education
Several schools are permitted to operate foreign educational programs as an alternative to the Chinese National curriculum and accept international students.
Access International Academy Ningbo (AIAN) and Ningbo Zhicheng School International (NZSI) both offer the American AERO (American Education Reaches Out) curriculum with the College Board Advanced Placement examinations. Ningbo International School (NBIS) delivers the Cambridge International Primary and Secondary Curricula leading to iGCSE Examinations and A-Levels. Huamao Multicultural Education Academy is an IB World School and offers an international curriculum through the IB Primary Years Program for students ages 3–12 and the IB Diploma Program for students ages 16–19.
Twin towns – sister cities
Ningbo is twinned with:
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Jiangnan
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Ningbo
References
External links
Prefecture-level divisions of Zhejiang
Ningbo
National Forest Cities in China
Jiangnan | [
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250024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 10th Annual Grammy Awards | The 10th Annual Grammy Awards were held on February 29, 1968, at Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville and New York. They recognized accomplishments of musicians for the year 1967.
Award winners
Record of the Year
Johnny Rivers & Marc Gordon (producers) & The 5th Dimension for "Up, Up and Away"
Album of the Year
The Beatles & George Martin (producer) for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Song of the Year
Jimmy L. Webb (songwriter) for "Up, Up and Away" performed by The 5th Dimension
Best New Artist
Bobbie Gentry
Children's
Best Recording for Children
Boris Karloff for Dr. Seuss: How the Grinch Stole Christmas
Classical
Best Classical Performance - Orchestra
Igor Stravinsky (conductor) & the Columbia Symphony Orchestra for Stravinsky: Firebird and Petrouchka Suites
Best Classical Vocal Soloist Performance
Francesco Molinari-Pradelli (conductor), Leontyne Price, & the RCA Italiana Opera Orchestra for Prima Donna, Volume 2
Best Opera Recording
Thomas Z. Shepard (producer), Pierre Boulez (conductor), Walter Berry, Ingeborg Lasser, Isabel Strauss, Fritz Uhl & the Paris National Opera Orchestra & Chorus for Berg: Wozzeck
Best Classical Choral Performance (other than opera)
Leonard Bernstein (conductor) & the London Symphony Orchestra & Choir for Mahler: Symphony No. 8 in E Flat Major (Symphony of a Thousand)
Eugene Ormandy (conductor), Robert Page (choir director), the Temple University Choir & the Philadelphia Orchestra for Orff: Catulli Carmina
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with or without orchestra)
Vladimir Horowitz for Horowitz in Concert (Haydn, Schumann, Scriabin, Debussy, Mozart, Chopin)
Best Chamber Music Performance
Ravi Shankar & Yehudi Menuhin for West Meets East
Album of the Year, Classical
John McClure (producer), Leonard Bernstein (conductor), various artists & the London Symphony Orchestra for Mahler: Symphony No. 8 (Symphony of a Thousand)
Thomas Z. Shepard (producer), Pierre Boulez (conductor), Walter Berry, Ingeborg Lasser, Isabel Strauss, Fritz Uhl, Choeur Nationale de Paris & the Orchestra of Paris National Opera for Berg: Wozzeck
Comedy
Best Comedy Performance
Bill Cosby for Revenge
Composing and arranging
Best Instrumental Theme
Lalo Schifrin (composer) for "Mission: Impossible"
Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Show
Lalo Schifrin (composer) for Mission: Impossible
Best Instrumental Arrangement
Burt Bacharach (arranger) for Alfie
Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s)/Best Background Arrangement
Jimmie Haskell (arranger) for "Ode to Billie Joe" performed by Bobbie Gentry
Country
Best Country & Western Solo Vocal Performance, Female
Tammy Wynette for "I Don't Wanna Play House"
Best Country & Western Solo Vocal Performance, Male
Glen Campbell for "Gentle on My Mind"
Best Country & Western Performance Duet, Trio or Group (Vocal or Instrumental)
Johnny Cash & June Carter for "Jackson"
Best Country & Western Recording
Al De Lory (producer) & Glen Campbell for "Gentle on My Mind"
Best Country & Western Song
John Hartford (songwriter) for "Gentle on My Mind" performed by Glen Campbell
Folk
Best Folk Performance
John Hartford for Gentle On My Mind
Gospel
Best Gospel Performance
Porter Wagoner & The Blackwood Brothers for More Grand Old Gospel
Best Sacred Performance
Elvis Presley for How Great Thou Art
Jazz
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Small Group or Soloist With Small Group
Cannonball Adderley Mercy, Mercy, Mercy performed by the Cannonball Adderley Quintet
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Large Group or Soloist with Large Group
Duke Ellington for "Far East Suite"
Musical show
Best Score From an Original Cast Show Album
Fred Ebb, John Kander (composers), Goddard Lieberson (producer) & the original cast (Joel Grey, Jill Haworth, Lotte Lenya, Jack Gilford & Bert Convy) for Cabaret
Packaging and notes
Best Album Cover, Graphic Arts
Jann Haworth & Peter Blake (art directors) for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band performed by The Beatles
Best Album Cover, Photography
Robert Cato & John Berg (art directors) & Roland Scherman (photographer) for Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits performed by Bob Dylan
Best Album Notes
John D. Loudermilk (notes writer) for Suburban Attitudes in Country Verse performed by John D. Loudermilk
Pop
Best Vocal Performance, Female
Bobbie Gentry for "Ode to Billie Joe"
Best Vocal Performance, Male
Glen Campbell for "By the Time I Get to Phoenix"
Best Performance by a Vocal Group
The 5th Dimension for "Up, Up and Away"
Best Performance by a Chorus
Johnny Mann for "Up, Up and Away" performed by the Johnny Mann Singers
Best Instrumental Performance
Chet Atkins for Chet Atkins Picks the Best
Best Contemporary Female Solo Vocal Performance
Bobbie Gentry for "Ode to Billie Joe"
Best Contemporary Male Solo Vocal Performance
Glen Campbell for "By the Time I Get to Phoenix"
Best Contemporary Group Performance (Vocal or Instrumental)
The 5th Dimension for "Up, Up and Away"
Best Contemporary Single
Johnny Rivers & Marc Gordon (producers) & The 5th Dimension for "Up, Up and Away"
Best Contemporary Album
George Martin (producer) & The Beatles for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Recording - Non-Classical
Geoff E. Emerick (engineer) for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band performed by The Beatles
Best Engineered Recording, Classical
Edward T. Graham (engineer) & the Philadelphia Brass Ensemble for The Glorious Sound of Brass
R&B
Best R&B Solo Vocal Performance, Female
Aretha Franklin for "Respect"
Best R&B Solo Vocal Performance, Male
Lou Rawls for "Dead End Street"
Best Rhythm & Blues Group Performance, Vocal or Instrumental
Sam & Dave for "Soul Man"
Best Rhythm & Blues Recording
Aretha Franklin for "Respect"
Spoken
Best Spoken Word, Documentary or Drama Recording
Everett M. Dirksen for Gallant Men
References
010
1968 in California
1968 in Illinois
1968 in Los Angeles
1968 in Tennessee
1968 music awards
20th century in Chicago
20th century in Nashville, Tennessee
1968 in New York City
1968 in American music
February 1968 events in the United States | [
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250026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 11th Annual Grammy Awards | The 11th Annual Grammy Awards were held on March 12, 1969. They recognized accomplishments of musicians for the year 1968.
Award winners
Record of the Year
Paul Simon & Roy Halee (producers) & Simon & Garfunkel for "Mrs. Robinson"
Album of the Year
Al De Lory (producer) & Glen Campbell for By the Time I Get to Phoenix
Song of the Year
Bobby Russell (songwriter) for "Little Green Apples" performed by Roger Miller / O.C. Smith
Best New Artist
José Feliciano
Classical
Best Classical Performance - Orchestra
Pierre Boulez (conductor) & the New Philharmonia Orchestra for Boulez Conducts Debussy (La Mer; Prelude A L'Apres-Midi D'Un Faune; Jeux)
Best Vocal Soloist Performance
Carlo Felice Cillario (conductor), Montserrat Caballé & the RCA Italiana Opera Orchestra & Chorus for Rossini: Rarities
Best Opera Recording
Richard Mohr (producer), Erich Leinsdorf (conductor), Ezio Flagello, Sherrill Milnes, Leontyne Price, Judith Raskin, George Shirley, Tatiana Troyanos & the New Philharmonia Orchestra for Mozart: Cosi Fan Tutte
Best Choral Performance (other than opera)
Vittorio Negri (conductor), George Bragg, Gregg Smith, (choir directors), E. Power Biggs, the Edward Tarr Ensemble, the Gregg Smith Singers & the Texas Boys Choir for The Glory of Gabrieli
Best Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with or without orchestra)
Vladimir Horowitz for Horowitz on Television (Chopin, Scriabin, Scarlatti, Horowitz)
Best Chamber Music Performance
Vittorio Negri (conductor), E. Power Biggs & the Edward Tarr Ensemble for Glory of Gabrieli Vol. II - Canzonas for Brass, Winds, Strings and Organ
Comedy
Best Comedy Performance
Bill Cosby for To Russell, My Brother, Whom I Slept With
Composing and arranging
Best Instrumental Theme
Mason Williams (composer) for "Classical Gas"
Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special
Dave Grusin & Paul Simon (composers) for The Graduate performed by Simon & Garfunkel
Best Instrumental Arrangement
Mike Post (arranger) for "Classical Gas" performed by Mason Williams
Best Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s)
Jimmy L. Webb (arranger) for "MacArthur Park" performed by Richard Harris
Country
Best Country Vocal Performance, Female
Jeannie C. Riley for "Harper Valley PTA"
Best Country Vocal Performance, Male
Johnny Cash for "Folsom Prison Blues"
Best Country Performance, Duo or Group - Vocal or Instrumental
Flatt & Scruggs for "Foggy Mountain Breakdown"
Best Country Song
Bobby Russell (songwriter) for "Little Green Apples" performed by Roger Miller / O.C. Smith
Folk
Best Folk Performance
Judy Collins for "Both Sides Now"
Gospel
Best Gospel Performance
The Happy Goodman Family for The Happy Gospel of the Happy Goodmans
Best Soul Gospel Performance
Dottie Rambo for "The Soul of Me"
Best Sacred Performance
Jake Hess for "Beautiful Isle of Somewhere"
Jazz
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance - Small Group or Soloist with Small Group
Bill Evans for Bill Evans at the Montreux Jazz Festival performed by the Bill Evans Trio
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance - Large Group or Soloist with Large Group
Duke Ellington for "And His Mother Called Him Bill"
Musical show
Best Score From an Original Cast Show Album
Galt MacDermot, Gerome Ragni, James Rado (composers), Andy Wiswell (producer) the original cast (Ronnie Dyson, Gerome Ragni, Steve Curry, Lamont Washington, Diane Keaton, Melba Moore & James Rado) for Hair.
Packaging and notes
Best Album Cover
John Berg, Richard Mantell (art directors), Horn Grinner Studios (photographer) for Underground performed by Thelonious Monk
Best Album Notes
Johnny Cash (notes writer) for Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison performed by Johnny Cash
Pop
Best Contemporary-Pop Vocal Performance, Female
Dionne Warwick for "Do You Know the Way to San Jose?"
Best Contemporary-Pop Vocal Performance, Male
Jose Feliciano for "Light My Fire"
Best Contemporary-Pop Performance - Vocal Duo or Group
Simon & Garfunkel for "Mrs. Robinson"
Best Contemporary Pop Performance, Chorus
Alan Copeland (choir director) for "Mission Impossible/Norwegian Wood Medley" performed by the Alan Copeland Singers
Best Pop Instrumental Performance
Mason Williams for "Classical Gas"
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical
Hugh Davies & Joe Polito (engineers) for "Wichita Lineman" performed by Glen Campbell
Best Engineered Recording, Classical
Gordon Parry (engineer), Georg Solti (conductor) & the London Symphony Orchestra for Mahler: Symphony No. 9 in D
R&B
Best R&B Performance, Female
Aretha Franklin for "Chain of Fools"
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male
Otis Redding for "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" (posthumously)
Best Rhythm & Blues Performance by a Duo or Group, Vocal or Instrumental
The Temptations for "Cloud Nine"
Best Rhythm & Blues Song
Otis Redding & Steve Cropper (songwriters) for "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" performed by Otis Redding
Spoken
Best Spoken Word Recording
Rod McKuen for Lonesome Cities
References
011
1969 in California
1969 in Illinois
1969 in Los Angeles
1969 in Tennessee
1969 music awards
20th century in Chicago
20th century in Nashville, Tennessee
1969 in New York City
1969 in American music
March 1969 events in the United States | [
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250028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 12th Annual Grammy Awards | The 12th Annual Grammy Awards were held on March 11, 1970. They recognized accomplishments of musicians for the year 1969.
Award winners
Record of the Year
Bones Howe (producer) & The 5th Dimension for "Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In"
Album of the Year
James William Guercio (producer) & Blood, Sweat & Tears for Blood, Sweat & Tears
Song of the Year
Joe South for "Games People Play"
Best New Artist
Crosby, Stills & Nash
Children's
Best Recording for Children
Peter, Paul and Mary for Peter, Paul and Mommy
Classical
Best Classical Performance, Orchestra
Pierre Boulez (conductor) & the Cleveland Orchestra for Boulez Conducts Debussy, Vol. 2 "Images Pour Orchestre"
Best Vocal Soloist Performance, Classical
Thomas Schippers (conductor), Leontyne Price & the New Philharmonia for Barber: Two Scenes From "Antony and Cleopatra"/Knoxville, Summer of 1915
Best Opera Recording
Otto Gerdes (producer), Herbert von Karajan (conductor), Helga Dernesch, Thomas Stolze, Jess Thomas & the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra for Wagner: Siegfried
Best Choral Performance, Classical (other than opera)
Luciano Berio (conductor), Ward Swingle (choir director), the Swingle Singers & the New York Philharmonic for Berio: Sinfonia
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with or without orchestra)
Wendy Carlos for Switched-On Bach
Best Chamber Music Performance
The Chicago Brass Ensemble, Cleveland Brass Ensemble & Philadelphia Brass Ensemble for Gabrieli: Antiphonal Music of Gabrieli
Album of the Year, Classical
Rachel Elkind (producer) & Wendy Carlos for Switched-On Bach
Comedy
Best Comedy Recording
Bill Cosby for Bill Cosby, aka Sports.
Composing and arranging
Best Instrumental Theme
John Barry (composer) for Midnight Cowboy
Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special
Burt Bacharach (composer) for Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid
Best Instrumental Arrangement
Henry Mancini (arranger) for "Love Theme from Romeo and Juliet"
Best Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s)
Fred Lipsius (arranger) for "Spinning Wheel" performed by Blood, Sweat & Tears
Country
Best Country Vocal Performance, Female
Tammy Wynette for Stand By Your Man
Best Country Vocal Performance, Male
Johnny Cash for A Boy Named Sue
Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group
Waylon Jennings & the Kimberlys for MacArthur Park
Best Country Instrumental Performance
The Nashville Brass & Danny Davis for The Nashville Brass Featuring Danny Davis Play More Nashville Sounds
Best Country Song
Shel Silverstein (songwriter) for A Boy Named Sue performed by Johnny Cash
Folk
Best Folk Performance
Joni Mitchell for Clouds
Gospel
Best Gospel Performance
Porter Wagoner & the Blackwood Brothers for In Gospel Country
Best Soul Gospel Performance
Edwin Hawkins for Oh Happy Day performed by the Edwin Hawkins Singers
Best Sacred Performance (Non-Classical)
Jake Hess for Ain't That Beautiful Singing
Jazz
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Small Group or Soloist With Small Group
Wes Montgomery for Willow Weep for Me
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Large Group or Soloist With Large Group
Quincy Jones for Walking in Space
Musical show
Best Score From an Original Cast Show Album
Burt Bacharach, Hal David (composers), Henry Jerome, Phil Ramone (producers) & the original cast (Jerry Orbach, Jill O'Hara, Edward Winter, Donna McKecknie, A .L. Hines, Marian Mercer & Paul Reed) for Promises, Promises
Packaging and notes
Best Album Cover
David Stahlberg & Evelyn J. Kelbish (graphic artists) for America the Beautiful performed by Gary McFarland
Best Album Notes
Johnny Cash (notes writer) for Nashville Skyline performed by Bob Dylan
Pop
Best Contemporary Vocal Performance, Female
Peggy Lee for "Is That All There Is?"
Best Contemporary Vocal Performance, Male
Harry Nilsson for "Everybody's Talkin'"
Best Contemporary Vocal Performance by a Group
The 5th Dimension for "Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In"
Best Contemporary Performance by a Chorus
Percy Faith for "Love Theme From "Romeo and Juliet" performed by the Percy Faith Orchestra & Chorus
Best Contemporary Instrumental Performance
Blood, Sweat & Tears for "Variations on a Theme by Eric Satie"
Best Contemporary Song
Joe South for "Games People Play"
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical
Geoff E. Emerick & Phil McDonald (engineers) for Abbey Road performed by The Beatles
Best Engineered Recording, Classical
Wendy Carlos (engineer & artist) for Switched-On Bach
R&B
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female
Aretha Franklin for "Share Your Love With Me"
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male
Joe Simon for "The Chokin' Kind"
Best Rhythm & Blues Performance by a Duo or Group, Vocal or Instrumental
Isley Brothers for "It's Your Thing"
Best R&B Instrumental Performance
King Curtis for "Games People Play"
Best Rhythm & Blues Song
Richard Spencer (songwriter) for "Color Him Father" performed by The Winstons
Spoken
Best Spoken Word Recording
Art Linkletter & Diane Linkletter for We Love You Call Collect
References
012
1970 in California
1970 in Illinois
1970 in New York (state)
1970 in Tennessee
1970 music awards
20th century in Chicago
1970 in Los Angeles
20th century in Nashville, Tennessee
1970 in New York City
1970 in American music
March 1970 events in the United States | [
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250029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20poisoning | Iron poisoning | Iron poisoning typically occurs from ingestion of excess iron that results in acute toxicity. Mild symptoms which occur within hours include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and drowsiness. In more severe cases, symptoms can include tachypnea, low blood pressure, seizures, or coma. If left untreated, iron poisoning can lead to multi-organ failure resulting in permanent organ damage or death.
Iron is available over the counter as a single entity supplement in an iron salt form or in combination with vitamin supplements and is commonly used in the treatment of anemias. Overdoses on iron can be categorized as unintentional ingestion which is predominantly associated with children or intentional ingestion involving suicide attempts in adults. Unintentional ingestion of iron containing drug products are a major cause of mortality in children under the age of 6 years old in the United States. As a response, in 1997 the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) implemented a regulation requiring warning labels and unit dose packaging for products containing more than 30 mg of elemental iron per dose.
The diagnosis of iron poisoning is based on clinical presentation including laboratory tests for serum iron concentrations and metabolic acidosis along with physical examination. Treatment for iron poisoning involves providing fluid replacement, gastrointestinal decontamination, administering deferoxamine intravenously, liver transplants, and monitoring the patient's condition. The degree of intervention required depends on whether the patient is at risk for serious toxicity.
Signs and symptoms
Manifestation of iron poisoning may vary depending on the amount of iron ingested by the individual and is further classified by five stages based on timing of signs and symptoms. In mild to moderate cases, individuals may be asymptomatic or only experience mild gastrointestinal symptoms that resolve within six hours. In serious cases, individuals may present with systemic signs and symptoms and require treatment. Clinical presentation of iron poisoning in the absence of treatment progresses in five stages: the gastrointestinal phase, latent phase, metabolic acidosis and shock phase, hepatotoxicity phase, and bowel obstruction due to scarring.
The first indication of iron poisoning occurs within the first six hours post-ingestion and involves gastrointestinal symptoms including abdominal pain accompanied by nausea and vomiting with or without blood. Due to the disintegration of iron tablets, the stool may appear as black or dark green or gray. After the first stage, gastrointestinal symptoms appear to resolve in the latent phase and individuals may show signs of improvement. Following this stage, the iron begins to affect the cells of the body's organs which manifests as numerous systemic signs and symptoms developing after 6 to 72 hours, in the metabolic acidosis phase. Individuals may present with signs of cardiogenic shock indicated by low blood pressure, rapid heart rate and severe shortness of breath. Hypovolemic shock occurs due to loss of blood from the gastrointestinal bleeding caused by the iron. During this phase, metabolic acidosis may also develop damaging internal organs such as the brain and liver. In the fourth stage taking place 12 to 96 hours after ingestion, liver toxicity and failure occurs as the cells begin to die. In the last stage of iron poisoning following 2 to 8 weeks after ingestion, scarring of the gastrointestinal mucosal lining resulting in bowel obstruction.
Cause
Pathophysiology
Iron is essential for the production of hemoglobin in red blood cells which is responsible for transporting oxygen throughout the body. In normal physiologic conditions, nonionic forms of iron (Fe°) are converted into ferrous iron (Fe2+) by gastric acid in the stomach. Ferrous iron is then absorbed in the small intestine where it is oxidized into its ferric iron (Fe3+) form before being released into the bloodstream. Free iron in the blood is toxic to the body as it disrupts normal cell function, damaging organs such as the liver, stomach, and cardiovascular system. The human body has protective mechanisms in place to prevent excess free ferric iron from circulating the body. When being transported throughout the body, iron is bound to an iron transporting protein called transferrin to prevent iron from being absorbed into different cells. Any excess iron is stored as ferritin in the liver. In the event of iron overdose, iron stores become oversaturated and the body's protective mechanisms fail resulting in excess free circulating iron.
Toxic Dose
Iron poisoning can occur when doses of 20 to 60 mg/kg or more of elemental iron is ingested with most cases reporting primarily gastrointestinal symptoms. Systemic signs and symptoms shown in serious toxicity occur at higher doses exceeding 60 mg/kg. Ingesting above 120 mg/kg may be fatal. The therapeutic dose for iron deficiency anemia is 3–6 mg/kg/day. Individuals who have ingested less than 20 mg/kg of elemental iron typically do not exhibit symptoms. It is unlikely to get iron poisoning from diet alone with iron supplements being the cause of overdose. The amount of elemental iron in an iron supplement can be calculate based on the percentage it constitutes for per tablet. For example, a 300 mg tablet of ferrous fumarate will contain 100 mg of elemental iron or 33%.
Ferrous sulfate contains 20% elemental iron per mg of mineral salt
Ferrous gluconate contains 12% elemental iron per mg of mineral salt
Ferrous fumarate contains 33% elemental iron per mg of mineral salt
Diagnosis
Iron toxicity is primarily a clinical diagnosis that involves getting a detailed patient history and physical examination of the individuals signs and symptoms. Information such as how much iron was ingested and the timing should be gathered to assess the level of toxicity. Signs for severe iron poisoning should be evaluated such as any confusion or extreme lethargy, increased heart rates, low blood pressure for adults. In children, signs of shock can be noted with behavioral changes such as decreased responsiveness, crying, and inability to focus. Persistent vomiting is often associated with iron poisoning and also used to determine severity of iron poisoning. Laboratory tests such as measuring the peak serum iron level after 4 to 6 hours of ingestion can be useful in determining the severity of iron toxicity. In general, levels below 350mcg/dL are associated with more mild iron poisoning while upper levels above 500mcg/dL are associated with more severe iron poisoning. Measuring electrolyte levels, kidney function, serum glucose, liver function tests (enzymes and bilirubin), complete blood count, clotting time via prothrombin and partial thromboplastin time, anion gap for metabolic acidosis, should be conducted for clinical monitoring and confirmation of iron poisoning.
The deferoxamine challenge test is a diagnostic test for confirming iron poisoning, however it is no longer recommended for diagnostic purposes due to concerns regarding the accuracy. Deferoxamine can be administered intramuscularly as a single dose where it then binds to free iron in the blood and is excreted into the urine turning it to a "brick orange" or pink/red/orange color. Radiographs are no longer used for diagnosis due to the lack of connection between severity of iron toxicity and the presence of radiopaque iron tablets in the stomach on X-rays. This method also requires that the ingested tablet to be radiopaque which most iron preparations are not.
Treatment
Management of acute iron poisoning involves providing a patient with respiratory support and intravenous deferoxamine. Patients exhibiting severe symptoms in the gastrointestinal phase should receive volume resuscitation to prevent hypovolemic shock from the loss of blood volume. Normal saline is administered intravenously to maintain adequate volume of fluid in the body. Deferoxamine is a drug that is used in cases of serious iron poisoning. It is a chelating agent and binds to free iron in the body in order to be eliminated by the kidneys into urine. Dosing of deferoxamine should be determined through consultation with a toxicologist but is typically continuously infused at 15 mg/kg to 35 mg/kg per hour and not exceeding the maximum daily dose of 6 grams for adults. In pediatric patients, doses should not exceed 15 mg/kg per hour. recommended duration of treatment is until symptoms have resolved which is usually 24 hours. In fatal cases of iron poisoning where there is liver failure, liver transplantation may be necessary.
Treatment of iron poisoning should be based on clinical presentation, peak serum iron levels and other laboratory results. As a general guideline, patients who have ingested lower doses of elemental iron, have a peak serum iron level less than 500mcg/dL and are asymptomatic or only exhibit mild gastrointestinal symptoms typically do not require treatment and should be monitored for 6 hours after ingestion. In cases where high doses of elemental iron have been ingested and the patient is exhibiting signs and symptoms of severe systemic iron poisoning, supportive care measures like volume resuscitation and deferoxamine should be initiated immediately. A quick response to iron poisoning can significantly improve clinical outcomes.
See also
Overnutrition
Iron overload
References
External links
Iron poisoning in General Practice Notebook
Iron Poisoning at WebMD
Iron Poisoning Merck Manual
Poisoning
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250030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 23rd Annual Grammy Awards | The 23rd Annual Grammy Awards were held on February 25, 1981, at Radio City Music Hall in New York City and were broadcast live on American television. They recognized accomplishments by musicians from the year 1980.
Album of the Year went to Michael Omartian and Christopher Cross for Christopher Cross, Record and Song of the Year went to Christopher Cross for "Sailing". Cross was the first artist in Grammy history to win all four General Field awards in a single ceremony, bringing home Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best New Artist.
Award winners
Record of the Year
Michael Omartian (producer) & Christopher Cross for "Sailing"
Album of the Year
Michael Omartian (producer) & Christopher Cross for Christopher Cross
Song of the Year
Christopher Cross for "Sailing"
Best New Artist
Christopher Cross
Children's
Best Recording for Children
David Levine & Lucy Simon (producers) for In Harmony: A Sesame Street Record performed by various artists
Classical
Best Classical Orchestral Recording
Raymond Minshull (producer), Georg Solti (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Bruckner: Symphony No. 6 in A
Best Classical Vocal Soloist Performance
Henry Lewis (conductor), Leontyne Price & the Philharmonia Orchestra for Prima Donna, Vol. 5 - Great Soprano Arias From Handel to Britten
Best Opera Recording
Gunther Breest, Michael Horwath (producers), Pierre Boulez (conductor), Toni Blankenheim, Franz Mazura, Yvonne Minton, Teresa Stratas & the Orchestre de l'Opera de Paris for Berg: Lulu
Best Choral Performance, Classical
Carlo Maria Giulini (conductor), Norbert Balatsch (chorus master) & the Philharmonia Orchestra & Chorus for Mozart: Requiem
Best Classical Performance- Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with orchestra)
Bernard Haitink (conductor), Itzhak Perlman, Mstislav Rostropovich & the Concertgebouw Orchestra for Brahms: Violin and Cello Concerto in A Minor (Double Concerto)
Seiji Ozawa (conductor), Itzhak Perlman & the Boston Symphony Orchestra for Berg: Violin Concerto/Stravinsky: Violin Concerto in D
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (without orchestra)
Itzhak Perlman for The Spanish Album
Best Chamber Music Performance
Itzhak Perlman & Pinchas Zukerman for Music for Two Violins (Moszkowski: Suite For Two Violins/Shostakovich: Duets/Prokofiev: Sonata for Two Violins)
Best Classical Album
Gunther Breest, Michael Horwath (producers), Pierre Boulez (conductor), Toni Blankenheim, Franz Mazura, Yvonne Minton, Teresa Stratas, & the Orchestre de l'Opera de Paris for Berg: Lulu
Comedy
Best Comedy Recording
Rodney Dangerfield for No Respect
Composing and arranging
Best Instrumental Composition
John Williams (composer) for The Empire Strikes Back
Best Album of Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special
John Williams (composer) for The Empire Strikes Back
Best Instrumental Arrangement
Jerry Hey & Quincy Jones (arrangers) for "Dinorah, Dinorah" performed by George Benson
Best Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s)
Christopher Cross & Michael Omartian (arrangers) for "Sailing" performed by Christopher Cross
Best Arrangement for Voices
Janis Siegel (arranger) for "Birdland" performed by The Manhattan Transfer
Country
Best Country Vocal Performance, Female
Anne Murray for "Could I Have This Dance?"
Best Country Vocal Performance, Male
George Jones for "He Stopped Loving Her Today"
Best Country Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group
Emmylou Harris & Roy Orbison for "That Lovin' You Feelin' Again"
Best Country Instrumental Performance
Gilley's Urban Cowboy Band for "Orange Blossom Special/Hoedown"
Best Country Song
Willie Nelson (songwriter) for "On the Road Again"
Folk
Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording
Norman Dayron (producer) for Rare Blues performed by various artists
Gospel
Best Gospel Performance, Traditional
Blackwood Brothers for We Come to Worship
Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary or Inspirational
The Archers, Cynthia Clawson, Andrae Crouch, Tramaine Hawkins, Walter Hawkins, Dony McGuire, Reba Rambo & B.J. Thomas for The Lord's Prayer
Best Soul Gospel Performance, Traditional
James Cleveland & the Charles Fold Singers for Lord, Let Me Be an Instrument
Best Soul Gospel Performance, Contemporary
Shirley Caesar for Rejoice
Best Inspirational Performance
Debby Boone for With My Song I Will Praise Him
Historical
Best Historical Reissue Album
Keith Hardwick (producer) for Segovia - The EMI Recordings 1927-39
Jazz
Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Female
Ella Fitzgerald for A Perfect Match
Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Male
George Benson for "Moody's Mood"
Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist
Bill Evans for I Will Say Goodbye
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Group
Bill Evans for We Will Meet Again
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Big Band
Count Basie for On the Road
Best Jazz Fusion Performance, Vocal or Instrumental
The Manhattan Transfer for "Birdland"
Latin
Best Latin Recording
Cal Tjader for La Onda Va Bien
Musical show
Best Cast Show Album
Andrew Lloyd Webber (producer and composer), Tim Rice (producer and lyricist) & the original cast with Patti Lupone & Mandy Patinkin for Evita - Premier American Recording
Packaging and notes
Best Album Package
Roy Kohara (art director) for Against the Wind performed by Bob Seger & The Silver Bullet Band
Best Album Notes
David McClintick (notes writer) for Trilogy: Past, Present and Future performed by Frank Sinatra
Pop
Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female
The Rose-Bette Midler
Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male
This Is It-Kenny Loggins
Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
Guilty-Barbra Streisand & Barry Gibb
Best Pop Instrumental Performance
One on One-Bob James & Earl Klugh
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical
James Guthrie (engineer) for The Wall performed by Pink Floyd
Best Engineered Recording, Classical
Karl-August Naegler (engineer), Pierre Boulez (conductor) & the Orchestre de l'Opera de Paris for Berg: Lulu (Complete Version)
Producer of the Year, (Non-Classical)
Phil Ramone
Classical Producer of the Year
Robert Woods
R&B
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female
Stephanie Mills for "Never Knew Love Like This Before"
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male
George Benson for Give Me the Night
Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
The Manhattans for "Shining Star"
Best R&B Instrumental Performance
George Benson for "Off Broadway"
Best Rhythm & Blues Song
James Mtume & Reggie Lucas (songwriters) for "Never Knew Love Like This Before" performed by Stephanie Mills
Rock
Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female
Pat Benatar for Crimes of Passion
Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male
Billy Joel for Glass Houses
Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
Bob Seger & the Silver Bullet Band for Against the Wind
Best Rock Instrumental Performance
The Police for "Reggatta de Blanc"
Spoken word
Best Spoken Word, Documentary or Drama Recording
Pat Carroll for Gertrude Stein, Gertrude Stein, Gertrude Stein
Trivia
Christopher Cross became the first artist to win all four general-field awards in one night: Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best New Artist.
References
External links
23rd Grammy Awards at the Internet Movie Database
023
1981 music awards
1981 in New York City
Radio City Music Hall
1981 in American music
Grammy
February 1981 events in the United States | [
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250036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet%20Pond | Fleet Pond | Fleet Pond is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest in Fleet in Hampshire. It is also a Local Nature Reserve.
This large and shallow lake, fed by Fleet Brook, is surrounded by reed beds, alder carr and oak and birch woodland. The lake has a rich aquatic flora and fauna, including large populations of reed warblers and other wetland birds.
The pond has varied habitats surrounding it, including heathland, marsh, reedbed and woodland. The pond is first documented in 1324, when there were two ponds which were used as a fishery. In medieval times, "pond" always referred to a man-made structure, whereas "lake" referred to a natural feature, and so it is likely that the ponds were created by raising banks at the northern edge. From 1491, the Prior of Winchester leased the ponds to the occupier of Fleet Farm, in exchange for one hundred fresh fish a year, delivered to Winchester. When the lease was renewed in 1833, it was noted that there was now only one pond. The second pond was probably near Ancells Farm. Shortly afterwards, the London and Southampton Railway bought the pond for £50 as it stood in the way of their line, and built an embankment across the northern end. They appreciated its potential as a tourist destination, and opened Fleet Pond Halt so that day trippers could visit it. Much of the surrounding area became a military training ground in 1854, and as part of that training, soldiers built a trestle bridge across it in 1885. During the Second World War, the pond was drained, to make the area less visible to enemy aircraft, but it was refilled in 1947, and planted with reeds. The pond became one of the first SSSIs in Hampshire in 1951, and under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, duly re-registered, but to omit the portion north of the embankment. Hart District Council bought the pond and surrounding heath in 1972, after the army dubbed it redundant, and since 1976 has worked with the Fleet Pond Society to create a Local nature reserve. They have installed two bridges to create a circular walk around the pond.
References
External links
Fleet Pond Society
Local Nature Reserves in Hampshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Hampshire
Fleet, Hart | [
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250037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetuum%20mobile | Perpetuum mobile | In music, perpetuum mobile (English pronunciation /pərˌpɛtjʊəm ˈmoʊbɪleɪ/, /ˈmoʊbɪli/; literally, "perpetual motion"), moto perpetuo (Italian), mouvement perpétuel (French), movimento perpétuo (Portuguese) movimiento perpetuo (Spanish), carries two distinct meanings: first, as describing entire musical compositions or passages within them that are characterised by a continuous stream of notes, usually but not always at a rapid tempo; and also as describing entire compositions, or extended passages within them that are meant to be played in a repetitious fashion, often an indefinite number of times.
Types of perpetuum mobile composition
As a distinct composition, perpetuum mobile can be defined as one in which part or most of the piece is intended to be repeated an often unspecified number of times, without the "motion" of the melody being halted when a repeat begins.
Canons are often intended to be performed in a moto perpetuo fashion, and can thus be called canon perpetuus.
In some cases the repeats of a "perpetuum mobile" piece are at a different pitch, a modulation or a chord progression occurs during the repeatable part. Some of the riddle canons of Bach's are examples of this particular kind of perpetuum mobile/canon perpetuus.
Perpetuum mobile as a genre of separate musical compositions was at the height of its popularity by the end of the 19th century. Such pieces would often be performed as virtuoso encores, in some cases increasing the tempo along the repeats.
Examples
Perpetuum mobile pieces of both kinds include:
Baroque period
The Preludio from Bach's Partita for Violin No. 3 consists almost entirely of sixteenth notes.
Classical period
The finale of Haydn's String Quartet No. 53 in D major ("The Lark"), Op. 64, No. 5
The finale of Beethoven's 22nd piano sonata, and large segments of the finales of his Tempest and Appassionata sonatas (although these are not very fast; the Tempest and the 22nd sonata are only marked Allegretto, and the Appassionata is marked Allegro ma non troppo)
The second of Franz Schubert's Impromptus, D. 899
The fourth of Franz Schubert's moments musicaux (likewise not very fast, marked Moderato)
Romantic period
The finale of Carl Maria von Weber's Piano Sonata No. 1
Charles-Valentin Alkan's Le chemin de fer, op. 27, for piano
Felix Mendelssohn's Perpetuum mobile, op. 119, for piano
Ottokar Novacek's Perpetuum Mobile, for violin and piano
Nicolò Paganini's Moto perpetuo Op. 11 (No. 6) for violin
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's Flight of the Bumblebee, an interlude for his opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan
Johann Strauss II's Perpetuum Mobile: musikalischer Scherz for orchestra
Robert Schumann's Hasche-Mann from Kinderszenen
Bedřich Smetana's Album Leaf No.3 from Six Album Leaves Op. 2
Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1, third movement
Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 6, third movement
20th century
Mouvement (from Images, Set 1), a 1905 piano composition by Claude Debussy
The second movement of Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 2 (1912–1913)
Trois Mouvements perpétuels, a 1918 piano composition by Francis Poulenc
The end of the opera Wozzeck, Act III Scene 5, by Alban Berg (1914–1924)
The last movement of Maurice Ravel's Violin Sonata No. 2 (1923–1927)
The organ solo (movement 7) from Janáček's Glagolitic Mass (1926)
The last movement of the Violin Concerto by Samuel Barber (1939)
The last movement of Béla Bartók's Concerto for Orchestra(1943)
Prelude no. 2 in A minor from 24 Preludes and Fugues by Dmitri Shostakovich (1950–1951). Also the third movement of his Symphony No. 8 in C minor
The final movement of Benjamin Britten's Cello Sonata in C Major Op. 65 (1960). Also the third movement of his Suite for Violin and Piano Op. 6 (1935), the finale of his first solo cello suite (1964) and the penultimate movement of his third cello suite (1972)
Arvo Pärt's orchestral Perpetuum mobile (1963)
"Perpetuum Mobile" by Michael Roberts, used as the startup music for Thames Television and earlier ABC Television
"Perpetuum Mobile for pedals alone" a showpiece for Organ by Wilhelm Middelschulte
"Fracture", a moto perpetuo piece based on the whole-tone scale composed by guitarist Robert Fripp and included on the 1974 album Starless and Bible Black
"Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt (1976)
John Adams's Short Ride in a Fast Machine (1986)
"Perpetuum Mobile" by Penguin Cafe Orchestra (1987)
"Velocities (Moto Perpetuo)" for solo marimba by Joseph Schwantner(1990)
21st century
"Equus" by Eric Whitacre (2000)
The album Perpetuum Mobile by the German avant garde group Einstürzende Neubauten has some examples of the concept
Neil Peart's drum solo "Moto perpetuo" on Rush's 2011 album Time Machine 2011: Live in Cleveland
"Nonstop" by Juan María Solare, piano solo invention in the time signature 5/8 (2020).
References
Notes
References
Musical techniques
Musical terminology
Music genres | [
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250040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticha%20Penicheiro | Ticha Penicheiro | Patrícia Nunes "Ticha" Penicheiro, OIH (September 18, 1974) is a Portuguese sports agent and former basketball player. She played for the Sacramento Monarchs in the WNBA for most of her professional career. She was a four-time WNBA All-Star and a three-time All-WNBA selection. Penicheiro is regarded as one of the best point guards of all time, ranking 2nd all-time for most career assists and leading the WNBA in assists seven times, as well as winning a WNBA championship with the Monarchs in 2005. She is a 2019 inductee of the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame.
College years
Penicheiro was born in Figueira da Foz, Portugal. Penicheiro has played for professional clubs since her young teens, although she did not play at the senior level until after she starred in U.S. college basketball at Old Dominion University. She played at Old Dominion from 1994 to 1998 and helped lead the Lady Monarchs to the 1997 NCAA Championship game. In 1997, Penicheiro was named to the Final Four All Tournament team. During her playing time at ODU, Penicheiro collected 1,304 career points and finished her career as ODU's all-time steal leader with 591. She is second all-time at ODU on the career assist list to another ODU great Nancy Lieberman with 939. She is the Colonial Athletic Association's all-time leader in both assists and steals.
Penicheiro is a two-time Kodak All-American, selected in 1997 and 1998. She became ODU's second winner of the prestigious Lifetime/Wade Trophy and the first international player to win the honor. A four-time All-CAA honoree, Ticha was named the conference's Player-of-the Year in 1995-96 and 1996-97 while also claiming the Rookie of the Year award in 1994–95. She graduated from Old Dominion in 1998 with degrees in communications and interdisciplinary studies, and was inducted into the ODU Sports Hall of Fame in 2006.
Old Dominion statistics
Source
WNBA career
In 1998, Penicheiro joined the Sacramento Monarchs as a rookie, finishing third in the WNBA Rookie of the Year award voting. She is a four-time WNBA All-Star player. She has twice tied the WNBA's record with 16 assists in a single game. In 1999, she was selected as a WNBA first-team player. This was also the year she set her WNBA high in points, with 27 against the Minnesota Lynx. In 2001, she was selected as a member of the WNBA's second team.
She had, as of June 19, 2003, 1,027 career points in the WNBA; for an average of 6.8 per game, 1,121 assists; for a total of 7.5 per game, 615 rebounds; for a total of 4.1 per game, and 322 steals, for a total of 2.15 per game.
Penicheiro retired as the all-time WNBA leader in total assists and assists per game, although both records have since been surpassed, respectively by Sue Bird and Courtney Vandersloot. Penicheiro also holds the WNBA single-game record for most steals with 10.
Penicheiro is well known for her consistently flashy style of play. In 2005, she helped the Sacramento Monarchs win their first ever WNBA championship title.
After the Monarchs franchise became defunct, Penicheiro signed with the Los Angeles Sparks. In 2011, her second year with the team, she was voted in by fans as one of the Top 15 players in the fifteen-year history of the WNBA.
In February 2012, Penicheiro signed with the Chicago Sky, but her season statistics were significantly diminished due to injuries, and on September 18, she announced that she would retire from the WNBA at the end of the 2012 season.
Penicheiro was inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame in 2014.
In 2016, Penicheiro was named in the WNBA Top 20@20, a list of the WNBA's top 20 players of all time in celebration of the league's twentieth anniversary. She was also named to the WNBA's 25th anniversary team, The W25, in 2021.
WNBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| align="left" | 1998
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 30 || 30 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|36.0° || .333 || .233 || .642 || 4.7 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|7.5° || 2.2 || 0.1 || 3.87 || 6.3
|-
| align="left" | 1999
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 32 || 32 || 35.0 || .320 || .158 || .664 || 4.8 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|7.1° || 2.1 || 0.2 || 4.22 || 7.3
|-
| align="left" | 2000
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 30 || 30 || 31.2 || .368 || .200 || .579 || 3.0 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|7.9° || 2.3 || 0.2 || 2.37 || 6.9
|-
| align="left" | 2001
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 23 || 22 || 32.3 || .339 || .262 || .766 || 3.7 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|7.5° || 1.7 || 0.4 || 2.78 || 6.3
|-
| align="left" | 2002
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 24 || 24 || 35.5 || .377 || .250 || .728 || 4.3 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|8.0° || 2.7 || 0.0 || 2.88 || 8.5
|-
| align="left" | 2003
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 34 || 34 || 32.0 || .302 || .250 || .579 || 3.5 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|6.7° || 1.8 || 0.0 || 2.38 || 5.4
|-
| align="left" | 2004
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 32 || 32 || 29.4 || .354 || .338 || .714 || 3.1 || 4.9 || 1.9 || 0.1 || 2.18 || 6.0
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2005†
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 34 || 33 || 27.3 || .314 || .195 || .790 || 2.9 || 4.4 || 1.4 || 0.2 || 1.97 || 5.7
|-
| align="left" | 2006
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 34 || 34 || 24.9 || .339 || .194 || .792 || 2.7 || 3.4 || 1.7 || 0.1 || 1.97 || 5.4
|-
| align="left" | 2007
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 32 || 32 || 23.7 || .314 || .214 || .822 || 2.6 || 4.5 || 1.5 || 0.0 || 1.88 || 5.7
|-
| align="left" | 2008
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 33 || 33 || 25.9 || .374 || .286 || .809 || 3.0 || 5.2 || 2.0 || 0.1 || 2.64 || 8.6
|-
| align="left" | 2009
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 30 || 28 || 24.1 || .324 || .111 || .814 || 2.7 || 5.2 || 1.0 || 0.1 || 2.13 || 4.9
|-
| align="left" | 2010
| align="left" | Los Angeles
| 32 || 30 || 26.3 || .410 || .111 || .819 || 4.0 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|6.9° || 1.3 || 0.1 || 2.25 || 4.9
|-
| align="left" | 2011
| align="left" | Los Angeles
| 34 || 23 || 23.7 || .486 || .417 || .868 || 2.8 || 4.8 || 0.8 || 0.1 || 2.09 || 6.0
|-
| align="left" | 2012
| align="left" | Chicago
| 18 || 5 || 12.8 || .375 || .200 || .545 || 1.3 || 2.1 || 0.4 || 0.2 || 2.00 || 1.8
|-
| align="left" | Career
| align="left" |15 years, 3 teams
| 453 || 422 || 28.2 || .351 || .248 || .731 || 3.3 || 5.7 || 1.7 || 0.1 || 2.50 || 6.1
Postseason
|-
| align="left" | 1999
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 1 || 1 || 20.0 || .200 || .000 || 1.000 || 4.0 || 3.0 || 1.0 || 0.0 || 2.00 || 4.0
|-
| align="left" | 2000
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 2 || 2 || 38.5 || .250 || .500 || .833 || 3.5 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|7.0° || 2.0 || 0.0 || 3.00 || 8.0
|-
| align="left" | 2001
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 5 || 5 || 32.6 || .250 || .368 || 1.000 || 3.8 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|6.6° || 0.6 || 0.8 || 1.80 || 6.2
|-
| align="left" | 2003
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 6 || 6 || 23.8 || .333 || .250 || .875 || 2.3 || 3.0 || 1.0 || 0.5 || 1.17 || 4.2
|-
| align="left" | 2004
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 6 || 6 || 32.2 || .222 || .133 || .688 || 3.3 || 5.3 || 2.5 || 0.3 || 3.17 || 4.2
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2005†
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 6 || 6 || 27.0 || .323 || .000 || .800 || 4.0 || 5.2 || 1.0 || 0.2 || 2.33 || 5.3
|-
| align="left" | 2006
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 9 || 9 || 23.8 || .294 || .286 || .647 || 2.3 || 3.8 || 1.2 || 0.0 || 1.22 || 5.0
|-
| align="left" | 2007
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 3 || 3 || 23.0 || .273 || .000 || .600 || 2.3 || 5.0 || 2.3 || 0.0 || 3.33 || 6.0
|-
| align="left" | 2008
| align="left" | Sacramento
| 3 || 3 || 31.3 || .486 || .750 || .667 || 4.0 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|6.3° || 2.3 || 0.3 || 1.67 || 13.7
|-
| align="left" | 2010
| align="left" | Los Angeles
| 2 || 2 || 29.5 || .455 || .000 || 1.000 || 2.5 || 2.5 || 2.5 || 0.0 || 3.00 || 6.0
|-
| align="left" | Career
| align="left" |10 years, 2 teams
| 43 || 43 || 27.7 || .314 || .288 || .747 || 3.1 || 4.7 || 1.5 || 0.3 || 2.07 || 5.8
International career
Penicheiro was a member of Portugal's national women's basketball team. She was also on the Spartak Moscow Region team, with Tina Thompson, Sue Bird, and Diana Taurasi. She played for Galatasaray Medical Park of Turkey in the 2011–12 season.
Later career
When inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2019, she was an active agent with about 30 clients, among them current WNBA players Kayla McBride and Courtney Vandersloot.
Personal life
Penicheiro is an ardent supporter of the Special Olympics and supports ovarian cancer research, to honor one of her best friends who was diagnosed with the disease. Besides her native Portuguese, she speaks English, Spanish and conversational Italian. Father, João, was a former basketball player and now is coaches to an older brother, Paulo, who plays professionally in Portugal. She became an aunt when her brother and sister-in-law gave birth to their son João Miguel in 2009. Penicheiro also enjoys listening to R&B music and is an avid collector of watches and clothes. She had mentioned that during her playing career, she'd listened to Hip-Hop and R&B music before a game.
On February 20, 2013, Penicheiro became an American citizen, taking the oath with 1,200 others at the Sacramento Convention Center.
References
External links
1974 births
Living people
All-American college women's basketball players
American sports agents
Chicago Sky players
Galatasaray S.K. (women's basketball) players
Los Angeles Sparks players
Old Dominion Lady Monarchs basketball players
People from Figueira da Foz
People with acquired American citizenship
Point guards
Portuguese expatriate basketball people in Russia
Portuguese expatriate basketball people in Turkey
Portuguese expatriate basketball people in the United States
Portuguese emigrants to the United States
Portuguese women's basketball players
Sacramento Monarchs players
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250041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20awards%20and%20decorations | Military awards and decorations | Military awards and decorations are distinctions given as a mark of honor for military heroism, meritorious or outstanding service or achievement. A decoration is often a medal consisting of a ribbon and a medallion.
While the United States Government does not consider all its military awards and medals as being "decorations", other countries tend to refer to all of their military awards and medals as "decorations". Civil decorations awarded to military personnel should not be considered military decorations, although some orders of chivalry have civil and military divisions. Decorations received by police and fire brigade personnel may sometimes be considered alongside military decorations, on which they may be modelled, although they are strictly not military awards.
History
Decorations have been known since ancient times. The Egyptian Old Kingdom had the Order of the Golden Collar while the New Kingdom awarded the Order of the Golden Fly. Celts and Romans wore a torc or received other military decorations such as the hasta pura, a spear without a tip. Dayaks wore and still wear tattoos, etc. Necklaces and bracelets were given during the early Middle Ages, evolving into richly jewelled big necklaces, often with a pendant (commonly a medal) attached.
The oldest military decorations still in use is Sweden's För tapperhet i fält ("For Valour in the Field") and För tapperhet till sjöss ("For Valour at Sea") awarded to officers and soldiers of the Swedish Armed Forces who have—as the medal names suggest—shown valour in the field or at sea in wartime. The medal was instituted by Swedish king Gustav III on 28 May 1789, during his war against Russia. Whilst technically it is still active, it is for practical purposes inactive, not having been awarded since 1915. The next oldest was the Austro-Hungarian Tapferkeits Medaille Honour Medal for Bravery 1789–1792. This medal was instituted on 19 July 1789, by the Emperor Joseph II. Another of the oldest military decorations still in use is Poland's War Order of Virtuti Militari (Latin for "For Military Valour"). It was first awarded in 1792.
Forgery
Medals have been forged by many people to make the medal appear more valuable or to make one look like a more decorated soldier. Medal forgeries can include: adding bars, engraving a famous soldier's name on it or creating a whole new medal. Medal forgery is illegal in most countries and can be punishable by imprisonment.
Contemporary use
Today military decorations include:
Order of merit;
Bravery awards, in the form of a cross, star or medal on a ribbon;
Distinguished service awards, in the form of a cross, star or medal on a ribbon;
Campaign medals worn on a ribbon;
Service medals worn on a ribbon;
Awards for entire units, in the form of Battle honours, Campaign streamers, Fourragères, or unit citations.
In most NATO militaries, only the service ribbons are normally worn on everyday occasions (as opposed to the actual medals).
See also
List of military decorations
List of highest military decorations
Civil decoration
State decoration
Neck decoration
Commonwealth Realms orders and decorations
Awards and decorations of the United States military
Awards and decorations of the Russian Federation
Awards and decorations of the Soviet Union
Israeli Military decorations
Orders, decorations, and medals of Spain
Awards and decorations of the German Armed Forces
Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom
Medal inflation
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] |
250044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20railway%20museums%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom | List of railway museums in the United Kingdom | This is a list of railway museums in the United Kingdom.
England
Amberley Working Museum, Arundel, West Sussex
Astley Green Colliery Museum, Tyldesley, Greater Manchester
Bahamas Locomotive Society
Barrow Hill Engine Shed
Beamish museum
Bere Ferrers railway station
Bideford Railway Heritage Centre, Devon
Bishop's Castle Railway Museum
Bressingham Steam Museum, Norfolk
Bristol Harbour Railway and Industrial Museum
Buckinghamshire Railway Centre, Buckinghamshire
Cambrian Heritage Railways, Oswestry, Shropshire
Coleford Great Western Railway Museum, Coleford, Gloucestershire
Colonel Stephens Railways Museum, Tenterden
Crewe Heritage Centre, Crewe
Darlington Railway Centre and Museum (Recently renamed: Head of Steam)
Devon Railway Centre, Devon
Didcot Railway Centre
Doncaster Railway Works, Doncaster, South Yorkshire
Great Central Railway (Nottingham)
East Anglian Railway Museum
Heritage Shunters Trust
Hollycombe Steam Collection
Hopetown Carriage Works
Kew Bridge Steam Museum
Kidderminster Railway Museum
London Transport Museum
Locomotion, Shildon, County Durham (free entry)
Mangapps Railway Museum
Market Drayton Railway Preservation Society
Monkwearmouth Station Museum, Sunderland
Mid-Suffolk Light Railway, Suffolk
Middleton Railway, Leeds, West Yorkshire
Moseley Railway Trust
Museum of Rail Travel, Ingrow (West), Keighley
National Railway Museum, York, North Yorkshire (free entry)
National Tramway Museum, Crich, Derbyshire
North Ings Farm Museum
North Woolwich Old Station Museum
Northamptonshire Ironstone Railway Trust
Pendon Museum
Rushden Station Railway Museum
Rutland Railway Museum, Rutland
Shillingstone Railway Project, Dorset
Somerset & Dorset Railway Heritage Trust
Southall Railway Centre
Statfold Barn Railway, Tamworth
Stratford on Avon and Broadway Railway
Steam - Museum of the Great Western Railway, Swindon
Stephenson Railway Museum, North Shields
Tiverton Museum of Mid Devon Life, Devon
Tyseley Locomotive Works
Walthamstow Pump House Museum
Scotland
Alford Valley Railway
Faeming and Railway Visiting Centre
Ferryhill Railway Heritage Centre
Glasgow Museum of Transport
Glenfinnan Station Museum
Invergarry & Fort Augustus Railway Museum
Leadhills and Wanlockhead Railway
Maud Railway Museum
Scottish Industrial Railway Centre
Friends of The Kyle Line
Wales
Narrow Gauge Railway Museum – Gwynedd
Conwy Valley Railway Museum, Betws-y-Coed
Griffithstown Railway Museum (closed 2011)
Penrhyn Castle Railway Museum
Northern Ireland
Ulster Folk and Transport Museum
Downpatrick and County Down Railway
Whitehead Railway Museum
Isle of Man
Port Erin railway museum
Channel Islands
Pallot Heritage Steam Museum
See also
List of British heritage and private railways
Heritage railways in Northern Ireland
List of heritage railways
Mountain railway
List of Conservation topics
Conservation in the United Kingdom
List of railway companies
British Rail
References
British railway museums
Heritage railways in the United Kingdom
Railway
United Kingdom | [
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250046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20starling | Common starling | The common starling or European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), also known simply as the starling in Great Britain and Ireland, is a medium-sized passerine bird in the starling family, Sturnidae. It is about long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic sheen, which is speckled with white at some times of year. The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer; young birds have browner plumage than the adults. It is a noisy bird, especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations, with an unmusical but varied song. Its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature including the Mabinogion and the works of Pliny the Elder and William Shakespeare.
The common starling has about 12 subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and across the Palearctic to western Mongolia, and it has been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, Mexico, Argentina, South Africa and Fiji. This bird is resident in western and southern Europe and southwestern Asia, while northeastern populations migrate south and west in the winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa. The common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy, pale blue eggs are laid. These take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks. There are normally one or two breeding attempts each year. This species is omnivorous, taking a wide range of invertebrates, as well as seeds and fruit. It is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey, and is host to a range of external and internal parasites.
Large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests; however, starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops. Common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts. Introduced populations in particular have been subjected to a range of controls, including culling, but these have had limited success, except in preventing the colonisation of Western Australia.
The species has declined in numbers in parts of northern and western Europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks. Despite this, its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly, so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Taxonomy and systematics
The common starling was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current binomial name. Sturnus and vulgaris are derived from the Latin for "starling" and "common" respectively. The Old English , later , and the Latin are both derived from an unknown Indo-European root dating back to the second millennium BC. "Starling" was first recorded in the 11th century, when it referred to the juvenile of the species, but by the 16th century it had already largely supplanted "stare" to refer to birds of all ages. The older name is referenced in William Butler Yeats' poem "The Stare's Nest by My Window". The International Ornithological Congress's preferred English vernacular name is common starling.
The starling family, Sturnidae, is an entirely Old World group apart from introductions elsewhere, with the greatest numbers of species in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The genus Sturnus is polyphyletic and relationships between its members are not fully resolved. The closest relation of the common starling is the spotless starling. The non-migratory spotless starling may be descended from a population of ancestral S. vulgaris that survived in an Iberian refugium during an Ice Age retreat, and mitochondrial gene studies suggest that it could be considered a subspecies of the common starling. There is more genetic variation between common starling populations than between the nominate common starling and the spotless starling. Although common starling remains are known from the Middle Pleistocene, part of the problem in resolving relationships in the Sturnidae is the paucity of the fossil record for the family as a whole.
Subspecies
There are several subspecies of the common starling, which vary clinally in size and the colour tone of the adult plumage. The gradual variation over geographic range and extensive intergradation means that acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities.
Birds from Fair Isle, St. Kilda and the Outer Hebrides are intermediate in size between S. v. zetlandicus and the nominate form, and their subspecies placement varies according to the authority. The dark juveniles typical of these island forms are occasionally found in mainland Scotland and elsewhere, indicating some gene flow from faroensis or zetlandicus, subspecies formerly considered to be isolated.
Several other subspecies have been named, but are generally no longer considered valid. Most are intergrades that occur where the ranges of various subspecies meet. These include: S. v. ruthenus Menzbier, 1891 and S. v. jitkowi Buturlin, 1904, which are intergrades between vulgaris and poltaratskyi from western Russia; S. v. graecus Tschusi, 1905 and S. v. balcanicus Buturlin and Harms, 1909, which are intergrades between vulgaris and tauricus from the southern Balkans to central Ukraine and throughout Greece to the Bosporus; and S. v. heinrichi Stresemann, 1928, an intergrade between caucasicus and nobilior in northern Iran. S. v. persepolis Ticehurst, 1928 from southern Iran's (Fars Province) is very similar to vulgaris, and it is not clear whether it is a distinct resident population or simply migrants from southeastern Europe.
Description
The common starling is long, with a wingspan of and a weight of . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is , the culmen is and the tarsus is . The plumage is iridescent black, glossed purple or green, and spangled with white, especially in winter. The underparts of adult male common starlings are less spotted than those of adult females at a given time of year. The throat feathers of males are long and loose and are used in display while those of females are smaller and more pointed. The legs are stout and pinkish- or greyish-red. The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip; in the winter it is brownish-black but in summer, females have lemon yellow beaks with pink bases while males have yellow bills with blue-grey bases. Moulting occurs once a year- in late summer after the breeding season has finished; the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white (breast feathers) or buff (wing and back feathers), which gives the bird a speckled appearance. The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off. Juveniles are grey-brown and by their first winter resemble adults though often retaining some brown juvenile feathering, especially on the head. They can usually be sexed by the colour of the irises, rich brown in males, mouse-brown or grey in females. Estimating the contrast between an iris and the central always-dark pupil is 97% accurate in determining sex, rising to 98% if the length of the throat feathers is also considered. The common starling is mid-sized by both starling standards and passerine standards. It is readily distinguished from other mid-sized passerines, such as thrushes, icterids or small corvids, by its relatively short tail, sharp, blade-like bill, round-bellied shape and strong, sizeable (and rufous-coloured) legs. In flight, its strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive, while on the ground its strange, somewhat waddling gait is also characteristic. The colouring and build usually distinguish this bird from other starlings, although the closely related spotless starling may be physically distinguished by the lack of iridescent spots in adult breeding plumage.
Like most terrestrial starlings the common starling moves by walking or running, rather than hopping. Their flight is quite strong and direct; their triangular wings beat very rapidly, and periodically the birds glide for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight. When in a flock, the birds take off almost simultaneously, wheel and turn in unison, form a compact mass or trail off into a wispy stream, bunch up again and land in a coordinated fashion. Common starling on migration can fly at and cover up to .
Several terrestrial starlings, including those in the genus Sturnus, have adaptations of the skull and muscles that help with feeding by probing. This adaptation is most strongly developed in the common starling (along with the spotless and white-cheeked starlings), where the protractor muscles responsible for opening the jaw are enlarged and the skull is narrow, allowing the eye to be moved forward to peer down the length of the bill. This technique involves inserting the bill into the ground and opening it as a way of searching for hidden food items. Common starlings have the physical traits that enable them to use this feeding technique, which has undoubtedly helped the species spread far and wide.
In Iberia, the western Mediterranean and northwest Africa, the common starling may be confused with the closely related spotless starling, the plumage of which, as its name implies, has a more uniform colour. At close range it can be seen that the latter has longer throat feathers, a fact particularly noticeable when it sings.
Vocalization
The common starling is a noisy bird. Its song consists of a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical-sounding noises as part of a ritual succession of sounds. The male is the main songster and engages in bouts of song lasting for a minute or more. Each of these typically includes four varieties of song type, which follow each other in a regular order without pause. The bout starts with a series of pure-tone whistles and these are followed by the main part of the song, a number of variable sequences that often incorporate snatches of song mimicked from other species of bird and various naturally occurring or man-made noises. The structure and simplicity of the sound mimicked is of greater importance than the frequency with which it occurs. In some instances, a wild starling has been observed to mimic a sound it has heard only once. Each sound clip is repeated several times before the bird moves on to the next. After this variable section comes a number of types of repeated clicks followed by a final burst of high-frequency song, again formed of several types. Each bird has its own repertoire with more proficient birds having a range of up to 35 variable song types and as many as 14 types of clicks.
Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs have bonded. In the presence of a female, a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance, apparently attempting to entice the female in. Older birds tend to have a wider repertoire than younger ones. Those males that engage in longer bouts of singing and that have wider repertoires attract mates earlier and have greater reproductive success than others. Females appear to prefer mates with more complex songs, perhaps because this indicates greater experience or longevity. Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and deterring less experienced males from encroaching.
Along with having adaptions of the skull and muscles for singing, male starlings also have a much larger syrinx than females. This is due to increased muscle mass and enlarged elements of the syringeal skeleton. The male starling's syrinx is around 35% larger than its female counterpart. However, this sexual dimorphism is less pronounced than it is in songbird species like the zebra finch, where the male's syrinx is 100% larger than the female's syrinx.
Singing also occurs outside the breeding season, taking place throughout the year apart from the moulting period. The songsters are more commonly male although females also sing on occasion. The function of such out-of-season song is poorly understood. Eleven other types of call have been described including a flock call, threat call, attack call, snarl call and copulation call. The alarm call is a harsh scream, and while foraging together common starlings squabble incessantly. They chatter while roosting and bathing, making a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to people living nearby. When a flock of common starlings is flying together, the synchronised movements of the birds' wings make a distinctive whooshing sound that can be heard hundreds of metres away.
Behaviour and ecology
The common starling is a highly gregarious species, especially in autumn and winter. Although flock size is highly variable, huge, noisy flocks - murmurations - may form near roosts. These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey such as peregrine falcons or Eurasian sparrowhawks. Flocks form a tight sphere-like formation in flight, frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape, seemingly without any sort of leader. Each common starling changes its course and speed as a result of the movement of its closest neighbours.
Very large roosts, up to 1.5 million birds, form in city centres, woodlands and reedbeds, causing problems with their droppings. These may accumulate up to deep, killing trees by their concentration of chemicals. In smaller amounts, the droppings act as a fertiliser, and therefore woodland managers may try to move roosts from one area of a wood to another to benefit from the soil enhancement and avoid large toxic deposits.
Flocks of more than a million common starlings may be observed just before sunset in spring in southwestern Jutland, Denmark, over the seaward marshlands of Tønder and Esbjerg municipalities between Tønder and Ribe. They gather in March until northern Scandinavian birds leave for their breeding ranges by mid-April. Their swarm behaviour creates complex shapes silhouetted against the sky, a phenomenon known locally as sort sol ("black sun").
Flocks of anything from five to fifty thousand common starlings form in areas of the UK just before sundown during mid-winter. These flocks are commonly called murmurations.
Feeding
The common starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on both pest and other arthropods. The food range includes spiders, crane flies, moths, mayflies, dragonflies, damsel flies, grasshoppers, earwigs, lacewings, caddisflies, flies, beetles, sawflies, bees, wasps and ants. Prey are consumed in both adult and larvae stages of development, and common starlings will also feed on earthworms, snails, small amphibians and lizards. While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding, common starlings are omnivorous and can also eat grains, seeds, fruits, nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises. The Sturnidae differ from most birds in that they cannot easily metabolise foods containing high levels of sucrose, although they can cope with other fruits such as grapes and cherries. The isolated Azores subspecies of the common starling eats the eggs of the endangered roseate tern. Measures are being introduced to reduce common starling populations by culling before the terns return to their breeding colonies in spring.
There are several methods by which common starlings obtain their food, but, for the most part, they forage close to the ground, taking insects from the surface or just underneath. Generally, common starlings prefer foraging amongst short-cropped grasses and eat with grazing animals or perch on their backs, where they will also feed on the mammal's external parasites. Large flocks may engage in a practice known as "roller-feeding", where the birds at the back of the flock continually fly to the front where the feeding opportunities are best. The larger the flock, the nearer individuals are to one another while foraging. Flocks often feed in one place for some time, and return to previous successfully foraged sites.
There are three types of foraging behaviours observed in the common starling. "Probing" involves the bird plunging its beak into the ground randomly and repetitively until an insect has been found, and is often accompanied by bill gaping where the bird opens its beak in the soil to enlarge a hole. This behaviour, first described by Konrad Lorenz and given the German term zirkeln, is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags. It takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique, and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects. "Hawking" is the capture of flying insects directly from the air, and "lunging" is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground. Earthworms are caught by pulling from soil. Common starlings that have periods without access to food, or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding, compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat.
Nesting
Unpaired males find a suitable cavity and begin to build nests in order to attract single females, often decorating the nest with ornaments such as flowers and fresh green material, which the female later disassembles upon accepting him as a mate. The amount of green material is not important, as long as some is present, but the presence of herbs in the decorative material appears to be significant in attracting a mate. The scent of plants such as yarrow acts as an olfactory attractant to females.
The males sing throughout much of the construction and even more so when a female approaches his nest. Following copulation, the male and female continue to build the nest. Nests may be in any type of hole, common locations include inside hollowed trees, buildings, tree stumps and man-made nest-boxes. S. v. zetlandicus typically breeds in crevices and holes in cliffs, a habitat only rarely used by the nominate form. Nests are typically made out of straw, dry grass and twigs with an inner lining made up of feathers, wool and soft leaves. Construction usually takes four or five days and may continue through incubation.
Common starlings are both monogamous and polygamous; although broods are generally brought up by one male and one female, occasionally the pair may have an extra helper. Pairs may be part of a colony, in which case several other nests may occupy the same or nearby trees. Males may mate with a second female while the first is still on the nest. The reproductive success of the bird is poorer in the second nest than it is in the primary nest and is better when the male remains monogamous.
Breeding
Breeding takes place during the spring and summer. Following copulation, the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days. If an egg is lost during this time, she will lay another to replace it. There are normally four or five eggs that are ovoid in shape and pale blue or occasionally white, and they commonly have a glossy appearance. The colour of the eggs seems to have evolved through the relatively good visibility of blue at low light levels. The egg size is in length and in maximum diameter.
Incubation lasts thirteen days, although the last egg laid may take 24 hours longer than the first to hatch. Both parents share the responsibility of brooding the eggs, but the female spends more time incubating them than does the male, and is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost. The young are born blind and naked. They develop light fluffy down within seven days of hatching and can see within nine days. Once the chicks are able to regulate their body temperature, about six days after hatching, the adults largely cease removing droppings from the nest. Prior to that, the fouling would wet both the chicks' plumage and the nest material, thereby reducing their effectiveness as insulation and increasing the risk of chilling the hatchlings. Nestlings remain in the nest for three weeks, where they are fed continuously by both parents. Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another one or two weeks. A pair can raise up to three broods per year, frequently reusing and relining the same nest, although two broods is typical, or just one north of 48°N. Within two months, most juveniles will have moulted and gained their first basic plumage. They acquire their adult plumage the following year. As with other passerines, the nest is kept clean and the chicks' faecal sacs are removed by the adults.
Intraspecific brood parasites are common in common starling nests. Female "floaters" (unpaired females during the breeding season) present in colonies often lay eggs in another pair's nest. Fledglings have also been reported to invade their own or neighbouring nests and evict a new brood. Common starling nests have a 48% to 79% rate of successful fledging, although only 20% of nestlings survive to breeding age; the adult survival rate is closer to 60%. The average life span is about 2–3 years, with a longevity record of 22 years 11 months.
Predators and parasites
A majority of starling predators are avian. The typical response of starling groups is to take flight, with a common sight being undulating flocks of starling flying high in quick and agile patterns. Their abilities in flight are seldom matched by birds of prey. Adult common starlings are hunted by hawks such as the northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) and Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), and falcons including the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), Eurasian hobby (Falco subbuteo) and common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus). Slower raptors like black and red kites (Milvus migrans & milvus), eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), common buzzard (Buteo buteo) and Australasian harrier (Circus approximans) tend to take the more easily caught fledglings or juveniles. While perched in groups by night, they can be vulnerable to owls, including the little owl (Athene noctua), long-eared owl (Asio otus), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), barn owl (Tyto alba), tawny owl (Strix aluco) and Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo).
More than twenty species of hawk, owl and falcon are known to occasionally predate feral starlings in North America, though the most regular predators of adults are likely to be urban-living peregrine falcons or merlins (Falco columbarius). Common mynas (Acridotheres tristis) sometimes evict eggs, nestlings and adult common starlings from their nests, and the lesser honeyguide (Indicator minor), a brood parasite, uses the common starling as a host. Starlings are more commonly the culprits rather than victims of nest eviction however, especially towards other starlings and woodpeckers. Nests can be raided by mammals capable of climbing to them, such as small mustelids (Mustela spp.), raccoons (Procyon lotor) and squirrels (Sciurus spp.), and cats may catch the unwary.
Common starlings are hosts to a wide range of parasites. A survey of three hundred common starlings from six US states found that all had at least one type of parasite; 99% had external fleas, mites or ticks, and 95% carried internal parasites, mostly various types of worm. Blood-sucking species leave their host when it dies, but other external parasites stay on the corpse. A bird with a deformed bill was heavily infested with Mallophaga lice, presumably due to its inability to remove vermin.
The hen flea (Ceratophyllus gallinae) is the most common flea in their nests. The small, pale house-sparrow flea C. fringillae, is also occasionally found there and probably arises from the habit of its main host of taking over the nests of other species. This flea does not occur in the US, even on house sparrows. Lice include Menacanthus eurystemus, Brueelia nebulosa and Stumidoecus sturni. Other arthropod parasites include Ixodes ticks and mites such as Analgopsis passerinus, Boydaia stumi, Dermanyssus gallinae, Ornithonyssus bursa, O. sylviarum, Proctophyllodes species, Pteronyssoides truncatus and Trouessartia rosteri. The hen mite D. gallinae is itself preyed upon by the predatory mite Androlaelaps casalis. The presence of this control on numbers of the parasitic species may explain why birds are prepared to reuse old nests.
Flying insects that parasitise common starlings include the louse-fly Omithomya nigricornis and the saprophagous fly Camus hemapterus. The latter species breaks off the feathers of its host and lives on the fats produced by growing plumage. Larvae of the moth Hofmannophila pseudospretella are nest scavengers, which feed on animal material such as faeces or dead nestlings. Protozoan blood parasites of the genus Haemoproteus have been found in common starlings, but a better known pest is the brilliant scarlet nematode Syngamus trachea. This worm moves from the lungs to the trachea and may cause its host to suffocate. In Britain, the rook and the common starling are the most infested wild birds. Other recorded internal parasites include the spiny-headed worm Prosthorhynchus transverses.
Common starlings may contract avian tuberculosis, avian malaria and retrovirus-induced lymphomas. Captive starlings often accumulate excess iron in the liver, a condition that can be prevented by adding black tea-leaves to the food.
Distribution and habitat
The global population of common starlings was estimated to be 310 million individuals in 2004, occupying a total area of . Widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere, the bird is native to Eurasia and is found throughout Europe, northern Africa (from Morocco to Egypt), India (mainly in the north but regularly extending farther south and extending into the Maldives) Nepal, the Middle East including Israel, Syria, Iran, and Iraq, and northwestern China.
Common starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude 40°N are mainly resident, although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh, the ground frozen and food scarce. Large numbers of birds from northern Europe, Russia and Ukraine migrate south westwards or south eastwards. In the autumn, when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe, many of Britain's common starlings are setting off for Iberia and North Africa. Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross. Of the 15,000 birds ringed as nestlings in Merseyside, England, individuals have been recovered at various times of year as far afield as Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany and the Low Countries. Small numbers of common starlings have sporadically been observed in Japan and Hong Kong but it is unclear from whence these birds originated. In North America, northern populations have developed a migration pattern, vacating much of Canada in winter. Birds in the east of the country move southwards, and those from farther west winter in the southwest of the US.
Common starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites. Reedbeds are also favoured for roosting and the birds commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland, grazing pastures, playing fields, golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy. They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and are sometimes found in shrubby areas such as Australian heathland. Common starlings rarely inhabit dense, wet forests (i.e. rainforests or wet sclerophyll forests) but are found in coastal areas, where they nest and roost on cliffs and forage amongst seaweed. Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed them to disperse and establish themselves in diverse locations around the world resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests, from sea cliffs to mountain ranges above sea level.
Introduced populations
The common starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, North America, Fiji and several Caribbean islands. As a result, it has also been able to migrate to Thailand, Southeast Asia and New Guinea.
South America
Five individuals conveyed on a ship from England alighted near Lago de Maracaibo in Venezuela in November 1949, but subsequently vanished. In 1987, a small population of common starlings was observed nesting in gardens in the city of Buenos Aires. Since then, despite some initial attempts at eradication, the bird has been expanding its breeding range at an average rate of per year, keeping within of the Atlantic coast. In Argentina, the species makes use of a variety of natural and man-made nesting sites, particularly woodpecker holes.
Australia
The common starling was introduced to Australia to consume insect pests of farm crops. Early settlers looked forward to their arrival, believing that common starlings were also important for the pollination of flax, a major agricultural product. Nest-boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops. The common starling was introduced to Melbourne in 1857 and Sydney two decades later. By the 1880s, established populations were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of acclimatisation committees. By the 1920s, common starlings were widespread throughout Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales, but by then they were considered to be pests. Although common starlings were first sighted in Albany, Western Australia in 1917, they have been largely prevented from spreading to the state. The wide and arid Nullarbor Plain provides a natural barrier and control measures have been adopted that have killed 55,000 birds over three decades. The common starling has also colonised Kangaroo Island, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and Tasmania.
New Zealand
The early settlers in New Zealand cleared the bush and found their newly planted crops were invaded by hordes of caterpillars and other insects deprived of their previous food sources. Native birds were not habituated to living in close proximity to man so the common starling was introduced from Europe along with the house sparrow to control the pests. It was first brought over in 1862 by the Nelson Acclimatisation Society and other introductions followed. The birds soon became established and are now found all over the country including the subtropical Kermadec Islands to the north and the equally distant Macquarie Island far to the south.
North America
After two failed attempts, about 60 common starlings were released in 1890 into New York's Central Park by Eugene Schieffelin. He was president of the American Acclimatization Society, which reportedly tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America, although this has been disputed. About the same date, the Portland Song Bird Club released 35 pairs of common starlings in Portland, Oregon. These birds became established but disappeared around 1902. Common starlings reappeared in the Pacific Northwest in the mid-1940s and these birds were probably descendants of the 1890 Central Park introduction. The original 60 birds have since swelled in number to 150 million, occupying an area extending from southern Canada and Alaska to Central America.
Polynesia
The common starling appears to have arrived in Fiji in 1925 on Ono-i-lau and Vatoa islands. It may have colonised from New Zealand via Raoul in the Kermadec Islands where it is abundant, that group being roughly equidistant between New Zealand and Fiji. Its spread in Fiji has been limited, and there are doubts about the population's viability. Tonga was colonised at about the same date and the birds there have been slowly spreading north through the group.
South Africa
In South Africa, the common starling was introduced in 1897 by Cecil Rhodes. It spread slowly, and by 1954, had reached Clanwilliam and Port Elizabeth. It is now common in the southern Cape region, thinning out northwards to the Johannesburg area. It is present in the Western Cape, the Eastern Cape and the Free State provinces of South Africa and lowland Lesotho, with occasional sightings in KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng and around the town of Oranjemund in Namibia. In Southern Africa populations appear to be resident and the bird is strongly associated with man and anthropogenic habitats. It favours irrigated land and is absent from regions where the ground is baked so dry that it cannot probe for insects. It may compete with native birds for crevice nesting sites but the indigenous species are probably more disadvantaged by destruction of their natural habitat than they are by inter-specific competition. It breeds from September to December and outside the breeding season may congregate in large flocks, often roosting in reedbeds. It is the most common bird species in urban and agricultural areas.
West Indies
In 1901, the inhabitants of Saint Kitts petitioned the Colonial Secretary for a ″government grant of starlings to exterminate″ an outbreak of grasshoppers which was causing enormous damage to their crops. The common starling was introduced to Jamaica in 1903, and the Bahamas and Cuba were colonised naturally from the US. This bird is fairly common but local in Jamaica, Grand Bahama and Bimini, and is rare in the rest of the Bahamas and eastern Cuba.
Status
The global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than 310 million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly, so the bird is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern. It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 60s. In about 1830, S. v. vulgaris expanded its range in the British Isles, spreading into Ireland and areas of Scotland where it had formerly been absent, although S. v. zetlandicus was already present in Shetland and the Outer Hebrides. The common starling has bred in northern Sweden from 1850 and in Iceland from 1935. The breeding range spread through southern France to northeastern Spain, and there were other range expansions particularly in Italy, Austria and Finland. It started breeding in Iberia in 1960, while the spotless starling's range had been expanding northward since the 1950s. The low rate of advance, about per year for both species, is due to the suboptimal mountain and woodland terrain. Expansion has since slowed even further due to direct competition between the two similar species where they overlap in southwestern France and northwestern Spain.
Major declines in populations have been observed from 1980 onward in Sweden, Finland, northern Russia (Karelia) and the Baltic States, and smaller declines in much of the rest of northern and central Europe. The bird has been adversely affected in these areas by intensive agriculture, and in several countries it has been red-listed due to population declines of more than 50%. Numbers dwindled in the United Kingdom by more than 80% between 1966 and 2004; although populations in some areas such as Northern Ireland were stable or even increased, those in other areas, mainly England, declined even more sharply. The overall decline seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds, which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices. The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available, and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced.
Relationship with humans
Benefits and problems
Since common starlings eat insect pests such as wireworms, they are considered beneficial in northern Eurasia, and this was one of the reasons given for introducing the birds elsewhere. Around 25 million nest boxes were erected for this species in the former Soviet Union, and common starlings were found to be effective in controlling the grass grub Costelytra zealandica in New Zealand. The original Australian introduction was facilitated by the provision of nest boxes to help this mainly insectivorous bird to breed successfully, and even in the US, where this is a pest species, the Department of Agriculture acknowledges that vast numbers of insects are consumed by common starlings.
Common starlings introduced to areas such as Australia or North America, where other members of the genus are absent, may affect native species through competition for nest holes. In North America, chickadees, nuthatches, woodpeckers, purple martins and other swallows may be affected. In Australia, competitors for nesting sites include the crimson and eastern rosellas. For its role in the decline of local native species and the damages to agriculture, the common starling has been included in the IUCN List of the world's 100 worst invasive species.
European, or common, starlings are habitat generalists meaning they are able to exploit a multitude of habitats, nest sites and food sources. This, coupled with them being lowland birds that easily coexist with humans, enables them to take advantage of other native birds, most particularly woodpecker. European starlings are considered aggressive omnivores that utilize an open-bill probing technique that gives them an evolutionary advantage over birds that are frugivores. Their aggressive and gregarious behaviour in terms of food thus allows them to outcompete native species. Common starlings are also aggressive in the creation of their nest cavities. Often, starlings will usurp a nest site, for example a tree hollow, and fill it rapidly with bedding and contaminants compared to other species, like the native parrots, that use little to no bedding. As cavity nesters, they are able to outcompete many native species in terms of habitat and nest sites.
Common starlings can eat and damage fruit in orchards such as grapes, peaches, olives, currants and tomatoes or dig up newly sown grain and sprouting crops. They may also eat animal feed and distribute seeds through their droppings. In eastern Australia, weeds like bridal creeper, blackberry and boneseed are thought to have been spread by common starlings. Agricultural damage in the US is estimated as costing about US$800 million annually. This bird is not considered to be as damaging to agriculture in South Africa as it is in the United States.
Common starlings take advantage of agricultural fields, livestock facilities, and other human related sources of food and nest sites. Starlings often assault crops such as grapes, olives, and cherries by consuming excessive amounts of crops in large flock sizes and in new grain fields, starlings pull up young plants and eat the seeds. In caged trials, it was shown that starlings eat 7-23 g of animal food daily and 20-40 g of plant food meaning a decent portion of crops are consumed by these birds. Bird damage to grapes in 1968 cost upwards to $4.4 million while losing almost 17% of the crops. As well, these birds often congregate at feeding troughs to eat grain and concurrently contaminate the food and water source with their droppings that were provided for livestock. For example, high protein supplements added to cattle feed are selectively eaten by common starlings. In 1968, the cost of cattle rations consumed during winter by starlings was $84 per 1,000 starlings and is proposed to be much more expensive today given an increase in current cattle feed costs. The English or house sparrow (Passer domesticus) and the common starling are considerable agricultural pests, together causing an estimated US$1 billion per year in crop damages.
The large size of flocks can also cause problems. Common starlings may be sucked into aircraft jet engines, one of the worst instances of this being an incident in Boston in 1960, when sixty-two people died after a turboprop airliner flew into a flock and plummeted into the sea at Winthrop Harbor. The large roosts of the common starling pose many safety hazards for aircraft, mainly including the clogging of engines that concurrently shutdown the plane into descent. From the years 1990–2001, 852 incidents of aircraft hazard due to starlings and blackbirds were reported with 39 strikes causing major damage that cost a total of $1,607,317.
Starlings' droppings can contain the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, the cause of histoplasmosis in humans. At roosting sites this fungus can thrive in accumulated droppings. There are a number of other infectious diseases that can potentially be transmitted by common starlings to humans, although the potential for the birds to spread infections may have been exaggerated. The spread of disease to livestock is also a concern, possibly more important than starling's effects on food consumption or transmission of disease to humans. The spreading of Histoplasmosis reported in a Nebraska manufacturing facility saw a loss of 10,000 pigs from the spread of the disease which is valued at $1 million US dollars loss in today's market.
Control
Due to the impact of starlings on crop production, there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings. Within the natural breeding range, this may be affected by legislation. For example, in Spain, the species is hunted commercially as a food item, and has a closed season, whereas in France, it is classed as a pest, and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year. In Great Britain, starlings are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, which makes it "illegal to intentionally kill, injure or take a starling, or to take, damage or destroy an active nest or its contents". The Wildlife Order in Northern Ireland allows, with a general licence, "an authorised person to control starlings to prevent serious damage to agriculture or preserve public health and safety". This species is migratory, so birds involved in control measures may have come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected. In Europe, the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may have limited long-term results. Non-lethal techniques such as scaring with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case.
Huge urban roosts in cities can create problems due to the noise and mess made and the smell of the droppings. In 1949, so many birds landed on the clock hands of London's Big Ben that it stopped, leading to unsuccessful attempts to disrupt the roosts with netting, repellent chemical on the ledges and broadcasts of common starling alarm calls. An entire episode of The Goon Show in 1954 was a parody of the futile efforts to disrupt the large common starling roosts in central London.
Where it is introduced, the common starling is unprotected by legislation, and extensive control plans may be initiated. Common starlings can be prevented from using nest boxes by ensuring that the access holes are smaller than the diameter they need, and the removal of perches discourages them from visiting bird feeders.
Western Australia banned the import of common starlings in 1895. New flocks arriving from the east are routinely shot, while the less cautious juveniles are trapped and netted. New methods are being developed, such as tagging one bird and tracking it back to establish where other members of the flock roost. Another technique is to analyse the DNA of Australian common starling populations to track where the migration from eastern to western Australia is occurring so that better preventive strategies can be used. By 2009, only 300 common starlings were left in Western Australia, and the state committed a further A$400,000 in that year to continue the eradication programme.
In the United States, common starlings are exempt from the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, which prohibits the taking or killing of migratory birds. No permit is required to remove nests and eggs or kill juveniles or adults. Research was undertaken in 1966 to identify a suitable avicide that would both kill common starlings and would readily be eaten by them. It also needed to be of low toxicity to mammals and not likely to cause the death of pets that ate dead birds. The chemical that best fitted these criteria was DRC-1339, now marketed as Starlicide. In 2008, the United States government poisoned, shot or trapped 1.7 million birds, the largest number of any nuisance species to be culled. In 2005, the population in the United States was estimated at 140 million birds, around 45% of the global total of 310 million.
The likelihood of starlings to damage the feeding operations is dependent on the number of livestock, favoring areas with more livestock. They also show preference for feed types which were not whole corn but smaller feeds, creating more damage in areas where the feed was smaller. They also showed feed preference based on composition. A proposed solution to this problem is use of less palatable feed by agriculturalists, perhaps relying on larger feed types or feed which is less favorable in composition to starlings. An additional solution for mitigation control involves ensuring that livestock feeding operations are not within close proximity of each other or starling roosts. Weather conditions also had an impact on whether starlings visited livestock feeding operations, with a higher likelihood to visit in colder temperatures or following snow storms.
Alternatives to managing starling populations in agricultural areas include the use of starlicide. Use of starlicide has been found to reduce the spread of Salmonella enterica in livestock and other diseases found among livestock. Though this does not appear to eliminate introduction of these diseases completely, it has been determined that they are contributors and starling control is a successful mitigation strategy.
In science and culture
Common starlings may be kept as pets or as laboratory animals. Austrian ethologist Konrad Lorenz wrote of them in his book King Solomon's Ring as "the poor man's dog" and "something to love", because nestlings are easily obtained from the wild and after careful hand rearing they are straightforward to look after. They adapt well to captivity, and thrive on a diet of standard bird feed and mealworms. Several birds may be kept in the same cage, and their inquisitiveness makes them easy to train or study. The only disadvantages are their messy and indiscriminate defecation habits and the need to take precautions against diseases that may be transmitted to humans. As a laboratory bird, the common starling is second in numbers only to the domestic pigeon.
The common starling's gift for mimicry has long been recognised. In the medieval Welsh Mabinogion, Branwen tamed a common starling, "taught it words", and sent it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brothers, Bran and Manawydan, who then sailed from Wales to Ireland to rescue her. Pliny the Elder claimed that these birds could be taught to speak whole sentences in Latin and Greek, and in Henry IV, William Shakespeare had Hotspur declare "The king forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer. But I will find him when he is asleep, and in his ear I'll holler 'Mortimer!' Nay I'll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but Mortimer, and give it to him to keep his anger still in motion."
Mozart had a pet common starling which could sing part of his Piano Concerto in G Major (KV. 453). He had bought it from a shop after hearing it sing a phrase from a work he wrote six weeks previously, which had not yet been performed in public. He became very attached to the bird and arranged an elaborate funeral for it when it died three years later. It has been suggested that his A Musical Joke (K. 522) might be written in the comical, inconsequential style of a starling's vocalisation. Other people who have owned common starlings report how adept they are at picking up phrases and expressions. The words have no meaning for the starling, so they often mix them up or use them on what to humans are inappropriate occasions in their songs. Their ability at mimicry is so great that strangers have looked in vain for the human they think they have just heard speak.
Common starlings are trapped for food in some Arab countries. The meat is tough and of low quality, so it is casseroled or made into pâté. One recipe said it should be stewed "until tender, however long that may be". Even when correctly prepared, it may still be seen as an acquired taste.
Notes
References
Cited texts
Translated by Murtha Baca and Stephen Sartarelli from Artusi's La scienza in cucina e l'arte di mangiare bene, first published in 1891.
External links
Very noisy Starling flocks in Scotland
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.7 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Feathers of common starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
Kalmbach, E R; Gabrielson, I N (1921) "Economic value of the starling in the United States" USDA Bulletin 868
(European) Common starling - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Species Profile - European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library.
common starling
Articles containing video clips
Birds described in 1758
Birds of Central Asia
Birds of Europe
Birds of North America
Birds of Pakistan
Migratory birds (Eastern Hemisphere)
Talking birds
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250049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belial | Belial | Belial (, Bəlīyyaʿal) is a term occurring in the Hebrew Bible which later became personified as the devil in Christian texts. Alternate spellings include Baalial, Balial, Belhor, Beliall, Beliar, Berial, Bylyl and Beliya'al. In the Secret Book of John, an early Gnostic text, the ruler of the underworld is referred to as Belias.
Hebrew Bible
Belial is a Hebrew word "used to characterize the wicked or worthless". The etymology of the word is often understood as "lacking worth", from two common words: beli- (בְּלִי "without-") and ya'al (יָעַל "to be of value").
Some scholars translate it from Hebrew as "worthless" (Beli yo'il), while others translate it as "yokeless" (Beli ol), "may he have no rising" or "never to rise" (Beli ya'al). Only a few etymologists have believed it to be an invented name from the start.
The word occurs twenty-seven times in the Masoretic Text, in verses such as the Book of Proverbs (), where the King James Version (KJV) translates the Hebrew phrase adam beli-yaal as "a naughty person".
In the Hebrew text, the phrase is either "sons of Belial" or simply "sons of worthlessness". Phrases beginning with "sons of" are a common Semitic idiom, such as "sons of destruction" or "sons of lawlessness".
Of these 27 occurrences, the idiom "sons of Belial" (בְּנֵֽי־בְלִיַּעַל beni beliyaal) appears 15 times to indicate worthless people, including idolaters (Deuteronomy 13:13), the men of Gibeah (Judges 19:22, 20:13), the sons of Eli (1 Samuel 2:12), Nabal, and Shimei. The Geneva Bible (1560) uses "wicked", and at the Book of Judges 19:22 has the marginal note "Ebr [Hebrew] men of Belial: that is, given to all wickednes." In the KJV these occurrences are rendered with "Belial" capitalised:
"the sons of Eli were sons of Belial" (KJV)
In modern versions these are usually read as a phrase:
"the sons of Eli were worthless men" (1 Samuel 2:12, NRSV and NIV)
"the wicked men of the city" (Judges 19:22, NIV)
"Belial" is applied to ideas, words, and counsel, to calamitous circumstances, and most frequently, to worthless men of the lowest sort, such as men who would induce worship of other gods; those of Benjamin who committed the sex crime at Gibeah; the wicked sons of Eli; insolent Nabal; opposers of God's anointed, David; Rehoboam's unsteady associates; Jezebel's conspirators against Naboth; and men in general who stir up contention. Indicating that the enemy power would no longer interfere with the carrying out of true worship by his people in their land, YHWH declared through his prophet: "No more will any worthless person pass again through you. In his entirety he will certainly be cut off."
Second Temple period
The term belial appears frequently in Jewish texts of the Second Temple period (texts classified by Christians as the Old Testament pseudepigrapha and apocrypha). Also a large number of references to Belial are evidenced in the Dead Sea Scrolls discovered at Qumran from 1948.
Dead Sea Scrolls
In The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, one of the Dead Sea scrolls, Belial is the leader of the Sons of Darkness:
You made Belial for the pit, angel of enmity; in darkness is his domain, his counsel is to bring about wickedness and guilt. All the spirits of his lot are angels of destruction, they walk in the laws of darkness; towards it goes their only desire.
In the Rules of the Community, God is depicted as saying, "I shall not comfort the oppressed until their path is perfect. I shall not retain Belial within my heart." Belial controls scores of demons, which are specifically allotted to him by God for the purpose of performing evil. Belial, despite his malevolent disposition, is considered an angel.
Belial's presence is found throughout the War Scrolls and is established as the force occupying the opposite end of the spectrum of God. In Col. I, verse 1, the first line of the document, it is stated that "the first attack of the Sons of Light shall be undertaken against the forces of the Sons of Darkness, the army of Belial." This dichotomy sheds light on the negative connotations that Belial held at the time.
The War Scroll and the Thanksgiving hymns both delve into the idea that Belial is accursed by God and his people, and shows how the existence of Belial in this world can be attributed to the mysteries of God since we can not know why he permits the dealings of Belial to persist.
In the Dead Sea Scrolls, Belial is further contrasted with God. These are the Angel of Light and the Angel of Darkness. The Manual of Discipline identifies the Angel of Light as God himself. The Angel of Darkness is identified in the same scroll as Belial.
Also in The Dead Sea Scrolls is a recounting of a dream of Amram, the father of Moses, who finds two 'watchers' contesting over him. One is Belial who is described as the King of Evil and Prince of Darkness. Belial is also mentioned in the Fragments of a Zadokite Work (which is also known as The Damascus Document (CD)), which states that during the eschatological age, "Belial shall be let loose against Israel, as God spoke through Isaiah the prophet." The Fragments also speak of "three nets of Belial" which are said to be fornication, wealth, and pollution of the sanctuary. In this work, Belial is sometimes presented as an agent of divine punishment and sometimes as a rebel, as Mastema is. It was Belial who inspired the Egyptian sorcerers, Jochaneh and his brother, to oppose Moses and Aaron. The Fragments also say that anyone who is ruled by the spirits of Belial and speaks of rebellion should be condemned as a necromancer and wizard.
Jubilees
In the Book of Jubilees, uncircumcised Israelites are called "sons of Belial".
Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs
Belial is also mentioned in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. The author of the work seems to be a dualist because he presents Belial as God's opponent, not as a servant, but does not mention how or why this came to be. Simeon 5:3 says that fornication separates man from God and brings him near to Belial. Levi tells his children to choose between the Law of God and the works of Belial It also states that when the soul is constantly disturbed, the Lord departs from it and Belial rules over it. Naphtali contrasts the Law and will of God with the purposes of Belial. Also, in 20:2, Joseph prophesies that when Israel leaves Egypt, they will be with God in light while Belial will remain in darkness with the Egyptians. Finally, the Testament describes that when the Messiah comes, the angels will punish the spirits of deceit and Belial and that the Messiah will bind Belial and give to his children the power to trample the evil spirits.
Ascension of Isaiah
In the Ascension of Isaiah, Belial is the angel of lawlessness and "the ruler of this world", and identified as Samael and Satan.
Christianity
The word occurs just once in the New Testament, when Paul the Apostle asks:
The spelling found in most manuscripts of 2 Corinthians is actually Beliar (Βελιάρ) not Belial (Βελίαλ). This is the reading preferred by textual scholars and the change of -l to -r is attributed to a common change in Aramaic pronunciation.
The Jewish Greek Septuagint, later the Old Testament of the early Christian church, generally renders the "sons of Belial" verses in the Hebrew Bible either as "lawless men", by idioms "sons of the pestilence", rather than a personal name "sons of Belial":
andres paranomoi ("lawless men" ἄνδρες παράνομοι) (Deuteronomy 13:13)
huioi loimoi ("sons of the plague" υἱοὶ λοιμοὶ) (1 Samuel 2:12)
The Septuagint also avoids Belial in the singular so Shimei (2 Samuel 16:7) when he cursed David, "Come out, come out, thou bloody man, and thou man of Belial" is rendered "you lawless man" (paranomos), and Hannah to Eli "Count not thine handmaid for a daughter of Belial" is rendered "don't count your maidservant as a daughter of the pest." The Latin Vulgate and Syriac Peshitta Old Testaments in some cases follow the Greek, in other literalize as Hebrew. The single New Testament use is preserved "Belial" in Latin and Syriac.
Resurrection of Jesus Christ (by Bartholomew)
In the Resurrection of Jesus Christ (by Bartholomew) of the New Testament apocrypha, Belial was visible along with 666 fallen angels when Michael was commanded by Jesus to show Hell to his disciples.
Rabbinical literature
The Talmud and rabbinical interpretation generally follow a non-supernatural view, an allegorical personification of evil, as with rabbinical interpretations of evil. The phrase "sons of Belial" from the Torah continued to retain currency.
English literature
John Milton, Paradise Lost, Book I:
BELIAL came last, than whom a Spirit more lewd
Fell not from Heaven, or more gross to love
Vice for it self: To him no Temple stood
Or Altar smoak'd; yet who more oft then hee
In Temples and at Altars, when the Priest
Turns Atheist, as did ELY'S Sons, who fill'd
With lust and violence the house of God.
In Courts and Palaces he also Reigns
And in luxurious Cities, where the noyse
Of riot ascends above thir loftiest Towrs,
And injury and outrage: And when Night
Darkens the Streets, then wander forth the Sons
Of BELIAL, flown with insolence and wine.
Witness the Streets of SODOM, and that night
In GIBEAH, when hospitable Dores
Yielded thir Matrons to prevent worse rape.
John Milton, Paradise Lost, Book 2:
... On th' other side up rose
BELIAL, in act more graceful and humane;
A fairer person lost not Heav'n; he seemd
For dignity compos'd and high exploit:
But all was false and hollow; though his Tongue
Dropt Manna, and could make the worse appear
The better reason, to perplex and dash
Maturest Counsels: for his thoughts were low;
To vice industrious, but to Nobler deeds
Timorous and slothful: yet he pleas'd the eare...
Robert Browning (1839), "Soliloquy of the Spanish Cloister", eighth stanza:
Or, my scrofulous French novel
On gray paper with blunt type !
Simply glance at it, you grovel
Hand and foot in BELIAL's gripe:
If I double down its pages
At the woeful sixteenth print,
When he gathers his greengages,
Ope a sieve and slip it in't?
Occult
The 17th-century grimoire The Lesser Key of Solomon mentions Belial, as does Aleister Crowley's Goetia (1904) and Anton LaVey's The Satanic Bible (1969). In The Satanic Bible (The Book of Belial), Belial means "without a master", and symbolizes independence, self-sufficiency, and personal accomplishment.
In 1937, Edgar Cayce used the term "sons of belial" and "sons of the law of one" for the first time in one of his deep trance readings given between 1923 and 1945. Cayce was often referred to as the "sleeping prophet" who gave over 2,500 readings to individuals while in a deep trance state. While his definition of the sons of belial was consistent with the Hebrew meaning of "worthless" individuals focused on self-gratification, Cayce went on to use the term frequently to compare opposing human forces at work in pre-historical times related to the early development of Atlantis.
In popular culture
Popular culture in the 20th century included many references to Belial; notably in the celebrated silent film Nosferatu (1922), Aldous Huxley's novel Ape and Essence (1948), Philip K. Dick's novel The Divine Invasion (1981), the cult horror film Basket Case (1982), Dean Koontz's novel Phantoms (1983), and Graham Masterton's novel Master of Lies (1991). Belial has also experienced a resurgence in popularity during the 21st Century in numerous media, with video games being the most prominent.
Digimon Adventure 2 BelialVamdemon
In the Gothic (series) game series Beliar is the god of death.
In the 2005 horror film, The Exorcism of Emily Rose, Belial is featured as the Devil's representative who possesses the title character.
In the real time strategy game Dungeon Keeper'''s Deeper Dungeons expansion the final level is titled "Belial".
In the role playing game Vampire: the Requiem, Belial's Brood is a covenant of vampires that serve Vice and evil forces, consorting with infernal spirits for power.
Blizzard Entertainment's video game Diablo 3 has Belial function as the final boss of Act 2 in its storyline. In the City of Caldeum, where Belial takes residence, there are definite Arabic tones for the art direction and setting in the aforementioned chapter. Also known as the "Lord of Lies" and the "Master of Deception", Belial is regarded as one of the four Lesser Evils in the mortal realm that seek to make this world an outpost of Hell itself.
Westwood Studios's PC game Lands of Lore: Guardians of Destiny features Belial as its main antagonist, portraying him as an evil god with a devil-like appearance.
In the Warhammer 40k universe Belial is the current Grand Master of the Deathwing of the Dark Angels Space Marine Chapter which has other characters named after bleaker Abrahamic entities, such as Samael, the poison of God, and Azrael, the Angel of Death.
In the mobile game Puzzle and Dragons, Belial is a monster that is part of the Archdemon series.
In the book The Little Ships by J.A. Sutherland, the main character sails in a spaceship named Belial.
"Belial's Meat" is a health item in the video game Off by Mortis Ghost.
In the video game Binding of Isaac, the Book of Belial is an activated item that increases damage for the current room.
In the mobile game Crash Fever, Belial is one of the first protagonists.
In Granblue Fantasy, Belial is a "fallen angel", appearing in the What Makes The Sky Blue 2 and 3 event(s) as one of the main antagonists.
"Belial" is the theme held in meditation by Vaughn Benjamin (Akae Beka) on the Midnite & Ras L Collaborative album Thru & True (2006).
Belial is referenced, among other demons, on Mayhem's 2014 studio album Esoteric Warfare. Belial is mentioned in "Pandaemon," the fourth track on the LP.
Lord Belial is a Swedish black metal band.
In Cassandra Clare's bestselling Shadowhunter Chronicles, Belial is one of the Prince of Hell as well as the demonic father of a major character, Theresa Gray, who was the protagonist of The Infernal Devices. In Shadowhunters, the television adaptation of the novel series, Belial is the demonic father of a supporting character in season 3, the warlock Lorenzo Rey. Belial is mentioned as Lorenzo's father in the episode "City of Glass".
In the 2019 comedy horror film, Ready or Not, the name of the demonic presence, Mr. Le Bail, is an anagram for Belial.
In the Shin Megami Tensei and Persona games, Belial appears as a demon and persona to be used in combat
In the 2021 Anime series Beyblade Burst Dynamite Battle the main character Bell Daikokuten named his Beyblade Dynamite Belial. Lateron, he upgrades Dynamite Belial into Dangerous Belial after its destruction.
In ‘The Chosen’ season 2 episode 5, Caleb is possessed by Belial and shares who he is while conversing with Mary.
See also
List of theological demons
Asmodai
Bel
Demon
Devil
Samael
Satan
Serpent
Sin
References
S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King'' (1904). 1995 reprint: .
External links
Belial entry at Jewish Encyclopedia.com
Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Belial
Occultopedia entry on Belial
Belial article from the Mystica
Deities in the Hebrew Bible
Demons in Christianity
Demons in Judaism
Fallen angels
Goetic demons
Individual angels
People in the Pauline epistles
Christian mythology
Devils
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250051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrow%20Gauge%20Railway%20Museum | Narrow Gauge Railway Museum | The Narrow Gauge Railway Museum (Welsh: Amgueddfa Rheilffyrdd Bach Cul) is a purpose-built museum dedicated to narrow-gauge railways situated at the station of the Talyllyn Railway in Tywyn, Gwynedd, Wales.
The museum has a collection of more than 1,000 items from over eighty narrow-gauge railways in Wales, England, the Isle of Man, Ireland and Scotland. This includes six locomotives on display (and several others in store or at other sites); eleven wagons inside with a further eleven outside; a display showing the development of track work from early plateways to modern narrow-gauge tracks; several large signals along with single line working apparatus and documents; a growing collection of tickets and other documents, posters, notices, crockery and souvenirs; relics from vehicles scrapped long ago and the Awdry Study, re-created with the original furniture and fittings in memory of the Rev. Wilbert Awdry, an early volunteer on the Talyllyn Railway and best known for his series of railway books such as "Thomas the Tank Engine." In October 2020, the Reverend's original model of Henry the Green Engine was found in a half rebuilt state.
Background
The Narrow Gauge Railway Museum collection began in the 1950s when the Talyllyn Railway Preservation Society (TRPS) was the first voluntary society in the world to take over and run a public passenger carrying railway. Narrow-gauge railways were becoming redundant and their equipment scrapped. Immediately, items from other narrow-gauge lines began to be offered to the TRPS and a committee was formed to acquire examples of locomotives, rolling stock and other equipment to place on public display. In 1964 a charitable trust was formed to manage and develop the museum and this was replaced by the present Narrow Gauge Railway Museum Trust on 11 July 1994.
The main activity of the Trust takes place at the Talyllyn Railway Wharf station. Inside the museum interactive and static exhibits illustrate the diversity, individuality, technical ingenuity and charm of narrow-gauge railways. The fleet of historic wagons kept outside is operational and the original wagon weighbridge from 1865 has been restored and included in a redeveloped section of the Wharf yard including a purpose built weighbridge hut.
The first museum displays were in the old Gunpowder Store at Wharf station. Soon a walled yard, used for the storage of coal, was roofed over and an extension added in 1964. The building served well but had no insulation, was damp and cold in winter and hot and airless in summer making it difficult to conserve the collection. What was needed was a new museum building with adequate space, accessibility and environment, and professionally designed displays.
At the same time the Talyllyn Railway was seeking to improve its facilities at Wharf station to better meet the needs of passengers and the operation of the railway. When the TRPS took over, there was a single small building which served as a booking office, weigh house, and general office for the railway. Like the museum, this had been augmented by various extensions and portable buildings: a radical solution was needed. With the approach of the golden jubilee of the TRPS in 2000, an appeal was launched for funds to build a new station and museum. Funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund to conserve the unique museum collection plus other government and charitable sources was obtained to match money raised by friends of the Railway and Museum. A two-storey building now houses the museum, refreshment room, education room and railway offices, which links with a shop and booking office in an extended version of the original building. Work began in stages in 2001, and the new station and museum complex was opened by Charles, Prince of Wales and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall on 13 July 2005. In 2010 the museum gained Accredited status under the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council scheme to improve standards in museums.
Locomotives at the museum
Rolling stock on display in the museum
Birkby's Brickworks, small steel wagon with 4 flangeless wheels and forked bracket to accept haulage chain. It ran on an 18in gauge plateway made up from lengths of steel angle. Donated in 1983.
Bicslade Tramroad oak-framed 4-wheel plateway wagon, , from Bixslade in the Forest of Dean. The oldest item in the collection built about 1790 and given to the Trust in 1964.
Dinorwic Quarry Railway (Padarn Railway), gauge host wagon built 1848 to carry three 2′ gauge slate wagons and a 2′ gauge guards van from the Quarries to the Incline down to Port Dinorwic. The line was closed in 1961 and the wagons came to the museum in 1964.
Nantlle Tramway wagon, gauge ; steel: double-flanged wheels, loose on fixed axles, built by Glaslyn Foundry, Portmadoc. Line opened 1828 worked by horses until the final section was closed by British Railways (BR) in 1963, the last use of horses by BR. Given to the museum in 1958.
Oakley Quarry Coal Wagon, wooden body with doors at one end, ran on Festiniog Railway. Purchased in 1963.
Bryn Eglwys Quarry Wagon, , wood, for carrying slate slabs out of the quarry. Donated in 1980 and in store until restoration and display in 2001.
Woolwich Arsenal Wagon, wooden flat body for carrying explosives. Donated in 1976.
Rolling stock on display outside the museum
Corris Railway Mail Wagon, , used for carrying mail by gravity down the line every week-day afternoon, lamp bracket fitted at down end. Four-wheel, end door, 1-ton wagon ex-GWR 31992, TR 10, Turner axleboxes, bought by TR in 1951 and donated to museum in 1994.
Corris Railway. Incline balancing wagon used on incline at Aberlefenni. Given to museum in 2006.
Crofty Tin Mine, 14 cu ft capacity tipping mine tub to museum in 1996.
Great Western Railway steel bodied, slate wagon for use in Blaenau Ffestiniog area: purchased 1980.
London & North Western Railway, steel slate wagon, built at Earlstown in 1887, LMS 284465, used in Blaenau Ffestiniog area on piggy back wagons to carry slate for transshipment. Donated by British Railways in 1964.
Talyllyn Railway, rebuilt wagons, using original and replica steel and cast iron parts and new timber. (The numbers are simply for identification and do not relate to historic numbers)
101 – two bar wooden slate wagon, 1 ton capacity: the first item in the museum collection in 1953.
117 – metal bodied incline wagon: to museum in 1973.
136 – three bar wooden slate wagon, 1 ton capacity: to museum in 1994.
146 – covered wooden van, with brake, based on parts lying at Rhydyronen from the 1930s to 1997.
164 – two bar wooden slate wagon, 1 ton capacity with brakes: purchased 2000.
178 – display wagon at Neptune Road entrance.
Locomotives at other sites
Rolling stock on display at other sites
Furzebrook Wagon – gauge wagon with wooden body with end door and sledge brake, four wheels, from the Pike Bros, Fayle & Co clay workings in the Isle of Purbeck, donated by The Narrow Gauge Railway Society 1958 was loaned for display at the Swanage Railway in 2002.
Major exhibits in the museum
Track, from early plateways to modern versions
Narrow-gauge railways in industry
Narrow-gauge railways in military use
Narrow-gauge railways as public carriers
Temporary exhibitions
Ticket collection
Rev. W. Awdry collection
New accessions
Signals from the Manx Northern Railway, the Isle of Man Railway and County Donegal Railways
Chattenden and Upnor Railway lever and locking frame to control points and signals in replica signal box
Chattenden and Upnor Railway signal
Film of Talyllyn Railway in the 1950s
Major exhibits at other locations
DeWinton cast iron lamp post in Wharf yard
Festiniog disc signal in Wharf yard
TR wagon turntable and track: Wharf edge
TR wagon weigh bridge with original TR trackwork and new weigh bridge office (built 2008 - 2011)
Point (turnout) in 1865 track materials: Abergynolwyn
Village Incline winding drum and site: Abergynolwyn
See also
List of British railway museums
British narrow-gauge railways
References
External links
Narrow Gauge Railway Museum
Talyllyn Railway
Tywyn
Railway museums in Gwynedd
Talyllyn Railway
1959 establishments in Wales
Museums established in 1959
Narrow-gauge railway museums in the United Kingdom | [
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250055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asmodeus | Asmodeus | Asmodeus (; , Asmodaios) or Ashmedai (; , ʾAšmədʾāy), also Asmodevs, Ashema Deva or Amias (see below for other variations), is a prince of demons, or in Judeo-Islamic lore one king of the earthly spirits called the Ars Goetia, mostly known from the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, in which he is the primary antagonist. In Peter Binsfeld's classification of demons, Asmodeus represents lust. The demon is also mentioned in some Talmudic legends; for instance, in the story of the construction of the Temple of Solomon.
Etymology
The name Asmodai is believed to derive from the Avestan *aēšma-daēva, where aēšma means "wrath", and daēva signifies "demon". While the daēva Aēšma is thus Zoroastrianism's demon of wrath and is also well-attested as such, the compound aēšma-daēva is not attested in scripture. It is nonetheless likely that such a form did exist, and that the Book of Tobit's "Asmodaios" () and the Talmud's "Ashmedai" () reflect it. In the Zoroastrian and Middle Persian demonology, there did exist the conjuncted form khashm-dev (خشم + دیو), where both terms are cognates.
The spellings Asmodai, Asmodee (also Asmodée), Osmodeus, and Osmodai have also been used. The name is alternatively spelled in the bastardized forms (based on the basic consonants אשמדאי, ʾŠMDʾY) Hashmedai (חַשְמְדּאָי, Hašmədʾāy; also Hashmodai, Hasmodai, Khashmodai, Khasmodai), Hammadai (חַמַּדּאָי, Hammadʾāy; also Khammadai), Shamdon (שַׁמְדּוֹן, Šamdōn), and Shidonai (שִׁדֹנאָי, Šidonʾāy). Some traditions have subsequently identified Shamdon as the father of Asmodeus.
The Jewish Encyclopedia of 1906 rejects the otherwise accepted etymological relation between the Persian "Æshma-dæva" and Judaism's "Ashmodai" claiming that the particle "-dæva" could not have become "-dai" and that Æshma-dæva as such—a compound name—never appears in Persian sacred texts. Still, the encyclopedia proposes that the "Asmodeus" from the Apocrypha and the Testament of Solomon are not only related somewhat to Aeshma but have similar behaviour, appearance and roles, to conclude in another article under the entry "Aeshma", in the paragraph "Influence of Persian Beliefs on Judaism", that Persian Zoroastrian beliefs could have heavily influenced Judaism's theology on the long term, bearing in mind that in some texts there are crucial conceptual differences while in others there seems to be a great deal of similarity, proposing a pattern of influence over folk beliefs that would extend further to the mythology itself. However, the Jewish Encyclopedia asserts that although 'Æshma does not occur in the Avesta in conjunction with dæva, it is probable that a fuller form, such as Æshmo-dæus, has existed, since it is paralleled by the later Pahlavi-form "Khashm-dev"'. Furthermore it is stated that Asmodeus or Ashmedai "embodies an expression of the influence that the Persian religion or Persian popular beliefs have exercised" on Judaism.
In the texts
In the Hebrew Bible
The full name "Ashmedai" is not found in the standard Masoretic canon of the Hebrew Bible.
In the Book of Tobit
The Asmodeus of the Book of Tobit is hostile to Sarah, Raguel's daughter, (); and slays seven successive husbands on their wedding nights, impeding the sexual consummation of the marriages. In the New Jerusalem Bible translation, he is described as "the worst of demons" (Tobit 3:8). When the young Tobias is about to marry her, Asmodeus proposes the same fate for him, but Tobias is enabled, through the counsels of his attendant angel Raphael, to render him innocuous. By placing a fish's heart and liver on red-hot cinders, Tobias produces a smoky vapour that causes the demon to flee to Egypt, where Raphael binds him (). According to some translations, Asmodeus is strangled.
Perhaps Asmodeus punishes the suitors for their carnal desire, since Tobias prays to be free from such desire and is kept safe. Asmodeus is also described as an evil spirit in general: 'Ασμοδαίος τὸ πονηρὸν δαιμόνιον or τὸ δαιμόνιον πονηρόν, and πνεῦμα ἀκάθαρτον (; ; ; ).
In the Talmud
The figure of Ashmedai in the Talmud is less malign in character than the Asmodeus of Tobit. In the former, he appears repeatedly in the light of a good-natured and humorous fellow. But besides that, there is one feature in which he parallels Asmodeus, in as much as his desires turn upon Bathsheba and later Solomon's wives.
Another Talmudic legend has King Solomon tricking Asmodai into collaborating in the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem (see: The Story of King Solomon and Ashmedai).
Another legend depicts Asmodai throwing King Solomon over 400 leagues away from the capital by putting one wing on the ground and the other stretched skyward. He then changed places for some years with King Solomon. When King Solomon returned, Asmodai fled from his wrath. Similar legends can be found in Islamic folklore. There Asmodeus is called Sakhr ( the Rock or the Stony One), because in Islamic lore, Solomon banished him into a rock, after he takes his kingdom back from him. There he counts as the king of the jinn.
Another passage describes him as marrying Lilith, who became his queen.
In the Testament of Solomon
In the Testament of Solomon, a 1st–3rd century text, the king invokes Asmodeus to aid in the construction of the Temple. The demon appears and predicts Solomon's kingdom will one day be divided (Testament of Solomon, verse 21–25). When Solomon interrogates Asmodeus further, the king learns that Asmodeus is thwarted by the angel Raphael, as well as by sheatfish found in the rivers of Assyria. He also admits to hating water and birds because both remind him of God. Asmodeus claims that he was born of a human mother and an angel father.
In the Malleus Maleficarum
In the Malleus Maleficarum (1486), Asmodeus was considered the demon of lust. Sebastien Michaelis said that his adversary is St. John. Some demonologists of the 16th century assigned a month to a demon and considered November to be the month in which Asmodai's power was strongest. Other demonologists asserted that his zodiacal sign was Aquarius but only between the dates of January 30 and February 8.
He has 72 legions of demons under his command. He is one of the Kings of Hell under Lucifer the emperor. He incites gambling, and is the overseer of all the gambling houses in the court of Hell. Some Catholic theologians compared him with Abaddon. Yet other authors considered Asmodeus a prince of revenge.
In the Dictionnaire Infernal
In the Dictionnaire Infernal by Collin de Plancy, Asmodeus is depicted with the breast of a man, a cock leg, serpent tail, three heads (one of a man spitting fire, one of a sheep, and one of a bull), riding a lion with dragon wings and neck, all of these creatures being associated with either lascivity, lust or revenge. The Archbishop of Paris approved his portrait.
In the Lesser Key of Solomon
Asmodai appears as the king 'Asmoday' in the Ars Goetia, where he is said to have a seal in gold and is listed as number thirty-two according to respective rank.
He "is strong, powerful and appears with three heads; the first is like a bull, the second like a man, and the third like a ram; the tail of a serpent, and from his mouth issue flames of fire." Also, he sits upon an infernal dragon, holds a lance with a banner and, amongst the Legions of Amaymon, Asmoday governs seventy-two legions of inferior spirits.
In The Magus
Asmodeus is referred to in Book Two, Chapter Eight of The Magus (1801) by Francis Barrett.
Later depictions
In Christian thought
Asmodeus was named as a fallen angel of the Order of Thrones by Gregory the Great.
Asmodeus was cited by the nuns of Loudun in the Loudun possessions of 1634.
Asmodeus' reputation as the personification of lust continued into later writings, as he was known as the "Prince of Lechery" in the 16th-century romance Friar Rush. The French Benedictine Augustin Calmet equated his name with a fine dress. The 16th-century Dutch demonologist Johann Weyer described him as the banker at the baccarat table in hell, and overseer of earthly gambling houses.
In 1641, the Spanish playwright and novelist Luis Velez de Guevara published the satirical novel El diablo cojuelo, where Asmodeus is represented as a mischievous demon endowed with a playful and satirical genius. The plot presents a rascal student that hides in an astrologer's mansard. He frees a devil from a bottle. As an acknowledgement the devil shows him the apartments of Madrid and the tricks, miseries and mischiefs of their inhabitants. The French novelist Alain-René Lesage adapted the Spanish source in his 1707 novel le Diable boiteux, where he likened him to Cupid. In the book, he is rescued from an enchanted glass bottle by a Spanish student Don Cleophas Leandro Zambullo. Grateful, he joins with the young man on a series of adventures before being recaptured. Asmodeus is portrayed in a sympathetic light as good-natured, and a canny satirist and critic of human society. In another episode Asmodeus takes Don Cleophas for a night flight, and removes the roofs from the houses of a village to show him the secrets of what passes in private lives. Following Lesage's work, he was depicted in a number of novels and periodicals, mainly in France but also London and New York.
Asmodeus was widely depicted as having a handsome visage, good manners and an engaging nature; however, he was portrayed as walking with a limp and one leg was either clawed or that of a rooster. He walks aided by two walking sticks in Lesage's work, and this gave rise to the English title The Devil on Two Sticks (also later translated The Limping Devil and The Lame Devil). Lesage attributes his lameness to falling from the sky after fighting with another devil.
On 18 February 1865, author Evert A. Duyckinck sent President Abraham Lincoln a letter, apparently mailed from Quincy. Duyckinck signed the letter "Asmodeus", with his initials below his pseudonym. His letter enclosed a newspaper clipping about an inappropriate joke allegedly told by Lincoln at the Hampton Roads Peace Conference. The purpose of Duyckinck's letter was to advise Lincoln of "an important omission" about the history of the conference. He advised that the newspaper clipping be added to the "Archives of the Nation".
In the Kabbalah
According to the Kabbalah and the school of Shlomo ibn Aderet, Asmodeus is a cambion born as the result of a union between Agrat bat Mahlat, a succubus, and King David.
In Islamic culture
In Islamic culture, Asmodeus is known as Sakhr (rock), probably a reference to his fate being imprisoned inside a box of rock, chained with iron and thrown into the sea. According Quranic exegesis on Surah 38:34, Solomon is replaced by a "puppet"; a jinni or demon called Sakhr, impersonating the king. Ibn al-Faqih and Aja'ib al-Makhluqat in his Aja'ib al-Makhluqat refer to Sakhr as a jinni, while the Persian Quran exegete (224–310 AH; 839–923 AD) Tabari (224–310 AH; 839–923 AD) refers to him as a shaitan in his work Annals of al-Tabari. After forty days, Solomon defeats Sakhr and gets his throne back, whereupon he imprisons Sakhr and throws him into the sea.
The idea of a spirit in a bottle, released by a fisherman, probably roots in this legend about Solomon.
In the story of Sakhr and Buluqiya, a young Jewish prince, searching for the final Prophet (Muhammad), Sakhr is said to have reached immortality by drinking from the Well of Immortality, guarded by the mystical being Khidr. He explains the creation of the world by God, explains God's intention to place Muhammad wherein and punish the infidels, describing the different layers (ṭabaqāt) of hell and mentions the angels.
In popular media
Asmodeus is a recurring antagonist in the 13th season of The CW series Supernatural, portrayed primarily by Jeffrey Vincent Parise. Created by Lucifer himself, Asmodeus was originally a Prince of Hell alongside siblings Azazel, Dagon, and Ramiel. Upon the death of Crowley, Asmodeus succeeds him as the King of Hell despite being Lucifer's weakest creation. Asmodeus is killed in the episode "Bring 'em Back Alive" by the archangel Gabriel, whose grace Asmodeus had been feeding on to make himself stronger.
Asmodeus is the main antagonist of the supernatural horror film series Paranormal Activity. Primarily an unseen force, the overarching plot of the series sees the Midwives Coven serve Asmodeus in exchange for absolute power for themselves on Earth, opposed by the benevolent White Witches. The films typically follow various families who become haunted by Asmodeus, primarily known as "Tobi" (after his old enemy Tobias of the Book of Tobit), who stalks, terrifies and ultimately murders several members of the families and other bystanders during the course of the films. In his possessed forms, Tobi was primarily portrayed by Katie Featherston from 2007 to 2014, as well as Andrew Jacobs, Mark Steger, Kirby Johnson, and Henry Ayres-Brown in subsequent films.
In Geoffrey Household's 1939 spy thriller Rogue Male, the protagonist forms a strong bond with a stray cat that he names Asmodeus.
In 1969 composer Josef Tal wrote an opera, Ashmedai, which is based on the Talmud. It premiered at the Hamburg State Opera in 1971, and was first performed in the United States in 1976 at the New York City Opera in a production directed by Hal Prince.
The character 'Asmodai' in A. L. Mengel's supernatural series The Tales of Tartarus (2013–2016) is based on the demon Asmodeus. The demon haunts the main protagonist, Antoine, through the series of novels.
Asmodeus appears in the television series The Librarians (season 4, episode 10) as a blue-skinned, growling demon in knight's armor and carrying a sword.
Asmodeus also features heavily in the lore of the game Dungeons & Dragons as the ruler of the Nine Hells. Different editions of the game offer different backstories, ranging from primordial evil to fallen angel to ancient god, but his role as the King of the Nine Hells is always the same.
Asmodeus is also present in the Pathfinder Roleplaying Game in a similar role to his D&D one. The main difference is that he is an actual god, one of the nine original deities in the Great Beyond, and that his church is widespread in certain nations on Golarion.
Asmodeus appears as Magnus Bane's father and Prince of Hell, otherwise known as Edom on the third season of Freeform's Shadowhunters television series based on Cassandra Clare's popular book series The Mortal Instruments. He is portrayed by Jack J. Yang.
Asmodeus appears in the 1997 book Asmodeus – a Forkful of Tales from Devil's Peak by Alex D'Angelo, illustrated by Tony Grogan. One story "Asmodeus and the Bottler of Djinns" is included in the anthology Favorite African Folktales edited by Nelson Mandela, published by Norton and available as an audiobook.
Asmodeus appears as a boss in the
VR game, In Death: Unchained.
Asmodeus is the final boss in Mace: The Dark Age.
In the video game Pony Island, Asmodeus appears in the manifestation of a "demonic" artificial intelligence.
Asmodeus appears as a character in the otome game, Obey Me!. He is depicted as the Avatar of Lust and one of seven brothers representing the seven deadly sins.
In the video game Helltaker, Asmodeus is portrayed as a Demon of Lust, Modeus.
In Disenchantment, Asmodeus is introduced by Luci as "Asmodium, Lord of Darkness", voiced by Phil LaMarr.
Singer-songwriter Ethel Cain has the name Ashmedai tattooed on her forehead in Hebrew.
Asmodeus appears in the seventh episode of the first season of Helluva Boss, voiced by James Monroe Iglehart.
According to datamines of the popular Open-world RPG Genshin Impact, the Unknown God, otherwise known as the "Sustainer of Heavenly Principles", as she calls herself, is named Asmoday.
In id Software's 1996 game Quake, when players try to quit the game one of the humours random texts mentions Asmodeus' distaste of quitters.
In the JRPG Persona 5, the first target of the Phantom Thieves is Suguru Kamoshida, a professional sports player of the Olympic Games and the PE teacher of Shujin Academy who was caught sexually assaulting female students. After Ren Amamiya, Ryuji Sakamoto, Ann Takamaki and Morgana find a route to the Treasure in Kamoshida’s Palace and send Kamoshida the calling card, the Phantom Thieves almost take Kamoshida’s Treasure, but he turns into Suguru Asmodeus Kamoshida to fight the Phantom Thieves, as he is represented by Lust, one of the Seven Deadly Sins.
See also
Archdemon
Belial
Devil
Samael
Satan
Serpents in the Bible
Sin
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Ifrits
Book of Tobit
Demons in Christianity
Demons in Judaism
Demons in the Old Testament apocrypha
Devils
Goetic demons
Jinn
Mythological kings
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250056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz%20standard | Jazz standard | Jazz standards are musical compositions that are an important part of the musical repertoire of jazz musicians, in that they are widely known, performed, and recorded by jazz musicians, and widely known by listeners. There is no definitive list of jazz standards, and the list of songs deemed to be standards changes over time. Songs included in major fake book publications (sheet music collections of popular tunes) and jazz reference works offer a rough guide to which songs are considered standards.
Not all jazz standards were written by jazz composers. Many are originally Tin Pan Alley popular songs, Broadway show tunes or songs from Hollywood musicals – the Great American Songbook. In Europe, jazz standards and "fake books" may even include some traditional folk songs (such as in Scandinavia) or pieces of ethnic music (such as gypsy melodies) that have been played with a jazz feel by well known jazz players. A commonly played song can only be considered a jazz standard if it is widely played among jazz musicians. The jazz standard repertoire has some overlap with blues and pop standards.
The most recorded standard composed by a jazz musician, and one of the most covered songs of all time, is Duke Ellington's and Juan Tizol's "Caravan" with over 500 uses. Originally, the most recorded jazz standard was W. C. Handy's "St. Louis Blues" for over 20 years from the 1930s onward, after which Hoagy Carmichael's "Stardust" replaced it. Following this, the place was held by "Body and Soul" by Johnny Green.
Before 1920
From its conception at the change of the twentieth century, jazz was music intended for dancing. This influenced the choice of material played by early jazz groups: King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, New Orleans Rhythm Kings and others included a large number of Tin Pan Alley popular songs in their repertoire, and record companies often used their power to dictate which songs were to be recorded by their artists. Certain songs were pushed by recording executives and therefore quickly achieved standard status; this started with the first jazz recordings in 1916, with That Funny Jas Band from Dixieland (1916) by Collins and Harlan for Thomas A. Edison, Inc. on Blue Amberol in December 1916 and in 1917, when the Original Dixieland Jass Band recorded "Darktown Strutters' Ball" and "Indiana". The first record with 'Jass' on the label, The Original Dixieland One-Step was issue 18255 by Victor Talking Machine Company in 1917. Originally simply called "jazz", the music of early jazz bands is today often referred to as "Dixieland" or "New Orleans jazz", to distinguish it from more recent subgenres.
The origins of jazz are in the musical traditions of early twentieth-century New Orleans, including brass band music, the blues, ragtime and spirituals, and some of the most popular early standards come from these influences. Ragtime songs "Twelfth Street Rag" and "Tiger Rag" have become popular numbers for jazz artists, as have blues tunes "St. Louis Blues" and "St. James Infirmary". Tin Pan Alley songwriters contributed several songs to the jazz standard repertoire, including "Indiana" and "After You've Gone". Others, such as "Some of These Days" and "Darktown Strutters' Ball", were introduced by vaudeville performers. The most often recorded standards of this period are W. C. Handy's "St. Louis Blues", Turner Layton and Henry Creamer's "After You've Gone" and James Hanley and Ballard MacDonald's "Indiana".
1920s
A period known as the "Jazz Age" started in the United States in the 1920s. Jazz had become popular music in the country, although older generations considered the music immoral and threatening to old cultural values. Dances such as the Charleston and the Black Bottom were very popular during the period, and jazz bands typically consisted of seven to twelve musicians. Important orchestras in New York were led by Fletcher Henderson, Paul Whiteman and Duke Ellington. Many New Orleans jazzmen had moved to Chicago during the late 1910s in search of employment; among others, the New Orleans Rhythm Kings, King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band and Jelly Roll Morton recorded in the city. However, Chicago's importance as a center of jazz music started to diminish toward the end of the 1920s in favor of New York.
In the early years of jazz, record companies were often eager to decide what songs were to be recorded by their artists. Popular numbers in the 1920s were pop hits such as "Sweet Georgia Brown", "Dinah" and "Bye Bye Blackbird". The first jazz artist to be given some liberty in choosing his material was Louis Armstrong, whose band helped popularize many of the early standards in the 1920s and 1930s.
Some compositions written by jazz artists have endured as standards, including Fats Waller's "Honeysuckle Rose" and "Ain't Misbehavin'". The most recorded 1920s standard is Hoagy Carmichael and Mitchell Parish's "Stardust". Several songs written by Broadway composers in the 1920s have become standards, such as George and Ira Gershwin's "The Man I Love" (1924), Irving Berlin's "Blue Skies" (1927) and Cole Porter's "What Is This Thing Called Love?" (1929). However, it was not until the 1930s that musicians became comfortable with the harmonic and melodic sophistication of Broadway tunes and started including them regularly in their repertoire.
1930s
Broadway theatre contributed some of the most popular standards of the 1930s, including George and Ira Gershwin's "Summertime" (1935), Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart's "My Funny Valentine" (1937) and Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II's "All the Things You Are" (1939). These songs still rank among the most recorded standards of all time. The most popular 1930s standard, Johnny Green's "Body and Soul", was introduced in Broadway and became a huge hit after Coleman Hawkins's 1939 recording.
1930s saw the rise of swing jazz as a dominant form in American music. Duke Ellington and his band members composed numerous swing era hits that have later become standards: "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)" (1932), "Sophisticated Lady" (1933) and "Caravan" (1936), among others. Other influential band leaders of this period were Benny Goodman and Count Basie.
1940s
The swing era lasted until the mid-1940s, and produced popular tunes such as Duke Ellington's "Cotton Tail" (1940) and Billy Strayhorn's "Take the 'A' Train" (1941). With the big bands struggling to keep going during World War II, a shift was happening in jazz in favor of smaller groups. Some swing era musicians, such as Louis Jordan, later found popularity in a new kind of music, called "rhythm and blues", that would evolve into rock and roll in the 1950s.
Bebop emerged in the early 1940s, with Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie and Thelonious Monk leading the way. It appealed to a more specialized audiences than earlier forms of jazz, with sophisticated harmonies, fast tempos and often virtuoso musicianship. Bebop musicians often used 1930s standards, especially those from Broadway musicals, as part of their repertoire. Among standards written by bebop musicians are Gillespie's "Salt Peanuts" (1941) and "A Night in Tunisia" (1942), Parker's "Anthropology" (1946), "Yardbird Suite" (1946) and "Scrapple from the Apple" (1947), and Monk's "'Round Midnight" (1944), which is currently one of the most recorded jazz standard composed by a jazz musician.
1950s and later
Modal jazz recordings, such as Miles Davis's Kind of Blue, became popular in the late 1950s. Popular modal standards include Davis's "All Blues" and "So What" (both 1959), John Coltrane's "Impressions" (1963) and Herbie Hancock's "Maiden Voyage" (1965). Later, Davis's "second great quintet", which included saxophonist Wayne Shorter and pianist Herbie Hancock, recorded a series of highly acclaimed albums in the mid-to-late 1960s. Standards from these sessions include Shorter's "Footprints" (1966) and "Freedom Jazz Dance" by Eddie Harris (1966).
In Brazil, a new style of music called bossa nova evolved in the late 1950s. Based on the Brazilian samba as well as jazz, bossa nova was championed by João Gilberto, Antonio Carlos Jobim and Luiz Bonfá. Gilberto and Stan Getz started a bossa nova craze in the United States with their 1963 album Getz/Gilberto. Among the genre's songs that are now considered standards are Bonfá's "Manhã de Carnaval" (1959), Marcos Valle's "Summer Samba" (1966), and numerous Jobim's songs, including "Desafinado" (1959), "The Girl from Ipanema" (1962) and "Corcovado" (1962). Later, composers such as Edu Lobo and Egberto Gismonti contributed a great deal to the Brazilian jazz repertoire, with tunes that include "Casa Forte", "Frevo Rasgado" and "Loro".
The jazz fusion movement fused jazz with other musical styles, most famously funk and rock. Its golden age was from the late 1960s to the mid-1970s. Top fusion artists, such as Weather Report, Chick Corea and Return to Forever, Herbie Hancock and The Headhunters, The Manhattan Transfer, and the Mahavishnu Orchestra, achieved cross-over popularity, although public interest in the genre faded at the turn of the 1980s. Fusion's biggest hits, Corea's "Spain" (1971), Hancock's "Chameleon" (1973) and Joe Zawinul's "Birdland" (1977), have been covered numerous times thereafter and are considered modern jazz standards.
A number of songs written by pop and rock artists have become standards, such as "Somewhere Out There" by Linda Ronstadt & James Ingram, "Yesterday" by The Beatles, "God Only Knows" by The Beach Boys, and "Moondance" by Van Morrison.
See also
List of jazz standards
References
Notes
Further reading
Jazz techniques
Jazz terminology | [
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250060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canute%20II%20of%20Sweden | Canute II of Sweden | Canute II the Tall (), was King of Sweden from 1229 until his death in 1234. He was the father of Holmger Knutsson, a later pretender for the Swedish throne. Both father and son were members of the House of Folkung (Folkungar).
Family
Not much is certain about his background. An unreliable, late fourteenth century source calls him "Knut Joansson", but the dominating theory is that he was identical with "Knut Holmgersson" who was a member of King Eric XI's council and was a relative to the king, and that his father was the man Holmger who was called a "nepos" of King Canute I of Sweden. This theory is supported by the fact that one of Knut's sons was named Holmger. Nepos usually meant nephew, but could be used for other younger relatives. If these identifications are correct, Canute would be the great-grandson of king Eric the holy. A few historians have instead suggested that the late source might be correct and that Canute's father was Jon Jarl.
Some sources give Canute's spouse as Danish noble woman Helena Pedersdatter Strange ( c. 1200–1255). However this theory has been challenged by noted historian Hans Gillingstam (1925–2016), who instead believed that he was married to an unknown woman from the House of Bjelbo, evidenced by the Coat of arms on the tomb cover of his son Holmger.
Canute had the sons Holmger Knutsson (d. 1248) and Philip Knutsson (d. 1251), who both died in Folkung uprisings against Birger Jarl.
Biography
In 1220, Canute donated land to two Dominican friars at Sko in Uppland. They left after a while, and the land instead formed the nucleus of the Sko Abbey
(Skokloster)for cistercian nuns. According to a 16th-century source, he was eventually buried there.
Canute was probably a member of the council that ruled Sweden from 1222 to 1229, during the minority of King Eric XI of Sweden. In 1229 or 1230, Eric was overthrown after the Battle of Olustra in Södermanland. Canute's exact involvement in the rising is unclear: he might have participated, or been a compromise candidate. He was recognized in 1231 at the latest, but his time in office was short. The sources contradict each other on the matter of Eric's return: the Lund annals claim that Eric returned before the death of Canute in 1232, the Eric Chronicle that he returned following the death of Canute and after renewed fighting. Sturla Tordsson claimed that Canute for a while was co-regent with King Eric X, which could indicate that he was co-regent with Eric XI during some part of his reign.
Canute's reign likely saw the revision of some Swedish laws: creditors could no longer enter the homes of debtors to collect debts without the assistance of a government official, and the king was required to hold judicial reviews at least every third year. These changes have been noted as having taken place in the reign of King Canute, and due to chronological considerations, Canute II is thought to be most likely.
References
Works cited
Bibliography
Adolfsson, Mats När borgarna brann - svenska uppror (Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, 2007)
Larsson, Mats G. Götarnas riken : upptäcktsfärder ill Sveriges enande (Bokförlaget Atlantis AB. 2002)
External links
1234 deaths
13th-century Swedish monarchs
Rulers of Finland
Year of birth unknown
Usurpers | [
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250062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abb%C3%A9%20Faria | Abbé Faria | Abbé Faria (), or Abbé (Abbot) José Custódio de Faria (31 May 1756 – 20 September 1819), was a Luso-Goan Catholic monk who was one of the pioneers of the scientific study of hypnotism, following on from the work of Franz Mesmer. Unlike Mesmer, who claimed that hypnosis was mediated by "animal magnetism", Faria understood that it worked purely by the power of suggestion. In the early 19th century, Abbé Faria introduced oriental hypnosis to Paris.
He was one of the first to depart from the theory of the "magnetic fluid", to place in relief the importance of suggestion, and to demonstrate the existence of "autosuggestion"; he also established that what he termed nervous sleep belongs to the natural order. From his earliest magnetizing séances, in 1814, he boldly developed his doctrine. Nothing comes from the magnetizer; everything comes from the subject and takes place in his imagination generated from within the mind. Magnetism is only a form of sleep. Although of the moral order, the magnetic action is often aided by physical, or rather by physiological, means–fixedness of look and cerebral fatigue.
Faria changed the terminology of mesmerism. Previously, the focus was on the "concentration" of the subject. In Faria's terminology the operator became "the concentrator" and somnambulism was viewed as a lucid sleep. The method of hypnosis used by Faria is command, following expectancy. The theory of Abbé Faria is now known as Fariism.
Later, Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault (1864–1904), the founder of the Nancy School, and Émile Coué (1857–1926), father of applied conditioning, developed the theory of suggestion and autosuggestion and began using them as therapeutic tools. Johannes Schultz developed these theories as Autogenic training.
Early life
José Custódio de Faria was born in Candolim, Bardez in the erstwhile territory of Portuguese Goa, on 31 May 1756. He was the son of Caetano Vitorino de Faria of Colvale, and Rosa Maria de Sousa of Candolim. He also had an adopted sister, Catarina who was an orphan. Caetano was in turn a descendant of Anantha Shenoy, a Goud Saraswat Brahmin, village clerk and Patil of the same village who converted to Christianity in the 16th century. He was a Goan Catholic of the Bamonn caste, and was also of partial African descent.
Since his parents fought all the time, they decided to separate and obtained the Church's dispensation. Caetano Vitorino joined the seminary to study for the priesthood (he had already taken lower orders before his marriage). Rosa Maria became a nun, joining the St. Monica Convent in Old Goa.
Lisbon
The father had great ambition for himself and his son. Hence, Faria reached Lisbon on 23 December 1771 with his father at the age of 25. After a year they managed to convince the King of Portugal, Joseph I, to send them to Rome for Faria Sr. to earn a doctorate in theology, and the son to pursue his studies for the priesthood.
Eventually, the son too earned his doctorate, dedicating his doctoral thesis to the Portuguese Queen, Mary I of Portugal, and another study, on the Holy Spirit to the Pope. Apparently the pope was sufficiently impressed to invite José Custódio to preach a sermon in the Sistine Chapel, which he himself attended.
On his return to Lisbon, the Queen was informed by the Nuncio of the Pope's honour to Faria Jr. So, she too invited the young priest to preach to her as well, in her chapel. But Faria, climbing the pulpit, and seeing the august assembly felt tongue tied. At that moment his father, who sat below the pulpit, whispered to him in Konkani: Hi sogli baji; cator re baji (they are all vegetables, cut the vegetables). Jolted, the son lost his fear and preached fluently.
Faria Jr., from then on, often wondered how a mere phrase from his father could alter his state of mind so radically as to wipe off his stage fright in a second. The question would have far reaching consequences in his life.
Participation in conspiracy
He was implicated in the Conspiracy of the Pintos during 1787, and left for France in 1788. He stayed in Paris residing at Rue de Ponceau.
France
In Paris, he became a leader of one of the revolutionary battalions in 1795, taking command of one of the sections of the infamous 10 of the Vendémiaire, which attacked the infamous French Convention, taking an active part in its fall. As a result, he established links with individuals like Chateaubriand, the Marquise of Coustine. He was also a friend of Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marques of Puységur (a disciple of Franz Anton Mesmer), to whom he dedicated his book Causas do Sono Lúcido ("On the Causes of Lucid Sleep").
In 1797 he was arrested in Marseille for unknown reasons, and sent by a law court to the infamous Chateau d'If in a barred police carriage. He was shut up in solitary confinement in the Chateau. While imprisoned he steadily trained himself using techniques of self-suggestion.
After a long imprisonment in the Chateau, Faria was released and returned to Paris.
In 1811, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy at the University of France at Nîmes, and was elected member of the Société Medicale de Marseille at Marseille.
In 1813 Abbé Faria, realising that animal magnetism was gaining importance in Paris, returned to Paris and started promoting a new doctrine. He provoked unending controversies with his work Da Causa do Sono Lúcido no Estudo da Natureza do Homem (On the cause of Lucid Sleep in the Study of the Nature of Man), published in Paris in 1819 and was soon accused of being a charlatan.
He retired as chaplain to an obscure religious establishment, and died of a stroke in Paris on 30 September 1819. He left behind no addresses and his grave remains unmarked and unknown, somewhere in Montmartre.
Tributes
There is a bronze statue of Abbé Faria trying to hypnotise a woman in central Panjim, Goa, India (next to the former Government Secretariat or Idalcão palace). It was sculpted in 1945 by Ramchandra Pandurang Kamat or earlier by Constâncio Fernandes.
Portugal commemorated the 250th anniversary of the Abbé's birth in May 2006 by releasing a postcard (featuring his statue in Panjim, India).
A street in the Areeiro zone of Lisbon is also named in his honour.
An authentic caricature of him is preserved in the National Library of Paris.
A prominent thoroughfare in the city of Margao in Goa, India is named 'Rua Abade Faria' (Abbé Faria Street) in his honour.
On Abbe Faria Street in Margao, there was an educational institution called Instituto Abade Faria which imparted Portuguese language secondary school education known as "Lyceum studies", consisting of First Year To Fifth Year classes. It ceased to function after the liberation of Goa.
Alexandre Dumas' 1844 novel The Count of Monte Cristo features a prominent character named Abbé Faria, who was imprisoned in the Chateau d’If in solitary confinement, and he learned a certain self-control while imprisoned. Otherwise, the character does not have a strong resemblance to his historical analogue.
Abbé Faria, a play by Indian writer Asif Currimbhoy, dramatizes Faria's life and views as a revolutionary priest and premier hypnotist. It was published by Writers Workshop.
Jaime Valfredo Rangel presented a paper in tribute of his 200th birth anniversary to the Governor of Portuguese India, Paulo Bernard Guedes.
The Institute of Clinical Hypnosis and Counselling was established in the Indian state of Kerala as a memorial to Abbé Faria.
Kator Re Bhaji, is a play was written and directed by Isabel de Santa Rita Vas and performed by the Mustard Seed Art Company, an Indian theatre troupe from Goa, which celebrated the 250th anniversary of Faria's birth.
Laurent Carrer included the first English translation of Faria's single tome, originally written in French as De la cause du sommeil lucide ou Etude de la nature de l’homme (On the Cause of Lucid Sleep or Study On The Nature of Man) in his 2004 José Custódio de Faria: Hypnotist, Priest and Revolutionary.
Notes
Moniz, A. Egas, O Padre Faria na história do hipnotismo (Abbé Faria in the history of hypnotism), Lisbon: Faculdade de Medicina de Lisboa, 1925.
Dalgado, D.G., Memoire sur la vie de l'Abbé Faria, Paris, 1906.
Charles. J. Borges, Goa and the revolt of 1787.
Digitised copy of Abbé Faria's original manuscript "De la cause du sommeil lucide" (original version in French) – Preface by D.G. Dalgado – Paris 1906 – courtesy of Dr. Paret. A copiously annotated English translation of this work, including Dalgado's preface, can be found in Laurent Carrer's "On the Cause of Lucid Sleep," now available as a Kindle eBook on Amazon.
References
External links
Commemorative postcard, honouring the Abbé's 250th Anniversary.
Tribute website.
Short documentary.
Marvels Beyond Science.
Abbe Faria. Asif Currimbhoy.
1756 births
1819 deaths
Goan Catholics
French hypnotists
Portuguese people of Goan descent
Goans in science and technology
Portuguese Roman Catholic priests
Konkani people
Alexandre Dumas characters
People from North Goa district
Scholars from Goa
18th-century Indian scholars
18th-century Indian scientists
19th-century Indian Roman Catholic priests
Indian hypnotists | [
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250064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodland%20%28disambiguation%29 | Woodland (disambiguation) | Woodland is woodded land.
It may also refer to:
Places
United Kingdom
Woodland, County Durham, England
Woodland, Cumbria, England
Woodland, Devon, England
United States
Woodland, Alabama
Woodland, California
Woodland (Washington, D.C.), a neighborhood
Woodland, Georgia
Woodland (Eatonton, Georgia), a National Register of Historic Places listing in Putnam County, Georgia
Woodland (Lumber City, Georgia)
Woodland (Lexington, Kentucky), a National Register of Historic Places listing in Fayette County, Kentucky
Woodland (Nicholasville, Kentucky), a National Register of Historic Places listing in Jessamine County, Kentucky
Cave City, Kentucky or Woodland
Woodland, Illinois
Woodland, Indiana
Woodland, Aroostook County, Maine
Woodland, Washington County, Maine
Woodland, Maryland
Woodland, Michigan
Woodland Township, Michigan
Woodland, Minnesota
Woodland Township, Minnesota
Woodland (Duluth), Minnesota, a neighborhood
Woodland, Mississippi
Woodland, Missouri
Woodland Township, New Jersey
Woodland, North Carolina
Woodland, Ohio
Woodland (St. Thomas Township, Franklin County, Pennsylvania)
Woodland (Huntsville, Texas), a National Historic Landmark house on the campus of Sam Houston State University
Woodland, Utah
Woodland, Washington
Woodland, Wisconsin, a town in Sauk County
Woodland, Dodge County, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Parks
Arthur B. Ripley Desert Woodland State Park, California
Woodland Park (Seattle), Washington
Woodland Park Zoo in Seattle
Camouflage patterns
US Woodland, the default camouflage pattern issued to United States soldiers, marines, airmen, and sailors from 1981 until its replacement around 2006
TAZ 90 (camouflage) or Swiss Woodland, the camouflage patterns for current standard issue Battle dress uniform of the Swiss Armed Forces
Railway stations
Woodland railway station, a station in Cumbria, England
Woodlands railway station, a station on the Schull and Skibbereen Railway in County Cork, Ireland
Woodland (MBTA station), a station in Newton, Massachusetts
Other uses
Whitefaced Woodland,a sheep breed
Woodland cemetery, a type of cemetery
Woodland period, a period of pre-Columbian Native American history
Woodland management
Woodland Regional High School, a high school in Beacon Falls, Connecticut
Woodland Trust
Woodland Worldwide, an outdoor wear and shoes manufacturing brand
People with the surname
Albert Woodland (1895–1955), English cricketer
Arthur Woodland (1889–1941), English footballer
Barry Woodland, British former Grand Prix motorcycle road racer
Donald L. Woodland (1930–1994), Ohio state senator
Gary Woodland (born 1984), American professional golfer
Lauren Woodland (born 1977), American actress and attorney
Luke Woodland (born 1995), footballer
Norman Joseph Woodland (1921–2012), American co-inventor of the barcode
Philip Charles Woodland, British engineer
Rae Woodland (1922–2013), British soprano
Rich Woodland, Jr. (born 1970), American stock car racing driver
Vincent Reynolds Woodland (1879–1933), British colonial administrator
See also
Skogskyrkogården (The Woodland Cemetery), Stockholm, Sweden
Woodland, Maine (disambiguation)
Woodland Beach, Michigan
Woodland Cemetery (disambiguation)
Woodland Corner, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Woodland Heights, Pennsylvania
Woodland Hills (disambiguation)
Woodland Mills, Tennessee
Woodland Park (disambiguation)
Woodland Plantation (West Pointe a la Hache, Louisiana)
Woodland Plantation (Church Hill, Mississippi)
Woodland Terrace, Tampa, Florida
Woodlands (disambiguation)
The Woodlands (disambiguation)
Wood (disambiguation)
Land (disambiguation) | [
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250067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Hong%20Kong | Education in Hong Kong | Education in Hong Kong is largely modelled on that of the United Kingdom, particularly the English system. It is overseen by the Education Bureau and the Social Welfare Department.
The academic year begins mid-year, usually starting in September.
History
Small village Chinese schools were observed by the British missionaries when they arrived circa 1843. Anthony Sweeting believes those small village schools existed in Chek Chue (modern-day town of Stanley), Shek Pai Wan, Heung Kong Tsai (modern-day Aberdeen) and Wong Nai Chong on Hong Kong Island, although proof is no longer available.
One of the earliest schools with reliable records was Li Ying College established in 1075 in present-day New Territories. By 1860 Hong Kong had 20 village schools. Chinese who were wealthy did not educate their children in Hong Kong but instead sent them to major Chinese cities, such as Canton, for traditional Chinese education.
The changes came with the arrival of the British in 1841. At first, Hong Kong's education came from Protestant and Catholic missionaries who provided social services. Italian missionaries began to provide boy-only education to British and Chinese youth in 1843.
In 1862 Frederick Stewart arrived in Hong Kong. His work, over a period of years, led to his being called, "The Founder of Hong Kong Education". He took up an appointment as the first headmaster of the first school to be founded and fully-funded by the Hong Kong Government, Queen's College (then named the Hong Kong Government Central School for Boys). He took a lead from various missionaries who had been active in Hong Kong education for the Chinese in the earlier post 1841 period and insisted on a bilingual and bicultural curriculum. (Half the day was spent on the Chinese language and the traditional Confucian curriculum and half the day was spent on the English language and what was then known as "useful knowledge" (i.e. western studies).
One of the much-contested debates was whether schools should offer Vernacular education, teaching in Chinese. Education was considered a luxury for the elite and the rich. The first school to open the floodgate of western medical practice into East Asia was the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. The London Missionary Society and Sir James Cantlie started the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese in 1887 (although, the 'for Chinese' was later dropped from the name). Also, the London Missionary Society founded Ying Wa Girls' School in 1900. Belilios Public School was a girls' secondary school founded in 1890 – the first government school in Hong Kong that provided bilingual education in English and Chinese. The push for Chinese education in a British system did not begin until the rise of social awareness of the Chinese community following the 1919 May Fourth Movement and the 1934 New Life Movement in China. Educating the poor did not become a priority until they accounted for the majority of the population. Financial issues were addressed in the 1970s.
In 1997 Keith B. Richburg of The Washington Post wrote that in the British era education was based on education in the United Kingdom, "largely apolitical", and did not emphasise topics related to politics nor civic affairs. The Governor of Hong Kong had the right to bar, under law, "the dissemination of information, or expression of opinion, of a clearly biased political nature in schools" but Richburg stated that "That law was rarely used". There were attempts to repeal said law prior to 1 July 1997. By 1991 the education authorities wanted to have history classes with a positive view of China to make the handover smoother but some teachers with liberal views sought to have more critical views.
In 1997, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region implemented the Target Oriented Curriculum (TOC) to introduce and spread the project learning in the national primary schools. To promote the interactions of work groups or individual students in a new learning environment, professors were engaged in the role of "consultant, facilitator, helper" and posers of questions. Ten years after, the 80% of the Hong Kong's institutes had left the traditional approach to education, mainly based on teachers and textbooks, to adopt an active and experiential learning pedagogy.
A small group of South Asian Hongkongers marched through Central demanding more schooling in the English language on 3 June 2007.
On 2 September 2019, thousands of Hong Kong's students striked the secondary schools to join a boycott organized by the local party Demosisto against the extradition bill to China. Students formed a 650-meters human chain and six of them kneeled down in front of the St Francis' Canossian College, the mother institute of the Chief Executive Carrie Lam, to achieve the "" that had originated 13 consecutive weeks of mass protests.
The imposition of the Hong Kong National Security Law (NSL) on 1 July 2020 resulted in a decline in enrollment in prestigious Hong Kong schools as multiple families with means left for The West. A survey covering 100 schools indicated that from July to November of that year, these schools lost about 1,474 students with about 50% leaving Hong Kong with other members of their families.
Pre-school education
Pre-school education in Hong Kong is not free and fees are payable by pupils' parents. However, parents whose children have the right of abode in Hong Kong can pay for part of their fees with a voucher from the government under the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (PEVS). In 2013, the amount of subsidy under the PEVS is $16,800.
Primary and secondary education
Every child in Hong Kong, without any reasonable excuse, is required by law to attend a primary school after the child has attained the age of 6. They are also required to attend a secondary school after primary education and is completed before he/she attains the age of 18. However, a student who has completed Form 3 of secondary education and whose parent can produce evidence to the satisfaction of the Permanent Secretary for Education, shall not apply. Education in the public sector is free. Public primary schools admit students via the Primary One Admission System.
School years
Secondary education
Secondary education is separated into junior and senior years. In junior years, the curriculum is a broad one where history, geography, science are studied alongside subjects that have already been studied at primary schools. In senior years, this becomes more selective and students have a choice over what and how much is to be studied. Almost all schools but PLK Vicwood KT Chong Sixth Form College and its feeder junior secondary college have both sessions.
Annually, Form 6 students studying in local schools in Hong Kong sit for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) between early March through early May. However, a minority of local secondary schools in Hong Kong also offer the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program (IBDP) for their students as an alternative choice to the HKDSE curriculum, for example, Diocesan Boys' School and St. Paul's Co-educational College.
Three levels of secondary school emerged in Hong Kong: academic grammar schools for pupils deemed likely to go on to study at university; central schools which provided artisan and trade training, as well as domestic skills for girls; and others schools which provided a basic secondary education.
Further education
The commerce stream in secondary schools is considered vocational. Students in the Commerce stream would usually enter the workplace to gain practical work experience by this point. Further education pursuits in the Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education or universities abroad are common. The Manpower Development Committee (MDC) advises the government on coordination, regulation, and promotion of the sector. Also, the Vocational Training Council (VTC) ensures the level of standard is met through the "Apprentice Ordinance". The VTC also operates three skills-centres for people with disabilities. secondary schools in Hong Kong are going to be cut down to only two years due to the switch in the government.
Alternative education options
International institutions provide both primary and secondary education in Hong Kong. International institutions like schools within the English Schools Foundation, Li Po Chun United World College, Hong Kong International School, American International School Hong Kong, Chinese International School, Victoria Shanghai Academy German Swiss International School, Canadian International School, Hong Kong Japanese School, Hong Kong Academy, French International School, Yew Chung International School, Po Leung Kuk Choi Kai Yau School, Singapore International School, Mount Kelly Hong Kong and Harrow International School Hong Kong teach with English as the primary language, with some sections bilingual in German, French and Chinese. International school students rarely take Hong Kong public exams. British students take GCSE, IGCSE, and A-levels. US students take APs. Increasingly, international schools follow the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program (IBDP) and enter universities through non-JUPAS direct entry. International students apply on a per-school basis, whereas Hong Kong local students submit 1 application for multiple local universities as a JUPAS applicant.
Medium of instruction
In 1990s, following the handover of Hong Kong, most secondary schools in the territory switched their medium of instruction from English to Chinese (Cantonese). The remaining 114 schools (about 20-30%) are known as EMI schools and are often viewed as prestigious. From 2009 onwards, schools which use Chinese as medium of instruction were also allowed to have classes that use English as medium of instruction.
In addition, the Hong Kong government has pushed the use of Putonghua (Standard Mandarin Chinese) as medium of instruction in the Chinese language subject (PMIC). As of 2015-2016, about 16.4% primary schools and 2.5% secondary schools have adopted Putonghua, instead of Cantonese, for teaching the Chinese language subject across all grades and classes. An additional 55.3% primary schools and 34.4% secondary schools have adopted Putonghua in some of their grades and classes. The remaining 28.3% primary schools and 63.1% secondary schools still use Cantonese in all their grades and classes.
Tertiary and Higher education
Higher education remains exclusive in Hong Kong. Fewer than 20,000 students are offered places funded by the government every year, although this number has more than doubled over the last three decades.
As a result, many continue their studies abroad, as can be seen in the following table.
Bachelor's degrees issued in Hong Kong have honours distinctions: first class, second class upper division, second class lower division, and third class.
Adult education
Adult education is popular, since it gives middle age adults a chance to obtain a tertiary degree. The concept was not common several decades ago. The EMB has commissioned two non-profit school operators to provide evening courses. The operators have fee remission schemes to help adult learners in need of financial assistance. Adult education courses also provide Vocational Training Council through universities and private institutions. The Open University of Hong Kong is one establishment for mature students. Several secondary schools operate adult education sessions, the first being Cheung Sha Wan Catholic Secondary School, while PLK Vicwood KT Chong Sixth Form College offers associate degree and joint-degree programmes.
Education for immigrant and non-Cantonese-speaking children
The Education Bureau provides education services for immigrant children from Mainland China and other countries, as well as non-Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong children. Free "Induction Programmes" of up to 60 hours have been offered to NAC by non-government organisations. The EMB also provides a 6-month full-time "Initiation Programme" incorporating both academic and non-academic support services, for NAC before they are formally placed into mainstream schools. The social issue aroused the interest of academic researchers to publish work about NACs' adaptation and school performance
In 2017 the Hong Kong government schools had 6,267 Pakistani students, the largest non-local bloc, and 818 white students of any national background. In 2013 there were 556 white students of any background in Hong Kong government schools. Historically non-local students from other Asian countries attended government schools while white students attended private schools instead. In 2018 Angie Chan of The New York Times reported that increasing numbers of white students were enrolling in Cantonese medium government schools. This was due to increasing tuitions from international schools which received influxes of wealthy Mainland Chinese and desires from parents for white students to learn Cantonese.
International education
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Hong Kong as having 175 international schools. ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in its orientation." This definition is used by publications including The Economist.
While the ISC definition allows for an objective number is does also mean that the count of "International Schools" is often considerably higher than the number of schools that would be relevant to an international, expatriate audience. WhichSchoolAdvisor.com, a review based site that looks exclusively at schools attended by expatriates, has 100 international schools listed in its directory, less than the ISC count, but still 17 more than its great city rival, Singapore. Of these 24 schools follow in part or in full a UK based curriculum (largely the I/GCSE up to 16, A Level post 16), while others follow a UK/International Baccalaureate blend with the IB Diploma offered for post-16 study. Some 33 schools in Hong Kong currently offer the Diploma.
Hong Kong's international schools are not subject to independent inspection reports by the territory's regulator, meaning word of mouth tends to drive reputation as to what are considered to be the best performing international schools in the territory. A large number of parent forums exist that help parents new to Hong Kong make an often very difficult decision.
Private, international schools come at very different prices. The most expensive school is currently Li Po Chun United World College of Hong Kong, with average annual fees of HKD $360,000 (USD $46,450.13). These fees are skewed by the fact that this school is boarding only, and only for the students studying the last two years of the IB. The next most expensive school in the territory is the Chinese International School (CIS), an IB continuum, bi-lingual school (Mandarin and English). Its average fees across year groups is currently HKD 216,500 (USD $27,935).
In addition to the international day school, Hong Kong's Japanese population is served by a weekend education programme, the .
In 2018 Angie Chan reported that increasing numbers of Chinese students, including Hong Kong Chinese and Mainland Chinese, were enrolling in private international schools. In 2017 the percentage of foreign students in such institutions was under 75%, with Hong Kong Chinese being 21.6% and Mainland Chinese being about 4%. In previous eras virtually the entire international school student body was foreign.
There are top-rated exempted courses where courses offered overseas are collaborated with local institutions in Hong Kong to broaden the scope of Tertiary Education in Hong Kong. MIT has an innovation node in Hong Kong.
Types of schools
Legacy
From 70/80s to 2011/12
From 2012/13 to present
Class size
In early days, many primary schools in Hong Kong offered half-day schooling, splitting by AM and PM to handle the demand. The two sessions were usually treated as separate school entities with two different headmasters. To make up for the time of shortened half days, students were sometimes required to attend alternate Saturdays. Most primary schools are gradually moving to full school day systems as government policy aims to phase out half-day schooling over time as resource permits.
Due to the drop in birth rate in recent years, many primary schools were forced to cut classes, cut teachers and even close down. There have been debates that one should seize the opportunity to promote small class teaching, in order to mitigate the pressure of teachers, class and school reductions, on top of improving ratio of students to teachers.
Discipline
Good behaviour has always been emphasised in Hong Kong, to the point that it is sometimes said to hinder pupils' development. Misbehavior is recorded and shown on school reports. The Education Bureau (EDB) provides the 'Guidelines for Student Disciplines' to schools to as guidance in creating a disciplined education environment. It outlines the principles and policies regarding student discipline, the organisational structure of a school discipline team, the roles and responsibilities of the discipline master and mistress, and discipline strategies illustrated with case studies.
Criticisms
Spoon feeding
Education in Hong Kong has often been described as 'spoon fed'. Cram schools in Hong Kong have also become a popular standard in parallel to regular education. Teachers focus on helping students getting high scores in the major exams and heavily rely on textbook knowledge rather than exchanging ideas and essence of the subjects.
1998－2012 Education reform
With the advent of education reform there is a greater emphasis on group projects, open-ended assignments on top of traditional homework. The current workload of a primary student in Hong Kong includes approximately two hours of schoolwork nightly. Along with extra-curricular activities, Hong Kong's education has become synonymous for leaning towards quantity. As early as March 1987, education advisory inspectors became concerned with the excessive amounts of "mechanical work and meaningless homework". In particular, history education has been recognised as ineffective, with critics claiming that the curriculum is not capable of delivering a sense of identity. Not only that, students have to memorise the whole history texts, thereby indicating that rote-learning has greater priority than absorbing and understanding material.
Some have criticised the system for having too narrow of a stream focus, too early on. Legco Member Alan Leong argued in a guest lecture at the Chinese University of Hong Kong that secondary level science students are incapable of participating in meaningful discussions on history, arts, or literature. Vice versa journalists of arts stream background are incapable of accurately discussing technological issues. The narrow focus of education in Hong Kong has been a concern.
The pervasive perception from observers in overseas education institutions generally is that a typical Hong Kong student compared with other students, even against other students in the Asia region, lacks systematic decision-making confidence and relies on repetition and undeveloped answers. This deviates from the common benchmark of intellect where value propositions are generated from innovation and distinctive solutions, and this has led to much schism in the debate of educational direction of Hong Kong, where the populace makes no such aspiration for intellect but seek constant reaffirmation of the value of myriad certificates obtained through pedagogy throughout their working lives. The desperation to seek standing in life through education is further highlighted by severe ironies such as:
Senior education officials often acclaim the excellence of Hong Kong education, yet few if any will let their children matriculate locally, preferring overseas universities instead.
A certificate driven society that takes pride in its academic excellence is unable to devise a suitable benchmark of excellence itself, with a low public approval of the local educational system, relies on certification from outside Hong Kong.
See also
Education by country
Education in the UK
Education in the People's Republic of China
List of schools in Hong Kong
List of universities in Hong Kong
334 Scheme (New Senior Secondary Scheme)
EMI schools
References
Further reading
Tang, Kwok-Chun (Hong Kong Baptist University) and Mark Bray (University of Hong Kong). "Colonial models and the evolution of education systems: centralization and decentralization in Hong Kong and Macau." World Bank.
Chan, Anita K.W. and Lucille L.S. Ngan. "Investigating the differential mobility experiences of Chinese cross-border students." Mobilities. Volume 13, 2018. Issue 1. p. 142-156. DOI 10.1080/17450101.2017.1300452.
- Occasional Paper No. 12
External links
Education Bureau, Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Secondary education by country | [
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250072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aamon | Aamon | Aamon (also known as Amon and Nahum), in demonology, is a Grand Marquis of Hell who governs 40 infernal legions, and the 7th spirit of the Goetia. He is the demon of life and reproduction.
Description
The names Aamon and Amon come from the god Amun or from the god Baal-hamon of Carthage. Nahum means "who induces to eagerness."
According to the Dictionnaire Infernal by Collin de Plancy, he commands 40 legions of demons and carries the title of Prince. He's also an entity many looked to reconcile friends and foes, and procure love for those seeking it. The Egyptians viewed Amon or Amun as their supreme God; they represented him with the blue skin, in a rather human form.
He was written about by Johann Wier in 1583 in the Pseudomonarchia daemonum.
"Amon, or Aamon, is a great and mighty marques, and commeth abroad in the likeness of a Wolf, having a serpents tail, [vomiting] flames of fire; when he putteth on the shape of a man, he sheweth out dogs teeth, and a great head like to a mighty [night hawk]; he is the strongest prince of all other, and understandeth of all things past and to come, he procureth favor, and reconcileth both friends and foes, and rule forthy legions of devils."
And much later by S. L. MacGregor Mathers in the Goetia.
"The Seventh Spirit is Amon. He is a Marquis great in power, and most stern. He appeareth like a Wolf with a Serpent's tail, vomiting out of his mouth flames of fire; but at the command of the Magician he putteth on the shape of a Man with Dog's teeth beset in a head like a Raven; or else like a Man with a Raven's head (simply). He telleth all things Past and to Come. He procureth feuds and reconcileth controversies between friends. He governeth 40 Legions of Spirits. His Seal is this which is to be worn as aforesaid, etc."
References
Bibliography
S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King, .
Collin de Plancy, Dictionnaire Infernal
The Lesser Key of Solomon
Pseudomonarchia Daemonum
"History of Witchcraft and Demonology" by Montague Summers
"Biblical Demonology" by Merrill F. Unger
"Demonology: The Hierarchies of Hell" by Michael Szul
External links
Pseudomonarchia Daemonum
Goetic demons
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250074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial%20options%20pricing%20model | Binomial options pricing model | In finance, the binomial options pricing model (BOPM) provides a generalizable numerical method for the valuation of options. Essentially, the model uses a "discrete-time" (lattice based) model of the varying price over time of the underlying financial instrument, addressing cases where the closed-form Black–Scholes formula is wanting.
The binomial model was first proposed by William Sharpe in the 1978 edition of Investments (), and formalized by Cox, Ross and Rubinstein in 1979 and by Rendleman and Bartter in that same year.
For binomial trees as applied to fixed income and interest rate derivatives see .
Use of the model
The Binomial options pricing model approach has been widely used since it is able to handle a variety of conditions for which other models cannot easily be applied. This is largely because the BOPM is based on the description of an underlying instrument over a period of time rather than a single point. As a consequence, it is used to value American options that are exercisable at any time in a given interval as well as Bermudan options that are exercisable at specific instances of time. Being relatively simple, the model is readily implementable in computer software (including a spreadsheet).
Although computationally slower than the Black–Scholes formula, it is more accurate, particularly for longer-dated options on securities with dividend payments. For these reasons, various versions of the binomial model are widely used by practitioners in the options markets.
For options with several sources of uncertainty (e.g., real options) and for options with complicated features (e.g., Asian options), binomial methods are less practical due to several difficulties, and Monte Carlo option models are commonly used instead. When simulating a small number of time steps Monte Carlo simulation will be more computationally time-consuming than BOPM (cf. Monte Carlo methods in finance). However, the worst-case runtime of BOPM will be O(2n), where n is the number of time steps in the simulation. Monte Carlo simulations will generally have a polynomial time complexity, and will be faster for large numbers of simulation steps. Monte Carlo simulations are also less susceptible to sampling errors, since binomial techniques use discrete time units. This becomes more true the smaller the discrete units become.
Method
The binomial pricing model traces the evolution of the option's key underlying variables in discrete-time. This is done by means of a binomial lattice (Tree), for a number of time steps between the valuation and expiration dates. Each node in the lattice represents a possible price of the underlying at a given point in time.
Valuation is performed iteratively, starting at each of the final nodes (those that may be reached at the time of expiration), and then working backwards through the tree towards the first node (valuation date). The value computed at each stage is the value of the option at that point in time.
Option valuation using this method is, as described, a three-step process:
Price tree generation,
Calculation of option value at each final node,
Sequential calculation of the option value at each preceding node.
Step 1: Create the binomial price tree
The tree of prices is produced by working forward from valuation date to expiration.
At each step, it is assumed that the underlying instrument will move up or down by a specific factor ( or ) per step of the tree (where, by definition, and ). So, if is the current price, then in the next period the price will either be or .
The up and down factors are calculated using the underlying volatility, , and the time duration of a step, , measured in years (using the day count convention of the underlying instrument). From the condition that the variance of the log of the price is , we have:
Above is the original Cox, Ross, & Rubinstein (CRR) method; there are various other techniques for generating the lattice, such as "the equal probabilities" tree, see.
The CRR method ensures that the tree is recombinant, i.e. if the underlying asset moves up and then down (u,d), the price will be the same as if it had moved down and then up (d,u)—here the two paths merge or recombine. This property reduces the number of tree nodes, and thus accelerates the computation of the option price.
This property also allows the value of the underlying asset at each node to be calculated directly via formula, and does not require that the tree be built first. The node-value will be:
Where is the number of up ticks and is the number of down ticks.
Step 2: Find option value at each final node
At each final node of the tree—i.e. at expiration of the option—the option value is simply its intrinsic, or exercise, value:
, for a call option
, for a put option,
Where is the strike price and is the spot price of the underlying asset at the period.
Step 3: Find option value at earlier nodes
Once the above step is complete, the option value is then found for each node, starting at the penultimate time step, and working back to the first node of the tree (the valuation date) where the calculated result is the value of the option.
In overview: the "binomial value" is found at each node, using the risk neutrality assumption; see Risk neutral valuation. If exercise is permitted at the node, then the model takes the greater of binomial and exercise value at the node.
The steps are as follows:
In calculating the value at the next time step calculated—i.e. one step closer to valuation—the model must use the value selected here, for "Option up"/"Option down" as appropriate, in the formula at the node.
The aside algorithm demonstrates the approach computing the price of an American put option, although is easily generalized for calls and for European and Bermudan options:
Relationship with Black–Scholes
Similar assumptions underpin both the binomial model and the Black–Scholes model, and the binomial model thus provides a discrete time approximation to the continuous process underlying the Black–Scholes model. The binomial model assumes that movements in the price follow a binomial distribution; for many trials, this binomial distribution approaches the log-normal distribution assumed by Black–Scholes. In this case then, for European options without dividends, the binomial model value converges on the Black–Scholes formula value as the number of time steps increases.
In addition, when analyzed as a numerical procedure, the CRR binomial method can be viewed as a special case of the explicit finite difference method for the Black–Scholes PDE; see finite difference methods for option pricing.
See also
Trinomial tree, a similar model with three possible paths per node.
Tree (data structure)
Lattice model (finance), for more general discussion and application to other underlyings
Black–Scholes: binomial lattices are able to handle a variety of conditions for which Black–Scholes cannot be applied.
Monte Carlo option model, used in the valuation of options with complicated features that make them difficult to value through other methods.
Real options analysis, where the BOPM is widely used.
Quantum finance, quantum binomial pricing model.
Mathematical finance, which has a list of related articles.
, where the BOPM is widely used.
Implied binomial tree
Edgeworth binomial tree
References
External links
The Binomial Model for Pricing Options, Prof. Thayer Watkins
Binomial Option Pricing (PDF), Prof. Robert M. Conroy
Binomial Option Pricing Model by Fiona Maclachlan, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project
On the Irrelevance of Expected Stock Returns in the Pricing of Options in the Binomial Model: A Pedagogical Note by Valeri Zakamouline
A Simple Derivation of Risk-Neutral Probability in the Binomial Option Pricing Model by Greg Orosi
Financial models
Options (finance)
Mathematical finance
Models of computation
Trees (data structures) | [
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250075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbatos | Barbatos | Barbatos (Latin: barbatus, "bearded") is the 8th Spirit named in The Lesser Key of Solomon (Ars Goetia), appearing as an Earl and Great Duke of Hell. He is depicted as an Archer or Philosopher with several brass horns. He supposedly rules over thirty legions of demons which are divided and ruled by Barbatos' King Companions.
He is described as giving the ability to understand the speech of animals and birds, to appear in Sagittarius, to at one point have been virtuous(and still retain some of that virtue), to know everything in the past and future, and to be adept at making peace between friends.
In the Grand Grimoire, Barbatos is named as the 6th of the 18 spirits who serve the seven superior spirits, namely, he is under the command of Satanachia along with Pruslas and Aamon.
In popular culture
In the anime series Gundam, there is a mobile suit known as "ASW-G-08 Gundam Barbatos".
In the 2020 game Genshin Impact, Barbatos is one of the names of the Anemo (wind) Archon and god of the nation Mondstadt.
In the 2019 Otome game Obey Me!, one of the demons with whom the players can interact with and raise their relationship with is named Barbatos.
In the 2017 DC comics made event called Dark Nights: Metal. Barbatos is revealed to the main villain and created an army of evil Batman to destroy the universe
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250081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingate | Ingate | Ingate can refer to:
Ingate Systems
A device used in molding. | [
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250082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office%20of%20the%20Parliamentary%20Counsel%20to%20Government | Office of the Parliamentary Counsel to Government | The Office of the Parliamentary Counsel to the Government () is the Office of the Parliamentary Counsel to the Government of Ireland. It is part of the office of the Attorney General of Ireland. It drafts bills which the Government intends to introduce in the Oireachtas. Although the Oireachtas as the legislature has formal authority to enact legislation, in practice the government whip rarely allows substantive amendments to bills to be made in the Dáil or Seanad; thus the Parliamentary Counsel's role is crucial.
References
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250088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumene%20process | Cumene process | The cumene process (cumene–phenol process, Hock process) is an industrial process for synthesizing phenol and acetone from benzene and propylene. The term stems from cumene (isopropyl benzene), the intermediate material during the process. It was invented by R. Ūdris and P. Sergeyev in 1942 (USSR)., and independently by Heinrich Hock in 1944
This process converts two relatively cheap starting materials, benzene and propylene, into two more valuable ones, phenol and acetone. Other reactants required are oxygen from air and small amounts of a radical initiator. Most of the worldwide production of phenol and acetone is now based on this method. In 2003, nearly 7 million tonnes of phenol was produced by the cumene process. In order for this process to be economical, there must also be demand for the acetone by-product as well as the phenol.
Steps of the process
Cumene is formed in the gas-phase Friedel–Crafts alkylation of benzene by propene. Benzene and propene are compressed together to a pressure of 30 standard atmospheres at 250 °C in presence of a catalytic Lewis acid. Phosphoric acid is often favored over aluminium halides. Cumene is oxidized in air, which removes the tertiary benzylic hydrogen from cumene and hence forms a cumene radical:
The cumene radical then bonds with an oxygen molecule to give cumene peroxide radical, which in turn forms cumene hydroperoxide (C6H5C(CH3)2O2H) by abstracting a benzylic hydrogen from another cumene molecule. This latter cumene converts into cumene radical and feeds back into subsequent chain formations of cumene hydroperoxides. A pressure of 5 atm is used to ensure that the unstable peroxide is kept in liquid state.
Cumene hydroperoxide undergoes a rearrangement reaction in an acidic medium (the Hock rearrangement) to give phenol and acetone. In the first step, the terminal hydroperoxy oxygen atom is protonated. This is followed by a step in which the phenyl group migrates from the benzyl carbon to the adjacent oxygen and a water molecule is lost, producing a resonance stabilized tertiary carbocation. The concerted mechanism of this step is similar to the mechanisms of the Baeyer–Villiger oxidation and Criegee rearrangement reactions, and also the oxidation step of the hydroboration–oxidation process.
In 2009, an acidified bentonite clay was proven to be a more economical catalyst than sulfuric acid as the acid medium.
The resulting carbocation is then attacked by water, forming a hemiacetal-like structure. After transfer of a proton from the hydroxy oxygen to the ether oxygen, the ion falls apart into phenol and acetone.
Related reactions and modifications
Alternatives to acetone co-production
Cyclohexylbenzene can replace isopropylbenzene. Via the Hock rearrangement, cyclohexylbenzene hydroperoxide cleaves to give phenol and cyclohexanone. Cyclohexanone is an important precursor to some nylons.
Starting with the alkylation of benzene with mixture of 1 and 2-butenes, the cumene process produces phenol and butanones.
Alternatives to phenol production
Hydroquinone is prepared by dialkylation of benzene with propene to give 1,4-diisopropylbenzene. This compound reacts with air to afford the bis(hydroperoxide). Analogous to the behavior of cumene hydroperoxide, it rearranges in acid to give acetone and hydroquinone. Oxidation of hydroquinone gives 1,4-benzoquinone:
C6H4(CHMe2)2 + 2.5 O2 → C6H4O2 + 2 OCMe2 + H2O
Resorcinol is analogously prepared by converting 1,3-Diisopropylbenzene into the bis(hydroperoxide), which fragments to resorcinol and acetone.
2-Naphthol can also be produced by a method analogous to the cumene process.
3-Chlorophenol, which does not arise by chlorination of phenol, can be produced by Cumene process beginning with the alkylation of chlorobenzene with propylene.
Cresols are produced from isopropyltoluene.
Acetone processing
Crude acetone is hydrogenated in the liquid phase over Raney nickel or a mixture of copper and chromium oxide to give isopropyl alcohol. This process is useful, when it is coupled with excess acetone production.
Mitsui & Co.] developed additional step(s) to hydrogenating acetone and dehydrogenating the isopropanol product to propene, which is recycled as a starting reactant.
Byproducts
Byproducts of the cumene process to produce phenol and acetone are acetophenone and alpha-methylstyrene.
See also
Bisphenol A
Dow process
Friedel Crafts alkylation
Baeyer–Villiger oxidation
Raschig–Hooker process (also produces phenol)
References
External links
Phenol -- The essential chemical industry online
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250089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar%2C%20King%20of%20Sweden | Valdemar, King of Sweden | Valdemar (English: Waldemar; ; 1239 – 26 December 1302) was King of Sweden from 1250 to 1275.
Biography
Valdemar was the son of the Swedish princess Ingeborg Eriksdotter and Birger Jarl, from the House of Bjelbo. When her brother King Eric XI died in 1250, though a child, Valdemar was elected king and crowned the following year in the cathedral at Linköping. During the first sixteen years of his reign, it was Birger Jarl who was the real ruler. Birger Jarl had been the de facto ruler of Sweden from 1248, before the reign of Valdemar, even under Eric XI. Valdemar's mother and King Eric were children of King Eric X and Richeza of Denmark.
After Birger's death in 1266 Valdemar eventually came into conflict with his younger brother Magnus Birgersson, Duke of Södermanland, over taxation and personal matters.
In 1260, Valdemar married Sophia, the eldest daughter of King Eric IV of Denmark and Jutta of Saxony. Valdemar also had a relationship with his sister-in-law Jutta. In 1272, Jutta visited Sweden and became Valdemar's mistress. The affair resulted in a child born in 1273. The following year, Jutta was placed in a convent and Valdemar was forced to make a pilgrimage to Rome to ask for the absolution of the Pope.
Valdemar was deposed by his brother, Magnus after the Battle of Hova in Tiveden June 14, 1275. Magnus was supported by his brother, Eric Birgersson, Duke of Småland, and King Eric V of Denmark, who provided Danish soldiers. Magnus was elected King Magnus III of Sweden at the Stones of Mora.
In 1277, Sophia separated from her spouse and returned to Denmark and Valdemar managed to regain provinces in Gothenland in the southern part of the kingdom and was called the Duke of Götaland. However, Magnus regained them about 1278. In 1288 Valdemar was imprisoned by King Magnus in Nyköping Castle (Nyköpingshus) and lived openly with mistresses, possibly new wives, in comfortable confinement.
Family
Valdemar married Sofia of Denmark (died 1286) in 1260 and they separated in 1277. They had six children:
Ingeborg Valdemarsdotter of Sweden, Countess of Holstein; spouse of Gerhard II, Count of Holstein-Plön.
Erik Valdemarsson of Sweden (1272–1330)
Marina Valdemarsdotter of Sweden; spouse of Rudolf, Count of Diepholz
Richeza Valdemarsdotter of Sweden (died c. 1292); spouse of Przemysł II of Poland
Katarina Valdemarsdotter of Sweden (died 1283)
Margareta Valdemarsdotter of Sweden, a nun.
References
Sources
Adolfsson, Mats När borgarna brann - svenska uppror (Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, 2007)
Kyhlberg, Ola Gånget ut min hand (Riddarholmskyrkans stiftargravar Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, Stockholm: 1997)
Larsson, Mats G. Götarnas Riken : Upptäcktsfärder Till Sveriges Enande (Bokförlaget Atlantis AB. 2002)
Schück, Herman Kyrka och rike - från folkungatid till vasatid (Stockholm: 2005)
External links
1239 births
1302 deaths
13th-century Swedish monarchs
Rulers of Finland
Medieval child rulers
Christians of the Second Swedish Crusade
14th-century Swedish people
House of Bjelbo | [
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250090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 24th Annual Grammy Awards | The 24th Annual Grammy Awards were held on February 24, 1982, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, and were broadcast live on American television. The event recognized the accomplishments of musicians during the year 1981. Quincy Jones was the major recipient of awards with a total of five Grammys.
The much coveted Album of the Year award went to Jack Douglas, John Lennon and Yoko Ono for Double Fantasy, and Song of the Year went to Donna Weiss and Jackie DeShannon for "Bette Davis Eyes".
Award winners
Record of the Year
Val Garay (producer) & Kim Carnes for "Bette Davis Eyes"
Album of the Year
Jack Douglas (producer), John Lennon & Yoko Ono (producers and artists) for Double Fantasy
Song of the Year
Donna Weiss & Jackie DeShannon (songwriters) for "Bette Davis Eyes" performed by Kim Carnes
Best New Artist
Sheena Easton
Children's
Best Recording for Children
Dennis Scott & Jim Henson (producers) for Sesame Country performed by The Muppets, Glen Campbell, Crystal Gayle, Loretta Lynn & Tanya Tucker
Classical
Best Classical Orchestral Recording
James Mallinson (producer), Georg Solti (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra & Chorus for Mahler: Symphony No. 2 in C Minor
Best Classical Vocal Soloist Performance
Richard Bonynge (conductor), Marilyn Horne, Luciano Pavarotti, Joan Sutherland & the New York City Opera Orchestra for Live From Lincoln Center - Sutherland/Horne/Pavarotti
Best Opera Recording
James Mallinson (producer), Charles Mackerras (conductor), Jiri Zahradnicek, Ivo Žídek, Václav Zítek & the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra for Janáček: From the House of the Dead
Best Choral Performance (other than opera)
Neville Marriner (conductor) & the Academy of St Martin in the Fields & Chorus for Haydn: The Creation
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with orchestra)
Zubin Mehta (conductor), Itzhak Perlman, Isaac Stern, Pinchas Zukerman & the New York Philharmonic for Isaac Stern 60th Anniversary Celebration
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (without orchestra)
Vladimir Horowitz for The Horowitz Concerts 1979/80
Best Chamber Music Performance
Vladimir Ashkenazy, Lynn Harrell & Itzhak Perlman for Tchaikovsky: Piano Trio in A Minor
Best Classical Album
James Mallinson (producer), Georg Solti (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra & Chorus for Mahler: Symphony No. 2 in C Minor
Comedy
Best Comedy Recording
Richard Pryor for Rev. Du Rite
Composing and arranging
Best Instrumental Composition
Mike Post (composer) for "The Theme From Hill Street Blues"
Best Album of Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special
John Williams (composer) for Raiders of the Lost Ark
Best Instrumental Arrangement
Quincy Jones & Johnny Mandel (arrangers) for "Velas" performed by Quincy Jones
Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocal(s)
Jerry Hey & Quincy Jones (arrangers) for "Ai No Corrida" performed by Quincy Jones
Best Vocal Arrangement for Two or More Voices
Gene Puerling (arranger) for "A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square" performed by The Manhattan Transfer
Country
Best Country Vocal Performance, Female
Dolly Parton for "9 to 5"
Best Country Vocal Performance, Male
Ronnie Milsap for "(There's) No Gettin' Over Me"
Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
The Oak Ridge Boys for "Elvira"
Best Country Instrumental Performance
Chet Atkins for Country After All These Years
Best Country Song
Dolly Parton (songwriter) for "9 to 5"
Folk
Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording
There Must Be a Better World Somewhere-B.B.King
Gospel
Best Gospel Performance, Traditional
The Masters V for The Masters V
Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary or Inspirational
The Imperials for Priority
Best Soul Gospel Performance, Traditional
Al Green for The Lord Will Make a Way
Best Soul Gospel Performance, Contemporary
Andrae Crouch for Don't Give Up
Best Inspirational Performance
B.J. Thomas for Amazing Grace
Historical
Best Historical Album
Michael Brooks & George Spitzer (producers) for Hoagy Carmichael - From Stardust to Ole Buttermilk Sky
Jazz
Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Female
Ella Fitzgerald for Digital III at Montreux
Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Male
Al Jarreau for "(Round, Round, Round) Blue Rondo à la Turk"
Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Duo or Group
The Manhattan Transfer for "Until I Met You (Corner Pocket)"
Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist
John Coltrane for Bye Bye Blackbird
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Group
Chick Corea & Gary Burton for In Concert, Zürich, October 28, 1979
Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band
Gerry Mulligan for Walk on the Water
Best Jazz Fusion Performance, Vocal or Instrumental
Grover Washington, Jr. for Winelight
Latin
Best Latin Recording
Clare Fischer for "Guajira Pa la Jeva"
Musical show
Best Cast Show Album
Quincy Jones (producer) & Lena Horne for Lena Horne: The Lady and Her Music
Music video
Video of the Year
Michael Nesmith for Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts
Packaging and notes
Best Album Package
Peter Corriston (art director) for Tattoo You performed by The Rolling Stones
Best Album Notes
Dan Morgenstern (notes writer) for Erroll Garner - Master of the Keyboard performed by Erroll Garner
Pop
Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female
Lena Horne for Lena Horne: The Lady and Her Music
Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male
Al Jarreau for Breakin' Away
Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
The Manhattan Transfer for "The Boy from New York City"
Best Pop Instrumental Performance
Larry Carlton & Mike Post for "The Theme from Hill Street Blues"
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical
Bill Schnee, Elliot Scheiner, Jerry Garszva & Roger Nichols (engineers) for Gaucho performed by Steely Dan
Best Engineered Recording, Classical
Andrew Kazdin, Edward (Bud) T. Graham, Ray Moore (engineers), Zubin Mehta (conductor), Isaac Stern, Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman, & the New York Philharmonic for Isaac Stern 60th Anniversary Celebration
Producer of the Year
Quincy Jones
Classical Producer of the Year
James Mallinson
R&B
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female
Aretha Franklin for "Hold On I'm Comin'"
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male
James Ingram for "One Hundred Ways"
Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
Quincy Jones for The Dude
Best R&B Instrumental Performance
David Sanborn for "All I Need Is You"
Best Rhythm & Blues Song
Bill Withers, Ralph MacDonald & William Salter (songwriters) for "Just the Two of Us" performed by Grover Washington, Jr. & Bill Withers
Rock
Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female
Pat Benatar for "Fire and Ice"
Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male
Rick Springfield for "Jessie's Girl"
Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
The Police for "Don't Stand So Close To Me"
Best Rock Instrumental Performance
The Police for "Behind My Camel"
Spoken
Best Spoken Word, Documentary or Drama Recording
Orson Welles for Donovan's Brain
References
External links
24th Grammy Awards, from the Internet Movie Database
024
1982 in California
1982 music awards
1982 in Los Angeles
1982 in American music
Grammy
February 1982 events in the United States | [
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250092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinan | Jinan | Jinan (), alternately romanized as Tsinan, is the capital of Shandong province in Eastern China. With a population of 9.2 million (including Laiwu), it is the second-largest city in Shandong after Qingdao. The area of present-day Jinan has played an important role in the history of the region from the earliest beginnings of civilization and has evolved into a major national administrative, economic, and transportation hub. The city has held sub-provincial administrative status since 1994. Jinan is often called the "Spring City" for its famous 72 artesian springs.
Its population (including Laiwu City merged recently) was 9,202,432 as of the 2020 census. Its built-up (or metro) area made of 6 out of 10 urban districts (but Jiyang, Zhangqiu, Laiwu and Gangcheng not yet conurbated) was home to 4,335,889 inhabitants as of the 2010 census.
Jinan is also one of the top 100 cities in the world for scientific research as tracked by the Nature Index according to the Nature Index 2020 Science Cities. The city is home to several major universities, including Shandong Normal University, University of Jinan, and Qilu University of Technology. Notably, Shandong University is one of China's most prestigious universities as a member of the (now defunct) Project 985. The city is rated Beta- (Global second-tier city) by the biannual GAWC ratings in 2020.
Names
The modern-day name Jinan literally means "south of the Ji" and refers to the old Ji River that had flowed to the north of the city until the middle of the 19th century. The Ji River disappeared in 1852 when the Yellow River changed its course northwards and took over its bed. The current pronunciation of the character "Ji" with the third tone ("jǐ") was established in the late 1970s. Prior to this, it was pronounced with the fourth tone (""). Older texts spell the name as "Tsinan" (Wade-Giles romanization) or "Chi-nan".
During the times of the Zhou dynasty (1045 BC to 256 BC), the city of Lixia () was the major settlement in the area. The name "Lixia" refers to the location of Jinan at the foot of Mount Li, which lies to the south of the city. Today, Lixia is the name of one of the city's districts.
The Battle of An, which was fought in the area during the Spring and Autumn period (in 589 BCE) between the states of Qi and Jin, is named for the ancient city of () which stood within the city limits of present-day Jinan. Marco Polo gives a brief description of Jinan under the name "Chingli" or "Chinangli". 19th and early 20th century texts frequently give the name of the city as "Tsinan Fu" where the additional "Fu" () comes from the dated Chinese term for a provincial capital ().
Jinan is also referred to by the nickname "City of Springs" (), because of the many artesian springs in the urban city centre and its surroundings.
History
Early history
The area of present-day Jinan has been inhabited for more than 4000 years. The Neolithic Longshan culture was first discovered at Chengziya to the east of Jinan (Zhangqiu District) in 1928. One of the characteristic features of the Longshan culture are the intricate wheel-made pottery pieces it produced. Most renowned is the black "egg-shell pottery" with wall thicknesses that can go below 1 millimeter.
During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BCE) and Warring States period (475–221 BCE), the area of Jinan was split between two states: the state of Lu in the west and the state of Qi in the east. In 685 BCE, the state of Qi started to build the Great Wall of Qi across Changqing county. Portions of the wall still remain today and are accessible as open air museums. Bian Que, according to the legend the earliest Chinese physician and active around 400–300 BCE, is said to have been a native of present-day Changqing County. Zou Yan (305–240 BCE), a native of Zhangqiu City, developed the concepts of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements. Joseph Needham, a British sinologist, describes Zou as "The real founder of all Chinese scientific thought."
During the times of the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Jinan was the capital of the feudatory Kingdom of Jibei () and evolved into the cultural and economic hub of the region. The Han dynasty tomb where the last king of Jibei, Liu Kuan (), was buried at Shuangru Mountain was excavated by archaeologists from Shandong University in 1995 and 1996. More than 2000 artifacts such as jade swords, jade masks, and jade pillows have been recovered within the 1,500 square meter excavation site, emphasizing the wealth of the city during the period. Cao Cao (155 – 220 CE) was an official in Jinan before he became the de facto ruler of the Han dynasty. His son, Cao Pi, overthrew the last emperor of the Han and founded the Wei Kingdom (220 – 265 CE) of the Three Kingdoms Period.
Beginning in the 5th century CE, Buddhism flourished in Jinan. The Langgong Temple (, later renamed Shentong Temple, (, and now in ruins) in the southern county of Licheng was one of the most important temples in northern China at that time. The same period witnessed extensive construction of Buddhist sites in the southern counties of Licheng and Changqing such as the Lingyan Temple and the Thousand-Buddha Cliff. In particular, a large number of cave temples were established in the hills south of Jinan.
Jinan remained the cultural center of the region during the Song dynasty (960 – 1279 CE). The Song rulers promoted Jinan to a superior prefecture in 1116 CE. Two of the most important poets of the Southern Song were both born in Jinan: Li Qingzhao (1084–1151 CE), the most renown female poet in Chinese history, and Xin Qiji (1140–1207 CE), who was also a military leader of the Southern Song dynasty. Both poets witnessed a series of crushing defeats of the Song dynasty at the hands of the Jurchens who gained control over almost half of the Song territories and established the Jin dynasty in northern China. After Jinan came under control of the Jin dynasty, both Li Qingzhao and Xin Qiji had to abandon their homes and reflected this experience in their works.
During the Civil War that followed the proclamation of Kublai Khan as Great Khan in 1260 CE, Jinan was at the center of a rebellion by Yizhou governor Li Tan against Mongol rule in 1262 CE. The rebellion was crushed in a decisive battle that was fought not far from Jinan in late March or early April 1262 CE. After losing 4000 of his troops in the battle, Li Tan retreated to Jinan to make his last stand. After defections of his defenders had made his position untenable, Li Tan tried to commit suicide by drowning himself in Daming Lake. However, he was rescued by the Mongols in order to execute him by trampling him to death with their horses.
Despite such violent conflicts, culture in Jinan continued to thrive during the Jin (1115–1234) and Yuan (1271–1368) dynasties: One of the most renowned artists of the Yuan dynasty, Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322) was appointed to the post of governor of Jinan in 1293 and spent three years in the city. Among the extraordinary art works he completed during his stay in Jinan, the best known painting is "Autumn Colors on the Qiao and Hua Mountains" (). Geographer Yu Qin (1284–1333) also served as an official in Jinan and authored his geography book Qi Cheng there.
When Shandong province was established under the Ming dynasty, Jinan became its capital. Jinan was the site of a siege during the Jingnan Campaign where the city was defended by loyalists of the Jianwen Emperor led by Tie Xuan against the rebel Prince of Yan Zhu Di's army.
In 1852, the northward shift of the Yellow River into a new bed close to the city triggered the modern expansion of Jinan. The new course of the Yellow River connected the city to the Grand Canal and regional waterways in northern Shandong and southern Hebei.
German influence in Jinan grew after the Qing dynasty ceded Qingdao to the German Empire in 1897. A German concession area was established to the west of the historical city center (in the vicinity of the Jinan Railway Station first established by the Germans). The Jiaoji (Qingdao–Jinan) railway was built by the Germans against local resistance. Discontent over the construction of the railway was one of the sources fueling the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901). During the rebellion, foreign priests were evacuated from Jinan and Chinese Christians became a target of violence. The Jiaoji railway was completed in 1904, three years after the Boxer Rebellion had been put down, and opened the city to foreign trade. The importance of Jinan as a transportation hub was cemented with the completion of the north–south Jinpu railway from Tianjin to Pukou in 1912. Jinan became a major trading center for agricultural goods in northern China. Traded commodities included cotton, grain, peanuts, and tobacco. Jinan also developed into a major industrial center, second in importance to Qingdao in the province.
Republican era
In 1919, after the First World War, the Japanese took over the German sphere of influence in Shandong, including control of the Jiaoji railway, and established a significant Japanese influence in Jinan. According to estimates by a contemporary Japanese government official, about 2,000 Japanese were living in Jinan in 1931, about half of whom were involved in the opium trade for which the Japanese had a loosely controlled monopoly that was exploited with the participation of Chinese traders.
During the Warlord era of the Republic of China, Zhang Zongchang, nicknamed the "Dogmeat General", ruled Shandong from Jinan for a period that lasted from April 1925 until May 1928. Zhang was unpopular for his heavy-handed rule and in particular his heavy taxation. Besides heavy taxes, he relied financially on opium to finance his periodic wars. Zhang even planned to use some of the wealth extracted from these sources for building a living shrine and a large bronze statue for himself on the shore of Daming Lake, but these plans were not realized as his rule came to an end.
In the spring of 1928, the Kuomintang's Northern Expedition reached Jinan. On May 3, 1928, clashes developed between Japanese troops stationed in Jinan and the Kuomintang troops moving into the city (Jinan Incident). Cai Gongshi, a Kuomintang emissary sent to negotiate and 16 members of his entourage were cruelly executed by the Japanese. Japanese officers placed an order to slice off his nose and ears, and to gouge out his eyes and tongue. Sixteen other members of his negotiation team were also striped naked, recklessly whipped, dragged to the back-lawn, and slaughtered by machine guns on the same day. After the incident, Japanese reinforcements were sent to Shandong and by 11 May, Japanese troops pushed the Chinese troops from the area, inflicted thousands of casualties and killed over 2000 Chinese civilians. The Japanese occupied Jinan for more than six months until they withdrew to their garrison in Tsingtao on the 28th of March 1929. When Chiang lectured a group of Chinese army cadets, he urged them to turn their energies to washing away the shame of Jinan, but to conceal their hatred until the last moment. The Kuomintang government later decreed that May 3 be designated a "National Humiliation Memorial Day."
During the Nanjing decade of the Republic of China, Han Fuju, a military commander from the warlord era who had aligned himself with the Kuomintang, was rewarded with the military governorship of Shandong, after fighting against the rebel troops of Yen Hsi-shan and his former commander Feng Yu-hsiang in the Central Plains War in 1930. He established his base in Jinan and is credited with curtailing banditry and drug trading, thereby bringing a measure of peace and prosperity to the city. However, from 1935 onwards Han was under heavy pressure from the Japanese consul in Jinan to declare Shandong an "independent state" allied with Japan.
After the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese invasion force crossed the Yellow River north-east of Jinan on December 23, 1937. Han Fuju abandoned Jinan the next day against orders to hold the city to the death. He ordered the offices of the provincial government and the Japanese consulate in Jinan to be burned down and the ensuing power vacuum led to widespread looting in the city. Japanese troops from the 10th Division of the Manchurian Area Army entered Jinan on December 27, 1937. Han Fuju was arrested and executed for disobeying orders from superior commanders and retreating on his own accord by Chiang Kai-Shek's chief of staff, General Hu Zongnan.
After World War II
Japanese troops controlled Jinan until their defeat in 1945. After this, the Kuomintang regained short-lived control of the city during the period from 1946 to 1948. The provincial government during this time was led by Lieutenant-General Wang Yaowu, who also commanded the KMT army in the region. KMT rule over Jinan ended in September 1948 with the Battle of Jinan in which units of the People's Liberation Army under the command of Chen Yi took the city. The battle for Jinan took a decisive turn in favor of the attackers when KMT Lieutenant-General Wu Huawen defected to the Communist side with about 8,000 of his troops. The most likely explanation for his defection is that he had been pressured through relatives of his who were held captive by the Communist forces. Lieutenant-General Wu had been in charge of the vital outer ring of defenses that protected the main airfield, the railroad station, and the commercial district. With these critical assets lost, the situation of the city's defenders became untenable. Following the weakening of the city's defenses, the People's Liberation Army breached the city wall and entered Jinan on September 24, 1948.
Cultural Revolution
In March 1966, the largest among the drawn-out sequence of earthquakes that made up the Xingtai earthquake damaged about 36,000 houses in Jinan.
On May 27, 1966, the Cultural Revolution started in Jinan with an article in the local newspaper "Jinan Evening News" () that denounced vice-governor Yu Xiu as a Bourgeois agent within the government. Starting from early June 1966, the schools in Jinan were closed down by strikes as teachers were "struggled against". At the same time, big-character posters started to appear in the city. Red Guards took to the streets of Jinan from late August 1966 onwards, damaging cultural heritage and setting up courts to prosecute perceived enemies of the revolution. In the spring of 1967, the "May 7th Incident" took place: When Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyuan, both later reviled as members of the Gang of Four, visited Jinan to support the Cultural Revolution and its local leader Wang Xiao Yu, fighting erupted in the front of the provincial government between two rival factions of the Cultural Revolution, the "April 22nd Group" and Wang Xiao Yu's "April 28th Group". In the end, more than 10,000 people had been involved in the fighting. On October 11, 1967, the tallest statue of Mao Zedong in Shandong province was erected on the campus of Shandong Normal University. On September 17, 1968, a large assembly of Jinan workers celebrated the arrival of a mango fruit in the "August 1st" Meeting Hall. The fruit had been a gift to the workers in Beijing by Mao and was subsequently passed on to the workers in Jinan. In November 1968, Wang Xiao Yu began to agitate against the local army units in Jinan and Shandong Province. By then unrest due to the Cultural Revolution had severely damaged the city's governmental and industrial infrastructure, with about 80 percent of all government institutions shut down. Large public protests were staged on April 4 and 5, 1969, in which approximately 500,000 people protested the occupation of Zhenbao Island by the Soviet Union. On July 29, 1970, the leadership of the Cultural Revolution passed a resolution to make sweeping changes to the city's educational system: The liberal arts departments of Shandong University were moved to Qufu and combined with Qufu Normal College to form a new Shandong University. The biology department was moved to Tai'an and merged into the Shandong Agricultural College. The rest of the sciences were to form the Shandong Science and Technology University. Shandong Normal University was to be moved to Liaocheng. Shandong Medical College and Shandong College of Traditional Chinese Medicine were to be merged and moved to Tai'an. Shandong University was restored in its original form and the "Shandong Science and Technology University" was abolished in early 1974. The first reversals of Cultural Revolution policies started in early 1971: On May 23 of that year, the Shandong Provincial Museum was reopened after having been closed for about 5 years (since May 1966). In the next year, the Jinan Committee for the Cultural Revolution officially reverted the name changes of four city districts enacted in 1966. During the 6 years between the name change and its reversal, Lixia District had been known officially as "Hongwei", Tianqiao as "Face the Sun", Huaiyin as "East Wind", and Shizhong as "Red Flag". As the Cultural Revolution came to an end, Jinan started to receive visitors from abroad. For example, it was visited by a delegation from the United States Congress between August 8 and 11, 1975. On September 18, 1976, Mao's death was mourned by about 600,000 people at an official service in Jinan's August 1 Square.
Post 1990s
Jinan was the host of the 11th All China Games during October 2009. These games are the selection games for the Chinese Olympic champions. For this occasion, security was heightened and a full volunteer force was out on the streets directing visitor traffic. The city conducted major renovations in its transportation and recreation services in anticipation of the Games' visitors. In early January 2019, the State Council of the People's Republic of China approved the approval of Shandong Province to adjust the administrative division of Laiwu City and Jinan City, cancel Laiwu City, and all jurisdiction of former Laiwu City belongs to Jinan City; establish Laiwu District of Jinan City to replace the former Laicheng District of Laiwu City with the same administrative area; establish Gangcheng District of Jinan City to replace the former Gangcheng District of Laiwu City with the same administrative area.
Climate
Jinan has a humid subtropical (Köppen: Cwa), considering a normal isotherm of −3 °C, or a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dwa), considering an isotherm of 0 °C but favoring the former, with four well-defined seasons. The city is dry and nearly rainless in spring, hot and rainy in summer, crisp in autumn and dry and cold (with little snow) in winter. The average annual temperature is , and the annual precipitation is around slightly above , with a strong summer maximum, and high variability from year to year. January is the coldest and driest month, with a mean temperature of and of equivalent rainfall. July is the hottest and wettest month, the corresponding numbers are , and . With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 48 percent in July to 63 percent in May, the city receives 2,547 hours of bright sunshine annually.
Due to the mountains to the south of the city, temperature inversions are common, occurring on about 200 days per year. The high precipitation for northern Chinese standards, in tandem with the topography (mountains surrounding the city on three sides), leads to particularly oppressive summer weather and the city being named as a candidate for the fourth "furnace", c.e. Three Furnaces.
Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 17 January 1953 to on 24 July 1955.
Air quality
According to the National Environmental Analysis released by Tsinghua University and The Asian Development Bank in January 2013, Jinan is one of ten most air polluted cities in the world. Also according to this report, 7 of 10 most air polluted cities are in China, including Taiyuan, Beijing, Urumqi, Lanzhou, Chongqing, Jinan and Shijiazhuang. As air pollution in China is at an all-time high, several northern cities are among the most polluted cities and have some of the worst air quality in China. Reporting on China's air quality has been accompanied by what seems like a monochromatic slideshow of the country's several cities smothered in thick smog. According to a survey made by "Global voices China" in February 2013, Jinan is among China's 10 most polluted cities, and is the only Shandong city to be on this list. Other cities on the blacklist includes major Chinese cities like Beijing, Shijiazhuang, Zhengzhou, and 6 other prefectural cities all in Hebei Province. These cities are all situated in traditional geographic subdivision of "Huabei (North China) Region".
A dense wave of smog began in the Central and Eastern part of China on 2 December 2013 across a distance of around , including Jinan and surrounding Shandong area. A lack of cold air flow, combined with slow-moving air masses carrying industrial emissions, collected airborne pollutants to form a thick layer of smog over the region. Officials blamed the dense pollution on lack of wind, automobile exhaust emissions under low air pressure, and coal-powered district heating system in North China region. Prevailing winds blew low-hanging air masses of factory emissions (mostly SO2) towards China's east coast.
Administrative divisions
The sub-provincial city of Jinan has direct jurisdiction over ten districts and 2 counties after the annexation of Laiwu to Jinan in 2019:
These are further divided into 146 township-level divisions, including 65towns, 27 townships and 54 subdistricts.
Economy
With the shift of the Yellow River to a new bed right to the north of Jinan (in 1852) and the establishment of a railroad hub, the city became a major market for agricultural products from the productive farming regions to the north.
Following the trade in agricultural goods, the city developed a textile and clothing industry, flour mills, oil presses, as well as factories producing paper, cement, and matches. In the 1950s, large iron and steel works as well as chemical factories were established around Jinan. The large metal works produce pig iron, ingot steel, as well as finished steel. In 2008, steel manufacturing was restructured with the formation of the Shandong Iron and Steel Group.
In the 1970s, Sinotruk established its headquarters and factories for the production of trucks and construction vehicles in the city.
Industrial zones include:
Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone
Founded in 1991, the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development zone was one of the first of its kind approved by the State Council. The zone is located to the east of the city and covers a total planning area of that is divided into a central area covering , an export processing district of , and an eastern extension area of .
Since its foundation, the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone has attracted enterprises as LG, Panasonic, Volvo, and Sanyo. In 2000, it joined the world science and technology association and set up a China-Ukraine High-tech Cooperation Park. The Qilu Software Park became the sister park of Bangalore park of India.
Jinan Export Processing Zone
The export processing zone is located in the eastern suburbs of Jinan, to the east of the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone and to the north of the Jiwang highway. The distances to the Jiqing Highway and the Jinan Airport are and respectively.
Demographics
The census in 2010 counted 8.113 million inhabitants (including Laiwu City) out of which about 4.336 million were living in 6 urban districts which made up the built-up area. As of 2020 census, the population increased to 9.2 million, most of them with Han ethnicity.
Shopping centers
Most shopping malls in Jinan are in the downtown area centered around Spring City Square and Quancheng Road (). Spring City Square was built by the municipal government beside the city moat in the early 21st century
Spring City Road was rebuilt at the same time that Spring City Square was created. The government's intention was to create a modern business district and yet preserve the traditional Chinese culture. Therefore, newly built shopping malls with traditional Chinese architectural styles and modern western skyscrapers can be found side by side along Spring City Road. Notable retail businesses are Quancheng Bookstore – the largest bookstore of the city – and Walmart (near the western end of Spring City Road). Major shopping malls along the road are the Guihe Shopping Center (), the Sofitel Silver Plaza, the Shimao international shopping center, and the Wanda Shopping Mall (). Parc 66 () to the south of Spring City Road (opposite of Water Lily Street), opened in August 2011, is Jinan's largest shopping mall with seven levels of retail space and a total gross floor area of 171,000 square meters.
Transportation
Railways
Jinan is positioned at the intersection of two major railways: The Jinghu Railway that runs from Beijing to Shanghai is the major north–south backbone of the railway system in eastern China. In Jinan, it intersects with the Jiaoji Railway that connects Jinan to the sea port of Qingdao to the east. In addition, the Hanji Railway connects Jinan to the city of Handan (Hebei Province) in the west.
Within Shandong province, the Jinghu Railway connects Jinan with the cities of Dezhou, Tai'an, Jining, and Zaozhuang; the Jiaoji Railway provides a link to the cities of Zibo, Qingdao, and Weifang; the Hanji Railway serves the cities of Yancheng and Liaocheng.
Central Jinan is served by Jinan railway station, Jinan East railway station, and Daminghu railway station (just by Daming Lake).
The Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway calls at Jinan West railway station, which is outside the central metropolitan center and is in suburban western Jinan's Huaiyin District. Since it opened for public service on 30 June 2011, it has become a future hub with west–east running high speed railways to Taiyuan, Shijiazhuang and Qingdao. Jinan East railway station opened in 2018. An additional station, Jinan North railway station, is planned.
Metro
Started by construction in 2013, Jinan Metro opened in 2019. Currently, Lines 1, 2 and 3 are operational, and has 40 stations.
Expressways
Major expressways include China National Highway 104, China National Highway 220, and China National Highway 309. Because of Jinan's location and role as a road and rail transportation hub, the Jinan Coach Terminus has one of the largest passenger flows nationally. On peak travel days, as many as 92,000 passengers per day have been counted, on off-peak days the number is around 42,000 passengers per day.
Airport
Jinan Yaoqiang International Airport is located about northeast of the city center and located in Yaoqiang Subdistrict of Licheng District, Jinan, from which the name of the airport is derived. The airport is connected to the city center of Jinan by expressways. It has domestic flights to many of the major cities in China as well as to international destinations, in particular Helsinki, Osaka, Seoul, Paris, Bangkok and Singapore.
Buses
The conventional buses in the city have air-conditioned and non-air-conditioned buses. Air-conditioned lines have a K prefix on their route numbers. From 2018, most lines are air-conditioned lines (Include lines without K perfix). These lines comprise more than 200 routes covering the whole city.
Culture and contemporary life
Dialect
Local residents in the city proper, as well as in the surrounding areas, have traditionally spoken the Jinan dialect of Mandarin that is not readily understood even by native speakers of standard Mandarin. The younger people of Jinan are more likely to speak standard Mandarin, whereas many older residents retain strong local dialect elements in their speech. Nevertheless, even the younger residents of Jinan tend to retain a strong local accent and mix local vocabulary into the standardized Mandarin vocabulary. Due to the influx of migrant workers during the past decade of China's economic boom, many of the current population that are of working age are not natives of Jinan but have learned to understand the Jinan dialect.
Cuisine
Jinan has its own cuisine, the Jinan style of the Shandong cuisine, one of the Eight Culinary Traditions of China. One of its features is the use of soup in its dishes. Modern cuisines in northern China —Beijing, Tianjin and the northeastern regions including Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning— are all branches of Shandong cuisine.
Shopping centers
Most shopping malls in Jinan are in the downtown area centered around Spring City Square and Quancheng Road (). Spring City Square was built by the municipal government beside the city moat in the early 21st century; at the center is the statue "Spring" which has become a symbol of Jinan. The square borders on the ancient city moat. It has a music fountain, a 46,000 square meter underground shopping center and a memorial hall with statues of famous people from Shandong.
Most shopping malls in Jinan are in the downtown area centered around Spring City Square and Quancheng Road (). Spring City Square was built by the municipal government beside the city moat in the early 21st century
Spring City Road was rebuilt at the same time that Spring City Square was created. The government's intention was to create a modern business district and yet preserve the traditional Chinese culture. Therefore, newly built shopping malls with traditional Chinese architectural styles and modern western skyscrapers can be found side by side along Spring City Road. Notable retail businesses are Quancheng Bookstore – the largest bookstore of the city – and Walmart (near the western end of Spring City Road). Major shopping malls along the road are the Guihe Shopping Center (), the Sofitel Silver Plaza, the Shimao international shopping center, and the Wanda Shopping Mall (). Parc 66 () to the south of Spring City Road (opposite of Water Lily Street), opened in August 2011, is Jinan's largest shopping mall with seven levels of retail space and a total gross floor area of 171,000 square meters.
Main tourist attractions
Jinan is renowned across China for its numerous springs, the lakes fed by the spring water, and the weeping willows that grow along the water edges. The late-Qing author Liu E describes Jinan's cityscape in his novel "The Travels of Lao Can" (, written 1903–04, published in 1907) as "Every family has spring water, every household has a willow tree". Jinan was also the historical center of Buddhist culture for the whole province which is still manifest in the many historic sites that are left behind in its southern counties.
Springs and lakes
Jinan is known as the "City of Springs" because of the large number of natural artesian springs. The majority of the springs, many of which have been historically listed under the "72 Famous Springs" () are concentrated in the downtown district and flow north to converge in Daming Lake. The Baotu Spring Park is the most popular of the springs in the City of Jinan proper. Besides the Baotu Spring, the park contains several other springs that are listed among the "72 Famous Springs". "Bào tū" () means "jumping and leaping" in Chinese. The water in the spring pool can be seen foaming and gushing, looking like a pot of boiling water. The spring was visited by the Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799) of the Qing dynasty who declared it "the best spring under the heaven" (). A tablet with the Emperor's handwriting "Baotu Spring" has since been erected beside the spring pool.
Not far away to the northeast of Baotu Spring Park is the Daming Lake, which, together with Baotu Spring and the Thousand-Buddha Mountain is often regarded as the "Three Greatest Attractions in Jinan". Other notable parks in the city include the Five Dragon Pool () near the Baotu Spring Park, the Black Tiger Spring () on the southern city moat, and the Baimai Springs () of Zhangqiu City to the east of Jinan.
Museums and libraries
The Shandong Provincial Museum located at the foothill of Thousand-Buddha Mountain is the largest museum in the province. It has a large collection of natural as well as historical treasures from the whole province. The museum was established in its present form in 1982 and currently has 8 exhibition halls : "Treasures of Shandong Province"; "Stone Sculptures"; "Warship of the Ming dynasty"; "Ancient Coins"; "Art Treasures"; "Fossil Collections"; "Dinosaurs"; and "Specimens". The museum has more than 210,000 relics and specimens, making up ⅓ of the collections in museums of whole province.
The Jinan Municipal Museum is located at the south-western foot of the Thousand-Buddha Mountain, in the north of the city center. Although much smaller than the provincial museum, the municipal museum still houses a collection of more than 20,000 items, most of which were recovered in the city area.
The Shandong Art Museum is a large museum of fine arts built near the Provincial Museum.
The Shandong Provincial Library in the eastern High-tech Park (address: 2912 Second Ring East Road) is the principal library of the province and is ranked among the Top 10 Chinese libraries. , the library had more than 5.18 million documents, many of which date back many centuries and are important sources for research on Chinese history. The library also has a large collection of western journals/books. Originally, the library was built close to Daming Lake in 1909 by the then governor of Shandong. In the late 1990s, a project was undertaken to move the library to the eastern part of the city, and it reopened in 2002 with 35 reading rooms and more than 2000 seats.
Parks and Nature Reserves
Jinan Hundred Miles Yellow River Scenic Area is located in No.166 Luokou Huancheng Road in Tianqiao District. It is designed as an ecological cultural theme park which focuses on ecological tourism, cultural tourism, and healthy tourism. The Yellow River of this section stretches 51.98 kilometers. Jinan Hundred Miles Yellow River Scenic Area was awarded the title "Fifty Scenes of the Yellow River in China" on September 12, 2018. The Levee extending along the Yellow River in this scenery area, is praised as "the Great Wall over water".
Yellow River Forest Park (Jinan) is located on the north bank of the Yellow River. The Yellow River Forest Park sprawls over 1500mu (100 hectares) and has 300,000 trees of various breeds. Yellow River Forest Park is the only park equipping with a forest racecourse, which has a course of 3 Li (unit), in Jinan City. Yellow River Forest Park provides not only an area covering 5000 square meters for visitors to freely barbecue but also a fishing pond covering 1,800 square meters. Visitors can participate in various activities here, such as roller skating, cue sports, table tennis, archery, shooting, etc.
Daming Lake Park is located in the center of Jinan City, covering an area of 46.5 hectares. Daming Lake Park is considered one of the three must-see tourist spots of Jinan (the others are Baotu Spring Park and Thousand-Buddha Mountain). Daming Lake Park has many scenic spots, such as the Daming lake and the Lixia Pavilion. Daming Lake is a natural lake consisting of many springs. It is unique because the lake has constant water level unaffected by heavy rains or drought. Lixia Pavilion, which was built in the Northern Wei period, is in the center of the Daming Lake. There are so many ancient buildings in Daming Lake Park that it has a title describing them, which is "One terrace, three gardens, three towers, four ancestral halls, six isles, seven bridges and ten pavilions".
Education
Universities and colleges
Qilu Normal University (, formerly Shandong Educational Institute: )
Qilu University of Technology (, or Shandong Polytechnic University)
Shandong Architectural Institute ()
Shandong College of Electronic Technology ()
Shandong Jiaotong University ()
Shandong Normal University ()
Shandong Polytechnic (, formerly Jinan Railway Polytechnic)
Shandong Sport University ()
Shandong University
Shandong University of Art and Design ()
Shandong University of Arts ()
Shandong University of Finance and Economics
Shandong University of Science and Technology, which also has campuses in Qingdao and Tai'an.
Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Shandong Women's University
University of Jinan
Provincial high schools
Shandong Experimental High School
Jinan Foreign Language School
The High School Affiliated to Shandong Normal University ()
Sports
The most renowned sports team in Jinan is Shandong Hi-Speed Kirin. They have been playing in the Chinese top basketball league for all seasons since the league turned professional in 1995. The team's best season was 2012–13, when they reached the final of the Chinese Basketball Association, but lost 4–0 to Guangdong Southern Tigers.
The Shandong Taishan Football Club is the most widely known football team in Jinan. The club currently plays in the highest tier of Chinese football, the Chinese Super League. They have been playing in the top tier for every season since the league became professional in 1994. Shandong Taishan has won five top division titles, seven Chinese FA Cups, and one Chinese FA Super Cup. Jinan was also one of four host cities of China during the 2004 AFC Asian Cup.
In 2009, Jinan hosted the 2009 National Games of China, the premier sports event at the national level in China and the first major multi-sports event held in China after the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. The National Games' main venue was the Jinan Olympic Sports Center.
Since 2014, Jinan has also been known as the site of China’s national winter swimming festivals at Daming Lake, since 2016 organized in cooperation with the International Winter Swimming Association (IWSA). In the 2019–20 season, Jinan hosted the 8th Winter Springs-swimming International Invitational.
Twin towns and sister cities
Augsburg, Bavaria, Germany (January 29, 2004)
Coventry, England, United Kingdom (May 5, 1983)
Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia (September 4, 2004)
Kazanlak, Stara Zagora Province, Bulgaria (January 21, 2013)
Kharkiv, Ukraine (July 31, 2006)
Kfar Saba, Israel (July 16, 2007)
Marmaris, Muğla Province, Turkey (September 19, 2011)
Nizhny Novgorod, Russia (September 22, 1994)
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea (February 29, 1988)
Porto Velho, State of Rondônia, Brazil (September 19, 2011)
Praia, Santiago Island, Cape Verde (April 9, 2009)
Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada (January 29, 1985)
Rennes, Brittany Region, France March 24, 2000)
Sacramento, California, United States (October 2, 1984)
Suwon, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea (June 16, 1993)
Vantaa, Uusimaa, Finland (December 22, 2000)
Vitebsk, Belarus (August 17, 2009)
Wakayama, Honshu, Japan (April 20, 1982)
Yamaguchi, Honshu, Japan (March 22, 1985)
Nagpur, Maharashtra, India (December 8, 2017)
Arba Minch, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, Ethiopia (September 4, 2018)
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Shandong Province
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Jinan Government website
Compass foreign business service center
Yellow River
50 Scenes of the Yellow River in China
Three Must-go Tourist Spots in Jinan
Lixia Pavilion
The Yellow River Forest Park
Cities in Shandong
Sub-provincial cities in the People's Republic of China
Provincial capitals in China
Winter swimming
Populated places with period of establishment missing
Prefecture-level divisions of Shandong | [
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250093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/26th%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 26th Annual Grammy Awards | The 26th Annual Grammy Awards were held on February 28, 1984, at Shrine Auditorium, Los Angeles, and were broadcast live on American television. They recognized accomplishments by musicians from the year 1983. Michael Jackson, who had been recovering from scalp burns sustained due to an accident that occurred during the filming of a Pepsi commercial, won a record eight awards during the show. It is notable for garnering the largest Grammy Award television audience ever with 51.67 million viewers.
Album of the Year and Record of the Year went to Quincy Jones and Michael Jackson for Thriller and "Beat It", and Song of the Year went to The Police for "Every Breath You Take".
Ratings
The 26th Grammy Awards had the highest ratings in the awarding body's history with 51.67 million viewers, a record unmatched as of , and is the third most watched live awards show in U.S. television history (after the 1983 and 1998 editions of the Academy Awards). Donna Summer opened the show with "She Works Hard for the Money", and a tribute to working women.
Performers
Winners
General
Record of the Year
"Beat It" – Michael Jackson
Quincy Jones (producer) & Michael Jackson (producer)
Album of the Year
Thriller – Michael Jackson
Quincy Jones (producer) & Michael Jackson (producer)
Song of the Year
"Every Breath You Take" – The Police
Sting (songwriter)
Best New Artist
Culture Club
Blues
Best Traditional Blues Recording
Blues 'n Jazz – B.B. King
Children's
Best Recording for Children Presented by Latin Group Menudo.
Quincy Jones (producer) & Michael Jackson for E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial
Classical
Best Orchestral Recording
James Mallinson (producer), Georg Solti (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Mahler: Symphony No. 9 in D
Best Classical Vocal Soloist Performance
James Levine (conductor), Marilyn Horne, Leontyne Price & the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra for Leontyne Price & Marilyn Horne in Concert at the Met
Best Opera Recording
Christopher Raeburn (producer), Georg Solti (conductor), Thomas Allen, Kiri Te Kanawa, Kurt Moll, Lucia Popp, Samuel Ramey, Frederica von Stade & the London Philharmonic for Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro
Jay David Saks, Max Wilcox (producers), James Levine (conductor), Plácido Domingo, Cornell MacNeil, Teresa Stratas, & the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra for Verdi: La Traviata (Original Soundtrack)
Best Choral Performance (other than opera)
Georg Solti (conductor), Margaret Hillis (choir director) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra & Chorus for Haydn: The Creation
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (with orchestra)
Raymond Leppard (conductor), Wynton Marsalis & the National Philharmonic Orchestra for Haydn: Trumpet Concerto in E Flat/L. Mozart: Trumpet Concerto In D/Hummel: Trumpet Concerto in E Flat
Best Classical Performance - Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (without orchestra)
Glenn Gould for Beethoven: Piano Sonatas Nos. 12 & 13
Best Chamber Music Performance
Mstislav Rostropovich and Rudolf Serkin for Brahms: Sonata for Cello and Piano in E Minor, Op. 38 and Sonata in F, Op. 99
Best Classical Album
James Mallinson (producer), Georg Solti (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Mahler: Symphony No. 9 in D
Comedy
Best Comedy Recording
Eddie Murphy: Comedian – Eddie Murphy
Composing and arranging
Best Instrumental Composition
Giorgio Moroder (composer) for "Love Theme From Flashdance" performed by various artists
Best Album of Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or A Television Special
Michael Boddicker, Irene Cara, Kim Carnes, Douglas Cotler, Keith Forsey, Richard Gilbert, Jerry Hey, Duane Hitchings, Craig Krampf, Ronald Magness, Dennis Matkosky, Giorgio Moroder, Phil Ramone, Michael Sembello, Shandi Sinnamon (composers) for Flashdance performed by various artists
Best Arrangement on an Instrumental
Dave Grusin (arranger) for "Summer Sketches '82"
Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocal(s)
Nelson Riddle (arranger) for "What's New" performed by Linda Ronstadt
Best Vocal Arrangement for Two or More Voices
Arif Mardin & Chaka Khan (arrangers) for "Be Bop Medley" performed by Chaka Khan
Country
Best Country Vocal Performance, Female
Anne Murray for "A Little Good News"
Best Country Vocal Performance, Male
Lee Greenwood for "I.O.U."
Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
Alabama for The Closer You Get...
Best Country Instrumental Performance
New South for "Fireball"
Best Country Song
Mike Reid (songwriter) for "Stranger in My House" performed by Ronnie Milsap
Folk
Best Ethnic or Traditional Folk Recording
Clifton Chenier for I'm Here performed by Clifton Chenier & His Red Hot Louisiana Band
Gospel
Best Gospel Performance, Female
Amy Grant for "Ageless Medley"
Best Gospel Performance, Male
Russ Taff for Walls of Glass
Best Gospel Performance by a Duo or Group
Larnelle Harris & Sandi Patti for "More Than Wonderful"
Best Soul Gospel Performance, Female
Sandra Crouch for We Sing Praises
Best Soul Gospel Performance, Male
Al Green for I'll Rise Again
Best Soul Gospel Performance by a Duo or Group
Barbara Mandrell & Bobby Jones for "I'm So Glad I'm Standing Here Today"
Best Inspirational Performance
Donna Summer for "He's a Rebel"
Historical
Best Historical Album
Allan Steckler & Stanley Walker (producers) for The Greatest Recordings of Arturo Toscanini - Symphonies, Vol. I
Jazz
Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Female
Ella Fitzgerald for The Best Is Yet to Come
Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Male
Mel Tormé for Top Drawer
Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Duo or Group
The Manhattan Transfer for "Why Not!"
Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist
Wynton Marsalis for Think of One
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Group
Phil Woods for At the Vanguard
Best Instrumental Jazz Performance, Big Band
Rob McConnell for All in Good Time
Best Jazz Fusion Performance, Vocal or Instrumental
Pat Metheny Group for Travels
Latin
Best Latin Pop Performance
Jose Feliciano for Me enamoré
Best Tropical Latin Performance
Tito Puente for On Broadway performed by Tito Puente & His Latin Ensemble
Best Mexican-American Performance
Los Lobos for "Anselma"
Musical show
Best Cast Show Album
Andrew Lloyd Webber (producer) & the original Broadway cast for Cats (Complete Original Broadway Cast Recording)
Music video
Best Video, Short Form
Girls on Film/Hungry Like the Wolf – Duran Duran
Best Video Album
Duran Duran – Duran Duran
Packaging and notes
Best Album Package
Speaking in Tongues
Robert Rauschenberg (art director) (Talking Heads)
Best Album Notes
The Interplay Sessions
Orrin Keepnews (notes writer) (Bill Evans)
Pop
Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female
"Flashdance... What a Feeling" – Irene Cara
Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male
"Thriller" – Michael Jackson
Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals
"Every Breath You Take" – The Police
Best Pop Instrumental Performance
"Being With You" – George Benson
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical
Thriller
Bruce Swedien (engineer) (Michael Jackson)
Best Engineered Recording, Classical
James Lock (engineer), Georg Solti (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Mahler: Symphony No. 9 in D
Producer of the Year (Non-Classical)
Michael Jackson & Quincy Jones
Classical Producer of the Year
Marc Aubort & Joanna Nickrenz
R&B
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female
Chaka Khan – Chaka Khan
Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male
"Billie Jean" – Michael Jackson
Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
"Ain't Nobody" – Chaka Khan & Rufus
Best R&B Instrumental Performance
"Rockit" – Herbie Hancock
Best Rhythm & Blues Song
"Billie Jean" – Michael Jackson
"Michael Jackson (songwriter)
Rock
Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female
"Love Is a Battlefield" – Pat Benatar
Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male
"Beat It" – Michael Jackson
Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
"Synchronicity" – The Police
Best Rock Instrumental Performance
"Brimstone and Treacle" – Sting
Spoken
Best Spoken Word or Non-musical Recording
Copland: A Lincoln Portrait – William Warfield
References
026
1984 in California
1984 music awards
1984 in Los Angeles
Grammy
February 1984 events in the United States | [
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250094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hour%20of%20Power | Hour of Power | Hour of Power is a weekly American Protestant television program broadcast from Shepherd's Grove Presbyterian Church in Irvine, California, near Los Angeles. It is one of the most watched religious broadcasts in the world, seen by approximately two million viewers. It was formerly broadcast from the Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove, California.
The program was founded and first hosted by Robert H. Schuller. It is currently hosted by Bobby Schuller, who is Robert H. Schuller's grandson.
The program is normally one hour long, but some networks broadcast an edited 30-minute program.
History
The program first aired on February 8, 1970, as a church service of the Garden Grove Community Church (Reformed Church in America). By the 1980s, it was the most-watched weekly religious program in living rooms across America. It was originally hosted by the elder Schuller; the younger Schuller hosted it from 2006 to 2008.
On July 9, 2008, the presidency of the church was shifted from Robert H. Schuller to his son-in-law, Jim Coleman. On October 26, 2008, it was announced that Schuller had removed his son, Robert A. Schuller, as teaching pastor, but allowed him to remain as the Crystal Cathedral's senior pastor. Robert H. Schuller said that he wanted to take the ministry in a different direction and for the foreseeable future would use guest speakers for the weekly services rather than his son. Well-known speakers who were used in the early stages of the new format included Lee Strobel, John C. Maxwell, and Bill Hybels. On November 29, 2008, the church announced that the younger Schuller had resigned.
On October 18, 2010, the board of the Crystal Cathedral filed for bankruptcy in Santa Ana, California.
On March 10, 2012, it was announced that Robert H. Schuller and his wife, Arvella, would be leaving the church. The following day their elder daughter, Sheila Schuller Coleman, announced at the morning service that she would also be leaving the church, therefore cutting all family ties with the Crystal Cathedral and Hour of Power, stating that "This is the last Sunday we will be worshiping in this building." The ministry's successor, the Rev. Bill Bennett, said that the ministry would continue but using a more traditional service. In June 2012, the Rev. Bobby Schuller, the son of Robert A. Schuller, started preaching on a voluntary basis. In February 2013, Bobby Schuller was named as pastor for the Hour of Power. The Crystal Cathedral congregation was renamed Shepherd's Grove in 2013. Financial considerations dictated a move to a smaller property soon after, as well as a decision to sell the Crystal Cathedral, to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Orange for 49 million dollars. The diocese plans to spend over 100 million dollars on structural repairs and alterations necessary to adapt the building for Catholic services. When completed, it is to be rededicated as "Christ Cathedral". Following the move from the Garden Grove campus, services were held in the former Catholic church in the fall of 2013. The congregation moved to Irvine Presbyterian Church in April 2018 after it was sold to real estate developers.
Broadcasts
The program airs in the United States mainly using paid programming time on Freeform (TV channel), the Trinity Broadcasting Network/The Church Channel, Hillsong Channel, and recently Daystar (TV network). along with about 100 stations through individual contracts. The program also airs over the American Forces Network.
In Canada it is carried on VisionTV.
In Europe it is broadcast on VOX in Austria, Germany and Switzerland, on RTL in the Netherlands and Sky Showcase in Ireland and the United Kingdom.
In the Middle East it is carried on METV in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.
In Australia, it is seen on the Australian Christian Channel and Network Ten. It is also broadcast weekly on radio.
It is broadcast in New Zealand on the Prime network and Shine TV.
It is broadcast in Hong Kong on NOW TV Channel 564, TVB Pearl, and Hong Kong Open TV.
The Hour of Power telecast, filmed in the Crystal Cathedral's main sanctuary, at one point attracted 1.3 million viewers from 156 countries. Under current Pastor Bobby Schuller, the program attracted 2.2 million viewers worldwide each week.
Finances
Beginning in the late 1990s, the ministry struggled financially after it borrowed money to build a visitors' center.
The 2008 revenues for the program were nearly $5 million lower than revenues for 2007. As of early 2009, the church planned to sell more than $65 million worth of its Orange County property to pay off debt: in San Juan Capistrano, California, and an office building in Garden Grove, California. Due to their financial situation, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Orange purchased the Garden Grove campus.
References
Further reading
External links
YouTube channel
Christian television
1970s American television series
1980s American television series
1990s American television series
2000s American television series | [
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250096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Disney | Mike Disney | Michael John Disney (born Bristol, England, 7 October 1937) is an astrophysicist. He discovered the optical component of the Crab Pulsar in 1969 with John Cocke. This was the first optical pulsar ever observed.
He was also one of the pioneers in the discovery of low surface brightness galaxies.
Disney was a professor at Cardiff University until his retirement in 2005.
Disney is an outspoken critic of the theory of cosmic inflation.
He was the co-author with Alan Wright of the humorous (and often mis-attributed) short story 'Impure Mathematics'.
References
External links
Cardiff University's School of Physics and Astronomy
Mike Disney's homepage
Oral History interview transcript with Michael Disney 19 February 1976, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives
1937 births
Living people
20th-century British astronomers
Academics of Cardiff University | [
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250107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch%20drop%20experiment | Pitch drop experiment | A pitch drop experiment is a long-term experiment which measures the flow of a piece of pitch over many years. 'Pitch' is the name for any of a number of highly viscous liquids which appear solid, most commonly bitumen. At room temperature, tar pitch flows at a very low rate, taking several years to form a single drop.
University of Queensland experiment
The best-known version of the experiment was started in 1927 by Professor Thomas Parnell of the University of Queensland in Brisbane, Australia, to demonstrate to students that some substances which appear solid are actually highly viscous fluids. Parnell poured a heated sample of pitch into a sealed funnel and allowed it to settle for three years. In 1930, the seal at the neck of the funnel was cut, allowing the pitch to start flowing. A glass dome covers the funnel and it is placed on display outside a lecture theatre. Large droplets form and fall over a period of about a decade.
The eighth drop fell on 28 November 2000, allowing experimenters to calculate the pitch as having a viscosity of approximately 230 billion times that of water.
This experiment is recorded in Guinness World Records as the 'world's longest continuously running laboratory experiment', and it is expected there is enough pitch in the funnel to allow it to continue for at least another hundred years. This experiment is predated by two other (still-active) scientific devices; the Oxford Electric Bell (1840) and the Beverly Clock (1864), but each of these has experienced brief interruptions since 1937.
The experiment was not originally carried out under any special controlled atmospheric conditions, meaning the viscosity could vary throughout the year with fluctuations in temperature. Some time after the seventh drop fell (1988), air conditioning was added to the location where the experiment takes place. The lower average temperature has lengthened each drop's stretch before it separates from the rest of the pitch in the funnel, and correspondingly the typical interval between drops has increased from eight years to 12–13 years.
In October 2005, John Mainstone and the late Thomas Parnell were awarded the Ig Nobel Prize in physics, a parody of the Nobel Prize, for the pitch drop experiment. Mainstone subsequently commented:
The experiment is monitored by a webcam but technical problems prevented the November 2000 drop from being recorded. The pitch drop experiment is on public display on Level 2 of Parnell building in the School of Mathematics and Physics at the St Lucia campus of the University of Queensland. Hundreds of thousands of Internet users check the live stream each year.
Professor John Mainstone died on 23 August 2013, aged 78, following a stroke. Custodianship then passed to Professor Andrew White.
The ninth drop touched the eighth drop on 17 April 2014; however, it was still attached to the funnel. On 24 April, Professor White decided to replace the beaker holding the previous eight drops before the ninth drop fused to them (which would have permanently affected the ability of further drops to form). While the bell jar was being lifted, the wooden base wobbled and the ninth drop snapped away from the funnel.
In mid-March 2018, the live feed was interrupted due to technical problems in the experiment's webpage. Since mid-October 2020, the live feed is back online in the experiment's webpage.
Timeline
Timeline for the University of Queensland experiment:
After the 7th drop, air conditioning was installed, lowering the average temperature.
12 April 2014: 9th drop touched 8th drop; 24 April 2014: 9th drop separated from funnel during beaker change.
Trinity College Dublin experiment
The pitch drop experiment at Trinity College Dublin in Ireland was started in October 1944 by an unknown colleague of the Nobel Prize winner Ernest Walton while he was in the physics department of Trinity College. This experiment, like the one at Queensland University, was set up to demonstrate the high viscosity of pitch. This physics experiment sat on a shelf in a lecture hall at Trinity College unmonitored for decades as it dripped a number of times from the funnel to the receiving jar below, also gathering layers of dust.
In April 2013, about a decade after the previous pitch drop, physicists at Trinity College noticed that another drip was forming. They moved the experiment to a table to monitor and record the falling drip with a webcam, allowing all present to watch. The pitch dripped around 17:00 IST on 11 July 2013, marking the first time that a pitch drop was successfully recorded on camera.
Based on the results from this experiment, the Trinity College physicists estimated that the viscosity of the pitch is about two million times that of honey, or about 20 billion times the viscosity of water.
Aberystwyth University experiment
In 2014, media reported that a pitch drop experiment had been recently rediscovered at Aberystwyth University in Wales. Dating from 1914, it predates the Queensland experiment by 13 years. But as the pitch is more viscous (or the average temperature lower) this experiment has not yet produced its first drop and is not expected to for over 1,000 years.
Demonstrations of Lord Kelvin
In the Hunterian Museum at the University of Glasgow are two pitch-based demonstrations by Lord Kelvin from the 19th century. Kelvin placed some bullets on top of a dish of pitch, and corks at the bottom: over time, the bullets sank and the corks floated.
Lord Kelvin also showed that the pitch flows like glaciers, with a mahogany ramp that allowed it to slide slowly downward and form shapes and patterns similar to glaciers in the Alps.
See also
Rheology
William James Beal, botanist who started a long-running seed germination experiment in 1879
Oxford Electric Bell, ringing nearly continuously from 1840
References
External links
Experiment at University of Queensland (also live webcam)
Experiment at University of Queensland - picture of the sixth drop shortly after falling (Archive.org)
Experiment at Trinity College, Dublin (also video of the drop falling)
UQ Pitch Drop Experiment Live-stream: https://livestream.com/accounts/4931571/events/5369913
Fluid dynamics
Physics experiments
Trinity College Dublin
University of Queensland | [
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250109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalian | Dalian | Dalian is a major sub-provincial port city in Liaoning province, People's Republic of China, and is Liaoning's second largest city (after the provincial capital Shenyang) and the fourth-most populous city of Northeast China. Located on the southern tip of Liaodong peninsula, it is the southernmost city in both Liaoning and the entire Northeast. Dalian borders the prefectural cities of Yingkou and Anshan to the north and Dandong to the northeast, and also shares maritime boundaries with Qinhuangdao and Huludao across the Liaodong Bay to west and northwest, Yantai and Weihai on the Shandong peninsula across the Bohai Strait to the south, and North Korea across the Korea Bay to the east.
As of the 2020 census, its total population was 7,450,785 inhabitants whom 5,106,719 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of 6 out of 7 urban districts, Pulandian District not being conurbated yet.
Today a financial, shipping, and logistics center for East Asia, Dalian has a significant history of being used by foreign powers for its ports. Dalian was previously known as both "Dalniy" (; ) and "Dairen" (). However, the city used to be better known as "Port Arthur" and "Ryojun" () from the original Port Arthur, now the city's Lüshunkou district.
In 2016, Dalian ranked 48th in the Global Financial Centres Index. In 2012, Dalian ranked 82nd in the Global City Competitiveness Index. In 2006, Dalian was named China's most livable city by China Daily. It is now a "Beta - Global City" according to the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.
Dalian is also one of the top 100 science cities in the world by scientific research as tracked by the Nature Index. The city is home to several major universities, notably Dalian University of Technology and Dalian Maritime University, members of China's prestigious universities in the Project 211, and the Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Etymology
Modern Dalian originated from Qingniwa () or Qingniwaqiao (), a small fishing village. The Russian Empire built a commercial town for the Kwantung Leased Territory after assuming control in 1898 and called it "Dalniy" ( - "a remote one" or "far-away", in reference to the town's location,
rendered as ) from 1898 to 1905. After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, Japan occupied the Kwantung Leased Territory and renamed the city after the Chinese name for Dalian Bay () - a name in use since at least 1879. English-language sources called the city "Dairen" in this period (1905-1945), from Japanese.
In 1950 Dalian, once again under Chinese control, merged with the nearby town called Lüshun () (formerly "Ryojun" and before that, "Port Arthur") to form the city of Lüda (), a name (formed from the first syllable of each constituent's name) which was usually rendered as Luta in English during that era. In 1981, the Chinese State Council again renamed the city, from Lüda to "Dalian" (, using the same Chinese characters as Japanese Dairen), effective 5 March 1981.
History
Ancient
In the Qin and Han periods (221 BC–AD 220), the Chinese state expanded its territories into northern Korea through the Dalian region, then under the jurisdiction of Liaodong county. During the Sixteen Kingdoms era (3rd through 5th centuries), the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo controlled this region. In the early Tang Dynasty (618–907), the Dalian region formed part of Andong Prefecture in Jili state; during the Liao Dynasty (916–1125), it was part of Dong Jing Tong Liaoyang county. Dalian was named Sanshan in the period of Wei Jin (220–420), San Shanpu in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Sanshan Seaport in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), and Qingniwakou during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911).
Qing Dynasty
In the 1880s, Jinzhou, the north of downtown Dalian, now Jinzhou District, was a walled town and a center for political intrigue and economic activity. The Qing government built bridges and heavily fortified the peninsula. Mining camps on the northern coast of Dalian Bay became the small town of Qingniwa () or Qingniwaqiao (), near what became the downtown core of modern-day Dalian.
British, Russian, and Japanese occupations
The British briefly occupied Qingniwa during the Second Opium War in 1858, but returned it to Chinese (Qing) control in 1860. Port Arthur at the tip of the Liaodong Peninsula took its English name from Royal Navy Lieutenant William Arthur, while the Chinese called it Lüshun. Although China heavily fortified the area, in which it allowed trade with foreigners, in the First Sino-Japanese War Japan swiftly overcame those defenses on 21 November 1894 in the Battle of Lüshunkou, immediately committing the Port Arthur massacre. In April 1895 China conceded defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, ceding Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan and Penghu, and making many other concessions in the Treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April 1895).
In the Triple Intervention of 23 April 1895, Russia, France and Germany forced Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula to China, despite the treaty's terms; instead the Russian Empire coerced a lease of the peninsula from the Qing Dynasty in 1898. Russia had a particular interest in the region of the peninsula as one of the few areas in the region that had the potential to develop ice-free ports. The Russians built a modern commercial port city, which they wanted to become the Paris of the Far East, and called it Dal'niy (). Linked by 1902 with the Trans-Siberian Railway via the branch line Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin, Dal'niy became Russia's primary port-city in Asia, and also served Western traders. Russia signed the Pavlov Agreement (1898) with China, which granted Russia a 25-year lease on Dalian and Lüshun and exclusive right to build a branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway—what would become from 1905 the Japanese-operated South Manchurian Railway. Russia spent more than 10 million golden rubles (equivalent to 11.5 billion of today's rubles) building the new ice-free port city.
Russia heavily fortified both Dalniy (Qingniwaqiao of Zhongshan District) and the Port Arthur naval base (Lüshunkou) before and after the Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901. Missionaries and converts were killed in the peninsula during the insurrection, although the massive massacres of ethnic Chinese Christians including Metrophanes, Chi Sung occurred at Harbin. Western expeditionary forces suppressed the Boxers across the Yellow Sea in Shandong.
During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, the Liaodong Peninsula became a major battleground. Major-General Baron Anatoly Stoessel defended a besieged Port Arthur, for five months (August 1904 to January 1905), but the Japanese army, using long-distance fire, sank several Russian ships at the Port Arthur naval base in early December 1904. Admiral Eugene Alexeyeff was blamed for splitting precious resources shipped across the single tracked Trans-Siberian Railway and Manchurian Railway between Dalniy and Port Arthur. After the Imperial Japanese Navy crippled the remaining Russian battleship Sevastopol in three weeks of constant attacks, and explosives detonated in tunnels destroyed Port Arthur's remaining defenses in the final days of 1904, Russia negotiated a ceasefire and surrendered Port Arthur in January 1905.
The Treaty of Portsmouth (signed 5 September 1905) ceded Port Arthur to Japan, which set up the Kwantung Leased Territory or Guandongzhou (), on roughly the southern half (Jinzhou District and south) of present-day Dalian. Japanese invested heavily in the region, which became the main trading port between Manchuria and Japan. Japan leased the area from Manchukuo after establishing that puppet state in 1932. In 1937, as the Second Sino-Japanese War began, Japan enlarged and modernized the trade zone as two cities: the northern Dairen (Dalian) and the southern Ryojun (Lüshun or Port Arthur).
Post-World War II
With the unconditional surrender of Japan in August–September 1945, Dairen passed to the Soviets, whose Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation had liberated the city on 22 August 1945. The Soviets and Chinese Communists cooperated to develop the city, relatively undamaged during the war, especially its industrial infrastructure and the port. The Soviet government rented the port and in 1945 the first Chinese Communist mayor of the new Lüda Administrative Office () was appointed.
In 1950 the USSR presented the city to the Chinese Communist government without any compensation. Dalian and Lüshun (former Port Arthur) merged as Lüda on 1 December 1950. From 12 March 1953 to 1 August 1954 it was a direct-controlled municipality and not part of Liaoning. Soviet troops left the city in 1955. After the Soviets left, the PRC made Lüda a major shipbuilding center.
In 1981 the city was renamed Dalian, with Lüshunkou becoming a constituent district. In 1984 the Chinese Government designated the city a Special Economic Zone. At the time, Dalian was China's largest foreign-trade port.
1990 to 2010
The city was upgraded from a prefecture-level city to a sub-provincial city in May 1994, with no change in its administrative subdivisions. In the 1990s the city benefited from the attention of Bo Xilai (later Party secretary of Chongqing). Bo served both as the mayor of the city and as one of the major leaders in the province; among other things, he banned motorcycles and planted large, lush parks in the city's many traffic circles. He also preserved much of Dalian's Japanese and Russian architectural heritage. He also worked as former Minister of Commerce of China (in office: 2004-2007).
In 2008 about 1,000 people protested and blocked traffic as a response to the 2008 Tibetan anti-Chinese protests, and forced the temporary closure of the local Carrefour store.
In 2010 one of the worst recorded oil-spills in China's history occurred in Dalian.
Since 2007 Dalian has hosted the Annual Meeting of the New Champions ("Summer Davos"), organized by the World Economic Forum, in alternating years with Tianjin. The venue for the forum is the Dalian International Conference Center in Donggang CBD.
Post 2010
14 August 2011 – the Dalian PX protest occurred.
June 2014 – China's tenth national new area, Dalian Jinpu New Area officially established.
5 August 2016 – The Dalian Huabiao incident occurred. A huabiao in Xinghai Square was demolished for some unknown political reason.
Geography
One of the most heavily developed industrial areas of China, Dalian municipal area today consists of Dalian proper and the smaller Lüshunkou (formerly Lüshun city, known in Western and Russian historic references as Port Arthur), about farther along the Liaodong Peninsula. Historical references note that the Russian designed city of Dalniy (Alt. Dalney), on the south side of Dalian Bay was from Port Arthur/Lüshun (known today as Lüshunkou or literally, Lüshun Port).
Dalian is located on Korea Bay north of the Yellow Sea and roughly in the middle of the Liaodong peninsula at its narrowest neck or isthmus. With a coastline of , it governs the majority of the Liaodong Peninsula and about 260 surrounding islands and reefs. It is seated at south-south-west of the Yalu River, and its harbor entrance forms a sub-bay known as Dalian Bay.
Climate
Dalian has a monsoon-influenced humid continental climate (Köppen Dwa), characterized by warm wet summers due to the East Asian monsoon, and cold, windy, dry winters that reflect the influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone. Except for winter, the city experiences a one-month seasonal lag due to its position on the Liaodong Peninsula. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in August. Annual precipitation averages but is heavily concentrated in the summer months and can vary greatly from year to year. Due to the coastal location, the mean diurnal temperature variation annually is small, at . The monthly percent of possible sunshine ranges from 49% in July to 68% in September and October, with 2,740 hours of bright sunshine annually. The annual mean temperature is . Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 4 January 1970 to on 14 July 2015.
Administration
Dalian is the second largest city of Liaoning province, after Shenyang, the provincial capital. Dalian City is governed by the Dalian Municipal People's Government.
Municipal government
The municipal government is located in the main building on the north side of People's Square on Zhongshan Road, originally built as the Administrative Office of Kwantung Leased Territory, and other buildings in downtown Dalian. There are the Commerce, Foreign Economy & Trade, Hygiene, Information Industry, Police, Religion, Science & Technology, Transportation and other city-level bureaus, which work closely with the corresponding agencies at the district level.
There are, in addition, 4 national leading open zones ():
The Development Zone ()
The Free Trade Zone ()
The Hi-Tech Industrial Zone ()
The Jīnshítān ("Golden Pebble Beach") National Holiday Resort ()
Administrative divisions
(see Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China)
The city administers 7 districts, 2 county-level cities, and 1 county:
There are 92 sub-districts and 69 towns and townships.
Zhongshan, Xigang, Shahekou and Ganjingzi Districts make up the urban core. Changhai County is made up entirely of islands east of the peninsula.
Demographics
The population of Dalian according to the 2010 census totaled 6.69 million. The total registered population on household at year end 2014 was 5.943 million, with a net increase of 29,000 over the previous year.
Economy
The city has had a continuous annual double-digit percentage increase in GDP since 1992. In 2014, the city's GDP registered a 5.8% increase, reaching RMB 765.56 billion, while per capita GDP hit RMB 109,939. According to a nationwide appraisal by the National Bureau of Statistics, Dalian ranks eighth among Chinese cities in terms of overall strength. The city's main industries include machine manufacturing, petrochemicals and oil refining, and electronics.
Agriculture and aquaculture
Dalian was originally an agriculture and aquaculture-based area, which, after the opening of the ferry between Yantai and Lüshun during the early 20th century, began to be populated by the farmers and fishers of Shandong, across the Yellow Sea during the Chuang Guandong era.
Heavy, light and distribution industries
Even before and during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the shipbuilding and locomotives industries were located in the city such as the companies which later became Dalian Shipbuilding Industry Company and Dalian Locomotive & Rolling Stock Works (DLoco). After the WWII, Dalian became an important center of the heavy and light industries, including companies such as Dalian Heavy Industry Co., Dalian Chemical Group, and Wafangdian Bearing Co.; and of the distribution industry, such as the Dashang Group.
Dalian Port is an important port for international trade. It has established trading and shipping links with more than 300 ports in 160 countries and regions of the world. There are over 100 international and domestic container shipping routes. A harbor for oil tankers (the largest by tonnage in China), at the terminus of an oil pipeline from the Daqing oilfields, was completed in 1976. Dalian is the 6th largest port in China; and according to AAPA world port ranking data, Dalian is the 8th busiest port in the world by cargo tonnage in 2012, and the 12th busiest container port in the world by total number of TEUs handled in 2013. Accordingly, Dalian is a major center for oil refineries, diesel engineering, and chemical production.
Also completed in 1993 is a newer port called Dayaowan Port (), on Dagushan () Peninsula in the northern suburbs, specializing in import-export of mining and oil products. Together with the Dalian Railway Station, Dalian North Railway Station, Dalian International Airport and two major express roads to Shenyang (Shenda Expressway), Changchun (Changda Expressway), Harbin (Hada Expressway) in the north and to Dandong to the east, Dalian has been an important distribution center.
Industrial zones
Dalian has been given many benefits by the Chinese government, including the title of "open-city" (1984), which allows it to receive considerable foreign investment (see Special Economic Zone). The Development Zone was established in Jinzhou District, to which many Japanese companies, such as Canon, Mitsubishi Electric, Nidec, Sanyo Electric and Toshiba, followed by South Korean, American and European companies (such as Pfizer). In 2007, Intel announced plans to build a semiconductor fabrication facility (commonly known as a fab) in the Development Zone, Dalian. It is Intel's first fab to be built at an entirely new site since 1992. The facility began operation in October 2010. Dalian also houses auto-manufacturing plants for Chery, Dongfeng Nissan Passenger Vehicle Company, and BYD Automobile (a production base for BYD K9 electric buses).
Other zones in the city include the Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian Export Processing Zone, Dalian Free Trade Zone, and Dalian Hi-Tech Industrial Zone.
Financial and IT industry
Dalian is the financial center of Northeast China. There are the Dalian branches of China's five major banks: Bank of China, Industrial & Commercial Bank of China, China Construction Bank, Bank of Communications, and Agricultural Bank of China. Dalian City Commercial Bank is now called Bank of Dalian, which among other things handles processing of the Dalian Mingzhu IC Card for public transportation. Bank of Dalian has opened branches in Beijing, Shanghai and Shenyang, among five other cities.
Founded in 1993, Dalian Commodity Exchange (DCE) is the only futures exchange in Northeast China. The futures industry leaped forward in its development. Among its 19 listed futures products approved by the China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC) are corn, corn starch, soybeans, soybean meal, soybean oil, RBD palm olein, polished round-grained rice, linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), ethylene glycol (EG), ethenylbenzene (EB), metallurgical coke, coking coal, iron ore, egg, fiberboard and blockboard. 3 options are also listed for trading, which includes soybean meal, corn and iron ore options. In 2019, DCE achieved 1,331 million lots and RMB 68.92 trillion respectively in trading volume and turnover. According to the Futures Industry Association (FIA) of the U.S., DCE was 11th largest exchange in the world by trading volume in 2019.
Since the 1990s, Dalian has emphasized the development of the IT industry, especially in Dalian Hi-Tech Zone and Dalian Software Park in the western suburbs near Dalian University of Technology. Dalian High-Tech Zone is the base of high-tech industries, housing more than 4,700 enterprises, including 80 Fortune Global 500 companies. Not only Chinese IT companies, such as DHC, Hisoft and Neusoft Group, but also American, European, Indian and Japanese IT companies are located there, including Wipro, Infosys, IBM, Dell, HP, Ericsson, Panasonic, Sony, Accenture, Oracle, Hitachi and Cisco. Nine professional business incubators are also located in the area, including the Hi-tech Business Incubator, animation and software incubators, with over 400 companies incubated. Currently, the "Lüshun South Road Software Industry Belt" Plan is proceeding, including Dalian Software Park Phase 3.
Intel's Fab 68 is located in Dalian. The plan was announced on 26 March 2007, and operations started on 26 October 2010. It is Intel's first chip-manufacturing fabrication in East Asia.
Tourism
Dalian is a popular destination among domestic tourists and foreign visitors, especially from Japan, South Korea and Russia. Its mild climate and multiple beaches as well as its importance in the modern history of China have attracted tourists. Some of the most famous beaches are Jinshitan Golden Coast () beach, Fujiazhuang () beach, Bangchuidao () beach, Xinghai Park () beach, Xinghai Bay () beach, and Xiajiahezi () beach. In 2007, it was one of the three cities named "China's best tourist city", along with Hangzhou and Chengdu, recognized by the National Tourism Administration and the United Nations World Tourism Organization.
Four inner-city districts
Zhongshan Square
Originally designed by Russians in the 19th century, Zhongshan Square () is especially noted for the several classical buildings located around the square built during the first half of the 20th century by the Japanese.
Laohutan Ocean Park: the park contains the Polar Region Marine Animals World, the Coral Aquarium, and the World of Birds. The white whale and dolphin show is a major attraction in the Polar Region Marine Animals World. The Tigers Sculpture Square is nearby, whose tiger sculpture is the symbol of Tiger Beach (). A retired Anshan-class destroyer Taiyuan is open to visitors.
Xinghai Square: situated at the Xinghai Bay, Xinghai Square () was built at the centennial of the City of Dalian (1998) and is the largest city square in the world.
Heishijiao Geological Park and Dalian Natural History Museum
Sunasia Ocean World
Dalian Forest Zoo
Bangchuidao Scenic Area: a well-maintained park used as a State Guesthouse since 1960, the Bangchuidao Scenic Area is now open to the public with upgraded features including lavish greens, Chinese and Western style villas, hot spring, tennis courts, badminton courts, a recreation center, a golf course and the Bangchuidao beach. The Bangchui Island (, named for an islet in the shape of an ancient washing tool Bangchui) can be seen from the beach. As a State Guesthouse, the scenic area has received numerous Chinese and foreign leaders and high-profile officials, including Zhou Enlai, Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin, Hu Jintao, Xi Jinping, Kim Jong-un, Henry Kissinger, Boris Yeltsin, Gerhard Schröder, Juan Antonio Samaranch and so on.
Dalian Sightseeing Tower
Donggang Music Fountain
Fujiazhuang Beach
Jinzhou District and Development Zone (in the northern suburbs)
Dahei Mountain
Jinshitan National Holiday Resort and the Discoveryland () is composed of eastern peninsula, western peninsula, open ground between two peninsulas and the Golden Coast beach. Major sightseeing points include, Golden Pebble Waxworks Museum, Geological Museum, Coastal National Geopark, International Vehicle Campsite, Tang Dynasty Hot Spring Resort, Golden Rock Park, Wanfuding Park, China Martial Arts Hall, Discoveryland Theme Park, Mao Zedong Badge Exhibition Hall, Model Movie & TV Art Center, Golden Pebble Hunting Club, Golden Pebble Equestrianism Base, Golden Pebble International Convention Center & Resort, Golden Pebble Golf Club, and Golden Gulf Golf Course. Several themed events, such as Dalian International Beach Carnival, International Winter Swimming Festival and Grape Festival, take place in Jinshitan annually.
The Discoveryland Theme Park (, also translated as "the Discovery Kingdom") was built in 2006 and covers an area of . It was designed by Romero Petrilli VanRell Associates who participated in the design of the Disney theme park.
Lüshunkou District (in the southwestern suburbs)
Lüshun Museum
Lüshun Railway Station
East Jiguan Mountain (), 203 Hill and Shuishiying Meeting Place
The fiercest battle site and the signing site of the ceasefire treaty, of the Battle of Lüshun during the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05).
Japanese and Russian Prison Site Museum in Lüshun
The prison was built by Russians in 1902 and later expanded by the Japanese. During World War II, the prison was used to detain people of various nationalities who were against the Japanese invasion. An Jung-geun, the Korean independence activist who assassinated Itō Hirobumi, was imprisoned and killed there.
Lüshun Snake Museum, and Lüshun Bird Port and Snake Island Reservation
Hengshan Temple and Longwangtang Cherry Blossom Park
Hengshan Temple () is near Longwangtang Reservoir (). The temple dates back to the Han Dynasty, and was rebuilt in 2003.
Pulandian District
Anbo Hotspring and Ski Course (), in Pulandian District
Wafandian
Changxing Island International Golf Course, in Wafangdian
Zhuanghe
Bingyu Valley Scenic Area and Buyun Mountain Hot Spring (), in Zhuanghe
Changhai County
Islands of Changhai County
Hot Spring and Ski Resorts
There are various hot spring hotels in Dalian. Notable ones include Laotieshan Hot Spring Hotel in Lüshun, Tang Dynasty Hot Spring Resort in Jinshitan, Minghu Hot Spring Hotel in Wafangdian City, Chengyuan Hot Spring Villa in Ganjingzi District, and Tianmu Hot Spring Hotel in Lüshun.
Skiing has become increasingly popular in Dalian. Famous ski resorts are Linhai Ski Resort in Ganjingzi District, Anbo Ski Resort in Pulandian District, Minghu Ski Resort & Minghu International Skiing Holiday Village in Wafangdian City, and Dalian Happy Snow World in Ganjingzi District near the airport.
Environment
Ecological conservation
Despite being in a period of economic and industrial growth, Dalian has placed an emphasis on environmental protection. Dalian's ecological restoration and protection efforts are ongoing and expanding. In 2021, Dalian set a five-year-plan for the marine environment that included targets for conserving populations of the endangered back-faced spoonbill. In 2019, 49 nests were built for the black-faced spoonbill on nearby uninhabited islands. There has also been conservation and rescue efforts targeting spotted seal populations. Dalian also maintains the National Spotted Seal Nature Reserve within Lioadong Bay. This reserve is home to a spotted seal population and is a breeding ground for multiple marine species.
Environmental issues
In 2001, the United Nations Environment Programme awarded the Dalian Municipal Government for its outstanding contribution to the protection of the environment.
The average content of the four pollutants in the air reached Class II of National Ambient Air Quality Standards and there were 353 days with Air Pollution Index (API) over Class II (Good), including 108 excellent days with Class I (Superior). Dalian frequently ranks Grade 2 for air pollution according to State Environmental Protection Administration. However, the environmental effects of economic growth are of concern, according to Dalian Environmental Protection Agency, during the first half of 2011, respirable particles in the air increased significantly, with an average 40% higher than 2010.
The water quality of offshore marine space remained stable overall. The annual average content of monitoring indicators for water quality met Class-II of the National Seawater Quality Standard, with the exception of Inorganic Nitrogen in Dalian Bay and the city's southern coast. The water quality of drinking water sources is considered good and complies with Class-III of Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water.
Recent events have had a major environmental impact on the city. In July 2010, the explosion of two petroleum pipelines released 11,000 barrels of oil into the Yellow Sea, according to official statements. Rick Steiner, an American marine conservationist working with Greenpeace, says that the figure could be upwards of 400,000. It was reported as the largest oil spill to occur in China, and involved 2,000 firefighters. The oil spill stretched for at least . 800 fishing boats were mobilized for the cleanup. The incident caused President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao to intervene, and Vice Premier Zhang Dejiang moved in to help direct the rescue work. A researcher with the China Environmental Science Research Institute, said that "the impact on marine life and on humans – as the pollution enters the food chain – could last 10 years." This has compounded aquatic pollution, affecting the city's fishing industry.
In August 2011, a dike protecting the petrochemical Fujia Factory in Jinzhou District was breached due to a typhoon. Authorities have ordered the plant to be shut down. Around 12,000 residents protested as the factory, which originally was intended to be based in Xiamen, did not receive official approval to operate in Dalian. Municipal authorities ruled that the facility must move, leaving taxpayers to pay the expensive cost of relocation.
Concerns have been raised over mounting traffic due to "bad urban design" and that the growing rate of car ownership is affecting air quality. The United States National Academy of Engineering have raised concern about rising traffic in Dalian stating that "rapid growth of traffic in Dalian and in similar Chinese cities will repeat the air quality and energy consumption mistakes of Los Angeles and other U.S. cities, if not better managed."
Transportation
Local transportation
Not many people ride bicycles in Dalian because of the hilly roads. Dalian is also one of the many cities in China where there are few motorcycles, because motorcycle riding on most roads is banned by law. The city has a comprehensive bus system and an efficient metro system. As of November 2015, the Dalian Metro consists of the underground Line 1, Line 2, and the overground Line 12 (Formerly called line R2) and Line 3. New lines and expansion of the metro system are under way. The Dalian Tram system is the second oldest in China. Most of the public transportation in the city can be accessed using the Mingzhu IC Card ().
Domestic and international
In 2005 Dalian expanded the international airport, Dalian Zhoushuizi International Airport, with direct flights to the most major cities in China, and to cities in South Korea and Japan as well as countries in Southeast Asia. In 2014, the airport was the 20th busiest airport in China with 13,551,223 passengers. The airport is the hub of Dalian Airlines.
The city's location means that train trips to most Chinese cities outside China's northeastern region require changing trains in Beijing or Shanghai. With the high-speed rail system, trips from Dalian to Shenyang can be completed in 1.5 hours, to Changchun 2.5 hours and to Harbin 3.5 hours. The city has two railway stations, namely Dalian railway station and Dalian North railway station , the latter being part of the Harbin–Dalian high-speed railway.
In addition to local and express bus services to Beijing and other areas in the northeast, Dalian is connected by passenger ship service to neighboring coastal cities, including Tianjin, Yantai, Weihai, Penglai and Dongying, as well as Incheon, South Korea.
Culture
In 2006, Dalian was selected as the most liveable city in China according to China Daily.
Dalian dialect
Standard Mandarin is usually spoken in Dalian because it is a city with people from various locations. But Dalian natives use Dalian dialect, which belongs to the Jiaoliao Mandarin subgroup spoken in parts of Shandong and Liaoning provinces. Most of the residents of Dalian were farmers and fishermen who had come from Shandong Province in a large population move, the Chuang Guandong, during which era Dalian was occupied by the Japanese as the Kwantung Leased Territory. The Dalian dialect incorporates a few loanwords from Japanese and Russian (very rare in Chinese), reflecting the history of foreign occupation. Dalian dialect is mostly distinguishable from Standard Mandarin based on a low-falling Yinping (31), and it is often referred to as "oyster flavored" () by the locals.
Cuisine
Dalian cuisine is a branch of Shandong cuisine, with influence from Northeastern Chinese cuisine, and is widely known for its unique style of seafood dishes. The variety of seafood in Dalian includes fish, prawns, clams, crabs, scallops, sea urchins, oysters, sea cucumbers, mussels, lobsters, conches, abalone, algae, razor clams, urechis unicinctus, mantis shrimps, jellyfish and so on. During the winter, many seafoods such as clams, mussels and abalone gain the most fat.
Colorful snowflake scallops () is a local seafood dish, where egg white is made into snowflake-shape to embrace the scallops, with seasonal greens, carrot and hot pepper cut into small pieces as decorations on top.
Another popular local dish is Salted fish with corn cake (), where steamed or fried corn cake is served with fried salted fish. Legend goes that, in the old days fishermen going out fishing in the morning couldn't return home to have lunch, so they baked fresh fish to eat with corn cakes, and the habit passed down from generation to generation and eventually became a famous food among local people.
Dalian Menzi () is a traditional local snack. A protein-rich starch paste coagulated from an extract of potatoes is cut into pieces and fried on a pan to create a crisp cover. A mixed seasoning of smashed garlic, sesame, and sauces is added on eating.
Other popular local specialties include Dalian-style grilled squid, seafood noodles, roast full prawns, salt baked conches, and lantern-shaped steamed abalone.
Theaters
Well-known theaters in Dalian are: Dalian People's Culture Club (mainly for music), Hongqi Grand Stage (for Beijing Opera), Working People's Theater-Doudou Grand Stage (, mainly for Errenzhuan) and Development Area Grand Theater ().
Sports
Sports play a big role in the local culture. Dalian's former association football club, Dalian Shide (formerly known as Dalian Wanda as the club was originally sponsored by the Dalian Wanda Group), achieved a total of eight titles from China's top-tier football league, the Chinese Jia-A League and the later rebranded Chinese Super League, and was widely considered one of the most successful clubs in Chinese football history. In the Asian Football Confederation, the club reached the 1997–98 Asian Club Championship and 2000–01 Asian Cup Winners' Cup finals. Several of China's greatest players, including Sun Jihai, Hao Haidong and Li Ming, made their names with Dalian Shide. Dalian also produced many top Chinese football players thanks to its youth training system and grassroots football culture. As of the 2014 season of the Chinese Super League, out of the 448 registered Chinese players, a total of 71 players are from Dalian. Therefore, Dalian earned its nickname of China's "Football City" (), and a giant football statue was placed in the Labor Park near downtown Dalian in its honor. Current football clubs in the city are Dalian Pro playing in the Chinese Super League and Dalian Pro W.F.C. playing in the Chinese Women's Football League. Both of their home stadiums are Dalian Sports Center Stadium.
The 60,663-capacity Dalian Sports Center Stadium, the 30,777-capacity Jinzhou Stadium, the 30,000-capacity Puwan New District Stadium and the 8,000-capacity Dalian Medical University Stadium are located in Dalian.
Some other popular sports played in Dalian are swimming, skiing, golf, cycling, bowling and billiards. The government hold various events every year in Dalian, like marathon, tennis and so on.
As part of the 2013 National Games of China in Liaoning in 2013, Dalian was a host city for 12 events, including synchronized swimming, field hockey, gymnastics, sailing and canoeing.
In February 2018, Dalian Wanda Group decided to take over Dalian Yifang F.C. football club, after lapse of 20 years Wanda Group come back to reinvest Dalian football club. Wanda Group announced long-term investment plan to help Dalian build football infrastructure, and concentrate on youth training and revitalize Dalian football and Chinese football.
City-wide festivals and events
Xinghai Square, Dalian Xinghai Convention & Exhibitions Center, the Dalian World Expo Center and the hotels on Renmin Road are the main places where Dalian's major annual events are held.
Every year from January to February, the Bingyugou Ice Lantern Festival is held in Bingyugou Scenic Area in Zhuanghe City. The event features a large number of ice sculptures, snow sculptures and colorful ice lanterns. Visitors can also participate in a series of ice-sports including ice-skating, ice hockey and iceboating.
From late April to May, the Lüshun International Cherry Blossom Festival is held. The main site is 203 Hill, and the other site is Longwangtang Cherry Blossom Park. It is said that the very first cherry trees were planted by Japanese soldiers stationed in Lüshun during World War II, in order to ease their homesickness. Today, the 203 Hill site has more than 3000 cherry trees, and boasts to be the largest cherry blossom park in China with the most varieties.
Each May, the Dalian International Walking Festival takes place. The purpose of the festival is to foster health and peace for the whole community. It is widely popular among citizens and attracts many foreign participants. Dalian is the only city in China recognized by the IML Walking Association. Four different routes of , , , and are provided for participants, with the longest route going from Xinghai Square along Binhai Road to Laohutan Ocean Park, Bangchuidao Scenic Area and finally reaching Dalian International Conference Center. Starting from 2012, Jinshitan National Holiday Resort also serves as a venue for the festival.
Every May, Dalian International Marathon is held. With the first marathon held in 1987, it is one of the four oldest marathon races in China. The main venue is the Jinshitan National Holiday Resort.
Every June, the China International Software & Information Service Fair is held in Dalian World Expo Center. Officials from overseas government departments, CEOs of World Top 500, well-known consulting firms and overseas IT associations attend the fair each year.
Dalian International Beer Festival takes place in Xinghai Square every year from July to August. It is similar to Oktoberfest in Munich and is a widely popular event in the city. Activities of the Beer Festival include exhibitions by beer manufacturers, a beer disco plaza, a beer culture exhibition, a beer drinking contest, a photography contest, the Beer Industry Summit, and a beer quiz.
Dalian International Automotive Exhibition is held in August in Dalian Xinghai Convention & Exhibitions Center and Dalian World Expo Center.
The annual Dalian International Fashion Festival is held in September in Dalian Xinghai Convention & Exhibitions Center and Dalian World Expo Center. For the past decade, the festival has been attracting the world's top fashion designers, businessmen and models to Dalian. Arrangement for the show includes various theme activities including the Garment Export Fair, fashion exhibitions, fashion competitions and a model contest.
Inter-governmental
Japan maintains a branch office for its Consulate General of Japan at Shenyang and a JETRO office in Dalian, reflecting a relatively large Japanese population.
Japan Chamber of Commerce & Industry has about 700 corporate members. Those Japanese who had lived in Dalian before the War have organized the Dalian Society.
Religion
, Dalian had 29 Christian churches (27 of them Protestant, 2 of them Catholic), 10 mosques, 34 Buddhist temples, and 7 Taoist temples, according to the statistics of the city government.
Taoist temples can be found in various districts including downtown Dalian (Hua Temple in Zhongshan Park), in Lüshunkou District (Longwang Temple), and in Jinzhou District (Jinlong Temple in Daweijia, Xiangshui Temple at the foot of Dahei Mountain, and Zhenwu Temple in Liangjiadian).
Buddhist temples are in downtown Dalian (Songshan Temple on Tangshan Street and Lianhuashan Temple on Yingchun Road), on the northern side of Anzi Mountain (Anshan Temple), at Daheishi (Thousand-Hand Buddha & 500 Luohan Statues), in Lüshunkou District (Hengshan Temple at Longwangtang), and in Jinzhou District (Guanyinge-Shengshui Temple on Dahei Mountain).
Dalian Catholic Church (built in 1926) is in downtown Dalian, west of Dalian Railway Station. Protestant churches are near Zhongshan Square (Yuguang Street Church, the former Dalian Anglican Church, built in 1928 in the British Consulate General's premises by the Church of England and Anglican Church of Japan jointly), on Changjiang Road (Beijing Street Church, now called Cheng-en Church, originally built in 1914 by the Danish Lutheran Church), on Xi'an Road (Christian Church for Korean Chinese and South Koreans), east of the airport (the newly built Harvest Church, which can seat 4000 people), in Jinzhou (the newly built Jinzhou Church) and in Lüshunkou District (Lüshun Church, a former Danish Lutheran church). Dalian Mosque is on Beijing Street.
Notable people
Xia Deren (), former mayor from October 2006 to May 2009.
Li Changchun (), politician, former member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China.
Bo Xilai (), former mayor (February 1993–August 2000), removed from Politburo under corruption charges.
Lai Yawen (), retired middle blocker, former captain and current team manager of the China women's national volleyball team.
Liu Yanan (), retired middle blocker of the China women's national volleyball team.
Yang Hao (), retired outside spiker of the China women's national volleyball team.
Hui Ruoqi (), retired outside spiker and former captain of the China women's national volleyball team.
Li Yongbo (), retired badminton player and former head coach of the China National Badminton Team.
Liu Changchun (), sprinter, first athlete to represent China in competition at the Olympic Games.
Qu Yunxia (), middle-distance athlete.
Zhang Wenxiu (), hammer thrower.
Zhang Enhua (), footballer.
Sun Jihai (), footballer.
Bi Fujian (), director, host and professor.
(), actor.
Yu Nan (), actress.
Lou Yixiao (), actress.
Dong Jie (), actress.
Lin Peng (), actress.
Yang Hongji (), baritone singer and professor.
Sun Nan (), singer.
Kelly Yu (), singer.
Xue Jiye (), painter and sculptor.
Toshiko Fujita (), Japanese voice actress.
Song Weilong (), actor and model.
Yang Zhuo (), professional Wushu fighter and kickboxer.
Education
23 general institutions of higher education (and another 7 privately run colleges), 108 secondary vocational schools, 80 ordinary middle high schools, 1,049 schools for nine-year compulsory education and 1,432 kindergartens in Dalian. The students on campus of all levels (including kindergartens) totaled 1108 thousand.
There are the following schools of higher education and research centers:
Colleges and universities
Dalian University of Technology (Project 985, Project 211, founded in 1949)
Dalian Maritime University (Project 211, founded in 1909)
Dongbei University of Finance and Economics (Founded in 1952)
Liaoning Normal University (Founded in 1951)
Dalian University (Founded in 1987)
Dalian Jiaotong University (Founded in 1956)
Dalian Medical University (Founded in 1947)
Dalian Minzu University (Founded in 1997)
Dalian Ocean University (Founded in 1952)
Dalian Polytechnic University (Founded in 1958)
Dalian University of Foreign Languages (Founded in 1964)
Dalian Naval Academy of the PLA Navy (Founded in 1949)
Liaoning Police College (Founded in 1960)
Dalian Neusoft University of Information (Founded in 2000)
Research centers
Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
High schools
Notable high schools include:
Dalian No. 1 High School (), founded in 1922 by Japanese, which was the first school institute in Dalian.
Dalian No. 8 High School ()
Dalian No. 12 High School ()
Dalian No. 20 High School ()
Dalian No. 23 High School ()
Dalian No. 24 High School ()
Dalian Yuming Senior High School ()
The High School Affiliated to Liaoning Normal University ()
Dalian Lüshun Senior High School ()
Dalian Jinzhou Senior High School ()
Dalian Haiwan Senior High School ()
Wafangdian Senior High School ()
Zhuanghe Senior High School ()
Changhai County Senior High School ()
International schools
Japanese School of Dalian
Dalian American International School
Dalian Maple Leaf International School
International relations
Dalian is twinned with:
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Adjara, Georgia
Akita, Japan
Bahía Blanca, Argentina
Bangkok, Thailand
Bergen, Norway
Bremen, Germany
Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada
Chuncheon, South Korea
Cienfuegos, Cuba
Dallas, Texas, United States
Derry and Strabane, Northern Ireland, UK
Ehime, Japan
Enschede, Netherlands
Fortaleza, Brazil
Genoa, Italy
Glasgow, Scotland, UK
Gwangju, South Korea
Gwangyang, South Korea
Houston, Texas, United States
Imari, Saga, Japan
Incheon, South Korea
Jeju Province, South Korea
Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan
Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, Japan
La Paz, Bolivia
Le Havre, Seine-Maritime, France
Los Angeles County, California, United States
Maizuru, Kyoto, Japan
Milan, Italy
Northampton, UK
Oakland, California, United States
Ohrid, North Macedonia
Ōta, Tokyo, Japan
Pohang, South Korea
Pointe-Noire, Republic of the Congo
Pyeongtaek, South Korea
Rijeka, Primorje-Gorski Kotar, Croatia
Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany
Sarajevo Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Surin Province, Thailand
Tomsk, Tomsk Oblast, Russia
Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, Russia
Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany
See also
References
Bibliography
Kuramoto, Kazuko. Manchurian Legacy: Memoirs of a Japanese Colonist, 1st edition. Michigan State University Press. 1 October 1999. , , , .
Further reading
Hess, Christian A. (2006). "From colonial jewel to socialist metropolis: Dalian, 1895–1955." PhD dissertation, University of California, San Diego.
McKnight, Tom, (ed.). Geographica: The Complete Illustrated Atlas of the World, 3rd revision. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 2001. , .
Perrins, Robert John (1998). "'Great connections': The creation of a city, Dalian, 1905–1931. China and Japan on the Liaodong Peninsula." PhD dissertation, York University (Canada).
Song Li. Everyday Dalian: Life in Modern Manchuria (Photography Book), Foreword by Phil Borges. 1st edition. DigitalKu. 8 February 2008. , .
Theiss, Frank. The Voyage of Forgotten Men, 1st Ed. Indianapolis & New York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1937.
External links
Dalian Government website
Dalian Government website
Cities in Liaoning
Port cities and towns in China
Populated coastal places in China
Prefecture-level divisions of Liaoning
National Forest Cities in China
China–Soviet Union relations
Kwantung Leased Territory
Yellow Sea
Articles containing video clips
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250117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cos | Cos | Cos, COS, CoS, coS or Cos. may refer to:
Mathematics, science and technology
Carbonyl sulfide
Class of service (CoS or COS), a network header field defined by the IEEE 802.1p task group
Class of service (COS), a parameter in telephone systems
Cobalt sulfide
COS cells, cell lines COS-1 and COS-7
Cosine, a trigonometric function
Cosmic Origins Spectrograph, a Hubble Space Telescope instrument
Operating systems
COS (operating system), a Chinese mobile OS
Cray Operating System
Chippewa Operating System, from Control Data Corporation
Commercial Operating System, from Digital Equipment Corporation
GEC COS
Places
Cos, Ariège, France
Cos or Kos, a Greek island
Colorado Springs, (Common abbreviation)
Colorado Springs Airport, IATA code
Gulf of Cos, Aegean Sea
Villa de Cos, Zacatecas, Mexico
Organizations, societies and churches
Charity Organization Society
Children's Orchestra Society, New York City, US
Church of Satan, a religious organization
Church of Scotland
Commandement des Opérations Spéciales, coordinating French special forces
Community of Science, an online database
Company of Servers, Anglican altar servers
Cooper Ornithological Society, California, US
Universities and schools
College of the Sequoias, California, US
College of the Siskiyous, California, US
Other uses
Childhood onset schizophrenia
Roman consul, a political office in Ancient Rome
COS (clothing), a British fashion brand
Cos lettuce
Martín Perfecto de Cos (1800–1854), Mexican general
Consequence of Sound (now Consequence), a New York, US online magazine
Cos (television series), 1976, hosted by Bill Cosby
Comando delle Operazioni Spaziali, Italian space command
See also
Kos (disambiguation) | [
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250118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Claude%20Amour%2C%20marquis%20de%20Bouill%C3%A9 | François Claude Amour, marquis de Bouillé | François Claude Amour, marquis de Bouillé (19 November 1739 – 14 November 1800) was a French general. After distinguishing himself in the Seven Years' War, he was appointed governor of Guadeloupe in 1768. His most well-known military exploits took place in the West Indies during the American War of Independence, where he was involved in the French capture of a number of British possessions. Following that war he returned to France, where he held military commands in the country's northeast at the time of the French Revolution. A committed Royalist, he was a leading conspirator involved in the royal family's failed flight in 1791, whose failure forced Bouillé into exile. He continued to be active in consultative roles to members of the First Coalition, which opposed the forces of Revolutionary France in the early years of the French Revolutionary War. He died in exile in London, and is mentioned as a hated Royalist in the French national anthem, La Marseillaise.
Early life
François Claude Amour, the marquis de Bouillé was born at Chateau Cluzel in Saint-Èble (present-day Mazeyrat-d'Allier, Haute-Loire) on 19 November 1739. His mother died shortly after his birth, and his father died a few years later. He was raised by a paternal uncle who was also First Almoner to King Louis XV. He was educated in a Jesuit school, and at age 16 his uncle purchased for him a commission in a company of dragoons of the French Army.
Bouillé first saw military action in the Seven Years' War in 1758, when his regiment joined French forces in present-day Germany. He distinguished himself throughout the campaign, playing an important role in the Battle of Grünberg in February 1761 that resulted in the surrender of thousands of German troops and the capture of many military standards, and prompted Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick to lift that year's Siege of Cassel. Bouillé was given the honour of taking the captured standards to Paris to present them to the King. He was recognized with a brevet promotion to colonel, and was given command of the next regiment that became available.
West Indies and the American War of Independence
In 1768 Bouillé was appointed governor of the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe, where he again distinguished himself. The Comte d'Emery, governor general of the French West Indies, was so impressed with Bouillé that he recommended to the King that Bouillé succeed him at the post. When d'Emery died in 1777, Bouillé was awarded with the governorships of Martinique and St. Lucia, with authority to take full command of the French West Indies in the event France joined the American War of Independence.
France's entry into that war occurred in early 1778, and Bouillé was heavily involved in the planning, execution, and leadership of operations in the West Indies. He organized and led the capture of Dominica before the British there were even aware of the war declaration, and was involved in organizing, provisioning, and leading troops in a number of other actions. In 1782 he recaptured Dutch Sint Eustatius, which the British had captured just the year before, and was involved in that year planning with Bernardo de Gálvez a Franco-Spanish expedition against Jamaica. The expedition was called off after the disastrous French defeat at the naval Battle of the Saintes in April 1782.
Bouillé returned to France in 1783 after the peace. King Louis rewarded him for his conduct in the war with the Order of the Holy Spirit. He traveled the following year to England, where he was well received. He was well respected by the British for his treatment of prisoners of war and other captives during the war. In one notable instance, he returned the crew of a shipwrecked British frigate to a nearby British possession, refusing to take advantage of their plight to make them prisoners of war. He was equally gracious at home, even refusing an offer of payment (amounting to the munificent sum equivalent to £20,000 of the day) from the King for war expenses that he had personally covered.
French Revolution
In 1787 Bouillé was named governor of the Three Bishoprics. He served in 1787 and 1788 in the Assemblies of Notables called by King Louis in an attempt to deal with France's perilous financial state.
After the French Revolution began in 1789, Bouillé retained control of the Three Bishoprics, and was also given military command of Alsace and Franche-Comté in 1790. A committed Royalist, he was instrumental in putting down rebellion in Metz, and led forces that controversially crushed a military mutiny in the "Nancy affair" in August 1790, in which both soldiers and civilians were killed. Although the National Assembly approved his actions, radicals were critical of the severity of his response.
Louis' failed flight
Bouillé had managed to keep a fairly strong Royalist command in his army, and he became deeply involved in an attempt by King Louis and Marie Antoinette to escape their virtual house arrest in Paris. In conjunction with Comte Axel von Fersen and Baron de Breteuil, he planned the means and route by which the Royal Family would travel from Paris to the fortress of Montmédy, within Bouillé's area of control. Approximately 10,000 regulars of the old royal army were encamped at or near Montmedy. The regiments, which included Swiss and German mercenary units, made up a force that had largely retained its discipline and was considered by the court party as still loyal to the monarchy. Historians continue to debate how the flight led to the royals' arrest at Varennes.
Bouillé's son Louis was sent to Paris to inform the royal family of the plans and possible safe points. Bouillé also made specific suggestions about the route and the travel arrangements. He recommended a different route from the one which Louis ultimately chose, and he suggested that they not travel in a single coach, instead splitting up so that they would draw less attention en route. That advice also was not taken. Bouillé was to provide troops to protect the royal party on the final stages of the journey through the area that he controlled. Some of the units considered more reliable by the royalist high command had, however, recently been reassigned to other commands, and in a time of wide social unrest, he could not fully trust all of the troops that remained. Cavalry detachments were placed in towns along the route, citing as a pretext the expected delivery of treasury funds going to Paris. The sudden arrival of the dragoons and hussars, however, drew immediate attention and suspicion. This heightened tension in the local population may have played a role in the ultimate capture and arrest at Varennes. Delays in the arrival of the coach carrying the royal family had led to several of Bouillé's detachments being stood down, and none was immediately available to intervene.
Aftermath
As an immediate result of the forced return of the royal family to Paris, Bouillé and senior members of his staff fled France to join the Austro-Prussian forces assembled beyond the border. He subsequently issued a proclamation threatening reprisals if any harm was done to the king. This only served to further discredit the weakened monarchy.
The failure of the attempted flight set off a wave of recriminations among the Royalist conspirators. The duc de Choiseul and Bouillé both wrote memoirs (Bouillé in 1800, the year of his death), seeking to defend their actions during the flight, and to assign blame to others.
Exile
Bouillé went into exile, first travelling to Pillnitz, where the spread of anti-Royalist sentiments was discussed by other European monarchs. Courted by royalty for positions in their armies, he sought to remain loyal to Louis, eventually serving as a military consultant to Prussian King Frederick William II in the early stages of the First Coalition. He joined military campaigns in 1793, and was urged to take command of Royalist forces in the Vendée, but refused, believing the forces would ultimately fail in their aims. Shortly after that, he sailed for England, where he continued to assist the British in military activities against Revolutionary France.
In 1797 Bouillé published his memoirs, which were a great success. He died in London on 14 November 1800 and was buried in the churchyard of St Pancras Old Church. In 1866, his remains were reinterred at the Montmartre Cemetery in Paris.
Legacy
During his years of exile, the German author Franz Alexander von Kleist left a character sketch of Bouillé in his Fantasien auf einer Reise nach Prag (1792) after seeing him with his son at a performance of Mozart's opera Don Giovanni at the Estates Theatre in Prague on 2 September 1791. Kleist described Bouillé as a broken man wracked with worry and remorse over the actions that sent him into exile and made him vilified in France.
It is often attributed the first version (1769) of the words of the Caribbean song .
Bouillé's role in the French Revolution is alluded to in the 5th stanza of the French national anthem, La Marseillaise, as a detestable counter-revolutionary figure:
Works
1797. Memoirs relating to the French revolution (Translated).
Mémoires de M. le Marquis de Bouillé : pendant son administration aux Isles du Vent de l'Amérique
References
The Anti-Jacobin Review (contains a lengthy biographic sketch)
Bouille, Francois Claude Amour, marquis de
Bouille, Francois Claude Amour, marquis de
People from Haute-Loire
Marquesses of Bouillé
French colonial governors of Guadeloupe
Governors general of the French Antilles | [
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250122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20XI%20of%20Sweden | Eric XI of Sweden | Eric "XI" the Lisp and Lame Swedish: Erik Eriksson or Erik läspe och halte; Old Norse: Eiríkr Eiríksson (1216 – 2 February 1250) was king of Sweden in 1222–29 and 1234–50. Being the last ruler of the House of Eric, he stood in the shadow of a succession of powerful Jarls, especially his brother-in-law Birger Jarl, whose descendants ruled as kings after his death.
Background
Eric was the son of Eric X of Sweden and Richeza of Denmark. According to the chronicle Erikskrönikan written in the early 1320s, Eric is said to have been partly lame; "King Eric was lisping in his talk / Limping was, as well, his walk". For this reason, later historians referred to him as "Erik the Lisp and Lame" which was apparently not used in his own time. Eric was born after his father, King Eric X, had already died (1216). The fifteen-year-old John I from the rival House of Sverker was hailed king by the Swedish aristocracy, while Queen Richeza returned to her Danish homeland where her brother Valdemar Sejr ruled.
Eric spent his early youth in Denmark, while Valdemar championed his rights to the Swedish throne and tried to prevent the coronation of John I. Pope Honorius III ordered three North German bishops to investigate the issue in 1219, however to no avail. John I nevertheless died in 1222, whereby the House of Sverker became extinct in the male line.
First reign
With no dynastic rivals at hand, the six-year-old Eric was hailed as king, sometime between August 1222 and July 1223. The Archbishop Olof Basatömer supported his cause and appears to have crowned him in Strängnäs Cathedral on 31 July 1223. During the minority of the king, a council was formed, consisting of Bishop Bengt of Skara, the king's foster father Erengisle Vig, Stenar, Knut Kristinesson, and Knut Holmgersson (Knut the Tall). The two last-mentioned were second cousins of King Eric. In 1225 Eric and his realm were taken under the protection of the Pope. In the same year a brief conflict with Norway flared up, as King Håkon Håkonson made an incursion into Värmland in retaliation for support given to Håkon's Norwegian enemies. The members of the royal council were termed consiliarii (Sw., rådsherre), a term that now occurs for the first time in a Swedish context. However, the internal cohesion of the council was weak, and its members were considered notoriously unreliable. Knut Kristinesson went to Norway in 1226 in order to claim the crown of this country, and Bishop Bengt died in 1228.
In the next year 1229, a feud broke out, as Knut the Tall and a party of nobles, the Folkung Party, rose against the young ruler. The causes are not known, but a wish by some nobles to restrain the power of the Church might have had a role. Eric was overthrown after the battle of Olustra (slaget vid Olustra). The battle is believed to have taken place in Olustra (Ostra) in Södermanland, although Alvastra in Östergötland has been mentioned as a possible site. After his loss, the young king fled to Denmark where his uncle Valdemar Sejr was still ruling. Knut the Tall was crowned King Canute II of Sweden in 1231, but his time was short and he died in 1234.
Second reign
According to a Danish source, Eric returned to Sweden already in 1232, when Canute was still king. The Swedish Erikskrönikan on the contrary asserts that he came back after King Canute's death, after a new round of fighting. At any rate Eric was once again accepted as king and ruled until his own death in 1250. At first, he reconciled with the Folkung Party. The Folkung Ulf Fase, who had been Jarl of the realm under Canute II, continued to serve in that function under Eric. Ulf Fase was an able politician who managed to prevent feuding between the noble factions for many years. As a king, Eric is depicted in Erikskrönikan as good-natured but physically passive:
He liked to strengthen reason and right,
and was pleased to care for his own kin.
He maintained domestic honour and noble custom,
and gave the peasant good peace,
He well understood serious matters,
but would not care much for tournaments.
In fact he was relatively insignificant and heavily dependent on stronger men in his entourage; first Ulf Fase and, after his death (1248), the latter's kinsman Birger Magnusson (Birger Jarl) (d. 1266). They were both scions of the large and influential Bjälbo family from Östergötland, but entertained different political agendas. While Ulf pursued a policy of alliance with the Norwegian king, Birger strove to strengthen royal authority by allying closely with the Catholic Church. In about the late 1230s, King Eric's elder sister Ingeborg was married to Birger, in the latter's first marriage. Birger was purportedly the son of a female heiress of the Sverker dynasty, thus having royal blood.
Eastward expansion
Sweden had a certain presence in south-western Finland by the early 13th century, although it is unclear to what extent this translated into political power. A bishopric existed in Nousiainen and later Turku (Åbo), which stood under the papal legate of the Baltic region. The Erikskrönikan contains a graphic description of a military expedition to Tavastia further to the east that King Eric dispatched in an unspecified year, possibly in 1238–39 or 1249–50. While not literally a crusade, the professed aim was to Christianize still pagan lands. A sizable fleet was assembled under the leadership of Birger and sailed over to Tavastia (a problematic statement since Tavastia is an inland region). According to the highly propagandist chronicle, the expedition was an unqualified success:
They took their banners and went ashore,
The Christians were successful in the war.
They let their shields shine
all over the land, and so their helmets.
They were keen to try their swords
on the pagan Tavasts
As I expect, they achieved
gold and silver and large herds.
The Tavasts then ran and were gone,
the pagans lost and the Christians won.
Anyone who wanted to serve them,
and become Christian and accept baptism,
they allowed to keep goods and life,
and to live in peace without further strife.
To any pagan who would not do that,
they administered death.
The expedition led to the establishment of a permanent fortress, Tavasteborg, and the formal Christianization of the region. As the chronicle has it, "I think the Russian king lost it". The enterprise is not mentioned in other sources, and its circumstances are hotly debated among modern historians. It is possibly connected to a Swedish foray in the Novgorod Republic in 1240. A fleet of ships commanded by a certain Spiridon and accompanied by a few bishops went up the Neva River, but were attacked and routed by the Novgorodian prince Alexander Nevsky. Details of the battle are partly legendary, and its significance might have been exaggerated in Russian historiography. According to a 14th-century source, the Swedish leader was a Belgerd, corresponding to Birger, though this may be a later construction.
Renewed domestic feuding
Internal fighting once again broke out in 1247, shortly before (or possibly after) Ulf Fase's death. The Folkung Party warred with King Eric and Birger, but their peasant allies in Uppland lost the Battle of Sparrsätra and were punished by tightening royal taxation. The Folkung leader Holmger Knutsson, a son of Canute II, fled to Gästrikland but was captured by Eric's men and beheaded.
Shortly after the defeat of the uprising, Birger was appointed Jarl of the realm. As such he oversaw a clerical meeting in Skänninge in February 1248, summoned by the papal legate William of Sabina. On behalf of Pope Innocent IV, he urged the Swedes to stick to canonic-juridical praxis as laid down by Rome. The authority of the bishops was strengthened and Sweden was increasingly incorporated in the Catholic Church.
Family and heirs
Eric married Queen Catherine in 1243 or 1244. She was the daughter of (Jarl) Sune Folkason of Bjälbo and an heiress of the House of Sverker. In that way the two long-competing royal houses were eventually united. Commonly, sources say that Eric was childless, but some sources claim that he had a couple of baby daughters who died.
Eric XI died on 2 February 1250, and was buried in the monastery of Varnhem Abbey in Västergötland. With him the House of Eric became extinct in the male line, with the possible exception of Canute II's son Filip (d. 1251). Under these circumstances the throne went to the offspring of Birger Jarl and Ingeborg, the more since Birger was now in full control over the realm. Their eldest but still under-age son Valdemar was elected king in 1250 to succeed Eric, possibly by-passing the sons, to the extent there were such, of Ingeborg's elder sisters. Birger Jarl became the Regent, holding the true power in Sweden until his own death in 1266. Skáldatal reports that Óláfr Þórðarson was one of Eric's court skalds.
References
Further reading
Bolin, Sture, "Erik Eriksson", Svenskt biografiskt lexikon .
Harrison, Dick, Sveriges historia: medeltiden (Stockholm: Liber, 2002).
Harrison, Dick, Jarlens sekel - En berättelse om 1200-talets Sverige ( Stockholm: Ordfront, 2002).
Harrison, Dick, "Birger jarl och Aleksandr Nevskij", Svenska Dagbladet Blog, 1 May 2011 .
Lagerqvist, Lars O.; Åberg, Nils, Litet lexikon över Sveriges regenter (Boda kyrkby: Vincent förlag, 2004).
Lindström, Henrik; Lindström, Fredrik, Svitjods undergång och Sveriges födelse (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers förlag, 2006). .
Line, Philip, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden 1130-1290 (Leiden: Brill, 2007).
Pipping, Rolf (ed.), Erikskrönikan (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wicksell, 1921).
External links
1216 births
1250 deaths
13th-century Swedish monarchs
Rulers of Finland
Rulers deposed as children
Medieval child rulers
Christians of the Second Swedish Crusade
House of Eric
Royalty and nobility with disabilities
Burials at Varnhem Abbey
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250125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilles | Antilles | The Antilles (; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Jamaican Patois: Antiliiz) is an archipelago bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the south and west, the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east.
The Antillean islands are divided into two smaller groupings: the Greater Antilles and the Lesser Antilles. The Greater Antilles includes the larger islands of the Cayman Islands, Cuba, Hispaniola (subdivided into the nations of the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. The Lesser Antilles contains the northerly Leeward Islands and the southeasterly Windward Islands as well as the Leeward Antilles just north of Venezuela. The Lucayan Archipelago (consisting of The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands), though a part of the West Indies, is generally not included among the Antillean islands.
Geographically, the Antillean islands are generally considered a subregion of North America. Culturally speaking, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico – and sometimes the whole of the Antilles – are included in Latin America, although some sources use the phrase "Latin America and the Caribbean" instead (see Latin America, "In Contemporary Usage"). In terms of geology, the Greater Antilles are made up of continental rock, as distinct from the Lesser Antilles, which are mostly young volcanic or coral islands.
Background
The word Antilles originated in the period before the European colonization of the Americas, Antilia being one of those mysterious lands which figured on the medieval charts, sometimes as an archipelago, sometimes as continuous land of greater or lesser extent, its location fluctuating in mid-ocean between the Canary Islands and India.
After the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus's expedition in what was later called the West Indies, the European powers realized that the dispersed lands constituted an extensive archipelago inhabiting the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. The Antilles were called multiple names before their current name became the norm. Early Spanish visitors called them the Windward Islands (today having a narrower definition). They were also called the Forward Islands by 18th-century British. Thereafter, the term Antilles was commonly assigned to the formation, and "Sea of the Antilles" became a common alternative name for the Caribbean Sea in various European languages.
Demographics
The Antilles were described in 1778 by Thomas Kitchin as once being called the Caribbee Isles in homage to the Carib people who were the islands' first inhabitants.
Countries and territories
Lucayan Archipelago
The Bahamas
Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom)
Greater Antilles
Cayman Islands (United Kingdom)
Cuba
Isle of Youth
Hispaniola
Haiti
Dominican Republic
Jamaica
Puerto Rico (United States)
Lesser Antilles
Leeward Antilles
Aruba (Kingdom of the Netherlands)
Bonaire (Netherlands)
Curaçao (Kingdom of the Netherlands)
Federal Dependencies of Venezuela
Aves Island
Los Monjes Archipelago
La Tortuga Island
La Sola Island
Los Testigos Islands
Los Frailes Islands
Patos Island
Los Roques Archipelago
Blanquilla Island
Los Hermanos Archipelago
Orchila Island
Las Aves Archipelago
Nueva Esparta State (Venezuela)
Margarita Island
Coche
Cubagua
Leeward Islands
Anguilla (United Kingdom)
Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua
Barbuda
Redonda
British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom)
Guadeloupe (France)
La Désirade
Les Saintes
Marie-Galante
Montserrat (United Kingdom)
Saba (Netherlands)
Saint Barthélemy (France)
Saint Martin
Collectivity of Saint Martin (France)
Sint Maarten (Kingdom of the Netherlands)
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Kitts
Nevis
Sint Eustatius (Netherlands)
Spanish Virgin Islands (Puerto Rico)
United States Virgin Islands (United States)
Saint Croix
Saint Thomas
Saint John
Windward Islands
Dominica
Grenada
Martinique (France)
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Other islands
Barbados
Trinidad and Tobago
Tobago
Trinidad
See also
Antillia
References
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250126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changchun | Changchun | Changchun (, ; ), also romanized as Ch'angch'un is the capital and largest city of Jilin Province, People's Republic of China. Lying in the center of the Songliao Plain, Changchun is administered as a , comprising 7 districts, 1 county and 3 county-level cities. According to the 2020 census of China, Changchun had a total population of 9,066,906 under its jurisdiction. The city's metro area, comprising 5 districts and 4 development areas, had a population of 4,714,996 in 2020, as the Shuangyang and Jiutai districts are not urbanized yet. It is one of the biggest cities in Northeast China, along with Shenyang, Dalian and Harbin.
The name of the city means "long spring" in Chinese. Between 1932 and 1945, Changchun was renamed Hsinking () by the Kwantung Army as it became the capital of the Imperial Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo, occupying modern Northeast China. After the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Changchun was established as the provincial capital of Jilin in 1954.
Known locally as China's "City of Automobiles", Changchun is an important industrial base with a particular focus on the automotive sector. Because of its key role in the domestic automobile industry, Changchun was sometimes referred to as the "Detroit of China." Apart from this industrial aspect, Changchun is also one of four "National Garden Cities" awarded by the Ministry of Construction of P.R. China in 2001 due to its high urban greening rate.
Changchun is also one of the top 40 cities in the world by scientific research as tracked by the Nature Index according to the Nature Index 2020 Science Cities. The city is home to several major universities, notably Jilin University and Northeast Normal University, members of China's prestigious universities in the Project 211.
History
Early history
Changchun was initially established on imperial decree as a small trading post and frontier village during the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor in the Qing dynasty. Trading activities mainly involved furs and other natural products during this period. In 1800, the Jiaqing Emperor selected a small village on the east bank of the Yitong River and named it "Changchun Ting".
At the end of the 18th century peasants from overpopulated provinces such as Shandong and Hebei began to settle in the region. In 1889, the village was promoted into a city known as "Changchun Fu".
Railway era
In May 1898, Changchun got its first railway station, located in Kuancheng, part of the railway from Harbin to Lüshun (the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway), constructed by the Russian Empire.
After Russia's loss of the southernmost section of this branch as a result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the Kuancheng station (Kuanchengtze, in contemporary spelling) became the last Russian station on this branch. The next station just a short distance to the south—the new "Japanese" Changchun station—became the first station of the South Manchuria Railway, which now owned all the tracks running farther south, to Lüshun, which they re-gauged to the standard gauge (after a short period of using the narrow Japanese gauge during the war).
A special Russo-Japanese agreement of 1907 provided that Russian gauge tracks would continue from the "Russian" Kuancheng Station to the "Japanese" Changchun Station, and vice versa, tracks on the "gauge adapted by the South Manchuria Railway" (i.e. the standard gauge) would continue from Changchun Station to Kuancheng Station.
An epidemic of pneumonic plague occurred in surrounding Manchuria from 1910 to 1911, known as the Manchurian plague. It was the worst-ever recorded outbreak of pneumonic plague which was spread through the Trans-Manchurian railway from the border trade port of Manzhouli. This turned out to be the beginning of the large pneumonic plague pandemic of Manchuria and Mongolia which ultimately claimed 60,000 victims.
City planning and development from 1906 to 1931
The Treaty of Portsmouth formally ended the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 and saw the transfer and assignment to Japan in 1906 the railway between Changchun and Port Arthur, and all its branches.
Having realized the strategic importance of Changchun's location with respect to Japan, China and Russia, the Japanese Government sent a group of planners and engineers to Changchun to determine the best site for a new railway station.
Without the consent of the Chinese Government, Japan purchased or seized from local farmers the land on which the Changchun Railway Station was to be constructed as the centre of the South Manchuria Railway Affiliated Areas (SMRAA). In order to turn Changchun into the centre for extracting the agricultural and mineral resources of Manchuria, Japan developed a blueprint for Changchun and invested heavily in the construction of the city.
At the beginning of 1907, as the prelude to, and preparation for, the invasion and occupation of China, Japan initiated the planning programme of the SMRAA, which embodied distinctive colonial characteristics. The guiding ideology of the overall design was to build a high standard colonial city with sophisticated facilities, multiple functions and a large scale.
Accordingly, nearly 7 million yen on average was allocated on a year-by-year basis for urban planning and construction during the period 1907 to 1931.
The comprehensive plan was to ensure the comfort required by Japanese employees on Manchurian Railways, build up Changchun into a base for Japanese control of the whole Manchuria in order to provide an effective counterweight to Russia in this area of China.
The city's role as a rail hub was underlined in its planning and construction, the main design concepts of which read as follows: under conventional grid pattern terms, two geoplagiotropic boulevards were newly carved eastward and westward from the grand square of the new railway station. The two helped form two intersections with the gridded prototypes, which led to two circles of South and West. The two sub-civic centres served as axes on which eight radial roads were blazed that took the shape of a sectoral structure.
At that time, the radial circles and the design concept of urban roads were quite advanced and scientific. It activated to great extent the serious urban landscapes as well as clearly identifying the traditional gridded pattern.
With the new Changchun railway station as its centre, the urban plan divided the SMRAA into various specified areas: residential quarters 15%, commerce 33%, grain depot 19%, factories 12%, public entertainment 9%, and administrative organs (including a Japanese garrison) 12%. Each block provided the railway station with supporting and systematic services dependent on its own functions.
In the meantime, a comprehensive system of judiciary and military police was established which was totally independent of China. That accounted for the widespread nature of military facilities within the urban construction area of , such as the railway garrison, the gendarmerie and the police department, with its 18 local police stations.
Perceiving Changchun as a tabula rasa upon which to construct new and sweeping conceptions of the built environment, the Japanese used the city as a practical laboratory to create two distinct and idealized urban milieus, each appropriate to a particular era. From 1906 to 1931, Changchun served as a key railway town through which the Japanese orchestrated an informal empire. Between 1932 and 1945, the city became home to a grandiose new Asian capital. Yet, while the façades in the city and later the capital contrasted markedly, along with the attitudes of the state they upheld, the shifting styles of planning and architecture consistently attempted to represent Japanese rule as progressive, beneficent, and modern.
The development of Changchun, in addition to being driven by the railway system, suggested an important period of the Northeast modern architectural culture, reflecting Japanese urban design endeavours and revealing that county's ambition to invade and occupy China. Japanese architecture and culture had been widely applied to Manchukuo to highlight the special status of the Japanese puppet. Urban planning clearly stems from a culture, be it aggressive or creative. Changchun's planning and construction process serves as a good example.
Changchun expanded rapidly as the junction between of the Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railway and the Russian-owned Chinese Eastern Railway, remaining the break of gauge point between the Russian and standard gauges into the 1930s,
Manchukuo and World War II
On 10 March 1932 the capital of Manchukuo, a Japan-controlled puppet state in Manchuria, was established in Changchun. The city was then renamed Hsinking (; Japanese:; literally "New Capital") on 13 March. The Emperor Puyi resided in the Imperial Palace () which is now the Museum of the Manchu State Imperial Palace. During the Manchukuo period, the region experienced harsh suppression, brutal warfare on the civilian population, forced conscription and labor and other Japanese sponsored government brutalities; at the same time a rapid industrialisation and militarisation took place. Hsinking was a well-planned city with broad avenues and modern public works. The city underwent rapid expansion in both its economy and infrastructure. Many of buildings built during the Japanese colonial era still stand today, including those of the Eight Major Bureaus of Manchukuo () as well as the Headquarters of the Japanese Kwantung Army.
Construction of Hsinking
Hsinking was the only Direct-controlled municipality () in Manchukuo after Harbin was incorporated into the jurisdiction of Binjiang Province. In March 1932, the Inspection Division of South Manchuria Railway started to draw up the Metropolitan Plan of Great Hsinking (). The Bureau of capital construction () which was directly under the control of State Council of Manchukuo was established to take complete responsibility of the formulation and the implementation of the plan. Kuniaki Koiso, the Chief of Staff of the Kwantung Army, and Yasuji Okamura, the Vice Chief-of-Staff, finalized the plan of a construction area. The Metropolitan Plan of Great Hsinking was influenced by the renovation plan of Paris in the 19th century, the garden city movement, and theories of American cities' planning and design in the 1920s. The city development plan included extensive tree planting. By 1934 Hsinking was known as the Forest Capital with Jingyuetan Park built, which is now China's largest Plantation and a AAAA-rated recreational area.
In accordance with the Metropolitan Plan of Great Hsinking, the area of publicly shared land (including the Imperial Palace, government offices, roads, parks and athletic grounds) in Hsinking was , whilst the area of residential, commercial and industrial developments was planned to be . However, Hsinking's population exceeded the prediction of 500,000 by 1940. In 1941, the Capital Construction Bureau modified the original plan, which expanded the urban area to . The new plan also focused on the construction of satellite towns around the city with a planning of land per capita. Because the effects of war, the Metropolitan Plan of Great Hsinking remained unfinished. By 1944, the built up urban area of Hsinking reached , while the area used for greening reached . As Hsinking's city orientation was the administrative center and military commanding center, land for military use exceeded the originally planned figure of 9 percent, while only light manufacturing including packing industry, cigarette industry and paper-making had been developed during this period. Japanese force also controlled Hsinking's police system, instead of Manchukuo government. Major officers of Hsinking police were all ethnic Japanese.
The population of Hsinking also experienced rapid growth after being established as the capital of Manchukuo. According to the census in 1934 taken by the police agency, the city's municipal area had 141,712 inhabitants. By 1944 the city's population had risen to 863,607, with 153,614 Japanese settlers. This population amount made Hsinking the third largest metropolitan city in Manchukuo after Mukden and Harbin, as the metropolitan mainly focused on military and political function.
Japanese chemical warfare agents
In 1936, the Japanese established Unit 100 to develop plague biological weapons, although the declared purpose of Unit 100 was to conduct research about diseases originating from animals. During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and World War II the headquarters of Unit 100 ("Wakamatsu Unit") was located in downtown Hsinking, under command of veterinarian Yujiro Wakamatsu. This facility was involved in research of animal vaccines to protect Japanese resources, and, especially, biological-warfare. Diseases were tested for use against Soviet and Chinese horses and other livestock. In addition to these tests, Unit 100 ran a bacteria factory to produce the pathogens needed by other units. Biological sabotage testing was also handled at this facility: everything from poisons to chemical crop destruction.
Siege of Changchun
On 20 August 1945 the city was captured by the Soviet Red Army and renamed Changchun. The Russians maintained a presence in the city during the Chinese civil war until 1946.
Kuomintang forces occupied the city in 1946, but were unable to hold the countryside against communist forces. The city fell to the communists in 1948 after the five-month Siege of Changchun by the People's Liberation Army. Between 10 and 30 percent of the civilian population starved to death under the siege; estimates range from 150,000 to 330,000. the PRC government avoids all mention of the siege.
People's Republic
Renamed Changchun by the People's Republic of China government, it became the capital of Jilin in 1954. The Changchun Film Studio is also one of the remaining film studios of the era. Changchun Film Festival has become a unique gala for film industries since 1992.
From the 1950s, Changchun was designated to become a center for China's automotive industry. Construction of the First Automobile Works (FAW) began in 1953 and production of the Jiefang CA-10 truck, based on the Soviet ZIS-150 started in 1956. Soviet Union lent assistance during these early years, providing technical support, tooling, and production machinery. In 1958, FAW introduced the famous Hongqi (Red Flag) limousines This series of cars are billed as "the official car for minister-level officials".
Changchun hosted the 2007 Winter Asian Games.
Geography
Changchun lies in the middle portion of the Northeast China Plain. Its municipality area is located at latitude 43° 05′−45° 15′ N and longitude 124° 18′−127° 02' E. The total area of Changchun municipality is , including metro areas of , and a city proper area of . The city is situated at a moderate elevation, ranging from within its administrative region. In the eastern portion of the city, there lies a small area of low mountains, with the Laodaodong Mountain, which has an altitude of 711 meters, being the highest. The city is also situated at the crisscross point of the third east–westward "Europe-Asia Continental Bridge". Changchun prefecture is dotted with 222 rivers and lakes. The Yitong River, a small tributary of the Songhua River, runs through the city proper.
Climate
Changchun has a four-season, monsoon-influenced, humid continental climate (Köppen Dwa). Winters are long (lasting from November to March), cold, and windy, but dry, due to the influence of the Siberian anticyclone, with a January mean temperature of . Spring and autumn are somewhat short transitional periods, with some precipitation, but are usually dry and windy. Summers are hot and humid, with a prevailing southeasterly wind due to the East Asian monsoon; July averages . Snow is usually light during the winter, and annual rainfall is heavily concentrated from June to August. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 47 percent in July to 66 percent in January and February, a typical year will see around 2,617 hours of sunshine, and a frost-free period of 140 to 150 days. Extreme temperatures have ranged from to .
Administrative divisions
The sub-provincial city of Changchun has direct jurisdiction over 7 districts, 3 county-level cities and 1 County:
Demographics
According to the Sixth China Census, the total population of the City of Changchun reached 7.677 million in 2010. The statistics in 2011 estimated the total population to be 7.59 million. The birth rate was 6.08 per thousand and the death rate was 5.51 per thousand. The urban area had a population of 3.53 million people. In 2010 the sex ratio of the city population was 102.10 males to 100 females.
Ethnic groups
As in most of Northeastern China the ethnic makeup of Changchun is predominantly Han nationality (96.57 percent), with several other minority nationalities.
Culture
Dialect
The most commonly spoken dialect in Changchun is the Northeastern Mandarin, which is originated from the mix of several languages spoken by immigrants from Hebei and Shandong. Then, after the PRC was established, the rapid economic growth in Changchun attracted a huge amount of immigrants from various places, so the northeastern dialect spoken in urban areas of Changchun is closer to the Mandarin Chinese than the in rural areas because the immigrants had a great impact on the northeastern dialect spoken in urban areas.
Religion
Changchun has five major religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Catholicism, Protestantism (locally called "Christianity"), and Islam. There are 396 government-approved places for religious activities and worship services.
The temples in Changchun include Changchun Wanshou Temple, Baoguo Prajna Temple, Baiguo Xinglong Temple, Pumen Temple, Big Buddha Temple, Changchun Temple, Changchun Catholic Church, Changchun West Wuma Road Christian Church, and Changchun City Mosque.
Shamanism had been circulated in Northeast China during ancient times and was believed by many Manchus. Now the shamanism and the study of it have become an important cultural heritage of the region.
Places of interest
Jilin Provincial Museum, a national first-grade museum, is located in Changchun. The museum was moved to Changchun from Jilin City after the transfer of the provincial government seat. It was originally located in the centre of the old town, but, after nine years of construction, a new building for the museum's collections was completed in 2016 on the city's outskirts in Nanguan District near Jingyuetan Park. Badabu is a group of buildings of the former eight Manchukuo ministries which are Ministry of Public Safety, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Economy, Ministry of Communications, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Culture and Education, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Civil Affairs that has recently become a sightseeing highlight because of their unique combined Chinese, Japanese and Manchurian architecture.
Economy
Changchun achieved a gross domestic product (GDP) of RMB332.9 billion in 2010, representing a rise of 15.3 percent year on year. Primary industry output increased by 3.3 percent to RMB25.27 billion. Secondary industry output experienced an increase of 19.0 percent, reaching RMB171.99 billion, while the tertiary industry output increased 12.6 percent to RMB135.64 billion. The GDP per capita of Changchun was ¥58,691 in 2012, which equates to $9338. The GDP of Changchun in 2012 was RMB445.66 billion and increased 12.0 percent compared with 2011. The primary industry grew 4.3 percent to RMB31.71 billion. Secondary industry increased by RMB229.19 billion, which is a rise of 13.1 percent year on year. Tertiary industry of Changchun in 2012 grew 11.8 percent and increased by RMB184.76 billion.
The city's leading industries are production of automobiles, agricultural product processing, biopharmaceuticals, photo electronics, construction materials, and the energy industry. Changchun is the largest automobile manufacturing, research and development centre in China, producing 9 percent of the country's automobiles in 2009. Changchun is home to China's biggest vehicle producer FAW (First Automotive Works) Group, which manufactured the first Chinese truck in 1956 and car in 1958. The automaker's factories and associated housing and services occupy a substantial portion of the city's southwest end. Specific brands produced in Changchun include the Red Flag luxury brand, as well as joint ventures with Audi, Volkswagen, and Toyota. In 2012, FAW sold 2.65 million units of auto. The sales revenue of FAW amounted to RMB 408.46 billion, representing a rise of 10.8% on year. As cradle of the auto industry, one of Changchun's better known nicknames is "China's Detroit".
Manufacturing of transportation facilities and machinery is also among Changchun's main industries. 50 percent of China's passenger trains, and 10 percent of tractors are produced in Changchun. Changchun Railway Vehicles, one of the main branches of China CNR Corporation, has a joint venture established with Bombardier Transportation to build Movia metro cars for the Guangzhou Metro and Shanghai Metro, and the Tianjin Metro.
Foreign direct investment in the city was US$3.68 billion in 2012, up 19.6% year on year. In 2004 Coca-Cola set up a bottling plant in the city's ETDZ with an investment of US$20 million.
Changchun hosts the yearly Changchun International Automobile Fair, Changchun Film Festival, Changchun Agricultural Fair, Education Exhibition and the Sculpture Exhibition.
CRRC manufactures most of its bullet train carriages at its factory in Changchun. In November 2016, CRCC Changchun unveiled the first bullet train carriages in the world with sleeper berths, thus extending their use for overnight passages across China. They would be capable of running in ultra low temperature environments. Nicknamed Panda, the new bullet trains are capable of running at 250 km/h, operate at −40 degrees Celsius, have Wi-Fi hubs and contain sleeper berths that fold into seats during the day.
Other large companies in Changchun include:
Yatai Group, established in 1993 and listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange in 1995. It has developed into a major conglomerate involved in a wide range of industries including property development, cement manufacturing, securities, coal mining, pharmaceuticals and trading.
Jilin Grain Group, a major processor of grains.
Development zones
Changchun Automotive Economic Trade and Development Zone
Founded in 1993, the Changchun Automotive Trade Center was re-established as the Changchun Automotive Economic Trade and Development Zone in 1996. The development zone is situated in the southwest of the city and is adjacent to the China First Automobile Works Group Corporation and the Changchun Film ThemeCity. It covers a total area of approximately . Within the development zone lies an exhibition center and five specially demarcated industrial centers. The Changchun Automobile Wholesale Center began operations in 1994 and is the largest auto-vehicle and spare parts wholesale center in China. The other centers include a resale center for used auto-vehicles, a specialized center for industrial/commercial vehicles, and a tire wholesale center.
Changchun High Technology Development Zone
The zone is one of the first 27 state-level advanced technology development zones and is situated in the southern part of the city, covering a total area of . There are 18 full-time universities and colleges, 39 state and provincial-level scientific research institutions, and 11 key national laboratories. The zone is mainly focusing on developing five main industries, namely bio-engineering, automobile engineering, new material fabrication, photo-electricity, and information technology.
Changchun Economic and Technological Development Zone
Established in April 1993, the zone enjoys all the preferential policies stipulated for economic and technological development zones of coastal open cities. The total area of CETDZ is , of which has been set aside for development and utilization.
It is located from downtown Changchun, from the freight railway station and from the Changchun international airport. The zone is devoted to developing five leading industries: namely automotive parts and components, photoelectric information, bio-pharmaceutical, fine processing of foods, and new building materials. In particular, high-tech and high value added projects account for over 80 percent of total output. In 2006 the zone's total fixed assets investment rose to RMB38.4 billion. Among the total of 1656 enterprises registered, 179 are foreign-funded. The zone also witnessed a total industrial output of RMB 277 billion in 2007.
Infrastructure
Changchun is a very compact city, planned by the Japanese with a layout of open avenues and public squares. The city is developing its layout in a long-term bid to alleviate pressure on limited land, aid economic development, and absorb a rising population. According to a draft plan up until 2020, the downtown area will expand southwards to form a new city center around Changchun World Sculpture Park, Weixing Square and their outskirts, and the new development zone.
Railways
Changchun has three passenger rail stations, most trains only stop at the central Changchun railway station (), where there are multiple daily departures to other northeast cities such as Jilin City, Harbin, Shenyang, and Dalian, as well as other major cities throughout the country such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. The Harbin–Dalian high-speed railway which runs through three provinces in northeastern China, has a stop in Changchun. The new Changchun West railway station, situated in the western end of urbanized area, is the station for the high-speed trains of the Harbin–Dalian high-speed railway.
Public transport
Changchun Rail Transit is an urban rail transit service of Changchun. Its first line was opened on 30 October 2002, making Changchun the fifth metropolitan city in China to open rail transit.
Till November 2018, there are 5 lines in Changchun, including Line 1, Line 2, Line 3, Line 4, and Line 8. Changchun railway covers about 100.17 kilometers.
Till September 2019, there are 4 lines of Changchun Rail Transit under construction, including Line 6 and Line 9, as well as Line 2 West Extension and Line 3 East Extension. By 2025, the Changchun rail transit line network will consist of 10 lines with a total length of 341.62 kilometers.
In September 2019, the average daily passenger volume of Changchun Rail Transit reached 680,400 person, and the maximum daily passenger volume of its line network was 830,500 person on 13 November 2019. The total estimated passenger volume in 2019 is about 168 million person.
Road network
Changchun is linked to the national highway network through the Beijing – Harbin Expressway (G1), the Ulanhot – Changchun – Jilin – Hunchun Expressway (G12), the Changchun – Shenzhen Expressway (G25), the Changchun – Changbaishan Expressway (S1) and the busiest section in the province, the Changchun–Jilin North Highway. This section connects the two biggest cities in Jilin and is the trunk line for the social and economic communication of the two cities.
Changchun is served by a comprehensive bus system—most buses (and the tram) charge 1 Yuan () per ride. Private automobiles are becoming very common on the city's congested streets. Bicycles are relatively rare compared to other northeastern Chinese cities, but mopeds, as well as pedal are relatively common.
Air
Changchun Longjia International Airport is located north-east of Changchun urban area. The airport's construction began in 1998, and was intended to replace the older Changchun Dafangshen Airport, which was built in 1941. The airport opened for passenger service on 27 August 2005. The operation of the airport is shared by both Changchun and nearby Jilin City. The airport has scheduled flights to major cities including Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Chengdu and 68 other cities. There are also scheduled international flights between Changchun and overseas cities such as Bangkok, Osaka, Khabarovsk,
Singapore, Tokyo and Vladivostok.
Military
Changchun is headquarters of the 16th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army, one of the four group armies that comprise the Northern Theater Command responsible for defending China's northeastern borders with Russia, Mongolia and North Korea.
Education
Universities and colleges
Changchun has 27 regular institutions of full-time tertiary education with a total enrollment of approximate 160,000 students. Jilin University and Northeast Normal University are two key universities in China. Jilin University is also one of the largest universities in China, with more than 60,000 students.
Changchun Normal University
Changchun University
Changchun University of Science and Technology
Changchun University of Chinese Medicine
Jilin College of the Arts
Jilin Huaqiao Foreign Languages Institute, a private college offering bachelor study programs in foreign languages, international trade management and didactics
Jilin University
Jilin University of Finance and Economics
Jilin Agricultural University
Northeast Normal University
Jilin Engineering Normal University
Changchun Institute of Technology
Middle schools
High School Attached to Northeast Normal University
Affiliated Middle School to Jilin University
No.72 Middle School of Changchun
Second experimental school of Jilin Province
No.11 High School of Changchun
Changchun No.6 middle school
Changchun Foreign Languages School
Primary and secondary schools
International schools include:
Changchun American International School
Deutsche Internationale Schule Changchun
St John's College Changchun
Sports and stadiums
As a major Chinese city, Changchun is home to many professional sports teams:
Jilin Northeast Tigers (Basketball), is a competitive team which has long been one of the major clubs fighting in China top-level league, CBA.
Changchun Yatai, who have played home soccer matches at the Development Area Stadium since 2009. In 2007 they won the Chinese Super League.
There are two major multi-purpose stadiums in Changchun, including Changchun City Stadium and Development Area Stadium.
Changchun Wuhuan Gymnasium, the main venue of the 2007 Asian Winter Games.
It has an indoor speed skating arena, Jilin Provincial Speed Skating Rink, as one of five in China.
Jinlin Tseng Tou are a professional ice hockey team based in the city, and compete in the Russian-based Supreme Hockey League. They are one of two Chinese-based teams to enter the league during the 2017–18 season, the other being based in Harbin.
Film
Changchun Film Group Corporation
Changchun Film Festival
Locale of The Farewell
People
, 2010 Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, was born in Japan Imperial-era Hsinking
Liu Xiaobo (), 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner, was born in Changchun
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Changchun smog
Changchun Confucius Temple
:Category:People from Changchun
References
Citations
Sources
Changchun (China)—Britannica Online Encyclopedia
External links
Changchun Government website
Changchun Foreign Affairs Information Portal
Cities in Jilin
Provincial capitals in China
Capitals of former nations
Planned cities in China | [
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250127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Adamski | George Adamski | George Adamski (17 April 1891 – 23 April 1965) was a Polish-American author who became widely known in ufology circles, and to some degree in popular culture, after he displayed numerous photographs in the 1940s and 1950s that he said were of alien spacecraft, claimed to have met with friendly Nordic alien Space Brothers, and claimed to have taken flights with them to the Moon and other planets.
Adamski was the first, and most famous, of several so-called UFO contactees who came to prominence during the 1950s. Adamski called himself a "philosopher, teacher, student and saucer researcher", although most investigators concluded his claims were an elaborate hoax, and that Adamski himself was a charlatan and a con artist.
Adamski authored three books describing his meetings with Nordic aliens and his travels with them aboard their spaceships: Flying Saucers Have Landed (co-written with Desmond Leslie) in 1953, Inside the Space Ships in 1955, and Flying Saucers Farewell in 1961. The first two books were both bestsellers; by 1960 they had sold a combined 200,000 copies. In addition to his contributions to ufology in the United States, Adamski's work became very popular in Japan and helped inspire many depictions of aliens and UFOs in postwar Japanese culture and media.
Early years
Adamski was born in Bromberg in the Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire. He was one of five siblings born to ethnic Polish parents, Józef Adamski (1867–1937) and Franciszka Adamska (1862–1946).
When he was two years old his family emigrated to the United States and settled in New York City. From 1913 to 1916, beginning at the age of 22, he was a soldier in the 13th U.S. Cavalry Regiment (K Troop) fighting at the Mexican border during the Pancho Villa Expedition.
In 1917 he married Mary Shimbersky. She died in 1954; they had no children. Following his marriage Adamski moved west, doing maintenance work in Yellowstone National Park and working in an Oregon flour mill and a California concrete factory. In the 1920s Adamski became interested in the esoteric occultist religion theosophy, and a variant called neo-theosophy. By 1930 "Adamski was a minor figure on the California occult scene", teaching his personal mixture of Christianity and Eastern religions, which he called "Universal Progressive Christianity" and "Universal Law."
In the early 1930s, while living in Southern California, Adamski founded the "Royal Order of Tibet" in Laguna Beach, which held its meetings in the "Temple of Scientific Philosophy". Adamski served as a "philosopher" and teacher at the temple. The "Royal Order of Tibet" was given a government license to make wine for "religious purposes" during Prohibition; Adamski was quoted as saying "I made enough wine for all of Southern California ... I was making a fortune!" However, the end of Prohibition in 1933 also marked the decline of his profitable wine-making business, and Adamski later told two friends that's when he "had to get into this [flying] saucer crap."
In 1940 Adamski, his wife, and some close friends moved to a ranch near California's Palomar Mountain, where they dedicated their time to studying religion, philosophy, and farming. In 1944, with funding from Alice K. Wells, a student of Adamski, they purchased of land at the base of Palomar Mountain, along highway S6, where they built a new home, a campground called Palomar Gardens, and a small diner called Palomar Gardens Cafe.
At the campground and diner Adamski "often gave lectures on Eastern philosophy and religion, sometimes late into the night" to students, admirers, and tourists. He also built a wooden observatory at the campground to house his six-inch telescope, and visitors and tourists to Palomar Mountain often received the false impression that Adamski was an astronomer connected to the famed Palomar Observatory at the top of the mountain. Adamski would correct this inaccurate impression "only when pressed to do so." Though he was usually referred to as "Professor" Adamski by his admirers and followers and he often implied or claimed to possess
various academic degrees, Adamski held no graduate or undergraduate degree from any accredited college or university, and in fact had only a third grade education.
Ufology
On 9 October 1946, during a meteor shower, Adamski and some friends claimed that while they were at the Palomar Gardens campground, they witnessed a large cigar-shaped "mother ship." In early 1947, Adamski took a photograph of what he claimed was the 1946 cigar-shaped "mother ship" crossing in front of the moon over Palomar Gardens. In the summer of 1947, following the first widely publicized UFO sightings in the US, Adamski claimed he had seen 184 UFOs pass over Palomar Gardens one evening.
In 1949 Adamski began giving his first UFO lectures to civic groups and other organizations in Southern California; he requested, and received, fees for the lectures. In these lectures he made "fantastic" claims, such as "that government and science had established the existence of UFOs two years earlier, via radar tracking of 700-foot-long spacecraft on the other side of the Moon." In his lectures Adamski further claimed that "science now knows that all planets [in Earth's solar system] are inhabited" and "photos of Mars taken from the Mount Palomar observatory have proven the canals on Mars are man-made, built by an intelligence far greater than any man's on earth."
However, as one UFO historian has noted, "even in the early 1950s [Adamski's] assertions about surface conditions on, and the habitability of, Venus, Mars, and the other planets of the solar system flew in the face of massive scientific evidence ..."mainstream" ufologists were almost uniformly hostile to Adamski, holding not only that his and similar contact stories were fraudulent, but that the contactees were making serious UFO investigators look ridiculous."
On 29 May 1950, Adamski took a photograph of what he alleged to be six unidentified objects in the sky, which appeared to be flying in formation. This same UFO photograph was depicted in an August 1978 commemorative stamp issued by the island nation of Grenada in order to mark the "Year of UFOs."
Orthon and the Contactees
On 20 November 1952, Adamski and several friends were in the Colorado Desert near the town of Desert Center, California, when they purportedly saw a large submarine-shaped object hovering in the sky. Believing that the ship was looking for him, Adamski is said to have left his friends and to have headed away from the main road. Shortly afterwards, according to Adamski's accounts, a scout ship made of a type of translucent metal landed close to him, and its pilot, a Venusian called Orthon, disembarked and sought him out. Adamski claimed the people with him also saw the Venusian ship, and several of them later stated they could see Adamski meeting someone in the desert, although from a considerable distance.
Adamski described Orthon as being a medium-height humanoid with long blond hair and tanned skin wearing reddish-brown shoes, though, as Adamski added, "his trousers were not like mine." Adamski said Orthon communicated with him via telepathy and through hand signals.
During the conversation Orthon purportedly warned of the dangers of nuclear war, and Adamski later wrote that "the presence of this inhabitant of Venus was like the warm embrace of great love and understanding wisdom." Adamski claimed Orthon had refused to allow himself to be photographed, and instead, had asked Adamski to provide him with a blank photographic plate, which Adamski claimed he had given Orthon. George Hunt Williamson (a contactee and Adamski associate) also claimed that after Orthon left, he was able to take plaster casts of Orthon's shoe imprints. The imprints contained mysterious symbols, which Adamski said was a message from Orthon.
Orthon is said to have returned the photographic plate to Adamski on 13 December 1952; when developed it was found to contain strange new symbols. It was during this meeting that Adamski is said to have taken a now famous photograph of Orthon's Venusian scout ship using his telescope. At the time, skeptics said it looked suspiciously like the top of a "chicken brooder", for warming newly hatched poultry.
Anglo-Irish eccentric Desmond Leslie struck up a correspondence with Adamski. In the mid-1950s Leslie had created a low-budget UFO film entitled Them In The Thing at his home, Castle Leslie. The flying saucer in the film had been created by shining mirrors on to a Spanish Renaissance shield suspended from a fishing line. The film was rediscovered in 2010.
In need of money and keen to create a bestseller, Leslie had written a manuscript about the visitation of Earth by aliens. Its genesis had been Leslie chancing upon a copy of the 1896 book The Story of Atlantis and the Lost Lemuria by William Scott-Elliot in a friend's library.
Adamski sent Leslie a written account of his supposed contact with Orthon, and photos. Leslie combined the two works into the 1953 co-authored book Flying Saucers Have Landed. The book became a bestseller, brought both Adamski and Leslie news media attention, and eventually became "a key text of the New Age movement."
The following year Leslie visited Adamski in California, and claimed to witness several UFOs with him. Leslie described one of them in a letter he sent to his wife while he was in San Diego:
Flying Saucers Have Landed claimed Nordic aliens from Venus and other planets in Earth's solar system routinely visited the Earth. According to the book, Orthon and other aliens were worried that nuclear bomb tests in the Earth's atmosphere would kill all life on Earth, spread radiation into space, and contaminate other planets. Adamski claimed that Nordic aliens worshiped a "Creator of All", but that "we on Earth know very little about this Creator ... our understanding is shallow."
In his 1955 book Inside the Space Ships, Adamski claimed that Orthon arranged for him to be taken on a trip to see the Solar System, including the planet Venus, the location where Orthon said the late Mrs. Adamski had been reincarnated. He claimed that in another voyage he met the 1,000-year-old "elder philosopher of the space people", who was called "the Master". Adamski said he and the Master discussed philosophy, religion, and the "Earth's place in the universe". Adamski said he learned that he had been selected by Nordic aliens to bring their message of peace to Earth people, and that other humans throughout history had also served as their messengers, including Jesus Christ. Adamski further claimed that aliens were peacefully living on Earth, and that he had met with them in bars and restaurants in Southern California.
Adamski's stories led other people to come forward with their own claims of contact and interplanetary travels with friendly "Space Brothers", including such figures as Howard Menger, Daniel Fry, George Van Tassel, and Truman Bethurum. The message of Adamski and his fellow contactees was one in which the other planets of Earth's solar system were all "inhabited by physically handsome, spiritually evolved beings who have moved beyond the problems of Earth people ... the reader of Inside the Space Ships enters a perfect world, the kind we can create here on Earth if we behave ourselves." Through books, lectures, and conventions - particularly the annual Giant Rock UFO convention near Landers, California - the contactee movement would grow throughout the 1950s. However, Adamski would remain the most prominent, and most influential, of the contactees.
Adamski's claims of traveling aboard a UFO inspired an elaborate hoax perpetrated by British astronomer Patrick Moore and his friend Peter Davies using the false identity Cedric Allingham.
Straith Letter Hoax
In 1957 Adamski received a letter signed "R.E. Straith," alleged representative of the "Cultural Exchange Committee" of the U.S. State Department. The letter said the U.S. Government knew that Adamski had spoken to extraterrestrials in a California desert in 1952, and that a group of highly placed government officials planned on public corroboration of Adamski's story. Adamski was proud of this endorsement and exhibited it to support his claims.
However, in 1985 ufologist James W. Moseley revealed that the letter was a hoax. Moseley said he and his friend Gray Barker had obtained some official State Department letterheads, created the R.E. Straith persona, and then written the letter to Adamski as a prank. According to Moseley, the FBI investigated the case and discovered that the letter was a hoax, but charges were not filed against Moseley or Barker.
Moseley also wrote that the FBI informed Adamski that the Straith letter was a hoax and asked him to stop using it as evidence in support of his claims, but that Adamski refused and continued to display the letter in his lectures and talks. This was not the first time Adamski had claimed government support for his UFO stories. In 1953 he told a meeting of the Corona, California Lions Club that his "material has all been cleared with the Federal Bureau of Investigation and Air Force Intelligence."
When the FBI learned of Adamski's claims, three agents were sent to talk to Adamski. He denied having stated that the FBI or USAF intelligence supported his claims (even though his remarks were reported in a local newspaper, the Riverside Enterprise), and he agreed to sign a letter stating that "he understood the implications of making false claims" and that the FBI "did not endorse [the claims] of individuals." The three FBI agents also signed the letter, and a copy was given to Adamski.
However, a few months later Adamski told an interviewer that he had been "cleared" by the FBI, and displayed the letter as proof. When the Los Angeles Better Business Bureau complained, more FBI agents were sent to retrieve Adamski's copy of the letter, "read the riot act to him, and warn him that legal action would be taken if he continued" to claim FBI or government support for his stories. Adamski later said the FBI had "warned [him] to keep quiet."
Meeting with Queen Juliana of the Netherlands
In May 1959, the head of the Dutch Unidentified Flying Objects Society told Adamski she had been contacted by officials at the palace of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands who advised "that the Queen would like to receive you."
Adamski informed a London newspaper about the invitation, which prompted the court and cabinet to request that the queen cancel her private audience with Adamski, but the queen went ahead with the audience, saying, "A hostess cannot slam the door in the face of her guests." After the audience, Dutch Aeronautical Association president Cornelis Kolff said "The Queen showed an extraordinary interest in the whole subject."
The Royal Netherlands Air Force Chief of Staff, Lieutenant General Haye Schaper said "The man's a pathological case." Time magazine reported that the Amsterdam newspaper de Volkskrant said: "Once again, Queen Juliana's weakness for the preternatural had landed her back in the headlines: she had invited to the palace a crackpot from California who numbered among his friends men from Mars, Venus and other solar-system suburbs."
Wire services such as United Press International and Reuters circulated reports of the meeting to newspapers around the world.
Later life
In 1962 Adamski announced that he would be attending an interplanetary conference held on the planet Saturn. In 1963 Adamski claimed that he had been granted a secret audience with Pope John XXIII and that he had received a "Golden Medal of Honor" from the pope. However, skeptics noted that the medal was actually a common tourist souvenir made by a company in Milan, Italy, and that Adamski displayed it to his friends in a cheap plastic box - which is how it was sold in tourist shops in Rome. Adamski said he met with the Pope at the request of the extraterrestrials he was allegedly in contact with, in order to request a "final agreement" from the Pope because of his decision not to communicate directly with any extraterrestrials, and also to offer him a liquid substance in order to save him from the gastric enteritis that he suffered from, which would later become acute peritonitis.
Death
On 23 April 1965, aged 74, Adamski died of a heart attack at a friend's home in Silver Spring, Maryland, after giving a UFO lecture in Washington, DC. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
Investigations and criticism
Over the decades, numerous critics and skeptics have investigated Adamski's claims. The aliens Adamski claimed to have met in the 1950s were described by him as "human beings from another world", usually light-skinned, light-haired humanoids that would later be called Nordic aliens. Adamski claimed in his books that these "alien humans" came from Venus, Mars, and other planets in Earth's solar system. However, none of the planets he mentioned are capable of supporting human life, due to their adverse environmental conditions. The first alien Adamski claimed to have met was from Venus, yet the atmospheric pressure on that planet's surface is 92 times greater than that of Earth, and it has clouds which rain a toxic substance thought to be sulfuric acid; the atmosphere consists almost entirely of carbon dioxide, with very little oxygen, and the average surface temperature of Venus is 464 °C. In one of his books, Adamski described a trip he took to the far side of the Moon in a flying saucer, where he claimed to have seen cities, trees, and snow-capped mountains; he also claimed that the first photographs of the Moon's far side that were taken by the Soviet lunar probe Luna 3 in 1959, were altered to depict a barren, lifeless surface to hide what he saw. However, all scientific evidence, as well as later lunar trips by American astronauts, clearly showed that the entire surface of the Moon is barren of life and has no atmosphere.
In his writings, Adamski claimed he travelled to Venus, Mars, and other planets in Earth's solar system, and clearly stated that they were all capable of supporting humanoid life. As UFO historian Jerome Clark noted, "some Adamski partisans insisted that Venus, Mars, Saturn, and the rest were merely code words for planets in other solar systems; there is, however, nothing in Adamski's public writings to support this interpretation and considerable testimony to the contrary."
Adamski's 1955 book Inside the Space Ships, which describes his claimed travels through Earth's solar system in a UFO, is considered by some critics to be a "remake" of his 1949 science fiction novel, ghostwritten for Adamski by Lucy McGinnis, and entitled Pioneers of Space. It described a fictional voyage through the solar system that, critics noted, sounded very similar to the space travels described by Adamski in Inside the Space Ships.
Adamski photographs and Moseley investigation
Adamski's photographs of objects he claimed were UFOs he had observed and traveled in, have also come under scrutiny. His frequently published photograph from 1952, depicts an object which has been variously identified as the top of a chicken brooder or a streetlight. Adamski claimed that movie director Cecil B. DeMille's top trick photographer, J. Peverell Marley, had examined his UFO photos and found a "spaceman" in them, and Marley himself declared that if Adamski's pictures were fakes, they were the best he had ever seen. In the United Kingdom, 14 experts from the J. Arthur Rank company concluded that the object photographed was either real or a full-scale model.
However, in his 1955 investigation into Adamski's claims, James W. Moseley interviewed Marley, who stated that he had never enlarged the photos for analysis nor found a "spaceman" in them, and did not know of anyone who had. Moseley also interviewed German rocket scientist Walther Johannes Riedel, who told him that he had analyzed Adamski's UFO photos and found them to be fakes. Riedel told Moseley that the UFO's "landing struts" were actually 100-watt General Electric light bulbs, and that he had seen the round "GE" logo printed on them. In 2012, UFO researcher Joel Carpenter identified the reflector-shade of a widely available 1930s pressurised-gas lantern as an identical visual match to the main portion of Adamski's saucer.
In his 1955 investigation, Moseley found other flaws in Adamski's story. He interviewed several of the people that Adamski claimed had been with him in his initial 20 November 1952 meeting with Orthon, and found that these witnesses contradicted Adamski's claims. One, Al Bailey, denied to Moseley that he had seen a UFO in the desert or the alien Adamski described. Jerrold Baker, who had worked at Palomar Gardens with Adamski, told Moseley that he had overheard "a tape-recorded account of what was to transpire on the desert, who was to go, etc." several days before Adamski's claimed 20 November meeting with Orthon, and Baker stated that Adamski's meeting with Orthon was a "planned operation." Baker added that Adamski had tried to convince him not to expose their hoax by telling him that he could make money by charging fees to give UFO lectures, as Adamski was doing: "Now you know the [UFO] picture connected to your name is in the book (Flying Saucers Have Landed) too. And with people knowing that you are connected with flying saucers ... you could do yourself a lot of good. You could give lectures in the evenings. There is a demand for this! You could support yourself by the picture in the book with your name."
Moseley discovered that George Hunt Williamson, another prominent contactee and friend of Adamski, did not witness any UFO nor Adamski's encounter with Orthon, despite his public statements claiming otherwise. When Irma Baker, Jerrold Baker's wife, accused him of lying about the incident, Williamson told her cryptically that "sometimes to gain admittance, one has to go around the back door." In his report on Adamski, Moseley wrote "I do believe most definitely that Adamski's narrative contains enough flaws to place in very serious doubt both his veracity and his sincerity. The reader will be moved to make for himself a careful re-evaluation of the worth of Adamski's book."
Air Force investigation
During the early-to-mid 1950s USAF Captain Edward J. Ruppelt was the head of Project Blue Book, the Air Force group assigned to investigate UFO reports. In 1953 Captain Ruppelt decided to investigate Adamski's UFO claims. He traveled to California's Palomar Mountain and, dressed in civilian attire to avoid attracting attention, attended one of Adamski's lectures before a large crowd at his Palomar Gardens Cafe.
Ruppelt concluded that Adamski was a talented con artist whose UFO stories were designed to make money from his gullible followers and listeners, and he compared Adamski to the famed hoaxer, carnival, and circus showman PT Barnum. In describing Adamski's speaking style, Ruppelt wrote "to look at the man and listen to his story you had an immediate urge to believe him ... he was dressed in well-worn, but neat, overalls. He had slightly graying hair and the most honest pair of eyes I've ever seen. He spoke softly and naively, almost pathetically, giving the impression that 'most people think I'm crazy, but honestly, I'm really not.'" According to Ruppelt, Adamski had a persuasive effect on his audience, "you could actually have heard the proverbial pin drop" in the cafe as Adamski told of his initial 1952 meeting with Orthon. When Adamski finished his story, Ruppelt noted that many of his listeners purchased copies of Adamski's UFO photos that were on sale in the cafe. At another lecture led by Adamski and other well-known contactees, Ruppelt wrote that "people shelled out hard cash to hear Adamski's story."
Ruppelt believed "the common undertone to many of these [contactee] stories ... is Utopia. On these other worlds there is no illness, they've learned how to cure all diseases. There are no wars, they've learned how to live peaceably. There is no poverty, everyone has everything he wants. There is no old age, they have learned the secret of eternal life ... Too many times this subtle pitch can be boiled down to, "Step right up folks and put a donation in the pot. I'm just on the verge of learning the spaceman's secrets and with a little money to carry out my work I'll give you the secret."
According to Ruppelt, by 1960 Adamski's UFO lectures, and in particular his first two books, had made him a wealthy man: "[His] hamburger stand is boarded up and he now lives in a big ranch house. He vacations in Mexico and has his own clerical staff. His two books Flying Saucers Have Landed and Inside the Space Ships have sold ... 200,000 copies and have been translated into every language except Russian." Ruppelt humorously noted that by 1960 two "beautiful spacewomen" who claimed to be Nordic aliens were dating Adamski, a blonde from Saturn called "Kalna" and another woman named "Ilmuth".
In popular culture
Science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke referred to ufologists as suffering from Adamski's disease in his novel 3001: The Final Odyssey.
Adamski appears briefly in issue 4 of The Bulletproof Coffin - Disinterred by David Hine and Shaky Kane.
Musician Adamski, real name Adam Tinley, adopted the UFO enthusiast's surname as his stagename.
In the role playing game Hunter: The Vigil, Task Force VALKYRIE includes a subgroup called Operation ADAMSKI, dedicated to producing and distributing misinformation about aliens and other "extra-normal entities" in order to hide the existence of such beings.
In Kirby's Adventure, the player character is able to assume a form resembling an Adamski UFO.
In Mega Man 9, there is a small UFO-based enemy named Adamski.
In the game Disgaea in the optional "Prinny Commentary Mode" the commentator makes reference to Adamski UFOs.
In the Transformers toy line, the Transformer Cosmos (Transformers) transforms into an Adamski-style Haunebu saucer and spoke with an Austrian accent. The Japanese toy even uses "Adams" as its name.
In a tower defense game, The Battle Cats, an alien themed level in Area 22 is called "Adamski Type".
Adamski is mentioned in Scooter's song "U.F.O. Phenomena" from album The Ultimate Aural Orgasm.
A stand-in for Georg Adamski named Charles Kandinski appears in J.G. Ballard's 1963 short story The Venus Hunters, which describes transference of cultish beliefs.
Books
Other publications
See also
Extraterrestrial life
Nordic aliens
UFOs
Notes
References
Jerome Clark. The UFO Encyclopedia: The Phenomenon from the Beginning. Detroit: Omnigraphics. 1998.
Curtis Peebles. Watch the Skies: A Chronicle of the Flying Saucer Myth. New York: Berkley Books. 1995.
Zirger, Michel. The Incredible Life of George Hunt Williamson: Mystical Journey. (co-author, Maurizio Martinelli) Verdechiaro Edizioni, 2016, 400 pages.
Further reading
External links
The George Adamski Case (Adamski materials, research, and primary sources freely available online (2019)
Flying Saucers Have Landed, by Desmond Leslie & George Adamski (1953) full text online (pdf)
Inside the Spaceships, by George Adamski (1955)
1891 births
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People from Laguna Beach, California
People from San Diego County, California
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Ufologists
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American male non-fiction writers | [
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250129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanzhou | Lanzhou | Lanzhou (, ; ; Postal romanisation: Lan-chou/Lan Chow) is the capital and largest city of Gansu Province in Northwest China. Located on the banks of the Yellow River, it is a key regional transportation hub, connecting areas further west by rail to the eastern half of the country. Historically, it has been a major link on the Northern Silk Road and it stands to become a major hub on the New Eurasian Land Bridge. The city is also a center for heavy industry and petrochemical industry.
Lanzhou is one of the top 100 major cities in the world by scientific research output as tracked by the Nature Index. The city hosts several research institutions, including, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou University of Technology, Northwest Normal University and Lanzhou Jiaotong University. Notably, Lanzhou University is one of China's prestige universities as a member of the Project 985.
As of 31 December 2019, Lanzhou was home to 3,790,900 inhabitants of which 3,072,100 in the urban area. In the 2020 Census, Lanzhou surpassed 4 million population for the first time, with a total population of 4,359,446.
History
Originally in the territory of the Western Qiang peoples, Lanzhou became part of the territory of the State of Qin in the 6th century BC.
In 81 BC, under the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220), it was taken from the Huns' Huandi Chanyu and made the seat of Jincheng commandery (jùn), and later of the Jincheng (Golden City) county (xiàn), later renamed Yunwu. From at least the first millennium BC it was a major link on the ancient Northern Silk Road, and also an important historic Yellow River crossing site. To protect the city, the Great Wall of China was extended as far as Yumen. Parts of the Great Wall still exist within the built-up area.
After the fall of the Han dynasty, Lanzhou became the capital of a succession of tribal states. In the 4th century it was briefly the capital of the independent state of Liang. The Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) reestablished Jincheng commandery, renaming the county Jincheng (金城 'Gold city'). Mixed with different cultural heritages, the area at present-day Gansu province, from the 5th to the 11th century, became a center for Buddhist study. Under the Sui Dynasty (581–618) the city became the seat of Lanzhou prefecture for the first time, retaining this name under the Tang dynasty (618–907). In 763 the area was overrun by the Tibetan Empire and in 843 was conquered by the Tang. Later it fell into the hands of the Western Xia dynasty (which flourished in Qinghai from the 11th to 13th century) and was subsequently absorbed by the Song dynasty (960–1126) in 1081. The name Lanzhou was reestablished, and the county renamed Lanzhuan.
After 1127 it fell into the hands of the Jin dynasty, and after 1235 it came into the possession of the Mongol Empire.
Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) the prefecture was demoted to a county and placed under the administration of Lintao superior prefecture, but in 1477 Lanzhou was reestablished as a political unit.
The city acquired its current name in 1656, during the Qing dynasty. When Gansu was made a separate province in 1666, Lanzhou became its capital.
In 1739 the seat of Lintao was transferred to Lanzhou, which was later made a superior prefecture called Lanzhou.
Lanzhou was badly damaged during the Dungan revolt in 1864–1875. In the 1920s and 1930s it became a center of Soviet influence in northwestern China.
Second Sino-Japanese War-World War II
During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) Lanzhou, linked with Xi'an by highway in 1935, became the terminus of the Chinese–Soviet highway, used as a route for Soviet supplies destined for the Xi'an area. This highway remained the primary traffic route of northwestern China until the completion of the railway from Lanzhou to Ürümqi, Xinjiang.
The Battle of Lanzhou
Lanzhou's old Donggang Airport, located near the city centre, was the primary entry point for combat aircraft provided to China under the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, and along with other targets around Lanzhou, including civilian centers, were heavily bombed by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force and Navy Air Force. Many air battles were fought between the Chinese Air Force and the Imperial Japanese air forces over Lanzhou and surrounding regions from 1937 to 1945, particularly from 1938 to 1941 when the influx of Soviet war materials formed the primary support in China's War of Resistance against the Imperial Japanese invasion. Instances of major air-battles include an IJAAF raid consisting of 30 BR.20 and Ki-21 bombers against civilian targets in Lanzhou on 20 February 1939; 17th PS, 5th PG commander Capt. Cen Zeliu and his deputy commander Capt. Ma Guolian (Ma Kwok-Lim), a Canadian-Chinese volunteer for the Chinese Air Force, shot down the first two bombers in the battle, followed by two more downed as Capt. Cen led another attack on the third formation. They would be joined by pilots of the Soviet Volunteer Group led by Nikolay Garilov and the 15th PS led by Li Debiao, whom would all shoot down five more of the Japanese bombers; the northern Chinese air-raid early-warning net headquarters in Xi'an observed 21 of the original 30 IJAAF bombers returning from Lanzhou.
As the Imperial Japanese forces were preparing for Operation Z against the United States and other allies in Southeast Asia and the Pacific by mid-1941, the IJANF were busy training new aircrews in live combat action across China for the upcoming war in the Pacific; on 22 May 1941, Lt. Gao Youxin of the 21st PS, 4th PG engaged an IJNAF raid on Lanzhou in an I-16 fighter aircraft, while avoiding confrontation against the Zero fighters, he shot down a Mitsubishi G3M bomber north of Lanzhou. On the ground, the KMT Muslim Generals Ma Hongkui and Ma Bufang protected Lanzhou with their cavalry troops, putting up such resistance that the Japanese never captured Lanzhou.
The city is the seat of a currently vacant Roman Catholic diocese and was previously the center of a vicariate apostolic (Vicariate Apostolic of Northern Kan-Su).
Geography
Area:
Elevation: above sea level
China's northwest geographical center
More than of urbanisation along the southern banks of the Yellow River.
Zonary basin
Mountains are located on the south and north sides of the city:
Qilian Ranges, Mt. Pingliang and Mt. Kongtong (the most noted in Taoism)
River:
The Yellow River flows through from west to east.
Lanzhou is situated on the upper reaches of the Yellow River where it emerges from the mountains and has been a center since early times, being at the southern end of the route leading via the Hexi Corridor across Central Asia. It commands the approaches to the ancient capital area of Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in Shaanxi province from both the west and the northwest, as well as the area of Qinghai Lake via the upper waters of the Yellow River and its tributaries.
Climate
Lanzhou is situated in the temperate zone and enjoys a semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk) with hot summers and cold and very dry winters. In the urban core, based on 1971–2000 normals, the monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in July. The mean annual temperature is , while annual rainfall is , almost all of which falls from May to October. The winters are so dry that snowfall is sometimes restricted to fall and spring. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50 percent in December to 59 percent in February, sunshine is generous but not abundant, as the city receives 2,424 hours of bright sunshine annually.
Environmental problems
The city is located in a narrow and curved river valley with surrounding mountains causing it to be hemmed in blocking a free flow of air. According to the National Environmental Analysis released by Tsinghua University and The Asian Development Bank in January 2013, Lanzhou was among the ten most air-polluted cities in the world. Air quality reportedly was so poor that at times one could not see Lanshan, the mountain rising up along the south side of the city. Lanzhou is also the home of many factories, including some involved in petroleum processing, and suffers from large dust storms kicked up from the Gobi Desert, especially in the winter and spring. In 2011, using Chinese statistics, the World Health Organization reported that Lanzhou had the worst air quality among eleven western Chinese cities. Its annual mean PM10 μg/m3 of 150 is 7 times the safe level established by the World Health Organization. It was worse than Beijing with its reading of 121.
Since then, authorities have taken measures to improve air quality, which have largely been successful. "Thirteen polluting enterprises with excessive capacity have been closed, more than 200 highly polluting enterprises were suspended in winter, and 78 industrial enterprises have moved to an industrial park outside the city." In 2015 it was awarded China's climate progress title. As a city once unable to be spotted from satellites, Lanzhou has taken various measures to combat air pollution in recent years, having reduced its Air Pollution Index at the fastest speed across China. According to the 2018 WHO database, of 2700 towns listed, Lanzhou has the 158th highest level of PM 2.5 pollution, with an average of 54 micrograms per cubic meter (twice that of Milan). The large particle PM10 remains high, at 132 micrograms per cubic meter, in part as a result of sand storms.
The reach of the Yellow River at Lanzhou carries a high load of silt, giving the river its characteristic muddy appearance; however water quality in this reach is better than the "fetid outflow that barely passes for water two hours downstream" (2008). In recent years, several specimens of the endangered Chinese giant salamander have been found in and near the Yellow River in Lanzhou.
On April 11, 2014 Lanzhou officials advised residents not to drink tap water, because benzene levels were 20 times the national limit of 10 micrograms per liter. The city water supply suspected industrial chemical production to be the culprit, similar to what happened in the 2005 Jilin chemical plant explosions.
A brucellosis outbreak infecting humans took place in Lanzhou in 2020 after the Lanzhou Biopharmaceutical Plant involved in vaccine production accidentally pumped out the bacteria into the atmosphere in exhaust air, due to use of expired desinfectant, and affecting over 3,000 people.
Earthquakes
Lanzhou experiences earthquakes regularly, although usually at low intensities. In 1920 a large earthquake was experienced killing more than 100,000 people in Ningxia and Eastern Gansu province, although only 42 were killed in Lanzhou itself, the low number being attributed to the strong yet flexible nature of the wooden buildings in the city.
Demographics
In the 2020 Census, Lanzhou surpassed 4 million population for the first time, with a total population of 4,359,446. This marked a significant growth after a period of slower growth. The strong growth has been attributed to parents seeking better education opportunities for their children, retired migrant workers returning to Gansu, improved services in the city and government policies.
Sport
The 14,000-capacity Northwest Minzu University Stadium is one of the main sports venues in the city. It is mostly used for football games. A new sports center complex, including a stadium with a capacity of 60,000 spectators and a swimming hall, is under development.
Lanzhou previously had a professional soccer team named Gansu Tianma from 1999 to 2003. The team played in Chinese Football Association Yi League from 1999 to 2001 and bought a position in the Jia League from Tianjin Lifei. The team relocated to Ningbo, Zhejiang and changed their name to Ningbo Yaoma in 2003. The team later relegated to China League Two in 2004 and became Dongguan Dongcheng after moving to Dongguan, Guangdong.
Former England international Paul Gascoigne played four games in both a playing and coaching role for Gansu in 2003, scoring two goals, before returning to England after falling out with the club, as his mental state meant that he had to return to America for treatment against drink and depression.
Administrative divisions
On August 20, 2012, Lanzhou New Area was approved by the State Council of China's Central Government. In 2019, Lanzhou New Area was formally established as an county-level division of Lanzhou, its area being split off from Yongdeng and Gaolan. The updated area and population of Yongdeng and Gaolan are not yet reflected in the table.
Tourism
The Five Spring Mountain Park () was built at the northern side of Gaolan Mountain, is famous for its five springs and several Buddhist temples.
The Zhongshan Bridge () was the first permanent bridge over the Yellow River.
Baita Mountain Park () was built close to the mountains at an elevation of and opened in 1958 across Zhongshan Bridge.
The Lanzhou Botanical Garden (), located in the Anning District, has a large variety of trees, flowers and other plants.
Xiguan Mosque (), is one of the larger mosques in China.
On Wuquan Mountain (), many ancient architectural sites are located.
Xinglong Mountain (), is covered with thick pine forests and scattered with colorful temples.
Lutusi ancient government (), a large complex of ancient governmental buildings.
Museums
Gansu Provincial Museum (), displays archaeological and fossil finds from Gansu and exhibitions on Gansu's history.
Lanzhou Museum (), is an important cultural unit on the Silk Road. As of October 2017, the collection contains more than 13,000 pieces of collections, including pottery, porcelain, bronze, calligraphy, coins, jade, stoneware, etc. There are 52 national first-class cultural relics, 78 national second-level cultural relics and 682 national third-level cultural relics.
Gansu Art Museum (), Providing a broad display and external communication platform for artists.
Lanzhou City Planning Exhibition Hall (), showing the profound Yellow River culture of Lanzhou and integrating indoor exhibition, architectural concept and urban characteristics.
Lanzhou Painted Pottery Museum (), The total number of collections is 250, including 50 precious cultural relics, it displays the painted pottery civilization represented by the cultural pottery of Majiayao.
Gansu Science and Technology Museum () sound, light, electricity and other high-tech means will be fully adopted, and the way of teaching and learning will enable visitors to embrace modern science in a pleasant atmosphere.
Economy
Since 1949 Lanzhou has been transformed from the capital of a poverty-stricken province into the center of a major industrial area. It was one of the first cities in China to industrialize, as a focus of the First and Second Five-Year Plans.
The GDP per capita of Lanzhou was 25,566 (RMB) (US$3,681) in 2008, ranking it at number 134 among 659 Chinese cities. In 2015, the GDP per capita had grown to 57,191 RMB (US$9182.28) and the city ranked at place 100 for total GDP of Chinese cities.
Institutions
The International Solar Energy Center (UNIDO-ISEC) is located in Lanzhou's Chengguan district.
Natural resources
Minerals: coal, gold, silver, zinc, nickel, manganese, clay, and dolomite
Hydropower
There is a thermal generating plant supplied with coal from fields in Qinghai. In addition, there is a hydroelectric station at Zhulama Gorge in Gansu, and a large multipurpose dam has been built in the Liujia Gorge on the Yellow River above Lanzhou.
Industry
Main industries include textile mills, rubber processing and fertilizer plants, an oil refinery, petrochemicals, machinery, and metallurgical industry.
Gansu has one of the largest oil refineries in the country and Lanzhou itself is the center of the province's petrochemical industry. The refinery is linked to the fields at Yumen by pipeline. It also manufactures equipment for the oil industry.
Lanzhou has a large textile industry, particularly noted for the production of woolen and leather goods. In addition, Lanzhou produces locomotives and rolling stock for the northwestern railways, as well as machine tools and mining equipment. Aluminum products, industrial chemicals, and fertilizers are produced on a large scale, and there is a large rubber industry. Copper is mined in nearby Gaolan.
Lanzhou has been one of the centers of China's national nuclear power industry since the 1960s.
Agriculture
Lanzhou is the collecting center and market for agricultural produce and livestock from a wide area.
Spring wheat, vegetables, beans, oil-boiling, melon, peaches, and tobacco
Roses and lilies
Transportation
Airport
Lanzhou Zhongchuan Airport is the main airport serving Lanzhou, it is located north of Lanzhou. It opened for public service in 1970.
The airport offers direct connections to over 70 international and domestic destinations.
Railway
Subway
Lanzhou was the second city in northwest China to announce the construction of a subway line, in August 2012. The urban railway network, Lanzhou Metro, is planned to consist of six subway lines running . The first line, which is completely underground, opened in June 2019.
Regional
Lanzhou Railway Station is a major railway hub of western China. Every day over 100 passenger trains originate or pass via this station. It is a vital focal point connecting the western provinces with the east. Lanzhou Railway Station is located on Huochezhan Dong Lu, in Chengguan district. Lanzhou West Railway Station is the city's second major railway station, offering connection to high-speed rail services.
Lanzhou Railway Station has the following railway connections:
Longhai Railway to the east (Xi'an, Zhengzhou, Lianyungang), with connection to the main railway of eastern China supporting direct trains to Beijing, Shanghai, etc. Finished in 1953, it was the first railway to reach Lanzhou.
Lanxin Railway to the west and northwest (with direct trains to western Gansu and Ürümqi, and further connections to other points in Xinjiang and to Kazakhstan)
Lanqing Railway to the west and southwest, with direct service to Xining and Lhasa
Chongqing–Lanzhou railway to southeast, with direct service to Chongqing and Guangyuan
A line to the north and northeast, with direct service to Yinchuan and Baotou
Lanzhou–Zhongchuan Airport Intercity Railway between Lanzhou Railway Station and Lanzhou Zhongchuan International Airport.
Lanhe Railway (under construction) to Linxia and Hezuo.
High speed rail
New high-speed passenger-only railways are completed both toward the east (the Xuzhou–Lanzhou high-speed railway) and the west (the Lanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway). These services only stop at Lanzhou West Railway Station. The Yinchuan–Lanzhou high-speed railway and Chengdu–Lanzhou high-speed railway are under construction.
Freight rail
Lanzhou forms an important link in one of the routes of the Eurasian Land Bridge and also provides rail access to Qinghai, Xinjiang and Tibet further to the west. A large rail freight terminal has recently been constructed to accommodate increasing volumes of rail freight and Lanzhou is home to China's fourth largest marshalling yard.
Regular freight services connect Lanzhou to destinations including Chongqing, Hamburg, Almaty and Kathmandu.
Road network
In 2016, Lanzhou was ranked 4th of Chinese cities with the worst rush hour traffic jams. However by 2017, after completion of an urban ring road, it dropped to 33rd place.
Highways
G75 Lanzhou–Haikou Expressway
G30 Lianyungang–Khorgas Expressway
G6 Beijing–Lhasa Expressway
G22 Qingdao–Lanzhou Expressway
G2201 Lanzhou Ring Expressway
China National Highway 212
China National Highway 213
China National Highway 312
Bus services
For long distance buses, there are three major bus stations in the urban area, West Bus Station in Xiaoxihu neighbourhood, East Bus Station near Lanzhou Station and South Bus Station near G75 Lanzhou–Haikou Expressway terminus. Furthermore, there are a total of 132 local city bus lines. These have their main node station at Xiguan.
Lanzhou has a noted bus rapid transit system which opened in 2013 and won the city an honorable mention at the 2014 Sustainable Transport Awards.
Media
Gansu People's Press, in Lanzhou, publishes Duzhe, the most widely circulated magazine in China.
Lanzhou Radio serves the Lhasa and Lanzhou province regions with news and music.
Gansu Daily, newspaper for Gansu Province, has its editorial offices in Lanzhou.
Culture
The city is the cultural centre of Gansu. It is home to many different ethnic groups and their respective cultures, but the most prominent three groups are the Han, Hui, and Zang.
Chinese opera: Qinqiang Opera
Cuisine: Lanzhou beef lamian noodles, many other types of noodles, the root of the lily, and many different kinds of mutton are important elements of Lanzhou's distinct food culture. Lanzhou Beef noodles are well known throughout China. The city of Lanzhou is home to over 1,000 beef noodle restaurants.
Islam in China: Xiguan Mosque, the mosque was constructed in the Ming dynasty and rebuilt in 1990. It occupies an area of and is one of the most influential mosques in China. The architecture of the mosque predominantly reflects that of Arab architecture.
Colleges and universities
The city is the seat of Lanzhou University, founded in 1909. The National Minorities Institute at Lanzhou and a branch of the Chinese Academy of Sciences are also located in the city. In particular, Northwest Normal University has been the key university at the provincial level, which has prepared over 100,000 teachers in schools across the province Gansu.
List
Note: Institutions without full-time bachelor's degree programs are not listed.
National level
Lanzhou University, founded 1909
Other public institutions
Eastern Gansu University
Gansu Agricultural University (), founded 1958
Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (), Formerly known as Gansu College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, it has contributed to Gansu's medical and health undertakings and social development.
College of Politics and Law, Gansu (), Based in Gansu, radiating to the northwest, facing the country, actively serving local social development and establishment of the legal system.
Lanzhou University of Arts and Science (), Composed by the merger of Gansu Institute of Education and Gansu Union University in 2013.
College of Technology, Lanzhou ()
Lanzhou City College (), founded 1958
Lanzhou University of Finance and Economics (), The only financial and economic university in the three provinces of Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai.
Lanzhou Jiaotong University (), founded 1958
Lanzhou Medical College () (Lanzhou Medical Institute) incorporated into Lanzhou University
Lanzhou Niuroumian (Noodle with beef soup) Cultural Research Institute ()
Lanzhou University of Technology, (), founded 1919 (formerly Gansu University of Technology)
Northwest University for Nationalities ()
Northwest Normal University (), founded 1902
Healthcare
People's Hospital of Gansu
Second People's Hospital of Gansu (see Borden Memorial Hospital, predecessor)
Third People's Hospital of Gansu
First People's Hospital of Lanzhou
Second People's Hospital of Lanzhou
Lanzhou University First Hospital
Lanzhou University Second Hospital
General Military Hospital
Lanzhou Military Hospital
Lanzhou Heavy Ion Cancer Treatment Center, joint venture by Sheng De Group, the city government and Chinese Academy of Sciences' Institution of Modern Physics
Gansu Tumor Hospital
Sister cities
Albuquerque,
Akita, (friendship city)
Ashkhabad,
Chorley,
Penza,
Nouakchott,
Young Shire,
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Dunhuang
Lanzhousaurus
References
Bibliography
Cheung, Raymond. OSPREY AIRCRAFT OF THE ACES 126: Aces of the Republic of China Air Force. Oxford: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2015. .
徐 (Xú), 露梅 (Lùméi). 隕落 (Fallen): 682位空军英烈的生死档案 - 抗战空军英烈档案大解密 (A Decryption of 682 Air Force Heroes of The War of Resistance-WWII and Their Martyrdom). 东城区, 北京， 中国: 团结出版社, 2016. .
External links
Lanzhou government website
Map of Lanzhou
Populated places along the Silk Road
Cities in Gansu
Prefecture-level divisions of Gansu
Provincial capitals in China | [
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250130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationing | Rationing | Rationing is the controlled distribution of scarce resources, goods, services, or an artificial restriction of demand. Rationing controls the size of the ration, which is one's allowed portion of the resources being distributed on a particular day or at a particular time. There are many forms of rationing, although rationing by price is most prevalent.
Rationing is often done to keep price below the market-clearing price determined by the process of supply and demand in an unfettered market. Thus, rationing can be complementary to price controls. An example of rationing in the face of rising prices took place in the various countries where there was rationing of gasoline during the 1973 energy crisis.
A reason for setting the price lower than would clear the market may be that there is a shortage, which would drive the market price very high. High prices, especially in the case of necessities, are undesirable with regard to those who cannot afford them. Traditionalist economists argue, however, that high prices act to reduce waste of the scarce resource while also providing incentive to produce more.
Rationing using ration stamps is only one kind of non-price rationing. For example, scarce products can be rationed using queues. This is seen, for example, at amusement parks, where one pays a price to get in and then need not pay any price to go on the rides. Similarly, in the absence of road pricing, access to roads is rationed in a first come, first served queueing process, leading to congestion.
Authorities which introduce rationing often have to deal with the rationed goods being sold illegally on the black market. Despite the fact that rationing systems are sometimes necessary as the only viable option for societies facing severe consumer goods shortages, they are usually extremely unpopular with the general public, as they enforce limits on individual consumption.
Civilian rationing
Rationing for civilians has most often been instituted during wartime. For example, each person may be given what's known as a "ration coupon" allowing them to purchase a certain amount of a product each month. Rationing often includes food and other necessities for which there is a shortage, including materials needed for the war effort such as rubber tires, leather shoes, clothing, and fuel.
Rationing of food and water may also become necessary during an emergency, such as a natural disaster or terror attack. In the U.S., the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has established guidelines for rationing food and water when replacements are not available. According to FEMA standards, every person should have a minimum of per day of water, and more for children, nursing mothers, and the ill.
Origins
Military sieges have often resulted in shortages of food and other essentials. In such circumstances, the rations allocated to an individual are often determined based on age, sex, race or social standing. During the Siege of Lucknow (part of the Indian Rebellion of 1857) a woman received three-quarters of a man's food ration. Children received only half. During the Siege of Ladysmith in the early stages of the Boer War in 1900 white adults received the same food rations as soldiers while children received half that. Food rations for Indian people and black people were significantly smaller.
The first modern rationing systems were imposed during the First World War. In Germany, suffering from the effects of the British blockade, a rationing system was introduced in 1914 and was steadily expanded over the following years as the situation worsened. Although Britain did not suffer from food shortages, as the sea lanes were kept open for food imports, panic buying towards the end of the war prompted the rationing of first sugar and then meat. It is said to have benefited the overall health of the country, through the "levelling of consumption of essential foodstuffs". To assist with rationing, ration books were introduced on 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat, and sugar. During the war, average caloric intake decreased only three percent, but protein intake six percent.
Food rationing appeared in Poland after the First World War, and ration stamps were in use until the end of the Polish–Soviet War.
Second World War
Rationing became common during the Second World War. Ration stamps were often used. These were redeemable stamps or coupons, and every family was issued a set number of each kind of stamp based on the size of the family, ages of children, and income. The British Ministry of Food refined the rationing process in the early 1940s to ensure the population did not starve when food imports were severely restricted and local production limited due to the large number of men fighting the war.
Rationing on a scientific basis was pioneered by Elsie Widdowson and Robert McCance at the Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Cambridge. They worked on the chemical composition of the human body, and on the nutritional value of different flours used to make bread. Widdowson also studied the impact of infant diet on human growth. They studied the differing effects from deficiencies of salt and of water and produced the first tables to compare the nutritional contents of foods before and after cooking. They co-authored The Chemical Composition of Foods, first published in 1940 by the Medical Research Council. Their book, "McCance and Widdowson", became known as the dietician's bible and formed the basis for modern nutritional thinking.
In 1939, they tested whether the United Kingdom could survive with only domestic food production if U-boats ended all imports. Using 1938 food-production data, they fed themselves and other volunteers a limited diet, while simulating the strenuous wartime physical work Britons would likely have to perform. The scientists found that the subjects' health and performance remained very good after three months. They also headed the first ever mandated addition of vitamins and minerals to food, beginning with adding calcium to bread. Their work became the basis of the wartime austerity diet promoted by the Minister of Food, Lord Woolton.
The British public's wartime diet was never as severe as in the Cambridge study because German U-boats failed to halt US convoys, but rationing improved the health of British people: infant mortality declined and life expectancy rose. This was because everyone had access to a varied diet with enough nutrients.
The first commodity to be controlled was gasoline. On 8 January 1940, bacon, butter and sugar were rationed. This was followed by successive rationing schemes for meat, tea, jam, biscuits, breakfast cereals, cheese, eggs, lard, milk, and canned and dried fruit. Fresh vegetables and fruit were not rationed, but supplies were limited. Many people grew their own vegetables, greatly encouraged by the highly successful "Digging for Victory" campaign. Most controversial was bread; it was not rationed until after the war ended, but the "national loaf" of wholemeal bread replaced the ordinary white variety, to the distaste of most housewives who found it mushy, grey, and easy to blame for digestive problems. Fish was not rationed, but fish prices increased considerably as the war progressed.
In summer 1941, the British appealed to Americans to conserve food to provide more to go to Britons fighting in the Second World War. The Office of Price Administration (OPA) warned Americans of potential gasoline, steel, aluminum and electricity shortages. It believed that with factories converting to military production and consuming many critical supplies, rationing would become necessary if the country entered the war. It established a rationing system after the attack on Pearl Harbor. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain.
American civilians first received ration books—War Ration Book Number One, or the "Sugar Book"—on 4 May 1942, through more than 100,000 school teachers, Parent-Teacher Associations, and other volunteers. Sugar was the first consumer commodity rationed. Bakeries, ice cream makers, and other commercial users received rations of about 70% of normal usage. Coffee was rationed on 27 November 1942 to every five weeks. By the end of 1942, ration coupons were used for nine other items. Typewriters, gasoline, bicycles, footwear, silk, nylon, fuel oil, stoves, meat, lard, shortening and cooking oils, cheese, butter, margarine, processed foods (canned, bottled, and frozen), dried fruits, canned milk, firewood and coal, jams, jellies, and fruit butters were rationed by November 1943.
The work of issuing ration books and exchanging used stamps for certificates was handled by some 5,500 local ration boards of mostly volunteers. As a result of the gasoline rationing, all forms of automobile racing, including the Indianapolis 500, were banned. All rationing in the United States ended in 1946.
In the Soviet Union food was rationed from 1941 to 1947. In particular, daily bread rations in besieged Leningrad were initially set at 800 grams. By the end of 1941 the bread rations were reduced to 250 grams for workers and 125 grams for everyone else, which resulted in a surge of deaths caused by starvation. Starting in 1942 daily bread rations were increased to 350 grams for workers and 200 grams for everyone else. One of the documents of the period is the diary of Tanya Savicheva, who recorded the deaths of each member of her family during the siege.
Rationing was also introduced to a number of British dominions, and colonies, with rationing of clothing imposed in Australia, from 12 June 1942, and certain foodstuffs from 1943. Canada rationed tea, coffee, sugar, butter and mechanical spares, between 1942 and 1947. The Cochin, Travancore and Madras states, of British India elected to ration grain between the fall of 1943 and spring 1944. Egypt introduced a ration card-based subsidy of essential foodstuffs in 1945 that has persisted into the 21st century.
Many countries had gasoline rationing that determined how much gasoline could be filled in a fuel tank, depending on whether the driver was essential to the war effort. An example rationing system is the following:
G1 stickers can have up to of gas.
G2 stickers can have up to of gas.
G3 stickers can have up to of gas.
G4 stickers can have up to of gas.
G5 stickers can have up to of gas, for their war effort.
G6 stickers can have up to of gas, for their war effort, doctors, school staff, school district staff, church head, newsreel equipment delivery, and other people got these.
T1 stickers can have up to of gas.
T2 stickers can have unlimited amounts of gas, for their war effort.
A stickers can have up to of gas, for getting that optional milage ration.
B stickers can have up to of gas, for getting that optional milage ration.
C stickers can have up to of gas, for getting that optional milage ration.
X1 stickers can have unlimited amounts of gas, for their war effort.
X2 stickers can have unlimited amounts of gas, for getting that optional milage ration.
Peacetime rationing
Civilian peacetime rationing of food has been employed after natural disasters, during contingencies, or after failed governmental economic policies regarding production or distribution, as well as due to extensive austerity programs implemented to cut or restrict public spending in countries where the rationed goods previously relied on government procurement or subsidies, as was the case in Israel.
In the United Kingdom, the rationing system remained in place for years after the end of the War. In some respects it was more strict after the war than during it—two major foodstuffs that were never rationed during the war, bread and potatoes, were rationed after it (bread from 1946 to 1948, and potatoes for a time from 1947). Tea was still rationed until 1952. In 1953 rationing of sugar and eggs ended, and in 1954, all rationing finally ended when cheese and meats came off ration. Sugar was again rationed in 1974 after Caribbean producers began selling to the more lucrative United States market.
Some centralized planned economies introduced peacetime rationing systems due to food shortages in the postwar period. North Korea and China did so in the 1970s and 1980s, as did Romania during Ceausescu's rule in the 1980s, the Soviet Union in 1990–1991, and from 1962–present in Cuba.
From 1949 to 1959, Israel was under a regime of austerity, during which rationing was enforced. At first, only staple foods such as cooking oil, sugar, and margarine were rationed, but it was later expanded, and eventually included furniture and footwear. Every month, each citizen would get food coupons worth six Israeli pounds, and every family would be allotted food. The average Israeli diet was 2,800 calories a day, with additional calories for children, the elderly, and pregnant women.
Following the 1952 Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany, and the subsequent influx of foreign capital, Israel's economy was bolstered, and in 1953, most restrictions were cancelled. In 1958, the list of rationed goods was narrowed to just eleven, and in 1959, it was narrowed to only jam, sugar, and coffee.
Petroleum products were rationed in many countries following the 1973 oil crisis. The United States introduced odd–even rationing for fuels during the crisis, which allowed only vehicles with even-numbered numberplates to fill up on gas one day and odd-numbered ones on another.
Poland enacted rationing in 1981 to cope with economic crisis. The rationing system initially encompassed most of the population's daily necessities, but was gradually phased out over time, with the last ration being abolished in 1989.
Rationing in Cuba for basic goods was enacted in 1991 following the collapse of the Soviet Union, which had previously subsidised the island nation's economy. Rationing started being phased out in the year 2000 at the end of the "special period", as Cuba had shifted to a more diversified and self-sustaining economy. Rationing, however, was not fully abolished and instead turned into an alternative way to purchase goods, in addition to the markets. This makes a curious departure from classical rationing, as during the 2001-2019 period, the rationing system was used in addition to, instead of as a replacement for regular markets. Cubans would be able to buy a certain amount of items at 'liberated' prices using ration coupons at a significantly reduced rate, while still being able to purchase more at regular market prices. This 'liberated' system persisted even during Cuba's period of economic growth and relative prosperity during the early and mid 2010s and enjoyed considerable popularity among the island's citizens. Cuba later re-introduced a classical limiting rationing system in 2019, following the imposition of strict sanctions on the island by US President Donald Trump, as well as the collapse of petroleum shipments from Venezuela, which was facing its own economic troubles at that time. Cuba's president pitched the new system as significantly more lenient than the 1991-2000 "special period", though admitted that it would negatively affect consumption.
Short-term rationing for gas and other fuels was introduced in the U.S. states of New Jersey and New York following Hurricane Sandy in 2012.
In April 2019, Venezuela announced a 30-day electricity rationing regime in the face of power shortages.
For a few years during a series of droughts in California (from 2015 to 2019), the California State Water Resources Control Board had mandatory water-use restrictions.
In 2021, Sri Lanka, facing a major economic crisis, is considering introducing food rationing. According to The Hindu, "President Gotabaya Rajapaksa has called in the army to manage the crisis by rationing the supply of various essential goods."
Refugee aid rations
Aid agencies, such as the World Food Programme, provide food rations and other essentials to refugees or internally displaced persons who are registered with the UNHCR and are either living in refugee camps or are supported in urban centres. Every registered refugee is given a ration card upon registration which is used for collecting the rations from food distribution centres. The 2,100 calories allocated per person per day is based on minimal standards and is frequently not achieved, as has been the case in Kenya.
According to Article 20 of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees refugees shall be treated as national citizens in rationing schemes when there is a rationing system in place for the general population.
Other types
Health care rationing
As the British Royal Commission on the National Health Service observed in 1979, "whatever the expenditure on health care, demand is likely to rise to meet and exceed it." Rationing health care to control costs is regarded as an explosive issue in the US, but in reality health care is rationed everywhere. In places where the government provides healthcare rationing is explicit. In other places people are denied treatment because of personal lack of funds, or because of decisions made by insurance companies. The American Supreme Court approved paying doctors to ration care, saying that there must be "some incentive connecting physician reward with treatment rationing". Shortages of organs for donation forces the rationing of organs for transplant even where funding is available.
See also Healthcare rationing in the United States
Credit rationing
Credit rationing describes a situation wherein a bank limits the supply of loans, even when it has enough funds to loan, and the provision of loans has not yet equaled the demand of prospective borrowers. Changing the price of the loans (interest rate) does not balance loan demand and supply.
Carbon rationing
Personal carbon trading refers to proposed emissions trading schemes under which emissions credits are allocated to adult individuals on a (broadly) equal per capita basis, within national carbon budgets. Individuals then surrender these credits when buying fuel or electricity. Individuals wanting or needing to emit at a level above that permitted by their initial allocation would be able to engage in emissions trading and purchase additional credits. Conversely, those individuals who emit at a level below that permitted by their initial allocation have the opportunity to sell their surplus credits. Thus, individual trading under Personal Carbon Trading is similar to the trading of companies under EU ETS.
Personal carbon trading is sometimes confused with carbon offsetting due to the similar notion of paying for emissions allowances, but is a quite different concept designed to be mandatory and to guarantee that nations achieve their domestic carbon emissions targets (rather than attempting to do so via international trading or offsetting).
Rationing mechanisms
The purpose of rationing is to guarantee a minimum of some resource or to impose a maximum limit on its use. (The latter is the case with carbon rationing, where the scarcity is artificial). Usually, the government determines a fair ration, for example, one proportional to the number of family members. If participants possess different rights to a portion (even when they have the same need) and there is not enough for everyone, then one of the many algorithms for solving the bankruptcy problem may apply.
At other times, the ration can only be estimated by the beneficiary, such as a factory for which energy is to be rationed. In such cases, a mechanism is needed to discourage misreporting the needs or wants (i.e., to meet strategy-proofness). Suppose every participant reports an ideal ration. For so-called uniform rationing, each ration is set to the minimum of the participant's ideal ration and a cap, the cap being determined so that the sum of the rations equals the amount available. So, loosely speaking, the participant asking least will be served first. This mechanism is strategy-proof, avoids unnecessary waste (Pareto optimality) and equally treats equals (anonymity.) In fact, it is the only such mechanism. (Anonymity in this statement can be replaced by envyfreeness). For the redistribution of scarce goods to demanders by suppliers, see non-monetary microeconomies.
For smooth supply chain management the supplies may be rationed, which is sometimes referred to as the rationing game. The references mentioned here are a small sample of the literature about rationing inventories.
See also
Basic income
Colorado River Compact
Food bank
Food stamps
Grain rationing in China
2007 Gas Rationing Plan in Iran
Juntas de Abastecimientos y Precios, rationing in Chile under Allende
Military rations
Rationing in Nicaragua
Rationing in the Soviet Union
Rationing in the United States
Road space rationing
Salt lists
References
Further reading
Allocation of Ventilators in an Influenza Pandemic, Report of New York State Task Force on Life and the Law, 2007.
Matt Gouras. "Frist Defends Flu Shots for Congress." Associated Press. October 21, 2004.
External links
Are You Ready?: An In-depth Guide to Citizen Preparedness - FEMA
short descriptions of World War I rationing - Spartacus Educational
a short description of World War II rationing - Memories of the 1940s
Ration Coupons on the Home Front, 1942-1945 - Duke University Libraries Digital Collections
World War II Rationing on the U.S. homefront, illustrated - Ames Historical Society
Links to 1940s newspaper clippings on rationing, primarily World War II War Ration Books - Genealogy Today
Tax Rationing
Recipe for Victory:Food and Cooking in Wartime
war time rationing in UK
Civilians in war
Military logistics
Disaster preparedness | [
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250131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Aircraft%20Establishment | Royal Aircraft Establishment | The Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) was a British research establishment, known by several different names during its history, that eventually came under the aegis of the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD), before finally losing its identity in mergers with other institutions.
The first site was at Farnborough Airfield ("RAE Farnborough") in Hampshire to which was added a second site RAE Bedford (Bedfordshire) in 1946.
In 1988 it was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment (RAE) before merging with other research entities to become part of the new Defence Research Agency in 1991.
History
In 1904–1906 the Army Balloon Factory, which was part of the Army School of Ballooning, under the command of Colonel James Templer, relocated from Aldershot to the edge of Farnborough Common in order to have enough space to inflate the new "dirigible balloon" or airship which was then under construction. Templer's place was taken by Colonel John Capper and Templer himself retired in 1908. Besides balloons and airships, the factory also experimented with Samuel Franklin Cody's war kites and aeroplanes designed both by Cody and J. W. Dunne. In October 1908 Cody made the first aeroplane flight in Britain at Farnborough.
In 1909 Army work on aeroplanes ceased and the Factory was brought under civilian control. Capper was replaced as Superintendent by Mervyn O'Gorman. In 1912 the Balloon Factory was renamed the Royal Aircraft Factory (RAF).
Its first new designer was Geoffrey de Havilland who later founded his own company. Later colleagues included John Kenworthy who became chief engineer and designer at the Austin Motor Company in 1918 and who went on to found the Redwing Aircraft Co in 1930 (Flight International) and Henry Folland – later chief designer at Gloster Aircraft Company, and founder of his own company Folland Aircraft. One of the designers in the engine department was Samuel Heron, who later went on to invent the sodium-filled poppet valve, instrumental in achieving greater power levels from piston engines. While at the RAF, Heron designed a radial engine that he was not able to build during his time there, however upon leaving the RAF he then went to Siddeley-Deasy where the design, the RAF.8, was developed as the Jaguar. Heron later moved to the United States where he worked on the design of the Wright Whirlwind.
Other engineers included Major F.M. Green, G.S. Wilkinson, James E. "Jimmy" Ellor, Prof. A.H. Gibson, and A.A. Griffith. Both Ellor and Griffith would later go on to work for Rolls-Royce Limited.
In 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory was once more renamed, becoming the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) to avoid confusion with the Royal Air Force, which was formed on 1 April 1918, and because it had relinquished its manufacturing role to concentrate on research.
During WWII the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment, then based at Helensburgh in Scotland, was under the control of the RAE.
In 1946 work began to convert RAF Thurleigh into RAE Bedford.
Engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment invented high strength carbon fibre in 1963.
In 1961, the world's first grooved runway for reduced aquaplaning was constructed. In 1965, a US delegation visited to view the new surfacing practice and initiated a study by the FAA and NASA.
On 1 May 1988 the RAE was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment.
On 1 April 1991 the RAE was merged into the Defence Research Agency (DRA), the MOD's new research organisation. Then, on 1 April 1995 the DRA and other MOD organisations merged to form the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA).
The Bedford site was largely shut down in 1994.
In 2001 DERA was part-privatised by the MOD, resulting in two separate organisations, the state-owned Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL), and the privatised company QinetiQ.
Royal Aircraft Factory
Aircraft Factory designs
Between 1911 and 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory produced a number of aircraft designs. Most of these were essentially research aircraft, but a few actually went into mass production, especially during the war period. Some orders were met by the factory itself, but the bulk of production was by private British companies, some of which had not previously built aircraft.
Up to about 1913 the designation letters referred to the general layout of the aircraft, derived from a French manufacturer or designer famous for that type:
S.E. = Santos Experimental (Canard or tail-first layout)
B.E. = Blériot Experimental (Tractor or propeller-first layout)
F.E. = Farman Experimental (Pusher or propeller behind the pilot layout)
From 1913/4 onwards this was changed to a designation based on the role for which the aircraft was designed:
A.E. = Armed or Armoured Experimental
C.E. = Coastal Experimental (e.g. Royal Aircraft Factory C.E.1 – prototype only)
F.E. = Fighting experimental (although they remained "Farmans" in the sense of being pushers)
N.E. = Night Experimental (e.g. Royal Aircraft Factory N.E.1 – prototype only)
R.E. = Reconnaissance experimental (two-seat machines)
S.E. = Scout experimental fast single-seat aircraft.
The B.S.1 of 1913 was a one-off anomaly, combining both systems: Blériot (tractor) Scout (fighter).
R.T. & T.E. were also used for strictly one-off prototypes.
Designs produced
Several aircraft were produced during the days as the Army Balloon Factory. These include the airships as well as the Cody and Dunne designs.
Subsequent Royal Aircraft Factory type designations are inconsistent and confusing. For instance the "F.E.2" designation refers to three quite distinct types, with only the same broad layout in common, the F.E.2 (1911), the F.E.2 (1913), and finally the famous wartime two-seat fighter and general-purpose design, the F.E.2 (1914). This last aircraft was the one that went into production and had three main variants, the F.E.2a, F.E.2b, and the F.E.2d. As if this wasn't enough, there is the F.E.2c; this was a generic description rather than a subtype proper, and refers to several one-off conversions of F.E.2b's that experimentally reversed the seating positions of the pilot and the observer.
The B.E.1 was basically the prototype for the early B.E.2 but the B.E.2c was almost a completely new aeroplane, with very little common with the earlier B.E.2 types apart from engine and fuselage. On the other hand, the B.E.3 to the B.E.7 were all effectively working prototypes for the B.E.8 and were all very similar in design, with progressive minor modifications of the kind that many aircraft undergo during a production run. The B.E.8a was at least as different from the B.E.8 as the B.E.7 was.
The S.E.4a had nothing in common at all with the S.E.4, while the S.E.5a was simply a late production S.E.5 with a more powerful engine.
Several early RAF designs were officially "reconstructions" of existing aircraft because the Factory did not initially have official authority to build aircraft to their own design. In most cases, the type in question used no parts whatever from the wreck, in some cases, not even the engine.
British Army Dirigible No 1 Nulli Secundus—1907
Nulli Secundus II—1908
British Army airship Beta – 1910
Dunne D.1 – 1907
British Army Aeroplane No 1 (Cody) – 1908
Dunne D.3
Dunne D.4
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.1—1911
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.1—1911
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.1—1911
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2—1912
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.3—1912
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.4—1912
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.3—1913
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.7—1913
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.2—1913
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.1—1913
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.2—1913
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.8—1913
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.3—1913
Royal Aircraft Factory H.R.E.2—1913
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2—1914
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.2—1914
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.5—1914
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.4—1914
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.6—1914
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.7—1915
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.12—1915
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.9—1915
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.8—1915
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.4a—1915
SS class airship – 1915
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.4 – 1916
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.10 – 1916
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.7 – 1916
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 – 1916
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.9 — 1916
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5—1916
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a—1917
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.9—1917
Royal Aircraft Factory N.E.1—1917
Royal Aircraft Factory A.E.3—1918
Royal Aircraft Factory C.E.1—1918
Royal Aircraft Factory Ram—1918
Engines
RAF 1
RAF 2
RAF 3
RAF 4
RAF 5
RAF 8
Controversy
At the time of the "Fokker Scourge" in 1915, there was a press campaign against the standardisation of Royal Aircraft Factory types in the Royal Flying Corps, allegedly in favour of superior designs available from the design departments of private British firms. This slowly gained currency, especially because of the undeniable fact that the B.E.2c and B.E.2e were kept in production and in service long after they were obsolete and that the B.E.12 and B.E.12a were indisputable failures. Some of this criticism was prejudiced and ill-informed.
Some aviation historians continue to perpetuate the resulting belittling of the important experimental work of the Factory during this period, and the exaggeration of the failings of Factory production types, several of which were described in sensationally derogatory terms.
A modern, rather more "pro-factory" point of view, can be found in several of the volumes of War Planes of the First World War, by J.M. Bruce—MacDonald, London, 1965.
Superintendents
The Superintendents of the School of Ballooning were James Templer (1878–1906) and John Capper (1906 – 1909). The following have served as Superintendents of the Royal Aircraft Factory / Establishment:
Mervyn O'Gorman (1912–1916) - Also Superintendent of the Balloon Factory from 1909 to 1912
Henry Fowler (1916–1918)
Sidney Smith (1918-)
Changes
After the end of the First World War, the design and development of aircraft types ended – although work continued on general research and the development of missiles. Research included wind tunnel testing and other aeronautical research, areas which offered rare opportunities for women in STEM fields at this time with examples including Frances Bradfield who worked at the RAE for her entire career from 1919 to her retirement; Muriel Glauert (née Barker) joined in 1918 as a researcher working in aerodynamics; Johanna Weber, a German mathematician who joined the RAE after World War II as part of Operation Surgeon to exploit German aeronautical researchers and technicians and bring them to the UK; and Beatrice Shilling who went on to invent Miss Shilling's orifice, to improve the engine performance of RAF Hurricane and Spitfire fighters during the Battle of Britain as part of wider work at the RAE on aircraft engine problems during World War II.
In 1930 the RAE developed the Robot Air Pilot, an autopilot that used a gyro and flight controls that functioned by compressed air.
Aircraft that were developed or tested at the RAE included the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and Concorde.
Aircraft
RAE Hurricane
RAE Scarab
RAE Zephyr
Missiles
RAE Target—Surface-to-surface missile project from the early 1920s.
RAE Larynx—1927 unmanned pilotless aircraft, surface-to-surface anti-ship missile.
Malkara missile
Rockets
In the late fifties and through the sixties work proceeded at the RAE on several rocket projects – all of which were eventually abandoned
R.A.E. – Vickers Transonic Research Rocket
Black Arrow
Black Prince
Black Knight
Jaguar
Skylark
Space satellites
Orba X-2 – space satellite
Prospero X-3 – space satellite
Current use of the Farnborough site
The former RAE Farnborough site is (as of 2011) occupied by:
Farnborough Airport.
QinetiQ.
Housing, hotels, offices etc. The IQ Farnborough development includes several refurbished former-RAE buildings.
The Farnborough Air Sciences Trust (FAST) museum, which has several former RAE aircraft and other exhibits.
Air Accidents Investigation Branch.
The National Aerospace Library (NAL), located in the former Weapon Aerodynamics building (Q134 Building) has a collection of over 2,500 technical reports produced by the RAE.
The historic Farnborough factory site houses three major wind tunnels, the 24' low-speed wind tunnel (Q121 Building), constructed during the early 1930s, the No. 2 11.5' low-speed wind tunnel (R136 Building) and the 8' x 6' transonic wind tunnel within R133 Building, which was originally commissioned in the early 1940s as a 10' x 7' high subsonic speed tunnel but converted during the mid-1950s. A smaller 2' x 1.5' transonic tunnel is housed in R133 Building, while R52 Building contains the remaining 4' x 3' low turbulence wind tunnel. R52 Building had previously housed two early 10' x 7' low-speed tunnels in separate bays, which were replaced by the No. 1 11.5' and 4' x 3' tunnels respectively. The former remains in operation at the University of Southampton. R52 building also previously contained a 5' open jet low-speed tunnel, originally built as a sub-scale prototype for the larger 24' tunnel, but subsequently modified for use as a noise measurement facility. Both Q121 and R133 are now Grade I listed buildings.
To the west of the Farnborough site is the 5-metre pressurised low-speed wind tunnel, which was commissioned in the late 1970s. This facility remains in operation by QinetiQ, primarily for the development and testing of aircraft high lift systems.
Fictional appearance
The hero of Nevil Shute's 1948 novel No Highway is an eccentric "boffin" at Farnborough who predicts metal fatigue in Britain's new airliner, the fictional "Rutland Reindeer". The Comets failed for just this reason in 1954, although in the case of the Comet I the problem was in the metal structure around the squared windows, while the point of failure in the Reindeer aircraft was in the structure of the rear empennage/fuselage joints. A film version of the novel, No Highway in the Sky, appeared in 1951, starring James Stewart as the protagonist. Stewart prepared for the role by shadowing Fred Jones OBE, a co-founder of the RAE Accident Section. Jones later was head of Structures Section (formerly Airworthiness Section) from 1957 to 1980.
See also
FAST aviation museum on the site of the RAE
RAE Bedford, Farnborough's sister site at former RAF Thurleigh, Bedford
Seaplane Experimental Station, Felixstowe
National Gas Turbine Establishment, a branch of the RAE used for design and testing of gas turbine engines
Arnold Alexander Hall
Rhys Probert
RAE code
References
External links
Risky Buildings: Farnborough wind tunnels
Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Aeronautics
RAE Ex-Apprentices Association
1908 establishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Defunct aircraft engine manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Farnborough, Hampshire
Grade I listed buildings in Hampshire
Grade I listed industrial buildings
History of Hampshire
Military history of Hampshire
Military research establishments of the United Kingdom
Research institutes in Hampshire | [
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] |
250135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mladen%20Rudonja | Mladen Rudonja | Mladen Rudonja () (born 26 July 1971) is a retired Slovenian footballer who represented his country at two major tournaments, Euro 2000 and the 2002 World Cup.
He most often played as a winger (usually on the left) or striker. Despite this, he did not score a goal for the Slovenian national side until his 53rd cap – in the second leg of a playoff for the 2002 World Cup against Romania in Bucharest. The match finished 1–1, a result that was enough to secure Slovenia's qualification, having won the first leg 2–1 in Ljubljana.
His son, named Roy, is also a footballer and was called for the 2012 UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship.
See also
Slovenian international players
References
External links
Player profile at NZS
1971 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Koper
Slovenian footballers
Association football wingers
FC Koper players
Slovenian expatriate footballers
Slovenian expatriate sportspeople in Croatia
Expatriate footballers in Croatia
Croatian First Football League players
Slovenian PrvaLiga players
Cypriot First Division players
Belgian First Division A players
English Football League players
NK Zagreb players
NK Olimpija Ljubljana (1945–2005) players
NK Marsonia players
ND Gorica players
NK Primorje players
Expatriate footballers in Belgium
Sint-Truidense V.V. players
Expatriate footballers in England
Portsmouth F.C. players
Slovenian expatriate sportspeople in Cyprus
Slovenian expatriate sportspeople in the United Kingdom
Expatriate footballers in Cyprus
Anorthosis Famagusta FC players
NK Olimpija Ljubljana (2005) players
UEFA Euro 2000 players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
Slovenia international footballers
Association football chairmen and investors | [
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] |
250143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSP | PSP | PSP may refer to:
Organisations
Politics
Pak Sarzameen Party, a nationalist political party in Pakistan
Pacifist Socialist Party (Dutch: Pacifistisch Socialistische Partij), a former Dutch political party
Partido Socialista Popular (Cuba)
People's Services Party, a political party in Vanuatu
Popular Socialist Party (Argentina) (), a former political party in Argentina
Popular Socialist Party, a post World War II Socialist Party of Chile
Popular Socialist Party (Haiti) (), a former communist political party in Haiti
Popular Socialist Party (Mexico) (, PPS), a communist party in Mexico
Popular Socialist Party (Spain) (), a former Spanish political party that has merged with the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE)
Praja Socialist Party, a former Indian political party
Progress Singapore Party, a political party in Singapore
Progressive Socialist Party (, al-hizb al-taqadummi al-ishtiraki), a political party in Lebanon
Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine (, Prohresivna Sotsjalistychna Partiya Ukrayiny), a political party in Ukraine
Progressive Sudanese Party (), a former political party in French Sudan (now Mali)
Puerto Rican Socialist Party (), a former political party in Puerto Rico
Education
Pittsburgh Scholars Program of the Perry Traditional Academy, Pennsylvania, US
Professional School of Psychology, Sacramento, California, US
Government
Państwowa Straż Pożarna, State Fire Service in Poland
Pennsylvania State Police, US
Polícia de Segurança Pública (Public Security Police), Portugal
Public Sector Pension Investment Board
Computing
PlayStation Portable, Sony game console
PaintShop Pro, a graphics editor
Parallel slave port on some PIC microcontrollers
Personal software process, to improve programming quality
Program Segment Prefix, used in DOS systems to store the state of a program
Python Server Pages, for embedding Python in HTML
AMD Platform Security Processor
Engineering
Pierced steel planking
Pneumatic stabilized platform, for large floating structures
Firearms
Heckler & Koch P7, also known as PSP, "Police Self-loading Pistol"
Plated Soft Point, and Pointed Soft Point, types of bullet
Science and medicine
Paralytic shellfish poisoning
Parker Solar Probe
Pathological skin picking
Phenolsulfonphthalein (phenol red), a pH indicator
Photostimulable phosphor plate, or image plate, recording X-rays
Polydiethylstilbestrol phosphate, a nonsteroidal estrogen
Polysaccharide peptide, a protein-bound sugar polymer
Postsynaptic potential, the voltage of nerves
Pressure-sensitive paint
Progressive supranuclear palsy of the brain, a degenerative disease
Pseudoprime, a non-prime which passes a probabilistic primality test
Other
Palm Springs International Airport, IATA airport code
Payment service provider
Personal Public Service Number (Irish: Uimhir Phearsanta Seirbhíse Poiblí, or Uimh. PSP), Ireland
Philippine Sign Language, by ISO 639-3 language code
Physical Security Professional
Planning and Scheduling Professional, a certification of AACE International
President's Surveillance Program, US
See also | [
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250145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongshan | Zhongshan | Zhongshan (; ) is a prefecture-level city in the south of the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong province, China. As of the 2020 census, the whole city with 4,418,060 inhabitants is now part of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen conurbation with 65,565,622 inhabitants. The city-core subdistricts used to be called Shiqi or Shekki ().
Zhongshan is one of a very few cities in China named after a person. It is named after Dr. Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), who is known in Mandarin as Sun Zhongshan. Sun, the founding father of the Republic of China who is also regarded positively by the People's Republic, was born in Cuiheng village in Nanlang Township of what was then Xiangshan County. In 1925, the year after his death, Xiangshan was renamed Zhongshan in his honor.
Names
Until 1925, Zhongshan was generally known as Xiangshan or Heung-san (Siangshan) (), in reference to the many flowers that grew in the mountains nearby. The city was renamed in honor of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who had adopted the name Zhongshan. Sun is considered by both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China to be the "Father of Modern China", and was from Cuiheng village – now part of Nanlang Town in Zhongshan.
History
Thousands of years ago, much of the Zhongshan area lay within the Pearl River estuary, with only scattered islands above the surface. Gradually from south to north, the area filled in with alluvial silt and became dry land. The northern parts of today's Zhongshan did not fill in until the time of the Ming Dynasty.
The Zhongshan area was part of an extended Dongguan County during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), and was a significant sea salt producer. In 1082, during the Northern Song Dynasty, a fortified settlement called Xiangshan was founded in the area, marking the first official use of the name by which it would be known throughout most of its modern history. The prosperous settlement was then upgraded to a county in 1152. After the collapse of the Southern Song Dynasty, many descendants of Song court officials, including members of the imperial family, settled in Xiangshan. Under the Qing Dynasty, embankments were built to prevent flooding in the new alluvial lands, and the area of cultivation was extended.
Much of the First Opium War took place in and around Xiangshan. In 1839, the official Lin Zexu arrived in Xiangshan and ordered the expulsion of Sir Charles Elliot and other British traders from the area. Qing Dynasty soldiers resisted British attacks on the area in 1840, but were ultimately overwhelmed.
After the Opium Wars opened the region to foreign influence, a number of Xiangshan residents, including Sun Zhongshan (Yatsen), left to study overseas and were among the creators of modern China. Xiangshan was one of the first counties in China liberated as part of the Xinhai Revolution. After Sun Zhongshan's death in 1925, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the Republic of China decided to memorialize Sun by renaming his county of birth from Xiangshan to Zhongshan.
Nationalist and Communist units launched guerrilla attacks on Japanese forces beginning in 1942. On August 15, 1945, Japanese forces declared an unconditional surrender, and Zhongshan was liberated.
Zhongshan was the scene of fighting during the Chinese Civil War and was held for much of the war by Nationalists. On October 30, 1949, however, the People's Liberation Army defeated Nationalist forces in Zhongshan, and the county came under the control of the People's Republic of China.
In 1983, Zhongshan was elevated in administrative status from a county to a county-level city under the administration of Foshan. In 1988 Zhongshan became a prefecture-level city.
Geography
Zhongshan is located along the west side of the mouth of the Pearl River, directly opposite Shenzhen and Hong Kong. It lies south of Guangzhou and Foshan and north of Zhuhai and Macau. The northern part of Zhongshan, including most of the urbanized area, lies on the alluvial plains of the Pearl River Delta, while the southern part of the city's territory reaches into a range of coastal hills.
The most notable of these are the Wugui Hills (). The city's current geography is typical of southern China: numerous steep mountains and hills with alluvial plains in between down to the coastline. The main summit of the Wugui Hills is the highest point in the city, at above sea level.
Like nearly all of southern China, Zhongshan's climate is warm and humid most of the year, with an average temperature of and of rainfall each year. Southern China experiences fairly frequent typhoons and thunderstorms, and most rain falls between April and September.
Cityscape
Zhongshan is a city of numerous leafy parks, wide boulevards, and monuments. Notable sights include:
Sunwen Road West (or Sunwen Xilu) in Zhongshan Old Town, a pedestrian mall lined with dozens of restored buildings from the colonial period in treaty port style. Several of these buildings were built in the 1920s.
The seven-story Fufeng Pagoda, built in 1608 and visible from all over the city, is on a hill in Zhongshan Park, which abuts the western end of Sunwen Road West immediately to its north. A Sun Yat-sen memorial pavilion stands near the pagoda.
Sunwen Memorial Park, at the southern end of Xingzhong Road, is the site of the largest bronze sculpture of Sun Yat-sen in the world.
Zhongshan, like many cities in China, has a rapidly changing cityscape with many new buildings under construction. Currently, the tallest completed buildings in the city are the two Zhongshan International Finance Center Towers. Tower 1 and Tower 2 both reach a height of 220 meters (722 feet) and are 55 stories tall. These will be eclipsed by the Perfect Eagle Golden Square tower, which will reach 238 meters (781 feet), with an expected completion date in 2018. The International Trade Center in Guzhen Town, expected to be completed in 2019, will reach a height of 305 meters (1,001 feet) with 65 floors.
Administration
Zhongshan is a prefecture-level city of the Guangdong province. An uncommon administrative feature is that it has no county-level division, but the municipal government does group the 24 township-level divisions into five district areas. The city government directly administers six Subdistricts and 18 towns:
Cuiheng New Area ()
Language
Although the main ethnic group in Zhongshan is Han Chinese, there is no one dominant language or dialect spoken making Zhongshan one of the most diverse cities in China. Dialects spoken in the city ranging from the more common Yue, Hakka, and Min dialects to the more local Shiqi, Shatian, Longdu, Nanlang, Sanxiang, Guzhen, Sanjiao, and Zhangjiabian dialects as well as Wuiguishan, the only Hakka dialect in the city. The most common language, however, is Cantonese.
Yue
Shiqi dialect - Shiqiqu Subdistrict, Dongqu Subdistrict, Nanqu Subdistrict
Shatian dialect - Xiqu Subdistrict, Tanzhou Town, Shenwan Town, Banfu Town, Henglan Town, Xiaolan Town, Dongfeng Town, Nantou Town, Huangpu Town, Minzhong Town, Gangkou Town, Fusha Town, Dongsheng Town
Guzhen dialect - Guzhen Town
Sanjiao dialect - Sanjiao Town
Min
Nanlang dialect - Nanlang Town
Sanxiang dialect - Sanxiang Town
Longdu dialect - Dachong Town, Shaxi Town
Zhangjiabian dialect - THIDZ Subdistrict
Hakka
Wuguishan dialect - Wuguishan Subdistrict
Economy
Primary industries
Primary productions are agricultural, such as rice, lychee, banana, and sugar cane. Added to this, horticulture in Xiaolan Town is famous throughout southern China for its blooming chrysanthemum and chickens.
Manufacturing industries
Zhongshan, Dongguan, Nanhai, and Shunde are dubbed the 'Four Little Tigers' in Guangdong. The proximity of Zhongshan to Hong Kong and Macau is an advantage to its economic development, especially in manufacturing.
In the 1980s, Zhongshan had a relatively developed state-owned enterprise (SOE) sector that was used to stimulate Township and Village Enterprises (TVE) development in the countryside. Currently, the SOE sector is much weaker, and the economy is dominated by foreign investment and TVEs, and by specialized 'manufacturing towns'. Each of these towns specializes in making a particular product. Most of the towns are so successful that they earn a reputation as leading manufacturers in their pillar industries. Indeed, "One Industry in One Town" has become a unique economic feature in Zhongshan.
Pillar industries in specialized manufacturing towns in Zhongshan include:
Dachong Town for mahogany furniture
Dongfeng Town for electric household appliances
Guzhen Town for lighting fixtures
Huangpu Town for food processing
Shaxi Town for casual wear manufacturing
Xiaolan Town for locks and hardware, as well as for electronic acoustics products
The government of Zhongshan encourages "Research and Design" in the region by setting up national level research centres and specialized industrial regions. For example, the Zhongshan National Torch High-Tech Industrial Development Zone () was established in 1990 in the east of the city by the Ministry of Science and Technology and the governments of Guangdong province and Zhongshan. Zhongshan Port, which ranks among the top 10 ports nationwide in container-handling capacity, is in the zone. Since 2001, it has included the Zhongshan Electronic Base of China () for its reputation in the electronic acoustics industry. Following possible development in Nansha, the city considers its eastern part, of which of land is available, a focus of future development.
Currently, the city is trying to re-organize its fragmented industrialization. Meanwhile, the light and labour-intensive industry characteristic of the local economy faces the problem of a shortage of land in Zhongshan.
Tourism, recreation and leisure
Two natural hot spring resorts are located in Sanxiang Town, such as the national own firm Zhongshan Hot Springs Resort, which is ranked top 10 hot spring resorts in China because there is a rare hot spring reservoir in the Pearl River Delta.
The World Lamp King Museum, a lamp museum in the form of a giant lamp scheduled to open in 2015, will be a major tourist attraction.
Former Residence of Sun Yat-sen Memorial Museum: The former residence of Sun Zhongshan is at the center of the Memorial Museum, located in the village of Cuiheng.
Xiaolan: Many houses in the town of Xiaolan have garden pavilions dedicated to the cultivation of chrysanthemums. Roofs and balconies, streets and lanes feature countless varieties of chrysanthemum plantings.
Zhongshan is home to a number of forest parks which are designed to protect the natural features of the land and offer visitors a chance to get closer to nature. Zhongshan Tianxin Forest Park () was opened in 2015 as part of the city's "green lung" initiative.
Education
Colleges and universities
Guangdong Pharmaceutical University (Zhongshan Campus)
University of Electronic Science and Technology
Guangdong Polytechnic Institute (Zhongshan Campus)
Zhongshan Polytechnic
Zhongshan Torch Polytechnic
High schools and institutions
Zhongshan Overseas Chinese Middle School () opened in 1954(Mr. Chen Maoyuan, a returned overseas Chinese, initiated the establishment of the school), is one of the first top-grade schools of Guangdong Province () and the first national demonstrative ordinary high schools ().
Sun Yat-sen Memorial Secondary School () was established in memory of Sun Yat-sen in 1934, and was built under the supervision of Soong Ching-ling, the widow of Sun Yat-sen.
Zhongshan No. 1 Middle School () opened in 1908.
Guangdong Zhongshan Experimental Middle School
Zhongshan Guishan Middle School
Guangdong Bowen International School
Sanxin Bilingual School
China-Hong Kong English School
Notable people
Sun Yat-sen (), statesman and political philosopher, first leader of the Kuomintang; served as the provisional first president of the Republic of China
(), professor, department of Chinese Literature and director of Hong Kong Historical and Cultural Research Center at Zhuhai College, (Jilin University); Honorary Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong; museums consultant for the Hong Kong Leisure and Cultural Services Department
Cheng Chung-tai (), Hong Kong academic, social activist, and politician
Transportation
Public Buses
Zhongshan Public Transport Group Co., Ltd. operates many bus routes throughout the city. Stop announcements are voiced in Mandarin and Cantonese on all buses. On BRT system buses, announcements are also voiced in English. By purchasing a Zhongshan Tong card from authorized retailers, riders can receive a discount of 50% on all bus rides. Elderly citizens are allowed to ride for free.
Ferry Transport
Chu Kong Passenger Transport (CKS) connects Zhongshan with Hong Kong with multiple daily scheduled high-speed ferry services to both Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal on Hong Kong Island and Hong Kong China Ferry Terminal in Kowloon. The trip by ferry takes about 1.5 hours.
Railway
Guangzhou–Zhuhai Intercity Railway serves the city of Zhongshan at seven stations.
Metro
The Zhongshan Metro system has a plan for the first two lines.
Aviation
There is a bus service from Zhongshan to Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport in Shenzhen.
Additionally Zhongshan is served by Hong Kong International Airport; ticketed passengers can take ferries from the Zhongshan Ferry Terminal to the HKIA Skypier. There are also coach bus services connecting Zhongshan with HKIA.
Major projects
The Shenzhen-Zhongshan Bridge will connect Zhongshan with the city of Shenzhen on the Eastern side of the Pearl River Delta. It will consist of a series of bridges and tunnels, starting from Bao'an International Airport on the Shenzhen side. Construction of the proposed eight-lane link started in 2017, with completion scheduled for 2024.
Twin towns – sister cities
Zhongshan has seven sister cities:
Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada (2011)
Puntarenas, Costa Rica
Culiacán, Mexico
Cairns, Australia
Alameda County, California, United States
Honolulu, Hawaii, United States (1997)
Moriguchi, Osaka, Japan (1998)
Climate
References
External links
Zhongshan government website
Zhongshan News website
Zhongshan News website (translated to English by Google)
Prefecture-level divisions of Guangdong
Pearl River Delta | [
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] |
250150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvinas%20%28disambiguation%29 | Malvinas (disambiguation) | Malvinas is the Spanish name for the Falkland Islands, an archipelago in the south Atlantic Ocean which is a British Overseas Territory.
Malvinas, Malvinas Islands or Islas Malvinas may also refer to:
Malvinas Islands (Chile), a group of islands in the General Carrera Lake, Chile
Malvinas Day, a public holiday in Argentina
Malvinas Current, an Atlantic current which is also known as the Falkland Current
Estadio Islas Malvinas, home ground of Buenos Aires's All Boys club
HMS Tiger Bay, a vessel of the Royal Navy until 1986, formerly PNA Islas Malvinas of the Argentine Naval Prefectureas
Las Malvinas Airport, an airport in Peru
See also
Malvinas Argentinas Partido, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
Malvinas Argentinas, Córdoba, a municipality in Argentina
"March of the Malvinas", an Argentine song composed in 1939
Rosario – Islas Malvinas International Airport, Rosario, Argentina
Malvina (disambiguation)
Malvinas Argentinas (disambiguation)
Falklands (disambiguation) | [
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250152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel%20Lisa | Manuel Lisa | Manuel Lisa, also known as Manuel de Lisa (September 8, 1772 in New Orleans Louisiana (New Spain) – August 12, 1820 in St. Louis, Missouri), was a Spanish citizen and later, became an American citizen who, while living on the western frontier, became a land owner, merchant, fur trader, United States Indian agent, and explorer. Lisa was among the founders, in St. Louis, of the Missouri Fur Company, an early fur trading company. Manuel Lisa gained respect through his trading among Native American tribes of the upper Missouri River region, such as the Teton Sioux, Omaha and Ponca.
After being appointed, as US Indian agent, during the War of 1812, Lisa used his standing among the tribes to encourage their alliance with the United States and their warfare against tribes allied with the United Kingdom. While still married to a European-American woman in St. Louis, where he kept a residence, in 1814 Lisa married Mitane, a daughter of Big Elk, the principal chief of the Omaha people, as part of securing their alliance. They had two children together, whom Lisa provided for equally in his will with his children by his other marriage.
Early life
Little is known of the early life of Manuel Lisa, but he is believed to have been born in 1772 in New Orleans, then part of Spanish Louisiana. It was ceded to Spain by France after the British victory in the Seven Years' War, when the British gained Florida in exchange with Spain for French lands west of the Mississippi River. His father, Christoval de Lisa, was born in Murcia, Spain, while his mother, Maria Ignacia Rodriguez, was born to a colonial family in St. Augustine, Florida. It is likely that Christoval came to Spanish Louisiana in the service of the governor Alejandro O'Reilly, who started his tenure in 1769. Manuel had, at least, one elder brother, Joaquin Lisa, who worked with him in his early trade expeditions.
By 1789, Manuel Lisa and his brother Joaquin were trading on the Mississippi River in New Madrid, Missouri; the next recorded mention of Manuel Lisa was again in New Madrid, after he had returned from trading along the Wabash River.
Marriage and family
By 1796 Lisa had married Polly Charles Chew (d. 1817), a young widow from New Orleans. After he obtained a land grant in the Missouri area, they relocated to St. Louis, which was the center of the region's thriving fur trade, established primarily by French colonists, some also from New Orleans. Polly Lisa lived in the city with their three children while her husband made his long expeditions to various Indian territories on the Upper Missouri River.
After founding Fort Lisa about 1813, a post in what is now part of Omaha, Nebraska, Lisa worked to gain alliances with local tribes, such as the Omaha. After being appointed US Indian agent in the area by the governor of the Missouri Territory, in 1814 Lisa married Mitane, a daughter of Big Elk, the principal chief of the Omaha until 1846. Both sides saw it as a strategic alliance. Lisa and Mitane had two children together, Rosalie and Christopher, born in subsequent years after Lisa's expeditions and wintering over at Fort Lisa.
"Kinship and ties of affinity proved more than merely useful to the traders. They were both a source of power and a necessity if one was to achieve success in the trade." Only traders were accepted for marriages to high-status women, such as the daughters of chiefs, as the chiefs saw such marriages as a way to increase their own power. As the Omaha had a patrilineal system, the children of Lisa and Mitane were considered "white" as their father was "white". The tribe protected them, but unless such mixed-race children were officially adopted by a man of the tribe, they were not considered Omaha and had no real place in a gens (clan), the basic kinship unit.
Polly Chew Lisa died in 1817 in St. Louis while Manuel Lisa was away on an expedition. After his return the following year, on August 5, 1818, Lisa married the widow Mary Hempstead Keeny, a sister of his friend, the attorney Edward Hempstead. As a widow, she had migrated with her parents and siblings from Connecticut to join four brothers already in Missouri.
In 1819 Lisa took his new wife Mary with him for his next expedition and winter at Fort Lisa, Nebraska. He tried to gain custody of his children with Mitane. She let him take Rosalie back to St. Louis the next year for education at a Catholic school, but refused to let him have Christopher. Lisa included provisions for both Rosalie and Christopher in his will, along with his children by his first wife Polly Chew. Only Rosalie Lisa Ely (c. 1815-1904) survived to adulthood, married and had children.
Land and Purchases of Enslaved People in the Louisiana Territory
In 1799, Manuel Lisa requested a land grant; according to his letter to the Spanish governor, Manuel wanted it "upon one of the banks of the River Missouri, in a place where may be found some small creek emptying into the said river, in order to facilitate the raising of cattle, and, with time, to be able to make shipments of salted and dried meat to the capital. After being awarded the grant, Manuel Lisa and his wife relocated to St. Louis, where they purchased a home on Second Street near the Mississippi River. In the late 1790s and early 1800s, Lisa purchased numerous enslaved people
Early trade expeditions
Lisa likely moved to St. Louis to enter the fur trade, the major part of the regional economy. By 1802, he had obtained a trade monopoly from French officials (the territory had traded hands again) with the Osage Nation. (The monopoly had formerly been held by Auguste Chouteau, a French colonist and first settler of St. Louis). But, after the Louisiana Purchase and annexation of the territory by the United States, Lisa's relationship with the new government officials was not as strong. He competed with Pierre Chouteau, a prominent member of the founding family, who had gained a position as a U.S. government Indian agent; Chouteau and his brother had gained their wealth and social positions through the fur trade and as merchants.
Lisa had difficult relations with James Wilkinson, then-governor of U.S. Louisiana Territory. Later found to have been a secret agent of the Spanish Crown, Wilkinson denied Lisa's requests to establish trade routes to Santa Fe, New Mexico, which was still under Spanish colonial rule. In 1806, Wilkinson warned Zebulon Pike, undertaking Pike's Expedition, to prevent Lisa's efforts to make business connections to Santa Fe.
Having been stymied by the government and the Chouteau family, Lisa began organizing a trade expedition to the upper Missouri River region. On the first expedition, which departed in April 1807, Lisa and his company of 42 men (including John Colter, George Drouillard or Benito Vázquez) moved up the Missouri until they reached the mouth of the Yellowstone River. After ascending the Yellowstone some 170 miles, Lisa established a trading post on November 21 at the mouth of the Bighorn River in present-day Montana. Named Fort Raymond for his son (also known as Fort Manuel), it was the first such outpost in the upper Missouri region.
Lisa assigned John Colter of his party to explore the region and trade with the nearby Blackfeet tribe. During his exploration, Colter became the first known European to visit what is now known as Yellowstone National Park; he reported on what was named the eponymous Colter's Hell.
In July 1808, after a successful trading season, Lisa departed Fort Raymond, leaving behind a small party of men for the winter. While operations from the area were profitable for Lisa, the outpost suffered frequent attacks by the Blackfeet. During these years of Lisa's expeditions to the upper Missouri, his wife Polly and children stayed in St. Louis.
Creation of the Missouri Fur Company
Upon his return to St. Louis in August 1808, Lisa established the Missouri Fur Company (sometimes referred to as the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company), a joint venture with Jean Pierre Chouteau, Pierre Chouteau, Jr., William Clark, Andrew Henry, Francois Marie Benoit, and other prominent St. Louis fur traders. Jean Pierre Chouteau had also come from New Orleans, so the two men had ties to its French and Spanish Creole community. The company was created as a temporary trust by its founders, designed to either expire or reorganize after three years.
In the spring of 1809, Lisa returned to Fort Raymond with a major expedition, made up of 350 men, about half of whom were Americans, the rest French Canadians and Creoles. They had 13 barges and keel-boats loaded with food, munitions, and articles suitable for the Indian trade, and the trip up the Missouri River was slow. Lisa transferred the fort's contents to the new company, and abandoned the isolated post.
Directing the large force of men, Lisa built the first Fort Lisa (also called Fort Manuel) near what is now Bismarck, North Dakota. It was near a Gros Ventres village between the mouth of the Little Missouri and the Knife rivers. After the new fort was constructed, Lisa returned to St. Louis in October 1809. The next year, he ascended the river to Fort Lisa and conducted more trading operations. He returned to St. Louis in the autumn of 1810.
In April 1811, Lisa began a final expedition of the Missouri Fur Company's first three years; he had two goals: to locate the then-lost fur trader Andrew Henry, and to transport the remaining property from Fort Lisa to St. Louis. The expedition became famous in its day as the company's barges heading up the Missouri overtook the rival Astor Expedition, led by William Price Hunt for the American Fur Company, which had set out three weeks earlier. Lisa remained among the Mandan and Arikara tribes until Henry came downriver, and they returned to St. Louis together at the end of 1811. In 1811 Lisa was host to the first recorded tourist to present-day South Dakota: Pittsburgh lawyer Henry Marie Brackenridge.
When the Missouri Fur Company was reorganized during the winter of 1811-1812, Lisa became more prominent among its leadership. That year he built a brick home in St. Louis as a measure of his success. (Earlier he had built a stone warehouse for his fur company, which stood until the late 1930s, when it was demolished for other development.
In May 1812, Lisa went upriver to Fort Lisa, trading there until his return to St. Louis on June 1, 1813. Lisa happened to be at Fort Lisa in North Dakota when Sacagawea, the historic interpreter and guide for the Lewis and Clark Expedition, died at the fort on December 20, 1812. She was buried there.
On this journey he established a new fort further downriver, also called Fort Lisa, in what is now the North Omaha area of Omaha, Nebraska. Lisa at that time became the first known United States settler of Nebraska. His outpost became among the most important in the region, and the basis for the development of the major city of Nebraska.
War of 1812
In June 1812 the U.S. Congress voted to declare war on the United Kingdom. After Lisa's return to St. Louis in 1813, he heard fears expressed that British agents would encourage the upper Missouri tribes to attack settlements throughout the northern and western territories. The war disrupted the fur trade with the northern tribes on both sides of the border; in 1813 the British and American Indian allies burned Fort Lisa of North Dakota. Like other traders, Lisa had to suspend his operations for the period of the war.
Early in 1814, William Clark, governor of the Missouri Territory, appointed Lisa as US Indian Agent to the tribes located above the mouth of the Kansas River, at an annual salary of $548. Lisa set out for Fort Lisa of Nebraska, where he secured alliances between the United States and Missouri-area tribes, such as the Omaha and Ponca. He was especially effective among the Teton Sioux further upriver in present-day Minnesota, whom he organized to send war parties against tribes allied with the British. While securing these alliances, in 1814 Lisa took Mitain as a consort; she was the daughter of Big Elk, the principal chief of the Omaha people. (Lisa was still legally married to Polly, his first wife, but European-American men often took "country wives" among their Native American allies to build their relationships.)
Later, the U.S. government recognized Lisa, calling his efforts as a "great service in preventing British influence" in the northern area. After the war's conclusion in 1815, Lisa renewed his yearly trade expeditions to the area, staying each winter at Fort Lisa, Nebraska. He eventually had two children with Mitain: Rosalie and Christopher.
Later life
After the war, Lisa's reputation in St. Louis improved as a result of his success in the fur trade and having aided the Americans. In 1815, he invited 43 Native American chiefs and headmen from various tribes living between the Mississippi and Missouri to the city to strengthen their alliance with the Americans, and entertained them for about three weeks. He conducted them to Portage des Sioux to meet with the commissioners William Clark, Edwards and Auguste Chouteau to sign treaties of friendship. About two years later, he hosted another 24 chiefs from the Pawnee, Missouri and Sioux before another treaty signing.
In St. Louis, Lisa was considered an ally of the landed elite. He became more affiliated with leading American members of St. Louis, including Edward Hempstead, a land claims attorney, and Thomas Hart Benton, editor of the St. Louis Enquirer. In the fall of 1817, while the trader was on an expedition up the Missouri, his first wife Polly Lisa died.
In 1818 Lisa was with most of the residents in St. Louis who turned out to welcome the newly assigned Bishop Louis William Du Bourg. He had decided to make St. Louis the seat of the diocese of Louisiana and the Floridas. Lisa and other Creole families pledged substantial funds to build a church (now called the Old Cathedral) near the river that was fit for the diocese. After his return from that year's expedition, on August 5, 1818 Lisa married the widow Mary Hempstead Keeny (a sister of Edward Hempstead). As a measure of Lisa's social standing, Pierre Chouteau was a witness at his second wedding.
After living a year in St. Louis, Lisa took Mary with him for the winter of 1819-1820 to Fort Lisa in Nebraska (Mary Lisa reportedly became the first woman of European descent to travel so far up the Missouri River). When he and Mary arrived, Lisa sent his second wife Mitain away from the fort.
By the time of his 1819 expedition, Lisa had developed strong relationships with the Omaha, Ponca, Yankton and Teton Sioux, Mandan and Arikara peoples. He was instrumental in extending the "commercial outreach of St. Louis" to the Yellowstone and Bighorn rivers and to tribes previously more under British influence. By 1829 the Missouri Fur Company had invested capital of about $10,000, highest among the local firms.
Although Lisa returned to St. Louis in good health in April 1820, he soon became ill. The unidentified illness caused his death at Sulphur Springs (now within the city of St. Louis) on August 12, 1820. He was buried at Bellefontaine Cemetery at the Hempstead family plot. Although his will provided for $2000 for each of his children upon reaching adulthood (including those by Mitain), there is no evidence that they received any money. The historian Chittenden believed Lisa left few assets to his estate.
After his death, Joshua Pilcher led the Missouri Fur Company to do business under various names until about 1830. By 1830, John Jacob Astor had gained a monopoly with his American Fur Company. As the fur trade had been declining overall with changes in taste, Pilcher dissolved the Missouri Fur Company.
See also
List of fur trading post and forts in North America
Fur trading
Notes
References
Further reading
Judith A. Boughter, Betraying the Omaha Nation, 1790-1916, University of Oklahoma Press, 1998
External links
Photograph of Lisa's grave in Bellefontaine Cemetery
1772 births
1820 deaths
American fur traders
Mountain men
American people of Spanish descent
People from New Orleans
Louisiana Creole people of Spanish descent
People of Colonial Spanish Louisiana
People of pre-statehood Missouri
Burials at Bellefontaine Cemetery
People from New Madrid, Missouri | [
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250153 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry%20of%20numbers | Geometry of numbers | Geometry of numbers is the part of number theory which uses geometry for the study of algebraic numbers. Typically, a ring of algebraic integers is viewed as a lattice in and the study of these lattices provides fundamental information on algebraic numbers. The geometry of numbers was initiated by .
The geometry of numbers has a close relationship with other fields of mathematics, especially functional analysis and Diophantine approximation, the problem of finding rational numbers that approximate an irrational quantity.
Minkowski's results
Suppose that is a lattice in -dimensional Euclidean space and is a convex centrally symmetric body.
Minkowski's theorem, sometimes called Minkowski's first theorem, states that if , then contains a nonzero vector in .
The successive minimum is defined to be the inf of the numbers such that contains linearly independent vectors of .
Minkowski's theorem on successive minima, sometimes called Minkowski's second theorem, is a strengthening of his first theorem and states that
Later research in the geometry of numbers
In 1930-1960 research on the geometry of numbers was conducted by many number theorists (including Louis Mordell, Harold Davenport and Carl Ludwig Siegel). In recent years, Lenstra, Brion, and Barvinok have developed combinatorial theories that enumerate the lattice points in some convex bodies.
Subspace theorem of W. M. Schmidt
In the geometry of numbers, the subspace theorem was obtained by Wolfgang M. Schmidt in 1972. It states that if n is a positive integer, and L1,...,Ln are linearly independent linear forms in n variables with algebraic coefficients and if ε>0 is any given real number, then
the non-zero integer points x in n coordinates with
lie in a finite number of proper subspaces of Qn.
Influence on functional analysis
Minkowski's geometry of numbers had a profound influence on functional analysis. Minkowski proved that symmetric convex bodies induce norms in finite-dimensional vector spaces. Minkowski's theorem was generalized to topological vector spaces by Kolmogorov, whose theorem states that the symmetric convex sets that are closed and bounded generate the topology of a Banach space.
Researchers continue to study generalizations to star-shaped sets and other non-convex sets.
References
Bibliography
Matthias Beck, Sinai Robins. Computing the continuous discretely: Integer-point enumeration in polyhedra, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer, 2007.
J. W. S. Cassels. An Introduction to the Geometry of Numbers. Springer Classics in Mathematics, Springer-Verlag 1997 (reprint of 1959 and 1971 Springer-Verlag editions).
John Horton Conway and N. J. A. Sloane, Sphere Packings, Lattices and Groups, Springer-Verlag, NY, 3rd ed., 1998.
R. J. Gardner, Geometric tomography, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1995. Second edition: 2006.
P. M. Gruber, Convex and discrete geometry, Springer-Verlag, New York, 2007.
P. M. Gruber, J. M. Wills (editors), Handbook of convex geometry. Vol. A. B, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1993.
M. Grötschel, Lovász, L., A. Schrijver: Geometric Algorithms and Combinatorial Optimization, Springer, 1988
(Republished in 1964 by Dover.)
Edmund Hlawka, Johannes Schoißengeier, Rudolf Taschner. Geometric and Analytic Number Theory. Universitext. Springer-Verlag, 1991.
C. G. Lekkerkererker. Geometry of Numbers. Wolters-Noordhoff, North Holland, Wiley. 1969.
Lovász, L.: An Algorithmic Theory of Numbers, Graphs, and Convexity, CBMS-NSF Regional Conference Series in Applied Mathematics 50, SIAM, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1986
Wolfgang M. Schmidt. Diophantine approximation. Lecture Notes in Mathematics 785. Springer. (1980 [1996 with minor corrections])
Rolf Schneider, Convex bodies: the Brunn-Minkowski theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993.
Anthony C. Thompson, Minkowski geometry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996.
Hermann Weyl. Theory of reduction for arithmetical equivalence . Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 48 (1940) 126–164.
Hermann Weyl. Theory of reduction for arithmetical equivalence. II . Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 51 (1942) 203–231. | [
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250160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future%20History%20%28Heinlein%29 | Future History (Heinlein) | Future History is a series of stories created by Robert A. Heinlein. It describes a projected future of the human race from the middle of the 20th century through the early 23rd century. The term Future History was coined by John W. Campbell Jr. in the February 1941 issue of Astounding Science Fiction. Campbell published an early draft of Heinlein's chart of the series in the May 1941 issue.
Heinlein wrote most of the Future History stories early in his career, between 1939 and 1941 and between 1945 and 1950. Most of the Future History stories written prior to 1967 are collected in The Past Through Tomorrow, which also contains the final version of the chart. That collection does not include Universe and Common Sense; they were published separately as Orphans of the Sky.
Groff Conklin called Future History "the greatest of all histories of tomorrow". It was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best All-Time Series in 1966, along with the Barsoom series by Edgar Rice Burroughs, the Lensman series by E. E. Smith, the Foundation series by Isaac Asimov, and The Lord of the Rings series by J. R. R. Tolkien, but lost to Asimov's Foundation series.
Definition
For the most part, The Past Through Tomorrow defines a core group of stories that are clearly within the Future History series. However, Heinlein scholars generally agree that some stories not included in the anthology belong to the Future History series, and that some that are included are only weakly linked to it.
James Gifford adds Time Enough for Love, which was published after The Past Through Tomorrow, and also "Let There Be Light", which was not included in The Past Through Tomorrow, possibly because the collection editor disliked it or because Heinlein himself considered it to be inferior. However, he considers Time Enough for Love to be a borderline case. He considers The Number of the Beast, The Cat Who Walks Through Walls, and To Sail Beyond the Sunset to be too weakly linked to the Future History to be included.
Bill Patterson includes To Sail Beyond the Sunset, on the theory that the discrepancies between it and the rest of the Future History are explained by assigning it to the same "bundle of related timelines" in the World as Myth multiverse. However, he lists a number of stories that he believes were never really intended to be part of Future History, even though they were included in The Past Through Tomorrow: "Life-Line" (which was written before Heinlein published the Future History chart; however, Lazarus Long does reference the protagonist of "Life-Line" and his device in Time Enough for Love), "The Menace from Earth", "—We Also Walk Dogs", and the stories originally published in the Saturday Evening Post ("Space Jockey", "It's Great to Be Back!", "The Green Hills of Earth", and "The Black Pits of Luna"). He agrees with Gifford that "Let There Be Light" should be included. The story "—And He Built a Crooked House—" was included only in the pre-war chart and never since.
The Heinlein juveniles do not hew closely to the Future History outline. Gifford states that "Although the twelve juvenile novels are not completely inconsistent with the Future History, neither do they form a thorough match with that series for adult readers. It is not often recognized that they are a reasonably consistent 'Future History' of their own... At least one major story specified in the Future History chart, the revolution on Venus, ended up being told in the framework of the juveniles as Between Planets." The novel Variable Star, written by Spider Robinson from Heinlein's detailed outline, incorporates some elements of both the Future History (such as references to Nehemiah Scudder) and the universe of the Heinlein juveniles (for example, torch ships and faster-than-light telepathic communication between twins). The adult short story "The Long Watch", included in Future History story collections, connects to Space Cadet through the character of (John) Ezra Dahlquist, the central character of the first, memorialized in the second.
Stories never written
The chart published in the collection Revolt in 2100 includes several unwritten stories, which Heinlein describes in a postscript. "Fire Down Below", about a revolution in Antarctica, would have been set in the early 21st century. Three more unwritten stories fill in the history from just before "Logic of Empire" in the early 21st century through the beginning of "If This Goes On—". "The Sound of His Wings" covers Nehemiah Scudder's early life as a television evangelist through his rise to power as the First Prophet. "Eclipse" describes independence movements on Mars and Venus. "The Stone Pillow" details the rise of the resistance movement from the early days of the theocracy through the beginning of "If This Goes On—".
These stories were key points in the Future History, so Heinlein gave a rough description of Nehemiah Scudder which made his reign easy to visualize—a combination of John Calvin, Girolamo Savonarola, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, and Huey Long. His rise to power began when one of his flock, the widow of a wealthy man who would have disapproved of Scudder, died and left him enough money to establish a television station. He then teamed up with an ex-Senator and hired a major advertising agency. He was soon famous even off-world—many bonded laborers on Venus saw him as a messianic figure. He had muscle as well—a re-creation of the Ku Klux Klan in everything but name. "Blood at the polls and blood in the streets, but Scudder won the election. The next election was never held." Though this period was integral to the human diaspora that would follow several hundred years later, Heinlein stated that he was never able to write them because they featured Scudder prominently; he "dislike(d) him too much".
Nehemiah Scudder already appears in Heinlein's earliest novel For Us, the Living: A Comedy of Customs (written 1938–1939, though first published in 2003). Scudder's early career as depicted in that book is virtually identical with the above—but with the crucial difference that in the earlier version Scudder is stopped at the last moment by the counter-mobilization of Libertarians, and despite mass voter intimidation carries only Tennessee and Alabama. In fact, the Libertarian regime seen in full bloom in that book's 2086 came into being in direct reaction to Scudder's attempt to impose puritanical mores on the entire American society.
References
External links
. Archived from the original at Baen Ebooks.
A review of the Future History by Robert Wilfred Franson
A review of the Future History by Galen Strickland at The Templeton Gate
Libertarian science fiction
Novels by Robert A. Heinlein
Robert A. Heinlein
Short stories by Robert A. Heinlein
Science fiction book series | [
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250171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qingdao | Qingdao | Qingdao (, also spelled Tsingtao; , Mandarin: ) is a major city in eastern Shandong Province. The city's name in Chinese characters literally means "greenish-blue island". Located on China's Yellow Sea coast, it is a major nodal city of the One Belt, One Road (OBOR) Initiative that connects Asia with Europe. It has the highest GDP of any city in the province. Administered at the sub-provincial level, Qingdao has jurisdiction over seven districts and three county-level cities (Jiaozhou, Pingdu, Laixi). As of the 2010 census, Qingdao built-up (or metro) area made of the 7 urban Districts (these 7 urban districts are Shinan, Shibei, Huangdao, Laoshan, Licang, Chengyang, Jimo) was home to 5,764,384 inhabitants. Lying across the Shandong Peninsula and looking out to the Yellow Sea, it borders the prefecture-level cities of Yantai to the northeast, Weifang to the west and Rizhao to the southwest.
Qingdao is a major seaport and naval base, as well as a commercial and financial center. It is home to electronics multinationals such as Haier and Hisense. The Jiaozhou Bay Bridge, links the main urban area of Qingdao with Huangdao district, straddling the Jiaozhou Bay sea areas. Its historic, German-style architecture and Tsingtao Brewery, the second largest brewery in China are legacies of the German occupation (1898-1914).
In the 2020 Global Financial Centers Index, Qingdao ranked 47th; the index is published by the Z/Yen Group and China Development Institute, the other Chinese cities on the list being Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Chengdu, Nanjing, Xi'an, Tianjin, Hangzhou, Dalian, and Wuhan. In 2007, Qingdao was named as one of China's top ten cities by the Chinese Cities Brand Value Report, which was released at the 2007 Beijing Summit of China Cities Forum. In 2009, Qingdao was named China's most livable city by the Chinese Institute of City Competitiveness. In 2018, Qingdao held the Shanghai Cooperation Organization summit. In 2020, Qingdao was rated as a Gamma+ level global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.
Qingdao is also one of the world's top 100 cities for global scientific research as tracked by the Nature Index. The city is home to several notable universities, including the Ocean University of China, China University of Petroleum, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao University, Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao University of Technology, and Qingdao Agricultural University.
History
Ancient times
Human settlement in the area dates back 6,000 years. The Dongyi nationality, one of the important origins of the Chinese nation, lived here and created the Dawenkou, Longshan and Dongyeshi cultures. In the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770 B.C. – 256 B.C.), the town of Jimo was established, which was then the second largest one in the Shandong region. The area in which Qingdao is located today was named Jiao'ao () when it was administered by the Qing Dynasty on 14 June 1891.
German and Japanese occupations
In 1891, the Qing Empire decided to make coastal Tsingtao (then known as "Jiao'ao") a defense base against naval attack and began to improve its fortifications. Imperial German naval officials observed and reported on this activity during a formal survey of Jiaozhou Bay in May 1897. Subsequently, German troops seized and occupied the fortification. The preindustrial, waning Qing Empire was forced to concede the area to Germany the following year, and the Kiautschou Bay concession, as it became known, existed from 1898 to 1914 (Li 2005, p. 81). With an area of , it was located in the imperial province of Shandong (alternately romanized as Shantung or Shan-tung) on the southern coast of the Shandong Peninsula in northern China. Jiaozhou was alternatively romanized as Kiaochow, Kiauchau, or Kiao-Chau in English, and Kiautschou in German; Qingdao was its administrative center. "The so-called Marktstrasse (Market Street) was nothing more than the old main street of the Chinese village of Tsingtao, and the buildings lining it were the former homes of fishermen and farmers. Having sold their property, they resettled their homes and fields in the villages further east." Upon gaining control of the area, the Germans outfitted the impoverished fishing village of Tsingtao (Qingdao) with wide streets, solid housing areas, government buildings, electrification throughout, a sewer system and a safe drinking water supply, a rarity in large parts of Asia at that time and later. The area had the highest school density and the highest per capita student enrollment in all of China, with primary, secondary and vocational schools funded by the Imperial German treasury and Protestant and Roman Catholic missions. Commercial interests established the Germania Brewery in 1903, which later became the world-famous Tsingtao Brewery. German cultural and commercial influences extended to other areas of Shandong Province, including the establishment of diverse commercial enterprises.
Identified by the German authorities as a strategically important port, Qingdao was administered by the Imperial Department of the Navy (Reichsmarineamt) rather than the Imperial Colonial Office (Reichskolonialamt). The growing Imperial German Navy based their Far East Squadron there, allowing the warships to conduct operations throughout the western Pacific. Beginning January 1898, the marines of III. Seebataillon were based at Tsingtao. Construction of the Jiaoji Railway began on 23 September 1899, and was completed in 1904.
Before the outbreak of World War I (1914–1918), ships of the German naval forces under Admiral Count von Spee were located at central Pacific colonies on routine missions. The fleet then rendezvoused in the Marianas Islands to plan a transit back to Germany rather than be trapped in the Pacific by more powerful and numerous Allied fleets (British and Japanese).
After a minor British naval attack on the German concession in Shandong (Kiautschou Bay concession) in 1914, Japanese Empire troops occupied the city and the surrounding province during the Siege of Tsingtao after Japan's declaration of war on Germany in accordance with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. China protested against Japan's violation of her neutrality but was not able to interfere in the military operations. The decision of the Paris Peace Conference and the Versailles Treaty negotiations not to restore Chinese rule over the previous foreign concessions in Qingdao after the Great War triggered the May Fourth Movement (4 May 1919) of anti-imperialism, nationalism and cultural identity in China.
The city came under Chinese rule in December 1922, under control of the Republic of China (R.O.C.) established 1912 after the Chinese Revolution the year before. However, Japan maintained its economic dominance of the railway and the province as a whole. The city became a direct-controlled municipality of the ROC Government in July 1929.
Japan re-occupied Qingdao in 1938, a year after its expansion of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), (a precursor to World War II, 1939–1945) with its plans of territorial expansion into China's coast. Nationalist (Kuomintang) ROC forces returned after the Japanese surrender in September 1945. On 2 June 1949, during the Chinese Civil War and shortly before the founding of the communist People’s Republic of China on 1 October 1949 the city was taken by Chairman Mao Zedong and his troops.
Qingdao city planning and development
1898–1914
The development of the Tsingtao urban space during the German-occupation (1898–1914) originated from the port. Mass urban construction began in 1898 with the relocation of Chinese dwellers along the coast. With the completion of such series of mass construction projects such as wharves, the Tsingtao-Jinan Railway Line, Tsingtao Railway Station and locomotive works, a city was starting to take shape. The area had the highest school density and highest per capita student enrollment in all of China, with primary, secondary and vocational schools funded by the Berlin treasury as well as Protestant and Roman Catholic missions. In 1910, the Germans drew up for the second time the city planning of Tsingtao (Warner 2001, p. 33). The former urban area was extended for four times highlighted by the emphasis on the development of commerce and trade. Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), leader of the Chinese Revolution of 1911 and subsequent first president of the Republic of China, visited the Tsingtau area and stated in 1912, "I am impressed. The city is a true model for China's future".
1914–1922
The development of Tsingtao urban space continued during the first Japan-occupation period (1914–1922). In 1914, Tsingtao was taken over by the Japanese and served as a base for the exploitation of natural resources of Shandong and northern China. With the development of industry and commerce, a "New City District" was established to furnish the Japanese colonists with commercial sections and living quarters, which suggested a striking contrast to the shabby houses in the local Chinese zones (Li 2007, p. 133). In the meantime, a number of schools, hospitals and public buildings were constructed, followed by urban streets and intercity highways as well. The urban spatial layout continued to expand northward along the eastern bay area.
1922–1938
The development of Tsingtao urban space during the ROC-ruled period (1922–1938). This period saw the substantial progress of the urban development of Tsingtao. The government engaged itself in mass construction that gave birth to villa districts at the beach and bank groups in CBD. Plenty of public buildings and facilities for the purpose of entertainment and sports were completed. By the year of 1937, the urban population numbered 385,000(Lu 2001, p. 327). Tsingtao consequently distinguished itself as a prominent holiday resort and summer retreat.
1938–1945
The development of Tsingtao urban space during the second Japan-occupied period (1938–1945). Japanese armed forces returned to Tsingtao in 1938 and started to strive for the construction of the Greater Tsingtao in the following June. Accordingly, they worked out the city planning of the Greater Tsingtao and the City Planning of the Mother Town (Tsingtao City Proper), even though they had not had the opportunity to actualize either, respectively. The period in question did not witness much urban progress except for the logical construction of No. 6 Wharf, some Japanese residences and a small number of roads and streets (Lu 2001, p. 339).
Postwar
After World War II, the KMT allowed Qingdao to serve as the headquarters of the Western Pacific Fleet of the US Navy in 1945; however, its headquarters was transferred to the Philippines sometime in late 1948. On 2 June 1949, the CPC-led Red Army entered Qingdao and the city and province have been under PRC control since that time.
Since the 1984 inauguration of China's open-door policy to foreign trade and investment, Qingdao has rapidly developed into an ultramodern port city. It is now the headquarters of the Chinese navy's northern fleet. An early example of the open-door policy occurred on 5 November 1984, when three United States Naval vessels visited Qingdao. This was the first US port call in more than 37 years to China. , , and and their crews were officially hosted by the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN).
Northern Qingdao, particularly Shibei, Licang, and Chengyang districts, are now major manufacturing centers. The city has recently experienced a strong growth period, with a new central business district created to the east of the older business district. Outside of the center of the city, there is a large industrial zone, which includes chemical processing, rubber and heavy manufacturing, in addition to a growing high-tech area. Numerous local and national service companies, rather than manufacturers, are based in the city's southern district; this, as well as local wind patterns, allows Qingdao to enjoy clean, clear air year round.
Administrative divisions
The sub-provincial city of Qingdao has 7 districts () and 3 county-level cities ():
Geographically, there are four districts (Shinan, Shibei, Licang and Laoshan) constituting a peninsula on the east coast of the Jiaozhou Bay as the core urban area, one (Chengyang) on the north coast and one (Xihai'an) on the west coast of the Yellow Sea.
Defunct - Jiaonan city () - merged into Huangdao District (December 2012)
Geography
Qingdao is located on the south facing coast of the Shandong Peninsula (). It borders three prefecture-level cities, namely Yantai to the northeast, Weifang to the west, and Rizhao to the southwest. The city occupies an area totaling , and stretches in latitude from 35° 35' to 37° 09' N and in longitude from 119° 30' to 121° 00' E. The populated sections of the city are relatively flat while mountains spur up within city limits and nearby. The highest elevation in the city is located above sea level. Of the total area of Qingdao, 15.5% is highland, while the foothill, plain and lowland areas constitute 25.1%, 37.8% and 21.7%, respectively. The city has a -long coastline. Five significant rivers exceeding in length can be found in the region.
Climate
Qingdao has a temperate, four-season, monsoon-influenced climate that lies in the transition between the humid subtropical (Köppen Cwa) and humid continental (Köppen Dwa) regimes. Winters range from cool to cold and windy, but are generally dry, with a January average of . Summer is generally hot and humid, but very hot days are rare, with an August average of . Due to its proximity to the coast and location on a peninsula, compared to most inland areas of China, its spring is delayed by one month, and the annual diurnal temperature variation is only ; conversely, its fall is milder than inland areas in Shandong. The water temperature peaks at about in late August. Thus, swimming is possible for two months on either side. The annual mean temperature is . Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 16 January 1958 to on 15 July 2002.
During the summer months, the beaches of Qingdao are afflicted by massive algal blooms. The decomposing algae release large amounts of hydrogen sulfide gas, which produces an offensive "rotten egg" odor. Sea lettuce blooms, which are partially caused by seaweed farming in Jiangsu Province, led local officials to declare a "large-scale algae disaster" in 2013.
Demographics
Of the 10 million residents of Qingdao, 6.2 million reside in the Qingdao urban area. Another estimated 5 million live in other cities under Qingdao's jurisdiction. The annual birth rate is calculated around 76,507, with a birth rate of 10.15 per year per thousand, and a death rate of 6.32, both calculated on an annual basis. Living standards are among the highest of leading Chinese cities due to the strong export economy and relatively high family wages.
There is a large Korean community in Qingdao. By 2009, there were approximately 100,000 Koreans working, studying and living in Qingdao, which makes Qingdao the second in terms of Korean population in China, following Beijing which has about 200,000 Koreans.
Economy
An important region in Eastern China, Shandong Province has seen substantial change in its economic landscape in recent years. Much of this development has been concentrated in Qingdao. Qingdao has seen rapid development. With an annual growth rate of 18.9 percent in 2006, the city's GDP reached 42.3 billion, ranking first in Shandong Province and tenth out of China's top 20 cities. GDP per capita comprised CN¥52,895 (US$7,616) in 2008. The GDP has grown steadily at an average pace of 16% annually. In 2006, Qingdao was ranked one of six "golden cities" by the World Bank, out of 120 Chinese cities assessed on factors including investment climate and government effectiveness. In 2018, Qingdao's GDP reached CN¥1200.15 billion, though it shrank a little in 2019.
Internationally, Qingdao is perhaps best known for its Tsingtao Brewery, founded by a German-British joint venture in 1903 that produces Tsingtao beer, the best-known Chinese export beer. It is also home to Haier, a large white goods manufacturer, and Hisense, a major electronics company. In 2002 guitar manufacturers Epiphone opened a factory in Qingdao.
In 1984 the Chinese government named a district of Qingdao a Special Economic and Technology Development Zone (SETDZ). Along with this district, the entire city had gone through amazing development of secondary and tertiary industries. As an important trading port in the province, Qingdao flourishes with foreign investment and international trade. South Korea and Japan in particular made extensive investment in the city. Approximately 80,000 South Korean citizens reside there.
In terms of primary sector industries, Qingdao has an estimated of arable land. Qingdao has a zigzagging pattern coastline, and thus possesses an invaluable stock of fish, shrimp, and other sea resources.
Qingdao's wind power electricity generation performs at among the highest levels in the region.
Industrial zones
Qingdao West Coast New District
Qingdao Special Economic and Technological Development Area
Qingdao Free Trade Zone
Qingdao High-tech Industrial Zone
Qingdao University Industrial Zone
Transport
Road
There are a total of of roads in the Qingdao area, with nearly of expressways. These National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) Expressways begin or pass through in Qingdao. Expressways that begin in Qingdao are in Bold:
G15 Shenhai Expressway (Shenyang, Liaoning-Haikou, Hainan)
G18 Rongwu Expressway (Rongcheng, Shandong-Wuhai, Inner Mongolia)
G20 Qingyin Expressway (Qingdao-Yinchuan, Ningxia)
Spur Route: G2011 Qingxin Expressway (Qingdao-Xinhe, Pingdu, Shandong)
G22 Qinglan Expressway (Qingdao-Lanzhou, Gansu)
These provincial expressways begin in or pass through Qingdao. Expressways that begin in Qingdao are in Bold:
S16 Rongwei Expressway (Rongcheng-Weifang)
S19 Longqing Expressway (Longkou-Qingdao)
S21 Xinwei Expressway (Xinhe-Weifang)
S24 Weiqing Expressway (Weihai-Qingdao)
Other than Expressways, there are also National Highways that pass through or begin in Qingdao. National Highways that begin in Qingdao are in bold:
G204 (Yantai-Shanghai)
G206 (Yantai-Shantou)
G308 (Qingdao-Shijiazhuang)
G309 (Rongcheng-Lanzhou)
On 30 June 2011, the longest bridge over water opened in Qingdao. The bridge, Haiwan Bridge, is long and connects Qingdao to Huangdao and Hongdao. It would easily cross the English Channel and is almost three miles () longer than the previous record-holder, the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in the American state of Louisiana. Haiwan Bridge is supported by more than 5,000 pillars and costs about 10 billion yuan which is about 1.5 billion dollars. The bridge was designed by the Shandong Gausu Group and the construction lasted for four years. Haiwan Bridge cut the commute between the city of Qingdao and the sprawling suburb of Huangdao by 30 minutes. At least 10,000 workers toiled in two teams around the clock to build the bridge, which was constructed from opposite ends. On the same day, the Jiaozhou Bay Tunnel opened. The tunnel brought much convenience to people by supporting public buses and making transport between the two areas more convenient.
Marine
Also see Port of Qingdao
Qingdao (official name: Qingdao port international co. ltd.) hosts one of the world's busiest seaports. Cooperative relations have been established with 450 ports in 130 countries worldwide. The port of Qingdao is part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. In 2003, the annual cargo handling capacity exceeded 100 million tons for the first time. The number of containers reached of cargoes.
By 2011, the port had become the world’s sixth-busiest by Total Cargo Volume, having handled of cargo in that year. As of 2016, it was the 8th in the world in terms of TEUs (Twenty Foot Equivalent Units).
The Orient Ferry connects Qingdao with Shimonoseki, Japan. There are two ferry lines connecting Qingdao with South Korea. The New Golden Bridge II operates between Qingdao and Incheon, and the Blue Sea Ferry operates between Qingdao and Gunsan.
Qingdao port also includes a number of large adjacent ports including Dongjiakou.
Aviation
Qingdao Jiaodong International Airport, located away from the city center, is served by 13 domestic and international airlines that operate 94 routes, 12 of which are international and regional. The airport opened on August 12, 2021 as a replacement for Qingdao Liuting International Airport.
Intercity rail
Qingdao's railway development picked up during the late 1990s. It is at the start of the Jiaoji Railway. Qingdao's city proper has some major railway stations, including Qingdao railway station, Cangkou railway station, Dagang railway station and Qingdao North railway station. Sifang railway station is now closed to passengers.
D and G series high-speed trains travel on the Jiaoji High Speed Railway and reach speeds of on the Jinan-Qingdao Section. Services go to Beijing, Shanghai, Hefei, Jinan and Tianjin. The fastest train between Qingdao and Beijing is G206 / G205, which takes 2 hours and 58 minutes.
Domestic rail lines connect Qingdao with many cities in China, including Beijing, Lanzhou, Chengdu, Xi'an, Zhengzhou, Jinan and Jining.
Public transport
Qingdao's public traffic owns 5283 large and medium-sized buses, CNG buses .There are also 136 trolleybuses . All of the buses and trolleybuses can be accessed using the Qingdao Public Traffic IC Card (), which uses radio frequencies so the card does not have to physically touch the scanner. After that, all public transportation companies use Qingdaotong Card, the last company started to use this card is Zhenqing bus company located in The West Coast New Area of Qingdao (original Huangdao Distinct) in 2019.
Non air-conditioned buses cost 1 yuan (excluding the tunnel bus), The volume of road passenger transport approaches 737 million per year. The Public Transport Brand of 'Ri-Xin Bus ()' is also known in China.
There are a number of taxi companies in Qingdao including Yiqing Company, Zhongqing Company, Jiaoyun Company and, Huaqing Company.
Metro
After getting the approval from the State Council, the government announced on 18 August 2009 that Qingdao is ready to spend more than 29 billion yuan ($4.2 billion) before 2016 on its subway construction. Construction of of subway line 3 was completed before 2016 with a total investment of 29.2 billion yuan ($4.3 billion). Metro Line 3 is the first line in function and opened on 16 December 2015. In the long term, the city plans to build eight subway lines in downtown and some suburban districts, which account for in future. The system has an operating length of , lines in operation including Line 1, Line 2, Line 3, Line 8, Line 11, and Line 13.
Tramway
The Qingdao Tram (official name: Modern tram demonstration line) of Chengyang District, Qingdao, is a tram system operating in Chengyang District, Qingdao, China. It opened in 2016. The Qingdao Public Transport Group Rail Bus Co., Ltd. is responsible for operation and management. The system is only composed of 1 tram line.
Culture
Architecture
There are a large number of German-style buildings in Qingdao's city center, a remarkable fact considering the German leased-territory period only lasted 16 years (1898–1914). The unique combination of German and Chinese architecture therein, combined with German demographic roots and a large Korean expatriate population, gives Qingdao a rather distinct atmosphere. An old saying described Qingdao as a city of "red tiles green trees, blue sky and blue sea." This saying indeed gives a picture of bird view of Qingdao. A larger number of areas in former foreign styles are well preserved. Although the new city area is under large-scale reconstruction, the old city area (especially the western part of Shinan District) still retains many traditional buildings.
Notable people
James R. Lilley, U.S. diplomat
Ma Jian ()
Xiao Hong ()
Xiao Jun ()
Duanmu Hongliang ()
Erin Pizzey, (was born in Qingdao)
Li Zhaoxing ()
Zhang Ruimin ()
Victoria Song (, f(x))
Huang Zitao (, musician, actor)
Huang Bo ()
Zhang Jike ()
Gao Fenghan ()
Toshiro Mifune (was born in Qingdao)
Li Cunxin ()
Huang Xiaoming ()
Chen Hao ()
Xia Yu ()
Fan Bingbing (, born in Qingdao)
Bai Baihe ()
Hao Haidong ()
Wang Dong (, midfielder for Qingdao Huanghai)
Zhang Juanjuan ( ,archer)
Malcolm H. Wiener, (was born in Qingdao)
Ni Ping ()
Tang Guoqiang ()
Chen Meng ()
Movies shot in Qingdao
A Little Red Flower () 2020
A Better Tomorrow 2018 () 2016
The Great Wall () 2016
Underdog Fight () 2008
Underdog Fight II () 2013
Ocean Heaven () 2010
Beauty Remains () 2005
Language
During the city's leased-territory days, German, the official language, was rigorously taught and promoted. Since the demise of Germany's colonial empire after World War I, the German language is all but gone, leaving little impact on the local languages. A local accent known as Qingdao dialect () distinguishes the residents of the city from those of the surrounding Shandong province. Due to the efforts by the city government to promote standard Mandarin, most educated people can speak standard Mandarin in addition to their native dialect. With reform policies and English teaching, some young citizens have been taught English and many can converse with English-speaking foreigners. Business and traffic signs in English are becoming more and more common.
Festivals
Notable festivals include:
Qingdao International Horticultural Exposition 2014 is the biggest international fair that has been held in the history of the city.
Qingdao International Beer Festival in August/September, held annually since 1991.
Media
Qingdao previously had a large German community and a German garrison, so three German newspapers operated in Qingdao. German papers included Deutsch-Asiatische Warte (; weekly newspaper published until 1906, included Die Welt des Ostens, Altes und Neues aus Asiens drei Kaiserreichen, a cultural supplement), the Tsingtauer Neueste Nachrichten and the Kiautschou Post (a daily paper published from 1908 to 1912, referring to the Kiautschou (Jiaozhou) Bay concession). German publishing in Qingdao ended after World War I and the beginning of the Japanese administration.
A 1912 publication of the United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce said that the Tageblatt für Nordchina of Tianjin was read in Qingdao, and that major newspapers from Shanghai were also read in Qingdao.
Tourism
Qingdao attracts many tourists due to its seaside setting and temperate weather. Parks, beaches, sculptures and unique German and modern architecture line the shore. Its centrally located tourist information center, the "Qingdao Information Center for International Visitors for International Visitors," is located on Middle Hong Kong Road ().
Qingdao's major attractions include:
Western Shinan district
Zhan Qiao (Pier, )
Little Qingdao Isle ()
Tian Hou Temple (), Qingdao Folk Museum
Badaguan (), the older area of town with some surviving German and Japanese architecture.
Lu Xun Park, named after Lu Xun, modern Chinese writer and critic, who lived and taught in the 1930s.
Zhongshan Park, named after the style name 'Zhongshan' of Sun Yat-sen, a famous modern Chinese politician.
Xiao Yu Shan ()
The twin-spired St. Michael's Cathedral (; ), a notable example of Qingdao's famous Neo-romanesque architecture, designed by German architect Alfred Fräbel, completed in 1934.
Qingdao Aquarium ()
Jiaozhou Governor's Hall (), office building of former German governors (Gouverneurspalast) and former municipal government
Xinhao Hill ()
Eastern Shinan district
May Fourth Square (Platz des vierten Mai), Coastal plaza with the Wind of May sculpture
Tsingtao Brewery (Tsingtao-Brauerei), founded by Germany and the most exported beer from China.
Zhanshan Temple (Dschanschan-Tempel), Qingdao's oldest Buddhist temple.
Laoshan district
Lao Shan (Mount Lao, Lauschan, ), east of Qingdao, the most famous Taoist mountain with Taoist retreat – Great Purity Palace ()
National Shilaoren Tourist Resort (), the famous bathing beach symbolized by a characteristic natural sea rock with a shape like an old man
Xiaomaidao Park (), the park with hills, beach, and nice view of the coastal line
Education
Higher Education
Qingdao is home to a large number of higher education institutions. Ocean University of China, formerly called Ocean University of Qingdao, is the most important university of maritime sciences in China. In addition, the Qingdao University,Qingdao University is ranked #940 in Best Global Universities. Schools are ranked according to their performance across a set of widely accepted indicators of excellence. the Qingdao University of Science and Technology as well as the Qingdao Technological University have also been integral parts of higher education in Qingdao for decades. Shandong University Qingdao (SDUQ) established since 2016, belonging to Shandong University System. Other institutions include:
China University of Petroleum, completed its relocation from Dongying to Qingdao in 2012
Shandong University of Science and Technology, main campus is based in Qingdao since 2003
Qingdao Agricultural University, main campus is based in Qingdao since 2007
Qingdao Technical College
Qingdao Binhai University, located at Huangdao.
Shandong University was located in Qingdao from 1909 to 1936. A new branch campus of the university is under construction in Aoshanwei Town, Jimo.
International schools
Korean International School of Qingdao
Malvern College Qingdao
Pegasus California School, Qingdao
International School of Qingdao
Qingdao Amerasia International School
Qingdao No.1 International School
Qingdao Oxford International College
Yew Chung International School of Qingdao
Belt&Road Collaborative Innovation College (BRCIC)
Secondary schools
Qingdao No. 2 High School
Qingdao No. 58 School
Qingdao No. 1 High School
Qingdao No. 9 High School
Qingdao No. 15 High School
Qingdao No. 19 High School
and so on
Sports
Stadiums
Guoxin Gymnasium (Qingdao city sports center)
Yizhong Sports Center
Qingdao Tiantai Stadium
Hongcheng Stadium
2008 Olympic Summer Games
During the 2008 Summer Olympics, Qingdao and Beijing cohosted the Olympic Sailing competitions. In Qingdao, the events took place along the shoreline by the city. These events were hosted at the Qingdao International Sailing Centre and held in Fushan Bay, near the city's central business district. An international broadcasting center and purpose-built hotel were constructed for the Games.
Motorsport
The IndyCar Series signed a contract with the Qingdao city council to hold an IndyCar race in Qingdao in 2012. The subsequently canceled race was supposed to take place on a street circuit
Sister cities
Qingdao has 26 sister cities.
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Shandong
Qingdao Oriental Movie Metropolis
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Gottschall, Terrell D. By Order of the Kaiser: Otto von Diederichs and the Rise of the Imperial German Navy 1865–1902. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. 2003.
Schultz-Naumann, Joachim. Unter Kaisers Flagge: Deutschlands Schutzgebiete im Pazifik und in China einst und heute [Under the Kaiser’s Flag, Germany’s Protectorates in the Pacific and in China then and today]. Munich: Universitas Verlag. 1985.
Miscellaneous series, Issues 7–11. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1912.
Walravens, Hartmut. "German Influence on the Press in China". In: Newspapers in International Librarianship: Papers Presented by the Newspaper Section at IFLA General Conferences. Walter de Gruyter, 1 January 2003. , .
Also available at the website of the Queens Library – This version does not include the footnotes visible in the Walter de Gruyter version.
Also available in Walravens, Hartmut and Edmund King. Newspapers in international librarianship: papers presented by the newspapers section at IFLA General Conferences. K.G. Saur, 2003. , .
External links
Qingdao Government website
Qingdao International Academician Port website
Study in China Admission System（中国高等院校国际招生管理服务系统） website
Populated coastal places in China
Port cities and towns in China
Populated places with period of establishment missing
Prefecture-level divisions of Shandong | [
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250178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewes%27s%20number | Skewes's number | In number theory, Skewes's number is any of several large numbers used by the South African mathematician Stanley Skewes as upper bounds for the smallest natural number for which
where is the prime-counting function and is the logarithmic integral function. Skewes's number is much larger, but it is now known that there is a crossing near It is not known whether it is the smallest.
Skewes's numbers
John Edensor Littlewood, who was Skewes's research supervisor, had proved in that there is such a number (and so, a first such number); and indeed found that the sign of the difference changes infinitely many times. All numerical evidence then available seemed to suggest that was always less than Littlewood's proof did not, however, exhibit a concrete such number .
proved that, assuming that the Riemann hypothesis is true, there exists a number violating below
In , without assuming the Riemann hypothesis, Skewes proved that there must exist a value of below
Skewes's task was to make Littlewood's existence proof effective: exhibiting some concrete upper bound for the first sign change. According to Georg Kreisel, this was at the time not considered obvious even in principle.
More recent estimates
These upper bounds have since been reduced considerably by using large-scale computer calculations of zeros of the Riemann zeta function. The first estimate for the actual value of a crossover point was given by , who showed that somewhere between and there are more than consecutive integers with .
Without assuming the Riemann hypothesis, proved an upper bound of . A better estimate was discovered by , who showed there are at least consecutive integers somewhere near this value where . Bays and Hudson found a few much smaller values of where gets close to ; the possibility that there are crossover points near these values does not seem to have been definitely ruled out yet, though computer calculations suggest they are unlikely to exist. gave a small improvement and correction to the result of Bays and Hudson. found a smaller interval for a crossing, which was slightly improved by . The same source shows that there exists a number violating below . This can be reduced to assuming the Riemann hypothesis. gave .
Rigorously, proved that there are no crossover points below , improved by to , by to , by to , and by to .
There is no explicit value known for certain to have the property though computer calculations suggest some explicit numbers that are quite likely to satisfy this.
Even though the natural density of the positive integers for which does not exist, showed that the logarithmic density of these positive integers does exist and is positive. showed that this proportion is about 0.00000026, which is surprisingly large given how far one has to go to find the first example.
Riemann's formula
Riemann gave an explicit formula for , whose leading terms are (ignoring some subtle convergence questions)
where the sum is over all in the set of non-trivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function.
The largest error term in the approximation (if the Riemann hypothesis is true) is negative , showing that is usually larger than . The other terms above are somewhat smaller, and moreover tend to have different, seemingly random complex arguments, so mostly cancel out. Occasionally however, several of the larger ones might happen to have roughly the same complex argument, in which case they will reinforce each other instead of cancelling and will overwhelm the term .
The reason why the Skewes number is so large is that these smaller terms are quite a lot smaller than the leading error term, mainly because the first complex zero of the zeta function has quite a large imaginary part, so a large number (several hundred) of them need to have roughly the same argument in order to overwhelm the dominant term. The chance of random complex numbers having roughly the same argument is about 1 in .
This explains why is sometimes larger than and also why it is rare for this to happen.
It also shows why finding places where this happens depends on large scale calculations of millions of high precision zeros of the Riemann zeta function.
The argument above is not a proof, as it assumes the zeros of the Riemann zeta function are random, which is not true. Roughly speaking, Littlewood's proof consists of Dirichlet's approximation theorem to show that sometimes many terms have about the same argument.
In the event that the Riemann hypothesis is false, the argument is much simpler, essentially because the terms for zeros violating the Riemann hypothesis (with real part greater than ) are eventually larger than .
The reason for the term is that, roughly speaking, actually counts powers of primes, rather than the primes themselves, with weighted by . The term is roughly analogous to a second-order correction accounting for squares of primes.
Equivalent for prime k-tuples
An equivalent definition of Skewes' number exists for prime k-tuples (). Let denote a prime (k + 1)-tuple, the number of primes below such that are all prime, let and let denote its Hardy-Littlewood constant (see First Hardy-Littlewood conjecture). Then the first prime that violates the Hardy-Littlewood inequality for the (k + 1)-tuple , i.e., the first prime such that
(if such a prime exists) is the Skewes number for
The table below shows the currently known Skewes numbers for prime k-tuples:
The Skewes number (if it exists) for sexy primes is still unknown.
It is also unknown whether all admissible k-tuples have a corresponding Skewes number.
References
.
.
External links
Large numbers
Number theory
Large integers | [
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250184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring-necked%20duck | Ring-necked duck | The ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris) is a diving duck from North America commonly found in freshwater ponds and lakes. The scientific name is derived from Greek , an unidentified seabird mentioned by authors including Hesychius and Aristotle, and Latin collaris, "of the neck" from collum, "neck".
Description
Ring-necked ducks are small to medium-sized diving ducks with the following length, weight, and wingspan measurements:
Length: 15.3-18.1 in (39-46 cm)
Weight: 17.3-32.1 oz (490-910 g)
Wingspan: 24.4-24.8 in (62-63 cm)
The adult male is similar in color pattern to the Eurasian tufted duck, its relative. Males are a little bit bigger than the female. It has two white rings surrounding its gray bill, a shiny black angular head, black back, white line on the wings, a white breast and yellow eyes. The adult female has a grayish brown angular head and body with a dark brown back, a dark bill with a more subtle light band than the male, grayish-blue feet and brown eyes with white rings surrounding them. Females also make a noise like . The cinnamon neck ring is usually difficult to observe, which is why the bird is sometimes referred to as a "ringbill".
Breeding and migration
Their breeding habitat is wooded lakes or ponds in the northern United States and Canada. The main breeding area is Northwest boreal forest territories. Their breeding habits also take place in the eastern boreal region of Canada but no where near the same amount in the northwestern region. Winter months they are usually found in southern North America in lakes, ponds, rivers or bays. Ring-necked duck pairs start during spring migration. Unpaired ducks showing up on breeding grounds will most likely end up being non-breeders. The pairs stay together only for reproduction, until then, they separate. The nest is bowl-shaped, built on water in dense emergent vegetation with sedges and woody plants. The female lays one egg per day until 8 to 10 eggs are laid. They are incubated 25–29 days and the female may remain with the young until they are able to fly.
Diet
These birds are omnivores and feed mainly by diving or dabbling at the surface. Ducklings are dependent on animal matter such as insects, earthworms, leeches, midges and snails. As they mature they tend change their diet to submerged plants such as pondweed and coontail, and emergents such as annual wild rice and snails.
Vagrancy
This strong migrant is a rare but regular vagrant to western Europe. In Britain, occasional small flocks occur, including five at Loch Leven, Scotland in September 2003 and four at Standlake in Oxfordshire in April 2015. In Ireland one or two individuals can be seen at any time of year. Vagrant individuals also occur each year in Central America as far south as Costa Rica between October/November and May/June. They have also been reported in small numbers in Suriname and French Guiana, in northern South America.
References
External links
Ring-necked Duck Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Ring-necked Duck - Aythya collaris - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Ring-necked Duck at eNature.com
Ring-necked Duck at Mass Audubon Breeding Bird Atlas
ring-necked duck
ring-necked duck
Birds of Canada
Birds of Hispaniola
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Birds of Haiti
Native birds of the Northwestern United States
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250190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probainognathus | Probainognathus | Probainognathus meaning “progressive jaw” is an extinct genus of cynodonts that lived around 235 to 221.5 million years ago, during the Late Triassic in what is now South America. Probainognathus is a member of the family Probainognathidae, and is a close relative of the family Chiniquodontidae. The various similarities to Chiniquodontidae led Alfred Romer to initially suggest Probainognathus be placed within that family, but it was subsequently decided that the differences were enough to warrant its placement within Probainognathidae.
Probainognathus jenseni was a species of small, carnivorous cynodonts which possessed features that provide a connection between cynodonts and mammals. The major feature being jaw joint articulation that not only included the quadrate and articular bones, but also the squamosal and dentary bones. This development in the jaw joint is an important step in the evolution of mammals as this squamosal-dentary articulation is the joint all extant mammals possess. These findings provide evidence that Probainognathus should be placed on the line ascending towards Mammalia.
Discovery and naming
Probainognathus was discovered in the Chañares Formation in La Rioja Province, Argentina. Harvard collector James A. Jensen headed the group that discovered Probainognathus jenseni that was described in 1970, and Jensen is also the specific namesake for Probainognathus jenseni. These specimens were collected 3 km north of the terminus of the Rio Chañares at the Campo de Talampaya, and were described by Alfred Sherwood Romer in 1970.
Probainognathus has also been collected from the Ischigualasto Formation in the Ischigualasto-Villa Unión Basin in northwestern Argentina. A juvenile skull unearthed from this formation was sent through a CT scan at the University of Texas at Austin, and was, ultimately, made available to the public. This allows for current three-dimensional analysis of this specimen in a digital medium, and provides morphological context beyond the limits of two-dimensional pictures.
In addition to this, in 1994, the holotype of Probainognathus jenseni, along with several other specimens, were stolen from the National University of La Rioja in Argentina.
Probainognathus was first described and named by Harvard paleontologist, Alfred Sherwood Romer in 1970. Probainognathus jenseni is the focus of this description, and was named generically for its advanced jaw articulation, literally meaning “progressive jaw” in Greek, and specifically for James A. Jensen, a Harvard collector on the trips to recover the specimen.
Description
Probainognathus was a small cynodont, the apparent body size of which is inconsistent across sources, ranging from being about the size of a rat, to the size of a small dog.
Teeth and diet
The diet of Probainognathus is thought to have been carnivorous, which can be extrapolated by its teeth. The teeth include dully-tipped, partially developed canines, postcanines, four upper incisors that are positioned vertically, and three lower incisors that lean slightly forward. The cheek teeth are slender from the sides, but are lengthened anteroposteriorly, with several cusps along the row. This pattern is consistent with that exhibited by other meat-eating cynodonts, which indicates Probainognathus was a carnivore, as well. This tooth pattern is similar to that of chiniquodontids, and is part of the proposed connection between them and Probainognathus.
Brain
Based on an endocranial cast of Probainognathus, several details have been extrapolated about its brain. Probainognathus’ cerebral hemispheres were elongated, it had established olfactory bulbs, and a significant cerebellum and flooculi. These were among other, less pronounced, structures such as anterior colliculi. Because of these features, it has been suggested that Probainognathus’ brain had visual, auditory, motor, and body sensory systems all present. And, as a whole, the brain of Probainognathus indicates that it was in the process of developing endothermy.
Skull
The snout of Probainognathus extends beyond the premaxillary processes, and is very thin. The apparent fragility of this structure has led to it being broken off several specimens, and has led to an increased difficulty in studying it. There are several features that have been identified, however. The suborbital arch and the zygomatic arch are both shaped relatively sharply, and there is an extension of the squamosal posteriorly on the zygomatic arch. Probainognathus has a long secondary palate as it stretches all the way to the posterior end of the tooth row. In addition, the secondary palate is also formed largely by the palatine, and it is somewhat narrow. This narrowing of the palate allows for the conservation of space to be able to fit the back, lower molars. Moreover, the vomer is posterior to the secondary palate, and significant pterygoid flanges are present, as well.
The skull of Probainognathus is, on average, around 7 cm in length, and is missing the parietal foramen. The skull is broad in proportion to its length, the face is short and narrow, but its zygomatic region is relatively large, seemingly for jaw muscle attachment. The skull also possesses a double occipital condyle, which is a typical mammalian feature. In comparison to close relatives, such as Probelesodon, the braincase of Probainognathus is more broad in the parietal region, and the oticoccipital region of the skull is deeper. Likewise, the parietals have more depth, the occipital crest is higher, and the orbits are proportionately larger relative to the rest of its head. The sagittal crest is also lengthened posteriorly, and splits into the occipital crests. This leads to a straighter posterior margin, and a more concave occiput in Probainognathus.
Jaw
The jaw of Probainognathus is of particular phylogenetic importance. Morphologically, the dentary makes up most of the lower jaw, and it curves and extends down posteriorly to the area of the articular and jaw articulation. Correspondingly, in the upper jaw, the squamosal bone becomes situated next to the quadrate. The posterior end of this enlarged dentary fits into a small nook in the squamosal of the upper jaw, and displays the beginning of the evolution of the squamosal-dentary jaw joint. This squamosal-dentary jaw articulation is the same joint exhibited by mammals, and the inclusion of this joint in Probainognathus indicates that it is a precursor to mammals.
Along with this osteological feature, the jaw of Probainognathus is suggested to have had mammal-like soft tissue advancements, as well. The jaw muscles in Probainognathus were thought to have been positioned farther forward, with the masseter splitting into two separate muscles: the superficial masseter and the deep masseter. Despite this new development, the reptilian quadrate-articular jaw joint persists in Probainognathus, and a paired jaw joint is the result. Because of this, the jaw of Probainognathus remains distinct from that of mammals due mostly to the presence of the articular and the quadrate.
Once the dentary-squamosal articulation becomes more established, the former bones involved in jaw articulation, the articular and quadrate, can become integrated into the inner ear as the malleus and incus, respectively. This has not yet happened in the case of Probainognathus, but the reduced size of the quadrate, as well as its loose association with the squamosal and proximity to the stapes indicates the quadrate to incus process is underway. This combination of evidence further solidifies Probainognathus’ phylogenetic placement on the line to Mammalia, and provides a sound evolutionary connection between reptiles and mammals.
Paleoecology
Probainognathus was collected from the Chañares Formation in La Rioja Province, Argentina. This locale is known for its preservation of Middle Triassic tetrapods, which are largely fossilized in volcanic concretions.
When Probainognathus inhabited this area during the Middle Triassic, it is thought to have been a lacustrine region within a rift basin that got a large influx of sedimentary debris and volcanic ash.
Various pieces of evidence suggest tetrapod mass mortality was the cause of death in the Chañares Formation. Fossils of both young and adult specimens were found at this locale, and these are not limited to Probainognathus, but rather represent many taxa that fell victim to the event. There is also an unusual concentration of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores in this formation. Numerous fossils of each type were found in close proximity to one another, despite the fact that this intermingling would normally be uncommon. It has, subsequently, been suggested that this unusual distribution of specimens could be due to the death event leaving these animals stranded with no other place to go, perhaps along a waterfront of some kind. The evidence at hand, especially the nature of volcanic preservation, has led to the postulation that volcanism played a role in the death event in some capacity. Suggested events include a large outpouring of ash, lethal gas surges, or, more likely, volcanism-induced flooding. Volcanic activity may have caused damming or other water diversion, which led to major widespread flooding in the area, and the death of Probainognathus and other tetrapods. Unfortunately, however, it remains uncertain whether volcanism was the direct cause of this major death event, or if it just aided in preservation after the fact.
References
Prehistoric probainognathians
Prehistoric cynodont genera
Carnian genera
Late Triassic synapsids of South America
Fossils of Argentina
Triassic Argentina
Chañares Formation
Ischigualasto Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1970 | [
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250191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepagia | Lepagia | Lepagia is an extinct genus of poorly known carnivorous cynodonts, which lived during the Upper Triassic in Europe. Partly due to the paucity of remains (it is only known from teeth) the precise affinities of this genus are unclear. It seems reasonably closely related to Probainognathus, a somewhat earlier inhabitant of South America. The genus Lepagia ("for Lepage") was named by Hahn, Wild and Wouters in 1987 based on a single species.
Fossil remains of the species Lepagia gaumensis have been found in the Norian (late) - Rhaetian (early) (Upper Triassic)-age strata from Habay-la-Vielle, Hallau, Saint-Nicolas-de-Port in Belgium, Switzerland and France.
The holotype is at the Institut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique (Royal Institute of Natural Sciences of Belgium) in Brussels. These teeth are 2 – 3 mm in length. The postcanines have long and narrow crowns with three to five cusps, the central one of which is dominant and points straight upwards. The root is vaguely rectangular, with the lower portion tapering. There are no distinctive wear facets, but the separation of crown and root are clear. Sometimes the crown is larger and sometimes the root.
Godefroit and Battail cite similarities and differences with and to both Chiniquodontidae and Dromatheriidae and leave the systematical placement open.
References
Hahn et al. (1987), Cynodontier-Zähne aus der Obertrias von Gaume (Süd-Belgien). Memoires pour servir d'explication aux cartes géologiques de minières de la Belgique 24, p. 1-33.
Godefroit P & Battail B (1997), Late Triassic cynodonts from Saint-Nicolas-de- Port (north-eastern France). Geodiversitas 19 (3), p. 567-631.
Prehistoric cynodont genera
Late Triassic synapsids of Europe
Fossil taxa described in 1987 | [
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250193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child%20sexuality | Child sexuality | Development of sexuality is an integral part of the development and maturation of children. It includes a range of sensational, emotional, and consequent sexual activities that may occur before or during early puberty, but before full sexual maturity is established. The development of child sexuality and the perception of child sexuality by adults is influenced by social and cultural aspects. The concept of child sexuality also played an important role in psychoanalysis.
History of research
Freud
Until Sigmund Freud published his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in 1905, children were often regarded as asexual, having no sexuality until later development. Freud was one of the first researchers to seriously study child sexuality, and his acknowledgment of its existence was a significant change. Children are naturally curious about their bodies and sexual functions – they wonder where babies come from, they notice anatomical differences between males and females, and many engage in genital play or masturbation. Child sex play includes exhibiting or inspecting the genitals. Many children take part in some sex play, typically with siblings or friends. Sex play with others usually decreases as children go through their elementary school years, yet they still may possess romantic interest in their peers. Curiosity levels remain high during these years, escalating in puberty (roughly the teenage years) when the main surge in sexual interest occurs.
Kinsey
Alfred Kinsey in the Kinsey Reports (1948 and 1953) included research on the physical sexual response of children, including pre-pubescent children (though the main focus of the reports was adults). While there were initially concerns that some of the data in his reports could not have been obtained without observation of or participation in child sexual abuse, the data was revealed much later in the 1990s to have been gathered from the diary of a single pedophile who had been molesting children since 1917. This effectively rendered the data-set nearly worthless, not only because it relied entirely on a single source, but the data was hearsay reported by a highly unreliable observer. In 2000, Swedish researcher Ing-Beth Larsson noted, "It is quite common for references still to cite Alfred Kinsey", due to the scarcity of subsequent large-scale studies of child sexual behavior.
Sexual development
Before puberty
The National Child Traumatic Stress Network issued a report in 2009 on child sexual development in the United States. The report asserted that children have a natural curiosity about their own bodies and the bodies of others that ought to be addressed in an age-appropriate manner. According to the report:
Children less than four years old will normally touch their own private parts, look at the private parts of others, and remove their clothes wanting to be naked;
Between ages four and six, children will be more actively curious. They will attempt to see others dressing or undressing, or will perhaps "play doctor"; and
Between ages six and twelve, children will expand their curiosity to images of undressed people available in the media. They will develop a need for privacy regarding their own bodies and begin to be sexually attracted to peers.
The report recommended that parents learn what is normal in regard to nudity and sexuality at each stage of a child's development and refrain from overreacting to their children's nudity-related behaviors unless there are signs of a problem (e.g. anxiety, aggression, or sexual interactions between children not of the same age or stage of development).
Children can discover the pleasure of genital stimulation naturally at an early age. Boys often lie on their stomachs and girls may sit and rock. Manual stimulation occurs about the time of adolescence and mutual masturbation or other sexual experimentation between adolescents of similar ages may also occur, though cultural or religious coercion may inhibit or occult such activity if there is negative peer pressure or if authority figures are likely to disapprove.
From the ages of three to seven, the following behaviors are normal among children:
Children are curious about where babies come from.
Children may explore other children's and adults' bodies out of curiosity.
By age four, children may show significant attachment to the opposite-sex parent.
Children begin to have a sense of learned modesty and of the differences between private and public behaviors.
For some children, genital touching increases, especially when they are tired or upset.
Early school age covers approximately ages five to seven, and masturbation is common at these ages. Children become more aware of gender differences, and tend to choose same-sex friends and playmates, even disparaging the opposite sex. Children may drop their close attachment to their opposite-sex parent and become more attached to their same-sex parent.
During this time, children, especially girls, show increased awareness of social norms regarding sex, nudity, and privacy. Children may use sexual terms to test adult reaction. "Bathroom humor" (jokes and conversation relating to excretory functions), present in earlier stages, continues.
"Middle childhood" covers the ages from about six to eleven, depending on the methodology and the behavior being studied, individual development varies considerably.
As this stage progresses, the choices of children picking same-sex friends becomes more marked and extending to disparagement of the opposite sex.
By the age of 8 or 9 children become aware that sexual arousal is a specific type of erotic sensation and will seek these pleasurable experiences through various sights, self-touches, and fantasy.
Although there are variations between individual children, children are generally curious about their bodies and those of others, and explore their bodies through explorative sex play. "Playing doctor" is one example of such childhood exploration; such games are generally considered to be normal in young children. Child sexuality is considered fundamentally different from adult sexual behavior, which is more goal-driven. Among children, genital penetration and oral-genital contact are very uncommon, and may be perceived as imitations of adult behaviors. Such behaviors are more common among children who have been sexually abused.
A 1997 study based on limited variables found no correlation between early childhood (age 6 and under) peer sexual play and later adjustment. The study notes that its results do not demonstrate conclusively that no such correlation exists. The study also does not address the question of consequences of intense sexual experiences or aggressive or unwanted experiences.
Between puberty and adulthood
Contemporary issues
In the latter part of the 20th century, sexual liberation probably arose in the context of a massive cultural explosion in the United States of America following the upheaval of the Second World War, and the vast quantity of audiovisual media distributed worldwide by the new electronic and information technology. Children are apt to gain access and be influenced by material, despite censorship and content-control software.
Sex education
The extent of sex education in public schools varies widely around the world, and within countries such as the United States where course content is determined by individual school districts.
A series of sex education videos from Norway, intended for 8–12 year olds, includes explicit information and images of reproduction, anatomy, and the changes that are normal with the approach of puberty. Rather than diagrams or photos, the videos are shot in a locker room with live nude people of all ages. The presenter, a physician, is relaxed about close examination and touching of relevant body parts, including genitals. While the videos note that the age of consent in Norway is 16, abstinence is not emphasized. As of 2015, however, 37 U.S. states required that sex education curricula include lessons on abstinence and 25 required that a "just say no" approach be stressed. Studies show that early and complete sex education does not increase the likelihood of becoming sexually active, but leads to better health outcomes overall.
Sexualization of children
Some cultural critics in the Western world have postulated that over recent decades, children have been subject to a premature sexualization, as indicated by a level of sexual knowledge or sexual behavior inappropriate for their age group. The causes of this premature sexualization that have been cited include portrayals in the media of sex and related issues, especially in media aimed at children; the marketing of products with sexual connotations to children, including clothing; the lack of parental oversight and discipline; access to adult culture via the internet; and the lack of comprehensive school sex education programs.
For girls and young women in particular, studies have found that sexualization has a negative impact on their "self-image and healthy development".
Child sexual abuse
Child sexual abuse is defined as an adult or older adolescent having a sexual relationship with a child. Effects of child sexual abuse include clinical depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, propensity to further victimization in adulthood, and physical injury to the child, among other problems.
Child sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, and can result in more serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest.
Children who have been the victim of child sexual abuse sometimes display overly sexualized behavior, which may be defined as expressed behavior that is non-normative for the culture. Typical symptomatic behaviors may include excessive or public masturbation and coercing, manipulating or tricking other children into non-consensual or unwanted sexual activities, also referred to as "child-on-child sexual abuse". Sexualized behavior is thought to constitute the best indication that a child has been sexually abused.
Children who exhibit sexualized behavior may also have other behavioral problems. Other symptoms of child sexual abuse may include manifestations of post-traumatic stress in younger children; fear, aggression, and nightmares in young school-age children; and depression in older children.
Among siblings
In 1980, a survey of 796 undergraduates, 15 percent of females and 10 percent of males reported some form of sexual experience involving a sibling; most of these fell short of actual intercourse. Approximately one quarter of these experiences were described as abusive or exploitative. A 1989 paper reported the results of a questionnaire with responses from 526 undergraduate college students in which 17 percent of the respondents stated that they had preadolescent sexual experiences with a sibling.
Methodological issues
Empirical knowledge about child sexual behavior is not usually gathered by direct interviews of children, partly due to ethical consideration. Information about child sexual behavior is gathered by the following methods:
Observing children being treated for problematic behavior, such as use of force in sex play, often using anatomically correct dolls;
Recollections by adults;
Observation by caregivers.
Most published sexual research material emanates from the Western World, and a great deal of dramatic audio-visual material which might influence social attitudes to child sexuality are generated either in the United States of America or else for that audience. "Normative" may therefore relate to Western culture rather than to the general complexity of human experience.
See also
Adolescent sexuality
Age of consent
Developmental psychology
References
Further reading
Childhood
Sexuality and age
fr:Sexualité infantile (psychanalyse) | [
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250196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain%20de%20Botton | Alain de Botton | Alain de Botton (; born 20 December 1969) is a Swiss-born British philosopher and author. His books discuss various contemporary subjects and themes, emphasizing philosophy's relevance to everyday life. He published Essays in Love (1993), which went on to sell two million copies. Other bestsellers include How Proust Can Change Your Life (1997), Status Anxiety (2004) and The Architecture of Happiness (2006).
He co-founded The School of Life in 2008 and Living Architecture in 2009. In 2015, he was awarded "The Fellowship of Schopenhauer", an annual writers' award from the Melbourne Writers Festival, for that work.
Early life and family
De Botton was born in Zürich, the son of Jacqueline (née Burgauer) and Gilbert de Botton. Gilbert was born in Alexandria, Egypt, but after being expelled under Nasser, he went to live and work in Switzerland, where he co-founded an investment firm, Global Asset Management; his family was estimated to have been worth £234 million in 1999.
Alain de Botton's Swiss-born mother was Ashkenazi, and his father was from a Sephardic Jewish family from the town of Boton in Castile and León. De Botton's ancestors include Abraham de Boton. De Botton's paternal grandmother was Yolande Harmer, a Jewish-Egyptian journalist who spied for Israel and died in Jerusalem.
He has one sister, Miel, and they received a secular upbringing. Alain spent the first twelve years of his life in Switzerland where he was brought up speaking French and German.
Education
De Botton attended the Dragon School where English became his primary language. He was later sent to board and study at Harrow School, a public school in England. He has often described his childhood as that of a shy child living in boarding schools.
De Botton read History at University of Cambridge, where he was a member of Gonville and Caius College, graduating with a double starred first. He then completed an MPhil in Philosophy at King's College, London (1991–1992). He began studying for a PhD in French philosophy at Harvard University, but gave up this research to write books for the general public.
Writing
Fiction
In his first novel, Essays in Love (titled On Love in the U.S.), published in 1993, de Botton deals with the process of falling in and out of love. In 2010, Essays in Love was adapted to film by director Julian Kemp for the romantic comedy My Last Five Girlfriends. De Botton wrote a sequel to Essays in Love, published in 2016, titled The Course of Love.
Non-fiction
In 1997 he published his first non-fiction book, How Proust Can Change Your Life, based on the life and works of Marcel Proust. It was a bestseller in both the US and UK.
This was followed by The Consolations of Philosophy in 2000. The title of the book is a reference to Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy, in which philosophy appears as an allegorical figure to Boethius to console him in the period leading up to his impending execution. In The Consolations of Philosophy, de Botton attempts to demonstrate how the teachings of philosophers such as Epicurus, Montaigne, Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, Seneca, and Socrates can be applied to modern everyday woes. The book has been both praised and criticized for its therapeutic approach to philosophy.
In 2004, he published Status Anxiety.
In The Architecture of Happiness (2006), he discusses the nature of beauty in architecture and how it is related to the well-being and general contentment of the individual and society. He describes how architecture affects people every day, though people rarely pay particular attention to it. A good portion of the book discusses how human personality traits are reflected in architecture. He defends Modernist architecture, and chastises the pseudo-vernacular architecture of housing, especially in the UK. "The best modern architecture," he argues, "doesn't hold a mirror up to nature, though it may borrow a pleasing shape or expressive line from nature's copybook. It gives voice to aspirations and suggests possibilities. The question isn't whether you'd actually like to live in a Le Corbusier home, but whether you'd like to be the kind of person who'd like to live in one."
In The Pleasures and Sorrows of Work (2009), de Botton produced a survey of ten different jobs, including accountancy, rocket science and biscuit manufacture. The book, a piece of narrative non-fiction, includes two hundred original images and aims to unlock the beauty, interest and occasional horror of the modern world of work. After a negative review of the book by New York Times critic Caleb Crain, de Botton posted a scathing ad hominem attack against Crain. He later apologized for his remarks.
In August 2009, de Botton applied to a competition advertised among British literary agents by BAA, the airport management company, for the post of "writer-in-residence" at Heathrow Airport. The post involved being seated at a desk in Terminal 5, and writing about the comings and goings of passengers over a week. De Botton was appointed to the position. The result was the book, A Week at the Airport, published by Profile Books in September 2009. The book features photographs by the documentary photographer Richard Baker, with whom de Botton also worked on The Pleasures and Sorrows of Work.
In January 2012, de Botton published Religion for Atheists, about the benefits of religions for those who do not believe in them. De Botton put it: "It's clear to me that religions are in the end too complex, interesting and on occasion wise to be abandoned simply to those who believe in them". In April 2012, he published How to Think More about Sex, one in a series of six books on topics of emotional life published by his enterprise, The School of Life.
In October 2013, he published Art as Therapy, co-written with the Australian-Scottish art historian, John Armstrong. Art as Therapy argues that certain great works of art "offer clues on managing the tensions and confusions of everyday life".
In February 2014, de Botton published his fourteenth book, a title called "The News: A User's Manual", a study of the effects of the news on modern mentality, viewed through the prism of 25 news stories, culled from a variety of sources, which de Botton analyses in detail. The book delved with more rigour into de Botton's analyses of the modern media that appeared in Status Anxiety.
Newspapers
De Botton used to write articles for several English newspapers, and from 1998 to 2000, wrote a regular column for The Independent on Sunday.
Lecturing, television and radio
De Botton travels extensively to lecture. He has given lectures at TED conferences. In July 2011, he spoke in Edinburgh about "Atheism 2.0", an idea of atheism that also incorporates our human need for connection, ritual and transcendence. In July 2009, he spoke at Oxford University about the philosophy of failure and success, and questions the assumptions underlying these two judgments.
In 2011 he presented a series of talks for the BBC Radio 4 series A Point of View.
He has his own production company, Seneca Productions, which makes television documentaries based upon his works.
Reception of his writing
De Botton has written in a variety of formats to mixed response. Positive reviews of his books attest that he has made literature, philosophy and art more accessible to a wider audience.
Negative reviews allege that de Botton tends to state the obvious and have characterized some of his books as pompous and lacking focus.
In response to a question about whether he felt "pulled" to be a writer, de Botton responded:So I think where people tend to end up results from a combination of encouragement, accident, and lucky break, etc. etc. Like many others, my career happened like it did because certain doors opened and certain doors closed. You know, at a certain point I thought it would be great to make film documentaries. Well, in fact, I found that to be incredibly hard and very expensive to do and I didn’t really have the courage to keep battling away at that. In another age, I might have been an academic in a university, if the university system had been different. So it's all about trying to find the best fit between your talents and what the world can offer at that point in time.
Other projects
The School of Life
In 2008, Alain de Botton was one of a team of writers and educators who founded The School of Life. Based in London, Paris, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Seoul, Istanbul, Tel Aviv, São Paulo, Berlin and Melbourne, The School of Life offers an emotional education focusing in particular on the issues of Work and Relationships. In an interview with Metkere.com de Botton said:The idea is to challenge traditional universities and reorganise knowledge, directing it towards life, and away from knowledge for its own sake. In a modest way, it’s an institution that is trying to give people what universities should I think always give them: a sense of direction and wisdom for their lives with the help of culture.
Living Architecture
In May 2009, de Botton launched a project called "Living Architecture," which builds holiday rental houses in the UK using leading contemporary architects. These include Peter Zumthor, MVRDV, JVA, NORD and Michael and Patti Hopkins. The most recent house to be announced is a collaboration between the Turner-prize winning artist Grayson Perry, and the architecture firm FAT. The houses are rented out to the general public. De Botton, the creative director and chairman of Living Architecture, aims to improve the appreciation of good contemporary architecture—a task that serves as a practical continuation of his theoretical work on architecture in his book The Architecture of Happiness. In October 2009, he was appointed an honorary fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), in recognition of his services to architecture.
Museum displays
In 2014, de Botton was invited by three museums—the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne and the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto—to contribute content to special exhibitions based on his work, Art as Therapy. De Botton and his colleague John Armstrong inserted captions, arranged on large Post-it-style labels designed by the Dutch graphic artist, Irma Boom, bearing slogans and commentary on exhibits throughout the Rijksmuseum.
Personal life
De Botton has described his relationship with his father as difficult, stating: "When I sold my first bestseller (and a million dollars was peanuts for my father) he was not impressed and wondered what I was going to do with myself." When his father died, his family was left a large trust fund, although de Botton says his income is derived solely from his own activities (book sales, speaking engagements, business consulting, The School of Life). Alain's stepmother Janet de Botton is a prominent patron of the arts and competition bridge player. He married his wife, Charlotte, in 2003 and they have two sons. De Botton lives in London with his family.
In August 2014, de Botton was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue.
Bibliography
Books
Variant title in USA.
The Romantic Movement (1994)
Kiss and Tell (1995)
How Proust Can Change Your Life (1997)
The Consolations of Philosophy (2000)
The Art of Travel (2002)
Status Anxiety (2004)
The Architecture of Happiness (2006)
The Pleasures and Sorrows of Work (2009)
A Week at the Airport (2009)
Religion for Atheists: A Non-Believer's Guide to the Uses of Religion (2012)
How to Think More About Sex (2012)
The News: A User's Manual (2014)
The Course of Love (2016)
Critical studies, reviews and biography
Review of Art as therapy.
Filmography
My Last Five Girlfriends (based on Essays in Love)
TV series
Philosophy: A Guide To Happiness (2000, from The Consolations of Philosophy)
Socrates on Self-Confidence
Epicurus on Happiness
Seneca on Anger
Montaigne on Self-Esteem
Schopenhauer on Love
Nietzsche on Hardship (featuring Cathal Grealish)
Status Anxiety
The Art of Travel
The Perfect Home (from The Architecture of Happiness)
References
External links
Compendium of reviews of The Consolations of Philosophy
1969 births
Living people
People educated at The Dragon School
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
Alumni of King's College London
English people of Egyptian-Jewish descent
English people of Swiss descent
English male non-fiction writers
English Sephardi Jews
British Jewish writers
English atheists
Jewish atheists
Swiss atheists
Swiss Ashkenazi Jews
Swiss philosophers
Swiss emigrants to the United Kingdom
Swiss people of Egyptian-Jewish descent
20th-century Sephardi Jews
21st-century Sephardi Jews
English philosophers
Jewish philosophers
Atheist philosophers
Swiss male writers
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
People from Zürich
The School of Life people
Philosophers of sexuality
Swiss Sephardi Jews | [
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250197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%20national%20football%20team | France national football team | The France national football team () represents France in men's international football and is controlled by the French Football Federation (), also known as FFF. The team's colours are blue, white, and red, and the coq gaulois its symbol. France are colloquially known as Les Bleus (The Blues). They are the reigning world champions, having won the most recent World Cup final in 2018.
France plays their home matches at the Stade de France in Saint-Denis, Île-de-France, and their manager is Didier Deschamps. They have won two FIFA World Cups, two UEFA European Championships, two FIFA Confederations Cups, one Artemio Franchi Trophy and one UEFA Nations League title. France experienced much of its success in three different eras: in the 1980s, late 1990s/early 2000s and late 2010s, respectively, which resulted in numerous major honours. France was one of the four European teams that participated in the inaugural World Cup in 1930. Twenty-eight years later, the team, led by Raymond Kopa and Just Fontaine, finished in third place at the 1958 FIFA World Cup.
In 1984, under the leadership of the three-time Ballon d'Or winner Michel Platini, France won UEFA Euro 1984 (its first official title), an Artemio Franchi Trophy (1985) and reached another two World Cup semi-finals (1982 and 1986). However, France only began to reach its prime from the 1990s onward, with the establishment of [[IN
During the captaincy of Didier Deschamps, and with Zinedine Zidane on the pitch, Les Bleus won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and triumphed at UEFA Euro 2000. They also won the FIFA Confederations Cup in 2001 and 2003. Three years later, France made it all the way to the final of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, where they lost 5–3 on penalties to Italy. A decade later, the team reached the final of the UEFA European Championship, where they lost 1–0 to Portugal in extra time. Two years later, France won the 2018 FIFA World Cup, its second title in that competition, defeating Croatia 4–2 in the final match on 15 July 2018.
Finally, the French team became the first European national team to have won all possible senior FIFA and confederation competitions after winning the UEFA Nations League in October 2021.
History
The France national football team was created in 1904 around the time of FIFA's foundation on 21 May 1904 and contested its first official international match on 1 May 1904 against Belgium in Brussels, which ended in a 3–3 draw. The following year, on 12 February 1905, France contested their first-ever home match against Switzerland. The match was played at the Parc des Princes in front of 500 supporters. France won the match 1–0 with the only goal coming from Gaston Cyprès. Due to disagreements between FIFA and the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA), the country's sports union, France struggled to establish an identity. On 9 May 1908, the French Interfederal Committee (CFI), a rival organization to the USFSA, ruled that FIFA would now be responsible for the club's appearances in forthcoming Olympic Games and not the USFSA. In 1919, the CFI transformed themselves into the French Football Federation (FFF). In 1921, the USFSA finally merged with the FFF.
In July 1930, France appeared in the inaugural FIFA World Cup, held in Uruguay. In their first-ever World Cup match, France defeated Mexico 4–1 at the Estadio Pocitos in Montevideo. Lucien Laurent became notable in the match as he scored not only France's first World Cup goal, but the first goal in World Cup history. Conversely, France also became the first team to not score in a match after losing 1–0 to fellow group stage opponents Argentina. Another loss to Chile resulted in the team bowing out in the group stage. The following year saw the first selection of a black player to the national team. Raoul Diagne, who was of Senegalese descent, earned his first cap on 15 February in a 2–1 defeat to Czechoslovakia. Diagne later played with the team at the 1938 World Cup, alongside Larbi Benbarek, who was one of the first players of North African origin to play for the national team. At the 1934 World Cup, France suffered elimination in the opening round, losing 3–2 to Austria. On the team's return to Paris, they were greeted as heroes by a crowd of over 4,000 supporters. France hosted the 1938 World Cup and reached the quarterfinals, losing 3–1 to defending champions Italy.
The 1950s saw France handed its first Golden Generation composed of players such as Just Fontaine, Raymond Kopa, Jean Vincent, Robert Jonquet, Maryan Wisnieski, Thadée Cisowski, and Armand Penverne. At the 1958 World Cup, France reached the semi-finals losing to Brazil. In the third-place match, France defeated West Germany 6–3 with Fontaine recording four goals, which brought his goal tally in the competition to 13, a World Cup record. The record still stands today. France hosted the inaugural UEFA European Football Championship in 1960 and, for the second straight international tournament, reached the semi-finals. In the round, France faced Yugoslavia and were shocked 5–4 despite being up 4–2 heading into the 75th minute. In the third-place match, France was defeated 2–0 by the Czechoslovakians.
The 1960s and 70s saw France decline significantly playing under several managers and failing to qualify for numerous international tournaments. On 25 April 1964, Henri Guérin was officially installed as the team's first manager. Under Guérin, France failed to qualify for the 1962 World Cup and the 1964 European Nations' Cup. The team did return to major international play following qualification for the 1966 World Cup. The team lost in the group stage portion of the tournament. Guérin was fired following the World Cup. He was replaced by José Arribas and Jean Snella, who worked as caretaker managers in dual roles. The two only lasted four matches and were replaced by former international Just Fontaine, who only lasted two. Louis Dugauguez succeeded Fontaine and following his early struggles in qualification for the 1970 World Cup, was fired and replaced by Georges Boulogne, who could not get the team to the competition. Boulogne was later fired following his failure to qualify for the 1974 World Cup and was replaced by the Romanian Ștefan Kovács, who became the only international manager to ever manage the national team. Kovács also turned out to be a disappointment failing to qualify for the 1974 World Cup and UEFA Euro 1976. After two years in charge, he was sacked and replaced with Michel Hidalgo.
Under Hidalgo, France flourished, mainly due to the accolades of great players like defenders Marius Trésor and Maxime Bossis, striker Dominique Rocheteau and midfielder Michel Platini, who, alongside Jean Tigana, Alain Giresse and Luis Fernández formed the "carré magique" ("Magic Square"), which would haunt opposing defenses beginning at the 1982 World Cup, where France reached the semi-finals losing on penalties to rivals West Germany. The semi-final match-up is considered one of the greatest matches in World Cup history and was marred with controversy. France earned their first major international honor two years later, winning Euro 1984, which they hosted. Under the leadership of Platini, who scored a tournament-high nine goals, France defeated Spain 2–0 in the final. Platini and Bruno Bellone scored the goals. Following the Euro triumph, Hidalgo departed the team and was replaced by former international Henri Michel. France later completed the hat-trick when they won gold at the 1984 Summer Olympics football tournament and, a year later, defeated Uruguay 2–0 to win the Artemio Franchi Trophy, an early precursor to the FIFA Confederations Cup. Dominique Rocheteau and José Touré scored the goals. In a span of a year, France were holders of three of the four major international trophies. At the 1986 World Cup, France were favorites to win the competition, and, for the second consecutive World Cup, reached the semi-finals where they faced West Germany. Again, however, they lost. A 4–2 victory over Belgium gave France third place.
In 1988, the FFF opened the Clairefontaine National Football Institute. Its opening ceremony was attended by then-President of France, François Mitterrand. Five months after Clairefontaine's opening, manager Henri Michel was fired and was replaced by Michel Platini, who failed to get the team to the 1990 World Cup. Platini did lead the team to Euro 1992 and, despite going on a 19-match unbeaten streak prior to the competition, suffered elimination in the group stage. A week after the completion of the tournament, Platini stepped down as manager and was replaced by his assistant Gérard Houllier. Under Houllier, France and its supporters experienced a heartbreaking meltdown after having qualification to the 1994 World Cup all but secured with two matches to go, which were against last place Israel and Bulgaria. In the match against Israel, France was upset 3–2 and, in the Bulgaria match, suffered an astronomical 2–1 defeat. The subsequent blame and public outcry to the firing of Houllier and departure of several players from the national team fold. His assistant Aimé Jacquet was given his post.
Under Jacquet, the national team experienced its triumphant years. The squad composed of veterans that failed to reach the 1994 FIFA World Cup were joined by influential youngsters, such as Zinedine Zidane. The team started off well reaching the semi-finals of Euro 1996, where they lost 6–5 on penalties to the Czech Republic. In the team's next major tournament at the 1998 World Cup at home, Jacquet led France to glory defeating Brazil 3–0 in the final at the Stade de France in Paris. Jacquet stepped down after the country's World Cup triumph and was succeeded by assistant Roger Lemerre who guided them through Euro 2000. Led by FIFA World Player of the Year Zidane, France defeated Italy 2–1 in the final. David Trezeguet scored the golden goal in extra time. The victory gave the team the distinction of being the first national team to hold both the World Cup and Euro titles since West Germany did so in 1974, and it was also the first time that a reigning World Cup winner went on to capture the Euro. Following the result, the France national team was inserted to the number one spot in the FIFA World Rankings.
France failed to maintain that pace in subsequent tournaments. Although, the team won the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup, France suffered a first-round elimination at the 2002 World Cup. One of the greatest shocks in World Cup history saw France condemned to a 1–0 defeat to debutantes Senegal in the opening game of the tournament. France became the second nation to be eliminated in the first-round while holding the World Cup crown, the first one being Brazil in 1966. After the 2010, 2014, and 2018 World Cups, Italy, Spain, and Germany were also added to this list. After France finished bottom of the group, Lemerre was dismissed and was replaced by Jacques Santini. A full-strength team started out strongly at Euro 2004, but they were upset in the quarter-finals by the eventual winners Greece. Santini resigned as coach and Raymond Domenech was picked as his replacement. France struggled in the early qualifiers for the 2006 World Cup. This prompted Domenech to persuade several past members out of international retirement to help the national team qualify, which they accomplished following a convincing 4–0 win over Cyprus on the final day of qualifying. In the 2006 World Cup final stages, France finished undefeated in the group stage portion and advanced all the way to the final defeating the likes of Spain, Brazil, and Portugal en route. France played Italy in the final and, in part down to controversial disruptions in extra time that lead to captain Zinedine Zidane being sent off, failed to find a winning goal, Italy winning 5–3 on penalties to be crowned World Cup champions.
France started its qualifying round for Euro 2008 strong and qualified for the tournament, despite two defeats to Scotland. France bowed out during the group stage portion of the tournament after having been placed in the group of death (which included Netherlands and Italy). Just like the team's previous World Cup qualifying campaign, the 2010 campaign got off to a disappointing start with France suffering disastrous losses and earning uninspired victories. France eventually finished second in the group and earned a spot in the UEFA play-offs against the Republic of Ireland for a place in South Africa. In the first leg, France defeated the Irish 1–0 and in the second leg procured a 1–1 draw, via controversial circumstances, to qualify for the World Cup.
In the 2010 World Cup final stages, the team continued to perform under expectations and were eliminated in the group stage, while the negative publicity the national team received during the competition led to further repercussions back in France. Midway through the competition, striker Nicolas Anelka was dismissed from the national team after reportedly having a dispute, in which obscenities were passed, with team manager Raymond Domenech during half-time of the team's loss to Mexico. The resulting disagreement over Anelka's expulsion between the players, the coaching staff and FFF officials resulted in the players boycotting training before their third game. In response to the training boycott, Sports Minister Roselyne Bachelot lectured the players and "reduced France's disgraced World Cup stars to tears with an emotional speech on the eve of their final group A match". France then lost their final game 2–1 to the hosts South Africa and failed to advance to the knockout stage. The day after the team's elimination, it was reported by numerous media outlets that then President of France Nicolas Sarkozy would meet with team captain Thierry Henry to discuss the issues associated with the team's meltdown at the World Cup, at Henry's request. Following the completion of the World Cup tournament, Federation President Jean-Pierre Escalettes resigned from his position.
Domenech, whose contract had expired, was succeeded as head coach by former international Laurent Blanc. On 23 July 2010, at the request of Blanc, the FFF suspended all 23 players in the World Cup squad for the team's friendly match against Norway after the World Cup. On 6 August, five players who were deemed to have played a major role in the training boycott were disciplined for their roles.
At Euro 2012 in Poland and Ukraine, France reached the quarter-finals, where they were beaten by eventual champions Spain. Following the tournament, coach Laurent Blanc resigned and was succeeded by Didier Deschamps, who captained France to glory in the 1998 World Cup and Euro 2000. His team qualified for the 2014 World Cup by beating Ukraine in the playoffs, and Deschamps then extended his contract until Euro 2016. Missing star midfielder Franck Ribéry through injury, France lost to eventual champions Germany in the quarter-finals courtesy of an early goal by Mats Hummels. Paul Pogba was awarded the Best Young Player award during the tournament.
France automatically qualified as hosts for Euro 2016. Karim Benzema and Hatem Ben Arfa were not in the squad. France were drawn in Group A of the tournament alongside Romania, Switzerland and Albania. France won their group with wins over Romania and Albania and a goalless draw against Switzerland and were poised to play the Republic of Ireland in the round of sixteen. Ireland took the lead after just two minutes through a controversially awarded penalty, which was converted by Robbie Brady. A brace from Antoine Griezmann, however, helped France to win the match 2–1 and qualify for the quarter-finals, where they beat a resilient Iceland 5–2 to set up a semi-final clash against world champions and tournament co-favourites Germany. France won the match 2–0, marking their first win over Germany at a major tournament since 1958. France, however, were beaten by Portugal 1–0 in the final courtesy of an extra-time goal by Eder. Griezmann was named the Player of the Tournament and was also awarded the Golden Boot in addition to being named in the Team of the Tournament, alongside Dimitri Payet. The defeat meant that France became the second nation to have lost the final on home soil, after Portugal lost the final to Greece in 2004.
In 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying, France topped their group with 23 points; winning 7 wins, drawing 2 and losing once, although their two draws were against considerably weaker nations, drawing 0–0 with Belarus in their opening match and against Luxembourg, failing to secure a win against the latter since 1914, nearly 103 years. Their only defeat of the qualifying phase was against Sweden; losing 2–1 in the last few minutes following an error from goalkeeper Hugo Lloris. France secured qualification to the World Cup finals with a 2–1 win over Belarus after atomizing the Netherlands 4 to 0 at home a few weeks earlier. They were drawn to play Australia, Peru and Denmark in a group in which they were considered heavy favourites. Overall, due to the strength and value of their squad, France were tipped by many as one of the favourites for the title. France, however, had a somewhat disappointing performance in the group stage, only managing a 2–1 win over Australia and a 1–0 win over Peru, followed by a match against Denmark which finished in a 0–0 draw. France beat Argentina 4–3 in the round of sixteen and then Uruguay 2–0 to qualify for the semi-final stage, where they beat Belgium 1–0 courtesy of a goal from defender Samuel Umtiti. France approached this semi-final in a diametrically opposed way to Japan in the round of 16 against these same Belgians: Les Bleus played low block to not leave any space to the Belgians and in counter-attack, this defensive approach was successful unlike Japan's overly offensive and open game (which led to the three Belgian goals while Japan was leading 2-0), even if this led to criticism from some Belgian players who felt they were better than France. On 15 July, France beat Croatia in the final with result 4–2 to win the World Cup for the second time. Didier Deschamps became the third man to win the World Cup as a player and a coach and also became the second man to win the title as a captain and a coach. Kylian Mbappé was awarded the Best Young Player award and Antoine Griezmann was awarded the Bronze Ball and the Silver Boot for their performance during the tournament. Upon scoring in the final, Mbappé became only the second teenager to score in a World Cup Final, the last being Pelé in 1958.
Home stadium
During France's early years, the team's national stadium alternated between the Parc des Princes in Paris and the Stade Olympique Yves-du-Manoir in Colombes. France also hosted matches at the Stade Pershing, Stade de Paris, and the Stade Buffalo, but to a minimal degree. As the years moved forward, France began hosting matches outside the city of Paris at such venues as the Stade Marcel Saupin in Nantes, the Stade Vélodrome in Marseille, the Stade de Gerland in Lyon, and the Stade de la Meinau in Strasbourg.
Following the renovation of the Parc des Princes in 1972, which gave the stadium the largest capacity in Paris, France moved into the venue permanently. The team still hosted friendly matches and minor FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Football Championship qualification matches at other venues. Twice France have played home matches in a French overseas department – in 2005 against Costa Rica in Fort-de-France (Martinique) and in 2010 against China in Saint Pierre (Réunion). Both matches were friendlies.
In 1998, the Stade de France was inaugurated as France's national stadium ahead of the 1998 World Cup. Located in Saint-Denis, a Parisian suburb, the stadium has an all-seater capacity of 81,338. France's first match at the stadium was played on 28 January 1998 against Spain. France won the match 1–0, with Zinedine Zidane scoring the lone goal. Since that match, France has used the stadium for almost every major home game, including the 1998 World Cup final.
Prior to matches, home or away, the national team trains at the INF Clairefontaine academy in Clairefontaine-en-Yvelines. Clairefontaine is the national association football centre and is among 12 élite academies throughout the country. The centre was inaugurated in 1976 by former FFF president Fernand Sastre and opened in 1988. The center drew media spotlight following its usage as a base camp by the team that won the 1998 World Cup.
In the 20th and 23rd minute of an international friendly on 13 November 2015, against Germany, three groups of terrorists attempted to detonate bomb vests, at three entrances of Stade de France, and two explosions occurred. Play would continue, until the 94th minute, in order to keep the crowd from panicking. Consequently, the stadium was evacuated through the unaffected gates of the stadium away from the players benches. Due to the blocked exits, spectators who could not leave the stadium had to go down to the pitch and wait until it was safer.
Team image
Media coverage
The national team has a broadcasting agreement with TF1 Group, who the Federal Council of the FFF agreed to extend its exclusive broadcasting agreement with the channel. The new deal grants the channel exclusive broadcast rights for the matches of national team, which include friendlies and international games for the next four seasons beginning in August 2010 and ending in June 2014. will also have extended rights, notably on the Internet, and may also broadcast images of the national team in its weekly program, Téléfoot. The FFF will receive €45 million a season, a €10 million decrease from the €55 million they received from the previous agreement reached in 2006.
After France won their second World Cup in 2018, M6 together with TF1 broadcast all international fixtures featuring France respectively until 2022.
Friendlies and qualifiers
Finals tournament
Kits and crest
The France national team utilizes a three colour system composed of blue, white, and red. The team's three colours originate from the national flag of France, known as the tricolore. Nevertheless, the first France shirt (as seen in their first official international match against Belgium in 1904) was white, with the two interlinked rings emblem of USFSA –the body that controlled sport in France by then– on the left.
France normally wear blue shirts, white shorts, and red socks at home (similar setup to Japan), while, when on the road, the team utilizes an all-white combination or wear red shirts, blue shorts, and blue socks with the former being the most current. Between 1909 and 1914, France wore a white shirt with blue stripes, white shorts, and red socks. In a 1978 World Cup match against Hungary in Mar del Plata, both teams arrived at Estadio José María Minella with white kits, so France played in green-and-white striped shirts borrowed from Club Atlético Kimberley.
Beginning in 1966, France had its shirts made by Le Coq Sportif until 1971. In 1972, France reached an agreement with German sports apparel manufacturer Adidas to be the team's kit provider. Over the next 38 years, the two would maintain a healthy relationship with France winning Euro 1984, the 1998 World Cup and Euro 2000 while wearing Adidas' famous tricolour three stripes. During the 2006 World Cup, France wore an all-white change strip in all four of its knockout matches, including the final. On 22 February 2008, the FFF announced that they were ending their partnership with Adidas and signing with Nike, effective 1 January 2011. The unprecedented deal was valued at €320 million over seven years (1 January 2011 – 9 July 2018), making France's blue shirt the most expensive ever in the history of football.
The first France kit worn in a major tournament produced by Nike was the Euro 2012 strip, which was all dark blue and used gold as an accent colour. In February 2013, Nike revealed an all baby blue change strip.
In advance of France's hosting of Euro 2016, Nike unveiled a new, unconventional kit set: blue shirts and shorts with red socks at home, white shirts and shorts and with blue socks away. The away shirt as worn in pre-Euro friendlies and released to the public also featured one blue sleeve and one red sleeve in reference to the "tricolore". However, due to UEFA regulations, France was forced to wear a modified version with the sleeve colours almost desaturated in their Euro 2016 group stage game against Switzerland, which continued to be worn during 2018 World Cup qualifying.
Kit sponsorship
Kit deals
Nickname
France is often referred to by the media and supporters as Les Bleus (The Blues), which is the nickname associated with all of France's international sporting teams due to the blue shirts each team incorporates. The team is also referred to as Les Tricolores or L'Equipe Tricolore (The Tri-color Team) due to the team's utilization of the country's national colors: blue, white, and red. During the 1980s, France earned the nickname the "Brazilians of Europe" mainly due to the accolades of the "carré magique" ("Magic Square"), who were anchored by Michel Platini. Led by coach Michel Hidalgo, France exhibited an inspiring, elegant, skillful and technically advanced offensive style of football, which was strikingly similar to their South American counterparts.
Results and fixtures
The following matches have been played within the past 12 months.
2021
2022
Coaching staff
As of August 2019.
Coaching history
Managers in italics were hired as caretakers
Players
Current squad
The following 23 players were called up for the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against Kazakhstan on 13 November 2021 and against Finland on 16 November 2021.
Caps and goals as of 16 November 2021, after the team's match against Finland.
Recent call-ups
The following players have been called up within the past twelve months.
COV Withdrew due to COVID-19
INJ Withdrew due to injury
PRE Preliminary squad
RET Retired from the national team
SUS Serving suspension
Player of the Year
Player records
Players in bold are still active with France.
Most capped players
Top goalscorers
Competitive record
FIFA World Cup
France was one of the four European teams that participated at the inaugural World Cup in 1930 and have appeared in 15 FIFA World Cups, tied for sixth-best. The national team is one of eight national teams to have won at least one FIFA World Cup title. The France team won their first World Cup title in 1998. The tournament was played on home soil and France defeated Brazil 3–0 in the final match.
In 2006, France finished as runners-up losing 5–3 on penalties to Italy. The team has also finished in third place on two occasions in 1958 and 1986 and in fourth place once in 1982. The team's worst results in the competition were first-round eliminations in 2002 and 2010. In 2002, the team suffered an unexpected loss to Senegal and departed the tournament without scoring a goal, while in 2010, a French team torn apart by conflict between the players and staff lost two of three matches and drew the other.
In 2014, France advanced to the quarterfinal before losing to the eventual champion, Germany, 1–0.
In 2018, France defeated Croatia 4–2 in the final match and won the World Cup for the second time.
*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.
**Red border indicates tournament was held on home soil.
UEFA European Championship
France is one of the most successful nations at the UEFA European Championship having won two titles in 1984 and 2000. The team is just below Spain and Germany who have won three titles each. France hosted the inaugural competition in 1960 and have appeared in nine UEFA European Championship tournaments, tied for fourth-best. The team won their first title on home soil in 1984 and were led by Ballon d'Or winner Michel Platini. In 2000, the team, led by FIFA World Player of the Year Zinedine Zidane, won its second title in Belgium and the Netherlands. The team's worst result in the competition was a first-round elimination in 1992 and 2008.
*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.
**Red border indicates tournament was held on home soil.
UEFA Nations League
*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.
**Group stage played home and away. Flag shown represents host nation for the finals stage. **Red border indicates the finals stage will be held on home soilFIFA Confederations Cup
France have appeared in two of the eight FIFA Confederations Cups contested and won the competition on both appearances. The team's two titles place in second place only trailing Brazil who have won four. France won their first Confederations Cup in 2001 having appeared in the competition as a result of winning the FIFA World Cup in 1998. The team defeated Japan 1–0 in the final match. In the following Confederations Cup in 2003, France, appearing in the competition as the host country, won the competition beating Cameroon 1–0 after extra time.
Minor tournaments
Honours This is a list of honours for the senior France national team''
FIFA World Cup
Champions (2): 1998, 2018
Runners-up: 2006
Third place: 1958, 1986
Fourth place: 1982
UEFA European Championship
Champions (2): 1984, 2000
Runners-up: 2016
Semi-finals: 1996
Fourth place: 1960
FIFA Confederations Cup
Champions (2): 2001, 2003
Artemio Franchi Trophy (or Intercontinental Cup of Nations)
Winners: 1985
UEFA Nations League
Champions (1): 2020–21
Minor titles
Évence Coppée Trophy
Winners: 1904 (shared with Belgium)
Tournoi de France
Winners: 1988
Kuwait Tournament
Winners: 1990
Kirin Cup
Winners: 1994
Hassan II Trophy
Winners: 1998, 2000
Nelson Mandela Challenge
Winners: 2000 (shared with South Africa)
See also
France women's national football team
France national under-21 football team
France national youth football team
French Guiana national football team
Guadeloupe national football team
Martinique national football team
New Caledonia national football team
Réunion national football team
Saint Martin national football team
Tahiti national football team
Notes
References
External links
Official website
France at UEFA
France at FIFA
European national association football teams
UEFA European Championship-winning countries
FIFA World Cup-winning countries
FIFA Confederations Cup-winning countries
UEFA Nations League-winning countries
Laureus World Sports Awards winners | [
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250199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashbulb%20memory | Flashbulb memory | A flashbulb memory is a vivid, long-lasting memory for the circumstances surrounding the reception of news about a surprising or shocking event.
The term "flashbulb memory" suggests the surprise, indiscriminate illumination, detail, and brevity of a photograph; however flashbulb memories are only somewhat indiscriminate and are far from complete. Evidence has shown that although people are highly confident in their memories, the details of the memories can be forgotten.
Flashbulb memories are one type of autobiographical memory. Some researchers believe that there is reason to distinguish flashbulb memories from other types of autobiographical memory because they rely on elements of personal importance, consequentiality, emotion, and surprise. Others believe that ordinary memories can also be accurate and long-lasting if they are highly distinctive, personally significant, or repeatedly rehearsed.
Flashbulb memories have six characteristic features: place, ongoing activity, informant, own affect, other affect, and aftermath. Arguably, the principal determinants of a flashbulb memory are a high level of surprise, a high level of consequentiality, and perhaps emotional arousal.
Historical overview
The term flashbulb memory was coined by Brown and Kulik in 1977. They formed the special-mechanism hypothesis, which argues for the existence of a special biological memory mechanism that, when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise and consequentiality, creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances surrounding the experience. Brown and Kulik believed that although flashbulb memories are permanent they are not always accessible from long term memory. The hypothesis of a special flashbulb-memory mechanism holds that flashbulb memories have special characteristics that are different from those produced by "ordinary" memory mechanisms. The representations created by the special mechanism are detailed, accurate, vivid, and resistant to forgetting. Most of these initial properties of flashbulb memory have been debated since Brown and Kulik first coined the term. Ultimately over the years, four models of flashbulb memories have emerged to explain the phenomenon: the photographic model, the comprehensive model, the emotional-integrative model, and importance-driven model; additional studies have been conducted to test the validity of these models.
Positive vs. negative
It is possible for both positive and negative events to produce flashbulb memories. When the event is viewed as a positive event, individuals show higher rates of reliving and sensory imagery, also showed having more live-qualities associated with the event. Individuals view these positive events as central to their identities and life stories, resulting in more rehearsal of the event, encoding the memory with more subjective clarity.
Compared to positive flashbulb memories, events seen as negative by a person have demonstrated having used more detailed- oriented, conservative processing strategies. Negative flashbulb memories are more highly unpleasant causing a person to avoid reliving the negative event. This avoidance could possibly lead to a reduction of emotional intense memory. The memory stays intact in an individual who experiences a negative flashbulb memory but have a more toned down emotional side. With negative flashbulb memories they are seen to have more consequences.
Flashbulb memories can be produced, but do not need to be, from a positive or negative event. Studies have shown that flashbulb memories may be produced by experiencing a type of brand-related interaction. It was found that two brands produced a definitional flashbulb memory, but brands lacking strongly differentiated positioning do not produce a flashbulb memory. These "flashbulb brand memories" were viewed very much like conventional flashbulb memories for the features of strength, sharpness, vividness, and intensity.
Methods
Research on flashbulb memories generally shares a common method. Typically, researchers conduct studies immediately following a shocking, public event. Participants are first tested within a few days of the event, answering questions via survey or interview regarding the details and circumstances regarding their personal experience of the event. Then groups of participants are tested at for a second time, for example six months, a year, or 18 months later. Generally, participants are divided into groups, each group being tested at different interval. This method allows researchers to observe the rate of memory decay, the accuracy and the content of flashbulb memories.
Accuracy
Many feel that flashbulb memories are not accurate enough to be considered their own category of memory. One of the issues is that flashbulb memories may deteriorate over time, just like everyday memories. Also, it has been questioned whether flashbulb memories are substantially different from everyday memories.
A number of studies suggest that flashbulb memories are not especially accurate, but that they are experienced with great vividness and confidence.
In a study conducted on September 12, 2001, 54 Duke students were tested for their memory of hearing the terrorist attack and their recall of a recent everyday event. Then, they were randomly assigned to be tested again either 7, 42 or 224 days after the event. The results showed that mean number of consistent inconsistent details recalled did not differ for flashbulb memories and everyday memories, in both cases declining over time. However, ratings of vividness, recollection and belief in accuracy of memory declined only for everyday memories. These findings further support the claims that "flashbulb memories are not special in their accuracy but only in their perceived accuracy.”
Many experimenters question the accuracy of Flashbulb Memories, but rehearsal of the event is to blame. Errors that are rehearsed through retelling and reliving can become a part of the memory. Because Flashbulb memories happen only a single time, there are no opportunities for repeated exposure or correction. Errors that are introduced early on are more likely to remain. Many individuals see these events that create Flashbulb memories as very important and want to "never forget", which may result in overconfidence in the accuracy of the flashbulb memory.
The most important thing in creating a flashbulb memory is not what occurs at the exact moment of hearing striking news, rather what occurs after hearing the news. The role of post-encoding factors such as retelling and reliving is important when trying to understand the increase in remembrance after the event has already taken place.
Such research focuses on identifying reasons why flashbulb memories are more accurate than everyday memories. It has been documented that importance of an event, the consequences involved, how distinct it is, personal involvement in the event, and proximity increase the accuracy of recall of flashbulb memories.
Stability over time
It has been argued that flashbulb memories are not very stable over time. A study conducted on the recollection of flashbulb memories for the Challenger Space Shuttle disaster sampled two independent groups of subjects on a date close to the disaster, and another eight months later. Very few subjects had flashbulb memories for the disaster after eight months. Considering only the participants who could recall the source of the news, ongoing activity, and place, researchers reported that less than 35% had detailed memories. Another study examining participants' memories for the Challenger Space Shuttle explosion found that although participants were highly confident about their memories for the event, their memories were not very accurate three years after the event had occurred. A third study conducted on the O. J. Simpson murder case found that although participants' confidence in their memories remained strong, the accuracy of their memories declined 15 months after the event, and continued to decline 32 months after the event.
While the accuracy of flashbulb memories may not be stable over time, confidence of the accuracy of a flashbulb memory appears to be stable over time. A study conducted on the bombing in Iraq and a contrasting ordinary event showed no difference for memory accuracy over a year period; however, participants showed greater confidence when remembering the Iraqi bombing than the ordinary event despite no difference in accuracy. Likewise, when memories for the 9/11 World Trade Center attack were contrasted with everyday memories, researchers found that after one year, there was a high, positive correlation between the initial and subsequent recollection of the 9/11 attack. This indicates very good retention, compared to a lower positive correlation for everyday memories. Participants also showed greater confidence in memory at time of retrieval than time of encoding.
Relation to autobiographical memory
Some studies indicate that flashbulb memories are not more accurate than other types of memories. It has been reported that memories of high school graduation or early emotional experiences can be just as vivid and clear as flashbulb memories. Undergraduates recorded their three most vivid autobiographical memories. Nearly all of the memories produced were rated to be of high personal importance, but low national importance. These memories were rated as having the same level of consequentiality and surprise as memories for events of high national importance. This indicates that flashbulb memories may just be a subset of vivid memories and may be the result of a more general phenomenon.
When looking at flashbulb memories and "control memories" (non-flashbulb memories) it has been observed that flashbulb memories are incidentally encoded into one's memory, whereas if one wanted to, a non-flashbulb memory can be specifically encoded in a person's memory. Both of these types of memories have vividness that accompanies the memory but it was found that for flashbulb memories, the vividness was much higher and never decreases compared to control memories, which in fact did decrease over time.
Flashbulb memory has always been classified as a type of autobiographical memory, which is memory for one's everyday life events. Emotionally neutral autobiographical events, such as a party or a barbecue, were contrasted with emotionally arousing events that were classified as flashbulb memories. Memory for the neutral autobiographical events was not as accurate as the emotionally arousing events of Princess Diana's death and Mother Teresa's death. Therefore, flashbulb memories were more accurately recalled than everyday autobiographical events. In some cases, consistency of flashbulb memories and everyday memories do not differ, as they both decline over time. Ratings of vividness, recollection and belief in the accuracy of memory, however, have been documented to decline only in everyday memories and not flashbulb memories.
The latent structure of a flashbulb memory is taxonic, and qualitatively distinct from non-flashbulb memories. It has been suggested that there are "optimal cut points" on flashbulb memory features that can ultimately divide people who can produce them from those who cannot. This follows the idea that flashbulb memories are a recollection of "event-specific sensory-perceptual details" and are much different from other known autobiographical memories. Ordinary memories show a dimensional structure that involves all levels of autobiographical knowledge, whereas flashbulb memories appear to come from a more densely integrated region of autobiographical knowledge. Flashbulb memories and non-flashbulb memories also differ qualitatively and not just quantitatively. Flashbulb memories are considered a form of autobiographical memory but involve the activation of episodic memory, where as everyday memories are a semantic form of recollections. Being a form of autobiographical recollections flashbulb memories are deeply determined by the reconstructive processes of memory, and just like any other form of memory are prone to decay.
Importance of an event
Brown and Kulik emphasized that importance is a critical variable in flashbulb memory formation. In a study conducted by Brown and Kulik, news events were chosen so that some of them would be important to some of their subjects, but not to others. They found that when an event was important to one group, it was associated with a comparatively high incidence of flashbulb memories. The same event, when judged lower on importance by another group, was found to be associated with a lower incidence of flashbulb memory. The retelling or rehearsal of personally important events also increases the accuracy of flashbulb memories. Personally important events tend to be rehearsed more often than non-significant events. A study conducted on flashbulb memories of the Loma Prieta earthquake found that people who discussed and compared their personal stories with others repeatedly had better recall of the event compared to Atlanta subjects who had little reason to talk about how they had heard the news. Therefore, the rehearsal of personally important events can be important in developing accurate flashbulb memories. There has been other evidence that shows that personal importance of an event is a strong predictor of flashbulb memories. A study done on the flashbulb memory of the resignation of the British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, found that the majority of UK subjects had flashbulb memories nearly one year after her resignation. Their memory reports were characterized by spontaneous, accurate, and full recall of event details. In contrast, a low number of non-UK subjects had flashbulb memories one year after her resignation. Memory reports in this group were characterized by forgetting and reconstructive errors. The flashbulb memories for Margaret Thatcher's resignation were, therefore, primarily associated with the level of importance attached to the event.
When Princess Diana died, it was a very important and surprising event. It affected people across the globe. When looking at accuracy, the importance of the event can related to how accurate an individual's flashbulb memory is. Reports found that among British participants no forgetting occur over 4 years since the event. Events that are highly surprising and are rated as highly important to an individual may be preserved in the memory for a longer period of time, and have the qualities of recent events compared to those not as affected. If an event has a strong impact on an individual these memories are found to be kept much longer.
Consequentiality
It was proposed that the intensity of initial emotional reaction, rather than perceived consequentiality, is a primary determinant of flashbulb memories. Flashbulb memories of the 1981 assassination attempt on President Reagan were studied, and it was found that participants had accurate flashbulb memories seven months after the shooting. Respondents reported flashbulb memories, despite low consequentiality ratings. This study only evaluated the consequence of learning about a flashbulb event, and not how the consequences of being involved with the event affects accuracy. Therefore, some people were unsure of the extent of injury, and most could only guess about the eventual outcomes. Two models of flashbulb memory state that the consequences of an event determines the intensity of emotional reactions. The Importance Driven Emotional Reactions Model indicates that personal consequences determine intensity of emotional reactions. The consequence of an event is a critical variable in the formation and maintenance of a flashbulb memory. These propositions were based on flashbulb memories of the Marmara earthquake. The other model of flashbulb memory, called the Emotional-Integrative model, proposes that both personal importance and consequentiality determine the intensity of one's emotional state. Overall, the majority of research found on flashbulb memories demonstrates that consequences of an event play a key role in the accuracy of flashbulb memories. The death of Pope John Paul II did not come as a surprise but flashbulb memories were still found in individuals who were affected. This shows a direct link between emotion and event memory, and emphasizes how attitude can play a key factor in determining importance and consequentiality for an event. Events being high in importance and consequentiality lead to more vivid and long-lasting flashbulb memories.
Distinctiveness of an event
Some experiences are unique and distinctive, while others are familiar, commonplace, or are similar to much that has gone on before. Distinctiveness of an event has been considered to be a main contributor to the accuracy of flashbulb memories. The accounts of flashbulb memory that have been documented as remarkably accurate have been unique and distinctive from everyday memories. It has been found that uniqueness of an event can be the best overall predictor of how well it will be recalled later on. In a study conducted on randomly sampled personal events, subjects were asked to carry beepers that went off randomly. Whenever the beeper sounded, participants recorded where they were, what they were doing, and what they were thinking. Weeks or months later, the participants' memories were tested. The researchers found that recall of action depends strongly on uniqueness. Similar results have been found in studies regarding distinctiveness and flashbulb memories; memories for events that produced flashbulb memories, specifically various terrorist attacks, had high correlations between distinctiveness and personal importance, novelty, and emotionality. It has also been documented that if someone has a distinctive experience during a meaningful event, then accuracy for recall will increase. During the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, higher accuracy for the recall of the earthquake was documented in participants who had distinctive experiences during the earthquake, often including a substantial disruption in their activity.
Personal involvement and proximity
It has been documented that people that are involved in a flashbulb event have more accurate recollections compared to people that were not involved in the event. Recollections of those who experienced the Marmara earthquake in Turkey had more accurate recollections of the event than people who had no direct experience. In this study, the majority of participants in the victim group recalled more specific details about the earthquake compared to the group that was not directly affected by the earthquake, and rather received their information about it from the news. Another study compared Californians' memories of an earthquake that happened in California to the memories of the same earthquake formed by people who were living in Atlanta. The results indicated that the people that were personally involved with the earthquake had better recall of the event. Californians' recall of the event were much higher than Atlantans', with the exception of those who had relatives in the affected area, such that they reported being more personally involved. The death of Pope John Paul II has created many Flashbulb Memories among people who were more religiously involved with the Catholic Church. The more involved someone is to a religion, city or group, the more importance and consequentially is reported for an event. More emotions are reported, resulting in more consistent Flashbulb Memories.
A study (Sharot et al. 2007) conducted on the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks demonstrates that proximity plays a part in the accuracy of recall of flashbulb memories. Three years after the terrorist attacks, participants were asked to retrieve memories of 9/11, as well as memories of personally selected control events from 2001. At the time of the attacks, some participants were in the downtown Manhattan region, closer to the World Trade Center, while others were in Midtown, a few miles away. The participants who were closer to downtown recalled more emotionally significant detailed memories than the Midtown participants. When looking solely at the Manhattan participants, the retrieval of memories for 9/11 were accompanied by an enhancement in recollective experience relative to the retrieval of other memorable life events in only a subset of participants who were, on average, two miles from the World Trade Center (around Washington Square) and not in participants who were, on average, 4.5 miles from the World Trade Center (around the Empire State Building). Although focusing only on participants that were in Manhattan on 9/11, the recollections of those closer to the World Trade Center were more vivid than those who were farther away. The downtown participants reported seeing, hearing, and even smelling what had happened. Personal involvement in, or proximity to, a national event could explain greater accuracy in memories because there could be more significant consequences for the people involved, such as the death of a loved one, which can create more emotional activation in the brain. This emotional activation in the brain has been shown to be involved in the recall of flashbulb memories.
Source of Information
When looking at the source of knowledge about an event, hearing the news from the media or from another person does not cause a difference in reaction, rather causes a difference in the type of information that is encoded to one's memory. When hearing the news from the media, more details about the events itself are better remembered due to the processing of facts while experiencing high levels of arousal, whereas when hearing the news from another individual a person tends to remember personal responses and circumstances.
Additionally, the source monitoring problem contributes to the recollection and memory errors of flashbulb memories. Over time, new information is encountered and this post-significant event information from other sources may replace or added to the part of information already stored in memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Nominated by Pär Anders Granhag - Deputy Editor in Chief|date=January 2011|title=From the archive: 'Crashing memories and the problem of 'source monitoring by H. F. M. Crombag, W. A. Wagenaar, & P. J. van Koppen (1996). Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 95-104 with commentary|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|language=en|volume=25|issue=S1|pages=S91–S101|doi=10.1002/acp.1779}}</ref> Repeated rehearsal of the news in media and between individuals make flashbulb memories more susceptible to misremembering the source of information, thus leading to less recall of true details of the event. In a study done by Dutch researchers, participants were asked about an event of El Al Boeing 747 crash on apartment buildings in Amsterdam. Ten months after the accident, participants were asked if they recalled seeing the television film of the moment the plane hit the building. According to the results, over 60% of the subjects said they had seen the crash on television, although there was no television film regarding the incident. If they said yes, there were asked questions about the details of the crash and most falsely reported that they saw the fire had started immediately. This study demonstrates that adults can falsely believe that they have witnessed something they actually have not seen themselves but only heard from news or other people. Even, they can go further to report specific but incorrect details regarding the event. It is important to note that the error rate in this experiment is higher than usually found in flashbulb experiments since it uses a suggestive question instead of the usual neutral ‘flashbulb memory question’ and unlike in typical flashbulb memory studies, subjects are not asked how they first learned about the event which doesn't lead to critical consideration of possible original source. However, it demonstrates how even flashbulb memories are susceptible to memory distortion due to source monitoring errors.
Demographic differences
Although people of all ages experience flashbulb memories, different demographics and ages can influence the strength and quality of a flashbulb memory.
Age differences
In general, younger adults form flashbulb memories more readily than older adults. One study examined age-related differences in flashbulb memories: participants were tested for memory within 14 days of an important event and then retested for memory of the same event 11 months later. Even 11 months after the event occurred, nearly all the younger adults experienced flashbulb memories, but less than half of the older adults met all the criteria of a flashbulb memory. Younger and older adults also showed different reasons for recalling vivid flashbulb memories. The main predictor for creating flashbulb among younger adults was emotional connectedness to the event, whereas older adults relied more on rehearsal of the event in creating flashbulb memories. Being emotionally connected was not enough for older adults to create flashbulbs; they also needed to rehearse the event over the 11 months to remember details. Older adults also had more difficulty remembering the context of the event; the older adults were more likely to forget with whom they spoke and where events took place on a daily basis.
If older adults are significantly impacted by the dramatic event, however, they could form flashbulb memories that are just as detailed as those that younger adults form. Older adults that were personally impacted by or close to September 11 recalled memories that did not differ in detail from those of younger adults.
Older adults were found to be more confident in their memories than younger adults, in regards to whom they were with, where they were, and their own personal emotions at the time of hearing the news of 9/11. Older adults remembered a vast majority of events between the ages of 10 and 30, a period known as the "reminiscence bump". During that period, events occur during a time of finding one's identity and peak brain function. These events tend to be more talked about than events occurring outside this period. Flashbulb memories from the "reminiscence bump" are better remembered by older adults than are memories are having recently occurred.
Cultural variations
Generally the factors that influence flashbulb memories are considered to be constant across cultures. Tinti et al. (2009) conducted a study on memories of Pope John Paul II's death amongst Polish, Italian, and Swiss Catholics. The results showed that personal involvement was most important in memory formation, followed by proximity to the event.
Flashbulb memories differ among cultures with the degree to which certain factors influence the vividness of flashbulb memories. For example, Asian cultures de-emphasis individuality; therefore Chinese and Japanese people might not be as affected by the effects of personal involvement on vividness of flashbulb memories. A study conducted by Kulkofsky, Wang, Conway, Hou, Aydin, Johnson, and Williams (2011) investigated the formation of flashbulb memories in 5 countries: China, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, and Turkey. Overall participants in the United States and the United Kingdom reported more memories in a 5 minutes span than participants from Germany, Turkey, and China. This could simply be due to the fact that different cultures have different memory search strategies. In terms of flashbulb memories, Chinese participants were less affected by all factors related to personal closeness and involvement with the event. There were also cultural variations in effects of emotional intensity and surprise.
Gender
Some studies conducted in this area of research yielded findings indicating that women are able to produce more vivid details of events and recall autobiographical events elicited by Senate hearings than men. One such study had participants fill out questionnaires about flashbulb memories and recollections of autobiographical events pertaining to the Senate hearings that confirmed Clarence Thomas as a Supreme Court Justice (Morse, 1993). The study found that half of the individuals reported vivid memory images associated with the hearings. 64% of women reported images as opposed to 33% men. 77% of women reported having had stimulated recall of an autobiographical event, while only 27% of men indicated having experienced such recall. Women were more likely than men to report additional imagery (24% of women and 6% of men). Women were more likely than men to report vivid image memories and recall of autobiographical events elicited by the hearings, but they did not differ from men in the ratings of these memories. There was also no difference in the average amount of time spent consuming media on the hearing.
A large body of research was conducted into events taking place during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, although it was not specifically researching gender differences. In one study researchers had participants answer questions to establish "consistent flashbulb memory," which consists of details about where the participants were at the time of the attacks, what they were doing, etc. In 2002 it was found that 49% of women and 47% of men fulfilled these requirements. In 2003, this dropped to 46% of women and 44% of men (Conway, 2009). Women seemed more likely to have a more consistent memory for the event than men in this study. A longer time since the incident decreases the consistency of the memory. However, a study aimed at finding whether a series of terrorist attacks with common features elicit flashbulb memories found a different pattern of gender effects. Men rated the distinctiveness of their flashbulb-producing event higher than women did. Additionally, men had memories with more detail than women. Women however, reported higher rates of emotional reactivity.
Biological reasons for gender variances in flashbulb memory may be explained by amygdala asymmetry. The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, and is linked with memory and emotion. Memory is enhanced by emotion, and studies have shown that people are more likely to remember a negative event than a neutral or positive one. Investigations into the amygdala revealed "people who showed strong amygdala activation in response to a set of positive or negative stimuli (relative to other study participants) also showed superior memory for those stimuli (relative to other study participants)". This may explain why flashbulb memory typically involves traumatic events. When viewing emotional content, research has shown that men enhance their memory by activating their right amygdala while women activate the left side. Although it is still unclear how lateralization affects memory, there may be a more effective relationship between activation of the left amygdala and memory than activation of right and memory. Generally speaking, studies testing differences between genders on episodic memory tasks revealed that "women consistently outperform men on tasks that require remembering items that are verbal in nature or can be verbally labeled" (Herlitz, 2008). It seems that women also "excel on tasks requiring little or no verbal processing, such as recognition of unfamiliar odors or faces" (Herlitz, 2008). Men only seem to excel in memory tasks that require visuospatial processing. Gender differences are also very apparent in research on autobiographical memory. To sum up these gender differences, most literature on memory indicates that:
Overall women seem to have better memory performance than men in both emotional and non-emotional events.
There are many problems with assessing gender differences found in the research into this topic. The clearest is that it is heavily reliant on self-reporting of events. Inaccuracy of findings could result from biased questions or participants misremembering. There is no way to completely verify the accuracy of accounts given by the subjects in a study. Additionally, there are many indications that eye-witness memory can often be fallible. Emotion does not seem to improve memory performance in a situation that involves weapons. Eyewitnesses remember fewer details about perpetrators a weapon is involved in an event (Pickel, 2009). Accuracy in these situations is compromised by a phenomenon known as the weapon focus effect. Further complicating matters is the time frame in which people are surveyed in relation to the event as many studies survey people well after the events. Thus, there is a validity issue with much of the research into flashbulb memory in general, as well as any apparent gender differences.
Improvement
A number of studies have found that flashbulb memories are formed immediately after a life changing event happens or when news of the event is relayed. Although additional information about the event can then be researched or learned, the extra information is often lost in memory due to different encoding processes. A more recent study, examining effects of the media on flashbulb memories for the September 11, 2001 attacks, shows that extra information may help retain vivid flashbulb memories. Although the researchers found that memory for the event decreased over time for all participants, looking at images had a profound effect on participants memory. Those who said they saw images of the September 11th attacks immediately retained much more vivid images 6-months later than those who said they saw images hours after they heard about the attacks. The latter participants failed to encode the images with the original learning of the event. Thus, it may be the images themselves that lead some of the participants to recall more details of the event. Graphic images may make an individual associate more with the horror and scale of a tragic event and hence produce a more elaborate encoding mechanism. Furthermore, perhaps looking at images may help individuals retain vivid flashbulb memories months, and perhaps even years, after an event occurs.
Controversy: special mechanism hypothesis
The special-mechanism hypothesis has been the subject of considerable discussion in recent years, with some authors endorsing the hypothesis and others noting potential problems.This hypothesis divides memory processes into different categories, positing that different mechanisms underlie flashbulb memories. Yet many argue that flashbulb memories are simply the product of multiple, unique factors coalescing.
Supporting evidence
Data concerning people's recollections of the Reagan assassination attempt provide support for the special-mechanism hypothesis. People had highly accurate accounts of the event and had lost very few details regarding the event several months after it occurred. Additionally, an experiment examining emotional state and word valence found that people are better able to remember irrelevant information when they are in a negative, shocked state. There is also neurological evidence in support of a special mechanism view. Emotionally neutral autobiographical events, such as a party, were compared with two emotionally arousing events: Princess Diana's death, and Mother Teresa's death. Long-term memory for the contextual details of an emotionally neutral autobiographical event was related to medial temporal lobe function and correlated with frontal lobe function, whereas there was no hint of an effect of either medial temporal lobe or frontal lobe function on memory for the two flashbulb events. These results indicate that there might be a special neurobiological mechanism associated with emotionally arousing flashbulb memories.
Opposing evidence
Studies have shown that flashbulb memories can result from non-surprising events, such as the first moon landing, and also from non-consequential events. While Brown and Kulik defined flashbulb memories as memories of first learning about a shocking event, they expand their discussion to include personal events in which the memory is of the event itself. Simply asking participants to retrieve vivid, autobiographical memories has been shown to produce memories that contain the six features of flashbulb memories. Therefore, it has been proposed that such memories be viewed as products of ordinary memory mechanisms. Moreover, flashbulb memories have been shown to be susceptible to errors in reconstructive processes, specifically systematic bias. It has been suggested that flashbulb memories are not especially resistant to forgetting. A number of studies suggest that flashbulb memories are not especially accurate, but that they are experienced with great vividness and confidence. Therefore, it is argued that it may be more precise to define flashbulb memories as extremely vivid autobiographical memories. Although they are often memories of learning about a shocking public event, they are not limited to such events, and not all memories of learning about shocking public events produce flashbulb memories.
Models
The photographic model
Brown and Kulik proposed the term flashbulb memory, along with the first model of the process involved in developing what they called flashbulb accounts''. The photographic model proposes that in order for a flashbulb account to occur in the presence of a stimulus event, there must be, a high level of surprise, consequentiality, and emotional arousal. Specifically, at the time in which an individual first hears of an event, the degree of unexpectedness and surprise is the first step in the registration of the event. The next step involved in registration of flashbulb accounts is the degree of consequentiality, which in turn, triggers a certain level of emotional arousal. Brown and Kulik described consequentiality as the things one would imagine may have gone differently if the event hadn't occurred, or what consequences the event had on an individual's life. Further, Brown and Kulik believed that high levels of these variables would also result in frequent rehearsal, being either covert ("always on the mind") or overt (ex. talked about in conversations with others). Rehearsal, which acts as a mediating process in the development of a flashbulb account, creates stronger associations and more elaborate accounts. Therefore, the flashbulb memory becomes more accessible and vividly remembered for a long period of time.
Comprehensive model
Some researchers recognized that previous studies of flashbulb memories are limited by the reliance on small sample groups of few nationalities, thus limiting the comparison of memory consistency across different variables. The comprehensive model was born out of similar experimentation as Brown and Kulik's, but with a larger participant sample. One major difference between the two models is that the Photographic Model follows more of a step-by-step process in the development of flashbulb accounts, whereas the Comprehensive Model demonstrates an interconnected relationship between the variables. Specifically, knowledge and interest in the event affects the level of personal importance for the individual, which also affects the individual's level of emotional arousal (affect). Furthermore, knowledge and interest pertaining to the event, as well as the level of importance, contribute to the frequency of rehearsal. Therefore, high levels of knowledge and interest contribute to high levels of personal importance and affect, as well as high frequency of rehearsal. Finally, affect and rehearsal play major roles in creating associations, thus enabling the individual to remember vivid attributes of the event, such as the people, place, and description of the situation.
Emotional-integrative model
An Emotional-Integrative Model of flashbulb memories integrates the two previously discussed models the Photographic Model and the Comprehensive Model. Similar to the Photographic Model, the Emotional-Integrative Model states that the first step toward the registration of a flashbulb memory is an individual's degree of surprise associated with the event. This level of surprise triggers an emotional feeling state, which is also a result of the combination of the level of importance (consequentiality) of the event to the individual, and the individual's affective attitude. The emotional feeling state of the individual directly contributes to the creation of a flashbulb memory. To strengthen the association, thus enabling the individual to vividly remember the event, emotional feeling state and affective attitude contribute to overt rehearsal (mediator) of the event to strengthen the memory of the original event which, in turn, determines the formation of a flashbulb memory. According to the Emotional-Integrative model flashbulb memories can also be formed for expected events. The formation of flashbulb memories in this case depends greatly on a high emotional relationship to the event and rehearsal of the memory.
Importance-driven emotional reactions model
This model emphasizes that personal consequences determine intensity of emotional reactions. These consequences are, therefore, critical operators in the formation and maintenance of flashbulb memories. This model was based on whether traumatic events were experienced or not during the Marmara earthquake. According to the findings of this study, the memories of the people who experienced the earthquake were preserved as a whole, and unchanged over time. Results of the re-test showed that the long-term memories of the victim group are more complete, more durable and more consistent than those of the comparison group. Therefore, based on this study, a new model was formed that highlights that consequences play a very large role in the formation of flashbulb memories.
Compared to traumatic memories
Flashbulb memories are engendered by highly emotional, surprising events. Flashbulb memories differ from traumatic events because they do not generally contain an emotional response. Traumatic memories involve some element of fear or anxiety. While flashbulb memories can include components of negative emotion, these elements are generally absent.
There are some similarities between traumatic and flashbulb memories. During a traumatic event, high arousal can increase attention to central information leading to increased vividness and detail. Another similar characteristic is that memory for traumatic events is enhanced by emotional stimuli. An additional, a difference between the nature of flashbulb memories and traumatic memories is the amount of information regarding unimportant details that will be encoded in the memory of the event. In high-stress situations, arousal dampens memory for peripheral information—such as context, location, time, or other less important details. To rephrase, flashbulb memories are described as acute awareness of where a person was and what they were doing when a significant or traumatic event occurred, and are not characterized by strong emotion, while traumatic memories are accompanied by highly negative emotions such as anxiety, fear, and panic when the related event is recalled.
Neurological bases
Amygdala
Laboratory studies have related specific neural systems to the influence of emotion on memory. Cross-species investigations have shown that emotional arousal causes neurohormonal changes, which engage the amygdala. The amygdala modulates the encoding, storage, and retrieval of episodic memory. These memories are later retrieved with an enhanced recollective experience, similar to the recollection of flashbulb memories. The amygdala, therefore, may be important in the encoding and retrieval of memories for emotional public events. Since the role of the amygdala in memory is associated with increased arousal induced by the emotional event, factors that influence arousal should also influence the nature of these memories. The constancy of flashbulb memories over time varies based on the individual factors related to the arousal response, such as emotional engagement and personal involvement with the shocking event. The strength of amygdala activation at retrieval has been shown to correlate with an enhanced recollective experience for emotional scenes, even when accuracy is not enhanced. Memory storage is increased by endocrine responses to shocking events; the more shocking an individual finds an event, the more likely a vivd flashbulb memory will develop.
There has been considerable debate as to whether unique mechanisms are involved in the formation of flashbulb memories, or whether ordinary memory processes are sufficient to account for memories of shocking public events. Sharot et al. found that for individuals who were close to the World Trade Center, the retrieval of 9/11 memories engaged neural systems that are uniquely tied to the influence of emotion on memory. The engagement of these emotional memory circuits is consistent with the unique limbic mechanism that Brown and Kulik suggested. These are the same neural mechanisms, however, engaged during the retrieval of emotional stimuli in the laboratory. The consistency in the pattern of neural responses during the retrieval of emotional scenes presented in the laboratory and flashbulb memories suggests that even though different mechanisms may be involved in flashbulb memories, these mechanisms are not unique to the surprising and consequential nature of the initiating events.
Evidence indicates the importance of the amygdala in the retrieval of 9/11 events, but only among individuals who personally experienced these events. The amygdala's influence on episodic memory is explicitly tied to physiological arousal. Although simply hearing about shocking public events may result in arousal, the strength of this response likely varies depending on the individual's personal experience with the events.
Critique of research
Flashbulb memory research tends to focus on public events that have a negative valence. There is a shortage on studies regarding personal events such as accidents or trauma. This is due to the nature of the variables needed for flashbulb memory research: the experience of a surprising event is hard to manipulate. Also, it is very hard to conduct experiments on flashbulb memories due to lack of control over the events. In an empirical study, it is very difficult to control the rehearsal amount.
Some researchers also argue that the effect of rehearsal factors on individual memory is different with respect to the availability of the mass media across different societies.
See also
Memory and trauma
Yerkes–Dodson law
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250204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany%20national%20football%20team | Germany national football team | The Germany national football team ( or Die Mannschaft) represents Germany in men's international football and played its first match in 1908. The team is governed by the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund), founded in 1900. Between 1949 and 1990, separate German national teams were recognised by FIFA due to Allied occupation and division: the DFB's team representing the Federal Republic of Germany (named West Germany from 1949 to 1990), the Saarland team representing the Saar Protectorate (1950–1956) and the East German team representing the German Democratic Republic (1952–1990). The latter two were absorbed along with their records; the present team represents the reunified Federal Republic. The official name and code "Germany FR (FRG)" was shortened to "Germany (GER)" following reunification in 1990.
Germany is one of the most successful national teams in international competitions, having won four World Cups (1954, 1974, 1990, 2014), three European Championships (1972, 1980, 1996), and one Confederations Cup (2017). They have also been runners-up three times in the European Championships, four times in the World Cup, and a further four third-place finishes at World Cups. East Germany won Olympic Gold in 1976. Germany is the only nation to have won both the FIFA World Cup and the FIFA Women's World Cup. At the end of the 2014 World Cup, Germany earned the second highest Elo rating of any national football team in history, with 2,223 points. Germany is also the only European nation that has won a FIFA World Cup in the Americas.
On 1 August 2021, Hansi Flick became head coach of the team, after Joachim Löw announced that he would step down after UEFA Euro 2020.
History
Early years (1899–1942)
On 18 April 1897, an early international game on German soil was played in Hamburg when a selection team from the Danish Football Association defeated a selection team from the Hamburg-Altona Football Association, 5–0.
Between 1899 and 1901, prior to the formation of a national team, there were five unofficial international matches between German and English selection teams, which all ended as large defeats for the German teams. Eight years after the establishment of the German Football Association (DFB), the first official match of the Germany national football team was played on 5 April 1908, against Switzerland in Basel, with the Swiss winning 5–3.
Julius Hirsch was the first Jewish player to represent the Germany national football team, which he joined in 1911. Hirsch scored four goals for Germany against the Netherlands in 1912, becoming the first German to score four goals in a single match.
Gottfried Fuchs scored a world record 10 goals for Germany in a 16–0 win against Russia at the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm on 1 July, becoming the top scorer of the tournament; his international record was not surpassed until 2001 when Australia's Archie Thompson scored 13 goals in a 31–0 defeat of American Samoa. He was Jewish, and the German Football Association erased all references to him from their records between 1933 and 1945. As of 2016, he was still the top German scorer for one match.
The first match after World War I in 1920, the first match after World War II in 1950 when Germany was still banned from most international competitions, and the first match in 1990 with former East German players were all against Switzerland as well. Germany's first championship title was even won in Switzerland in 1954.
At that time the players were selected by the DFB, as there was no dedicated coach. The first manager of the Germany national team was Otto Nerz, a school teacher from Mannheim, who served in the role from 1926 to 1936. The German FA could not afford travel to Uruguay for the first World Cup staged in 1930 during the Great Depression, but finished third in the 1934 World Cup in their first appearance in the competition. After a poor showing at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, Sepp Herberger became coach. In 1937 he put together a squad which was soon nicknamed the Breslau Elf (the Breslau Eleven) in recognition of their 8–0 win over Denmark in the then German city of Breslau, Lower Silesia (now Wrocław, Poland).
After Austria became part of Germany in the Anschluss of March 1938, that country's national team – one of Europe's best sides at the time due to professionalism – was disbanded despite having already qualified for the 1938 World Cup. Nazi politicians ordered five or six ex-Austrian players, from the clubs Rapid Vienna, Austria Vienna, and First Vienna FC, to join the all-German team on short notice in a staged show of unity for political reasons. In the 1938 World Cup that began on 4 June, this "united" German team managed only a 1–1 draw against Switzerland and then lost the replay 2–4 in front of a hostile crowd in Paris, France. That early exit stands as Germany's worst World Cup result, and one of just two occasions the team failed to progress from the group stage (the next would not occur until the 2018 tournament).
During World War II, the team played over 30 international games between September 1939 and November 1942. National team games were then suspended, as most players had to join the armed forces. Many of the national team players were gathered together under coach Herberger as Rote Jäger through the efforts of a sympathetic air force officer trying to protect the footballers from the most dangerous wartime service.
Three German national teams (1945–1990)
After World War II, Germany was banned from competition in most sports until 1950. The DFB was not a full member of FIFA, and none of the three new German states – West Germany, East Germany, and Saarland – entered the 1950 World Cup qualifiers.
The Federal Republic of Germany, which was referred to as West Germany, continued the DFB. With recognition by FIFA and UEFA, the DFB maintained and continued the record of the pre-war team. Switzerland was once again the first team that played West Germany in 1950.
West Germany qualified for the 1954 World Cup.
The Saarland, under French control between 1946 and 1956, did not join French organisations, and was barred from participating in pan-German ones. It sent their own team to the 1952 Summer Olympics and to the 1954 World Cup qualifiers. In 1957, Saarland acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany.
In 1949, the communist German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was founded. In 1952 the Deutscher Fußball-Verband der DDR (DFV) was established and the East Germany national football team took to the field. They were the only team to beat the 1974 FIFA World Cup winning West Germans in the only meeting of the two sides of the divided nation. East Germany won the gold medal at the 1976 Olympics. After German reunification in 1990, the eastern football competition was reintegrated into the DFB.
1954 World Cup victory
West Germany, captained by Fritz Walter, met in the 1954 World Cup against Turkey, Yugoslavia and Austria. When playing favourites Hungary in the group stage, Germany lost 3–8. West Germany met the Hungarian "Mighty Magyars" again in the final. Hungary had gone unbeaten for 32 consecutive matches. In an upset, West Germany won 3–2, with Helmut Rahn scoring the winning goal. The success is called "The Miracle of Bern" (Das Wunder von Bern).
Memorable losses: Wembley goal and game of the century (1958–1970)
After finishing fourth in the 1958 World Cup and reaching only the quarter-finals in the 1962 World Cup, the DFB made changes. Professionalism was introduced, and the best clubs from the various Regionalligas were assembled into the new Bundesliga. In 1964, Helmut Schön took over as coach, replacing Herberger who had been in office for 28 years.
In the 1966 World Cup, West Germany reached the final after beating the USSR in the semi-final, facing hosts England. In extra time, the first goal by Geoff Hurst was one of the most contentious goals in the history of the World Cup: the linesman signalled the ball had crossed the line for a goal, after bouncing down from the crossbar, when replays showed it did not appear to have fully crossed the line. Hurst then scored another goal giving England a 4–2 win.
West Germany in the 1970 World Cup knocked England out in the quarter-finals 3–2, before they suffered a 4–3 extra-time loss in the semi-final against Italy. This match with five goals in extra time is one of the most dramatic in World Cup history, and is called the "Game of the Century" in both Italy and Germany. West Germany claimed third by beating Uruguay 1–0. Gerd Müller finished as the tournament's top scorer with 10 goals.
1974 World Cup title on home soil
In 1971, Franz Beckenbauer became captain of the national team, and he led West Germany to victory at the European Championship at Euro 1972, defeating the Soviet Union 3–0 in the final.
As hosts of the 1974 World Cup, they won their second World Cup, defeating the Netherlands 2–1 in the final in Munich.
Two matches in the 1974 World Cup stood out for West Germany. The first group stage saw a politically charged match as West Germany played a game against East Germany. The East Germans won 1–0. The West Germans advanced to the final against the Johan Cruijff-led Dutch team and their brand of "Total Football". The Dutch took the lead from a penalty. However, West Germany tied the match on a penalty by Paul Breitner, and won it with Gerd Müller's fine finish soon after.
Late 1970s and early 1980s
West Germany failed to defend their titles in the next two major international tournaments. They lost to Czechoslovakia in the final of Euro 1976 in a penalty shootout 5–3. Since that loss, Germany has not lost a penalty shootout in major international tournaments.
In the 1978 World Cup, Germany was eliminated in the second group stage after losing 3–2 to Austria. Schön retired as coach afterward, and the post was taken over by his assistant, Jupp Derwall.
West Germany's first tournament under Derwall was successful, as they earned their second European title at Euro 1980 after defeating Belgium 2–1 in the final. West Germany reached the final of the 1982 World Cup, though not without difficulties. They were upset 1–2 by Algeria in their first match, but advanced to the second round with a controversial 1–0 win over Austria. In the semi-final against France, they tied the match 3–3 and won the penalty shootout 5–4. In the final, they were defeated by Italy 1–3.
During this period, West Germany's Gerd Müller racked up fourteen goals in two World Cups (1970 and 1974). His ten goals in 1970 are the third-most ever in a tournament. (Müller's all-time World Cup record of 14 goals was broken by Ronaldo in 2006; this was then further broken by Miroslav Klose in 2014 with 16 goals).
Beckenbauer's managing success (1984–1990)
After West Germany were eliminated in the first round of Euro 1984, Franz Beckenbauer returned to the national team to replace Derwall as manager. At the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, West Germany finished as runners-up for the second consecutive tournament after beating France 2–0 in the semi-finals, but losing to the Diego Maradona-led Argentina in the final, 2–3. In Euro 1988, after drawing Italy 1-1 and beating both Denmark and Spain 2–0 in the group stage, West Germany's hopes of winning the tournament on home soil were spoiled by the Netherlands, as the Dutch beat them 2–1 in the semi-finals.
At the 1990 World Cup in Italy, West Germany won their third World Cup title, in its unprecedented third consecutive final appearance. Captained by Lothar Matthäus, they defeated Yugoslavia (4–1), UAE (5–1), the Netherlands (2–1), Czechoslovakia (1–0), and England (1–1, 4–3 on penalty kicks) on the way to a final rematch against Argentina, played in the Italian capital of Rome. West Germany won 1–0, with the only goal being a penalty scored in the 85th minute by Andreas Brehme. Beckenbauer, who won the World Cup as the national team's captain in 1974, thus became the first person to win the World Cup as both captain and manager, and the second to win as player and manager (after Mario Zagallo of Brazil).
Olympic football
Prior to 1984, Olympic football was an amateur event, meaning that only non-professional players could participate due to this, West Germany was never able to achieve the same degree of success at the Olympics as at the World Cup. The first medal coming in the 1988 Olympics, when they won the bronze medal after beating Italy 3–0 in the 3rd place match. West Germany also reached the second round in both 1972 and 1984. On the other hand, due to having an ability to field its top-level players who were classified as amateurs on a technicality East Germany did better, winning a gold, a silver and two bronze medals (one representing the United Team of Germany).
Berti Vogts years (1990–1998)
In February 1990, months after the fall of the Berlin Wall, East Germany and West Germany were drawn together in UEFA Euro 1992 qualifying Group 5. In November 1990, the East German association Deutscher Fußball-Verband integrated into the DFB, by which time the East German team had ceased operations, playing its last match on 12 September 1990. The unified German national team completed the European Championship qualifying group. The East German 1990–91 league continued, with a restructuring of German leagues in 1991–92. The first game with a unified German team was against Sweden on 10 October.
After the 1990 World Cup, assistant Berti Vogts took over as the national team coach from the retiring Beckenbauer. In Euro 1992, Germany reached the final, but lost 0–2 to underdogs Denmark.
In the 1994 World Cup, they were upset 1–2 in the quarterfinals by Bulgaria.
Reunified Germany won its first major international title at Euro 1996, becoming European champions for the third time. They defeated hosts England in the semi-finals, and the Czech Republic 2–1 in the final on a golden goal in extra time.
However, in the 1998 World Cup, Germany were eliminated in the quarterfinals in a 0–3 defeat to Croatia, all goals being scored after defender Christian Wörns received a straight red card. Vogts stepped down afterwards and was replaced by Erich Ribbeck.
Erich Ribbeck and Rudi Völler years (2000–2004)
In Euro 2000, the team went out in the first round, drawing with Romania, then suffering a 1–0 defeat to England and were routed 3–0 by Portugal (which fielded their backup players, having already advanced). Ribbeck resigned, and was replaced by Rudi Völler.
Coming into the 2002 World Cup, expectations of the German team were low due to poor results in the qualifiers and not directly qualifying for the finals for the first time. The team advanced through group play, and in the knockout stages they produced three consecutive 1–0 wins against Paraguay, the United States, and co-hosts South Korea. Oliver Neuville scored two minutes from time against Paraguay and Michael Ballack scored both goals in the US and South Korea games, although he picked up a second yellow card against South Korea for a tactical foul and was suspended for the subsequent match. This set up a final against Brazil, the first World Cup meeting between the two. Germany lost 0–2 thanks to two Ronaldo goals. Nevertheless, German captain and goalkeeper Oliver Kahn won the Golden Ball, the first time in the World Cup that a goalkeeper was named the best player of the tournament.
Germany again exited in the first round of Euro 2004, drawing their first two matches and losing the third to the Czech Republic (who had fielded a second-string team). Völler resigned afterwards, and Jürgen Klinsmann was appointed head coach.
Resurgence under Klinsmann (2004-2006)
Klinsmann's main task was to lead the national team to a good showing at the 2006 World Cup in Germany. Klinsmann relieved goalkeeper Kahn of the captaincy and announced that Kahn and longtime backup Jens Lehmann would be competing for the position of starting goaltender, a decision that angered Kahn and Lehmann eventually won that contest. Expectations for the team were low, which was not helped by veteran defender Christian Wörns being dropped (after Wörns criticised Klinsmann for designating him only as a backup player on the squad), a choice roundly panned in Germany. Italy routed Germany 4–1 in a March exhibition game, and Klinsmann bore the brunt of the criticism as the team was ranked only 22nd in the world entering the 2006 FIFA World Cup.
As World Cup hosts, Germany won all three group-stage matches to finish top of their group. The team defeated Sweden 2–0 in the round of 16.
Germany faced Argentina in the quarter-finals. The match ended 1–1, and Germany won the penalty shootout 4–2.
In the semi-final against Italy, the match was scoreless until near the end of extra time when Germany conceded two goals.
In the third place match, Germany defeated Portugal 3–1.
Miroslav Klose was awarded the Golden Boot for his tournament-leading five goals.
Löw era (2006–2021)
Germany's entry into the Euro 2008 qualifying round was marked by the promotion of Joachim Löw to head coach, since Klinsmann resigned.
At UEFA Euro 2008, Germany won two out of three matches in group play to advance to the knockout round.
They defeated Portugal 3–2 in the quarterfinal,
and won their semi-final against Turkey.
Germany lost the final against Spain 0–1, finishing as the runners-up.
In the 2010 World Cup, Germany won the group and advanced to the knockout stage. In the round of 16, Germany defeated England 4–1. The game controversially had a valid goal by Frank Lampard disallowed. In the quarterfinals, Germany defeated Argentina 4–0, and Miroslav Klose tied German Gerd Müller's record of 14 World Cup goals.
In the semi-final, Germany lost 1–0 to Spain. Germany defeated Uruguay 3–2 to take third place (their second third place after 2006). German Thomas Müller won the Golden Boot and the Best Young Player Award.
In Euro 2012, Germany was placed in group B along with Portugal, Netherlands, and Denmark. Germany won all three group matches. Germany defeated Greece in the quarter-final and set a record of 15 consecutive wins in all competitive matches. In the semi-finals, Germany lost to Italy, 1–2.
2014 World Cup victory
Germany finished first in their qualification group for the 2014 World Cup. The draw for the 2014 World Cup finals placed Germany in Group G, with Portugal, Ghana, and United States. They first faced Portugal in a match billed by some as the "team of all the talents against the team of The Talent (Cristiano Ronaldo)", routing the Portuguese 4–0 thanks to a hat-trick by Thomas Müller. In their match with Ghana, they led the game with Götze's second half goal, but then conceded two consecutive goals, then at the 71st minute Klose scored a goal to help Germany to draw 2–2 with Ghana. With that goal, Klose also nudged home his 15th World Cup goal to join former Brazil striker Ronaldo at the pinnacle of World Cup Finals scorers. They then went on to defeat the United States team 1–0, securing them a spot in the round of sixteen against Algeria.
The round of sixteen knockout match against Algeria remained goalless after regulation time, resulting in extra time. In the 92nd minute, André Schürrle scored a goal from a Thomas Müller pass. Mesut Özil scored Germany's second goal in the 120th minute. Algeria managed to score one goal in injury time and the match ended 2–1. Germany secured a place in the quarter-final, where they would face France.
In the quarter-final match against France, Mats Hummels scored in the 13th minute. Germany won the game 1–0 to advance to a record fourth consecutive semi-finals.
The semi-final win (7–1) against Brazil was a major accomplishment. Germany scored four goals in just less than seven minutes and were 5–0 up against Brazil by the 30th minute with goals from Thomas Müller, Miroslav Klose, Sami Khedira and two from Toni Kroos. Klose's goal in the 23rd minute, his 16th World Cup goal, gave him sole possession of the record for most goals scored during World Cup Finals, dethroning former Brazil national Ronaldo.
In the second half of the game, substitute André Schürrle scored twice for Germany to lead 7–0, the highest score against Brazil in a single game. Germany did, however, concede a late goal to Brazil's Oscar. It was Brazil's worst ever World Cup defeat, whilst Germany broke multiple World Cup records with the win, including the record broken by Klose, the first team to reach four consecutive World Cup semi-finals, the first team to score seven goals in a World Cup Finals knockout phase game, the fastest five consecutive goals in World Cup history (four of which in just 400 seconds), the first team to score five goals in the first half in a World Cup semi-final as well as being the topic of the most tweets ever on Twitter about a certain subject when the previous social media record was smashed after Germany scored their fourth goal. Also, Germany's seven goals took their total tally in World Cup history to 223, surpassing Brazil's 221 goals to first place overall.
The World Cup Final was held at the Maracana in Rio de Janeiro on 13 July, and billed as the world's best player (Lionel Messi) versus the world's best team (Germany). Mario Götze's 113th-minute goal helped Germany beat Argentina 1–0, becoming the first-ever European team to win a FIFA World Cup in the Americas and the second European team to win the title outside Europe.
Euro 2016 to 2017 Confederations Cup
After several players retired from the team following the 2014 World Cup win, including Philipp Lahm, Per Mertesacker and Miroslav Klose, the team had a disappointing start in the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifiers. They defeated Scotland 2–1 at home, then suffered a 2–0 loss at Poland (the first in their history), a 1–1 draw against the Republic of Ireland, and a 4–0 win over Gibraltar. The year ended with an away 0–1 friendly win against Spain, the reigning European champions of 2008 and 2012.
Troubles during qualifying for the 2016 European Championship continued, drawing at home, as well as losing away, to Ireland; the team also only narrowly defeated Scotland on two occasions, but handily won the return against Poland and both games against Gibraltar (who competed for the first time). Eventually, however, topping their group and qualifying for the tournament through a 2–1 victory against Georgia on 11 October 2015 (having won the first match against them).
On 13 November 2015, the team was playing a friendly match against France in Paris when a series of terrorist attacks took place in the city, some in the direct vicinity of the Stade de France, where the game was held. For security reasons, the team needed to spend the night inside the stadium, accompanied by the French squad who stayed behind in an act of comradery. Four days later, on 17 November 2015, the German team was scheduled to face the Netherlands at Hanover's HDI-Arena, also in a friendly. After initial security reservations, the DFB decided to play the match on 15 November. However, after reports about a concrete threat to the stadium, the match was cancelled ninety minutes before kickoff.
Germany began their preparations for Euro 2016 in March with friendlies against England and Italy. They gave up a 2–0 lead to England, and ended up losing 2–3. They bounced back in their match with Italy, however, winning by a score of 4–1. It was their first win against the Italians in 21 years.
Germany began their campaign for a fourth European title with a 2–0 win against Ukraine on 12 June. Against Poland, Germany was held to a 0–0 draw but concluded Group C with a 1–0 win against Northern Ireland. In the Round of 16, Germany faced Slovakia and earned a comfortable 3–0 win. Germany then faced off against rivals Italy in the quarter-finals. Mesut Özil opened the scoring in the 65th minute for Germany, before Leonardo Bonucci drew even after converting a penalty in the 78th minute. The score remained 1–1 after extra time and Germany beat Italy 6–5 in a penalty shootout. It was the first time Germany had overcome Italy in a major tournament. In the semi-finals Germany played the host nation France. Germany's hopes of securing a fourth European championship were put on hold however as France ended Germany's run by eliminating them by a score of 0–2. It was France's first competitive win against Germany in 58 years.
On 2 July 2017, Germany won the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup after a 1–0 win against Chile in the final at the Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg, it was their only FIFA Confederations Cup title.
Disappointment at the 2018 World Cup, 2018–19 UEFA Nations League and Euro 2020
Despite winning all their qualifying matches and the Confederations Cup the previous year, Germany started their 2018 World Cup campaign with a defeat to Mexico. This was their first loss in an opening match since the 1982 World Cup. Germany defeated Sweden 2–1 in their second game via an injury-time winner from Toni Kroos, but was subsequently eliminated following a 2–0 loss to South Korea, their first exit in the first round since 1938 and first ever in group stage since the format had been reintroduced in 1950.
Following the World Cup, Germany's struggles continued into the UEFA Nations League. After a 0–0 draw at home against France, they lost 3–0 against the Netherlands and 1–2 in the rematch against France three days later; the latter result being their fourth loss in six competitive matches. These results meant that Germany could not advance to the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals and faced the prospect of possible relegation to League B in the next Nations League.
After the Netherlands' win against France, the relegation to League B was originally confirmed, but due to the overhaul of the format for the 2020–21 UEFA Nations League, Germany was spared from relegation to League B.
In March 2021, the DFB announced that Löw would step down as Germany's manager after the team competes in UEFA Euro 2020. Later that month, Germany lost 1–2 at home to North Macedonia in the 2022 World Cup qualifiers, their first World Cup qualification defeat since losing 5–1 to England in the 2002 World Cup qualifiers and only their third in history. On 25 May 2021, the DFB announced that former assistant manager Hansi Flick will replace Löw as head coach.
At Euro 2020 (delayed until 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic), Germany were drawn in a tough group, along with World Cup champions France (to whom they lost 1–0) and reigning European champions Portugal (whom they defeated 4–2, albeit with the help of two Portuguese own goals), with each group having only two guaranteed qualifiers for the next phase, plus a chance for the third-placed team. In the final group match, against Hungary - expected to be the group's minnows - it was the Hungarians who took the lead twice, and Germany risked a second successive group-stage elimination, securing their qualification for the next phase only with a late equalizer which lifted them from fourth place to second in the group. They progressed no further than that, however: Löw's final match as Germany's manager was on 29 June 2021, when Germany lost 2–0 to England in the round of 16 of Euro 2020.
Revival under Flick (2021–present)
Following Germany's disappointment at Euro 2020, Hansi Flick, former Bayern Munich manager, took over as coach of the national team. Success only followed from there, as Germany went on to beat Liechtenstein, Armenia, Iceland, Romania and North Macedonia in a month's succession. On 11 October 2021, Germany beat North Macedonia 4–0 to become the first team to qualify for the world cup in Qatar.
Team image
Kits and crest
The national team's home kit has always been a white shirt, black shorts, and white socks. The colours are derived from the 19th-century flag of the North German State of Prussia. Since 1988, many of the home kit's designs incorporate details patterned after the modern German flag. For the 2014 World Cup, the German team used white shorts rather than the traditional black due to FIFA's kit clashing rule for the tournament. The away shirt colour has changed several times. Historically, green shirt with white shorts is the most often used alternative colour combination, derived from the DFB colours – though it is often erroneously reported that the choice is in recognition of the fact that Ireland, whose home shirts are green, were the first nation to play Germany in a friendly game after World War II. However, the first team to play Germany after WWII, as stated above, was actually Switzerland. Other colours such as red, grey and black have also been used.
A change from black to red came in 2005 on the request of Jürgen Klinsmann, but Germany played every game at the 2006 World Cup in its home white colours. In 2010, the away colours then changed back to a black shirt and white shorts, but at the tournament, the team dressed up in the black shorts from the home kit. The German team next resumed the use of a green shirt on its away kit, but then changed again to red-and-black striped shirts with white stripes and letters and black shorts.
Adidas AG is the longstanding kit provider to the national team, a sponsorship that began in 1954 and is contracted to continue until at least 2022. In the 70s, Germany wore Erima kits (a German brand, formerly a subsidiary of Adidas).
Kit suppliers
Kit deals
Home stadium
Germany plays its home matches among various stadiums, in rotation, around the country. They have played home matches in 43 different cities so far, including venues that were German at the time of the match, such as Vienna, Austria, which staged three games between 1938 and 1942.
National team matches have been held most often (46 times) in the stadiums of Berlin, which was the venue of Germany's first home match (in 1908 against England). Other common host cities include Hamburg (34 matches), Stuttgart (32), Hanover (28) and Dortmund. Another notable location is Munich, which has hosted numerous notable matches throughout the history of German football, including the 1974 FIFA World Cup Final, which West Germany won against the Netherlands.
Media coverage
Germany's qualifying and friendly matches are televised by privately owned RTL; Nations League by public broadcasters ARD and ZDF. World Cup & European Championships matches featuring the German national team are among the most-watched events in the history of television in Germany.
Results and fixtures
Recent results and scheduled matches according to the DFB, UEFA and FIFA websites.
2021
2022
Coaching staff
Current technical staff
Players
Current squad
The following players were selected for the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against Liechtenstein and Armenia on 11 and 14 November 2021, respectively.
Information correct as of 14 November 2021, after the match against Armenia.
Recent call-ups
The following players have also been called up to the Germany squad within the last 12 months and are still available for selection.
Individual records
Player records
Players in bold are still active with Germany.
This list does not include players who represented East Germany.
Most capped players
Top goalscorers
Captains
Player of the Year
2010: Bastian Schweinsteiger
2011: Mesut Özil
2012: Mesut Özil
2013: Mesut Özil
2014: Toni Kroos
2015: Mesut Özil
2016: Mesut Özil
2017: Joshua Kimmich
2018: Marco Reus
2019: Matthias Ginter
2020: Manuel Neuer
2021: Joshua Kimmich
Manager records
Most manager appearances
Joachim Löw: 198
Team records
15 consecutive wins in all competitive matches (world record)
Competitive record
Germany has won the World Cup four times, behind only Brazil (five titles). It has finished as runners-up four times. In terms of semi-final appearances, Germany leads with 13, two more than Brazil's 11, which had participated in two more tournaments. From 1954 to 2014 (16 tournament editions), Germany always reached at least the stage of the last eight teams, before being eliminated in the group stage in 2018. Germany has also qualified for every one of the 19 World Cups for which it has entered – it did not enter the inaugural competition in Uruguay of 1930 for economic reasons, and could not qualify for or compete in the post-war 1950 World Cup as the DFB was reinstated as a FIFA member only two months after this tournament. Germany also has the distinction of having an Elo football rating of 2196 following their victory in the 2014 World Cup, which was higher than any previous champion.
Germany has also won the European Championship three times (Spain, with three titles, France and Italy, with two titles each, are the only other multiple-time winners), and finished as runners-up three times as well. The Germans have qualified for every European Championship tournament except for the first European Championship they entered in 1968. For that tournament, Germany was in the only group of three teams and thus only played four qualifying games. The deciding game was a scoreless draw in Albania which gave Yugoslavia the edge, having won in their neighbour country. The team finished out of top eight only in two occasions, the tournaments of 2000 and 2004. In the other ten editions Germany participated in they reached nine times at least the semi-finals, an unparalleled record in Europe.
See also East Germany and Saarland for the results of these separate German teams, and Austria for the team that was merged into the German team from 1938 to 1945.
FIFA World Cup
FIFA Confederations Cup
UEFA European Championship
UEFA Nations League
*Denotes draws including knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.
**Gold background colour indicates that the tournament was won.
***Red border colour indicates tournament was held on home soil.
Honours
Titles
-Major competitions:
FIFA World Cup
Champions: 1954, 1974, 1990, 2014
Runners-up: 1966, 1982, 1986, 2002
Third place: 1934, 1970, 2006, 2010
UEFA European Championship
Champions: 1972, 1980, 1996
Runners-up: 1976, 1992, 2008
Third place: 1988, 2012, 2016
FIFA Confederations Cup
Champions: 2017
Third place: 2005
Summer Olympics
Gold Medal: 1976
Silver Medal: 1980, 2016
Bronze Medal: 1964, 1972, 1988
-Minor competitions:
U.S. Cup
Champions: 1993
Four Nations Tournament
Third place: 1988
Awards
FIFA World Cup Fair Play Trophy
Winners: 1974
FIFA Confederations Cup Fair Play Award
Winners: 2017
FIFA Team of the Year
Winners: 1993, 2014, 2017
Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year
Winners: 2015
World Soccer World Team of the Year
Winners: 1990, 2014
Unofficial Football World Championships
Holders: 31 times
German Sports Team of the Year
Winners: 1966, 1970, 1974, 1980, 1990, 1996, 2002, 2006, 2010, 2014
Silbernes Lorbeerblatt
Winners: 1954, 1972, 1974, 1980, 1990, 1996, 2014
See also
List of international matches of Germany national football team
Germany national football team manager
Germany Olympic football team
Germany national under-21 football team
Germany national youth football team (includes U-15, U-16, U-17, U-18, U-19 and U-20 squads)
Germany women's national football team
East Germany national football team
Germany–England
Germany–Italy
Germany–Netherlands
Notes
References
External links
Official website by DFB
Germany at UEFA
Germany at FIFA
Matches results by RSSSF
Most capped players by RSSSF
Reports for all official matches by eu-football
European national association football teams
FIFA World Cup-winning countries
UEFA European Championship-winning countries
Recipients of the Silver Laurel Leaf
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
FIFA Confederations Cup-winning countries | [
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250211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Mahlon%20S.%20Tisdale | USS Mahlon S. Tisdale | USS Mahlon S. Tisdale (FFG-27), nineteenth ship of the Oliver Hazard Perry class of guided-missile frigates, was named for Vice Admiral Mahlon Street Tisdale (1890–1972). Ordered from Todd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles Division, San Pedro, California, on 23 January 1978 as part of the FY78 program, Mahlon S. Tisdale was laid down on 19 March 1980, launched on 7 February 1981, and commissioned on 27 November 1982.
Mahlon S. Tisdale (FFG-27) was the first ship of that name in the U.S. Navy.
TCG Gökçeada (F 494)
Decommissioned on 27 September 1996 and stricken on 20 February 1998, she was transferred to Turkey on 5 April 1999 as that nation's TCG Gökçeada (F 494). As of 2018, she is still in active service.
References
External links
MaritimeQuest USS Mahlon S. Tisdale FFG-27 pages
GlobalSecurity.org FFG-27
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Los Angeles
1981 ships
Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Turkish Navy | [
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250214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Boone | USS Boone | USS Boone (FFG-28) was the twentieth ship in the United States Navy's of guided missile frigates.
The frigate was named for Vice Admiral Joel Thompson Boone, M.D. (1889–1974). FFG-28, the first U.S. ship to bear the admiral's name, was ordered 23 January 1978, launched 16 January 1980 by Todd Pacific Shipyards, and commissioned 15 May 1982. She has since earned numerous awards and commendations.
On 30 November 2006, the rudder fell off Mayport-based frigate Boone while on deployment in the western Mediterranean. The mishap forced the ship to send out a call for help to which Canadian destroyer responded, providing divers who inspected the ship's underside. Within 24 hours, Boone was being towed to Rota for repairs by the German Navy's replenishment oiler Spessart. The ship was not adrift or totally dead in the water because its two 350-horsepower auxiliary propulsion units provided a "limited amount of maneuverability." The lost rudder was replaced 27 December and, after a day of operational testing, Boone got underway again on 28 December.
Boone was assigned to Destroyer Squadron 14 and was the recipient of the 2005 DESRON 14 Battle "E". On 16 February 2007, she was awarded the 2006 Battle "E" award.
Boone was homeported in Mayport, Florida, and was a member of the Navy Reserve. In March 2010, she was assigned to the United States Fifth Fleet fighting Somali piracy.
The last commanding officer of Boone was LCDR Robert Speight.
Boone was decommissioned on 23 February 2012.
References
Further reading
External links
USS Boone Official site
navysite.de: USS Boone
MaritimeQuest USS Boone FFG-28
https://www.grubhub.com/restaurant/taco-bell-5012-pennell-rd-aston/2358957
1980 ships
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Seattle | [
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250215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1862%20International%20Exhibition | 1862 International Exhibition | The International Exhibition of 1862, or Great London Exposition, was a world's fair. It was held from 1 May to 1 November 1862, beside the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society, South Kensington, London, England, on a site that now houses museums including the Natural History Museum and the Science Museum.
Organisation
The exposition was sponsored by the Royal Society of Arts, Manufactures and Trade, and featured over 28,000 exhibitors from 36 countries, representing a wide range of industry, technology, and the arts. William Sterndale Bennett composed music for the opening ceremony. All told, it attracted about 6.1 million visitors. Receipts (£459,632) were slightly above cost (£458,842), leaving a total profit of £790.
It was held in South Kensington, London, on a site now occupied by the Natural History Museum. The buildings, which occupied 21 acres, were designed by Captain Francis Fowke of the Royal Engineers, and built by Lucas Brothers and Sir John Kelk. They were intended to be permanent, and were constructed in an un-ornamented style with the intention of adding decoration in later years as funds allowed. Much of the construction was of cast-iron, 12,000 tons worth, though façades were brick. Picture galleries occupied three sides of a rectangle on the south side of the site; the largest, with a frontage on the Cromwell Road was 1150 feet long, 50 feet high and 50 feet wide, with a grand triple-arched entrance. Fowke paid particular attention to lighting pictures in a way that would eliminate glare. Behind the picture galleries were the "Industrial Buildings" . These were composed of "naves" and "transepts", lit by tall clerestories, with the spaces in the angles between them filled by glass-roofed courts. Above the brick entrances on the east and west fronts were two great glass domes, each 150 feet wide and 260 feet high - at that time the largest domes ever built. The timber-framed "Machinery Galleries", the only parts of the structure intended to be temporary, stretched further north along Prince Consort Road.
The opening took place on 1 May 1862. Queen Victoria, still in mourning for her consort Prince Albert did not attend, instead her cousin the Duke of Cambridge presided from a throne sited beneath the western dome. An opening address was delivered by the Earl Granville, chairman of Her Majesty's Commissioners, the group responsible for the organisation of the event.
An official closing ceremony took place on 1 November 1862, but the exhibition remained open to the public until 15 November 1862. Over six million people attended.
Parliament declined the Government's wish to purchase the building and the materials were sold and used for the construction of Alexandra Palace.
Exhibitions
The exhibition was a showcase of the advances made in the industrial revolution , especially in the decade since the first Great Exhibition of 1851. Among the items on display were; the electric telegraph, submarine cables, the first plastic, Parkesine , machine tools, looms and precision instruments.
Exhibits included such large pieces of machinery as parts of Charles Babbage's analytical engine, cotton mills, and maritime engines made by the firms of Henry Maudslay and Humphrys, Tennant and Dykes. There was also a range of smaller goods including fabrics, rugs, sculptures, furniture, plates, porcelain, silver and glass wares, and wallpaper.
The manufacture of ice by an early refrigerator caused a sensation.
The work shown by William Morris's decorative arts firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. attracted much notice. The exposition also introduced the use of caoutchouc for rubber production and the Bessemer process for steel manufacture.
Benjamin Simpson showed photos from the Indian subcontinent.
William England led a team of stereoscopic photographers, which included William Russell Sedgfield and Stephen Thompson, to produce a series of 350 stereo views of the exhibition for the London Stereoscopic Company. The images were made using the new collodion wet plate process which allowed exposure times of only a few seconds. These images provide a vivid three-dimensional record of the exhibition. They were on sale to the public in boxed sets and were delivered to the Queen by messenger so that she could experience the exhibition from her seclusion in mourning.
The London and North Western Railway exhibited one of their express passenger locomotives, No. 531 Lady of the Lake. A sister locomotive, No. 229 Watt had famously carried Trent Affair despatches earlier that year, but the Lady of the Lake (which won a bronze medal at the exhibition) was so popular that the entire class of locomotive became known as Ladies of the Lake.
There was an extensive art gallery designed to allow an even light without reflection on the pictures.
The exhibition also included an international chess tournament, the London 1862 chess tournament.
A large tiger skin, shot in 1860 by Colonel Charles Reid, was exhibited here. The skin was mounted by Edwin H. Ward and subsequently became "The Leeds Tiger", still on display at Leeds City Museum, UK.
Music
Unlike The Great Exhibition of 1851, the Society of Arts chose to have a distinctive musical component to the exhibition of 1862. Music critic Henry Chorley was selected as advisor and recommended commissioning works by William Sterndale Bennett, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Daniel Auber, and Gioacchino Rossini. Being in his retirement, Rossini declined, so the Society asked Giuseppe Verdi, who eventually accepted.
William Sterndale Bennett wrote his Ode Written Expressly for the Opening of the International Exhibition (upon a text by Alfred, Lord Tennyson), Meyerbeer wrote his Fest-Ouvertüre im Marschstil, and Auber wrote his Grand triumphal march. These three works premiered at the opening of the exhibition on 1 May 1862, with the orchestra led by conductor Prosper Sainton. Controversies involving Verdi's contribution, the cantata Inno delle nazioni, prevented the work from being included in the inaugural concert. It was first performed on 24 May 1862 at Her Majesty's Theatre in a concert organized by James Henry Mapleson.
At another concert, the French pianist and composer Georges Pfeiffer created his Second Piano Concerto.
The pianist Ernst Pauer performed daily piano recitals on the stage under the western dome.
Accident
At the opening of the exhibition on 1 May 1862, one of the attending Members of the British Parliament, 70-year-old Robert Aglionby Slaney, fell onto the ground through a gap between floorboards on a platform. He carried on with his visit despite an injured leg, but died from gangrene that set in on the 19th.
Gallery
References
Further reading
Dishon, Dalit, South Kensington's forgotten palace : the 1862 International Exhibition Building, PhD thesis, University of London, 2006. 3 vols.
Hollingshead, John, A Concise History of the International Exhibition of 1862. Its Rise and Progress, its Building and Features and a Summary of all Former Exhibitions, London, 1862.
Hunt, Robert, Handbook of the Industrial Department of the Universal Exhibition 1862, 2 vols., London, 1862.
Tongue, Michael (2006) 3D Expo 1862, Discovery Books
External links
Exhibition in 1862 - Article published by Once a Week.
Official website of the BIE
London World Exposition 1862 Expo2000 article
Images of the 1862 International Exhibition Science and Society Picture Library
The Exhibition Building of 1862, Survey of London: volume 38: South Kensington Museums Area (1975), pp. 137–147.
World's fairs in London
International Exhibition
International Exhibition
Festivals established in 1862
19th century in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea | [
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250216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Stephen%20W.%20Groves%20%28FFG-29%29 | USS Stephen W. Groves (FFG-29) | USS Stephen W. Groves (FFG-29), twenty-first ship of the of guided missile frigates, was named for Ensign Stephen W. Groves (1917–1942), a naval aviator who was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his heroism at the Battle of Midway during World War II.
Namesake
Stephen William Groves was born on 29 January 1917 in Millinocket, Maine. He graduated from Schenck High School in East Millinocket, Maine, and received a mechanical engineering degree from the University of Maine in 1939.
He joined the U.S. Navy in December 1940 and was commissioned in August 1941. He joined the aircraft carrier in December 1941. During the Battle of Midway, took off nine times from , his was one of six American fighters that fought off a vastly superior Japanese force that was trying to finish off the damaged carrier on 4 June 1942. The U.S. fighters were credited with shooting down 14 Japanese planes and causing six others to retreat.
Groves was declared missing and presumed dead on 5 June 1942. He was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross. The destroyer escort USS Groves (DE-543) was named for him, but its construction was cancelled in 1944. The American Legion Post in East Millinocket is named the Feeney-Groves Post, partially in his memory.
Construction and career
Ordered from Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, on 23 January 1978 as part of the FY78 program, Stephen W. Groves was laid down on 16 September 1980, launched on 4 April 1981, and commissioned on 17 April 1982, Commander Philip A. Bozzelli commanding.
Stephen W. Groves (FFG-29) is the first ship of that name in the U.S. Navy. A previous ship named for Ensign Groves, destroyer escort, , was canceled in 1944 prior to completion. Assigned to Destroyer Squadron 14 and home-ported at Naval Station Mayport, Florida.
During her maiden voyage, Groves was assigned to units in support of US Marines stationed at the airport in Beirut, Lebanon. Arriving shortly after the barracks bombing in 1983, she was assigned to host the helicopter detachment from , enabling New Jersey to utilize all three of her turrets for attacking targets in the Beqaa Valley. Additionally, Groves protected New Jersey and other surface units from air threats. She tracked unidentified submarines, monitored Yasser Arafat's transit from Beirut to Cyprus, and entered Beirut harbor with other units to conduct direct fire support against units hostile to USMC positions. Groves was awarded a Meritorious Unit Citation for these actions.
She was also on station when the frigate was struck by two missiles from an Iraqi fighter jet, and assisted Stark in her return to Mayport, Florida.
In September 2003, while patrolling in the Eastern Pacific Stephen W. Groves captured a go-fast drug smuggling boat along with its six crewmembers. 1.5 tons of cocaine was recovered from the ocean after it had been dumped into the sea by the go-fast's crew.
On 28 August 2005, she sailed from her then-home port of Pascagoula, Mississippi, along with sister ship , under threat from Hurricane Katrina.
Deployed to the Indian Ocean, on 10 May 2011 she intercepted the Taiwanese longliner Jih Chun Tsai 68, which had been hijacked by Somalian pirates. Receiving fire from the fishing vessel, Stephen W. Groves engaged her in a single ship action that saw the pirate vessel sunk with three pirates killed, two wounded, and one Taiwanese hostage killed. Nineteen Somali pirates and two Chinese hostages were taken on board. The rescued Chinese crew were repatriated to China and their families. She was decommissioned on 24 February 2012 and was moved to Brownsville, Texas for deconstruction and recycling to be completed in 2021.
References
External links
navysite.de: USS Stephen W. Groves
MaritimeQuest USS Stephen W. Groves FFG-29 pages
1981 ships
Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Bath, Maine
United States Navy Maine-related ships | [
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250219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark%20Blaise | Clark Blaise | Clark Blaise, OC (born April 10, 1940) is a Canadian-American author. He was a professor of creative writing at York University, and a writer of short fiction. In 2010, he was named an Officer of the Order of Canada.
Early life and education
Blaise was born in Fargo, North Dakota to Canadian parents who lived in the United States. His mother, Anne Marion Vanstone, was English-Canadian and from Wawanesa, Manitoba, and his father, Leo Romeo Blaise, was of French-Canadian descent and was a furniture salesman and long-distance traveller. Later on, his father would inspire the father characters in Blaise's fiction. Growing up, his family moved constantly throughout the U.S. Before the eighth grade, he had already moved 30 times; ultimately, he attended 25 different schools. From ages six to ten, he lived in Florida. Throughout his childhood, Blaise also lived in Alabama, Georgia, communities in the American Midwest, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, and Winnipeg. When Blaise was nineteen, his parents divorced.
He attended Denison University and the University of Iowa, graduating in 1961 and 1964 respectively. While at Denison University, he initially intended to pursue a major in geology but switched to English after taking a writing course in which he studied under Paul Bennett. While studying at Denison, he read extensively, began writing book reviews for the weekly newspaper, helped edit campus literary magazines, and received several campus writing awards.
Career
In 1966, Blaise moved to Montreal and obtained Canadian citizenship. While living in Canada, Blaise published his first two short fiction collections, A North American Education (1973) and Tribal Justice (1974).
Blaise was the director of the International Writing Program. While living in Montreal in the early 1970s, he taught creative writing at Concordia University; he also joined with authors Raymond Fraser, Hugh Hood, John Metcalf and Ray Smith to form the Montreal Story Tellers Fiction Performance Group. Blaise and Mukherjee collaborated on a memoir of experiences in India which was published in 1978.
In 1978, Blaise and Mukherjee moved to Toronto. Blaise became a professor of creative writing at York University, and wrote his first novel.
Mukherjee felt excluded in Canada, attributing it to racism and publishing an essay in Saturday Night. In 1980, the couple decided to return to the United States, moving to San Francisco. Both continued their literary careers, including a collaborative analysis of the 1985 bombing of Air India flight 182, known in India as the Kanishka bombing. Blaise wrote two more novels and a number of short stories.
Personal life
He married writer Bharati Mukherjee in 1963. They met as students at the Iowa Writers' Workshop at the University of Iowa and have two sons. Mukherjee died in 2017. Blaise lives in New York.
Honours and awards
In 2009, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his contributions to Canadian letters as an author, essayist, teacher, and founder of the post-graduate program in creative writing at Concordia University".
Bibliography
Short stories
A North American Education – 1973
Tribal Justice – 1974
Resident Alien – 1986
Man and His World – 1992
Southern Stories – 2000
Pittsburgh Stories – 2001
Montreal Stories – 2003
The Meagre Tarmac – 2011 (longlisted for the 2011 Scotiabank Giller Prize)
Novels
Lunar Attractions – 1979 (winner of the 1980 Books in Canada First Novel Award)
Lusts – 1984
If I Were Me – 1997
Memoirs
Days and Nights in Calcutta – 1977 (with Bharati Mukherjee)
I had a Father – 1992
Non-fiction
The Sorrow and the Terror: The Haunting Legacy of the Air India Tragedy – 1987 (with Bharati Mukherjee)
Time Lord: Sir Sandford Fleming and the creation of standard time – 2000
Criticism
A Novel of India's Coming of Age - The New York Times, April 19, 1981 (A review of Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children)
References
External links
Clark Blaise's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia
1940 births
Living people
Canadian male novelists
Officers of the Order of Canada
American emigrants to Canada
Writers from San Francisco
Writers from Fargo, North Dakota
Iowa Writers' Workshop alumni
International Writing Program alumni
20th-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian male writers | [
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250228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Reid%20%28FFG-30%29 | USS Reid (FFG-30) | USS Reid (FFG-30), twenty-second ship of the of guided-missile frigates, was named for Sailing Master Samuel Chester Reid (1783–1861).
Ordered from Todd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles Division, San Pedro, California on 23 January 1978 as part of the FY78 program, Reid was laid down on 8 October 1980, launched on 27 June 1981, sponsored by Mrs. William C. Abhau, her daughter Miss Elliot Abhau assisting, Mrs. Abhau is the great-great granddaughter of Sailing Master Chester Reid, and commissioned on 19 February 1983.
On 18 August 1990, Reid fired the first shots of Operation Desert Shield when she fired across the bow of an Iraqi tanker who had refused to change course when ordered.
The Reid's unofficial nickname Reidski, used during the 1980s, came into use as Reid found herself, more often than not, playing on the side of the "orange" team during fleet exercises.
TCG Gelibolu (F 493)
Decommissioned and stricken on 25 September 1998, she was transferred to Turkey on 5 January 1999 as that nation's TCG Gelibolu (F 493). As of 2013, she is still in active service.
References
External links
MaritimeQuest USS Reid FFG-30 pages
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Los Angeles
Gulf War ships of the United States
1981 ships
Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Turkish Navy | [
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250230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda%20RX-7 | Mazda RX-7 | The Mazda RX-7 is a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive, rotary engine-powered sports car that was manufactured and marketed by Mazda from 1978 to 2002 across three generations, all of which made use of a compact, lightweight Wankel rotary engine.
The first generation of the RX-7, SA (early) and FB (late), was a two-seater 2 door hatchback coupé. It featured a 12A carbureted rotary engine as well as the option for a 13B with electronic fuel injection in later years.
The second generation of RX-7, known as the FC, was offered as a 2-seater coupé with a 2+2 option available in some markets, as well as in a convertible bodystyle. This was powered by the 13B rotary engine, offered in naturally aspirated or turbocharged forms.
The third generation of the RX-7, known as the FD, was offered a 2+2-seater coupé with a limited run of a 2-seater option. This featured a sequentially turbocharged 13B REW engine.
The RX-7 made Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list five times. More than 800,000 were manufactured over its lifetime.
First generation (SA22C, FB)
Series 1 (produced from 1978 to 1980) is commonly referred to as the "SA22C" from the first alphanumerics of the vehicle identification number. Mazda's internal project number for what was to become the RX-7 was X605. In Japan it was introduced in March 1978, replacing the Savanna RX-3, and joined Mazda's only other remaining rotary engine-powered products, called the Cosmo which was a two-door luxury coupé, and the Luce luxury sedan.
The lead designer at Mazda was , whose son, Ikuo, would go on to design the Mazda2 and the RX-7's successor, the RX-8. The transition of the Savanna to a sports car appearance reflected products from other Japanese manufacturers. The advantage the RX-7 had was its minimal size and weight, and the compact rotary engine installed behind the front axle helped balance the front and rear weight distribution, which provided a low center of gravity.
In Japan, sales were enhanced by the fact that the RX-7 complied with the Japanese Government dimension regulations, and Japanese buyers were not liable for yearly taxes for driving a larger car. The rotary engine had financial advantages to Japanese consumers in that the engine displacement remained below , a significant determination when paying the Japanese annual road tax; this kept the obligation affordable to most buyers while having more power than the traditional engines having a straight cylinder configuration.
In May 1980, Mazda introduced a limited production run of special North American models known as the Leathersport Models. This package was essentially an uprated GS model with added LS badges on each B-pillar, special stripes on the exterior, and LS-only gold anodized wheels (with polished outer face and wheel rim). All LS editions came equipped with special LS-only full brown leather upholstery, leather-wrapped steering wheel, leather-wrapped shift knob, removable sunroof, LS-specific four-speaker AM/FM stereo radio with power antenna (though listed as a six-speaker stereo, as the two rear dual voice coil speakers were counted as four speakers in total), remote power door side mirrors, and other standard GS equipment. Two primary options were also available; a three-speed JATCO 3N71B automatic transmission and air conditioning. Other GS options such as cassette tape deck, splash guards, padded center console arm rest and others could be added by the dealer. The LS model was only ever available in three different exterior colors: Aurora White, Brilliant Black, and Solar Gold. No official production records are known to exist or to have been released. This series of RX-7 had exposed steel bumpers and a high-mounted indentation-located rear license plate, called by Werner Buhrer of Road & Track magazine a "Baroque depression."
The Series 2, referred to as the FB (produced from 1981 to 1983), had integrated plastic-covered bumpers, wide black rubber body side moldings, wraparound taillights and updated engine control components. While marginally longer overall, the new model was lighter in federalized trim. The four-speed manual option was dropped for 1981 as well, while the gas tank grew larger and the dashboard was redesigned, including a shorter gear stick mounted closer to the driver. In 1983, the speedometer returned for the RX-7. The GSL package provided optional four-wheel disc brakes, front ventilated (Australian model) and clutch-type rear limited slip differential (LSD). This revision of the SA22 was known in North America as the "FB" after the US Department of Transportation mandated 17 digit Vehicle Identification Number changeover. For various other markets worldwide, the 1981–1985 RX-7 retained the 'SA22C' VIN prefix. In the UK, the 1978–1980 series 1 cars carried the SA code on the VIN but all later cars (1981–1983 series 2 and 1984–1985 series 3) carried the FB code and these first-generation RX-7s are known as the "FB" only in Northern America.
In Europe, the FB was mainly noticed for having received a power increase from the of the SA22; the 1981 RX-7 now had on tap. European market cars also received four-wheel disc brakes as standard.
The Series 3 (produced 1984–1985) featured an updated lower front fascia. North American models received a different instrument cluster. GSL package was continued into this series, but Mazda introduced the GSL-SE sub-model. The GSL-SE had a fuel injected 13B RE-EGI engine rated at and . GSL-SE models had much the same options as the GSL (clutch-type rear LSD and rear disc brakes), but the brake rotors were larger, allowing Mazda to use the more common lug nuts (versus bolts), and a new bolt pattern of 4x114.3mm (4x4.5"). Also, they had upgraded suspension with stiffer springs and shocks. The external oil cooler was reintroduced, after being dropped in the 1983 model-year for the controversial "beehive" water-oil heat exchanger.
The 1984 RX-7 GSL has an estimated 29 MPG (8.11 litres/100 km) highway/19 MPG (12.37 L/100 km) city. According to Mazda, its rotary engine, licensed by NSU-Wankel allowed the RX-7 GSL to accelerate from 0 to 80 km/h (50 mph) in 6.3 seconds. Kelley Blue Book, in its January–February 1984 issue, noted that a 1981 RX-7 GSL retained 93.4% of its original sticker price.
In 1985, Mazda introduced the RX-7 Finale in Australia. This was the last of the series and brought out in limited numbers. The Finale featured power options and a brass plaque mentioning the number the car was as well as "Last of a legend" on the plaque. The finale had special stickers and a blacked out section between the window & rear hatch.
The handling and acceleration of the car were noted to be of a high caliber for its day. The RX-7 had "live axle" 4-link rear suspension with Watt's linkage, a 50:50 front and rear weight distribution, and weighed under . It was the lightest generation of the RX-7 ever produced. 12A-powered models accelerated from 0–97 km/h (60 mph) in 9.2 seconds, and turned 0.779 g (7.64 m/s²) laterally on a skidpad. The 12A engine was rated at at 6,000 rpm in North American models, allowing the car to reach speeds of over . Because of the smoothness inherent in the Wankel rotary engine, little vibration or harshness was experienced at high engine speeds, so a buzzer was fitted to the tachometer to warn the driver when the 7,000 rpm redline was approaching.
The 12A engine has a long thin shaped combustion chamber, having a large surface area in relation to its volume. Therefore, combustion is cool, giving few oxides of nitrogen. However, the combustion is also incomplete, so there are large amounts of partly burned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The exhaust is hot enough for combustion of these to continue into the exhaust. An engine-driven pump supplies air into the exhaust to complete the burn of these chemicals. This is done in the "thermal reactor" chamber where the exhaust manifold would normally be on a conventional engine. Under certain conditions, the pump injects air into the thermal reactor and at other times air is pumped through injectors into the exhaust ports. This fresh air is needed for more efficient and cleaner-burning of the air/fuel mixture.
Options and models varied from country to country. The gauge layout and interior styling in the Series 3 was only changed for the North American models. Additionally, North America was the only market to have offered the first generation of the RX-7 with the fuel-injected 13B, model GSL-SE. Sales of the first-generation RX-7 were strong, with a total of 474,565 cars produced; 377,878 (nearly eighty percent) were sold in the United States alone. In 2004, Sports Car International named this car seventh on their list of Top Sports Cars of the 1970s. In 1983, the RX-7 would appear on Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for the first time in 20 years.
RX-7 Turbo
Following the introduction of the first turbocharged rotary engine in the Luce/Cosmo, a similar, also fuel injected and non-intercooler 12A turbocharged engine was made available for the top-end model of the Series 3 RX-7 in Japan. It was introduced in September 1983. The engine was rated at (JIS) at 6,500 rpm. While the peak power figures were only slightly higher than those of the engine used in the Luce/Cosmo, the new "Impact Turbo" was developed specifically to deal with the different exhaust gas characteristics of a rotary engine. Both rotor vanes of the turbine were remodeled and made smaller, and the turbine had a twenty percent higher speed than a turbo intended for a conventional engine. The Savanna Turbo was short-lived, as the next generation of the RX-7 was about to be introduced.
Second generation (FC3S)
The second generation of the RX-7 ("FC", VIN begins JM1FC3 or JMZFC1), still known as the Mazda Savanna RX-7 in Japan, featured a complete restyling much like similar sports cars of the era such as the Nissan 300ZX. Mazda's development team, led by Chief Project Engineer , chose to focus on the American market when designing the FC, where the majority of first-generation of the RX-7 models had been sold. The team drew inspiration from successful sports cars that were popular at the time, such as studying the suspension design of Porsche 928.
While the SA22 was a purer sports car, the FC tended toward the softer sport-tourer trends of its day, sharing some similarities with the HB series Cosmo. Handling was much improved, with less of the oversteer tendencies of the SA22. The rear end design was vastly improved from the SA22's live rear axle to a more modern, Independent Rear Suspension (rear axle). Steering was more precise, with rack and pinion steering replacing the old recirculating-ball steering of the SA22. Disc brakes also became standard, with some models (S4: Sport, GXL, GTU, Turbo II, Convertible; S5: GXL, GTUs, Turbo, Convertible) offering four-piston front brakes. The rear seats were optional in some models of the FC RX-7, but are not commonly found in the American Market. Mazda also introduced Dynamic Tracking Suspension System (DTSS) in the FC. The revised independent rear suspension incorporated special toe control hubs which were capable of introducing a limited degree of passive rear steering under cornering loads. The DTSS worked by allowing a slight amount of toe-out under normal driving conditions but induced slight toe-in under heavier cornering loads at around 0.5g or more; toe-out in the rear allows for a more responsive rotation of the rear, but toe-in allowed for a more stable rear under heavier cornering. Another new feature was the Auto Adjusting Suspension (AAS). The system changed damping characteristics according to the road and driving conditions. The system compensated for camber changes and provided anti-dive and anti-squat effects.
In Japan, a limited edition of the FC called Infini was available with production limited to only 600 cars for each year. Some special noted features for all Infini series are: infini logo on the rear, upgraded suspension, upgraded ECU, higher power output of the engine, lightened weight, 15-inch BBS aluminum alloy wheels, Infini logo steering wheel, aero bumper kits, bronze colored window glass, floor bar on the passenger side, aluminum bonnet with scoop, flare, and holder. The car was thought as the pinnacle of the RX-7 series (until the introduction of the FD). The Infini IV came with other special items such as black bucket seats, 16-inch BBS wheels, Knee pads, and all the other items mentioned before. There are differing years for the Infini, which denoted the series. Series I was introduced in 1987, Series II was introduced in 1988, Series III was introduced in 1990, and Series IV was introduced in 1991. Series I and II came in White or Black exterior colours, Series III came in Forest Green only, and Series IV came in Forest Green or Noble Green exterior colours. There are only minor differences between the Series models, the biggest change which was from the Series II being an S4 and the Series III and IV being an S5.
The Turbo II model uses a turbocharger with a twin scroll design. The smaller primary chamber is engineered to cancel the turbo lag at low engine speeds. At higher revolutions, the secondary chamber is opened, pumping out 33 percent more power than the naturally aspirated counterpart. The Turbo II also has an air-to-air intercooler which has a dedicated intake on the hood. The intake is slightly offset toward the left side of the hood. In the Japanese market, only the turbocharged engine was available; the naturally-aspirated version was only available for select export markets. This can be attributed to insurance companies in many Western nations penalising turbocharged cars (thus restricting potential sales). The Japanese market car produces in the original version; this engine was upgraded to in April 1989 as part of the Series 5 facelift. The limited edition, two-seater Infini model received a version beginning in June 1990, thanks to an upgraded exhaust system and high-octane fuel.
Australian Motors Mazda introduced a limited run of 250 'Sports' model Series 4 RX-7s; each with no power steering, power windows or rear wiper as an attempt to reduce the weight of the car.
Convertible
Mazda introduced a convertible version of the RX-7 in 1988 with a naturally aspirated engine—introduced to the US market with ads featuring actor James Garner, at the time featured in many Mazda television advertisements.
The convertible featured a removable rigid section over the passengers and a folding fabric rear section with heatable rear glass window. Power operated, lowering the top required unlatching two header catches, power lowering the top, exiting the car (or reaching over to the right side latch), and folding down the rigid section manually. Mazda introduced with the convertible the first integral windblocker, a rigid panel that folded up from behind the passenger seats to block unwanted drafts from reaching the passengers—thereby extending the driving season for the car with the top retracted. The convertible also featured optional headrest mounted audio speakers and a folding leather snap-fastened tonneau cover. The convertible assembly was precisely engineered and manufactured, and dropped into the ready body assembly as a complete unit—a first in convertible production.
Production ceased in 1991 after Mazda marketed a limited run of 500 examples for 1992 for the domestic market only. In markets outside the US, only the turbocharged version of the convertible was available.
North America
The Series 4 (produced for the 1986 through the 1988 model years) was available with a naturally aspirated, fuel injected 13B-VDEI producing in North American spec. An optional turbocharged model, known as the Turbo II in the American market, was rated at and of torque at 3,500 rpm. The turbo model was introduced at the Chicago Auto Show in February 1986, with a target of 20 percent of overall RX-7 sales. The Series 5 (1989–1992) featured updated styling and better engine management, as well as lighter rotors and a higher compression ratio 9.7:1 for the naturally aspirated model, and 9.0:1 for the turbo model. The naturally aspirated Series 5's 13B-DEI engine was rated at , while the Series 5 Turbo was rated at at 6,500 rpm and of torque at 3,500 rpm.
Though about heavier and more isolated than its predecessor, the FC continued to win accolades from the press. The FC RX-7 was Motor Trends Import Car of the Year for 1986, and the Turbo II was on Car and Driver magazine's 10Best list for a second time in 1987.
Mazda sold 86,000 RX-7s in the US alone in 1986, its first model year, with sales peaking in 1988.
10th Anniversary RX-7
Mazda introduced the 10th Anniversary RX-7 in 1988 as a limited production model based on the RX-7 Turbo II. Production was limited to 1,500 units. The 10th Anniversary RX-7 features a Crystal White (paint code UC) monochromatic paint scheme with matching white body side mouldings, tail light housings, mirrors and 16-inch alloy seven-spoke wheels. There were two "series" of 10th Anniversary models, with essentially a VIN-split running production change between the two. The most notable difference between the series can be found on the exterior- the earlier "Series I" cars had a black "Mazda" logo decal on the front bumper cover, whereas most if not all "Series II" cars did not have the decal. Series II cars also received the lower seat cushion height/tilt feature that Series I cars lacked. Another distinctive exterior feature is the bright gold rotor-shaped 10th Anniversary Edition badge on the front fenders (yellow-gold on the Series II cars). A distinctive 10th Anniversary package feature is the all black leather interior (code D7), which included not just the seats, but the door panel inserts as well and a leather-wrapped MOMO steering wheel (with 10th Anniversary Edition embossed horn button) and MOMO leather shift knob with integrated boot. All exterior glass is bronze tinted (specific in North America to only the 10th Anniversary), and the windshield was equipped with the embedded secondary antenna also found on some other select models with the upgraded stereo packages. Other 10th Anniversary Edition specific items were headlight washers (the only RX-7 in the US market that got this feature), glass breakage detectors added to the factory alarm system, 10th Anniversary Edition logoed floor mats, 10th Anniversary Edition embroidered front hood protector and accompanying front end mask (or "bra"), and an aluminum under pan.
GTUs (1989–1990)
In 1989, with the introduction of a face-lifted FC RX-7, and to commemorate the RX-7s IMSA domination, Mazda introduced a limited model labeled the GTUs. Starting with the lightweight base model, which came with manual windows, no rear wiper, the sunroof and A/C was dealer optioned, the GTUs added items found on the Turbo model such as four piston front brakes, ventilated rear brake rotors, vehicle speed-sensing power steering, one-piece front chin spoiler, cloth-covered Turbo model seats, leather-wrapped steering wheel, 16 inch wheels, 205/55VR tyres, and a GTUs-only 4.300 Viscous-type limited slip differential (all other FC LSD's were 4.100). This allowed quicker acceleration from the non—turbo-powered 13B. Mazda are rumoured to have built 100 cars in 1989–1990. There have not been 100 of these models found and registered. The only way to verify the GTUs model is through the door ID tag and firewall vin number. It is the only model with turbo ID tags and a non turbo vin.
Third generation (FD3S)
The third generation RX-7, FD (chassis code FD3S for Japan and JM1FD for the North America), featured an updated body design. The 13B-REW was the first-ever mass-produced sequential twin-turbocharger system to be exported from Japan, boosting power to in 1992 and finally by the time production ended in Japan in 2002.
The chief designer was . Another key designer was Wu-huang Chin (), a Taiwanese automotive artist who also worked on the Mazda MX-5 Miata.
In Japan, sales were affected by this series' non-compliance with Japanese dimension regulations and Japanese buyers paid annual taxes for the car's non-compliant width. As the RX-7 was now considered an upper-level luxury sports car due to the increased width dimensions, Mazda also offered two smaller offerings, the Eunos Roadster, and the Eunos Presso hatchback.
The sequential twin turbocharging system, introduced in 1992, was extremely complex and was developed with the aid of Hitachi. It was previously used on the exclusive-to-Japan Cosmo JC Series. The system used two turbochargers, one to provide of boost from 1,800 rpm. The second turbocharger activated in the upper half of the rpm range, during full throttle acceleration — at 4,000 rpm to maintain until redline. The changeover process occurred at 4,500 rpm, with a momentary dip in pressure to , and provided semi-linear acceleration from a wide torque curve throughout the entire rev range under normal operation.
Under high speed driving conditions, the changeover process produced a significant increase in power output and forced technical drivers to adjust their driving style to anticipate and mitigate any over-steer during cornering. The standard turbo control system used 4 control solenoids, 4 actuators, both a vacuum and pressure chamber, and several feet of preformed vacuum/pressure hoses, all of which were prone to failure in part due to complexity and the inherent high temperatures of the rotary engine.
A special high-performance version of the RX-7 was introduced in Australia in 1995, named the RX-7 SP. This model was developed to achieve homologation for racing in the Australian GT Production Car Series and the Eastern Creek 12 Hour production car race. An initial run of 25 cars were made, and later an extra 10 were built by Mazda due to demand. The RX-7 SP was rated at and of torque, a substantial increase over the standard model. Other changes included a race-developed carbon fibre nose cone and rear spoiler, a carbon fibre 120 L fuel tank (as opposed to the 76 L tank in the standard car), a 4.3:1 final drive ratio, 17-inch wheels, larger brake rotors and calipers. A "three times more efficient" intercooler, a new exhaust, and a modified ECU were also included. Weight was reduced significantly with the aid of further carbon fibre usage including lightweight vented bonnet and Recaro seats to reduce weight to 1,218 kg (from 1,250 kg) making this model road-going race car that matched the performance of the rival Porsche Carrera RS Club Sport for the final year Mazda officially entered. The formula paid off when the RX-7 SP won the 1995 Eastern Creek 12 Hour, giving Mazda the winning 12 hour trophy for a fourth straight year. The winning car also gained a podium finish at the international tarmac rally Targa Tasmania months later. A later special version, the Bathurst R, was introduced in 2001 to commemorate this victory in Japan only. It was based on the RX-7 Type R and 500 were built in total, featuring adjustable dampers, a carbon fibre shift knob, carbon fibre interior trim, special fog lamps and a different parking brake lever.
In the United Kingdom, for 1992, customers were offered only one version of the FD, which was based on a combination of the US touring and the base model. For the following year, in a bid to speed up sales, Mazda reduced the price of the RX-7 to £25,000, down from £32,000, and refunded the difference to those who bought the car before that was announced. From 1992 to 1995, only 210 FD RX-7s were officially sold in the UK. The FD continued to be imported to the UK until 1996. In 1998, for a car that had suffered from slow sales when it was officially sold, with a surge of interest and the benefit of a newly introduced SVA scheme, the FD would become so popular that there were more parallel and grey imported models brought into the country than Mazda UK had ever imported.
Information about various trims and models is listed as follows:
Series 6 (1992–1995) was exported throughout the world and had the highest sales. In Japan, Mazda sold the RX-7 through its ɛ̃fini brand as the ɛ̃fini RX-7. Models in Japan included the Type S, the base model, Type R, the lightweight sports model, Type RZ, Type RB, A-spec and the Touring X, which came with a four-speed automatic transmission. The RX-7 was sold in 1993–1995 in the U.S. and Canada. The Series 6 was rated at and .
In 1993, three North American models were offered; the "base", the touring, and the R models. The touring FD included a sunroof, fog lights, leather seats, a rear window wiper and a Bose Acoustic Wave system. The R (R1 in 1993 and R2 in 1994–95) models featured upgraded springs, Bilstein shocks, an additional engine oil cooler, an aerodynamics package comprising a front lip and rear wing, and suede seats. The R2 differed from the R1 in that it had slightly softer suspension. In 1994, the interior received a small update to include a passenger air bag, and a PEG (performance equipment group) model was offered. This model featured leather seats and a sunroof. It did not include the fog lights or Bose stereo of the touring package. In 1995, the touring package was replaced by the PEP (popular equipment package). The PEP package contained a rear wing, leather seats, sunroof and fog lights, but didn't have the Bose Stereo nor the rear window wiper.
In Europe, only 1,152 examples of the FD were sold through the official Mazda network, due to a high price and a fairly short time span. Only one model was available and it included twin oil-coolers, electric sunroof, cruise control and the rear storage bins in place of the back seats. It also has the stiffer suspension and strut braces from the R models. Germany topped the sales with 446 cars, while UK is second at 210 and Greece third with 168 (thanks to that country's tax structure which favored the rotary engine). The European models also received the 1994 interior facelift, with a passenger air bag. Sales in most of Europe ended after 1995 as it would have been too expensive to reengineer the car to meet the new Euro 2 emissions regulations.
Series 7 (produced from 1996 to 1998) included minor changes to the car. Updates included a simplified vacuum routing manifold and a 16-bit ECU which combined with an improved intake system netted an extra . This additional horsepower was only available on manual transmission cars as the increase in power was only seen above 7,000 rpm, which was the redline for automatic transmission equipped cars. The rear spoiler and tail lights were also redesigned. The Type RZ model was now equipped with larger brake rotors as well as 17 inch BBS wheels. In Japan, the Series 7 RX-7 was marketed under the Mazda and ɛ̃fini brand name. The Series 7 was also sold in Australia, New Zealand and the UK. Series 7 RX-7s were produced only in right-hand-drive configuration.
Series 8 (produced from 1998 to 2002) was the final series, and was only available in the Japanese market. More efficient turbochargers were available on certain models, while improved intercooling and radiator cooling was made possible by a redesigned front fascia with larger openings. The seats, steering wheel, and instrument cluster were all changed. The rear spoiler was modified and gained adjustability on certain models. Three horsepower levels are available: 255 PS for automatic transmission equipped cars, 265 PS for the Type RB, and 280 PS available on the top-of-the-line sporting models.
The high-end "Type RS" came equipped with Bilstein suspension and 17-inch wheels as standard equipment, and reduced weight to . Power was increased with the addition of a less restrictive muffler and more efficient turbochargers which featured abradable compressor seals, at 6500 rpm and of torque at 5000 rpm as per the maximum Japanese limit. The Type RS had a brake upgrade by increasing rotor diameter front and rear to and front rotor thickness from to . The Type RS version also sported a 4.30 final drive ratio, providing a significant reduction in its 0– time. The gearbox was also modified, 5th gear was made longer to reduce cruising rpm and improve fuel efficiency. The very limited edition Type RZ version included all the features of the Type RS, but at a lighter weight, at . It also featured gun-metal colored BBS wheels and a red racing themed interior. An improved ABS system worked by braking differently on each wheel, allowing the car better turning during braking. The effective result made for safer driving for the average buyer.
Easily the most collectible of all the RX-7s was the last model limited to 1,500 units. Dubbed the "Spirit R", they combined all the extra features Mazda had used on previous limited-run specials with new exclusive features like cross-drilled brake rotors. Sticker prices when new were 3,998,000 yen for Type-A and B and 3,398,000 yen for Type-C. Mazda's press release said "The Type-A Spirit R model is the ultimate RX-7, boasting the most outstanding driving performance in its history."
There are three models of "Spirit R": the "Type A", "Type B", and "Type C". The "Type A" is a two-seater with a 5-speed manual transmission. It features lightweight red trim Recaro front seats as seen in the earlier RZ models. The "Type B" shares all features of the "Type A" but with a 2+2 seat configuration. The "Type C" is also a 2+2, but has a four-speed automatic transmission. Of the 1504 Spirit R's made, 1044 were Type A, 420 Type B and 40 Type C. An exclusive Spirit R paint color, Titanium Grey, adorned 719 of the 1504 cars produced.
In Japan the FD3S production span is categorized into 6 models: #1 from 1991/12, #2 from 1993/08, #3 from 1995/03, #4 from 1996/01, #5 from 1998/12 and #6 from 2000/10. The model number (1 to 6) actually shows as the first digit of the 6 digits long JDM VIN, for example in VIN# FD3S-ABCDEF the A is the model number. A total of 9 limited editions (type RZ in 1992/10 (300 cars), RZ 1993/10 (150), R-II Bathurst 1994/09 (350), R Bathurst X 1995/07 (777), RB Bathurst X 1997/01 (700), RS-R 1997/10 (500), RZ 2000/10 (325), R Bathurst R 2001/08 (650), Spirit R 2002/04 (1504)) and 2 special editions (Bathurst R 1995/02, R Bathurst 2001/12 (2174)) were produced.
Reviews and awards
The FD RX-7 was Motor Trend's Import Car of the Year. When Playboy first reviewed the FD RX-7 in 1993, they tested it in the same issue as the [then] new Dodge Viper. In that issue, Playboy declared the RX-7 to be the better of the two cars. It went on to win Playboy's Car of the Year for 1993. The FD RX-7 also made Car and Driver's Ten Best list for 1993 through 1995, for every year in which it was sold state-side. June 2007 Road & Track proclaimed "The ace in Mazda's sleeve is the RX-7, a car once touted as the purest, most exhilarating sports car in the world." After its introduction in 1991, it won the Automotive Researchers' and Journalists' Conference Car of the Year award in Japan.
Handling in the FD was regarded as world-class, and it is still regarded as being one of the finest handling and the best balanced cars of all time. The continued use of the front-midship engine and drivetrain layout, combined with a 50:50 front-rear weight distribution ratio and low center of gravity, made the FD a very competent car at the limits.
Motorsport
Racing versions of the first-generation RX-7 were entered at the prestigious 24 hours of Le Mans endurance race. The first outing for the car, equipped with a 13B engine, failed by less than one second to qualify in 1979. The next year, a 12A-equipped RX-7 not only qualified, it placed 21st overall. That same car did not finish in 1981, along with two more 13B cars. Those two cars were back for 1982, with one 14th-place finish and another DNF. The RX-7 Le Mans effort was replaced by the 717C prototype for 1983.
Mazda began racing RX-7s in the IMSA GTU series in 1979. In its first year, RX-7s placed first and second at the 24 Hours of Daytona, and claimed the GTU series championship. The car continued winning, claiming the GTU championship seven years in a row. The RX-7 took the GTO championship ten years in a row from 1982. In addition to this, a GTX version was developed, named the Mazda RX-7 GTP; this was unsuccessful, and the GTP version of the car was also unsuccessful. The RX-7 has won more IMSA races than any other car model. In the USA SCCA competition RX-7s were raced with great success by Don Kearney in the NE Division and John Finger in the SE Division. Pettit Racing won the GT2 Road Racing Championship in 1998. The car was a '93 Mazda RX-7 street car with only bolt-on accessories. At season end Pettit had 140 points—63 points more than the second place team. This same car finished the Daytona Rolex 24-hour race four times.
The RX-7 also fared well at the Spa 24 Hours race. Three Savanna/RX-7s were entered in 1981 by Tom Walkinshaw Racing. After hours of battling with several BMW 530is and Ford Capris, the RX-7 driven by Pierre Dieudonné and Tom Walkinshaw won the event. Mazda had turned the tables on BMW, who had beaten Mazda's Familia Rotary to the podium eleven years earlier at the same event. TWR's prepared RX-7s also won the British Touring Car Championship in 1980 and 1981, driven by Win Percy.
Canadian born Australian touring car driver Allan Moffat was instrumental in bringing Mazda into the Australian touring car scene which ran to Group C regulations unique to Australia. Over a four-year span beginning in 1981, Moffat took the Mazda RX-7 to victory in the 1983 Australian Touring Car Championship, as well as a trio of Bathurst 1000 podiums, in 1981 (3rd with Derek Bell), 1983 (second with Yoshimi Katayama) and 1984 (third with former motorcycle champion Gregg Hansford). Privateer racer Peter McLeod drove his RX-7 to win the 1983 Australian Endurance Championship, while Moffat won the Endurance title in 1982 and 1984. Australia's adoption of international Group A regulations, combined with Mazda's reluctance to homologate a Group A RX-7 (meaning that a base number of 5,000 had to be built, plus another 500 "evolution" models), ended Mazda's active participation in Australian touring car racing at the end of the 1984 season. Plans had been in place to replace the RX-7 with a Mazda 929, but testing by Allan Moffat in late 1984 had indicated that the car would be uncompetitive and Mazda abandoned plans to race in Group A.
The RX-7 even made an appearance in the World Rally Championship. The car finished 11th on its debut at the RAC Rally in Wales in 1981. Group B received much of the focus for the first part of the 1980s, but Mazda did manage to place third at the 1985 Acropolis Rally, and when the Group B was folded, its Group A-based replacement, the 323 4WD claimed the victory at Swedish Rally in both 1987 and 1989.
IMSA Bridgestone Supercar Series
The third generation Mazda RX7 entered its first professional race in the world on February 23, 1992, at the Miami Grand Prix. The cars made it to the podium many times and won the IMSA Supercar race at Sebring in 1994. Peter Farrell Motorsport also fielded RX7's in the IMSA Firestone Firehawk Endurance Series dominating many races and finishing runner up in the overall Championship two years in a row.
Revivals
Mazda has made several references to a revival of the RX-7 in various forms over the years since the RX-8 was discontinued. In November 2012, MX-5 program manager Nobuhiro Yamamoto indicated that Mazda was working on a 16X based RX-7, with 300 horsepower.
In October 2015, Mazda unveiled the RX-Vision concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show, powered by a new rotary engine and featured design cues reminiscent to the third generation RX-7. A production-ready concept could have followed suit by 2017, marking 50 years since the revealing of Mazda's first rotary-powered sports car, the Cosmo.
References
Citations
General sources
Further reading
External links
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Cars introduced in 1978
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Vehicles with four-wheel steering | [
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250237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective%20results%20in%20number%20theory | Effective results in number theory | For historical reasons and in order to have application to the solution of Diophantine equations, results in number theory have been scrutinised more than in other branches of mathematics to see if their content is effectively computable. Where it is asserted that some list of integers is finite, the question is whether in principle the list could be printed out after a machine computation.
Littlewood's result
An early example of an ineffective result was J. E. Littlewood's theorem of 1914, that in the prime number theorem the differences of both ψ(x) and π(x) with their asymptotic estimates change sign infinitely often. In 1933 Stanley Skewes obtained an effective upper bound for the first sign change, now known as Skewes' number.
In more detail, writing for a numerical sequence f(n), an effective result about its changing sign infinitely often would be a theorem including, for every value of N, a value M > N such that f(N) and f(M) have different signs, and such that M could be computed with specified resources. In practical terms, M would be computed by taking values of n from N onwards, and the question is 'how far must you go?' A special case is to find the first sign change. The interest of the question was that the numerical evidence known showed no change of sign: Littlewood's result guaranteed that this evidence was just a small number effect, but 'small' here included values of n up to a billion.
The requirement of computability reflects on and contrasts with the approach used in analytic number theory to prove the results. It for example brings into question any use of Landau notation and its implied constants: are assertions pure existence theorems for such constants, or can one recover a version in which 1000 (say) takes the place of the implied constant? In other words if it were known that there was M > N with a change of sign and such that
M = O(G(N))
for some explicit function G, say built up from powers, logarithms and exponentials, that means only
M < A.G(N)
for some absolute constant A. The value of A, the so-called implied constant, may also need to be made explicit, for computational purposes. One reason Landau notation was a popular introduction is that it hides exactly what A is. In some indirect forms of proof it may not be at all obvious that the implied constant can be made explicit.
The 'Siegel period'
Many of the principal results of analytic number theory that were proved in the period 1900–1950 were in fact ineffective. The main examples were:
The Thue–Siegel–Roth theorem
Siegel's theorem on integral points, from 1929
The 1934 theorem of Hans Heilbronn and Edward Linfoot on the class number 1 problem
The 1935 result on the Siegel zero
The Siegel–Walfisz theorem based on the Siegel zero.
The concrete information that was left theoretically incomplete included lower bounds for class numbers (ideal class groups for some families of number fields grow); and bounds for the best rational approximations to algebraic numbers in terms of denominators. These latter could be read quite directly as results on Diophantine equations, after the work of Axel Thue. The result used for Liouville numbers in the proof is effective in the way it applies the mean value theorem: but improvements (to what is now the Thue–Siegel–Roth theorem) were not.
Later work
Later results, particularly of Alan Baker, changed the position. Qualitatively speaking, Baker's theorems look weaker, but they have explicit constants and can actually be applied, in conjunction with machine computation, to prove that lists of solutions (suspected to be complete) are actually the entire solution set.
Theoretical issues
The difficulties here were met by radically different proof techniques, taking much more care about proofs by contradiction. The logic involved is closer to proof theory than to that of computability theory and computable functions. It is rather loosely conjectured that the difficulties may lie in the realm of computational complexity theory. Ineffective results are still being proved in the shape A or B, where we have no way of telling which.
References
External links
Analytic number theory
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250238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediculus%20humanus | Pediculus humanus | Pediculus humanus is a species of louse that infects humans. It comprises two subspecies:
Pediculus humanus humanus Linnaeus, 1758 – body louse
Pediculus humanus capitis De Geer, 1767 – head louse
References
External links
Lice
Insects described in 1758
Parasitic arthropods of humans
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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] |
250240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecteninion | Ecteninion | Ecteninion is an extinct genus of meat-eating cynodonts that lived during the Late Triassic (Carnian) in South America. The type species Ecteninion lunensis was named by R.N. Martinez, C.L. May, and C.A. Forster in 1996. E. lunensis is known from a nearly complete skull of about in length. It was found in the Cancha de Bochas Member of the Ischigualasto Formation in the Ischigualasto-Villa Unión Basin in northwestern Argentina. It has been interpreted as a basal eucynodont. The holotype is in the collection of the Universidad Nacional de San Juan.
References
Further reading
Martinez et al. (1996) "A new carnivorous cynodont from the Ischigualasto formation (Late Triassic, Argentina), with comments on eucynodont phylogeny." J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 16(2), p. 271-284.
Prehistoric probainognathians
Prehistoric cynodont genera
Carnian genera
Late Triassic synapsids of South America
Triassic Argentina
Fossils of Argentina
Ischigualasto Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1996
Taxa named by Catherine Forster | [
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250241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Hahnia%22%20obliqua | "Hahnia" obliqua | "Hahnia" obliqua is a poorly known species of meat-eating stem-mammals (cynodonts) that lived during the Upper Triassic in Europe. It is based on tiny, isolated teeth, and its affinities with other cynodonts are unclear. The generic name is not valid, thus the quotation marks. The name Hahnia has already been used for a spider. The authors are aware of this, and will doubtless come up with a new name sometime in the future.
The genus "Hahnia" ("for Hahn") was named by Pascal Godefroit and Bernard Battail in 1997 based on a single species.
Fossil remains of the species "Hahnia" obliqua have been found in the Norian (late) - Rhaetian (early) (Upper Triassic)-age strata of Saint-Nicolas-de-Port in France. Apart from not yet having a proper name, these teeth look rather boring. The crown slopes backwards and has three cusps, though that's more apparent when seen from above than it is from the side. The largest cusp, the middle one, has a "somewhat blunt" apex. Its two colleagues, which "are not very well separated from the main cusp", are "very blunt", (quotes from Godfroit & Battauk 1997, p. 588). "There is no constriction between the crown and the root."
Boring looking or not, these were nevertheless effective for cutting up small portions of prey. The authors discuss similarities with teeth of galesaurids (something like forerunners of the eucynodonts), Cynognathus, chiniquodontids, tritheledontids, dromatheriids and various other small cynodonts of the European Upper Triassic; They are all carnivores of one size or another. However, as there are also clear differences to the tiny teeth of "Hahnia", the authors plump for Cynodontia incertae sedis (aka of some kind or other).
References
Prehistoric cynodonts
Rhaetian species
Late Triassic synapsids of Europe
Triassic France
Fossils of France
Fossil taxa described in 1997
Taxa named by Pascal Godefroit | [
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250247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areola | Areola | The human areola (areola mammae, or ) is the pigmented area on the breast around the nipple. Areola, more generally, is a small circular area on the body with a different histology from the surrounding tissue, or other small circular areas such as an inflamed region of skin.
The mature human female nipple has several small openings arranged radially around the tip of the lactiferous ducts from which milk is released during lactation. Other small openings in the areola are sebaceous glands, also known as areolar glands.
Color
The areolae can range from pink to red to brown to dark brown or nearly black, but generally tend to be paler among people with lighter skin tones and darker among people with darker skin tones. A reason for the differing color may be to make the nipple area more visible to the infant.
Size and shape
The size and shape of areolae and nipples are also highly variable, with those of women usually being larger than those of men and prepubescent girls. Human areolae are mostly circular in shape, but many women have large areolae that are noticeably elliptical.
The average diameter of male areolae is around . Sexually mature women have an average of , but sizes can exceed . Lactating women, and women with particularly large breasts, may have even larger areolae. A function of the specialized dermis of the areola is to protect the regular breast skin from wear, cracking, and irritation. Infants sometimes create trauma to the nipple and areolae by latching-on.
Rated according to the Tanner scale of female physical development, the areolae enlarge during stage 3, but they show no separation of contour. During stage 4, the areolae and papillae rise above breast level and form secondary mounds. By stage 5, the breasts have fully developed. As this has resulted in recession of the areolae, the papillae may reach a little above the breasts' contour.
Mechanoreceptors
Breastfeeding by the baby innervates slowly and rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors that are densely packed around the areolar region.
Diseases
Paget's disease of the breast is a malignant condition that outwardly may have the appearance of eczema, with skin changes involving the areola and nipple.
See also
List of specialized glands within the human integumentary system
References
Breast anatomy | [
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250249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20B%C3%B6k | Christian Bök | Christian Bök, FRSC, (born August 10, 1966 in Toronto, Canada) is an experimental Canadian poet. He is the author of Eunoia, which won the Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize.
Life and work
He was born "Christian Book", but uses "Bök" as a pseudonym.
He began writing seriously in his early twenties, while earning his B.A. and M.A. degrees at Carleton University in Ottawa. He returned to Toronto in the early 1990s to study for a Ph.D. in English literature at York University, where he encountered a burgeoning literary community that included Steve McCaffery, Christopher Dewdney, and Darren Wershler-Henry. he teaches at the University of Calgary.
In 1994, Bök published Crystallography, "a pataphysical encyclopaedia that misreads the language of poetics through the conceits of geology." The Village Voice said of it: "Bök's concise reflections on mirrors, fractals, stones, and ice diabolically change the way you think about language — his, yours — so that what begins as description suddenly seems indistinguishable from the thing itself." Crystallography was reissued in 2003, and was nominated for a Gerald Lampert Award.
Bök is a sound poet and has performed an extremely condensed version of the "Ursonate" by Kurt Schwitters. He has created conceptual art, making artist's books from Rubik's Cubes and Lego bricks. He has also worked in science-fiction television by constructing artistic languages for Gene Roddenberry's Earth: Final Conflict and Peter Benchley's Amazon.
Eunoia
Bök is most famous for Eunoia (2001), a book which took him seven years to write. Eunoia consists of univocalics: The book uses only one vowel in each of its five chapters. In the book's main part, each chapter used just a single vowel, producing sentences such as this: "Enfettered, these sentences repress free speech." Bök believes "his book proves that each vowel has its own personality, and demonstrates the flexibility of the English language."
Edited by Darren Wershler-Henry and published by Coach House Books,
in 2001, Eunoia won the 2002 Griffin and sold 20,000 copies. Canongate published "Eunoia" in Britain in Oct. 2008. The book was also a bestseller there, reaching #8 on the Top 10 bestselling charts for the year.
The Xenotext experiment
On April 4, 2011 Bök announced a significant break-through in his 9-year project to engineer "a life-form so that it becomes not only a durable archive for storing a poem, but also an operant machine for writing a poem". On the previous day (April 3) Bök said he
The project has continued for over fifteen years at a cost exceeding $110,000 and he hopes to finish the project in 2014. He published "Book I" of the resulting Xenotext in 2015.
The Kazimir Effect
Since 2017, Bök has been working on a visual poetry project inspired by Suprematist Composition: White on White by Kazimir Malevich. This project culminated in the publication of a book titled The Kazimir Effect (Penteract Press, 2021), which was listed as one of the Times Literary Supplement’s Books of the Year 2021.
Recognition
Eunoia won the Griffin Poetry Prize in 2002.
Bök's poem "Vowels" was used in the lyrics of a song on the EP A Quick Fix of Melancholy (2003) by the Norwegian band Ulver.
In 2006, Christian Bök and his work were the subject of an episode of the television series Heart of a Poet, produced by Canadian filmmaker Maureen Judge.
On May 31, 2011, The BBC World Service broadcast Bök reading "The Xenotext."
Bibliography
Crystallography. Coach House (1994)
Eunoia. Coach House Books (2001) - winner of the 2002 Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize
Pataphysics: The Poetics of an Imaginary Science. Northwestern University Press (2001) - See ’Pataphysics
The Xenotext (Book 1). Coach House Books (2015)
The Kazimir Effect. Penteract Press (2021) ISBN 978-1-913421-11-3
As editor
Ground Works: Avante-Garde for Thee (2003)
Included in
Poetry Plastique (2001)
The Griffin Poetry Prize Anthology : A Selection of the 2002 Shortlist (2002)
See also
List of Canadian writers
List of Canadian poets
Concrete poetry
Sound poetry
References
External links
Christian Bök pages on UbuWeb, including recordings, poetry, and essays
Christian Bök on Twitter
Griffin Poetry Prize biography
Griffin Poetry Prize reading, including video clip
University of Calgary Faculty of English profile
Eunoia online book
"Bazaar of the Bizarre: The Book of Horrors" - Christian Bök's first publication
Christian Bök interview and reading on CBC Radio program And Sometimes Y, episode 5, July 25, 2006
Podcasts recorded at the Institut du Monde Anglophone, Université Paris 3 – Sorbonne Nouvelle, on May 22, 2008
Christian Bök at University of Toronto Libraries
Records of Christian Bök are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books
1966 births
Living people
York University alumni
Carleton University alumni
University of Calgary faculty
Writers from Toronto
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male poets
21st-century Canadian poets
21st-century Canadian male writers | [
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250251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks%20%28finance%29 | Greeks (finance) | In mathematical finance, the Greeks are the quantities representing the sensitivity of the price of derivatives such as options to a change in underlying parameters on which the value of an instrument or portfolio of financial instruments is dependent. The name is used because the most common of these sensitivities are denoted by Greek letters (as are some other finance measures). Collectively these have also been called the risk sensitivities, risk measures or hedge parameters.
Use of the Greeks
The Greeks are vital tools in risk management. Each Greek measures the sensitivity of the value of a portfolio to a small change in a given underlying parameter, so that component risks may be treated in isolation, and the portfolio rebalanced accordingly to achieve a desired exposure; see for example delta hedging.
The Greeks in the Black–Scholes model are relatively easy to calculate, a desirable property of financial models, and are very useful for derivatives traders, especially those who seek to hedge their portfolios from adverse changes in market conditions. For this reason, those Greeks which are particularly useful for hedging—such as delta, theta, and vega—are well-defined for measuring changes in Price, Time and Volatility. Although rho is a primary input into the Black–Scholes model, the overall impact on the value of an option corresponding to changes in the risk-free interest rate is generally insignificant and therefore higher-order derivatives involving the risk-free interest rate are not common.
The most common of the Greeks are the first order derivatives: delta, vega, theta and rho as well as gamma, a second-order derivative of the value function. The remaining sensitivities in this list are common enough that they have common names, but this list is by no means exhaustive.
Names
The use of Greek letter names is presumably by extension from the common finance terms alpha and beta, and the use of sigma (the standard deviation of logarithmic returns) and tau (time to expiry) in the Black–Scholes option pricing model. Several names such as 'vega' and 'zomma' are invented, but sound similar to Greek letters. The names 'color' and 'charm' presumably derive from the use of these terms for exotic properties of quarks in particle physics.
First-order Greeks
Delta
Delta, , measures the rate of change of the theoretical option value with respect to changes in the underlying asset's price. Delta is the first derivative of the value of the option with respect to the underlying instrument's price .
Practical use
For a vanilla option, delta will be a number between 0.0 and 1.0 for a long call (or a short put) and 0.0 and −1.0 for a long put (or a short call); depending on price, a call option behaves as if one owns 1 share of the underlying stock (if deep in the money), or owns nothing (if far out of the money), or something in between, and conversely for a put option. The difference between the delta of a call and the delta of a put at the same strike is equal to one. By put–call parity, long a call and short a put is equivalent to a forward F, which is linear in the spot S, with unit factor, so the derivative dF/dS is 1. See the formulas below.
These numbers are commonly presented as a percentage of the total number of shares represented by the option contract(s). This is convenient because the option will (instantaneously) behave like the number of shares indicated by the delta. For example, if a portfolio of 100 American call options on XYZ each have a delta of 0.25 (=25%), it will gain or lose value just like 2,500 shares of XYZ as the price changes for small price movements (100 option contracts covers 10,000 shares). The sign and percentage are often dropped – the sign is implicit in the option type (negative for put, positive for call) and the percentage is understood. The most commonly quoted are 25 delta put, 50 delta put/50 delta call, and 25 delta call. 50 Delta put and 50 Delta call are not quite identical, due to spot and forward differing by the discount factor, but they are often conflated.
Delta is always positive for long calls and negative for long puts (unless they are zero). The total delta of a complex portfolio of positions on the same underlying asset can be calculated by simply taking the sum of the deltas for each individual position – delta of a portfolio is linear in the constituents. Since the delta of underlying asset is always 1.0, the trader could delta-hedge his entire position in the underlying by buying or shorting the number of shares indicated by the total delta. For example, if the delta of a portfolio of options in XYZ (expressed as shares of the underlying) is +2.75, the trader would be able to delta-hedge the portfolio by selling short 2.75 shares of the underlying. This portfolio will then retain its total value regardless of which direction the price of XYZ moves. (Albeit for only small movements of the underlying, a short amount of time and not-withstanding changes in other market conditions such as volatility and the rate of return for a risk-free investment).
As a proxy for probability
The (absolute value of) Delta is close to, but not identical with, the percent moneyness of an option, i.e., the implied probability that the option will expire in-the-money (if the market moves under Brownian motion in the risk-neutral measure). For this reason some option traders use the absolute value of delta as an approximation for percent moneyness. For example, if an out-of-the-money call option has a delta of 0.15, the trader might estimate that the option has approximately a 15% chance of expiring in-the-money. Similarly, if a put contract has a delta of −0.25, the trader might expect the option to have a 25% probability of expiring in-the-money. At-the-money calls and puts have a delta of approximately 0.5 and −0.5 respectively with a slight bias towards higher deltas for ATM calls. The actual probability of an option finishing in the money is its dual delta, which is the first derivative of option price with respect to strike.
Relationship between call and put delta
Given a European call and put option for the same underlying, strike price and time to maturity, and with no dividend yield, the sum of the absolute values of the delta of each option will be 1 – more precisely, the delta of the call (positive) minus the delta of the put (negative) equals 1. This is due to put–call parity: a long call plus a short put (a call minus a put) replicates a forward, which has delta equal to 1.
If the value of delta for an option is known, one can calculate the value of the delta of the option of the same strike price, underlying and maturity but opposite right by subtracting 1 from a known call delta or adding 1 to a known put delta.
, therefore: and .
For example, if the delta of a call is 0.42 then one can compute the delta of the corresponding put at the same strike price by 0.42 − 1 = −0.58. To derive the delta of a call from a put, one can similarly take −0.58 and add 1 to get 0.42.
Vega
Vega measures sensitivity to volatility. Vega is the derivative of the option value with respect to the volatility of the underlying asset.
Vega is not the name of any Greek letter. The glyph used is a non-standard majuscule version of the Greek letter nu, , written as . Presumably the name vega was adopted because the Greek letter nu looked like a Latin vee, and vega was derived from vee by analogy with how beta, eta, and theta are pronounced in American English.
The symbol kappa, , is sometimes used (by academics) instead of vega (as is tau ()
or capital lambda (),
though these are rare).
Vega is typically expressed as the amount of money per underlying share that the option's value will gain or lose as volatility rises or falls by 1 percentage point. All options (both calls and puts) will gain value with rising volatility.
Vega can be an important Greek to monitor for an option trader, especially in volatile markets, since the value of some option strategies can be particularly sensitive to changes in volatility. The value of an at-the-money option straddle, for example, is extremely dependent on changes to volatility.
Theta
Theta, , measures the sensitivity of the value of the derivative to the passage of time (see Option time value): the "time decay."
The mathematical result of the formula for theta (see below) is expressed in value per year. By convention, it is usual to divide the result by the number of days in a year, to arrive at the amount an option's price will drop, in relation to the underlying stock's price. Theta is almost always negative for long calls and puts, and positive for short (or written) calls and puts. An exception is a deep in-the-money European put. The total theta for a portfolio of options can be determined by summing the thetas for each individual position.
The value of an option can be analysed into two parts: the intrinsic value and the time value. The intrinsic value is the amount of money you would gain if you exercised the option immediately, so a call with strike $50 on a stock with price $60 would have intrinsic value of $10, whereas the corresponding put would have zero intrinsic value. The time value is the value of having the option of waiting longer before deciding to exercise. Even a deeply out of the money put will be worth something, as there is some chance the stock price will fall below the strike before the expiry date. However, as time approaches maturity, there is less chance of this happening, so the time value of an option is decreasing with time. Thus if you are long an option you are short theta: your portfolio will lose value with the passage of time (all other factors held constant).
Rho
Rho, , measures sensitivity to the interest rate: it is the derivative of the option value with respect to the risk free interest rate (for the relevant outstanding term).
Except under extreme circumstances, the value of an option is less sensitive to changes in the risk free interest rate than to changes in other parameters. For this reason, rho is the least used of the first-order Greeks.
Rho is typically expressed as the amount of money, per share of the underlying, that the value of the option will gain or lose as the risk free interest rate rises or falls by 1.0% per annum (100 basis points).
Lambda
Lambda, , omega, , or elasticity is the percentage change in option value per percentage change in the underlying price, a measure of leverage, sometimes called gearing.
It holds that .
Epsilon
Epsilon, (also known as psi, ), is the percentage change in option value per percentage change in the underlying dividend yield, a measure of the dividend risk. The dividend yield impact is in practice determined using a 10% increase in those yields. Obviously, this sensitivity can only be applied to derivative instruments of equity products.
Second-order Greeks
Gamma
Gamma, , measures the rate of change in the delta with respect to changes in the underlying price. Gamma is the second derivative of the value function with respect to the underlying price.
Most long options have positive gamma and most short options have negative gamma. Long options have a positive relationship with gamma because as price increases, Gamma increases as well, causing Delta to approach 1 from 0 (long call option) and 0 from −1 (long put option). The inverse is true for short options. Gamma is greatest approximately at-the-money (ATM) and diminishes the further out you go either in-the-money (ITM) or out-of-the-money (OTM). Gamma is important because it corrects for the convexity of value.
When a trader seeks to establish an effective delta-hedge for a portfolio, the trader may also seek to neutralize the portfolio's gamma, as this will ensure that the hedge will be effective over a wider range of underlying price movements.
Vanna
Vanna, also referred to as DvegaDspot and DdeltaDvol, is a second order derivative of the option value, once to the underlying spot price and once to volatility. It is mathematically equivalent to DdeltaDvol, the sensitivity of the option delta with respect to change in volatility; or alternatively, the partial of vega with respect to the underlying instrument's price. Vanna can be a useful sensitivity to monitor when maintaining a delta- or vega-hedged portfolio as vanna will help the trader to anticipate changes to the effectiveness of a delta-hedge as volatility changes or the effectiveness of a vega-hedge against change in the underlying spot price.
If the underlying value has continuous second partial derivatives, then ,
Charm
Charm or delta decay measures the instantaneous rate of change of delta over the passage of time.
Charm has also been called DdeltaDtime. Charm can be an important Greek to measure/monitor when delta-hedging a position over a weekend. Charm is a second-order derivative of the option value, once to price and once to the passage of time. It is also then the derivative of theta with respect to the underlying's price.
The mathematical result of the formula for charm (see below) is expressed in delta/year. It is often useful to divide this by the number of days per year to arrive at the delta decay per day. This use is fairly accurate when the number of days remaining until option expiration is large. When an option nears expiration, charm itself may change quickly, rendering full day estimates of delta decay inaccurate.
Vomma
Vomma, volga, vega convexity, or DvegaDvol measures second order sensitivity to volatility. Vomma is the second derivative of the option value with respect to the volatility, or, stated another way, vomma measures the rate of change to vega as volatility changes.
With positive vomma, a position will become long vega as implied volatility increases and short vega as it decreases, which can be scalped in a way analogous to long gamma. And an initially vega-neutral, long-vomma position can be constructed from ratios of options at different strikes. Vomma is positive for long options away from the money, and initially increases with distance from the money (but drops off as vega drops off). (Specifically, vomma is positive where the usual d1 and d2 terms are of the same sign, which is true when d1 < 0 or d2 > 0.)
Veta
Veta or DvegaDtime measures the rate of change in the vega with respect to the passage of time. Veta is the second derivative of the value function; once to volatility and once to time.
It is common practice to divide the mathematical result of veta by 100 times the number of days per year to reduce the value to the percentage change in vega per one day.
Vera
Vera (sometimes rhova) measures the rate of change in rho with respect to volatility. Vera is the second derivative of the value function; once to volatility and once to interest rate.
The word 'Vera' was coined by R. Naryshkin in early 2012 when this sensitivity needed to be used in practice to assess the impact of volatility changes on rho-hedging, but no name yet existed in the available literature. 'Vera' was picked to sound similar to a combination of Vega and Rho, its respective first-order Greeks. This name is now in a wider use, including, for example, the Maple computer algebra software (which has 'BlackScholesVera' function in its Finance package).
Second order partial derivative with respect to
This partial derivative has a fundamental role in the Breeden-Litzenberger formula, which uses quoted call option prices to estimate the risk-neutral probabilities implied by such prices.
For call options, it can be approximated using infinitesimal portfolios of butterfly strategies.
Third-order Greeks
Speed
Speed measures the rate of change in Gamma with respect to changes in the underlying price.
This is also sometimes referred to as the gamma of the gamma or DgammaDspot. Speed is the third derivative of the value function with respect to the underlying spot price. Speed can be important to monitor when delta-hedging or gamma-hedging a portfolio.
Zomma
Zomma measures the rate of change of gamma with respect to changes in volatility.
Zomma has also been referred to as DgammaDvol. Zomma is the third derivative of the option value, twice to underlying asset price and once to volatility. Zomma can be a useful sensitivity to monitor when maintaining a gamma-hedged portfolio as zomma will help the trader to anticipate changes to the effectiveness of the hedge as volatility changes.
Color
Color, gamma decay or DgammaDtime measures the rate of change of gamma over the passage of time.
Color is a third-order derivative of the option value, twice to underlying asset price and once to time. Color can be an important sensitivity to monitor when maintaining a gamma-hedged portfolio as it can help the trader to anticipate the effectiveness of the hedge as time passes.
The mathematical result of the formula for color (see below) is expressed in gamma per year. It is often useful to divide this by the number of days per year to arrive at the change in gamma per day. This use is fairly accurate when the number of days remaining until option expiration is large. When an option nears expiration, color itself may change quickly, rendering full day estimates of gamma change inaccurate.
Ultima
Ultima measures the sensitivity of the option vomma with respect to change in volatility.
Ultima has also been referred to as DvommaDvol. Ultima is a third-order derivative of the option value to volatility.
Greeks for multi-asset options
If the value of a derivative is dependent on two or more underlyings, its Greeks are extended to include the cross-effects between the underlyings.
Correlation delta measures the sensitivity of the derivative's value to a change in the correlation between the underlyings. It is also commonly known as cega.
Cross gamma measures the rate of change of delta in one underlying to a change in the level of another underlying.
Cross vanna measures the rate of change of vega in one underlying due to a change in the level of another underlying. Equivalently, it measures the rate of change of delta in the second underlying due to a change in the volatility of the first underlying.
Cross volga measures the rate of change of vega in one underlying to a change in the volatility of another underlying.
Formulas for European option Greeks
The Greeks of European options (calls and puts) under the Black–Scholes model are calculated as follows, where (phi) is the standard normal probability density function and is the standard normal cumulative distribution function. Note that the gamma and vega formulas are the same for calls and puts.
For a given:
Stock price ,
Strike price ,
Risk-free rate ,
Annual dividend yield ,
Time to maturity (represented as a unit-less fraction of one year), and
Volatility .
where
Under the Black model (commonly used for commodities and options on futures) the Greeks can be calculated as follows:
where
(*) It can be shown that
Micro proof:
let
Then we have:
So
Related measures
Some related risk measures of financial derivatives are listed below.
Bond duration and convexity
In trading of fixed income securities (bonds), various measures of bond duration are used analogously to the delta of an option. The closest analogue to the delta is DV01, which is the reduction in price (in currency units) for an increase of one basis point (i.e. 0.01% per annum) in the yield (the yield is the underlying variable).
Analogous to the lambda is the modified duration, which is the percentage change in the market price of the bond(s) for a unit change in the yield (i.e. it is equivalent to DV01 divided by the market price). Unlike the lambda, which is an elasticity (a percentage change in output for a percentage change in input), the modified duration is instead a semi-elasticity—a percentage change in output for a unit change in input.
Bond convexity is a measure of the sensitivity of the duration to changes in interest rates, the second derivative of the price of the bond with respect to interest rates (duration is the first derivative). In general, the higher the convexity, the more sensitive the bond price is to the change in interest rates. Bond convexity is one of the most basic and widely used forms of convexity in finance.
For a bond with an embedded option, the standard yield to maturity based calculations here do not consider how changes in interest rates will alter the cash flows due to option exercise. To address this, effective duration and effective convexity are introduced. These values are typically calculated using a tree-based model, built for the entire yield curve (as opposed to a single yield to maturity), and therefore capturing exercise behavior at each point in the option's life as a function of both time and interest rates; see .
Beta
The beta (β) of a stock or portfolio is a number describing the volatility of an asset in relation to the volatility of the benchmark that said asset is being compared to. This benchmark is generally the overall financial market and is often estimated via the use of representative indices, such as the S&P 500.
An asset has a Beta of zero if its returns change independently of changes in the market's returns. A positive beta means that the asset's returns generally follow the market's returns, in the sense that they both tend to be above their respective averages together, or both tend to be below their respective averages together. A negative beta means that the asset's returns generally move opposite the market's returns: one will tend to be above its average when the other is below its average.
Fugit
The fugit is the expected time to exercise an American or Bermudan option. It is useful to compute it for hedging purposes—for example, one can represent flows of an American swaption like the flows of a swap starting at the fugit multiplied by delta, then use these to compute sensitivities.
See also
Alpha (finance)
Beta (finance)
Delta neutral
Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
Vanna–Volga pricing
References
External links
Theory
Delta, Gamma, GammaP, Gamma symmetry, Vanna, Speed, Charm, Saddle Gamma: Vanilla Options - Espen Haug,
Volga, Vanna, Speed, Charm, Color: Vanilla Options - Uwe Wystup, Vanilla Options - Uwe Wystup
Step-by-step mathematical derivations of option Greeks
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Price
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Delta
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Gamma
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Speed
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Vega
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Volga
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Vanna as Derivative of Vega with respect to underlying
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Vanna as Derivative of Delta with respect to volatility
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Theta
Derivation of European Vanilla Call Rho
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Price
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Delta
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Gamma
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Speed
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Vega
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Volga
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Vanna as Derivative of Vega with respect to underlying
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Vanna as Derivative of Delta with respect to volatility
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Theta
Derivation of European Vanilla Put Rho
Online tools
Surface Plots of Black-Scholes Greeks, Chris Murray
Online real-time option prices and Greeks calculator when the underlying is normally distributed, Razvan Pascalau, Univ. of Alabama
greeks: Sensitivities of Prices of Financial Options, R package to compute Greeks for European-, American- and Asian Options
Mathematical finance
Financial ratios
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250252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runabout%20%28boat%29 | Runabout (boat) | A runabout is any small motorboat holding between four and eight people, well suited to moving about on the water. Characteristically between 20' to 35' in length, runabouts are used for pleasure activities like boating, fishing, and water skiing, as a ship's tender for larger vessels, or in racing. Some common runabout types are bow rider, center console, cuddy boat and walkaround.
History
The first runabouts date back to the 1920s and were originally small, fast, powerful, varnished, wooden boats created to take advantage of the power of outboard motors such as the first Evinrude, introduced in 1909.
In order to gain speed, the hull shape had to be designed to take advantage of hydroplaning; a hydrofoil-like design would allow the boat to skim atop the water's surface at high speed instead of needing to push aside large quantities of water to move forward. Another design change which followed soon after was the replacement of the tiller and rudder control with a rudder controlled by a steering wheel, allowing the operator a comfortable forward-facing position. A remote lever to allow the engines to be placed into a reverse gear was another early innovation.
Among the leading builders of 1920s runabouts was John L. Hacker, who founded the Hacker Boat Company in 1908. Hacker was a pioneering naval architect who developed many design innovations, like the 'V-bottom'. His designs became the model upon which virtually all subsequent runabouts were based.
Shortly, similar upscale varnished-wood runabouts by Gar Wood and Chris-Craft and were also available, fitted with windshields to protect the cockpits and up to Liberty V-12 marinized surplus World War I aero engines built for speed.
But by the late 1940s, Gar Wood had stopped producing boats, and by the 1960s Chris-Craft was moving to the more modern materials of plastic and fiberglass. Hackercraft, with multiple changes in ownership, continued on.
The mahogany runabouts built by Italian builder Carlo Riva in the late 1950s and the 1960s are considered by many to be premier European examples of the type. The most famous Riva of all time was the Carlo Riva design called the Aquarama Special.
Construction and materials
Originally, runabouts were made entirely of wood, with mahogany used for hulls and planking and oak for framing. The use of aluminium in small boat construction came soon after World War II because of availability of aircraft materials as war surplus. Fiberglass was then introduced as another way to reduce the maintenance, cost and weight of watercraft. Given the cost benefits and personal enjoyment of boat building, do-it-yourself ′Kit Boats′ were also introduced using plywood material. In 1955, Chris-Craft created The Plywood Boat Division which marketed both Kit and pre-built plywood craft.
By 1960, wooden powerboats had become rare since most new vessels used fiberglass or other lightweight materials, including fiber reinforced plastic materials to reduce weight and maximize speed, particularly in racing craft. The art of boat-building in wood has been largely lost since it requires a level of craftsmanship impossible in large scale production boat building. One exception is the Hacker Boat Company, which continues to produce mahogany boats on the shores of Lake George, New York. Other wooden boat-builders include Graf, J-Craft, and Boesch.
Propulsion
Runabouts can be powered by inboard engines, outboards, jet drives, or inboard-outboard (I/O) drives. Engines can be gasoline or diesel systems.
Inboards have the engine block permanently mounted within the hull of the boat, with a drive shaft and a propeller to drive the craft underneath the hull, and a separate rudder to steer the craft.
Outboards are steerable external drive motors containing the engine block, linkage gears, and propeller within a single unit, taking the place of a rudder. Outboard drives are mounted to the transom and steered by a remote system leading to a wheel mounted on the boat's console.
Inboard-Outboard (or stern drives) are a hybrid, with an engine block mounted within the hull linked to a pivotable lower drive unit which steers the craft, similar to an outboard motor.
Jet Drives have a propeller enclosed in a pump-jet that draws water from underneath the hull and expels it through a swiveling nozzle in the stern. They are highly maneuverable and tolerant of shallow water, but need larger engines and use more fuel than the other alternatives.
References
External links
A history of outboard racing
Antique Boat Museum, Clayton, New York
Antique Outboarder archive
Antique & Classic Boat Society (antique wood runabouts)
Motorboats
Nautical terminology
Boat types | [
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250253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterham%20Cars | Caterham Cars | Caterham Cars is a British manufacturer of specialist lightweight sports cars established in Caterham, Surrey, with their headquarters in Crawley, Sussex. Their current model, the Caterham 7 (or Seven), originally launched in 1973, is a direct evolution of the Series 3 Lotus Seven designed by Colin Chapman. In the 1990s the company made the Caterham 21, a two-seater soft top alternative to the MGF and Lotus Elise, (which both sold many more units). A track-only car, the SP/300.R, a joint project with Lola was released for customer testing in 2010 and was scheduled for release in 2013. On 27 April 2011, Team Lotus owner Tony Fernandes announced that he had purchased Caterham. On 2 April 2021, news was leaked that Caterham Cars was acquired outright on 31 March 2021 by VT Holdings, Japanese importer for the Caterham Seven since 2009. As well as being a Caterham importer, VT also imports Lotus cars and Royal Enfield motorcycles into Japan.
History
Lotus origins
Colin Chapman's Lotus Cars launched the Series 1 Lotus Seven in 1957. The car was immediately embraced by enthusiasts as a low-cost, lightweight sports car and successful race car. Revised Series 2, Series 3 and Series 4 versions were subsequently launched in 1960, 1968 and 1970 respectively.
Caterham Cars had been a major Lotus 7 dealer during the 1960s, and its founder, Graham Nearn, purchased the rights to continue manufacture of the Seven design from Chapman in 1973, after Lotus announced its intention to discontinue the model. Caterham initially restarted manufacture of the Lotus Seven Series 4; however, when this proved unpopular, production switched to a Series 3 model in 1974.
In 1974, under the name of Seven Cars Limited, Caterham built 20 production cars with chassis numbers 1 to 20 and one prototype, with chassis number 0 (CS3 3550 – CS3 3570).
Of the 21 cars produced in the first year, all were fitted with the Ford Lotus Twin Cam 1557cc engine, with the exception of chassis number 7 which, intended for racing, was fitted with a 1962cc twin cam engine sourced from Alfa Romeo.
The Lotus/Caterham 7 is widely regarded by car enthusiasts and the media as one of the signature sports cars of the 20th century. With 2007 marking the 50th year of continuous production, the Seven still enjoys strong support and success in clubman-style racing.
Since 2006 Caterham Cars has been run by an ex-Lotus management team led by Ansar Ali (CEO) and Mark Edwards (COO). In June 2012 Ansar Ali announced he was to leave Caterham Cars and Graham Mcdonald (the company's former CFO) became the new CEO.
Construction
As with its Lotus Seven precursors, Caterhams are constructed of aluminium sheet attached to a tubular steel chassis. Nose cone and wings are either GRP or carbon fibre depending on specification. All Sevens are front-engined with rear-wheel drive and two seats. Their extremely high performance is achieved through light weight (less than on some versions) rather than particularly powerful engines. As well as a lightweight chassis and bodywork, Caterham Sevens achieve their very low mass through their lack of comfort and safety oriented features such as a fixed roof, doors, radio, air-conditioning, airbags, traction/stability control, ABS, satellite navigation or cruise control. As a result, the Seven is somewhat limited in its practicality for everyday usage and is instead recognised by driving enthusiasts for its focus on driving enjoyment, making it an ideal track/race car or 'Sunday' car.
Kit format
Chapman and Lotus helped to pioneer the British kit car industry. The Lotus Seven was offered in kit form to allow buyers to avoid new car tax in the UK. Subsequently, Caterham continued offering cars in 'complete knock down' (CKD) kit form as the tradition of hand building your own Seven was well established amongst enthusiasts. Today, all Caterham Sevens are still offered in kit form in the UK except the CSR (Series 6) model. Modern Caterham kits differ from the majority of kit cars as all parts are supplied ready to assemble, not requiring a donor car, fabrication or any special skills.
International
Although the Seven has always been popular with enthusiasts outside of the UK marketplace, export of the Seven to other markets has increasingly been limited by homologation, safety and emissions regulations in the modern era. As a result, the chassis/engine combinations, specifications, pricing and kit-form availability vary widely between countries.
In the past in the United States Caterhams were sold as kits only, lacking some modern safety features required of manufacturers, but which are not required for individually assembled vehicles. Buyers could either choose to construct the cars themselves or pay their regional dealers or local builders to assemble them. Typically the engine and transmission are sourced separately as a unit – often from Caterham – but all other components (including frame, suspension, differential, driveshaft, interior, wiring and instruments) were provided in kit form.
In the UK, the vehicles can be obtained as kits or entirely assembled by Caterham and registered for the road under IVA (Individual Vehicle Approval) regulations. In the '60s, the original Lotus Seven was sold only in kit form in both the UK and the US, in order to evade the very high taxes on complete new cars that were not assessed on automobile parts.
United States
As of 2014, however, Caterham has named Superformance their official distributor in the United States. International demand has increased dramatically in part due to the addition of a F1 Race team and the changes in Caterham's structure focusing on the distribution of the Seven worldwide. Caterham has since introduced a new model line up and focused on their production and production times to better suit their new international market, making their partnership with Superformance possible. Sevens will be shipped to the US in part-built form and sold as rolling chassis via Superformance's nationwide dealer network for customers to then complete the build personally or through the Superformance dealership. The initial US line-up includes several Caterham Sevens: 280, 360, 480, and the 620R.
Location
Until 1987 the offices, factory and showroom of Caterham Cars were located in the town of Caterham, Surrey.
In 1987, the production and administration of the company moved to a new factory in Dartford, Kent.
Caterham Cars retained a Caterham South showroom and servicing facility in the town of Caterham adjacent to the railway station until February 2013. The Caterham dealership closed after the premises were sold for development and the showroom relocated to temporary facilities in Crawley. Additionally the Caterham Midlands showroom operates outside Leicester.
In 2012 elements of Caterham Cars moved into a new facility in Leafield, Oxfordshire, where it is expected the new models of cars to be produced in the future will be developed and built. This new facility was formerly used by the Arrows F1 team and the Super Aguri F1 team. The Leafield site also accommodated the Caterham F1 team, which moved from its original base in Hingham, Norfolk and competed in Formula One between the 2012 and 2014 seasons.
Caterham 21
In 1994 Caterham also produced a model called the '21'. Mechanically the 21 was very similar to the 7, using a modified 7 spaceframe chassis with a new GRP roadster-style body, including a wrap-around windscreen and fold-away fabric hood (convertible top) manufactured by Oxted Trimming Company.
The 21 benefited from a considerably stiffer setup than a 7, due to the work on the chassis and having a full body. Comfort was introduced in the same minimalist style as the 7, adding just enough to make it a proper roadster without adding too much weight.
Caterham, however, underestimated the effort involved in creating a completely new car and took far too long from its inception to deliver the first customer cars, seeing many people who had placed deposits defect to the Lotus Elise and other vehicles. Early ones were used as "prototypes", leaving customers to help iron out some of the foibles of the new car.
The 21 never sold particularly well, with only 48 ever made. It had moderate racing success in the Belcar 24-hour series in Europe and is credited with helping Caterham develop the widetrack setup used in SVs (amongst other developments) and the CSR's sweeping interior is reminiscent of the original 21 design.
Caterham SP/300.R
The SP/300.R is a new track-only model designed by Caterham alongside Lola Cars. The SP/300.R is a limited edition with limited production to 25 per annum.
Caterham 7 model line-up
Chassis variants
In 2010 Caterham offers three different chassis variants in the UK.
Series 3 (S3)
The most popular variant retains the same dimensions and layout of the Lotus 7 Series 3.
Series 5 (SV)
Caterham introduced this variant in 2000 to accommodate larger drivers (space is restricted in the S3 for drivers over tall.)
Although visually very similar to the S3, the SV is longer, taller and wider and has significantly more space for taller and broader drivers with the added benefits of more luggage space, a larger fuel tank and more stability. The SV chassis is heavier than the S3.
CSR (Series 6)
The CSR was launched in 2005 following extensive research and development by Caterham with the objective of creating an improved Seven. The CSR is based on the larger dimensions of the SV but with a substantially revised and stiffer chassis, inboard 'pushrod' front suspensions, fully independent rear suspension, improved aerodynamics, potent Cosworth engines and a new 'integrated' dashboard layout.
Model/trim variants
Classic
The most basic version of the 7 was traditionally offered with a 'live' rear axle but now comes with De Dion tube rear suspension found in other models of the same range. This trim level strips away all non-essential equipment and comforts.
Classic trim is available on S3/SV chassis
Engines: 1.4-litre K-Series (105 bhp) or 1.6-litre K-Series (120 bhp).
Roadsport
Roadsport is the trim level intended for general usage, different weather conditions and touring. The spec includes a full windscreen and weather equipment to increase practicality. A large range of performance options are available. The Roadsport dates back to 1996 when it was called the Superlight R, in 1998 a much softer version came out called the Seven Clubsport 1.8. The range continued to be developed in the years as a great alternative to someone who wanted a little bit more than a Classic, but less than a Superlight.
Classic trim is available on S3/SV chassis
Engines: 1.6-litre Ford Sigma (120,125 or 150 bhp) or 2.0-litre Ford Duratec (175 bhp).
Roadsport A
Roadsport A cars are ex-Academy cars, with no engine upgrades. However a number of performance upgrades such removing the windscreens and lights, widetrack front suspension and uprated dampers are allowed, as is professional team support. RSA races at the same events as RSB, but has longer 30-minute races.
Roadsport B
Roadsport B is largely for drivers that have come through the previous season's Academy. Some minor modifications are permitted to the car, including fitting a rear anti-roll bar and sticky Avon CR500 tyres. Technical support is still provided by the factory, and professional team support is not permitted. RSB has 20-minute races at 7 or 8 'double-header' meetings over the course of the season, usually all in the UK.
Superlight
The Superlight is intended for track and fast road usage. Superlight spec includes performance options such as carbon bodywork and a close ratio 6-speed gearbox. A wind deflector in place of the windscreen makes a helmet more or less mandatory. The Superlight R400 uses a 2.0 litre Ford Duratec engine tuned to . The R400 name indicates the car's 400 bhp-per-tonne power-to-weight ratio.
Superlight trim is available on S3/SV chassis
Engines: 1.6-litre Ford Sigma (150 bhp) or 2.0-litre Ford Duratec (175 bhp, 210 bhp or 263 bhp).
Superlight R300
The Superlight R300 was introduced for 2009, designed to bridge the gap between RSA and the existing Superlight R400 class. It is expected to be popular with experienced RSA racers wanting to move on to the next level in speed.
Superlight R400
The Superlight R400 series is Caterham Motorsport's premier British championship. The R400 is a 220 bhp Cosworth powered dedicated race car with a Quaife six-speed sequential gearbox replacing the standard Caterham unit used in the R300. As with all series above Academy, it runs on Avon CR500 tyres.
2009 Champion Dan Denis, Matt Blyth Racing
Superlight R500
The Superlight R500 series is the latest of Caterham Motorsport's Superlight series of RSA Racing cars. Powered by a 2.0-litre Ford Duratec engine producing maximum horsepower (bhp/rpm) of 263 bhp @ 8500rpm and maximum torque (lb.ft/rpm) of 177 lb.ft @ 7200rpm. With a weight of 506 kg (516 kg) and a sequential gearbox, it is capable of 0–60 mph in 2.88 seconds and a power-to-weight ratio of 520 bhp-per-tonne. Advertised top speed 150 mph. The R500 has been made Top Gear car of the year 2008. In another appearance earlier in the series, it placed fifth on the Power Lap board with a 1:17.9. This time beat the €1,100,000 (£899,000/$1,550,000), 1001 hp Bugatti Veyron.
Superlight R600
In October 2012 a supercharged model for a race-series above the R300-class was released, including slick tyres and a sequential gearbox.
Superlight 620R
In September 2013 Caterham made a car called the 620R. It was based on the R500, but was supercharged. This increased the power output to at 7,700 rpm and the torque to at 7,350 rpm. It also reduced the 0– time to 2.79 seconds. It has a power-weight ratio of 568 bhp-per-tonne and a top speed of 155 mph.
CSR
The CSR chassis comes in two basic trims which mirror those of the S3/SV cars. The 'basic' CSR has a road and touring oriented spec with full windscreen and weather equipment. This is available as the CSR200 (200 bhp) or CSR260 (260 bhp). The CSR Superlight (also 260 bhp) is the current Caterham performance flagship strips away the windscreen, integrated dash and other comfort-oriented components for maximum performance, with specialist 'Dynamic dampers' added to improve its already phenomenal grip. The 'basic' CSR set an unofficial time of 1.17.4 on the BBC Top Gear test track at Dunsfold, placing it ahead of many of the world's most expensive performance cars.
Engines: 2.3-litre Ford Duratec tuned by Cosworth (200 bhp or 260 bhp)
RS Performance RST-V8 engine
The 'Caterham Levante', built by RS Performance Engine Developments Ltd. (RS=Russell Savory), is a mostly-carbon-fibre bodied Caterham, with Kevlar seats, combined with an "over 500bhp" 2.4-litre, 40-valve supercharged V8 and a reduced body weight of , boasts almost per tonne (initial announced specifications were and , but the RS website specifies "in excess of 500bhp," and or ; the math may or may not achieve "over per tonne"). The eight cars, costing £115,000, sold out and only eight will be produced to celebrate more than 50 years in production. Two days' of mandatory "driver training" are included in the price of the car.
Kit build
All of the 2008 model line-up is available as a 'CKD' complete kit for build by the owner, with the exception of CSR models.
Engines
Historically, engines have been supplied by Ford, specifically Ford Kent engines or Cosworth-derived race-prepared BDA/R units, enlarged to 1.7 litres and generating 150–170 bhp. In the early '90s, Caterham started using powerplants from other sources, with the least expensive models using 1.4-litre K series engines from MG Rover for the base model, and Vauxhall engines including full race versions of the 16 valve 2.0XE "red top" as fitted to 1990 Vauxhall Works Touring Cars. Rover engines span a power output of 110–250 bhp in the R500 Evolution, Vauxhall engines to in some factory built versions of the car. A Caterham JPE (Jonathan Palmer Evolution) briefly held the world record for production car 0–60 mph times (at 3.4 seconds) until it was bettered by the $1.2M McLaren F1(Nowadays, you can buy one for about 18-20 million dollars).
The many aftermarket tuning companies for these cars have also offered the Ford Zetec, Honda Fireblade, Honda Blackbird, Suzuki Hayabusa and even the Mazda Rotary engine.
Since 2017, several cars have been built with the direct injection turbo Ford Ecoboost 1.6.litre version of this engine which with a hybrid turbo provides more horsepower than Caterham's own supercharged Duratec, and more torque than any factory car including the V8 Levante.
In 2001, Caterham designated MG Rover the sole engine supplier for factory-built Sevens, with Ford Zetec, Honda Fireblade, Yamaha R1 and Suzuki Hayabusa engines still available for kit assembly. The Rover engines were based on the K series and carried the 'Xpower' branding. However, the partnership evidently came to an end with the collapse of MG Rover, with the 2005 model introducing a Ford Duratec engine.
Typical powerplant output ranges from to over , depending on specifications and modifications.
The gearbox is either the classic Ford T9 five-speed or Caterham's own six-speed box. The T9 is cheap and durable, but has gear ratios meant for a much heavier car. The six-speed gearbox is expensive and had early 'teething' problems, but its ratios are considered the perfect match for the Seven. Independent companies such as Quaife do offer replacement gearkits for the T9 as well as sequential boxes for those with a racing fever and the need for a more robust transmission.
The most extreme engine/chassis combination available from the factory as of 2013 was the 620r with the 310bhp / 297Nm engine, bringing the car's from zero to in 2.79 seconds. The previous model also held a production car world record for zero to back to zero at 10.73 seconds (faster than many modern family saloons can reach 60), set on 27 April 2004.
Motor racing
Formula One
For the 2012 season, Team Lotus was officially renamed Caterham F1 Team. The team continued to compete under this name in the 2013 and 2014 seasons, before financial problems caused it to fold.
GP2 Series
Between 2012 and 2014, Caterham raced in the GP2 series, under the guise Caterham Racing, which was rebranded from the Caterham Air Asia team that raced in the 2011 season.
The team raced under the same Green and Yellow livery as the Formula 1 team.
Caterham Racing was used by the company to act as a feeder team towards developing racing drivers for the Caterham F1 Team, until the company had to cease operations in both series.
Initially based in Hingham, the team had moved to the Leafield Technical Centre alongside the Caterham F1 team in August 2012, where they remained until both teams were terminated in 2014.
Caterham Motorsport Ladder
The Caterham Motorsport Ladder is a progression through the various Caterham Cars championships, starting with the Caterham Academy, and moving through ultimately to their most prestigious European events. The championships which form the ladder are:
Caterham Academy
In 1995 the Caterham Academy, a novices-only format, was introduced in the UK as the Caterham Scholarship. For a starting price of £24,995 (2017), entrants get a modified Roadsport kit (a factory-built option is available for extra cost) with a sealed Ford Sigma engine and 5-speed gearbox. Having completed the ARDS (racing) licence qualification, the season then consists of a car-control day, a test day, and the season starts with two sprints, and five circuit races.
Since 2000, the popularity of the Academy has led to Caterham providing two parallel Academy championships (Group 1 & Group 2), each resulting in an Academy champion at the end of the year. Approximately 1000 racing drivers have been created through the Caterham Academy.
Karting
At the Autosport International 2012 Caterham announced that it would be creating a karting series starting in 2013. It was stated that the aim of this karting series was to make it easier for people to enter motorsports by providing a cheap karting series in which they could start off.
See also
List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom
References
External links
Caterham official website (UK)
Caterham Racing.com
Caterham USA website
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1973
Car manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Kent
Cars
British racecar constructors
Sports car manufacturers
Kit car manufacturers
Lotus Seven replicas
1973 establishments in England | [
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250255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Dayton | Mark Dayton | Mark Brandt Dayton (born January 26, 1947) is an American politician who served as the 40th governor of Minnesota from 2011 to 2019. He was a United States Senator for Minnesota from 2001 to 2007, and the Minnesota State Auditor from 1991 to 1995. He is a member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL), which affiliates with the national Democratic Party.
A native of Minnesota, Dayton is the great-grandson of businessman George Dayton, the founder of Dayton's, a department store that later became the Target Corporation. He embarked on a career in teaching and social work in New York City and Boston after graduating from Yale University in 1969. During the 1970s, he served as a legislative aide to U.S. Senator Walter Mondale and Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich. In 1978, Dayton was appointed the Minnesota Economic Development Commissioner and married Alida Rockefeller Messinger, a member of the Rockefeller family.
Dayton ran for the U.S. Senate in 1982 against Republican Party incumbent David Durenberger. He defeated former U.S. Senator Eugene McCarthy in the Democratic primary, and the general election became one of the most expensive in state history. Dayton campaigned as a populist in opposition to Reaganomics and famously promised "to close tax loopholes for the rich and the corporations and if you think that includes the Daytons, you're right". Durenberger won the election, and Dayton returned to the Perpich administration until his election as Minnesota State Auditor in 1990.
In 1998, Dayton ran for governor, losing the Democratic nomination to Hubert Humphrey III. In 2000, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, defeating Republican incumbent Rod Grams. As senator, Dayton voted against the authorization for Iraq War, and became the first senator to introduce legislation creating a cabinet-level United States Department of Peace. In 2006, he chose not to seek reelection, citing his disillusionment with Washington, D.C. and fundraising.
In 2010, Dayton defeated Republican Tom Emmer to become governor of Minnesota despite national success for the Republican Party, including in the Minnesota legislature. He won a second term in 2014 over Republican opponent Jeff Johnson and opted not to run for a third term in 2018, leaving office in January 2019. His major legislative initiatives as governor include the legalization of same-sex marriage and the construction of U.S. Bank Stadium for the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League (NFL).
Early life, education, and career
Dayton was born on January 26, 1947, in Minneapolis and is the eldest of Gwendolen May (Brandt) and Bruce Bliss Dayton's four children. He is a great-grandson of businessman George Dayton, the founder of the Dayton's department store chain. His father, Bruce Dayton, served as the chairman and CEO of Dayton Hudson Corporation, the company that later became the Target Corporation. Bruce Dayton also founded the B. Dalton bookstore chain in 1966.
Mark Dayton was raised in Long Lake, Minnesota and graduated from the Blake School in Minneapolis, where he was an all-state ice-hockey goaltender as a senior.
Dayton attended Yale University, where he played varsity hockey until an accident on the ice. During his time at Yale, he joined the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (alongside future President George W. Bush) and received his B.A. in psychology in 1969. After college, Dayton worked as teacher in the Lower East Side of New York City from 1969 to 1971, and then as the chief financial officer of a social service agency in Boston from 1971 to 1975.
Early political career
Dayton first became politically active in the 1960s. He protested the Vietnam War in April 1970 at one of Minnesota's major antiwar protests against Honeywell, where he was maced by police. Dayton's father served on the Honeywell board of directors and the two had a strained relationship after the incident.
From 1975 to 1976 he was a legislative aide to Senator Walter Mondale, until Mondale's election as Vice President of the United States. From 1977 to 1978, Dayton served as an aide to Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich. In 1978, Perpich appointed Dayton to head the Department of Economic Development and then the Department of Energy and Economic Development.
In 1998, Dayton ran an unsuccessful campaign for governor, losing the Democratic nomination to Hubert Humphrey III. In 2000, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, defeating Republican incumbent Rod Grams. As senator, Dayton voted against the authorization for Iraq War, and was the first senator to introduce legislation creating a cabinet-level United States Department of Peace. In 2006, he chose not to seek reelection, citing his disillusionment with Washington, D.C. and fundraising.
Minnesota State Auditor
Dayton was elected Minnesota State Auditor in 1990 and served until 1995.
U.S. Senate
Elections
Dayton first ran for the United States Senate in 1982 but lost to Republican incumbent David Durenberger. He defeated former U.S. Senator Eugene McCarthy in the Democratic primary, and the general election became one of the most expensive in state history. Dayton campaigned as a populist in opposition to Reaganomics and famously promised "to close tax loopholes for the rich and the corporations and if you think that includes the Daytons, you're right".
He was elected to the Senate in 2000, defeating Republican incumbent Rod Grams. Dayton self-financed his 2000 campaign with $12 million.
Tenure
While in the Senate, Dayton donated his salary to fund bus trips for seniors to buy cheaper prescription drugs in Canada. He generally voted with his fellow Democrats.
On February 9, 2005, he announced that he would not run for reelection, saying, "Everything I've worked for, and everything I believe in, depends upon this Senate seat remaining in the Democratic caucus in 2007. I do not believe that I am the best candidate to lead the DFL Party to victory next year." He also cited his dislike of fundraising and political campaigns. Dayton was succeeded in the Senate by Amy Klobuchar, another DFLer.
On September 22, 2005, the 44th anniversary of the day President John F. Kennedy signed the Peace Corps into law, Dayton became the first U.S. Senator to introduce legislation creating a cabinet-level Department of Peace. At the same time, similar legislation was introduced in the House by Congressman Dennis Kucinich.
In April 2006, Time magazine rated Dayton one of America's "Five Worst Senators", calling him "The Blunderer" for such "erratic behavior" as his temporary closure of his office in 2004 because of an unspecified terrorist threat, his complaints about "limited power in a chamber where authority derives from seniority," and his comment in February 2005 that the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota was "worth a hell of a lot more than the whole state of South Dakota", a remark he later apologized for. News reports of a Dayton question-and-answer session quoted him giving himself an F grade for his time in the Senate. Largely based on his Washington behavior, The New Republic dubbed Dayton's subsequent run for state-level elected office "Eeyore For Governor."
In September 2006, Dayton requested a review of the Rogers, Minnesota tornado to determine whether the National Weather Service had acted properly and the deaths of victims were unavoidable.
Committee assignments
Committee on Armed Services
Subcommittee on Airland
Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support
Subcommittee on Strategic Forces
Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry
Subcommittee on Commodities, Markets, Trade and Risk Management
Subcommittee on Conservation, Forestry and Natural Resources
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management, Government Information and International Security
Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management, the Federal Workforce and the District of Columbia
Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations
Committee on Rules and Administration
Joint Committee on Printing
Office of Senator Mark Dayton v. Brad Hanson
The 2003 lawsuit Office of Senator Mark Dayton v. Brad Hanson involved an accusation of wrongful termination by Brad Hanson, who worked as State Office Manager for Dayton, and who was fired shortly after taking medical leave for a heart problem. Hanson sued under the Congressional Accountability Act of 1995, claiming that Dayton had discriminated against him because of a perceived disability. Dayton argued that he was immunized from suit by the speech or debate clause of the United States Constitution. Dayton claimed that Hanson's duties were directly related to Dayton's legislative functions, and that the decision to fire him could not be challenged. The District Court denied the motion, and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States, where oral arguments were heard on April 24, 2007. The Supreme Court ruled 8–0 that it lacked jurisdiction to hear the appeal and dismissed the case, declining to grant certiorari. Dayton reached a settlement with Hanson in 2009, shortly after Dayton became a candidate for governor.
Governor of Minnesota
Elections
On January 16, 2009, Dayton announced his candidacy for Governor of Minnesota. In a crowded Democratic field of challengers, Dayton chose to bypass the state caucuses and convention in favor of the primary election. He stated he made that decision because the primary election is a more democratic method of choosing a candidate. He relied on personal funds for his campaign. On May 24, 2010, he announced State Senator Yvonne Prettner Solon of Duluth as his running mate for lieutenant governor. On August 10, 2010, Dayton defeated the DFL-endorsed Margaret Anderson Kelliher in a close primary election, 41.33% to 39.75%; Dayton was later endorsed by the Minnesota DFL to earn his party's nomination for governor.
In the general election on November 2, 2010, Dayton led his Republican opponent, Tom Emmer, at the close of balloting by just under 9,000 votes. The margin of victory was small enough to trigger an automatic recount under state law. Analysts generally thought it unlikely that Dayton's lead would be overturned. During the hand recount of ballots, Emmer failed to find enough questionable ballots to overturn Dayton's lead. Emmer conceded the election on December 8, 2010.
Minnesota Independence Party candidate Tom Horner received 11.9% of the vote, and it has been suggested that Horner cost Emmer the election by splitting the vote.
Tenure
Dayton took the oath of office to become Governor of Minnesota on January 3, 2011. Taking office a few weeks before his 64th birthday, Dayton was the oldest person ever inaugurated as governor in Minnesota history. Former Vice President and Senator Walter Mondale served as Master of Ceremony at the inauguration. The first DFLer to serve as governor in 20 years, Dayton succeeded Republican Governor Tim Pawlenty. On January 5, Governor Dayton signed two Executive Orders allowing the Minnesota Departments of Commerce and Health to apply for federal health-care grants, and provide $1.2 billion in federal funds toward an Early Option for a statewide Medicaid Opt-In program. These Executive Orders reversed the previous administration's ban on federal funding for the state's health-care system. In March 2011, Dayton signed a law increasing penalties on those who injure or kill police dogs.
On July 1, 2011, the Minnesota government went into a shutdown as a result of an impasse during budget negotiations between Dayton and the Republican-led legislature. On July 20, 2011, Dayton and the legislature reached an agreement, ending the 20-day shutdown.
Dayton led an effort to have a new stadium constructed for the Minnesota Vikings. In May 2011, after efforts to have the stadium financed by Hennepin County failed, Ramsey County officials announced they had reached an agreement with the Minnesota Vikings to be the team's local partner for a new stadium, subject to approval by the Minnesota Legislature and to approval of a sales tax by the Ramsey County Board. Dayton was reluctant to go along with the team's Arden Hills proposal because it would cost a total $1.1 billion, including an additional $131 million for road improvements, and later tried to make a push to have the stadium built on the site of the farmers' market near Linden Avenue in downtown Minneapolis. On March 1, 2012, plans to build the stadium in either Arden Hills or the Linden Avenue site were abandoned after an agreement was announced by Dayton for a new stadium to be built on the site of the Metrodome, pending approval by the state legislature and the Minneapolis city council. In May 2012, the proposal to build the stadium on the Metrodome site was passed by the Minnesota Legislature and soon afterwards signed into law by Dayton; On May 25, the proposal was officially finalized after receiving the approval of the Minneapolis City Council.
In 2012, Dayton commemorated the 150th anniversary of the Dakota War of 1862 with a call for reconciliation, and repudiation of former governor Alexander Ramsey's position. Flags were flown at half mast for a "Day of Remembrance and Reconciliation in Minnesota."
In the legislative session that ended in May 2013, Dayton pushed for and won a $2.1 billion tax increase, mostly on the wealthy and cigarettes. He also signed a bill legalizing gay marriage in Minnesota, created free, statewide, all-day kindergarten and financed expansions of the Mayo Clinic, 3M and Mall of America. In the spring 2014 session, Dayton came under fire from supporters and foes alike for opposing the legalization of medical marijuana, which polls showed 65% of Minnesotans support. One supporter, the mother of a child with severe epilepsy, alleged Dayton told her in a meeting that he would not legalize the drug but she could buy the drug illegally instead. Dayton denied saying that. On April 2, Marijuana Policy Project began airing an ad across the state attacking Dayton's opposition to medical marijuana legalization, featuring a St. Paul mother and her child whose severe seizures could be cured by medical marijuana.
On December 6, 2017, Politico reported that Dayton was expected to appoint Lieutenant Governor Tina Smith to Al Franken's Senate seat if Franken decided to resign amid multiple sexual misconduct allegations against him. Franken resigned on January 2, 2018, and Dayton then appointed Smith to the U.S. Senate seat.
Political positions
As of 2010, Dayton received 100% ratings from the AFL-CIO, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, National Abortion and Reproductive Rights Action League, and the liberal group Americans for Democratic Action. Dayton received a 79% rating from the League of Conservation Voters for his support of green energy as of 2010. In 2005, Dayton scored a 9% rating from the Small Business & Entrepreneurship Council.
Healthcare
Dayton supports health-care coverage for all Americans, with increased state and federal spending on health care. Dayton supports a progressive tax to decrease state and federal deficits. To help create jobs, he proposed a state stimulus package as part of his gubernatorial platform. Dayton supports increased funding for K-12 schools, with increased teachers' salaries and decreased class size.
In July 2000, Dayton answered an election questionnaire saying he would expand Medicare prescription-drug coverage. He favors keeping Social Security intact, and opposes privatization of Social Security. He received a 90% rating by the Alliance for Retired Americans.
Medical marijuana
Until 2013, Dayton opposed the legalization of medical cannabis and drug policy reform, adopting the same position as his Republican predecessor Tim Pawlenty. The Marijuana Policy Project called Dayton "no more favorable" to drug policy reform than the last Republican governor. When Dayton posed a $2 million study on medical marijuana with the Mayo Clinic instead of signing a bill to legalize medical marijuana, advocates "bashed" Dayton for not allowing suffering patients to have access to the drug. City Pages reported that the Governor could lose the vote of the many supporters of medical marijuana, 65% of Minnesotans, to the 3/5 of Republican candidates for governor in 2014 who "strike a more liberal tone on marijuana reform" than the Democratic incumbent.
Same-sex marriage
With Senator Joe Lieberman and Representative Barney Frank, Dayton introduced legislation to the Governmental Affairs Committee to extend domestic partners of federal employees all benefits available and obligations imposed upon a spouse of an employee. Dayton voted against a constitutional ban of same-sex marriage in June 2006, and supported civil marriage equality in his gubernatorial platform. On May 14, 2013, Governor Dayton signed into law a bill passed by the Minnesota House and Senate to legalize same-sex marriage in the state.
Iraq War
In October 2002, Dayton voted against the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq. He followed up three years later by introducing Senate Bill 1756 to create a cabinet-level Department of Peace a week after Dennis Kucinich introduced a similar bill in the House. The bill never emerged from the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.
Personal life
Dayton married Alida Ferry Rockefeller, youngest sister of U.S. Senator John Davison "Jay" Rockefeller IV, in 1978; they divorced in 1986. In 1996, Dayton married his second wife, Janice R. Haarstick, President of Jamahda Farm Inc. They divorced in 1999. Dayton has two sons, Eric and Andrew, from his first marriage.
Despite his wealth, he lives modestly. He is a recovering alcoholic and has been treated for mild depression. He revealed this information on his own initiative, saying he felt "people have the right to know."
In December 2012, Dayton underwent vertebral fusion surgery at the Mayo Clinic to treat his spinal stenosis. On June 25, 2013, Dayton had to cancel an appearance due to a muscle tear. On January 31, 2016, Dayton fainted while speaking at a campaign event in Woodbury, Minnesota. He was hospitalized overnight.
On January 23, 2017, Dayton collapsed while giving the State of the State address to the Minnesota Legislature. After a check by emergency medical services, he was reported to be in fine condition and was sent home the same evening. The next day he announced that he had been diagnosed with prostate cancer a week earlier.
On October 8, 2019, the University of Minnesota's Center for Integrative Leadership announced that Dayton had joined the center as an Executive Leadership Fellow for the 2019–2020 academic year.
In December 2020, he married Ana Orke, who is 41 years his junior.
Electoral history
1982: U.S. Senator
1998: Governor of Minnesota
2000: U.S. Senator
2010: Governor of Minnesota
2014: Governor of Minnesota
Footnotes
External links
Governor Mark Dayton official Minnesota site
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1947 births
21st-century American politicians
American chief financial officers
American people of English descent
American Presbyterians
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Democratic Party United States senators
Governors of Minnesota
Living people
Minnesota Democrats
People from Long Lake, Minnesota
Rockefeller family
State Auditors of Minnesota
State cabinet secretaries of Minnesota
United States senators from Minnesota
Yale Bulldogs men's ice hockey players
Yale University alumni
American men's ice hockey goaltenders | [
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