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250256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia%20Apgar	Virginia Apgar	Virginia Apgar (June 7, 1909August 7, 1974) was an American physician, obstetrical anesthesiologist and medical researcher, best known as the inventor of the Apgar Score, a way to quickly assess the health of a newborn child immediately after birth in order to combat infant mortality. She was a leader in the fields of anesthesiology and teratology, and introduced obstetrical considerations to the established field of neonatology. Early life and education The youngest of three children, Apgar was born and raised in Westfield, New Jersey, the daughter of Helen May (Clarke) and Charles Emory Apgar. Her father was a business executive and amateur astronomer whose amateur radio work exposed an espionage ring during World War I. Her older brother died early from tuberculosis, and her other brother had a chronic illness. She graduated from Westfield High School in 1925, knowing that she wanted to be a doctor. Apgar graduated from Mount Holyoke College in 1929, where she studied zoology with minors in physiology and chemistry. In 1933, she graduated fourth in her class from Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons (P&S) and completed a residency in surgery at P&S in 1937. She was discouraged by Allen Whipple, the chairman of surgery at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, from continuing her career as a surgeon because he had seen many women attempt to be successful surgeons and ultimately fail. He instead encouraged her to practice anesthesiology because he felt that advancements in anesthesia were needed to further advance surgery and felt that she had the "energy and ability" to make a significant contribution. Deciding to continue her career in anesthesiology, she trained for six months under Ralph Waters at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he had established the first anesthesiology department in the United States. In a 1937 photograph of Waters and his residents, she is the only woman among Waters and fifteen other men. She then studied for a further six months under Ernest Rovenstine in New York at Bellevue Hospital. She received a certification as an anesthesiologist in 1937, and returned to P&S in 1938 as director of the newly formed division of anesthesia. She later received a master's degree in public health at Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, graduating in 1959. Work and research Apgar was the first woman to head a specialty division at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center (now NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital) and Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. In conjunction with Allen Whipple, she started P&S's anesthesia division. She was placed in charge of the division's administrative duties and was also tasked with co-ordinating the staffing of the division and its work throughout the hospital. Throughout much of the 1940s, she was an administrator, teacher, recruiter, coordinator and practicing physician. It was often difficult to find residents for the program, as advances in the medical field had only recently elevated the practice of anesthesia to anesthesiology, a fully-fledged medical specialty. New anesthesiologists also faced scrutiny from other physicians, specifically surgeons, who were not used to having an anesthesia-specialized in the operating room. These difficulties led to issues in gaining funding and support for the division. With America's entrance into World War II in 1941, many medical professionals enlisted in the military to help the war effort, which created a serious staffing problem for domestic hospitals, Apgar's division included. When the war ended in 1945, interest in anesthesiology was renewed in returning physicians, and the staffing problem for Apgar's division was quickly resolved. The specialty's growing popularity and Apgar's development of its residency program prompted P&S to establish it as an official department in 1949. Due to her lack of research, Apgar was not made the head of the department as was expected and the job was given to her colleague, Emmanuel Papper. Apgar was given a faculty position at P&S. Obstetrics In 1949, Apgar became the first woman to become a full professor at P&S, where she remained until 1959. During this time, she also did clinical and research work at the affiliated Sloane Hospital for Women, still a division of NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital. In 1953, she introduced the first test, called the Apgar score, to assess the health of newborn babies. Between the 1930s and the 1950s, the United States infant mortality rate decreased, but the number of infant deaths within the first 24 hours after birth remained constant. Apgar noticed this trend and began to investigate methods for decreasing the infant mortality rate specifically within the first 24 hours of the infant's life. As an obstetric anesthesiologist, Apgar was able to document trends that could distinguish healthy infants from infants in trouble. This investigation led to a standardized scoring system used to assess a newborn's health after birth, with the result referred to as the newborn's "Apgar score". Each newborn is given a score of 0, 1 or 2 (a score of 2 meaning the newborn is in optimal condition, 0 being in distress) in each of the following categories: heart rate, respiration, color, muscle tone and reflex irritability. Compiled scores for each newborn can range between 0 and 10, with 10 being the best possible condition for a newborn. The scores were to be given to a newborn one minute after birth, and additional scores could be given in five-minute increments to guide treatment if the newborn's condition did not sufficiently improve. By the 1960s, many hospitals in the United States were using the Apgar score consistently. In the 21st century, the score continues to be used to provide an accepted and convenient method for reporting the status of the newborn infant immediately after birth . In 1959, Apgar left Columbia and earned a Master of Public Health degree from the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health. From 1959 until her death in 1974, Apgar worked for the March of Dimes Foundation, serving as vice president for medical affairs and directing its research program to prevent and treat birth defects. As gestational age is directly related to an infant's Apgar Score, Apgar was one of the first at the March of Dimes to bring attention to the problem of premature birth, now one of the March of Dimes' top priorities. During this time, she wrote and lectured extensively, writing articles in popular magazines as well as research work. In 1967, Apgar became vice president and director of basic research at The National Foundation-March of Dimes. During the rubella pandemic of 1964–65, Apgar became an advocate for universal vaccination to prevent mother-to-child transmission of rubella. Rubella can cause serious congenital disorders if a woman becomes infected while pregnant. Between 1964 and 1965, the United States had an estimated 12.5 million rubella cases, which led to 11,000 miscarriages or therapeutic abortions and 20,000 cases of congenital rubella syndrome. These led to 2,100 deaths in infancy, 12,000 cases of deafness, 3,580 cases of blindness due to cataracts and/or microphthalmia and 1,800 cases of intellectual disability. In New York City alone, congenital rubella affected 1% of all babies born at that time. Apgar also promoted effective use of Rh testing, which can identify women who are at risk for transmission of maternal antibodies across the placenta where they may subsequently bind with and destroy fetal red blood cells, resulting in fetal hydrops or even miscarriage. Apgar traveled thousands of miles each year to speak to widely varied audiences about the importance of early detection of birth defects and the need for more research in this area. She proved an excellent ambassador for the National Foundation, and the annual income of that organization more than doubled during her tenure there. She also served the National Foundation as Director of Basic Medical Research (1967–1968) and vice-president for Medical Affairs (1971–1974). Her concerns for the welfare of children and families were combined with her talent for teaching in the 1972 book Is My Baby All Right?, written with Joan Beck. Apgar was also a lecturer (1965–1971) and then clinical professor (1971–1974) of pediatrics at Cornell University School of Medicine, where she taught teratology (the study of birth defects). She was the first to hold a faculty position in this new area of pediatrics. In 1973, she was appointed a lecturer in medical genetics at the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health. Apgar published over sixty scientific articles and numerous shorter essays for newspapers and magazines during her career, along with her book, Is My Baby All Right?. She received many awards, including honorary doctorates from the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (1964) and Mount Holyoke College (1965), the Elizabeth Blackwell Award from the American Medical Women's Association (1966), the Distinguished Service Award from the American Society of Anesthesiologists (1966), the Alumni Gold Medal for Distinguished Achievement from Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons (1973) and the Ralph M. Waters Award from the American Society of Anesthesiologists (1973). In 1973 she was also elected Woman of the Year in Science by the Ladies Home Journal. Apgar was equally at home speaking to teens as she was to the movers and shakers of society. She spoke at March of Dimes Youth Conferences about teen pregnancy and congenital disorders at a time when these topics were considered taboo. Personal life Throughout her career, Apgar maintained that "women are liberated from the time they leave the womb" and that being female had not imposed significant limitations on her medical career. She avoided women's organizations and causes, for the most part. Though she sometimes privately expressed her frustration with sex inequalities (especially in the matter of salaries), she worked around these by consistently pushing into new fields where there was room to exercise her considerable energy and abilities. Music was an integral part of family life, with frequent family music sessions. Apgar played the violin and her brother played piano and organ. She traveled with her violin, often playing in amateur chamber quartets wherever she happened to be. During the 1950s, a friend introduced her to instrument-making, and together they made two violins, a viola and a cello. She was an enthusiastic gardener and enjoyed fly-fishing, golfing and stamp collecting. In her fifties, Apgar started taking flying lessons, stating that her goal was to someday fly under New York's George Washington Bridge. Death Apgar never married or had children, and died of cirrhosis on August 7, 1974, at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center. She is buried at Fairview Cemetery in Westfield. Legacy Apgar has continued to earn posthumous recognition for her contributions and achievements. In 1994, she was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 20¢ Great Americans series postage stamp. In November 1995, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. In 1999, she was designated a Women's History Month Honoree by the National Women's History Project. On June 7, 2018, Google celebrated Apgar's 109th birthday with a Google Doodle. Honors and awards Honorary doctorate, Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania (1964) Honorary doctorate, Mount Holyoke College (1965) Distinguished Service Award from the American Society of Anesthesiologists (1966) Elizabeth Blackwell Award, from the American Women's Medical Association (1966) Honorary doctorate, New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry (1967) Alumni Gold Medal for Distinguished Achievement, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons (1973) Ralph M. Waters Award, American Society of Anesthesiologists (1973) Woman of the Year in Science, Ladies Home Journal (1973) Fellow of the New York Academy of Medicine, the American Public Health Association, and the New York Academy of Sciences. Inductee into the New Jersey Hall of Fame (2020) Selected works References Further reading External links Virginia Apgar papers at Mount Holyoke College Columbia biography MIT biography PBS National Women's Hall of Fame Full biography on WhoNamedIt.com The Virginia Apgar Papers – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine 1909 births 1974 deaths 20th-century American physicians 20th-century American women scientists American anesthesiologists American medical researchers American pediatricians Women pediatricians Columbia University faculty Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons alumni Deaths from cirrhosis Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health alumni Bellevue Hospital physicians Mount Holyoke College alumni People from Westfield, New Jersey Teratologists Westfield High School (New Jersey) alumni 20th-century American women physicians Alcohol-related deaths in New York (state) American women academics	[ -0.35788682103157043, 0.31007903814315796, 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250259	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queue%20area	Queue area	Queue areas are places in which people queue (first-come, first-served) for goods or services. Such a group of people is known as a queue (British usage) or line (American usage), and the people are said to be waiting or standing in a queue or in line, respectively. (In the New York City area, the phrase on line is often used in place of in line.) Occasionally, both the British and American terms are combined to form the term "queue line". Examples include checking out groceries or other goods that have been collected in a self service shop, in a shop without self-service, at an ATM, at a ticket desk, a city bus, or in a taxi stand. Queueing is a phenomenon in a number of fields, and has been extensively analysed in the study of queueing theory. In economics, queueing is seen as one way to ration scarce goods and services. Types Physical History The first written description of people standing in line is found in an 1837 book, The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle. Carlyle described what he thought was a strange sight: people standing in an orderly line to buy bread from bakers around Paris. Typical applications Queues can be found in railway stations to book tickets, at bus stops for boarding and at temples as well. Queues are generally found at transportation terminals where security screenings are conducted. Large stores and supermarkets may have dozens of separate queues, but this can cause frustration, as different lines tend to be handled at different speeds; some people are served quickly, while others may wait for longer periods of time. Sometimes two people who are together split up and each waits in a different line; once it is determined which line is faster, the one in the slower line joins the other. Another arrangement is for everyone to wait in a single line; a person leaves the line each time a service point opens up. This is a common setup in banks and post offices. Organized queue areas are commonly found at amusement parks. The rides have a fixed number of guests that can be served at any given time, so there has to be some control over additional guests who are waiting. This led to the development of formalized queue areas—areas in which the lines of people waiting to board the rides are organized by railings, and may be given shelter from the elements with a roof over their heads, inside a climate-controlled building or with fans and misting devices. In some amusement parks – Disney Parks being a prime example – queue areas can be elaborately decorated, with holding areas fostering anticipation, thus shortening the perceived wait for people in the queue by giving them something interesting to look at as they wait, or the perception that they have arrived at the threshold of the attraction. Design When designing queues, planners attempt to make the wait as pleasant and as simple as possible. They employ several strategies to achieve this, including: Expanding the capacity of the queue, thus allowing more patrons to have a place. This can be achieved by: Increasing the length of the queue by making the queue longer Increasing the size of the lanes within the queue Increasing the length of the queue by designing the line in a "zig-zag" shape that holds a large number of guests in a smaller area. This is used often at amusement parks. Notable rides have a large area of this kind of line to hold as many people as possible in line. Portions of the line can be sectioned off and bypassed by guests if the queue is not crowded. "In-line" entertainment can be added. This is popular at amusement parks like Walt Disney World, which uses TV screens and other visuals to keep people in the queue area occupied. Secondary queue areas for patrons with special tickets, like the FASTPASS system used at Disney parks, or the Q-bot as used in Legoland Windsor. Psychology People experience "occupied" time as shorter than "unoccupied" time, and generally overestimate the amount of time waited by around 36%. The technique of giving people an activity to distract them from a wait has been used to reduce complaints of delays at: Baggage claim in the Houston, Texas airport, by moving the arrival gates further away so passengers spend more time walking than standing around waiting Elevators, by adding mirrors so people can groom themselves or watch other people Retail checkout, by placing small items for purchase so customers can continue shopping while waiting Other techniques to reduce queueing anxiety include: Hiding the length of a line by wrapping it around a corner. Having only one line, so there is no anxiety about which line to choose and a greater sense of fairness. Even though the average wait over time is the same, customers tend to notice lines that are moving faster than they are compared to other lines moving more slowly. Putting up signs that deliberately overestimate the wait time, to always exceed customer expectations. Cutting in line, also known as queue-jumping, can generate a strong negative response, depending on the local cultural norms. Virtual Physical queueing is sometimes replaced by virtual queueing. In a waiting room there may be a system whereby the queuer asks and remembers where his place is in the queue, or reports to a desk and signs in, or takes a ticket with a number from a machine. These queues typically are found at doctors' offices, hospitals, town halls, social security offices, labor exchanges, the Department of Motor Vehicles, the immigration departments, free internet access in the state or council libraries, banks or post offices and call centres. Especially in the United Kingdom, tickets are taken to form a virtual queue at delicatessens and children's shoe shops. In some countries such as Sweden, virtual queues are also common in shops and railway stations. A display sometimes shows the number that was last called for service. Restaurants have come to employ virtual queueing techniques with the availability of application-specific pagers, which alert those waiting that they should report to the host to be seated. Another option used at restaurants is to assign customers a confirmed return time, basically a reservation issued on arrival. Virtual queueing apps are available that allow the customers to view the virtual queue status of a business and they can take virtual queue numbers remotely. The app can be used to get updates of the virtual queue status that the customer is in. Alternate activities A substitute or alternative activity may be provided for people to participate in while waiting to be called, which reduces the perceived waiting time and the probability that the customer will abort their visit. For example, a busy restaurant might seat waiting customers a bar. An outdoor attraction with long virtual queues might have a side marquee selling merchandise or food. The alternate activity may provide the organisation with an opportunity to generate additional revenue from the waiting customers. Mobile All of the above methods, however, suffer from the same drawback: the person arrives at the location only to find out that they need to wait. Recently, queues at DMVs, colleges, restaurants, healthcare institutions, government offices and elsewhere have begun to be replaced by mobile queues or queue-ahead, whereby the person queuing uses his/her phone, the internet, a kiosk or another method to enter a virtual queue, optionally prior to arrival, is free to roam during the wait, and then gets paged at his/her mobile phone when his/her turn approaches. This has the advantage of allowing users to find out the wait forecast and get in the queue before arriving, roaming freely and then timing their arrival to the availability of service. This has been shown to extend the patience of those into the queue and reduce no-shows. See also Cutting in line Call centre Line stander Queuing Rule of Thumb Waiting room References Further reading External links For insight into the British habit of queueing, see standinaqueue Rationing Queue management	[ 0.2432376593351364, -0.24330170452594757, 0.0722205638885498, 0.12359579652547836, 0.34692612290382385, 0.23330871760845184, 0.11090943962335587, 0.6077458262443542, -0.6031226515769958, -0.4607585072517395, -0.6984249949455261, -0.2687751352787018, -0.3545938730239868, 0.3149966299533844, -0.15794038772583008, 0.17250344157218933, 0.34347859025001526, 0.15464554727077484, 0.20071250200271606, -0.08366759121417999, -0.01389823853969574, -0.2266092449426651, -0.01637807860970497, -0.16125251352787018, 0.6908583045005798, -0.4357764720916748, -0.44447246193885803, 0.15230123698711395, -0.2695777118206024, -0.14917434751987457, -0.09524950385093689, 0.2778111398220062, 0.210499107837677, 0.24693076312541962, 0.07827865332365036, -0.4678090214729309, 0.06876306235790253, 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250260	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolingual%20learner%27s%20dictionary	Monolingual learner's dictionary	A monolingual learner's dictionary (MLD) is designed to meet the reference needs of people learning a foreign language. MLDs are based on the premise that language-learners should progress from a bilingual dictionary to a monolingual one as they become more proficient in their target language, but that general-purpose dictionaries (aimed at native speakers) are inappropriate for their needs. Dictionaries for learners include information on grammar, usage, common errors, collocation, and pragmatics, which is largely missing from standard dictionaries, because native speakers tend to know these aspects of language intuitively. And while the definitions in standard dictionaries are often written in difficult language, those in an MLD use a simple and accessible defining vocabulary. History of English language MLDs The first English MLD, published in 1935, was the New Method English Dictionary by Michael West and James Endicott, a small dictionary using a restricted defining vocabulary of just 1490 words. Since the end of World War Two, global sales of the MLD have run into the tens of millions, reflecting the boom in the English language teaching industry. Probably the best-known English monolingual dictionary for advanced learners is the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now in its tenth edition. It was originally published in Japan in 1942 as The Idiomatic and Syntactic Dictionary of English, written by A. S. Hornby and two collaborators. It was subsequently republished as A Learner's Dictionary of Current English in 1948, before acquiring its current name. Other publishers gradually entered the market. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English was published in 1978, and its most striking feature was the use of a restricted defining vocabulary, which is now a standard feature of learners' dictionaries. There are currently six major MLDs for advanced learners. In addition to the Oxford and Longman dictionaries, these are: Collins Cobuild English Dictionary, first published in 1987 Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 1995, now published as the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, 2002 Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary, 2008 All of these dictionaries are available in hard copy and online. Since the 1980s, the English MLD has, arguably, been the most innovative area in the field of lexicography, in terms of both the way dictionaries are written and the aspects of language which dictionaries describe, in particular the use of software in combination with text corpora to: generate language description - a radical innovation which was introduced by the COBUILD project in the 1980s automate the dictionary-making process identify collocations MLDs were among the first dictionaries to appear on CD-ROM, with the Longman Interactive English Dictionary leading the way in 1993. More recently the six MLDs listed above have become available in free online versions. MLDs have been the subject of research into how people use dictionaries, as well as the subject of scholarly work. A standard book on the subject is Cowie 1999. Online dictionaries The Internet offers a range of online dictionary resources. Some, like the Open Dictionary of English, are explicitly designed as learner's dictionaries, and may even include built-in, adaptive tutoring. References External links Open Dictionary of English, ODE Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary Collins COBUILD Advanced Dictionary Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Macmillan English Dictionary Online Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary Dictionaries by type Language acquisition	[ 0.11525612324476242, 0.4714961647987366, -0.46410036087036133, 0.06200610473752022, -0.4646533727645874, 0.21782386302947998, 0.5081580281257629, 0.5738815069198608, -0.32581478357315063, -0.29662737250328064, -0.4732414782047272, 0.4647310674190521, -0.08377251774072647, -0.42732635140419006, 0.32126763463020325, 0.12317752838134766, 0.5148966312408447, 0.6727798581123352, 0.1398269385099411, -0.15374556183815002, -0.4566108286380768, -0.3201279640197754, 0.47380512952804565, -0.2758614718914032, 0.19504262506961823, 0.14143407344818115, 0.9587799310684204, 0.3446694016456604, -0.6069708466529846, -0.3451317250728607, 0.011518879793584347, 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250261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apgar	Apgar	Apgar may refer to: Apgar (surname), a surname Apgar score, method to quickly and summarily assess the health of newborn children immediately after childbirth Virginia Apgar, obstetrician, deviser of the Apgar score Apgar Village, a small village in Glacier National Park near West Glacier, Montana	[ -0.13918791711330414, 0.7052688002586365, -0.02955029532313347, -0.03751220181584358, 0.04222580045461655, 1.0459834337234497, 0.7724646329879761, -0.5587197542190552, 0.16696250438690186, -0.24244354665279388, -0.10195907950401306, 0.08727219700813293, -0.1924903243780136, 0.029983267188072205, -0.5305336713790894, 0.335301011800766, 0.23815643787384033, 0.6208047270774841, -0.21542690694332123, -0.5354351997375488, -0.08669856190681458, -0.7441083788871765, -0.03468463569879532, -0.15747570991516113, 0.1202000081539154, 0.13819260895252228, 0.6606737971305847, 0.2606053650379181, -0.27104452252388, 0.35663092136383057, -0.43643689155578613, 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250263	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projection	Projection	Projection, projections or projective may refer to: Physics Projection (physics), the action/process of light, heat, or sound reflecting from a surface to another in a different direction The display of images by a projector Optics and graphics Map projection, reducing the surface of a three-dimensional planet to a flat map Graphical projection, the production of a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object Chemistry Fischer projection, a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional organic molecule Haworth projection, a way of writing a structural formula to represent the cyclic structure of monosaccharides Natta projection, a way to depict molecules with complete stereochemistry in two dimensions in a skeletal formula Newman projection, a visual representation of a chemical bond from front to back Mathematics Projection (mathematics), any of several different types of geometrical mappings Projection (linear algebra), a linear transformation from a vector space to itself such that Projection (set theory), one of two closely related types of functions or operations in set theory Projection (measure theory), use of a projection map in measure theory 3D projection, any method of mapping three-dimensional points to a two-dimensional plane Vector projection, orthogonal projection of a vector onto a straight line Projection (relational algebra), a type of unary operation in relational algebra Projective geometry, the study of geometric properties that are invariant with respect to projective transformations Projective module, a generalization of a free module Projective object, a further generalization, in category theory Projection method (fluid dynamics), means of numerically solving time-dependent incompressible fluid-flow problems Biology Projection areas, areas of the brain where sensory processing occurs Projection fiber, in neuroscience, white matter fibers that connect the cortex to the lower parts of the brain or the spinal cord Linguistics Projection (linguistics), grammatical trait inheritance from a head to a phrasal category Projection principle in syntax Projection of presuppositions in linguistics Arts and entertainment "Projections" (Star Trek: Voyager), an episode of the television series Star Trek: Voyager Projections (The Blues Project album), 1966 Projections (John Handy album), 1968 Projections (film), 2013 Croatian film Other uses Projection (alchemy), process in Alchemy Projections (journal), an interdisciplinary academic journal related to cinema and visual media Power projection, the capacity of a state to implement policy by means of force, or the threat thereof Psychological projection, or "Freudian projection", a defense mechanism in which one attributes to others one's own unacceptable or unwanted attributes, thoughts, or emotions Social projection, a cognitive bias that leads people to believe others are similar to themselves Forecasting, making predictions of the future based on past and present data See also Project (disambiguation) Projection effect (disambiguation) Projector (disambiguation) Projective (disambiguation)	[ 0.17539769411087036, 0.3648792803287506, -0.2808477580547333, 0.6447097659111023, -0.22267036139965057, 0.5732055306434631, -0.41807985305786133, -0.013973495922982693, -0.29229047894477844, -0.712134838104248, -0.404163658618927, 0.4757485091686249, -0.04092470929026604, 0.1484491229057312, 0.1612096130847931, 0.4522905945777893, 0.5665012001991272, 0.12204966694116592, -0.6519506573677063, -0.016210535541176796, 0.023846633732318878, -0.13746832311153412, -0.1472007781267166, -0.5605510473251343, -0.08180253952741623, -0.2839045524597168, 0.3120555281639099, -0.005294107832014561, 0.3959006369113922, 0.42954331636428833, -0.24852244555950165, 0.08911501616239548, -0.46369269490242004, -0.3625894784927368, -0.2604842782020569, 0.053364869207143784, -0.4197177290916443, -0.08512373268604279, 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250265	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhumb%20line	Rhumb line	In navigation, a rhumb line, rhumb (), or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, that is, a path with constant bearing as measured relative to true north. Introduction The effect of following a rhumb line course on the surface of a globe was first discussed by the Portuguese mathematician Pedro Nunes in 1537, in his Treatise in Defense of the Marine Chart, with further mathematical development by Thomas Harriot in the 1590s. A rhumb line can be contrasted with a great circle, which is the path of shortest distance between two points on the surface of a sphere. On a great circle, the bearing to the destination point does not remain constant. If one were to drive a car along a great circle one would hold the steering wheel fixed, but to follow a rhumb line one would have to turn the wheel, turning it more sharply as the poles are approached. In other words, a great circle is locally "straight" with zero geodesic curvature, whereas a rhumb line has non-zero geodesic curvature. Meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude provide special cases of the rhumb line, where their angles of intersection are respectively 0° and 90°. On a north–south passage the rhumb line course coincides with a great circle, as it does on an east–west passage along the equator. On a Mercator projection map, any rhumb line is a straight line; a rhumb line can be drawn on such a map between any two points on Earth without going off the edge of the map. But theoretically a loxodrome can extend beyond the right edge of the map, where it then continues at the left edge with the same slope (assuming that the map covers exactly 360 degrees of longitude). Rhumb lines which cut meridians at oblique angles are loxodromic curves which spiral towards the poles. On a Mercator projection the north and south poles occur at infinity and are therefore never shown. However the full loxodrome on an infinitely high map would consist of infinitely many line segments between the two edges. On a stereographic projection map, a loxodrome is an equiangular spiral whose center is the north or south pole. All loxodromes spiral from one pole to the other. Near the poles, they are close to being logarithmic spirals (which they are exactly on a stereographic projection, see below), so they wind around each pole an infinite number of times but reach the pole in a finite distance. The pole-to-pole length of a loxodrome (assuming a perfect sphere) is the length of the meridian divided by the cosine of the bearing away from true north. Loxodromes are not defined at the poles. Etymology and historical description The word loxodrome comes from Ancient Greek λοξός loxós: "oblique" + δρόμος drómos: "running" (from δραμεῖν drameîn: "to run"). The word rhumb may come from Spanish or Portuguese rumbo/rumo ("course" or "direction") and Greek ῥόμβος rhómbos, from rhémbein. The 1878 edition of The Globe Encyclopaedia of Universal Information describes a loxodrome line as: Loxodrom′ic Line is a curve which cuts every member of a system of lines of curvature of a given surface at the same angle. A ship sailing towards the same point of the compass describes such a line which cuts all the meridians at the same angle. In Mercator's Projection (q.v.) the Loxodromic lines are evidently straight. A misunderstanding could arise because the term "rhumb" had no precise meaning when it came into use. It applied equally well to the windrose lines as it did to loxodromes because the term only applied "locally" and only meant whatever a sailor did in order to sail with constant bearing, with all the imprecision that that implies. Therefore, "rhumb" was applicable to the straight lines on portolans when portolans were in use, as well as always applicable to straight lines on Mercator charts. For short distances portolan "rhumbs" do not meaningfully differ from Mercator rhumbs, but these days "rhumb" is synonymous with the mathematically precise "loxodrome" because it has been made synonymous retrospectively. As Leo Bagrow states: "..the word ('Rhumbline') is wrongly applied to the sea-charts of this period, since a loxodrome gives an accurate course only when the chart is drawn on a suitable projection. Cartometric investigation has revealed that no projection was used in the early charts, for which we therefore retain the name 'portolan'." Mathematical description For a sphere of radius 1, the azimuthal angle , the polar angle (defined here to correspond to latitude), and Cartesian unit vectors , , and can be used to write the radius vector as Orthogonal unit vectors in the azimuthal and polar directions of the sphere can be written which have the scalar products for constant traces out a parallel of latitude, while for constant traces out a meridian of longitude, and together they generate a plane tangent to the sphere. The unit vector has a constant angle with the unit vector for any and , since their scalar product is A loxodrome is defined as a curve on the sphere that has a constant angle with all meridians of longitude, and therefore must be parallel to the unit vector . As a result, a differential length along the loxodrome will produce a differential displacement With this relationship between and , the radius vector becomes a parametric function of one variable, tracing out the loxodrome on the sphere: where is the isometric latitude. Geocentric and isometric latitudes are related to each other through the Gudermannian function, In the Rhumb line, as the geocentric latitude tends to the poles, , , the isometric latitude , and longitude increases without bound, circling the sphere ever so fast in a spiral towards the pole, while tending to a finite total arc length Δ given by Connection to the Mercator projection Let be the longitude of a point on the sphere, and its latitude. Then, if we define the map coordinates of the Mercator projection as a loxodrome with constant bearing from true north will be a straight line, since (using the expression in the previous section) with a slope Finding the loxodromes between two given points can be done graphically on a Mercator map, or by solving a nonlinear system of two equations in the two unknowns and . There are infinitely many solutions; the shortest one is that which covers the actual longitude difference, i.e. does not make extra revolutions, and does not go "the wrong way around". The distance between two points , measured along a loxodrome, is simply the absolute value of the secant of the bearing (azimuth) times the north–south distance (except for circles of latitude for which the distance becomes infinite): where is one of the earth average radii. Application Its use in navigation is directly linked to the style, or projection of certain navigational maps. A rhumb line appears as a straight line on a Mercator projection map. The name is derived from Old French or Spanish respectively: "rumb" or "rumbo", a line on the chart which intersects all meridians at the same angle. On a plane surface this would be the shortest distance between two points. Over the Earth's surface at low latitudes or over short distances it can be used for plotting the course of a vehicle, aircraft or ship. Over longer distances and/or at higher latitudes the great circle route is significantly shorter than the rhumb line between the same two points. However the inconvenience of having to continuously change bearings while travelling a great circle route makes rhumb line navigation appealing in certain instances. The point can be illustrated with an east–west passage over 90 degrees of longitude along the equator, for which the great circle and rhumb line distances are the same, at . At 20 degrees north the great circle distance is while the rhumb line distance is , about 1.5% further. But at 60 degrees north the great circle distance is while the rhumb line is , a difference of 8.5%. A more extreme case is the air route between New York City and Hong Kong, for which the rhumb line path is . The great circle route over the North Pole is , or hours less flying time at a typical cruising speed. Some old maps in the Mercator projection have grids composed of lines of latitude and longitude but also show rhumb lines which are oriented directly towards north, at a right angle from the north, or at some angle from the north which is some simple rational fraction of a right angle. These rhumb lines would be drawn so that they would converge at certain points of the map: lines going in every direction would converge at each of these points. See compass rose. Such maps would necessarily have been in the Mercator projection therefore not all old maps would have been capable of showing rhumb line markings. The radial lines on a compass rose are also called rhumbs. The expression "sailing on a rhumb" was used in the 16th–19th centuries to indicate a particular compass heading. Early navigators in the time before the invention of the marine chronometer used rhumb line courses on long ocean passages, because the ship's latitude could be established accurately by sightings of the Sun or stars but there was no accurate way to determine the longitude. The ship would sail north or south until the latitude of the destination was reached, and the ship would then sail east or west along the rhumb line (actually a parallel, which is a special case of the rhumb line), maintaining a constant latitude and recording regular estimates of the distance sailed until evidence of land was sighted. Generalizations On the Riemann sphere The surface of the Earth can be understood mathematically as a Riemann sphere, that is, as a projection of the sphere to the complex plane. In this case, loxodromes can be understood as certain classes of Möbius transformations. Spheroid The formulation above can be easily extended to a spheroid. The course of the rhumb line is found merely by using the ellipsoidal isometric latitude. Similarly distances are found by multiplying the ellipsoidal meridian arc length by the secant of the azimuth. See also Great circle Geodesics on an ellipsoid Great ellipse Isoazimuthal Rhumbline network Seiffert's spiral Small circle References Note: this article incorporates text from the 1878 edition of The Globe Encyclopaedia of Universal Information, a work in the public domain Further reading External links Constant Headings and Rhumb Lines at MathPages. RhumbSolve(1), a utility for ellipsoidal rhumb line calculations (a component of GeographicLib); supplementary documentation. An online version of RhumbSolve. Navigational Algorithms Paper: The Sailings. Chart Work - Navigational Algorithms Chart Work free software: Rhumb line, Great Circle, Composite sailing, Meridional parts. Lines of position Piloting - currents and coastal fix. Mathworld Loxodrome. 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250276	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Ridley%20%28martyr%29	Nicholas Ridley (martyr)	Nicholas Ridley ( – 16 October 1555) was an English Bishop of London (the only bishop called "Bishop of London and Westminster"). Ridley was burned at the stake as one of the Oxford Martyrs during the Marian Persecutions for his teachings and his support of Lady Jane Grey. He is remembered with a commemoration in the calendar of saints (with Hugh Latimer) in some parts of the Anglican Communion (Church of England) on 16 October. Early years and advancement (c.1500–50) Ridley came from a prominent family in Tynedale, Northumberland. He was the second son of Christopher Ridley, first cousin to Lancelot Ridley and grew up in Unthank Hall from the old House of Unthank located on the site of an ancient watch tower or pele tower. As a boy, Ridley was educated at the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle, and Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he proceeded to Master of Arts in 1525. Soon afterward he was ordained as a priest and went to the Sorbonne, in Paris, for further education. After returning to England around 1529, he became the senior proctor of Cambridge University in 1534. Around that time there was significant debate about the Pope's supremacy. Ridley was well versed on Biblical hermeneutics, and through his arguments the university came up with the following resolution: "That the Bishop of Rome had no more authority and jurisdiction derived to him from God, in this kingdom of England, than any other foreign bishop." He graduated B.D. in 1537 and was then appointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, to serve as one of his chaplains. In April 1538, Cranmer made him vicar of Herne, in Kent. In 1540–1, he was made one of the King's Chaplains, and was also presented with a prebendal stall in Canterbury Cathedral. In 1540 he was made Master of Pembroke College and in 1541 was awarded the degree of Doctor of Divinity. In 1543 he was accused of heresy, but he was able to beat the charge. Cranmer had resolved to support the English Reformation by gradually replacing the old guard in his ecclesiastical province with men who followed the new thinking. Ridley was made the Bishop of Rochester in 1547, and shortly after coming to office, directed that the altars in the churches of his diocese should be removed, and tables put in their place to celebrate the Lord's Supper. In 1548 he helped Cranmer compile the Book of Common Prayer and in 1549 he was one of the commissioners who investigated Bishops Stephen Gardiner and Edmund Bonner. He concurred that they should be removed. John Ponet took Ridley's former position. Incumbent conservatives were uprooted and replaced with reformers. When Ridley was appointed to the see of London by letters patent on 1 April 1550, he was called the "Bishop of London and Westminster" because the Diocese of London had just re-absorbed the dissolved Diocese of Westminster. Vestments controversy (1550–3) Ridley played a major part in the vestments controversy. John Hooper, having been exiled during King Henry's reign, returned to England in 1548 from the churches in Zürich that had been reformed by Zwingli and Heinrich Bullinger in a highly iconoclastic fashion. When Hooper was invited to give a series of Lenten sermons before the king in February 1550, he spoke against Cranmer's 1549 ordinal whose oath mentioned "all saints" and required newly elected bishops and those attending the ordination ceremony to wear a cope and surplice. In Hooper's view, these requirements were vestiges of Judaism and Roman Catholicism, which had no biblical warrant for Christians since they were not used in the early Christian church. Summoned to answer to the Privy Council and archbishop—who were primarily concerned with Hooper's willingness to accept the royal supremacy, which was also part of the oath for newly ordained clergy—Hooper evidently made sufficient reassurances, as he was soon appointed to the bishopric of Gloucester. Hooper declined the office, however, because of the required vestments and oath by the saints. The king accepted Hooper's position, but the Privy Council did not. Called before them on 15 May 1550, a compromise was reached. Vestments were to be considered a matter of adiaphora, or Res Indifferentes ("things indifferent", as opposed to an article of faith), and Hooper could be ordained without them at his discretion, but he must allow that others could wear them. Hooper passed confirmation of the new office again before the king and council on 20 July 1550 when the issue was raised again, and Cranmer was instructed that Hooper was not to be charged "with an oath burdensome to his conscience". Cranmer assigned Ridley to perform the consecration, and Ridley refused to do anything but follow the form of the ordinal as it had been prescribed by Parliament. Ridley, it seems likely, had some particular objection to Hooper. It has been suggested that Henrician exiles like Hooper, who had experienced some of the more radically reformed churches on the continent, were at odds with English clergy who had accepted and never left the established church. John Henry Primus also notes that on 24 July 1550, the day after receiving instructions for Hooper's unique consecration, the church of the Austin Friars in London had been granted to Jan Laski for use as a Stranger church. This was to be a designated place of worship for Continental Protestant refugees, a church with forms and practices that had taken reforms much further than Ridley would have liked. This development—the use of a London church virtually outside Ridley's jurisdiction—was one that Hooper had had a hand in. The Privy Council reiterated its position, and Ridley responded in person, agreeing that vestments are indifferent but making a compelling argument that the monarch may require indifferent things without exception. The council became divided in opinion, and the issue dragged on for months without resolution. Hooper now insisted that vestments were not indifferent, since they obscured the priesthood of Christ by encouraging hypocrisy and superstition. Warwick disagreed, emphasising that the king must be obeyed in things indifferent, and he pointed to St Paul's concessions to Jewish traditions in the early church. Finally, an acrimonious debate with Ridley went against Hooper. Ridley's position centred on maintaining order and authority; not the vestments themselves, Hooper's primary concern. Hooper–Ridley debate In a Latin letter dated 3 October 1550, Hooper laid out his argument contra usum vestium. With Ridley's reply (in English), it marks the first written representation of a split in the English Reformation. Hooper's argument is that vestments should not be used as they are not indifferent, nor is their use supported by scripture, a point he takes as self-evident. He contends that church practices must either have express biblical support or be things indifferent, approval for which is implied by scripture. Furthermore, an indifferent thing, if used, causes no profit or loss. Ridley objected in his response, saying that indifferent things do have profitable effects, which is the only reason they are used. Failing to distinguish between conditions for indifferent things in general and the church's use of indifferent things, Hooper then all but excludes the possibility of anything being indifferent in the four conditions he sets: 1) An indifferent thing has either an express justification in scripture or is implied by it, finding its origin and foundation in scripture. Hooper cites Romans 14:23 (whatever is not faith is sin), Romans 10:17 (faith comes from hearing the word of God), and Matthew 15:13 (everything not "planted" by God will be "rooted up") to argue that indifferent things must be done in faith, and since what cannot be proved from scripture is not of faith, indifferent things must be proved from scripture, which is both necessary and sufficient authority, as opposed to tradition. Hooper maintains that priestly garb distinguishing clergy from laity is not indicated by scripture; there is no mention of it in the New Testament as being in use in the early church, and the use of priestly clothing in the Old Testament is a Hebrew practice, a type or foreshadowing that finds its antitype in Christ, who abolishes the old order and recognises the spiritual equality, or priesthood, of all Christians. The historicity of these claims is further supported by Hooper with a reference to Polydore Vergil's De Inventoribus Rerum. In response, Ridley rejected Hooper's insistence on biblical origins and countered Hooper's interpretations of his chosen biblical texts. He points out that many non-controversial practices are not mentioned or implied in scripture. Ridley denies that early church practices are normative for the present situation, and he links such primitivist arguments with the Anabaptists. Joking that Hooper's reference to Christ's nakedness on the cross is as insignificant as the clothing King Herod put Christ in and "a jolly argument" for the Adamites, Ridley does not dispute Hooper's main typological argument, but neither does he accept that vestments are necessarily or exclusively identified with Israel and the Roman church. On Hooper's point about the priesthood of all believers, Ridley says it does not follow from this doctrine that all Christians must wear the same clothes. 2) An indifferent thing must be left to individual discretion; if required, it is no longer indifferent. For Ridley, on matters of indifference, one must defer conscience to the authorities of the church, or else "thou showest thyself a disordered person, disobedient, as [a] contemner of lawful authority, and a wounder of thy weak brother his conscience." For him, the debate was finally about legitimate authority, not the merits and demerits of vestments themselves. He contended that it is only accidental that the compulsory ceases to be indifferent; the degeneration of a practice into non-indifference can be corrected without throwing out the practice. Things are not, "because they have been abused, to be taken away, but to be reformed and amended, and so kept still." 3) An indifferent thing's usefulness must be demonstrated and not introduced arbitrarily. For this point, Hooper cites 1 Corinthians 14 and 2 Corinthians 13. As it contradicts the first point above, Primus contends that Hooper must now refer to indifferent things in the church and earlier meant indifferent things in general, in the abstract. Regardless, the apparent contradiction was seized by Ridley and undoubtedly hurt Hooper's case with the council. 4) Indifferent things must be introduced into the church with apostolic and evangelical lenity, not violent tyranny. In making such an inflammatory, risky statement (he later may have called his opponents "papists" in a part of his argument that is lost), Hooper may not have been suggesting England was tyrannical but that Rome was—and that England could become like Rome. Ridley warned Hooper of the implications of an attack on English ecclesiastical and civil authority and of the consequences of radical individual liberties, while also reminding him that it was Parliament that established the "Book of Common Prayer in the church of England". In closing, Hooper asks that the dispute be resolved by church authorities without looking to civil authorities for support—although the monarch was the head of both the church and the state. This hint of a plea for a separation of church and state would later be elaborated by Thomas Cartwright, but for Hooper, although the word of God was the highest authority, the state could still impose upon men's consciences (such as requiring them not to be Roman Catholic) when it had a biblical warrant. Moreover, Hooper himself addressed the civil magistrates, suggesting that the clergy supporting vestments were a threat to the state, and he declared his willingness to be martyred for his cause. Ridley, by contrast, responds with humour, calling this "a magnifical promise set forth with a stout style". He invites Hooper to agree that vestments are indifferent, not to condemn them as sinful, and then he will ordain him even if he wears street clothes to the ceremony. Outcome of the controversy The weaknesses in Hooper's argument, Ridley's laconic and temperate rejoinder, and Ridley's offer of a compromise no doubt turned the council against Hooper's inflexible convictions when he did not accept it. Heinrich Bullinger, Pietro Martire Vermigli, and Martin Bucer, while agreeing with Hooper's views, ceased to support him for the pragmatic sake of unity and slower reform. Only Jan Laski remained a constant ally. Some time in mid-December 1550, Hooper was put under house arrest, during which time he wrote and published A godly Confession and protestation of the Christian faith. Because of this publication, his persistent nonconformism, and violations of the terms of his house arrest, Hooper was placed in Thomas Cranmer's custody at Lambeth Palace for two weeks by the Privy Council on 13 January 1551. Hooper was then sent to Fleet Prison by the council, who made that decision on 27 January. On 15 February, Hooper submitted to consecration in vestments in a letter to Cranmer. He was consecrated Bishop of Gloucester on 8 March 1551, and shortly thereafter, preached before the king in vestments. Downfall (1553–5) On 2 February 1553 Cranmer was ordered to appoint John Knox, a Scot, as vicar of All Hallows, Bread Street in London, placing him under the authority of Ridley. Knox returned to London in order to deliver a sermon before the king and the court during Lent after which he refused to take his assigned post. That same year, Ridley pleaded with Edward VI to give some of his empty palaces over to the city to house homeless women and children. One such foundation was Bridewell Royal Hospital, which is today known as King Edward's School, Witley. Edward VI became seriously ill from tuberculosis and in mid-June the councillors were told that he did not have long to live. They set to work to convince several judges to put on the throne Lady Jane Grey, Edward's cousin, instead of Mary, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon and a Roman Catholic. On 17 June 1553 the king made his will noting Jane would succeed him, contravening the Third Succession Act. Ridley signed the letters patent giving the English throne to Lady Jane Grey. On 9 July 1553 he preached a sermon at St Paul's cross in which he affirmed that the princesses Mary and Elizabeth were bastards. By mid-July, there were serious provincial revolts in Mary's favour and support for Jane in the council fell. As Mary was proclaimed queen, Ridley, Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk and others were imprisoned. Ridley was sent to the Tower of London. Through February 1554 Jane and her leading supporters were executed. After that, there was time to deal with the religious leaders of the English Reformation and so on 8 March 1554 the Privy Council ordered Cranmer, Ridley, and Hugh Latimer to be transferred to Bocardo prison in Oxford to await trial for heresy. The trial of Latimer and Ridley started shortly after Cranmer's with John Jewel acting as notary to Ridley. Their verdicts came almost immediately and they were to be burned at the stake. Death and legacy The sentence was carried out on 16 October 1555 in Oxford. Cranmer was taken to a tower to watch the proceedings. Ridley burned extremely slowly and suffered a great deal: his brother-in-law had put more tinder on the pyre in order to speed his death, but this only caused his lower parts to burn. Latimer is supposed to have said to Ridley, "Be of good comfort, and play the man, Master Ridley; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." This was quoted in Foxe's Book of Martyrs. A metal cross in a cobbled patch of road in Broad Street, Oxford, marks the site. Eventually Ridley and Latimer were seen as martyrs for their support of a Church of England independent from the Roman Catholic Church. Along with Thomas Cranmer, they are known as the Oxford Martyrs. In the Victorian era, his death was commemorated by the Martyrs' Memorial, located near the site of his execution. As well as being a monument to the English Reformation and the doctrines of the Protestant and Reformed doctrines, the memorial is a landmark of the 19th century, a monument stoutly resisted by John Keble, John Henry Newman and others of the Tractarian Movement and Oxford Movement. Profoundly alarmed at the Romewardizing intrusions and efforts at realignment that the movement was attempting to bring into the Church of England, Protestant and Reformed Anglican clergymen raised the funds for erecting the monument, with its highly anti-Roman Catholic inscription, a memorial to over three hundred years of history and reformation. As a result, the monument was built 300 years after the events it commemorates. In 1881, Ridley Hall in Cambridge, England, was founded in his memory for the training of Anglican priests. Ridley College, a private University-preparatory school located in St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada, was founded in his honour in 1889. Also named after him is Ridley Melbourne, a theological college in Australia, founded in 1910. There is a Church of England church dedicated to him in Welling, southeast London. The words spoken to Ridley by Latimer at their execution are used. Ridley and Latimer are remembered with a commemoration in the Calendar of saints in some parts of the Anglican Communion on 16 October. See also Saints in Anglicanism Notes References . . . . . . External links Keeping the Faith (BBC Radio 4), documentary on his story by the historian Jane Ridley, a descendant. Bishops of London Bishops of Rochester English Anglican theologians Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge Christianity in Oxford Executed people from Northumberland People executed under Mary I of England University of Paris alumni People executed for heresy Executed British people People educated at the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle upon Tyne 16th-century Protestant martyrs Christ's Hospital Anglican saints Canons of Westminster 16th-century English clergy 1500s births 1555 deaths Year of birth uncertain People executed by the Kingdom of England by burning Masters of Pembroke College, Cambridge Protestant martyrs of England 16th-century Anglican theologians 15th-century Anglican theologians	[ -0.4435984790325165, -0.07519947737455368, -0.2140026092529297, -0.6468749046325684, -0.3450281023979187, 0.6088000535964966, 0.7773764729499817, 0.1874569058418274, -0.826042115688324, -0.47906967997550964, 0.2151421755552292, -0.1594090461730957, -0.5261014103889465, -0.31165921688079834, 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250278	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidi%20Fleiss	Heidi Fleiss	Heidi Lynne Fleiss (born December 30, 1965) is an American former madam. She ran an upscale prostitution ring based in Los Angeles, California, US and is often referred to as the "Hollywood Madam". Fleiss is also a columnist and was a television personality regularly featured in the 1990s in American media. Early life Fleiss was born and raised in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. Her parents, Paul M. Fleiss (1933–2014), a Jewish American pediatrician, and Elissa (née Ash), divorced. She has a brother, Jesse, and had another brother, Jason, who drowned. She also has three sisters, Amy, Kim, and Shana, the last of whom is the youngest sister. Work in prostitution and criminal charges At the age of 22, Fleiss began managing a prostitution ring under Madam Alex after meeting her in 1987 via Fleiss's film-director boyfriend Ivan Nagy. Fleiss stated in 2002 that Alex and herself had "a very intense relationship" and that she "was kind of like the daughter she loved and hated, so she was abusive and loving at the same time." In the same interview, Fleiss said she worked as a prostitute for a short period to learn all aspects of the occupation. At the time, she was learning to take over Alex's business, there was a labor shortage as most of Alex's prostitutes were approaching middle age and setting their sights on retiring from prostitution. Alex tasked Heidi with revitalizing the business by recruiting a new batch of young, attractive women. By 1990, Fleiss severed her links with Madam Alex and began her own prostitution ring. Fleiss has stated that she made her "first million [dollars] after only four months in the business" as a madam, and that on her slowest night, she made $10,000. By 1991, she was so successful that she was able to reject women who wished to work for her. In June 1993, she was arrested for multiple charges, including attempted pandering. Federal charges were filed in 1994, and Fleiss posted $1,000,000 bail. The state trial began the same year and Fleiss was convicted. In May 1996, her state conviction was overturned, and her appeal bond was set at $200,000. She was convicted of federal charges of tax evasion in September 1996 and sentenced to seven years in prison. Fleiss served 20 months at the Federal Correctional Institution, Dublin, California. She was released to a halfway house on November 19, 1998, and ordered to perform 370 hours of community service. Fleiss's ring reportedly had numerous prominent and wealthy clients. When questioned by British TV presenter Davina McCall about revealing the names of her clients, she replied, "It's not my style." Media appearances In 1995, Nick Broomfield made a documentary about her prostitution ring called Heidi Fleiss: Hollywood Madam. In 2004, a made-for-TV movie was produced called Call Me: The Rise and Fall of Heidi Fleiss. Fleiss and reality-TV personality Victoria Sellers hosted and produced an instructional DVD titled Sex Tips with Heidi Fleiss and Victoria Sellers in 2001. In January 2010, Fleiss was the third housemate to enter the final Channel 4 series of Celebrity Big Brother in the UK; she was the second to be evicted. She did not return for the finale. In August 2013, Nevada police found nearly 400 marijuana plants growing at her Pahrump, Nevada, home, but did not arrest Fleiss and submitted their report to the district attorney's office. Business interests In 2005, Fleiss announced plans to open a brothel in Pahrump, Nevada called "Heidi Fleiss's Stud Farm". In 2007, Fleiss opened a laundromat called Dirty Laundry in Pahrump, as her plans for the brothel had been put on hold due to a "slight complication." In 2009, she said that she had abandoned her plans to open such a brothel because she did not want to "deal with all the nonsense in the sex business". Instead, she said, she would focus on renewable energy, which she described as "perfect for Nevada" and "the wave of the future". She opened a fashion boutique in Los Angeles after being released from prison. , and since at least January 2017, Fleiss owns and manages the Flying S Ranch Ultralight Flightpark, an ultralight private use airport in Pahrump, with FAA designation NV54. Personal life In 2003, Fleiss accused her ex-boyfriend, actor Tom Sizemore, of domestic violence. Fleiss eventually moved to Pahrump, Nevada, where she came to live in a small town near Death Valley while caring for 25 parrots. Drew Pinsky, who treated Fleiss for substance abuse, performed brain scans on her that showed significant frontal lobe dysfunction, which Pinsky surmised was behind her inability to empathize with people, and her propensity for doing so with birds. In 2009, Fleiss was treated for substance abuse at the Pasadena Recovery Center, which was filmed for the third season of Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew. One of her fellow patients was Sizemore, against whom her prior restraining order had lapsed. Both Fleiss and Sizemore consented to appear together on the show before filming began, and their reunion, depicted in the third episode, was amicable, though Fleiss subsequently expressed mixed feelings about his presence there. During the filming of the program, Fleiss left the center and was involved in an accident with her SUV near her home in Nevada. She subsequently returned to rehab. After completing treatment for substance abuse, Fleiss briefly became engaged to Dennis Hof, owner of Nevada's Moonlite BunnyRanch. Fleiss said in 1994 that she is a vegetarian. In 2022 Fleiss announced that she would be moving to Missouri after someone shot one of her parrots with a pellet gun. Filmography Published works References Further reading External links 1965 births Living people 20th-century American Jews American people convicted of tax crimes American brothel owners and madams American prisoners and detainees American prostitutes Television personalities from Los Angeles American women television personalities Criminals from Los Angeles Prisoners and detainees of California People from Pahrump, Nevada 21st-century American Jews	[ -0.31385907530784607, -0.046476904302835464, -0.11264023184776306, -0.09869058430194855, 0.12702283263206482, 0.3035048544406891, 0.46277183294296265, -0.11349543929100037, -0.7611095905303955, 0.38092634081840515, -0.09729542583227158, 0.5035274624824524, -0.39195510745048523, -0.12259192019701004, -0.00867270678281784, -0.2666712999343872, 0.3497432470321655, 0.265490859746933, -0.7501899600028992, -0.695063591003418, 0.009901781566441059, -0.43876978754997253, 0.18027502298355103, 0.30372151732444763, -0.2666734755039215, 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250290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walibi%20Holland	Walibi Holland	Walibi Holland (previously called Flevohof, Walibi Flevo, Six Flags Holland and Walibi World) is a theme park in Biddinghuizen, Netherlands. History The park was opened in 1971 as 'Flevohof'. It was an educational theme park themed after agriculture and farming. Having struggled to compete with more modern family attractions, Flevohof went bankrupt in 1993, and was subsequently purchased by the Walibi Group that autumn, who redeveloped the site as an amusement park. After a major winter-long programme of reconstruction the park reopened as Walibi Flevo on 7 May 1994, featuring the world's first Vekoma suspended looping coaster (SLC), El Condor. The park also adopted the wallaby mascot of its sister park, Walibi Wavre in Belgium created in 1975 by Eddy Meeùs, a Belgian businessman. (The name 'Walibi', incidentally, is derived from the first two letters of three towns in Belgium put together to form a single word: Wavre - Limal - Bierges). The Walibi parks, including Bellewaerde in Belgium, were purchased by Premier Parks Inc. in 1998, who subsequently overhauled the Flevo park, removing the 'Walibi' branding and building thirty new attractions as part of its transformation into Six Flags Holland in 2000. Six Flags's nominal expansion into Europe saw a similar refurbishment of the Belgian Walibi theme park, which was renamed to Six Flags Belgium. Both parks benefiting from the group's rights to use Warner Brothers characters within them, leading to the creation of a Looney Tunes-themed area and a powered-launch coaster themed around popular comic figure Superman, later changed to the Xpress. In 2004, Six Flags Holland and its sister parks were purchased by financiers Palamon Capital Partners, who grouped the attractions under the name "StarParks". The park reverted to Walibi branding in 2005; numerous attractions having been rebranded as the sale of the parks also meant the loss of any references to Looney Tunes and DC Comics characters rights. In the second half of 2006, the parks were sold for the second time in as many years to the French group Grévin & Cie (Compagnie des Alpes), most notably the operators of the French themed resort Parc Astérix, who also purchased two other Dutch attractions - the Dolfinarium Harderwijk and Avonturenpark Hellendoorn. In 2011 the park was renamed as Walibi Holland, which introduced new mascots. The adjacent associated event grounds were originally developed with Scouting Nederland for the EuroJam 1994 and the 18th World Scout Jamboree in 1995. It is or has been the location of many festivals such as the Lowlands music festival and the Defqon.1 music festival. Attractions Present rides Roller coasters Thrill rides Family rides Water rides Former rides / attractions See also 2011 in amusement parks Defqon.1 Festival References External links Walibi Holland Official Website Walibi Holland Fan Page (Dutch) Amusement parks in the Netherlands Compagnie des Alpes Former Six Flags theme parks 1971 establishments in the Netherlands Tourist attractions in Flevoland Buildings and structures in Flevoland Dronten Amusement parks opened in 1971	[ 0.23100146651268005, -0.3661314845085144, 0.5255715847015381, -0.17279723286628723, 0.42715081572532654, -0.3270580768585205, 0.6769628524780273, -0.05329146236181259, -0.6769021153450012, -0.14579232037067413, -0.046793825924396515, -0.1562863439321518, -0.16300848126411438, 0.6971270442008972, -0.14272616803646088, 0.1615651696920395, 0.8147650957107544, 0.3608287274837494, -0.10579060763120651, -0.1993819624185562, -0.1808302253484726, -0.6515131592750549, 0.19551676511764526, -0.34539371728897095, 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250296	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six%20Flags%20Great%20Adventure	Six Flags Great Adventure	Six Flags Great Adventure is an amusement park located in Jackson, New Jersey. Owned and operated by Six Flags, the park complex is situated between New York City and Philadelphia and includes a water park named Hurricane Harbor. It first opened to the public as Great Adventure in 1974 under the direction of restaurateur Warner LeRoy. Six Flags acquired the park in 1977. In 2012, Six Flags combined its Great Adventure with its Wild Safari animal park to form Six Flags Great Adventure & Safari park. At , it is the second-largest theme park in the world following Disney's Animal Kingdom. History Warner LeRoy era (1974–1977) In 1972, entrepreneurial businessman Warner LeRoy developed concept plans for the Great Adventure entertainment complex, proposing seven parks be built within the complex: An amusement park, a safari park, a show park, a floral park, a sports complex, a shopping district, and a campground with beach/waterpark and stables. His proposal also included plans for hotels, which were connected to the parks and could be reached by boats, buses, a sky ride and/or a monorail. LeRoy wanted his parks to flow naturally through the forest and lakes, capitalizing on the back-to-nature movement of the era. He chose a property then owned by the Switlik family, in an area centrally located between the New York City and Philadelphia regions. The property on County Route 537 had easy access to the newly constructed Interstate 195, which connected central New Jersey to the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95) and would eventually (in 1981) connect to the Garden State Parkway. Since the park's opening, it has been served by in-house emergency services composing of the Fire Department (Ocean County Station 58) and Emergency Medical Service (Ocean County Squad 80). LeRoy collaborated with Hardwicke Industries, who previously built safari parks in Canada and Europe. Together, they set out to open the seven parks in stages over a 5-year period. After a 4,500 invitation-only guest opening on June 30, 1974, the Great Adventure entertainment complex opened to the general public on July 1, 1974, at a price tag of $10 million. At the time of the opening, only the Enchanted Forest and Safari parks were operational, with elements from five of the other planned parks being used to create the Enchanted Forest. The Enchanted Forest was designed and built to look bigger-than-life. A Big Balloon was a tethered hot-air balloon that loomed over the park's entrance and was the biggest of its kind in the world. The Log Flume was the longest log ride constructed in the world at that time and it was accompanied by a giant "Conestoga Wagon", an over-sized log cabin restaurant called "Best of the West" and a huge Western Fortress, in the park's Rootin' Tootin' Rip Roarin' section. The Giant Wheel (now Big Wheel), then the tallest Ferris wheel in the world, and the Freedom Fountain, then the largest spraying fountain in the world, were located on the opposite end of the park. One of the few smaller-than-real life attractions was an outdoor walk-through attraction called the Garden of Marvels. It used working G-scale (o-g scale) LGB trains and boats among models of American landmarks and 1/25-scale recreations of European castles. This miniature village was an idea taken from LeRoy's proposed Over the Rainbow floral park. A tree filled with snakes, a carousel, antique cars, koi pond, children's playground (called Kiddie Kingdom), petting zoo (named Happy Feeling) and a restaurant named Gingerbread Fancy (now Granny's Country Kitchen) were also borrowed from the floral park concept to create a section of The Enchanted Forest. This section created the park's main midway named Dream Street. Shoppe Lane was named after a proposed "shopping extravaganza" park, which LeRoy had designed for the property. It lent its large open squares, huge fountain (Main Street Fountain), street performers (clowns and stilt walkers) and shops to the Enchanted Forest. Fairy Tales was the name of a shop that opened with the park in one of the park's over-sized bazaar tents. It sold stuffed animals and toys, including Superman. Other influences from LeRoy's proposal would surface in the years to come. Neptune's Kingdom was a concept for a lakeside, aquatic show park. From its design came Aqua Spectacle, the home for dolphin performances and high dive shows. Today, the stadium features dolphins but is now known as Fort Independence. Neptune's Kingdom was designed to run the length from Runaway Train to Northern Star Arena, but most of its influences appear in the park's Lakefront area. Rootin' Tootin' Ready for shootin' opened with Runaway Mine Train on the grand opening on Independence Day. A small compact coaster named Big Fury opened later in the season. The Sky Ride connected two ends of the park with stations in Rootin' Tootin' Ready for shootin and Dream Street. The double sky ride ran originally at the 1964–'65 New York World's Fair. The Great Train Ride was a small train ride that brought guests through a loop of the woods, rather than to a destination of another gate. A small handful of spin rides were located in the Strawberry Fair section and were as close to any thematic journey as the guests were going to take. The Fantasy Fling is older than the park and is the only survivor of these spin rides in 2008. The Fun Fair area debuted in 1975 with several new spinning rides, a smaller Ferris wheel, and a Schwarzkopf Jumbo Jet roller coaster. The coaster never opened and was removed at the end of the season. A second flume called the Moon Flume was built by Arrow Dynamics to ease crowds on the Log Flume. It was built on the opposite end of the park and the station turntable is used for the stage of the Wiggles show today. The Fortune Festival was a new game section that was located where the Boardwalk section exists today. LeRoy's original vision for the amusement park featured many dark rides. Although "Man, Time and Space", "The Keystone Cops" and "(Alice) Down the Wishing Well" (among others) never came to be, the Haunted Castle Across the Moat, which was added a few years later, took its cue from the rooms and monsters of the "Hotel Transylvania". In the early 1980s, the park's entrance was moved to a new central location, which is still in use today. It was designed with an outer mall called Liberty Court, and its Federal style architecture was influenced by the celebration of the United States bicentennial. An inner mall called Avenue of States was adorned by fifty state flags in the central corridor. Six flags remain on Main Street today. The Enchanted Forest name on the park was changed to the complex's main name of Great Adventure. The Strawberry Fair and Fun Fair names were discontinued and the attractions in these areas became part of the newly named Enchanted Forest section. More spin rides, "yummy yummy" food, shows, games and the Safari became a part of "the greatest day of your life." The park became a major attraction with dozens of rides, shows, and several steel roller coasters. The Big Balloon, Happy Kid Ride, The Gondola, Pretty Monster, and Super Cat were the first attractions to be removed from the park before a new owner would make big changes. Penn Central / Bally's / Westray Capital era (1977–1992) In 1977, construction began on a steel looping shuttle coaster called Lightnin' Loops (which was removed in 1992). Late that year, however, the park was purchased by Six Flags. This regional theme park company was owned then by Penn Central, which had large stakes in the Philadelphia and New York City regions. Six Flags added rides found in bigger theme parks such as the wooden coaster called Rolling Thunder in 1979, The Buccaneer (a swinging ship from Intamin), Roaring Rapids (now Congo Rapids, an Intamin River Rapids ride), Parachuter's Perch (now Parachute Training Center: Edwards AFB Jump Tower, an Intamin Parachute ride) and Freefall (later Stuntman's Freefall, an Intamin First Generation Freefall), all before the park's tenth anniversary. 1980 saw very few changes. In 1981, the park added a water ride called Roaring Rapids (now called Congo River Rapids). In 1983, the park added a Freefall Ride and in 1984, the park added a roller coaster called the Sarajevo Bobsleds but closed and removed Lil' Thunder, a kiddie coaster, keeping the coaster count to four. Eight teenagers, including four students and one graduate of Franklin K. Lane High School, lost their lives in a fire at the Haunted Castle on May 11, 1984, sparking controversy over the safety of such attractions. After the incident, new fire safety laws were passed for amusement park fun houses and dark rides. 1986 saw the addition of a second looping coaster and the park's fifth roller coaster, Ultra Twister, with spiral inline twists. The ride was built next to Rolling Thunder, partially taking away the area's western theme. Another water ride called Splashwater Falls (which became Movietown Water Effect in 1992 and has since been removed) was added in which riders rode in a large boat which was pulled uphill and then down a steep waterfall, soaking riders. The new addition was made since attendance at the park had lowered since the Haunted Castle fire, and the park realized new additions were needed to keep the park alive. Attendance dropped even further when an accident occurred on the Lightning Loops roller coaster in 1987. A teenage girl was thrown from the train because she was seated on the wrong side of the shoulder restraint. After the accident, new safety features were added not only to Great Adventure's roller coasters but also to roller coasters around the world. Once again, Great Adventure set both a bad and later good example for the amusement park world. However, the accident was not good for the park's attendance. Attendance was so low, in fact, that in 1987 rumors began to spread that the park may close in a few years. At the end of that season, the park was slated to get a new multiple looping coaster but by the end of the year, it was decided that Six Flags Great America would get the coaster since Great Adventure was not seen as a good investment. At the end of 1988, the park was about to lose its license to sell food, and attendance was so low park management realized a big new addition was necessary. In the spring of 1988, it was announced that the park would indeed get a new coaster. Sarajevo Bobsleds was removed to make room for the new coaster, The Great American Scream Machine, which opened in April 1989. This coaster had multiple loops and for a month was the tallest roller coaster in the world and brought the park back to five roller coasters. The Scream Machine was removed in 2010 to make room for the new Green Lantern stand-up coaster. In 1990, as part of a ride rotation program, a stand up looping roller coaster called Shockwave was added to the park. Shockwave had previously operated at Six Flags Magic Mountain. However, Ultra Twister was removed at the end of 1989 and sent to Six Flags Astroworld for the 1991 season keeping the park's coaster count at five. In 1991, the park added a huge complex of "dry" waterslides. While guests got wet on them, they could ride these with regular clothes or swimsuits. These slides were themed after the rivers of the world. Roaring Rapids, as well as the second flume ride in the park, were incorporated into this complex. Roaring Rapids became Congo Rapids, and The Hydro Flume became Irrawaddy Riptide. Time Warner era (1990–1997) In 1990, Time Warner acquired a 19.5% stake in Six Flags, then by the end of 1991 acquired an additional 30.5% giving them 50% ownership of the corporation, with the remaining divided equally by silent partners, The Blackstone Group and Wertheim Schroder. Time Warner used the opportunity to advertise and promote their movies through the Six Flags parks. Time Warner purchased the remaining 50% in 1993, then in 1995 sold 51% of the corporation to Boston Ventures. Time Warner, however continued to manage the parks through 1997. In 1992, the eastern area or Fun Fair area of the park was re-themed Action Town, and then Movietown in 1993. A Batman stunt show was added and the announcement that a new inverted looping roller coaster called Batman The Ride would be added. Lightning Loops opened for the first half of the season but was disassembled at the end of July to begin construction of Batman. That coaster was sold to Premier Parks, which at the time was a different company than Six Flags (but would eventually buy Six Flags). Premier Parks put one of the Lightning Loops tracks in Frontier City located in Oklahoma City and it still operates today. Premier Parks put the other Lightning Loops track in their park in Largo, Maryland (near Washington, DC), then called Adventure World. That track was renamed the Python, which would be removed in 1999. At the end of 1992, the roller coaster Shockwave was removed as part of the "Ride Rotation Program" of Six Flags. Shockwave would be sent to Six Flags Astroworld and would reopen there in 1994 as Batman The Escape. So by the end of 1992, the park was down to just three coasters. Batman, designed by Bolliger & Mabillard, opened in the spring of 1993 bringing the coaster count back up to four. In 1994, a motion simulator theatre ride was added. Initially, it was an airplane flying themed attraction but has since been changed to a Halloween theme in the fall over the years. A dinosaur theme and a three-dimensional dinosaur theme was also used for this attraction. For several years, it operated as SpongeBob the ride and then as Fly Me To The Moon. For the 2010 season, the attraction did not run and that building remained vacant for future use. 1995 saw the addition of Viper, a steel spiral looping roller coaster similar to Ultra Twister and in Ultra Twister's old spot, bringing the coaster count to five again. 1996 saw the addition of an indoor themed junior roller coaster called Skull Mountain. In 1997, a multiple looping dual track shuttle coaster called Batman & Robin: The Chiller was built but only opened for a day and encountered more technical difficulties. This coaster ended up not opening again until the spring of 1998. This coaster ran rather rough and was referred to as a "headbanger" as was Viper and to a lesser extent The Scream Machine. The Mine Train and Rolling Thunder were also rough rides by then. Also, many flat rides were removed over the years and the park was showing signs of wear and tear, as well as obsolete attractions. Premier era (1998–2005) Premier Parks purchased Six Flags from Time Warner and Boston Ventures on April 1, 1998. The following year, the new management team added a dozen flat rides to the park and declared a "war on lines". The Adventure River complex was retired but the flume ride and the Congo Rapids remained. A kiddie water play area also remained as part of a new kiddie ride area called Looney Tunes Seaport. A junior roller coaster called Blackbeard's Lost Treasure Train (now known as Harley Quinn Crazy Train) as well as a kiddie roller coaster called Road Runner Railway were also added, but the star attraction was a floorless steel multiple looping roller coaster called Medusa (now known as Bizarro). No changes were made at the park in 2000, but across the property on a separate parking lot, a Waterpark named Hurricane Harbor was built and opened at the end of May. This was also separately gated and charges a separate admission from Great Adventure. The park consists of a dozen waterslides, a kiddie water play area, and a wavepool. In 2001, the park added another state of the art roller coaster called Nitro. In 2002, Batman & Robin: The Chiller was renovated and new trains without over the shoulder harnesses were added making it a much smoother ride. In 2003, Superman: Ultimate Flight was added. Exact models of this are found at Six Flags Over Georgia and Six Flags Great America. In 2004, new harnesses were added to the Runaway Mine Train and the up-charge attraction erUPtion was added to the Boardwalk. In 2005, the park added the world's tallest coaster called Kingda Ka and also dismantled Viper. With the addition of Kingda Ka, the season pass holders entrance to the park was closed because Kingda Ka's footprint went right over it. A new children's play area called Balin's Jungleland was also added. In 2006, a wooden twister coaster called El Toro was added in the spot formerly occupied by Viper, along with a new themed area, and another kiddie ride area to replace Bugs Bunny Land which was retired at the end of 2004. Shapiro era (2006–2010) At the end of 2005, a proxy battle resulted in two major stockholders assuming control of the Six Flags Board. The Premier Group was ousted in December and the new board appointed Mark Shapiro as CEO. In 2007, the park added Wiggles World and removed Batman & Robin: The Chiller. The rolls were replaced with banked hills to enhance ride performance. However, the ride closed forever on June 28 due to technical problems with the ride. Disassembling occurred that September. In addition, the path leading to Chiller was blocked off and several rides including Freefall, Splashwater Falls/Movietown Water Effect, and a couple other flat rides were removed. In 2008, in the area occupied by the Movietown Water Effect, a new junior indoor Wild Mouse rollercoaster was added called The Dark Knight. Motion Simulator Ride ended the SpongeBob theming in favor of Fly Me To The Moon. Also Glow in the Park Parade was added to the entertainment lineup. Medusa was refurbished over the off-season and returned in 2009 as "Bizarro", a new incarnation of the same ride. The whole coaster, station, and surrounding theme elements were all changed and repainted to go with the new theme of the ride. Bizarro comic strips were put up along the queue line, and special effects and audio were added to the actual ride. The refurbishment brought crowds back to a ride that was beginning to lose its original charm and popularity. Weber/Anderson era (2010–2019) The theme park's parent Six Flags emerged from a 2008–2010 bankruptcy with Al Weber Jr. as an interim CEO and subsequently by Jim Reid-Anderson in August 2010. The company parent also moved its corporate headquarters from New York City back to Texas, where the company started. For the 2010 season, the Motion Simulator ride Fly Me To The Moon did not reopen and was not replaced with anything and remained vacant. In April 2010, rumors also began that the Great American Scream Machine would be removed at the end of the season. By mid-June, rumors were that the coaster would be removed on July 1. That date came and went but on July 5, 2010, via Facebook, Six Flags confirmed the rumored removal of the Great American Scream Machine on July 18, 2010. The ride closed late on that date and was demolished immediately after to make room for "a major new attraction in 2011." On September 16, 2010, the park announced that the Green Lantern, a standup roller coaster formerly known as Chang at the recently closed Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom, would debut in the Boardwalk section for the 2011 season. Green Lantern's lift hill and first drop run parallel to the lift hill of Superman Ultimate Flight, which involved the demolition of a rarely used section of the preferred parking area. In late 2010, Six Flags began the process of removing licensed theming from attractions. They terminated several licenses including their license with The Wiggles. Wiggles' World was renamed and rethemed to Safari Kids in time for the 2011 season. Also in 2011, eruption was removed. Construction for the new Funtime Slingshot replacing eruption started mid-June 2011 and was recently finished a few weeks after. In 2012, Great Adventure introduced SkyScreamer, a Funtime StarFlyer, that soars riders in a circle at speeds over 43 miles per hour (69 km/h), that opened in the spring of 2012, along with bumper cars, flying elephants, and a musical themed scrambler that opened in the newly transformed area Adventure Alley (formerly Fantasy Forest area around the Big Wheel). On February 13, 2012, Six Flags Hurricane Harbor in New Jersey announced a new major water attraction King Cobra, that is the first in the United States. The ride Falls at Hurricane Harbor was proposed to get a transformation, giving it a trapdoor release in 2012, but was later cancelled for the new attraction King Cobra. Furthermore, in 2012, Six Flags Great Adventure removed two of its four Johnny Rockets food stands, one located in Plaza Del Carnival and the other in the Boardwalk. Both were replaced with a new food stand named Totally Kickin' Chicken. On August 30, 2012, Six Flags combined its Great Adventure Park with its Wild Safari animal park to form the Six Flags Great Adventure & Safari park, the second-largest theme park in the world, after Disney's Animal Kingdom. A 4th Dimension roller coaster was opened in spring 2016, called The Joker. In 2017, Six Flags added Justice League: Battle For Metropolis a 4D dark ride. The ride Cyborg Cyber Spin opened in spring of 2018. Wonder Woman: Lasso of Truth, a large scale custom Zamperla pendulum ride, was opened in 2019. During the 2018 off-season, El Diablo was removed from the park and was relocated to La Ronde, where it reopened as Chaos. In June 2019, the park completed a 23.5 MW solar facility, the largest net-metered solar farm in New Jersey. It produces around 30 million kWh per year, equivalent to most of the park's electricity needs. The facility includes 11 MW of solar canopy over the carpark. The facility was announced in March 2015. 2020–present On August 29, 2019, Six Flags announced a new coaster, the Jersey Devil Coaster, to be built by Rocky Mountain Construction. Six Flags suspended all operations across all their properties due to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020. In mid-May, the park announced that they would reopen the first Six Flags attraction, Safari Off Road Adventure, which reopened on May 30, 2020. Following an announcement by Governor Phil Murphy on June 23, 2020, giving permission for amusement parks to reopen, Six Flags Great Adventure announced a day later that it would reopen on July 3, 2020. However, the Jersey Devil Coaster was delayed until the 2021 season because its construction was halted due to the pandemic. In July 2021, the park re-introduced the ride's old Road Runner Railway kiddie roller coaster to Lil' Devil Coaster, a ride themed to the Jersey Devil, like the nearby Jersey Devil Coaster. Concerts Numerous artists have performed concerts at the park, including Bon Jovi, The Ramones, The Beach Boys, Heart, Kansas, Cheap Trick, Joan Jett, and Alice Cooper. On September 29, 2012, Great Adventure hosted the FestEvil, a festival hosting contemporary metal and hardcore acts; Falling In Reverse and We Came As Romans coheadlined. It was Great Adventure's first metal show. At the end of the show, Falling In Reverse frontman Ronnie Radke threw three microphone stands into the crowd, injuring two attendees. Radke was arrested after the show, and a spokesperson for Great Adventure announced that the park would no longer host shows with metal bands. Attractions Main Street Main Street serves as the entry gate for Six Flags Great Adventure. It was originally entitled Liberty Court and was built when the entrance to the park was moved from near what is now the Boardwalk area to a more central location. Main Street is themed as an Early-American town, somewhere around the 18th century. Later additions to Main Street have formed it into more of a turn-of-the-century town. In the front is Main Street Fountain, which serves as a central hub for the park. Fantasy Forest Fantasy Forest serves as the midway for the park and was originally part of the entrance. Fantasy Forest is designed to make its visitors feel like children, and the section's bright colors and fanciful design give it a magical feel. The Yum Yum Cafe, (Previously "The Great Character Cafe"), which is designed to look like a giant ice cream sundae, is in this area along with the colorful Carousel and Enchanted Teacups. Originally, this section was split into two sections; Dream Street, the east side featuring the Carousel, and Strawberry Fair, the west side featuring the Big Wheel and Fantasy Fling. During Time Warner's acquisition of the park, these two sections of the park were combined into one. In 2012, the east side stayed as Fantasy Forest and the west side was re-themed and transformed to Adventure Alley. Adventure Alley Adventure Alley, made up of what used to be the right half of Fantasy Forest, opened in 2012 along with SkyScreamer, a FunTime StarFlyer. The area has a retro theme and features several classic family rides. It was built in a formerly barren area in response to complaints about there being a lack of family rides in the park. SkyScreamer, DejaVu (a Scrambler relocated from the shuttered American Adventures in Georgia), and Air Jumbo (a Flying Elephants ride relocated from Balin's Jungleland in the Golden Kingdom) all opened in May, while Fender Benders, a bumper cars attraction, opened in early July. The area was sponsored by the Broadway show Jersey Boys and as such, features songs from the musical as its soundtrack. Adventure Seaport Adventure Seaport was introduced for the 2011 season. It is made up of a children's area: Safari Kids, and a small section of the park formerly part of Movietown. Originally, Adventure Seaport also included Looney Tunes Seaport before it was removed in 2020. Note that attractions in Safari Kids are not included in the attractions list below but rather have their own separate lists. Safari Kids Safari Kids was added in 2011. It was known as Wiggles World from 2007 to 2010. Most of the rides were re-themed from Looney Tunes Seaport, while the section itself replaced an aging part of Looney Tunes Seaport and the outdated Riptide flume ride. The area was renamed and re-themed Safari Kids for 2011 when the parks rights to use the Wiggles brand expired. Movietown This section makes up of what used to be the "Fun Fair" and "Action Town" sections of the park. It is themed as a Hollywood back lot, complete with Hollywood style buildings, and movie-themed ride, shops, stalls, and other attractions. Most of the attractions include DC Comics (Batman: The Ride, Justice League: Battle for Metropolis, Cyborg: Cyber Spin). Over the years, many of the movie props have been removed, and all the flat rides in this section of the park have been moved or dismantled. This left the section with very few rides: the addition of The Dark Knight Coaster meant the removal of the Movietown Water Effect, a themed Splashdown ride. Batman and Robin: The Chiller and Stuntman's Freefall (an Intamin free-fall ride) had already been removed, and the "Axis Chemical" themed amphitheater, while still standing, no longer hosts stunt shows. Nitro was included in Movietown until the 2011 season when it became part of Adventure Seaport. For a time this section of the park was essentially a dead-end, forcing patrons to turn back after the Showcase Theater. In summer 2016, permits were released for a Justice League: Battle for Metropolis dark ride to be placed where Batman and Robin: The Chiller once stood. The area surrounding Justice League: Battle for Metropolis was rethemed to Metropolis, though it is still treated as part of Movietown. In 2018, Cyborg Cyber Spin opened in the Metropolis subsection. The park reopened a pathway between this ride and the Justice League attraction, and now patrons can loop through Movietown and re-emerge near the fountain and the park's main entrance. Additionally, Wonder Woman: Lasso of Truth debuted in June 2019, located just next to the old Axis Chemical building. Lakefront Lakefront, as its name suggests, is found right on the lake in the back of the property. The rides and structures in Lakefront all have a nautical theme. The section also includes an Asian-themed eatery (formerly branded as a Panda Express). Frontier Adventures Previously known as "Best of the West" and "Rootin' Tootin' Rip Roarin'", Frontier Adventures is the park's western-themed section. It is home to the Fort and the Best of the West restaurant, as well as some of the park's rides. In 2009, Bizarro opened in this section, and in an attempt to connect it to the Old West, Bizarro was given a backstory, relating to his takeover of the Medusa Mine. Frontier Adventures is now home to the Safari Off Road Adventure station. It stands on the former location of the Super Teepee and the Conestoga Wagon. Bugs Bunny National Park Bugs Bunny National Park opened in 2006 along with El Toro. It has a series of camp-themed rides, all in a rustic area on the lake. Attractions include Bugs Bunny Camp Carousel, Bugs Bunny National Water Park Tower, Bugs Bunny Ranger Pilots, Daffy Duck's Hot Air Balloons, Porky Pig Camp Wagons, and Wile E. Coyote Canyon Blaster. Plaza del Carnaval This area was originally part of Frontier Adventures, and was also called "Hernando's Hideaway" for the opening of Rolling Thunder. This section of the park has heavy Spanish influences, including music, lights, and various structures including the station for El Toro. The whole area is very festive and is filled with vibrant colors, stucco buildings, and Spanish tile roofs. The Golden Kingdom The Golden Kingdom opened in 2005 with Kingda Ka on what was Bugs Bunny Land, the park's old kiddie-section. This section of the park is themed with many bamboo plants, stone temples, and more. It is also home to three llamas, which are near the entrance to the area on Aldabra Island, formerly home to Aldabra tortoises. Boardwalk Previously Fortune Festival, the boardwalk section of Great Adventure has games commonly found on boardwalks, boardwalk restaurants, and many of the park's larger flat rides. This area of the park was also previously themed as Edwards Air Force Base, and many of the theme elements from then still exist now, including "latrines", and the parachute tower's name. The section also has a slight boardwalk-influence to its rides. Former attractions Annual events Fright Fest During the Halloween season, Six Flags Great Adventure is redecorated with spider webs, smoke machines, and other Halloween related decorations. Actors dress up in scary costumes and walk around to frighten guests, as they once did at the Haunted Castle. Fright Fest typically begins at 6:00 PM, as the zombies parade to a stage to kick off "fright by night." The park does not recommend the nighttime activities for children 13 or under. Fright Fest attracts some of the heaviest crowds of the year, and becomes more and more crowded as the date draws closer to Halloween. One of the most popular attractions at Fright Fest every year is the theatrical production of Dead Man's Party, a live dance show with popular music that draws hundreds of viewers for every showing and has attained an almost cult-like local following. The seasonal event includes upcharge walk-through haunted attractions. Recurring attractions include The Manor, Fears, Wicked Woods, Blood Shed, Big Top Terror, Cell Block 6, and Aftermath. Areas of the park known as "scare zones" include free-roaming zombies are The Bloody Fountain (Main Street), Demon District (Movietown), CarnEvil (Boardwalk), Lady Of The Lake Cemetery (Lakefront), and Bone Butcher Terror-tory (Frontier Adventures). Holiday in the Park During the Christmas season, Six Flags Great Adventure is redecorated with Christmas related decorations. During this season, only the Main Street, Adventure Alley, Fantasy Forest, Boardwalk, Adventure Seaport, and Movie Town sections of the park remain open. Just as with Fright Fest, Holiday in the Park attracts some of the heaviest crowds of the year. Awards Many of Six Flags Great Adventure's most thrilling roller coasters have placed in Amusement Today annual Golden Ticket Awards. Below is a table with coasters at Great Adventure and their highest ranking in the Golden Ticket Awards. In 2012, Six Flags Great Adventure, along with the Garden State Film Festival, was awarded the Tourism Achievement Award. Both were presented the award for their contributions to improving the economy of the bi-county area through the use of tourism. 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250302	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waiting%20room	Waiting room	A waiting room or waiting hall is a building, or more commonly a part of a building or a room, where people sit or stand until the event or appointment for which they are waiting begins. There are two types of waiting room. One is where individuals leave for appointments one at a time, or in small groups, for instance at a doctor's office, a hospital triage area, or outside a school headmaster's office. The other is where people leave en masse such as those at railway stations, bus stations, and airports. These two examples also highlight the difference between waiting rooms where one is asked to wait (private waiting rooms) and waiting rooms one can enter at will (public waiting rooms). Order in private rooms People in private waiting rooms are queued up based on various methods in different types of waiting rooms. In hospital emergency department waiting areas, patients are triaged by a nurse, and they are seen by the doctor depending on the severity of their medical condition. In a doctor's or dentist's waiting room, patients are generally seen in the order in which their appointments are for, with the exception of emergency cases, which get seen immediately upon their arrival. In Canada, where there is publicly-provided health care, controversy has arisen when some important people or celebrities have jumped the line (which is supposed to be based on the appointment order or by severity of condition). In some government offices, such as motor vehicle registration offices or social assistance services, there is a "first-come, first-served" approach in which clients take a number when they arrive. The clients are then seen in the order of their number. In the 2010s, some government offices have a triage-based variant of the first-come, first-served approach, in which some clients are seen by the civil servants faster than others, depending on the nature of their service request and/or the availability of civil servants. This approach can lead to frustration for clients who are waiting, because one client who has been waiting for 30 minutes may see another client come in, take a number, and then be seen within five minutes. In car repair businesses, clients typically wait until their vehicle is repaired; the service manager can only give an estimate of the approximate waiting time. Clients waiting in the entrance or waiting area of a restaurant for a table normally are seated based on whether they have reservations, or for those without reservations, on a first-come, first-served approach; however, important customers or celebrities may be put to the front of the line. In restaurants, customers may also be able to jump the line by giving a large gratuity or bribe to the maitre d'hotel or head waiter. Some restaurants which are co-located with or combined with a retail store or gift shop ask customers who are waiting for a table to browse in the merchandise section until their table's availability is announced on a PA system or via a pager; this strategy can lead to increased purchases in the retail part of the establishment. One combination restaurant/store is the US Cracker Barrel chain. Some restaurants ask customers who are waiting for a table to sit in the restaurant's bar or its licensed lounge area; this approach may lead to increased sales of alcoholic beverages. Waiting rooms may be staffed or unstaffed. In waiting rooms that are staffed, a receptionist or administrative staffer sits behind a desk or counter to greet customers/clients, give them information about the expected waiting period, and answer any questions about their appointment time or the appointment process. In doctors' or dentists' waiting rooms, the patients may be able to make additional appointments, pay for appointments, or deal with other administrative tasks with the receptionist or administrator. In police stations, check cashing stores, and some government waiting rooms, the receptionist or administrator is behind a plexiglass barrier, with either small holes to permit communication, or, in higher-security settings, a microphone and speaker. In reception areas with a plexiglass barrier, there may be a heavy-duty drawer to enable the client to provide money or papers to the receptionist and for the receptionist to provide documents to the client. The plexiglass barrier and the drawer system help to protect the receptionists from aggressive or potentially violent clients. Amenities Most waiting rooms have seating. Some have adjacent toilets. It is not uncommon to find vending machines in public waiting rooms or newspapers and magazines in private waiting rooms. Also common in waiting rooms in the United States or in airports are public drinking fountains. Some waiting rooms have television access or music. The increasing prevalence of mobile devices has led to many waiting rooms providing electric outlets and free Wi-Fi Internet connections, though cybersecurity is a concern as unsecured connections may be vulnerable to attack, tampering, or even simply by piggybacking users who are within range but not waiting. Sometimes found in airports and railway stations are special waiting rooms, often called "lounges", for those who have paid more. These will generally be less crowded and will have superior seating and better facilities. Waiting rooms for high-end services may provide complimentary drinks and snacks. In other media In fiction The films Brief Encounter and The Terminal use waiting rooms as sets for a large part of their duration. They are used elsewhere in the arts to symbolize waiting in the general sense, to symbolize transitions in life and for scenes depicting emptiness, insignificance or sadness. In the play No Exit, by French existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, several strangers find themselves waiting in a mysterious room, where they each wonder why; finally, they each realize that they are in Hell, and that their punishment is being forced to be with each other ("L'enfer, c'est les autres", which translates as "Hell is other people"). In the 2010 Bollywood film The Waiting Room, directed by Maneej Premnath and produced by Sunil Doshi, four passengers waiting in a remote South Indian railway station are stranded there on a rainy night. A serial killer is on the prowl, targeting the passengers of the waiting room, creating intense fear among them. In video games The term "waiting room" also extends to the realm of video games as a similar virtual waiting area where players for an online multiplayer game are placed into while waiting for all remaining players for a game session to be present. A virtual waiting room may be a mere, static loading screen (such as the waiting screens in the mobile game Star Wars: Force Arena), or a playable environment in of itself where readied players can practice their skills to pass the time needed for all players to come onboard to begin the session, such as a dedicated "waiting room" arena in Super Smash Bros. Brawl and its subsequent sequels, where players can practice their fighting moves with their chosen character while waiting for other players to arrive. 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250304	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shading	Shading	Shading refers to the depiction of depth perception in 3D models (within the field of 3D computer graphics) or illustrations (in visual art) by varying the level of darkness. Shading tries to approximate local behavior of light on the object's surface and is not to be confused with techniques of adding shadows, such as shadow mapping or shadow volumes, which fall under global behavior of light. In drawing Shading is used traditionally in drawing for depicting a range of darkness by applying media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a lighter shade for lighter areas. Light patterns, such as objects having light and shaded areas, help when creating the illusion of depth on paper. There are various techniques of shading, including cross hatching, where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears. Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears. Powder shading is a sketching shading method. In this style, stumping powder and paper stumps are used to draw a picture. (This can be in color.) The stumping powder is smooth and doesn't have any shiny particles. The paper to be used should have small grains on it so that the powder remains on the paper. In computer graphics In computer graphics, shading refers to the process of altering the color of an object/surface/polygon in the 3D scene, based on things like (but not limited to) the surface's angle to lights, its distance from lights, its angle to the camera and material properties (e.g. bidirectional reflectance distribution function) to create a photorealistic effect. Shading is performed during the rendering process by a program called a shader. Surface angle to a light source Shading alters the colors of faces in a 3D model based on the angle of the surface to a light source or light sources. The first image below has the faces of the box rendered, but all in the same color. Edge lines have been rendered here as well which makes the image easier to see. The second image is the same model rendered without edge lines. It is difficult to tell where one face of the box ends and the next begins. The third image has shading enabled, which makes the image more realistic and makes it easier to see which face is which. Types of lighting When a shader computes the result color, it uses a lighting model to determine the amount of light reflected at specific points on the surface. Different lighting models can be combined with different shading techniques — while lighting says how much light is reflected, shading determines how this information is used in order to compute the final result. It may for example compute lighting only at specific points and use interpolation to fill in the rest. The shader may also decide about how many light sources to take into account etc. Ambient lighting An ambient light source represents an omni-directional, fixed-intensity and fixed-color light source that affects all objects in the scene equally (is omni-present). During rendering, all objects in the scene are brightened with the specified intensity and color. This type of light source is mainly used to provide the scene with a basic view of the different objects in it. This is the simplest type of lighting to implement, and models how light can be scattered or reflected many times, thereby producing a uniform effect. Ambient lighting can be combined with ambient occlusion to represent how exposed each point of the scene is, affecting the amount of ambient light it can reflect. This produces diffused, non-directional lighting throughout the scene, casting no clear shadows, but with enclosed and sheltered areas darkened. The result is usually visually similar to an overcast day. Point lighting Light originates from a single point and spreads outward in all directions. Spotlighting Models a spotlight: light originates from a single point and spreads outward in a cone. Area lighting Light originates from a small area on a single plane. (A more realistic model than a point light source.) Directional lighting A directional light source illuminates all objects equally from a given direction, like an area light of infinite size and infinite distance from the scene; there is shading, but cannot be any distance falloff. This is like the sun. Distance falloff Theoretically, two surfaces which are parallel are illuminated virtually the same amount from a distant unblocked light source such as the sun. The distance falloff effect produces images which have more shading and so would be realistic for proximal light sources. The left image doesn't use distance falloff. Notice that the colors on the front faces of the two boxes are exactly the same. It may appear that there is a slight difference where the two faces directly overlap, but this is an optical illusion caused by the vertical edge below where the two faces meet. The right image does use distance falloff. Notice that the front face of the closer box is brighter than the front face of the back box. Also, the floor goes from light to dark as it gets farther away. Calculation Distance falloff can be calculated in a number of ways: Power of the distance – For a given point at a distance x from the light source, the light intensity received is proportional to . None () – The light intensity received is the same regardless of the distance between the point and the light source. Linear () – For a given point at a distance x from the light source, the light intensity received is proportional to . Quadratic () – This is how light intensity decreases in reality if the light has a free path (i.e. no fog or any other thing in the air that can absorb or scatter the light). For a given point at a distance x from the light source, the light intensity received is proportional to . Any number of other mathematical functions may also be used. Shading techniques During shading a surface normal is often needed for lighting computation. The normals can be precomputed and stored for each vertex of the model. Flat shading Here, the lighting is evaluated only once for each polygon (usually for the first vertex in the polygon, but sometimes for the centroid for triangle meshes), based on the polygon's surface normal and on the assumption that all polygons are flat. The computed color is used for the whole polygon, making the corners look sharp. This is usually used when more advanced shading techniques are too computationally expensive. Specular highlights are rendered poorly with flat shading: If there happens to be a large specular component at the representative vertex, that brightness is drawn uniformly over the entire face. If a specular highlight doesn't fall on the representative point, it is missed entirely. Consequently, the specular reflection component is usually not included in flat shading computation. Smooth shading In contrast to flat shading where the colors change discontinuously at polygon borders, with smooth shading the color changes from pixel to pixel, resulting in a smooth color transition between two adjacent polygons. Usually, values are first calculated in the vertices and bilinear interpolation is used to calculate the values of pixels between the vertices of the polygons. Types of smooth shading include Gouraud shading and Phong shading. Gouraud shading Determine the normal at each polygon vertex. Apply an illumination model to each vertex to calculate the light intensity from the vertex normal. Interpolate the vertex intensities using bilinear interpolation over the surface polygon. Problems: Due to lighting being computed only at vertices, the inaccuracies (especially of specular highlights on large triangles) can become too apparent. T-junctions with adjoining polygons can sometimes result in visual anomalies. In general, T-junctions should be avoided. Phong shading Phong shading is similar to Gouraud shading, except that instead of interpolating the light intensities the normals are interpolated between the vertices and the lighting is evaluated per-pixel. Thus, the specular highlights are computed much more precisely than in the Gouraud shading model. Compute a normal N for each vertex of the polygon. Using bilinear interpolation compute a normal, Ni for each pixel. (Normal has to be renormalized each time.) Apply an illumination model to each pixel to calculate the light intensity from Ni. Deferred shading Deferred shading is a shading technique by which computation of shading is deferred to later stage by rendering in two passes, potentially increasing performance by not discarding expensively shaded pixels. The first pass only captures surface parameters (such as depth, normals and material parameters), the second one performs the actual shading and computes the final colors. Other approaches Both Gouraud shading and Phong shading can be implemented using bilinear interpolation. Bishop and Weimer proposed to use a Taylor series expansion of the resulting expression from applying an illumination model and bilinear interpolation of the normals. Hence, second-degree polynomial interpolation was used. This type of biquadratic interpolation was further elaborated by Barrera et al., where one second-order polynomial was used to interpolate the diffuse light of the Phong reflection model and another second-order polynomial was used for the specular light. Spherical linear interpolation (Slerp) was used by Kuij and Blake for computing both the normal over the polygon, as well as the vector in the direction to the light source. A similar approach was proposed by Hast, which uses quaternion interpolation of the normals with the advantage that the normal will always have unit length and the computationally heavy normalization is avoided. Flat vs. smooth shading Computer vision In computer vision, some methods for 3D reconstruction are based on shading, or shape-from-shading. Based on an image's shading, a three-dimensional model can be reconstructed from a single photograph. See also Computer graphics lighting Lambertian reflectance List of art techniques List of common shading algorithms Shader Zebra striping to visualize curvature References Further reading Introduction to Shading. 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250305	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence%20Saunders	Laurence Saunders	Lawrence Saunders (1519 – 8 February 1555) was an English Protestant martyr whose story is recorded in Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Early life Saunders was the son of Thomas Saunders (d. 1528) of Sibbertoft, Northamptonshire, by Margaret, the daughter of Richard Cave (d. 1538) of Stanford, Northamptonshire, and his first wife, Elizabeth Mervin. He had five brothers, the judge Sir Edward Saunders (d.1576), the lawyer and merchant Robert Saunders (d.1559), Joseph Saunders, and the merchants Blase Saunders (d.1581) and Ambrose Saunders (d.1586), and three sisters, Sabine, wife of the merchant John Johnson, Christian (d.1545), wife of Christopher Breten, and Jane, wife of Clement Villiers. Saunders was educated at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge. After graduating BA in 1541 he was apprenticed to Sir William Chester, but soon abandoned mercantile pursuits and continued his studies, proceeding MA in 1544 and obtaining a doctorate in theology. In the early years of the reign of Edward VI he obtained a licence to preach. Being a man of much ability he was very popular, and was appointed reader at Fotheringhay and later at Lichfield Cathedral. In 1553 he was granted the living at All Hallows Bread Street in London where George Marsh was his curate. Trial and death On 15 October 1553 he preached at Northampton, warning the congregation that 'the errors of the popish religion' would be restored to the church by Queen Mary I and that England was threatened with the visitation of God for her 'lukewarm indifference in the cause of Christ, and the privileges of his glorious gospel'. In October 1554 he was arrested by the order of the bishop of London after having given a sermon at All Hallows Bread Street. After three months imprisonment he was arraigned on 29 January 1555, and convicted of heresy. He was taken to Coventry, and burned at the stake on 8 February 1555. Before being chained to the stake, he kissed it, saying, 'Welcome the cross of Christ, welcome everlasting life!' The martyrdom of Saunders was said to have been the start of Joyce Lewis's conversion and her later martyrdom. While at Lichfield, Saunders had married a woman named Joanna, by whom he had a son, Samuel. After her husband's death Joanna left England in the company of Robert and Lucy Harrington. Lucy Harrington died shortly thereafter, and by 18 June 1556 Joanna had married Robert Harrington. Footnotes References ''This entry includes public domain text originally from the 1890 Pronouncing Edition of the Holy Bible (Biographical Sketches of the Translators and Reformers and other eminent biblical scholars).' Transcript of Heresy Trial: birth 1520 per his own statement External links A Puritan's Mind See also Marian Persecutions Coventry Martyrs 1555 deaths People educated at Eton College Alumni of King's College, Cambridge People executed for heresy Executed British people People executed under Mary I of England Executed people from Northamptonshire 16th-century Protestant martyrs 1519 births People executed by the Kingdom of England by burning People from West Northamptonshire District Protestant martyrs of England English Christian clergy	[ -0.2547699809074402, 0.006471052300184965, -0.7702229619026184, -0.3746757507324219, -0.12210790067911148, 1.2966158390045166, 0.9260610938072205, -0.17821045219898224, -0.2858363091945648, -0.05351349711418152, 0.32711291313171387, 0.4494881331920624, -0.34052056074142456, -0.010219699703156948, -0.48840925097465515, -0.346530944108963, 0.24379204213619232, -0.35222914814949036, -0.2425343245267868, -0.47421255707740784, -0.30270054936408997, 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250306	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roo%20Borson	Roo Borson	Ruth Elizabeth Borson, who writes under the name Roo Borson (born January 20, 1952 in Berkeley, California) is a Canadian poet who lives in Toronto. After undergraduate studies at UC Santa Barbara and Goddard College, she received an MFA from the University of British Columbia. She has received many awards for her work, including the Governor General's Literary Award, 2004, and the Griffin Poetry Prize, 2005 for Short Journey Upriver Toward Oishida. She currently lives in Toronto with poet Kim Maltman, and with Kim Maltman and Andy Patton is a member of the collaborative performance poetry ensemble Pain Not Bread. Works Landfall (1977), Rain (1980), In the Smoky Light of the Fields (1980), A Sad Device (1981), The Whole Night, Coming Home (1984), (nominated for a Governor General's Award) The Transparence of November / Snow (1985), (with Kim Maltman) Intent, or, The Weight of the World (1989), Night Walk (1994), (nominated for a Governor General's Award) Water Memory (1996), Introduction to the Introduction to Wang Wei (2000), (by Pain Not Bread) Short Journey Upriver Toward Oishida (2004), (winner of the 2004 Governor General's Award, the 2005 Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize and the 2005 Pat Lowther Award) Personal History (2008) Rain; road; an open boat (2012), Box Kite: Prose Poems by Baziju (2016), (with Kim Maltman) Cardinal in the Eastern White Cedar (2017), References External links Griffin Poetry Prize biography Griffin Poetry Prize reading, including video clip "Summer Grass" from Short Journey Upriver Toward Oishida, online at CBC Words at Large Roo Borson's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia Canadian Poetry Online: Roo Borson – Biography and 6 poems (Camouflage, Ten Thousand, Loyalties, Summer's Drug, Save Us From, Leaving the Island) Archives of Roo Borson (Roo Borson and Kim Maltman fonds, (R12759) are held at Library and Archives Canada 1952 births Living people Canadian women poets Governor General's Award-winning poets Writers from Berkeley, California University of British Columbia alumni Writers from Toronto 20th-century Canadian poets 21st-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers Pseudonymous women writers 20th-century pseudonymous writers 21st-century pseudonymous writers	[ 0.12205173075199127, 0.6067696213722229, -0.46678632497787476, -0.4891694486141205, -0.58359694480896, 0.7771587371826172, 0.6268439292907715, 0.17784275114536285, -0.13016362488269806, -0.7511125802993774, -0.1911613792181015, -0.05603614076972008, 0.0358990803360939, -0.014613497070968151, -0.028325561434030533, 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250309	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive%20industry%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom	Automotive industry in the United Kingdom	The automotive industry in the United Kingdom is now best known for premium and sports car marques including Aston Martin, Bentley, Caterham Cars, Daimler, Jaguar, Lagonda, Land Rover, Lister Cars, Lotus, McLaren, MG, Mini, Morgan and Rolls-Royce. Volume car manufacturers with a major presence in the UK include Honda, Nissan, Toyota and Vauxhall Motors (subsidiary of Opel, itself a subsidiary of Stellantis). Commercial vehicle manufacturers active in the UK include Alexander Dennis, Ford, IBC Vehicles (owned by Stellantis), Leyland Trucks (owned by Paccar) and London Electric Vehicle Company (owned by Geely). In 2018 the UK automotive manufacturing sector had a turnover of £82 billion, generated £18.6 billion in value to the UK economy and produced around 1.5 million passenger vehicles and 85,000 commercial vehicles. In that year around 168,000 people were directly employed in automotive manufacturing in the UK, with a further 823,000 people employed in automotive supply, retail and servicing. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing and in 2018 around 2.71 million engines were produced in the country. The UK has a significant presence in auto racing and the UK motorsport industry currently employs around 38,500 people, comprises around 4,500 companies and has an annual turnover of around £6 billion. The origins of the UK automotive industry date back to the final years of the 19th century. By the 1950s, the UK was the second-largest manufacturer of cars in the world (after the United States), and the largest exporter. However, in subsequent decades the industry experienced considerably lower growth than competitor nations such as France, Germany and Japan, and by 2008 the UK was the 12th-largest producer of cars measured by volume. Since the early 1990s, many British car marques have been acquired by foreign companies including BMW (Mini and Rolls-Royce), SAIC (MG), Tata (Jaguar and Land Rover) and Volkswagen Group (Bentley). Rights to many currently dormant marques, including Austin, Riley, Rover and Triumph, are also owned by foreign companies. Famous and iconic British cars include the Aston Martin DB5, Aston Martin V8 Vantage, Bentley 4½ Litre, Jaguar E-Type, Land Rover Defender, Lotus Esprit, McLaren F1, MGB, original two-door Mini, Range Rover, Rolls-Royce Phantom III and Rover P5. Notable British car designers include David Bache, Dick Burzi, Laurence Pomeroy, John Polwhele Blatchley, Ian Callum, Colin Chapman, Alec Issigonis, Charles Spencer King and Gordon Murray. History 1896 to 1900 Motorcars came into use on British roads during the early 1890s, but initially relied entirely on imported vehicles. The inception of the British motor industry can be traced back to the late 1880s, when Frederick Simms, a London-based consulting engineer, became friends with Gottlieb Daimler, who had, in 1885, patented a successful design for a high-speed petrol engine. Simms acquired the British rights to Daimler's engine and associated patents and from 1891 successfully sold launches using these Cannstatt-made motors from Eel Pie Island in the Thames. In 1893 he formed The Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited for his various Daimler-related enterprises. In June 1895, Simms and his friend Evelyn Ellis promoted motor cars in the United Kingdom by bringing a Daimler-engined Panhard & Levassor to England and in July it completed, without police intervention, the first British long-distance motorcar journey from Southampton to Malvern. Simms' documented plans to manufacture Daimler motors and Daimler Motor Carriages (in Cheltenham) were taken over, together with his company and its Daimler licences, by London company-promoter H J Lawson. Lawson contracted to buy The Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited and all its rights and on 14 January 1896 formed and in February successfully floated in London The Daimler Motor Company Limited. It then purchased from a friend of Lawson a disused cotton mill in Coventry for car engine and chassis manufacture where, it is claimed, the UK's first serial production car was made. The claim for the first all-British motor car is contested, but George Lanchester's first cars of 1895 and 1896 did include French and German components. In 1891 Richard Stephens, a mining engineer from South Wales, returned from a commission in Michigan to establish a bicycle works in Clevedon, Somerset. Whilst in the United States, he had seen the developments in motive power and by 1897 he had produced his first car. This was entirely of his own design and manufacture, including the two-cylinder engine, apart from the wheels which he bought from Starley in Coventry. This was probably the first all-British car and Stephens set up a production line, manufacturing in all, twelve vehicles, including four- and six-seater cars and hackneys, and nine-seater buses. Early motor vehicle development in the UK had been effectively stopped by a series of Locomotive Acts introduced during the 19th century which severely restricted the use of mechanically propelled vehicles on the public highways. Following intense advocacy by motor vehicle enthusiasts, including Harry J. Lawson of Daimler, the worst restrictions of these acts, (the need for each vehicle to be accompanied by a crew of three, and a speed limit in towns), was lifted by the Locomotives on Highways Act 1896. Under this regulation, light locomotives (those vehicles under 3 tons unladen weight) were exempt from the previous restrictions, and a higher speed limit – was set for them. To celebrate the new freedoms Lawson organised the Emancipation Run held on 14 November 1896, the day the new Act came into force. This occasion has been commemorated since 1927 by the annual London to Brighton Veteran Car Run. 1900 to 1939 The early British vehicles of the late-nineteenth century relied mainly upon developments from Germany and France. By 1900 however, the first all-British 4-wheel car had been designed and built by Herbert Austin as manager of The Wolseley Sheep Shearing Machine Company. In 1901, backed by (Vickers Limited) brothers 'Colonel Tom' and Albert Vickers, Austin started what became Wolseley Motors in Birmingham and was the UK's largest car manufacturer until Ford overtook them in 1913. The great bulk of the pioneering car producers, many of them from the bicycle industry, got off to a shaky start. Of the 200 British makes of car that had been launched up until 1913, only about 100 of the firms were still in existence. In 1910, UK vehicle production was 14,000 units. By 1913, Henry Ford had built a new factory in Manchester and was the leading UK carmaker, building 7,310 cars that year, followed by Wolseley at 3,000, Humber (making cars since 1898 in Coventry) at 2,500, Rover (Coventry car maker since 1904) at 1,800 and Sunbeam (producing cars since 1901) at 1,700, with the plethora of smaller producers bringing the 1913 total up to about 16,000 vehicles. Car production virtually came to an end during the war years 1914–1918, although the requirements of war production led to the development of new mass-production techniques in the motor industry. By 1922, there were 183 motor companies in the UK, and by 1929, following the slump years, there were 58 companies remaining. In 1929, production was dominated by Morris (founded by William Morris in 1910 in Oxford) and Austin (founded by Herbert Austin in Birmingham in 1905 after he left Wolseley) which between them produced around 60% of total UK output. Singer (Coventry motorcycle manufacturer started building cars in 1905) followed in third place that year with 15% of production. In 1932, the UK overtook France to become Europe's largest car producer (a position which it retained until 1955). In 1937, the UK produced 379,310 passenger cars and 113,946 commercial vehicles. To celebrate the granting of his peerage, William Morris upon becoming Viscount Nuffield, reorganised his motor vehicle companies in 1938, which by then included not only Morris Motors and MG, but also Wolseley and Riley (bicycle company founded in Coventry in 1890 and making cars since 1913), into the Nuffield Organization. In 1939, the top producers were Morris: 27%, Austin: 24%, Ford: 15%, Standard (founded in Coventry in 1903): 13%, Rootes (which had acquired Humber and Sunbeam): 11%, Vauxhall (building cars since 1903, acquired by GM in 1925): 10%. 1939 to 1955 During the Second World War, car production in the UK gave way to commercial and military vehicle production, and many motor vehicle plants were converted to aircraft and aero engine production. Following the war, the UK Government had nationalised the steel industry; where priority was given to supplying foreign-revenue-raising export businesses. In 1947, steel was available only to businesses which exported at least 75% of their production. This, coupled with the inevitably limited competition from continental Europe, and with demand for new vehicles in America and in Australia being greater than the American industry alone could supply, resulted in British vehicle exports reaching record levels and the UK became the world's largest motor vehicle exporter. In 1937, the UK provided 15% of world vehicle exports. By 1950, a year in which 75% of British car production and 60% of its commercial vehicle production was exported, the UK provided 52% of the world's exported vehicles. This situation remained until the mid-1950s, by which time the American industry production had caught up with American demand, and European production was recovering. By 1952, the American-owned producers in the UK (Ford and GM's Vauxhall) had between them a 29% share of the British market, which exceeded the share of either of the UK's two top domestically owned manufacturers. It was in that context that Viscount Nuffield agreed to the merger of his company, the Nuffield Organization, with Austin, to form the British Motor Corporation (BMC). Thus BMC, comprising Austin, Morris, MG, Riley and Wolseley was formed in 1952 and commanded a 40% share of the British market. German production was increasing yearly, and by 1953 it had exceeded that of France, and by 1956 it had overtaken that of the UK. 1955 to 1968 By 1955 five companies produced 90% of the UK's motor vehicle output: BMC, Ford, Rootes, Standard-Triumph and Vauxhall. Of the dozen or so smaller producers Rover and Jaguar were strong niche producers. By 1960 the UK had dropped from being the world's second largest motor vehicle producer into third place. Labour-intensive methods, and wide model ranges hindered opportunities to reduce manufacturing costs – the UK's unit costs were higher than those of their major Japanese, European and American competitors. Although rationalisation of motor vehicle companies had started, full integration did not occur. BMC continued to produce vehicles under the marque names of its incorporated companies, many of which competed with each other. Standard-Triumph's attempts to reduce costs by embracing a modern volume production strategy almost led to their bankruptcy in 1960, the result was that they were purchased by the commercial vehicle manufacturing company Leyland Motors. In 1966, BMC and Jaguar came together, to form British Motor Holdings (BMH). Leyland had achieved some sales success with Leyland-Triumph and in 1967 it acquired Rover. By 1966 the UK had slipped to become the world's fourth largest motor vehicle producer. Following a gradual process which had begun in 1964, Chrysler UK (CUK) had fully acquired Rootes by 1967. In the context of BMC's wide, complex, and expensive-to-produce model range, Ford's conventionally designed Cortina challenging for the number one spot in the domestic market, and the heavy reliance of the British economy on motor vehicle production, in 1968 the Government brokered the merger of the successful Leyland-Triumph-Rover and the struggling BMH, to form Europe's fourth-largest car maker, the British Leyland Motor Corporation (BLMC). The new company announced its intention to invest in a new volume car range, and to equip its factories with the latest capital-intensive production methods. BMC's Mini, designed by Alec Issigonis, had revolutionized the small car market in 1959, and the car remained among the UK's best selling cars for more than 20 years after its launch, the last version finally rolling off the production line on 4 October 2000 after a run of 41 years. The Rootes Group launched the similar-sized Hillman Imp four years later, but by the end of the 1960s Ford and Vauxhall had yet to launch a comparable product, and even with foreign imports slowly starting to gain ground on the British market, Italy's Fiat 500 was one of the few comparable alternatives to the virtual monopoly of the Mini and Hillman Imp in this sector of the market. Also designed by Alec Issigonis was the Morris Minor, which was heavily updated in 1956 having originally gone into production in 1948. It earned a reputation for low running costs, good reliability and competitive pricing, and continued to sell well throughout the 1960s in spite of the popularity of BMC's 1100/1300 range which was launched in 1962, The Morris Minor was also the first British car to reach one million in production in 1961 with this record number reached a special model of the Morris Minor was created and sent to all of the main dealerships under the name "Morris Million". Ford's competitor in this sector was the Anglia, which featured unconventional styling but was still one of the country's most successful cars from its launch in 1959 up to the end of production in 1967, after which it was replaced by the Escort. Other British competitors in this sector were the Vauxhall Viva and Hillman Minx. Larger family cars enjoyed strong sales in the 1960s, namely the Ford Cortina (launched in 1962), Austin/Morris 1800 (1964) and Vauxhall Victor (1957). Later in the 1960s, the Rootes Group launched a new competitor in this growing sector of the market - the Hillman Hunter. The Rover P6, launched in 1963 and the first winner of the European Car of the Year award, was arguably the most popular luxury model in the UK during the 1960s. The iconic Jaguar E-Type sports car, designed by Malcolm Sayer, with a top speed of and the choice of a coupe or roadster bodystyle, was launched in 1961 and would remain in production until 1975. Cheaper sports cars also enjoyed strong sales during the 1960s, including the MG B and Triumph Spitfire which were launched in the early part of the decade, and the Ford Capri which was launched just before the decade's end. The 1960s saw a slow but sure increase in the popularity of foreign cars on the British market. Volkswagen of West Germany had imported the iconic Beetle to Britain since 1953; this car was first launched in 1937 as a "people's car" for the German market under the Nazi regime. Its arrival on the UK market less than a decade after the end of World War II was met with hostility, with many examples being vandalised soon after being distributed, but it quickly became popular, with nearly 10,000 being sold in 1959. Volkswagen also began importing examples of its people carrier and van models, and by 1963 had sold 100,000 cars in Britain.Renault of France had actually built UK market versions of its cars at a site in Acton, West London, from 1902 until 1962, but its popularity actually increased after the end of UK production, helped by the arrival of the Renault 4 minicar in 1961 and the world's first production hatchback model, the Renault 16, in 1965. By the end of the decade, it had launched a smaller hatchback model, the Renault 6, and a mid-range saloon, the Renault 12, and was continuing to grow in popularity. Renault's French rival Peugeot also enjoyed success in the 1960s with its 404 saloon and even more so with its successor, the 504, which was launched in 1968. This set the scene for even more sales for foreign carmakers on the UK market during the next two decades, as their market share continued to grow. Japanese cars also started to appear on the UK market during the 1960s, although they were a rare on British roads until exploding in popularity during the early 1970s. The Daihatsu Compagno was the first Japanese car to be sold in Britain when imports began during 1964. This car was not popular with British buyers and was withdrawn from sale within a few years, although Daihatsu would return to the UK market in the early 1980s. A year later, Toyota became the second Japanese carmaker to import cars to Britain. It was followed shortly afterwards by Nissan (which used the Datsun brand for the UK market) and Mazda. Honda was also enjoying great success on the motorcycle market by this stage, although it didn't start importing passenger cars to the UK until 1972. 1968 to 1987 By 1968, UK motor vehicle production was dominated by four companies: BLMC, Chrysler (UK), Ford, and Vauxhall (GM). The Rootes Group had taken on the name Chrysler UK after its takeover by the American car giant Chrysler, which had also taken over French carmaker Simca. The national champion, BLMC (British Leyland from 1968), was handicapped in its attempts to modernise by internal rivalries. Unattractive new products (particularly the Austin Allegro and Morris Marina) which were widely criticised by the motoring press, retention of legacy marques and models, labour disputes, quality issues, supplier problems and inefficient use of new equipment thwarted the dream of efficient high volume production. Increased overseas competition and high unit costs led to lowered profits, which in turn jeopardised investment plans. Although the cars continued to sell well in Britain, they were less popular on overseas markets. As well as that, the company often produced several cars to compete in the same market sector. For instance, it produced four competitors for the Ford Cortina at the same time - the Morris Marina, Austin Maxi, Triumph Dolomite and the Princess. Japanese cars, particularly the Datsun badged cars built by Nissan enjoyed a strong surge in popularity during the first half of the 1970s, while French carmaker Renault and West German carmaker Volkswagen also enjoyed an upturn on the British market, helped by the arrival of well-received new cars, particularly the Renault 5 in 1972 and the Volkswagen Golf in 1974. The fortunes of foreign carmakers on the British market were also assisted by the fact that most British manufacturers adopted the hatchback bodystyle, mostly featuring front-wheel drive, considerably later than their continental rivals. For instance, the arrival of the front-wheel drive Volkswagen Golf hatchback in 1974 came four years before any of the four British-based carmakers had launched an equivalent car. By the time the first small British-built hatchback, the Vauxhall Chevette, was launched in 1975, the French Renault 5 had already been in production for three years. However, British Leyland's larger Austin Maxi had been sold with a hatchback and front-wheel drive since its 1969 launch, although it sold similar-sized cars like the Morris Marina and Triumph Dolomite alongside it as a rear-wheel drive saloon alternative, with the Dolomite being sold further upmarket than the Marina. For buyers wanting six-cylinder and larger four-cylinder engines, the Princess was launched in 1975. Chrysler launched the Alpine for this market sector in 1975, featuring front wheel drive and a hatchback, but kept the Hunter in production alongside it until 1979 for buyers who still preferred rear-wheel drive and a saloon or estate bodystyle. At the luxury end of the market, British Leyland was actually one of the first manufacturers in the world to put a hatchback on an upmarket car when it launched the Rover SD1 in 1976. This car signalled the beginning of rationalisation at British Leyland, with the SD1 replacing two model ranges - the Rover P6 and Triumph 2000/2500. The popularity of Nissan's range of Datsun-badged cars in the 1970s was largely down to their low prices, cheap running costs, good equipment levels and a reputation for better reliability than most British cars, although these cars also went on to gain a reputation for being prone to rust. BLMC's share of the UK market dropped from 40% to 32% between 1971 and 1973, with its new Morris Marina and Austin Allegro family cars selling well on the British market but not proving popular on many export markets, with the motoring media being critical of the styling of these new models as well as questions regarding the level of quality. By 1974, the UK's position as a world motor vehicle manufacturer had dropped to sixth place. In 1974, both BLMC and Chrysler UK appealed to the UK Government for financial help. The Government rejected the idea of a merger between the two companies, and instead Chrysler UK received a loan and BLMC was subjected to a series of studies to determine its future. The Government's official BLMC enquiry, led by Lord Ryder, suggested that BLMC's strategy was sound, but required huge state investment to improve productivity by providing mechanisation and improving labour relations. Despite the effective nationalisation of BLMC as British Leyland (BL) in 1975, the recovery never happened. Chrysler sold its European interests (including those in the UK) to Peugeot in 1978, to allow it to concentrate on its own difficulties in the United States. The UK interests were renamed Peugeot-Talbot, with production of the Chrysler-developed cars continuing, with the last Rootes-developed car, the Avenger, being discontinued in 1981. Peugeot also developed a saloon version of the Alpine called the Solara, and also launched the larger Tagora, which had been in development by Chrysler when it sold its European operations. It also replaced the entry-level Sunbeam with the Peugeot based Samba in 1981. As in most other developed countries, the 1970s saw major changes to the cars produced in the UK. Front-wheel drive, which had been pioneered by BMC on several new models between 1959 and 1965, now became a common feature on family cars after decades of producing only rear-wheel drive models. The hatchback bodystyle, which had debuted in Europe on the French Renault 16 in 1965, became more popular, with many of Britain's best-selling cars being available with a hatchback by the early-1980s. Many Ford and Vauxhall models were also being produced at their parent company's continental factories by 1980. Ford had switched Capri and Granada production to Germany by this stage, while production of its new Fiesta supermini was divided between Britain, West Germany and a new plant in Spain from its 1976 launch. General Motors had not only decided to make its Vauxhall and Opel badged cars mechanically identical during the 1970s, but it had also imported some of its Vauxhall-badged cars from Opel factories in West Germany and Belgium, and its Corsa supermini (Vauxhall Nova in the UK) was solely assembled at a factory in Zaragoza, Spain, which opened in 1982. British Leyland's overseas outposts in countries like Italy (where cars were produced under the Innocenti brand) were gradually closed down or sold to other carmakers, so by the 1980s; it was entirely a British-based operation. By the end of the 1970s, Ford, Peugeot-Talbot and Vauxhall (GM) were well-integrated with their parent companies' other European operations. BL stood alone in the UK as an increasingly junior player. As part of the drive for increased productivity in the late-1970s, BL reduced its workforce and number of plants, and strived to centralise its management activities. The city of Coventry suffered particularly badly, with many thousands becoming unemployed after the closure of the Triumph car factory in the city in 1980. In 1979, BL struck a collaboration deal with Honda to share the development and production of a new mid-sized car (Triumph Acclaim/Honda Ballade), which was launched in 1981. The new car combined Honda engine and transmission designs with a BL body, as did its successor model - the Rover 200 Series - in 1984. The next plan was to work on a new luxury car together, the end product being the Rover 800 Series, which arrived in 1986. Although UK politics changed in 1979 with the election of the Conservative Party, the UK Government continued to support BL with funds for the development of a new mass-market model range (Mini Metro, Maestro, Montego and another Honda collaboration the Rover 800), which were all launched between 1980 and 1986. The Metro was the most successful of these cars. Car assembly, with the exception of Jaguar, was concentrated into two central plants – Longbridge and Cowley. In July 1986, BL was renamed the Rover Group. By the mid-1980s, front-wheel drive was now the standard on mass market cars, with most new models having a hatchback bodystyle as at least an option. Although Ford had adopted front-wheel drive for its new Spanish built Fiesta supermini in 1976 and the third generation Escort in 1980, it had curiously retained rear-wheel drive for its larger Sierra (the Cortina replacement) in 1982, although the Sierra did feature a hatchback bodystyle and was not available as a saloon until 1987. In 1983, it recognised the continuing demand for smaller and medium-sized family saloons by introducing the Orion, which was based on the Escort floorpan. The supermini sector had expanded rapidly since the early-1970s. BMC's Mini had remained popular beyond its twentieth anniversary, but successor organisation British Leyland had started work on a more modern and practical alternative by the mid-1970s, the final result being the Austin Metro in 1980 - the new car featured more modern styling and a hatchback bodystyle. Chrysler Europe had axed the long-running Hillman Imp (launched by the Rootes Group in 1963) in 1976 and replaced it with the Chrysler Sunbeam hatchback a year later. General Motors had already adopted this bodystyle with the Vauxhall Chevette (which was also available as a saloon or estate) and Ford with the Fiesta. Comparable foreign products like the Fiat 127, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Polo were also proving popular in the UK. Ford had now divided its European operations between its British factories and other European plants in Spain, Belgium and West Germany. General Motors had started importing some of its West German and Belgian built Opel products to the UK to be badged as Vauxhalls, and by 1983 its Nova supermini (badged as the Opel Corsa on the continent) was built solely in its Spanish factory. Peugeot was dividing production of most of the Talbot badged vehicles between the Ryton plant near Coventry (the Linwood plant in Scotland closed in 1981) and its French factories by the early-1980s, and started producing its own models at Coventry in 1985 after deciding to axe the Talbot marque due to falling sales. Foreign carmakers continued to gain ground on the British market during the 1980s, with the likes of Renault, Peugeot, Citroen (France), Volvo (Sweden), Volkswagen (West Germany) and Fiat (Italy) proving particularly popular. The Russian-built Lada, first sold in the UK in 1974, also sold well, despite its outdated Fiat-sourced design; with buyers mostly being attracted by its low price. By the late-1980s, with the four-wheel drive Niva and a front-wheel drive hatchback, the Samara, complimenting the long-running Riva, Lada sales in Britain had amounted to more than 30,000 a year (some 1.5% of the new car market), but tailed off after 1990 as a result of growing competition and a lack of new model launches. Imports to Britain finally ceased in 1997 due to Lada's difficulties in meeting emissions requirements. Skoda also enjoyed similarly decent sales of its well-priced rear-engined saloon cars during the 1970s and 1980s, going from strength to strength in the 1990s following its takeover by Volkswagen and the launch of new model ranges with modern technology and styling. Zastava's Yugo-badged cars, based on Fiat designs from the 1970s, also sold reasonably well in Britain during the 1980s, but the carmaker was forced to halt imports in 1992 due to sanctions imposed on Yugoslavia as a result of the civil war there. Polish carmaker FSO imported its version of the Fiat 125 to Britain from 1975, later launching a hatchback model (the Polonez) alongside it. However, by 1998, Skoda was the only Eastern European carmaker still exporting cars to Britain, now competing with budget-priced Asian cars from the likes of Daewoo, Kia, Hyundai and Proton. Nissan had axed the Datsun brand by 1984 and used its own name on all cars, and in 1986 opened a factory in Britain near Sunderland, which produced the mid-range Bluebird hatchbacks and saloons, although it was the Japanese-built Micra which was the company's best-selling car in Britain during the 1980s. The decade also saw the arrival of purpose-built people carriers on the British market, starting with the Japanese Mitsubishi Space Wagon in 1984, and then the market-leading Renault Espace in 1985, but by the end of the decade this type of vehicle still had only a very small share of the British market and there were still no British-built people carriers available, although a few seven-seater estate models including Austin Rover's Montego were being produced. The decade also saw a fall in demand for sports cars, perhaps due to the rising popularity of "hot hatchbacks" (high performance versions of hatchback cars), and so a number of manufacturers pulled out of the sports car market. British Leyland finished production of its MG and Triumph sports cars early in the decade, with no replacement. General Motors had launched coupe versions of its Cavalier mid-range model in the 1970s, but did not produce any equivalent models of the MK2 Cavalier which arrived in 1981. It did, however, continue to offer the German-built Opel Manta to British buyers until the end of production in 1988, replacing it with the Calibra (also built in Germany) a year later. Ford had enjoyed success in the 1970s with its Capri coupe, but this declined in popularity after 1980 and when production ended in 1986, there was no direct replacement. As well as the rebranding of the former Rootes Group and its eventual integration into Peugeot, the 1980s also saw the disappearance of several long-established car brands. Production of MG sports cars finished when the Abingdon factory closed in 1980, although the brand was quickly revived on higher performance versions of the Metro, Maestro and Montego. 1980 also saw the closure of the Triumph factory at Canley, Coventry, although the marque survived until 1984 - the same year that the Morris marque was discontinued after more than seventy years. The Morris Ital's successor, the Montego, was sold under the Austin and MG brands, while the Triumph Acclaim's successor was sold as the Rover 200 Series. By 1988, however, the Austin marque had also been phased out, with the former Austin-badged products now being incorporated into the Rover brand. General Motors enjoyed an upturn in Britain during the 1980s, as its Vauxhall-badged cars increased their market share and the company's image also improved. At the beginning of 1980, it replaced the Viva with a new front-wheel drive range of hatchback and estates - the Astra, which was built in Britain and also in Opel factories on the continent. The MK2 Cavalier was launched in 1981, and became the company's best selling car of the decade. Its replacement for the Chevette was the Nova, a rebadged version of the Spanish built Opel Corsa, which was launched in 1983. The MK2 Astra was voted European Car of the Year shortly after its launch in 1984, as was the flagship MK2 Carlton (Opel Omega on the continent) two years later. 1987 to 2001 In July 1986, Nissan became the first Japanese carmaker to set up a production facility in Europe, when it opened a new plant in Sunderland. The plant initially produced the Bluebird and from 1990 its successor, the Primera, with the MK2 Micra joining it in 1992. Toyota opened a new plant in Burnaston near Derby at the beginning of 1992. Peugeot started production of the Peugeot 309 hatchback at Ryton (originally a Rootes Group factory) in October 1985, followed by the Peugeot 405 two years later. During the 1990s, production of the 306 and 206 also began at Ryton. Honda's venture with Austin Rover/Rover Group saw a number of different designs shared between the two marques. The venture came to an end in February 1994 when British Aerospace sold Rover Group to the German carmaker BMW for £800 million. The takeover meant that, for the first time in 112 years, the United Kingdom no longer had a British-owned volume car maker. BMW's ownership of the Rover Group saw the development of several newer, more upmarket models, giving the British brand an image to match that of its parent company. BMW also revived the MG marque in 1995 on a new affordable sports car, the MGF, as well as strengthening Land Rover's position in the off-roader market. In March 2000 BMW controversially announced the break-up of the Rover Group. It retained the rights to the Mini marque, while selling Land Rover to Ford. The MG and Rover marques were sold to the Phoenix Consortium, who branded the remains of the group as MG Rover and concentrated all production at the Longbridge plant. After the split from Rover, Honda continued making the Civic range in the UK at a new plant in Swindon. Ford acquired Aston Martin for an undisclosed sum in September 1987 and Jaguar for US$2.38 billion in November 1989. Production of the new small Jaguar, the X type, started at Halewood in late 2000. By the end of the century, Ford had also acquired Land Rover. In 1998 Vickers plc put Rolls-Royce Motors, including Bentley, up for auction. Volkswagen Group won the auction with a bid of US$780 million, but Rolls-Royce plc, which had the right to block a transfer of the Rolls-Royce name to non-British owners, agreed to sell the rights to BMW for US$65 million. It was subsequently agreed that control of the Rolls-Royce marque would pass from Volkswagen to BMW in 2003. In 1995, Ford finally entered the decade-old people carrier market with its Galaxy, which was built in Portugal alongside the identical Volkswagen Sharan and Seat Alhambra as part of a venture between Ford and Volkswagen. Vauxhall entered this sector of the market a year later with the American-built Sintra, but this was not popular with British buyers and was discontinued after just three years when the smaller, German-built Zafira was launched, and proved far more popular than Vauxhall's original entry into the MPV market. The affordable sports car market enjoyed a revival in the 1990s after going into virtual hibernation in the 1980s. Sparked by the popularity of the Japanese-built Mazda MX-5 after its launch in 1989, Rover began development on a new sports car in the early 1990s, finally launching the MG F two-seater roadster in 1995, 15 years after the demise of the last volume MG sports cars. The 1996 Lotus Elise also enjoyed relatively strong sales in this market sector, as did the Vauxhall VX220 (based on the Elise) which was launched in 2000. Ford, which had exited the sports car market by 1987 with the demise of the Capri to concentrate on faster versions of its best-selling hatchbacks and saloons, returned to this market sector in 1994 with the American-built Probe, and then enjoyed more success with its smaller Puma between 1997 and 2002. 2001 to 2011 In May 2000 Ford announced that passenger car assembly as its Ford Dagenham plant would cease in 2002, ending 90 years of Ford passenger car assembly in the UK. At the same time Ford announced that it would invest US$500 million in the expansion of a diesel engine factory at the site, making Dagenham its largest diesel engine center worldwide and creating about 500 new jobs to offset the 1,900 lost in vehicle assembly for a total loss of 1,400. In December 2004 Ford announced a further investment of £169 million in the Dagenham plant, increasing annual output to one million diesel engines. The closure of Vauxhall's Luton car assembly plant in March 2003 left Ellesmere Port as the sole Vauxhall assembly plant remaining in the UK. General Motors also retained the former Bedford works in Luton for producing vans such as the Vivaro and the Movano as well as Renault and Nissan badged variants. In April 2007, it was confirmed that the Ellesmere Port would produce the next generation Astra from 2010. Losses at Jaguar led to closure of the company's Browns Lane plant in Coventry in 2004. Spare capacity at Halewood allowed Land Rover Freelander production to be transferred there in 2006. MG Rover spent the early part of the 2000s investigating possible ventures with other carmakers in order to develop a new range of cars. Proposed links with foreign organisations including Malaysian carmaker Proton failed to materialise, and by late 2004 Chinese carmaker SAIC Motor had shown an interest in taking over the Longbridge-based firm – which was now hundreds of millions of pounds in debt. Talks broke down and the firm went into receivership in April 2005 with the loss of more than 6,000 jobs. Three months later, the firm's assets were purchased by another Chinese carmaker – Nanjing Automobile – and Longbridge partially re-opened over the summer of 2007 with an initial workforce of around 250 preparing to restart production of the MG TF which was relaunched in August 2008. In April 2006 Peugeot closed its Ryton plant and moved 206 production to Slovakia. In 2007, Ford sold Aston Martin to a British-led Consortium backed by Middle East investors, retaining a small stake in the company and agreeing to continue the supply of components including engines. In 2008 Ford sold Jaguar Land Rover to Tata Motors of India for £1.15 billion. In November 2009, Dutch sportscar maker Spyker Cars announced that it would be moving production from Zeewolde to Whitley, Coventry, and UK production began in February 2010. In March 2010 McLaren Automotive unveiled its MP4-12C model, alongside plans to produce around 4,000 cars per year at its Woking factory by the middle of the decade. At the Paris Motor Show in September 2010 Lotus Cars unveiled five new models due to go on sale by 2016, alongside plans for an investment of £770 million over 10 years, the complete redevelopment of its Hethel factory and an increase in production from under 3,000 cars per year to 6,000 to 7,000. In December 2010 it was announced that Renault had sold its remaining 25% shareholding in its eponymous Formula 1 team to Lotus Cars, and that the team would be renamed Lotus Renault in 2011. 2011–2019 In January 2011 BMW announced that it would be extending the Mini range with the launch of two new two-door sports crossover vehicles based on the Mini Paceman concept car, with a coupe version to enter production in 2011 and a roadster in 2012. In March 2011 Jaguar Land Rover announced that it would be hiring an additional 1,500 staff at its Halewood plant, and signed over £2 billion of supply contracts with UK-based companies, to enable production of its new Range Rover Evoque model. In April 2011 the MG Motor subsidiary of SAIC Motor announced that mass production had resumed at the Longbridge plant, as the first MG 6 to be produced in the United Kingdom came off the production line. In May 2011 Jaguar unveiled plans to build the C-X75 petrol-electric hybrid supercar in the UK from 2013, with production to be in association with Williams Grand Prix Engineering; Jaguar announced the cancellation of the project in December 2012 due to the ongoing global economic crisis. In May 2011, Aston Martin Lagonda confirmed that it was planning to revive the Lagonda marque, with the launch of two or three new models. In an interview with Reuters in the same month, Carl-Peter Forster, the Chief Executive of Tata Motors, revealed that Jaguar Land Rover would be investing over £5 billion in product development over the succeeding five years. In June, Nissan announced that the replacement for its Qashqai model would be designed and built in the UK, in a total investment of £192 million safeguarding around 6,000 jobs. In June BMW announced an investment of £500 million in the UK over the subsequent three years as part of an expansion of the Mini range to seven models. In September 2011, Jaguar Land Rover confirmed that it would be investing £355 million in the construction of a new engine plant near Wolverhampton, to manufacture a new family of four-cylinder petrol and diesel engines. Later in the same month it was announced that the Jensen marque would be revived, with a new version of the Interceptor to be built by CPP Holdings at the former Jaguar factory Browns Lane in Coventry. In November, Toyota announced plans to make the UK its sole European manufacturing base for hatchback versions of its next C-segment family car, resulting in the investment of over £100 million in its Burnaston plant and the creation of around 1,500 new jobs. In September 2013 it was announced that a new National Automotive Innovation Campus would be built at the University of Warwick's main campus at a cost of £100 million, with £45 million to be contributed by Jaguar Land Rover. In the half-year from January to June 2014, the UK had its best year in new car sales in 9 years. 1.28 million new cars were sold during the period, a rise of 10% compared to the same period in 2013. In 2014, more than 1.5 million cars were produced, the highest since 2007. The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) figures show a total of 2.31 million new cars were registered in 2019, down 2.4% from the year before. It was the third consecutive year of decline, and the SMMT expects that trend to continue in 2020. In the year 2019, the best selling vehicle in the UK was Ford Fiesta, followed by Volkswagen Golf, Ford Transit, Ford Focus, and Vauxhall Corsa. from 2020 In 2019, Honda announced that its Swindon plant will close by 2021. In March 2021, Aston Martin announced that their electric sports models would be manufactured at their car plant in Gaydon, Warwickshire. Assembly plants There are numerous small companies manufacturing a small number of cars such as David Brown Automotive, Lister Cars, Lightning Car Company and Atalanta Motors Production data (* estimated figure) Production forecast The Financial Times has forecast that annual UK vehicle production will exceed its historic peak level (achieved in 1972) by 2017. Their forecasted production levels for 2014 to 2017 are: 2014: 1,724,000 units; 2015: 1,864,000 units; 2016: 1,993,000 units and 2017: 2,062,000 units. Car design The UK has a strong design and technical base, with several foreign companies basing some of their research and development resource in the UK, including: Ford Dunton Technical Centre, Essex Jaguar Land Rover Technical Centre, Gaydon Jaguar Land Rover HQ and Design Centre, Whitley General Motors Millbrook Proving Ground, Bedfordshire Nissan Design Europe, London Nissan Technical Centre Europe, Cranfield SAIC Motor UK Technical Centre, Birmingham Independent designers and design companies include: Gordon Murray Design International Automotive Design Ogle Design Peter Stevens Designs Shado (Stephen Harper) Motorsport It has been estimated that there are about 4,000 companies in the UK involved in the manufacturing industry related to motorsport. Formula One motor racing has made its home in the UK, with seven of the ten teams competing in the 2021 season based in or having their European headquarters in England: Haas F1 Team, Banbury McLaren – Woking Mercedes AMG Formula One Team – Brackley Aston Martin – Silverstone Red Bull Racing – Milton Keynes Alpine F1 Team – Enstone Williams Grand Prix Engineering – Grove Formula One engine suppliers: Cosworth – Northampton Mercedes AMG High Performance Powertrains – Brixworth Honda – Milton Keynes Other major motorsports teams and organisations: Lister Cars - Cambridge Carlin Motorsport - Farnham Ford World Rally Team – Cumbria Ilmor Engineering - Brixworth M-Sport – Cockermouth Prodrive – Banbury (Runs Aston Martin Racing, formerly Subaru's WRC Team and Ford Performance Vehicles) RML Group - Wellingborough Strakka Racing - Northamptonshire Sumo Power - Rye Team Dynamics - Pershore Triple Eight Racing - Buntingford Inactive marques Currently inactive British automotive marques include: Allard, Alvis, Armstrong Siddeley, Austin, Autovia, Daimler, DeLorean, Gilbern, Gordon-Keeble, Healey, Hillman, Humber, Jensen, Jowett, Lanchester, Lea-Francis, Morris, Napier, Reliant, Riley, Rover, Singer, Standard, Sterling, Sunbeam, Sunbeam-Talbot, Talbot, Triumph, TVR, Vanden Plas, Wolseley Motors. Dealership groups There has been significant consolidation of car dealerships in the UK, leading to several large and notable dealership groups. As of 2012, Pendragon plc is the largest with a turnover of 3.47billion. Car buying industry Despite the loss of mass-market British marques, car models that are built in the UK are generally popular in sales charts, examples being the Nissan Qashqai. 2.45 million cars were sold in the UK, with the Volkswagen Group having a 20.8% share, Ford Motor Company having 13.2% and General Motors having 11.3%. Subcompact and compact cars were the most popular sizes although SUVs were gaining a significant foothold. The Fiat 500 was the best selling A-segment product, Ford Fiesta the best selling in the B-segment, Ford Focus best selling in the C-segment and BMW 3 Series best selling in the D-segment. In 2019, the best selling car model in the UK was Ford Fiesta followed by Volkswagen Golf and Ford Focus. See also List of automobile manufacturers The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom References External links The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders [https://baldwin.britishmotormuseum.co.uk/ The British Motor Industry Heritage Trust] Dodge RAM Economic history of the United Kingdom	[ 0.7402427196502686, 0.48600664734840393, 0.38306209444999695, -0.6752736568450928, -0.02405487187206745, 0.38933926820755005, -0.584821343421936, 0.8751599788665771, -0.019181283190846443, 0.1643027663230896, -0.22414641082286835, 0.8324500322341919, 0.36795127391815186, 0.6673417687416077, -0.24859245121479034, 0.5982411503791809, 0.29542702436447144, 0.48615220189094543, 0.0698709636926651, 0.08597532659769058, -0.10669845342636108, -0.02004607580602169, 0.34941789507865906, 0.03557285666465759, 0.34435415267944336, -0.3457023501396179, 0.18564946949481964, -0.004305432550609112, -0.36157548427581787, -0.5446205735206604, -0.15683941543102264, 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250310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvester%20Graham	Sylvester Graham	Sylvester Graham (July 5, 1794 – September 11, 1851) was an American Presbyterian minister and dietary reformer known for his emphasis on vegetarianism, the temperance movement, and eating whole-grain bread. His preaching inspired the graham flour, graham bread, and graham cracker products. Graham is often referred to as the "Father of Vegetarianism" in the United States of America. Early life Graham was born in 1794 in Suffield, Connecticut, to a family with 17 children; his father was 72 years old when Graham was born and his mother was mentally ill. His father died when Graham was two, and he spent his childhood moving from one relative's home to another. One of his relatives ran a tavern where Graham was put to work; his experience with drunkenness there led him to hate alcohol his whole life and forswear drinking, which made him an exception among his peers at the time. He was often sick, and missed a great deal of schooling. He worked as a farmhand, cleaner, and teacher before deciding on the ministry as an antidote for his poor health. He entered Amherst Academy in his late 20s to become a minister, as his father and grandfather had been. He withdrew from school a year later though because his histrionic manner was scorned by his fellow students. The expulsion caused Graham a nervous breakdown. To recover, he moved to Little Compton, Rhode Island. There, he met and married Sara Earl, who had nursed him back to health. He studied theology privately, and in 1828 began working as an itinerant preacher at the Bound Brook Presbyterian Church in Bound Brook, New Jersey. Career In 1830, Graham accepted a position at the Philadelphia Temperance Society. He left six months later to focus on preaching health. Graham's appointment and conversion to vegetarianism came as the 1829–51 cholera pandemic was breaking in Europe, and Americans were terrified that it would reach the United States. Accepted medical opinion was that the best way to prevent contracting cholera was to eat plenty of meat, drink port wine, and avoid vegetables. People also believed that cholera was a plague, a punishment from God. The Philadelphia Temperance Society was led not by ministers, as most other temperance societies were, but by doctors who were primarily concerned with the health effects of consuming alcohol. Moving in that company, Graham may have met two of the other fathers of American vegetarianism: William Metcalfe, an English minister who established a vegetarian church in Philadelphia, and William A. Alcott, a Philadelphia doctor who wrote extensively about vegetarianism and wrote the first American vegetarian cookbook. Graham taught himself about physiology and apparently arrived at his own conclusion that meat was just as much an expression of and spur to gluttony as alcohol was, that they corrupted both the body and soul of individuals and harmed families and society. His belief was influenced by the book Treatise on Physiology by François-Joseph-Victor Broussais, published in Philadelphia in 1826, that claimed what people ate had enormous influence on their health. Graham's interest was also captured by the books written by the German chemist, Friedrich Accum, called Treatise on Adulteration of Foods, and Culinary Poisons, in which he denounced the use of chemical additives in food and especially in bread, and Treatise on the Art of Making Good and Wholesome Bread. Wheat flour at that time was often doctored to hide odors from spoilage, to extend it, and to whiten it, and bread was made from very finely ground flour (which Graham viewed as "tortured") and brewers yeast (used to make beer). Like other members of the temperance movement, Graham viewed physical pleasure and especially sexual stimulation with suspicion, as things that excited lust leading to behavior that harmed individuals, families, and societies. Graham was strongly influenced by the Bible and Christian theology in his own idiosyncratic way. He believed that people should eat only plants, like Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, and believed that plague and illness were caused by living in ways that ignored natural law. He urged people to remain calm, and not allow worry or lust to shake them from living rightly – perhaps one of the first people to claim that stress causes disease. From these views, Graham created a theology and diet aimed at keeping individuals, families, and society pure and healthy – drinking pure water and eating a vegetarian diet anchored by bread made at home from flour coarsely ground at home so that it remained wholesome and natural, containing no added spices or other "stimulants" and a rigorous lifestyle that included sleeping on hard beds and avoiding warm baths. The regimen has been described as an early example of preventive medicine. The emphasis on milling and baking at home was part of his vision of America in which women remained at home and nursed their families into health and maintained them there, as his wife had done for him. Graham believed that adhering to such diet would prevent people from having impure thoughts and in turn would stop masturbation (thought by Graham to be a catalyst for blindness and early death). His piece On Self-Pollution, published in 1834, contributed to the masturbation scare in antebellum America. He believed youthful masturbation was dangerous to children's health because of the immaturity of their reproductive organs. As a skilled and fiery preacher, his peculiar message, combining patriotism, theology, diet, lifestyle, and messages already prevalent from the temperance movement, captured the attention of the frightened public and outraged bakers and butchers, as well as the medical establishment. When the cholera epidemic reached New York in 1832, people who had followed his advice appeared to thrive, and his fame exploded. When he published his first book in 1837, Treatise on Bread and Bread-Making, his lectures in New York and Boston that year were thronged; the Boston lecture was disrupted by a threat of riots by butchers and commercial bakers. Grahamism As his fame spread, "Grahamism" became a movement, and people inspired by his preaching began to develop and market Graham flour, Graham bread, and graham crackers. He neither invented nor endorsed any specific product, nor did he receive any money from their sale. Graham influenced other Americans including Horace Greeley and John Harvey Kellogg, founder of the Battle Creek Sanitarium. Grahamite boarding-houses were established in the 1830s. The Grahamites applied dietetic and hygienic principles to everyday life including cold baths, hard mattresses, open windows, a vegetarian diet with Graham bread and drinking cold water. Animal flesh was banned from Grahamite homes but eggs were allowed to be eaten at breakfast and were an important component of Grahamite diets. American Physiological Society In 1837, Colonel John Benson, Graham and William Alcott founded the American Physiological Society (APS) in Boston to promote Grahamism. Alcott was first President of the Society. After a year, the Society was reported to have had 251 members, including 93 women. It lasted just three years. Laura J. Miller commented that the Society was "the most visible association promoting natural foods principles until the American Vegetarian Society was founded in 1850". Many of the APS members suffered from chronic disease and became vegetarian. It has been described as "likely the first exclusively vegetarian organization in the United States". It was also the first American natural hygiene organization. A notable member of the APS was Mary Gove Nichols, who gave health lectures to women. In 1837, Graham and David Cambell founded The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity. It was "designed to illustrate by facts, and sustain by reason and principles the science of human life as taught by Sylvester Graham". It was edited by Campbell, Secretary of the APR (1837–1839) and five volumes were published. In 1840, the journal merged with the Library of Health, edited by Alcott. American Vegetarian Society In 1850, Alcott, William Metcalfe, Russell Trall, and Graham founded the American Vegetarian Society in New York City, modeled on a similar organization established in Great Britain in 1847. Death Graham died of complications after receiving opium enemas, as directed by his doctor, at the age of 57 at home in Northampton, Massachusetts. His early death was the source of criticism and speculation. Historian Stephen Nissenbaum has written that Graham died "after violating his own strictures by taking liquor and meat in a last desperate attempt to recover his health". Russell Trall, who had visited Graham, noted that he had strayed from a strict vegetarian diet and was prescribed meat by his doctor to increase his blood circulation. Trall wrote that before his death Graham regretted this decision and "fully and verily believed in the theory of vegetable diet as explained in his works". After his death, vegetarians distanced themselves from Grahamism. However, his vegetarian message was disseminated far into the 20th century. Food historians cite Graham as one of the earliest food faddists in America. Selected works Of his numerous publications, the best known were Lectures on the Science of Human Life (Boston, 1839), of which several editions of the two-volume work were printed in the United States and sales in England were widespread, and Lectures to Young Men on Chastity. A lecture on epidemic diseases generally: and particularly the spasmodic cholera (1833) A lecture to young men on chastity: intended also for the serious consideration of parents and guardians (1837) See also James Caleb Jackson, the farmer, journalist, abolitionist, and doctor who invented the first manufactured breakfast cereal Isaac Jennings, physician who pioneered orthopathy Maximilian Bircher-Benner, the Swiss doctor who developed muesli Popular Health Movement Roman Meal, the later whole grain American bread company References Further reading Smith, Andrew F. Ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and drink in America. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, (2004). Burrows, Edwin G. and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, (1999). "Recent Deaths"; New York Daily Times; September 18, 1851; page 2. (Accessed from The New York Times (1851–2003), ProQuest Historical Newspapers, September 19, 2006) Nissenbaum, Stephen, Sex, Diet, and Debility in Jacksonian America: Sylvester Graham and Health Reform. Praeger, (1980). Sokolow, Jayme A. Eros and Modernization: Sylvester Graham, Health Reform, and the Origins of Victorian Sexuality in America. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, (1983). External links 1794 births 1851 deaths American health and wellness writers American Presbyterian ministers American nutritionists American temperance activists Orthopaths People from Suffield, Connecticut Presbyterian Church in the United States of America ministers Pseudoscientific diet advocates Vegetarianism activists Writers from Connecticut Opposition to masturbation Native American people 19th-century American clergy	[ 0.1854642778635025, 0.5236564874649048, -0.8198222517967224, -0.13500356674194336, 0.05615340545773506, 0.6401153206825256, 0.9457342028617859, 0.27948451042175293, -0.23026984930038452, -0.3490053713321686, -0.30194091796875, -0.10060222446918488, -0.20103134214878082, 0.31485968828201294, -0.30019286274909973, 0.09222870320081711, 0.39706870913505554, 0.03707123547792435, 0.15184201300144196, 0.009060809388756752, -0.4527742266654968, -0.2473156452178955, 0.18305093050003052, 0.2574470043182373, 0.2671321630477905, 0.18022003769874573, 0.23274478316307068, 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250312	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MG%20Rover%20Group	MG Rover Group	MG Rover Group was the last domestically owned mass-production car manufacturer in the British motor industry. The company was formed when BMW sold the car-making and engine manufacturing assets of the original Rover Group to the Phoenix Consortium in 2000. MG Rover went into administration in 2005 and its key assets were purchased by Nanjing Automobile Group, with Nanjing restarting MG sports car and sports saloon production in 2007. During that year Nanjing merged with SAIC Motor (the largest vehicle manufacturer in China). During 2009 the UK subsidiary was renamed MG Motor UK. The MG TF was manufactured at the former MG Rover Longbridge plant and sold within the UK from 2008 to 2010. In 2011 the first all new MG for 16 years (the MG 6) was launched in the UK (assembled at the Longbridge factory). During 2013 a supermini was added to the line up (the MG 3), this went on to help MG Motor become the fastest growing car manufacturer within the UK in 2014. The Rover brand, which had been retained by BMW and licensed to MG Rover, was sold to Ford, which had bought Land Rover from BMW in 2000. The rights to the dormant Rover brand were sold by Ford, along with the Jaguar Cars and Land Rover businesses, to Tata Motors in 2008. History MG Rover was formed from the parts of the former Rover Group volume car production business which BMW sold off in 2000 due to constant losses and a declining market share. BMW had acquired the Rover Group from British Aerospace in 1994 and had since sold the Land Rover business to Ford, and split off the MINI business as a new BMW subsidiary based in Cowley. MG Rover took control of the volume component of the former Rover Group (itself the remaining rump of British Leyland, which in turn had its roots in the even older British Motor Corporation, formerly Austin and Morris), which by now consisted solely of the Longbridge plant in Birmingham. Of the Rover Group's other two major plants; Solihull had already been divested as part of the sale of Land Rover to Ford, whilst the Cowley and Swindon plants were retained by BMW for the production of the new MINI family of vehicles. As part of these changes, all remaining Rover volume production at Cowley (essentially now just the Rover 75 as the Rover 600/800 ranges had already been discontinued by this point), was moved to Longbridge, whilst MG Rover would be allowed to continue manufacturing the original Mini at Longbridge until the new MINI was launched by BMW a year later. Phoenix Consortium ownership When BMW sold off its interests, MG Rover was bought for a nominal £10 in May 2000 by a specially assembled group of businessmen known as the Phoenix Consortium. The consortium was headed by ex-Rover Chief Executive John Towers. When Phoenix Consortium took over, their first loss for the last eight months of 2000 were reported to be around £400m. By 2004, the company had reduced the losses to around £80m but never made a profit. MG Rover's best year for car sales was their first full year of business, in 2001 – when they sold over 170,000 cars. In 2004 their sales had declined to around 120,000. The company ceased trading on 8 April 2005, with debts of over £1.4 billion, after a proposed alliance with SAIC collapsed. In relation to this, accounting firm Deloitte was fined £14 million (US$22 million) in September 2013 for failing to manage conflicts of interest. Deloitte had acted as corporate finance advisers to firms involved with MG Rover and the Phoenix Consortium, including tax advice while Deloitte audited MG Rover. An independent tribunal refused to grant the right to appeal a finding that Deloitte failed to consider public interest, as of November 2013. Aborted deal with SAIC of China In June 2004, it was learned that Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation had signed a joint venture partnership to develop new models and technologies with MG Rover. This led to much speculation among the British media suggesting the Chinese company was poised to launch a takeover. Later that year, in November, news broke of an agreement between the two companies to create a joint venture company to produce up to a million cars a year, with the production shared between MG Rover's Longbridge site and locations in China. SAIC were to have a 70% stake in this company in return for a £1 billion investment, with MG Rover owning the remaining 30%. However, this agreement had to be ratified by the Chinese government, specifically its National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC). The Commission held the opinion that if BMW could not make a success of Rover, then it would be hard for SAIC to do so. On 8 December 2004, Tata of India, which had cooperated over the export of the Tata Indica as the CityRover, threatened to cease its agreement with MG Rover if the SAIC tie-up went ahead, according to the Indian press. Tata claimed the report was inaccurate two days later. In January 2005, it was revealed that British Prime Minister Tony Blair had intervened to support the alliance between MG Rover and SAIC. MG Rover could not give a date on which the agreement would be finalized. In April 2005 it was reported that the partnership deal with SAIC was in trouble because the British Government had decided to withdraw its offer of a £120 million loan to keep the deal going. On 7 April 2005 the company announced that it was suspending production because of component shortages. Later in the day, it was announced by Patricia Hewitt, the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, that the company was being placed in receivership. Her statement was based on a conversation with MG Rover chairman, John Towers. It was later denied by MG Rover Group, although the company admitted that it had engaged PricewaterhouseCoopers, the accountancy firm, to advise on its current financial situation. In the event, MG Rover placed itself in administration on 8 April 2005, a different status from receivership under British law. On 8 April 2005, British Prime Minister Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Richard Burden, Labour M.P. for Birmingham Northfield visited Tony Woodley at the offices of the Transport and General Workers' Union in Birmingham and stated that there might be some hope for the future of the company, although not the original deal agreed with SAIC. In the media, any news about MG Rover was overshadowed by the Pope's funeral and the problems of the register office marriage of the Prince of Wales and his bride. On 10 April 2005, MG Rover announced that they had received a £6.5M loan from the British Government. This would cover workers' wages for one week while buy-out proposals were made to SAIC. The same week, SAIC denied it had ever made an offer to buy MG Rover and threatened to sue anyone who attempted to make the 25 and 75 models. SAIC purchased the technical rights to manufacture Rover's 25 and 75 models, and for the Powertrain Ltd business, for £67M. It did not acquire the Rover name, which was still owned by BMW at the time (See 'Brands' below). Financial ruin On 15 April 2005, it was announced that SAIC had once again rejected pleas to buy out the company. With no other rescue deal in the pipeline, the administrators were not in a position to seek further funding from the government and announced that redundancy notices to Longbridge staff (who numbered more than 6,000) would be issued. As well as the job losses at Longbridge, the months which followed the collapse of MG Rover resulted in many job losses in the supply chain, as well as jobs in MG Rover dealerships, as these businesses either went bankrupt, were faced with having to make job cuts, or in the case of some dealerships switched to different brands. By the end of April 2005, Sir Richard Branson had reportedly expressed an interest in buying the remaining assets of the company for the purpose of reviving the marque in order to enter the hybrid automobile market, and several other parties were also rumoured as wishing to buy the remnants. These included two Russian businessmen, although one of them denied any interest in buying the company's assets. The Iranian state-owned car manufacturer, SAIPA who had worked with MG Rover installing the K series engine in a car for the Iranian market that was based on the old Mazda 121 and Kia Pride, were also rumoured to be potential buyers. SAIC had claimed that it had already acquired Intellectual Property Rights in some Rover product for £67 million in the autumn of 2004, including the Rover 25, the Rover 75 and the Rover Powertrain K-series engine, but the Administrators advised that there was still interest in saving some other parts of the company, including MG, and 13 May 2005 was set as the deadline for bids from potential investors. On 20 May 2005, the Administrators announced that, after considering numerous proposals, they had entered talks with two unnamed "overseas companies" with a view to restarting one or more of the Longbridge production lines. Nevertheless, the following week they informed creditors that they by then expected the company to proceed instead to a creditors' voluntary liquidation, setting the date for a preliminary Creditors' Meeting to be held in Birmingham on 10 June 2005. At that meeting, creditors learned that so little of value was left in the company that there would probably be negligible or even no repayment of its outstanding debt and that, although three bidders were then still negotiating to acquire the company intact as a going concern, the Administrators had instructed their agents to prepare for the piecemeal sale of the very few remaining assets in the event that satisfactory negotiations for the sale of the entire business were not concluded. On 14 July 2005, it was reported that Magma Holdings, a financial group including former Ford Motor Company and General Motors executives, working in conjunction with SAIC, would be making an offer for the assets of both MG Rover and engine maker Rover Powertrain which, if successful, would see at least some production being restarted at Longbridge, and that talks with the other two interested parties – China's Nanjing Automobile Group and Project Kimber (a consortium of Birmingham businessmen led by David James) – were still in progress. More than 6,000 workers at MG Rover lost their jobs when the company went into liquidation. As many as 25,000 jobs were reported to have been lost in related supply industries, meaning that the total number of job losses brought on by MG Rover's collapse was somewhere in the region of 30,000. Nanjing On 18 July, Magma Holdings and SAIC formalized their bid with a reported offer of £60M, with a number of additional conditions. However, that offer was not well received, and on 22 July, the Administrators announced that the principal remaining assets of the group had been sold to the Nanjing Automobile Group for around £53M, with a deposit of around $5M. Nanjing Automobile Group indicating that their preliminary plans involved relocating the Powertrain engine plant to China and splitting car production into Rover lines in China and MG lines in the West Midlands (though not necessarily at Longbridge), where a UK R&D and technical facility would also be developed. But on 27 August, The Daily Telegraph reported that the balance of around £47M, due on 22 August had not been paid. Citing confidentiality, the Administrators declined to comment. Because the Rover 45 range produced at Longbridge had still had significant Honda content, originating from the companies' legacy partnership with Rover and British Leyland, Honda executives moved quickly to terminate the licensing agreement and removed tooling and assembly equipment for the car from Longbridge. Nanjing Automobile started shipping equipment from Longbridge to China on 15 September and, according to a report in The Times on Saturday, 17 September, were close to a deal with SAIC under which they would manufacture the Rover 25 and Powertrain engines while SAIC would produce a stretched Rover 75. Nanjing Automobile Group was reported to be in exclusive negotiations with GB Sports Cars, a venture by former Rover managers, to re-establish MG production at Longbridge. In late October, key ex-workers received letters from Nanjing Automobile Corp offering 10 months' work dismantling plant at Longbridge for reassembly in China while talks with GB Sports Cars continued. However, after announcing that the UK government had not offered any substantial assistance in either grants or loans, Nanjing Automobile was also reported to have begun negotiations with at least two other potential partners, including "a wealthy San Francisco family", and, in early November, Nanjing committed to making every effort "to resume production [at Longbridge] at the beginning of 2007". In August 2008, more than three years after the facility had closed due to MG Rover's bankruptcy, assembly at Longbridge of a lightly revised MG TF roadster for the European market, from Chinese-built semi-knocked-down (SKD) kits, restarted. SAIC Motor merged with Nanjing Automobile in 2007, whilst nearly three-quarters of the massive Longbridge factory had been demolished and its land sold off - the old South Works is the only part of the plant which has survived. By 2011 MG Motor UK as it is now known started production of the first all new MG in 16 years, the MG6. In 2013 a new super-mini was added to the line up, the MG3. This was launched in summer 2013 and during 2014 helped in making MG Motor the fastest growing vehicle manufacturer within the UK. During the spring of 2015 a new MG6 was launched and plans for a new SUV were unveiled for the following year. Official reports The UK Government commissioned reports into the collapse of the company. The National Audit Office reported in March 2006 on the financial support provided to the company. It commended the DTI's contingency planning in 2004, but questioned whether the loan made in April 2005 achieved value for money. The DTI commissioned accountants BDO Stoy Hayward to report on the collapse of the company; this took four years to complete at a cost of £14.8 million. The firm issued its report to business minister Peter Mandelson in July 2009, and it was published on 11 September 2009. The report revealed that five executives took £42m in pay and pensions from the troubled firm as it collapsed. This was possible as Techtronic, the company that held the 427 million pound loan from BMW and was owned by the Phoenix Four) charged MG Rover interest and therefore made a profit. The report focused its criticism on the Phoenix Four and chief executive Kevin Howe who oversaw its collapse. Other findings included evidence of a personal relationship between Nick Stephenson and a consultant who he paid more than £1.6m in the 15-month period up to April 2005. Meanwhile, "Evidence Eliminator" software installed by Mr Beale deleted documents which were likely to have been relevant to the investigation. The investigators further accused Mr Beale of giving "untruthful" evidence during interviews. Conservative business spokesman Kenneth Clarke said it was right the report criticised the Phoenix Four, whose behaviour was "disgraceful". Lord Mandelson said the Phoenix group had not shown an "ounce of humility" about the firm's demise and they owed an apology to the firm's employees and creditors. The Serious Fraud Office declined to mount an investigation, but Mandelson instructed lawyers to prepare a case to disqualify the key figures at Phoenix from future company directorships. Sales The MG Rover range initially consisted of five cars: the Mini, Rover 25, Rover 45, Rover 75 and MG F along with car-derived van derivatives of the 25. The Mini was only built under temporary licence during the first five months of MG Rover's existence, and since the 1980s had only been built in limited numbers. After production finished, previous owner BMW regained the rights to use the brand, and did so on an all-new car that was launched in 2001: MINI. The Rover 25 and Rover 45 were recently facelifted versions of visibly ageing mid-1990s designs, but production figures had been slightly decreased due to a fall in demand, even though the Rover 25 had been Britain's best-selling car of the month in April 2000. Both cars still had significant Honda content within their design (for example, the 25 still used underpinnings based on the 1989 Honda Concerto and the related Series II Rover 200, whilst the 45 was essentially a rebadged Honda Civic/Domani outfitted with a K-series engine) - a legacy from Rover's one time partnership with Honda, which necessitated paying the Japanese company significant royalties on every car sold which further dented the profitability of those models. The acclaimed Rover 75 was little over a year old, and after a slow start sales were rising. An estate version was launched following the shift of production from Cowley to Longbridge. The replacement for the MG F, the MG TF sports car was, inevitably, a relatively low-volume product, but it had consistently been the most popular car in its sector since its 1995 launch. The Rover 25 and Rover 45 endured disappointing sales throughout MG Rover's existence, though their MG ZR and MG ZS sports variants proved popular from their launch in 2001. The Rover 75 and its MG ZT sports variant enjoyed more popularity. The range further expanded in 2003 with the launch of the smallest model, the Indian-built CityRover, built as part of a venture with Tata, and a flagship model, the MG XPower SV, based on the Qvale Mangusta. Both cars, however, failed to achieve the sales figures that MG Rover had hoped for. Vehicles MG Rover made the following vehicles during its lifetime: Timeline May 2000: MG Rover was formed as the part of the former Rover Group's mass-market car business which BMW sold to the Phoenix Consortium for a nominal £10. BMW retains the right to produce the new Mini and the Land Rover arm of the company is sold to Ford. Production of the Rover 75 is switched from Cowley to Longbridge following BMW's decision to retain the Cowley plant. 2001: MG Rover buy the factory and the rights to the platform of the Mangusta car from Qvale of Italy for an estimated £10 million. 2001: The Rover 75 Tourer is launched. 2001: The MG ZR, MG ZS and MG ZT (based on the Rover 25, Rover 45 and Rover 75 respectively) are launched as sporting alternatives to the standard Rover models. 2002: A revised version of the MG F is launched as the MG TF. 2002: MG Rover agrees to collaborate with Tata of India, with the intention of importing the Tata Indica to Europe from next year under the Rover brand. 2002: MG Rover also goes into talks with Brilliance China Auto with plans to build MG Rovers in a plant in China 2003: MG Rover launches the new MG XPower SV and SV-R sportscars, prices start at around £65,000. The car is based on the Qvale Mangusta and uses the Ford 4.6-litre V8 engine with two different power outputs. 2003: MG Rover launches the new CityRover - a small 5-door hatchback city car, based on the Tata Indica, the first product of the collaboration with Tata Motors. The car is built in India. 2003: MG and Rover launches V8 variants of the Rover 75 and the MG ZT. 2003: MG Rover launch a restyled version of the Rover 25, the Rover Streetwise. Referred to as an "urban on-roader", it has SUV-like styling. 2003/04: MG Rover sell the Longbridge factory to St. Modwen Properties on a lease-back basis to raise funds. 2004: MG Rover launches facelifted versions of the Rover 25/45/75 and MG ZR/ZS/ZT with revised front and rear ends, with the intention of replacing these models with all-new replacements from 2006. Rover 25/45/Streetwise and MG ZR/ZS also get revised fascias. 2004: MG Rover enters in talks with Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC) about a possible collaboration, following the collapse of a proposed venture with Malaysian carmaker Proton. 2004: MG Rover sell design rights to the Rover 25 and 75 to SAIC to raise money to help keep the business afloat in the face of falling sales. 2005: Negotiations on possible joint venture with SAIC stall, and MG Rover collapses. Price Waterhouse Coopers called in as administrators. MG Rover car production ends and the Longbridge plant closes with the loss of more than 6,000 jobs. 2005: Nanjing Automobile Group acquires the entire assets of MG Rover. 2005/06: Nanjing Automobile Corporation announces plans to build cars at Longbridge after signing a deal to lease the site for 33 years. 2006: SAIC sets up a new brand called Roewe after losing the right to buy the Rover brand name, and later launches a model based on an extended Rover 75 platform, called the Roewe 750. 2006: Ford buys the rights to the Rover marque, meaning that only the MG badge can be used on the new range of Nanjing-built cars. 2007: Nanjing Automobile Corporation restarts MG TF production in China. 2007: SAIC and Nanjing Automobile Corporation announce a tie-up and on the 26 December NAC becomes a part of SAIC. 2008: Production of the limited edition MG TF LE500 commences at the Longbridge plant. 2009: Production of the standard MG TF 135 commences at Longbridge. 2010: Final assembly of the MG6 from Chinese kits starts at Longbridge 2010: MG TF production ends due to falling demand 2011: MG 6 Fastback production commences 2016: MG production at Longbridge ends Sponsorship MG Rover sponsored Aston Villa Football Club from 2002 to 2004, with Villa's home kit advertising Rovers and the away kit advertising MGs. Also, the company had sponsored the popular ITV murder drama series Midsomer Murders, in which a range of MG Rover cars were presented. Brands All of the following brands were controlled by MG Rover, and were formerly the property of British Leyland. 1895 Wolseley 1905 Austin 1912 Morris 1913 Vanden Plas as a coachbuilder and as a car brand (outside the US & Canada) 1923 MG was created by Cecil Kimber based on Morris components 1930 American Austin a brand name created by Austin for US market 1947 Princess was created by Vanden Plas as a luxury car name 1987 Sterling created as a separate brand in the US by the Rover Group The Rover brand was used under licence from BMW, and was sold to Ford following the collapse of MG Rover; it was subsequently bought in 2008 by TATA. The MG XPower brand was created by MG Rover for their motorsport subsidiary, MG Sport and Racing Ltd. in 2001. It was subsequently used for the MG XPower SV sportscar, a higher powered version of the Qvale Mangusta, in 2005. After the demise of MG Rover, assets of MG Sport and Racing relating to the XPower SV were acquired from PWC, the Administrators, by the newly formed MG Sports and Racing Europe Ltd. However this company's use of the "MG" trademark resulted in a legal dispute with Nanjing Automobile (Group) Corporation, which had also acquired assets of the defunct MG Rover Group. This case was won by Nanjing in February 2010. References External links MG Rover Group (Archive) Austin Memories Defunct companies based in Birmingham, West Midlands Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of England 2000 establishments in England 2005 disestablishments in England Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 2005 Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 2000 Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange British Royal Warrant holders	[ -0.2929244339466095, 0.7137238383293152, 0.6849864721298218, -0.6110514998435974, -0.4435816705226898, 0.39515599608421326, -0.08091434836387634, 0.35321152210235596, 0.05192723870277405, 0.6475645899772644, -0.3905659317970276, 0.3341134786605835, 0.5433000326156616, 0.8169989585876465, -0.3406791388988495, 0.6078316569328308, -0.1227218359708786, 0.43216216564178467, -0.23595066368579865, -0.5405114889144897, -0.042769886553287506, 0.14304345846176147, 0.2140590101480484, 0.07112042605876923, 0.15037092566490173, 0.016108686104416847, 0.47604623436927795, 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250320	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy%20city	Healthy city	Healthy city is a term used in public health and urban design to stress the impact of policy on human health. It is a municipality that continually improves on a physical and a social level until environmental and pathological conditions are reached establishing an acceptable morbidity rate for the population. Its modern form derives from a World Health Organization (WHO) initiative on Healthy Cities and Villages in 1986, but has a history dating back to the mid 19th century. The term was developed in conjunction with the European Union, but rapidly became international as a way of establishing healthy public policy at the local level through health promotion. It emphasises the multi-dimensionality of health as laid out in WHO's constitution and, more recently, the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. An alternative term is Healthy Communities, or Municipios saludables in parts of Latin America. Approaches Many jurisdictions which have healthy community programmes and cities can apply to become a WHO-designated "Healthy City". WHO defines the Healthy City as: "one that is continually creating and improving those physical and social environments and expanding those community resources which enable people to mutually support each other in performing all the functions of life and in developing to their maximum potential." Measuring the indices required, establishing standards and determining the impact of each component on health is difficult. In some regions such as Europe, a health impact assessment is a required piece of public policy development. There are many networks of healthy cities, including in Europe and internationally, such as the Alliance for Healthy Cities. A key feature is ensuring that the social determinants of health are taken into consideration in urban design and urban governance. For example, "urbanization and health" was the theme of the 2010 World Health Day. One tool in developing healthy cities is social entrepreneurship. See also 15 minute city Carfree city Co-benefits of climate change mitigation Health promotion Alliance for Healthy Cities Primary health care Health for all Public health Social influences on fitness behavior Urban vitality Zero-carbon city References Further reading Kenzer M. Healthy cities: a guide to the literature. Environment and Urbanization, 11(1), April 1999. Boonekamp GMM et al. Healthy Cities Evaluation: the co-ordinators perspective. Health Promotion International 14(2): 103, 1999. Special Supplement on European Healthy Cities. Health Promotion International, Volume 24, Supplement 1, November 2009. J Ashton, P Grey, K Barnard. Healthy cities — WHO's New Public Health initiative. Health Promotion International, 1(3): 319-324, 1986. 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250323	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covering%20space	Covering space	In mathematics, specifically algebraic topology, a covering map (also covering projection) is a continuous function from a topological space to a topological space such that each point in has an open neighborhood evenly covered by (as shown in the image). In this case, is called a covering space and the base space of the covering projection. The definition implies that every covering map is a local homeomorphism. Covering spaces play an important role in homotopy theory, harmonic analysis, Riemannian geometry and differential topology. In Riemannian geometry for example, ramification is a generalization of the notion of covering maps. Covering spaces are also deeply intertwined with the study of homotopy groups and, in particular, the fundamental group. An important application comes from the result that, if is a "sufficiently good" topological space, there is a bijection between the collection of all isomorphism classes of connected coverings of and the conjugacy classes of subgroups of the fundamental group of . Formal definition Let be a topological space. A covering space of is a topological space together with a continuous surjective map such that for every , there exists an open neighborhood of , such that (the pre-image of under is a union of disjoint open sets in each of which is mapped homeomorphically onto by . Equivalently, a covering space of may be defined as a fiber bundle with discrete fibers. The map is called the covering map, the space is often called the base space of the covering, and the space is called the total space of the covering. For any point in the base the inverse image of in is necessarily a discrete space called the fiber over The special open neighborhoods of given in the definition are called evenly covered neighborhoods. The evenly covered neighborhoods form an open cover of the space . The homeomorphic copies in of an evenly covered neighborhood are called the sheets over . One generally pictures as "hovering above" , with mapping "downwards", the sheets over being horizontally stacked above each other and above , and the fiber over consisting of those points of that lie "vertically above" In particular, covering maps are locally trivial. This means that locally, each covering map is 'isomorphic' to a projection in the sense that there is a homeomorphism, from the pre-image of an evenly covered neighborhood onto where is the fiber, satisfying the local trivialization condition, which states the following: if is the projection onto the first factor, then the composition equals locally (within Alternative definitions Many authors impose some connectivity conditions on the spaces and in the definition of a covering map. In particular, many authors require both spaces to be path-connected and locally path-connected. This can prove helpful because many theorems hold only if the spaces in question have these properties. Some authors omit the assumption of surjectivity, for if is connected and is nonempty then surjectivity of the covering map actually follows from the other axioms. Examples Every space trivially covers itself. A connected and locally path-connected topological space has a universal cover if and only if it is semi-locally simply connected. is the universal cover of the circle The spin group is a double cover of the special orthogonal group and a universal cover when . The accidental, or exceptional isomorphisms for Lie groups then give isomorphisms between spin groups in low dimension and classical Lie groups. The unitary group has universal cover . The n-sphere is a double cover of real projective space and is a universal cover for . Every manifold has an orientable double cover that is connected if and only if the manifold is non-orientable. The uniformization theorem asserts that every Riemann surface has a universal cover conformally equivalent to the Riemann sphere, the complex plane, or the unit disc. The universal cover of a wedge of circles is the Cayley graph of the free group on generators, i.e. a Bethe lattice. The torus is a double cover of the Klein bottle. This can be seen using the polygons for the torus and the Klein bottle, and observing that the double cover of the circle (embedding into sending ). Every graph has a bipartite double cover. Since every graph is homotopic to a wedge of circles, its universal cover is a Cayley graph. Every immersion from a compact manifold to a manifold of the same dimension is a covering of its image. Another effective tool for constructing covering spaces is using quotients by free finite group actions. For example, the space is defined by the quotient of (embedded into ) via the -action . This space, called a lens space, has fundamental group and has universal cover . The map of affine schemes forms a covering space with as its group of deck transformations. This is an example of a cyclic Galois cover. Properties Common local properties Every cover is a local homeomorphism; that is, for every , there exists a neighborhood of c and a neighborhood of such that the restriction of p to U yields a homeomorphism from U to V. This implies that C and X share all local properties. If X is simply connected and C is connected, then this holds globally as well, and the covering p is a homeomorphism. If and are covering maps, then so is the map given by . Homeomorphism of the fibers For every x in X, the fiber over x is a discrete subset of C. On every connected component of X, the fibers are homeomorphic. If X is connected, there is a discrete space F such that for every x in X the fiber over x is homeomorphic to F and, moreover, for every x in X there is a neighborhood U of x such that its full pre-image p−1(U) is homeomorphic to . In particular, the cardinality of the fiber over x is equal to the cardinality of F and it is called the degree of the cover . Thus, if every fiber has n elements, we speak of an n-fold covering (for the case , the covering is trivial; when , the covering is a double cover; when , the covering is a triple cover and so on). Lifting properties If is a cover and γ is a path in X (i.e. a continuous map from the unit interval into X) and is a point "lying over" γ(0) (i.e. , then there exists a unique path Γ in C lying over γ (i.e. ) such that . The curve Γ is called the lift of γ. If x and y are two points in X connected by a path, then that path furnishes a bijection between the fiber over x and the fiber over y via the lifting property. More generally, let be a continuous map to X from a path connected and locally path connected space Z. Fix a base-point , and choose a point "lying over" f(z) (i.e. ). Then there exists a lift of f (that is, a continuous map for which and ) if and only if the induced homomorphisms and at the level of fundamental groups satisfy Moreover, if such a lift g of f exists, it is unique. In particular, if the space Z is assumed to be simply connected (so that is trivial), condition is automatically satisfied, and every continuous map from Z to X can be lifted. Since the unit interval is simply connected, the lifting property for paths is a special case of the lifting property for maps stated above. If is a covering and and are such that , then p# is injective at the level of fundamental groups, and the induced homomorphisms are isomorphisms for all . Both of these statements can be deduced from the lifting property for continuous maps. Surjectivity of p# for follows from the fact that for all such n, the n-sphere Sn is simply connected and hence every continuous map from Sn to X can be lifted to C. Equivalence Let and be two coverings. One says that the two coverings p1 and p2 are equivalent if there exists a homeomorphism and such that . Equivalence classes of coverings correspond to conjugacy classes of subgroups of the fundamental group of X, as discussed below. If is a covering (rather than a homeomorphism) and , then one says that p2 dominates p1. Covering of a manifold Since coverings are local homeomorphisms, a covering of a topological n-manifold is an n-manifold. (One can prove that the covering space is second-countable from the fact that the fundamental group of a manifold is always countable.) However a space covered by an n-manifold may be a non-Hausdorff manifold. An example is given by letting C be the plane with the origin deleted and X the quotient space obtained by identifying every point with . If is the quotient map then it is a covering since the action of Z on C generated by is free and wandering (but not properly discontinuous). The points and do not have disjoint neighborhoods in X. Any covering space of a differentiable manifold may be equipped with a (natural) differentiable structure that turns p (the covering map in question) into a local diffeomorphism – a map with constant rank n. Universal covers A covering space is a universal covering space if it is simply connected. The name universal cover comes from the following important property: if the mapping is a universal cover of the space X and the mapping is any cover of the space X where the covering space C is connected, then there exists a covering map such that . This can be phrased as The universal cover (of the space X) covers any connected cover (of the space X). The map f is unique in the following sense: if we fix a point x in the space X and a point d in the space D with and a point c in the space C with , then there exists a unique covering map such that and . If the space X has a universal cover then that universal cover is essentially unique: if the mappings and are two universal covers of the space X then there exists a homeomorphism such that . The space X has a universal cover if it is connected, locally path-connected and semi-locally simply connected. The universal cover of the space X can be constructed as a certain space of paths in the space X. More explicitly, it forms a principal bundle with the fundamental group as structure group. The example given above is a universal cover. The map from unit quaternions to rotations of 3D space described in quaternions and spatial rotation is also a universal cover. If the space carries some additional structure, then its universal cover usually inherits that structure: If the space is a manifold, then so is its universal cover D. If the space is a Riemann surface, then so is its universal cover D, and is a holomorphic map. If the space is a Riemannian manifold, then so is its universal cover, and is a local isometry. If the space is a Lorentzian manifold, then so is its universal cover. Furthermore, suppose the subset p−1(U) is a disjoint union of open sets each of which is diffeomorphic with U by the mapping . If the space contains a closed timelike curve (CTC), then the space is timelike multiply connected (no CTC can be timelike homotopic to a point, as that point would not be causally well behaved), its universal (diffeomorphic) cover is timelike simply connected (it does not contain a CTC). If X is a Lie group (as in the two examples above), then so is its universal cover D, and the mapping p is a homomorphism of Lie groups. In this case the universal cover is also called the universal covering group. This has particular application to representation theory and quantum mechanics, since ordinary representations of the universal covering group (D) are projective representations of the original (classical) group (X). The universal cover first arose in the theory of analytic functions as the natural domain of an analytic continuation. G-coverings Let G be a discrete group acting on the topological space X. This means that each element g of G is associated to a homeomorphism Hg of X onto itself, in such a way that Hg h is always equal to Hg ∘ Hh for any two elements g and h of G. (Or in other words, a group action of the group G on the space X is just a group homomorphism of the group G into the group Homeo(X) of self-homeomorphisms of X.) It is natural to ask under what conditions the projection from X to the orbit space X/G is a covering map. This is not always true since the action may have fixed points. An example for this is the cyclic group of order 2 acting on a product by the twist action where the non-identity element acts by . Thus the study of the relation between the fundamental groups of X and X/G is not so straightforward. However the group G does act on the fundamental groupoid of X, and so the study is best handled by considering groups acting on groupoids, and the corresponding orbit groupoids. The theory for this is set down in Chapter 11 of the book Topology and groupoids referred to below. The main result is that for discontinuous actions of a group G on a Hausdorff space X which admits a universal cover, then the fundamental groupoid of the orbit space X/G is isomorphic to the orbit groupoid of the fundamental groupoid of X, i.e. the quotient of that groupoid by the action of the group G. This leads to explicit computations, for example of the fundamental group of the symmetric square of a space. Deck (covering) transformation group, regular covers A covering transformation or deck transformation or automorphism of a cover is a homeomorphism such that . The set of all deck transformations of forms a group under composition, the deck transformation group . Deck transformations are also called covering transformations. Every deck transformation permutes the elements of each fiber. This defines a group action of the deck transformation group on each fiber. Note that by the unique lifting property, if is not the identity and is path connected, then has no fixed points. Now suppose is a covering map and (and therefore also ) is connected and locally path connected. The action of on each fiber is free. If this action is transitive on some fiber, then it is transitive on all fibers, and we call the cover regular (or normal or Galois). Every such regular cover is a principal , where is considered as a discrete topological group. Every universal cover is regular, with deck transformation group being isomorphic to the fundamental group As another important example, consider the complex plane and the complex plane minus the origin. Then the map with is a regular cover. The deck transformations are multiplications with -th roots of unity and the deck transformation group is therefore isomorphic to the cyclic group . Likewise, the map with is the universal cover. Monodromy action Again suppose is a covering map and C (and therefore also X) is connected and locally path connected. If x is in X and c belongs to the fiber over x (i.e., ), and is a path with , then this path lifts to a unique path in C with starting point c. The end point of this lifted path need not be c, but it must lie in the fiber over x. It turns out that this end point only depends on the class of γ in the fundamental group . In this fashion we obtain a right group action of on the fiber over x. This is known as the monodromy action. There are two actions on the fiber over acts on the left and acts on the right. These two actions are compatible in the following sense: for all f in Aut(p), c in p−1(x) and γ in . If p is a universal cover, then Aut(p) can be naturally identified with the opposite group of so that the left action of the opposite group of coincides with the action of Aut(p) on the fiber over x. Note that Aut(p) and are naturally isomorphic in this case (as a group is always naturally isomorphic to its opposite through . If p is a regular cover, then Aut(p) is naturally isomorphic to a quotient of . In general (for good spaces), Aut(p) is naturally isomorphic to the quotient of the normalizer of in over , where . More on the group structure Let be a covering map where both X and C are path-connected. Let be a basepoint of X and let be one of its pre-images in C, that is . There is an induced homomorphism of fundamental groups which is injective by the lifting property of coverings. Specifically if γ is a closed loop at c such that , that is is null-homotopic in X, then consider a null-homotopy of as a map from the 2-disc D2 to X such that the restriction of f to the boundary S1 of D2 is equal to . By the lifting property the map f lifts to a continuous map such that the restriction of g to the boundary S1 of D2 is equal to γ. Therefore, γ is null-homotopic in C, so that the kernel of is trivial and thus is an injective homomorphism. Therefore, is isomorphic to the subgroup of . If is another pre-image of x in C then the subgroups and are conjugate in by p-image of a curve in C connecting c to c1. Thus a covering map defines a conjugacy class of subgroups of and one can show that equivalent covers of X define the same conjugacy class of subgroups of . For a covering the group can also be seen to be equal to the set of homotopy classes of those closed curves γ based at x whose lifts γC in C, starting at c, are closed curves at c. If X and C are path-connected, the degree of the cover p (that is, the cardinality of any fiber of p) is equal to the index [] of the subgroup in . A key result of the covering space theory says that for a "sufficiently good" space X (namely, if X is path-connected, locally path-connected and semi-locally simply connected) there is in fact a bijection between equivalence classes of path-connected covers of X and the conjugacy classes of subgroups of the fundamental group . The main step in proving this result is establishing the existence of a universal cover, that is a cover corresponding to the trivial subgroup of . Once the existence of a universal cover C of X is established, if H ≤ 1(X, x) is an arbitrary subgroup, the space C/H is the covering of X corresponding to H. One also needs to check that two covers of X corresponding to the same (conjugacy class of) subgroup of are equivalent. Connected cell complexes and connected manifolds are examples of "sufficiently good" spaces. Let N(Γp) be the normalizer of Γp in . The deck transformation group Aut(p) is isomorphic to the quotient group N(Γp)/Γp. If p is a universal covering, then Γp is the trivial group, and Aut(p) is isomorphic to 1(X). Let us reverse this argument. Let N be a normal subgroup of . By the above arguments, this defines a (regular) covering . Let c1 in C be in the fiber of x. Then for every other c2 in the fiber of x, there is precisely one deck transformation that takes c1 to c2. This deck transformation corresponds to a curve g in C connecting c1 to c2. Relations with groupoids One of the ways of expressing the algebraic content of the theory of covering spaces is using groupoids and the fundamental groupoid. The latter functor gives an equivalence of categories between the category of covering spaces of a reasonably nice space X and the category of groupoid covering morphisms of 1(X). Thus a particular kind of map of spaces is well modelled by a particular kind of morphism of groupoids. The category of covering morphisms of a groupoid G is also equivalent to the category of actions of G on sets, and this allows the recovery of more traditional classifications of coverings. Relations with classifying spaces and group cohomology If X is a connected cell complex with homotopy groups for all , then the universal covering space T of X is contractible, as follows from applying the Whitehead theorem to T. In this case X is a classifying space or for . Moreover, for every the group of cellular n-chains Cn(T) (that is, a free abelian group with basis given by n-cells in T) also has a natural ZG-module structure. Here for an n-cell σ in T and for g in G the cell g σ is exactly the translate of σ by a covering transformation of T corresponding to g. Moreover, Cn(T) is a free ZG-module with free ZG-basis given by representatives of G-orbits of n-cells in T. In this case the standard topological chain complex where ε is the augmentation map, is a free ZG-resolution of Z (where Z is equipped with the trivial ZG-module structure, for every and every ). This resolution can be used to compute group cohomology of G with arbitrary coefficients. The method of Graham Ellis for computing group resolutions and other aspects of homological algebra, as shown in his paper in J. Symbolic Comp. and his web page listed below, is to build a universal cover of a prospective inductively at the same time as a contracting homotopy of this universal cover. It is the latter which gives the computational method. Generalizations As a homotopy theory, the notion of covering spaces works well when the deck transformation group is discrete, or, equivalently, when the space is locally path-connected. However, when the deck transformation group is a topological group whose topology is not discrete, difficulties arise. Some progress has been made for more complex spaces, such as the Hawaiian earring; see the references there for further information. A number of these difficulties are resolved with the notion of semicovering due to Jeremy Brazas, see the paper cited below. Every covering map is a semicovering, but semicoverings satisfy the "2 out of 3" rule: given a composition of maps of spaces, if two of the maps are semicoverings, then so also is the third. This rule does not hold for coverings, since the composition of covering maps need not be a covering map. Another generalisation is to actions of a group which are not free. Ross Geoghegan in his 1986 review () of two papers by M.A. Armstrong on the fundamental groups of orbit spaces wrote: "These two papers show which parts of elementary covering space theory carry over from the free to the nonfree case. This is the kind of basic material that ought to have been in standard textbooks on fundamental groups for the last fifty years." At present, "Topology and Groupoids" listed below seems to be the only basic topology text to cover such results. Applications An important practical application of covering spaces occurs in charts on SO(3), the rotation group. This group occurs widely in engineering, due to 3-dimensional rotations being heavily used in navigation, nautical engineering, and aerospace engineering, among many other uses. Topologically, SO(3) is the real projective space RP3, with fundamental group Z/2, and only (non-trivial) covering space the hypersphere S3, which is the group Spin(3), and represented by the unit quaternions. Thus quaternions are a preferred method for representing spatial rotations – see quaternions and spatial rotation. However, it is often desirable to represent rotations by a set of three numbers, known as Euler angles (in numerous variants), both because this is conceptually simpler for someone familiar with planar rotation, and because one can build a combination of three gimbals to produce rotations in three dimensions. Topologically this corresponds to a map from the 3-torus T3 of three angles to the real projective space RP3 of rotations, and the resulting map has imperfections due to this map being unable to be a covering map. Specifically, the failure of the map to be a local homeomorphism at certain points is referred to as gimbal lock, and is demonstrated in the animation at the right – at some points (when the axes are coplanar) the rank of the map is 2, rather than 3, meaning that only 2 dimensions of rotations can be realized from that point by changing the angles. This causes problems in applications, and is formalized by the notion of a covering space. See also Bethe lattice is the universal cover of a Cayley graph Covering graph, a covering space for an undirected graph, and its special case the bipartite double cover Covering group Galois connection Quotient space (topology) Notes References See chapter 10. See chapter 1 for a simple review. See section 1.3 See chapter 5. 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250324	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Bowering	George Bowering	George Harry Bowering, (born December 1, 1935) is a prolific Canadian novelist, poet, historian, and biographer. He was the first Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate. He was born in Penticton, British Columbia, and raised in the nearby town of Oliver, where his father was a high-school chemistry teacher. Bowering is author of more than 100 books. Bowering is the best-known of a group of young poets including Frank Davey, Fred Wah, Jamie Reid, and David Dawson who studied together at the University of British Columbia in the 1950s. There they founded the journal TISH. Bowering lives in Vancouver, British Columbia and is Professor Emeritus at Simon Fraser University, where he worked for 30 years. Never having written as an adherent of organized religion, he has in the past wryly described himself as a Baptist agnostic. In 2002, Bowering was appointed the first ever Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate. That same year, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. He was awarded the Order of British Columbia in 2004. When the Indian Hungryalist, also known as Hungry generation, poet Malay Roy Choudhury, was arrested at Kolkata, India, Bowering brought out a special issue of Imago for helping the Indian poet in his trial. Bowering was one of the judges for the 2008 Griffin Poetry Prize. Bibliography Novels 1967: Mirror on the Floor, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart; Vancouver: Anvil Press, 2014 1973: Fiddler's Night, Vancouver: Dos Equis 1977: A Short Sad Book, Vancouver: Talonbooks; Vancouver: New Star Books, 2017 1980: Burning Water, Toronto: Musson Book Company; Vancouver: New Star Books, 2007 French edition: En eaux troubles, translated by L.-Philippe Hébert, Montreal: Quinze, 1982 1988: Caprice, Toronto/New York: Penguin; Vancouver: New Star Books, 2010 1990: Harry's Fragments, Vancouver: Talonbooks 1994: Shoot!, Toronto: Key Porter Books; Vancouver: New Star Books, 2008 1998: Piccolo Mondo (with Angela Bowering, Michael Matthews & David Bromige), Toronto: Couch House Books 2012: Pinboy, Toronto: Cormorant Books 2015: Writing the Okanagan, Vancouver: Talonbooks 2018: No One, Toronto: ECW Press Short Fiction 1974: Flycatcher and Other Stories, Ottawa: Oberon Press 1977: Concentric Circles, Windsor: Black Moss Press 1978: Protective Footwear, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1983: A Place to Die, Ottawa: Oberon Press 1994: The Rain Barrel, Vancouver: Talonbooks 2004: Standing on Richards, Toronto: Viking 2009: The Box, Vancouver: New Star Books 2015: Ten Women, Vancouver: Anvil Press YA Fiction 1994: Parents from Space, Montreal: Roussan 1998: Diamondback Dog, Montreal: Roussan 2015: Attack of the Toga Gang, Toronto: Dancing Cat Books Booklength Poems 1967: Baseball, Toronto: Coach House Books 1970: George,Vancouver, Kitchener, Weed/Flower 1971: Geneve, Toronto: Coach House Books 1972: Autobiology, Vancouver: New Star Books, 1972; Vancouver, Pooka Press, 2006 1972: Curious, Toronto: Coach House Books 1974: At War With the U.S., Vancouver: Talonbooks 1976: Allophanes, Toronto: Coach House Books 1982: Ear Reach, Vancouver: Alcuin 1984: Kerrisdale Elegies, Toronto: Coach House Books; Vancouver, Pooka Press, 2008; Vancouver: Talonbooks, 2008 Italian edition: Elegie di Kerrisdale, translated by Annalisa Goldoni, Rome: Edizioni Empiria, 1996 2000: His Life: a poem, Toronto: ECW Press 2010: My Darling Nellie Grey, Vancouver: Talonbooks 2019: Taking Measures, Vancouver: Talonbooks Collections of Poems (including gathered long poems) 1963: Sticks & Stones, Vancouver: Tishbooks; Vancouver: Talonbooks, 1989 1964: Points on the Grid, Toronto: Contact Press 1965: The Man in Yellow Boots/ El hombre de las botas amarillas, Mexico: Ediciones El Corno 1966: The Silver Wire, Kingston, Quarry Press 1969: Rocky Mountain Foot, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1969: The Gangs of Kosmos, Toronto: House of Anansi Press 1971: Touch: selected poems 1960-1969, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1974: In the Flesh, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1976: The Catch, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1976: Poem & Other Baseballs, Windsor: Black Moss Press 1977: The Concrete Island, Montreal: Véhicule Press 1979: Another Mouth, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1981: Particular Accidents: selected poems, Vancouver: Talonbooks 1982: West Window: selected poetry, Toronto: General 1982: Smoking Mirror, Edmonton: Longspoon 1985: Seventy-One Poems for People, Red Deer: RDC Press 1986: Delayed Mercy & other poems, Toronto: Coach House Books 1992: Urban Snow, Vancouver: Talonbooks 1993: George Bowering Selected: Poems 1961-1992, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1997: Blonds on Bikes, Vancouver: Talonbooks 2004: Changing on the Fly, Vancouver, Polestar Press 2006: Vermeer's Light: Poems 1996-2006, Vancouver, Talonbooks 2013: Teeth: Poems 2006-2011, Toronto: Mansfield Press 2015: The World, I Guess, Vancouver: New Star Books 2018: Some End, Vancouver: New Star Books Criticism 1970: Al Purdy, Toronto: Copp Clark 1971: Robert Duncan: an Interview, Toronto: Coach House/Beaver Kosmos 1979: Three Vancouver Writers, Toronto: Open Letter/Coach House 1982: A Way With Words, Ottawa: Oberon Press 1983: The Mask in Place, Winnipeg: Turnstone Press 1985: Craft Slices, Ottawa: Oberon Press 1988: Errata, Red Deer: RDC Press 1988: Imaginary Hand, Edmonton: NeWest Press 2005: Left Hook, Vancouver: Raincoast Books 2010: Horizontal Surfaces, Toronto: BookThug 2012: Words, Words, Words, Vancouver: New Star Books 2019: Writing and Reading, Vancouver: New Star Books Chapbooks 1967: How I Hear Howl, Montreal: Beaver Kosmos 1969: Two Police Poems, Vancouver: Talonbooks 1972: The Sensible, Toronto: Massasauga 1973: Layers 1-13, Kitchener: Weed/Flower 1977: In Answer, Vancouver: William Hoffer 1980: Uncle Louis, Toronto: Coach House Books 1985: Spencer & Groulx, Vancouver: William Hoffer 1991: Quarters, Prince George: Gorse Press (Winner, bp Nichol chapbook award 1991) 1992: Do Sink, Vancouver: Pomflit (Winner, bp Nichol chapbook award, 1992). 1992: Sweetly, Vancouver: Wuz 1997: Blondes on Bikes, Ottawa: Above Ground 1998: A, You're Adorable, Ottawa: Above Ground 2000: 6 Little Poems in Alphabetical Order, Calgary: House Press 2001: Some Writers, Calgary: House Press 2002: Joining the Lost Generation, Calgary: House Press 2004: Lost in the Library, Ellsworth, ME: Backwoods Broadsides 2005: Rewriting my Grandfather, Vancouver: Nomados 2006: Crows in the Wind, Toronto: BookThug 2006: A Knot of Light, Calgary: No Press 2007: Montenegro 1966, Calgary: No Press 2007: U.S. Sonnets, Vancouver: Pooka Press 2007: Eggs in There, Edmonton: Rubicon 2007: Some Answers, Mt. Pleasant, ON: LaurelReed Books 2007: Horizontal Surfaces, Edmonton: Olive Collective 2007: Tocking Heads, Edmonton: above/ground 2008: There Then, Prince George: Gorse Press 2008: Animals, Beasts, Critters, Vancouver: JB Objects 2008: Valley, Calgary: No Press 2008: Fulgencio, Vancouver: Nomados 2008: According to Brueghel, North Vancouver: Capilano 2008: Shall I Compare, Penticton: Beaver Kosmos 2009: A Little Black Strap, St. Paul: Unarmed 2013: Los Pájaros de Tenacatita, Ootischenia: Nose-in-Book 2016: Sitting in Jalisco, Ootischenia: Nose-in-Book 2016: That Toddlin Town, Ottawa: above/ground books 2019: David in Byzantium, Cobourg: Proper Tales Press Memoirs 1993: The Moustache: Memories of Greg Curnoe, Toronto: Coach House Books 2001: A Magpie Life, Toronto: Key Porter 2002: Cars, Toronto: Coach House Books 2006: Baseball Love, Vancouver: Talonbooks 2011: How I Wrote Certain of my Books, Toronto: Mansfield Press 2016: The Hockey Scribbler, Toronto: ECW Press 2016: The Dad Dialogues (with Charles Demers), Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press History 1996: Bowering's B.C., Toronto: Viking 1999: Also published in 2000 by Penguin. . . 2003: Stone Country, Toronto: Viking Plays 1962: "The Home for Heroes", Vancouver: Prism 1966: "What Does Eddie Williams Want?", Montreal: CBC-TV 1972: "George Vancouver", Vancouver: CBC radio network 1973: "Sitting in Mexico", Vancouver: CBC radio network 1986: "Music in the Park", Vancouver: CBC radio network 1989: "The Great Grandchildren of Bill Bissett's Mice", Vancouver: CBC radio network Editions The 1962 Poems of R.S. Lane, Toronto: Ganglia Press, 1965 Vibrations: poems of youth, Toronto, Gage, 1970 The Story so Far, Toronto, Coach House, 1972 The City in her Eyes by David Cull, Vancouver: Vancouver Community Press, 1972 Imago Twenty, Vancouver, Talonbooks, 1974 Cityflowers by Artie Gold, Montreal: Delta Canada, 1974 Letters from Geeksville: letters from Red Lane 1960-64, Prince George: Caledonia Writing Series, 1976 Great Canadian Sports Stories, Ottawa: Oberon Press, 1979 Fiction of Contemporary Canada, Toronto: Coach House Books, 1980 Loki is Buried at Smoky Creek: selected poems of Fred Wah, Vancouver: Talonbooks, 1981 My Body was Eaten by Dogs: selected poems of David McFadden, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, New York: CrossCountry, 1981 "1945-1980," in Introduction to Poetry: British, American, Canadian, David and Lecker, Toronto: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1981 The Contemporary Canadian Poem Anthology, Toronto: Coach House Books, 1983 Sheila Watson and The Double Hook: the artist and her critics, Ottawa: Golden Dog Press, 1984 Taking the Field:the best of baseball fiction, Red Deer: RDC Press, 1990 Likely Stories: a postmodern sampler (with Linda Hutcheon), Toronto: Coach House Books, 1992 An H in the Heart: Selected works of bpNichol (with Michael Ondaatje), Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1994 And Other Stories, Vancouver: Talonbooks, 2001 The 2008 Griffin Poetry Prize Anthology, Toronto: House of Anansi, 2008 The Heart Does Break (with Jean Baird), Toronto: Random House, 2009 Editor Tish, Vancouver, 1961–63 Imago, Calgary, London, Montreal, Vancouver, 1964-1974 Beaver Kosmos Folios, Calgary, London, Montreal, Vancouver, 1966–75. About A Record of Writing: an annotated and Illustrated Bibliography of George Bowering by Roy Miki, Vancouver: Talonbooks, 1989 Essays on Canadian Writing, George Bowering issue ed. Ken Norris, 1989 George Bowering: Bright Circles of Colour by Eva-Marie Kroller, Vancouver: Talonbooks, 1992 George Bowering and His Works by John Harris, Toronto: ECW Press, 1992 71 (+) for GB ed. Jean Baird, David McFadden and George Stanley, Vancouver/Toronto: (printed at) Coach House Books, 2005 He Speaks Volumes: A Biography of George Bowering by Rebecca Wigod, Vancouver: Talonbooks, 2018 External links Author's website George Bowering at the Parliament of Canada website George Bowering's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia Griffin Poetry Prize biography Griffin Poetry Prize reading, including video clip The Holy Life of the Intellect link provides transcription & audio for an essay Bowering first read on National Public Radio (NPR) "Weekend Edition" on August 19, 2007 Canadian Poetry Online: George Bowering - Biography and 6 poems (Van. Can., Hillside Sun, Musing on Some Poets, Wolf Between the Trees, There is, How Odd Men Are Really) Judith Fitzgerald and George Bowering in an Excellent Conversation on Poetry & Poetics Archives of George Bowering (George Bowering fonds, R11712) are held at Library and Archives Canada 1935 births Living people Canadian agnostics Canadian male novelists 20th-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian male writers Canadian male poets 21st-century Canadian poets Canadian historians Historians of Canada Members of the Order of British Columbia Officers of the Order of Canada Simon Fraser University faculty People from Penticton Writers from British Columbia Canadian Parliamentary Poets Laureate Governor General's Award-winning fiction writers Governor General's Award-winning poets University of British Columbia alumni 20th-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian male writers Canadian male non-fiction writers	[ -0.09826118499040604, 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250332	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi%20917	Hitachi 917	The Hitachi 917 is an automated biochemistry analyser used by medical laboratories to process biological fluid specimens, such as urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and most commonly, blood. Manufactured by Boehringer Mannheim, the Hitachi 917 is a commonly used routine chemical bichromatic analyser. Capable of doing 1200 test/hour with ISE, it is a popular choice among small to medium size laboratories. Appearance and use The 917 has two trays for racks, plus a stat rack. Racks that hold five test tubes slide in on the left side of the machine. There are two reagents carousels on the right side of the 917. In the centre, towards the back, are the reaction vessels, where the chemical reactions take place. Features at a glance Type:Chemistry Analyzer Parameters: 86 analytes Method: Spectrophotometric Method. Weight: 455 kilos W x D x H: 60x30x44 inches / 152x76x112 cm Tests available Ion selective electrodes (e.g. Na, K, Cl) Rate (e.g. creatine kinase) End point Immunoturbidity See also Medical technologist Laboratory equipment	[ 0.10560230910778046, 0.26398682594299316, 0.1054181233048439, 0.03978317230939865, -0.19487570226192474, 0.18795724213123322, -0.037713393568992615, 0.0286311823874712, 0.20116914808750153, 0.24400460720062256, -0.15655390918254852, 0.2785138785839081, -0.07989072054624557, 0.23703280091285706, 0.41516926884651184, -0.16612787544727325, 0.5260859727859497, 0.27794554829597473, 0.45559507608413696, 0.0840378925204277, 0.01691320724785328, -0.3941812813282013, 0.18813489377498627, -0.6274451613426208, 0.21538591384887695, 0.19191546738147736, 0.5293915867805481, 0.33556631207466125, -0.2992502748966217, 0.04149352014064789, -0.003378125373274088, 0.4006645381450653, -0.09980985522270203, -0.35540375113487244, 0.007203951943665743, 0.1704256534576416, 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250335	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Maclennan%2C%20Baron%20Maclennan%20of%20Rogart	Robert Maclennan, Baron Maclennan of Rogart	Robert Adam Ross Maclennan, Baron Maclennan of Rogart, (26 June 1936 – 18 January 2020) was a British Liberal Democrat politician and life peer. He was the last leader of the Social Democratic Party (SDP), serving during the negotiations that led to its merger with the Liberal Party in 1988. He then became joint interim leader of the new party, known as the Social and Liberal Democrats (SLD) and later as the Liberal Democrats. He served as a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1966 to 2001, when he was elevated to the House of Lords. Early life MacLennan's father, Sir Hector MacLennan, was a renowned gynaecologist and obstetrician. His mother, Isabel Margaret (née Adam), was a physician and public health activist. He was educated at Glasgow Academy; Balliol College, Oxford; Trinity College, Cambridge; and Columbia University, New York City. He was the brother of actor and director David MacLennan, actress and writer Elizabeth MacLennan, and Kenneth MacLennan. In Parliament He became Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Caithness and Sutherland in 1966, and serving until 1997; and for Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross after boundary changes, from 1997 to 2001. He was first elected as a member of the Labour Party and served as a junior minister in the Labour government of 1974–1979, but in 1981 defected to become a founder member of the SDP. He was one of the few SDP MPs to keep their seats in the 1983 general election. After his stint as SDP Leader in 1988, he served as a front bench spokesman for the Liberal Democrats, and as their president from 1994 until 1998. He was appointed to the Privy Council in 1997. After his retirement at the 2001 general election, he was raised to the House of Lords, created a life peer as Baron Maclennan of Rogart, of Rogart in Sutherland. He was the party's Cabinet Office and Scotland spokesman in the House of Lords until 2015. Personal life and death Maclennan married Helen Noyes (née Cutter), an American teacher, in 1968, and they had two sons, in addition to a son from her previous marriage. Maclennan died on 16 January 2020, at age 83. References External links Lord Maclennan of Rogart profile at the site of Liberal Democrats \|- \|- \|- \|- 1936 births 2020 deaths Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Leaders of the Liberal Democrats (UK) Liberal Democrats (UK) life peers Members of the Fabian Society Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Highland constituencies Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People educated at the Glasgow Academy Politicians from Glasgow Presidents of the Liberal Democrats (UK) Scottish Labour MPs Scottish Liberal Democrat MPs Social Democratic Party (UK) MPs for Scottish constituencies UK MPs 1966–1970 UK MPs 1970–1974 UK MPs 1974 UK MPs 1974–1979 UK MPs 1979–1983 UK MPs 1983–1987 UK MPs 1987–1992 UK MPs 1992–1997 UK MPs 1997–2001	[ -0.8492295145988464, 0.3396965563297272, -0.0136294299736619, -0.7811142206192017, 0.13780677318572998, 0.13343073427677155, 0.6921197772026062, -0.1913357526063919, -0.1738349050283432, 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250336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMP%20file%20format	BMP file format	The BMP file format, also known as bitmap image file, device independent bitmap (DIB) file format and bitmap, is a raster graphics image file format used to store bitmap digital images, independently of the display device (such as a graphics adapter), especially on Microsoft Windows and OS/2 operating systems. The BMP file format is capable of storing two-dimensional digital images both monochrome and color, in various color depths, and optionally with data compression, alpha channels, and color profiles. The Windows Metafile (WMF) specification covers the BMP file format. Device-independent bitmaps and the BMP file format Microsoft has defined a particular representation of color bitmaps of different color depths, as an aid to exchanging bitmaps between devices and applications with a variety of internal representations. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the file format for them is called DIB file format or BMP image file format. According to Microsoft support: A device-independent bitmap (DIB) is a format used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another (hence, the device-independent part of the name). A DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object (created by an application...). A DIB is normally transported in metafiles (usually using the StretchDIBits() function), BMP files, and the Clipboard ( data format). The following sections discuss the data stored in the BMP file or DIB in detail. This is the standard BMP file format. Some applications create bitmap image files which are not compliant with the Microsoft documentation. Also, not all fields are used; a value of 0 will be found in these unused fields. File structure The bitmap image file consists of fixed-size structures (headers) as well as variable-sized structures appearing in a predetermined sequence. Many different versions of some of these structures can appear in the file, due to the long evolution of this file format. Referring to the diagram 1, the bitmap file is composed of structures in the following order: DIBs in memory A bitmap image file loaded into memory becomes a DIB data structure – an important component of the Windows GDI API. The in-memory DIB data structure is almost the same as the BMP file format, but it does not contain the 14-byte bitmap file header and begins with the DIB header. For DIBs loaded in memory, the color table can also consist of 16-bit entries that constitute indexes to the currently realized palette (an additional level of indirection), instead of explicit RGB color definitions. In all cases, the pixel array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In non-packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should be located immediately after the color table and before the gap1 and pixel array (unlike in diag. 1). When the size of gap1 and gap2 is zero, the in-memory DIB data structure is customarily referred to as "packed DIB" and can be referred to by a single pointer pointing to the beginning of the DIB header. In all cases, the pixel array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In some cases it may be necessary to adjust the number of entries in the color table in order to force the memory address of the pixel array to a multiple of 4 bytes. For "packed DIBs" loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should immediately follow the pixel array, as depicted in diag. 1 (with gap1=0 and gap2=0). "Packed DIBs" are required by Windows clipboard API functions as well as by some Windows patterned brush and resource functions. Bitmap file header This block of bytes is at the start of the file and is used to identify the file. A typical application reads this block first to ensure that the file is actually a BMP file and that it is not damaged. The first 2 bytes of the BMP file format are the character "B" then the character "M" in ASCII encoding. All of the integer values are stored in little-endian format (i.e. least-significant byte first). DIB header (bitmap information header) This block of bytes tells the application detailed information about the image, which will be used to display the image on the screen. The block also matches the header used internally by Windows and OS/2 and has several different variants. All of them contain a dword (32-bit) field, specifying their size, so that an application can easily determine which header is used in the image. The reason that there are different headers is that Microsoft extended the DIB format several times. The new extended headers can be used with some GDI functions instead of the older ones, providing more functionality. Since the GDI supports a function for loading bitmap files, typical Windows applications use that functionality. One consequence of this is that for such applications, the BMP formats that they support match the formats supported by the Windows version being run. See the table below for more information. The Windows 2.x BITMAPCOREHEADER differs from the OS/2 1.x BITMAPCOREHEADER (shown in the table above) in the one detail that the image width and height fields are signed integers, not unsigned. Versions after only add fields to the end of the header of the previous version. For example: adds fields to , and adds fields to . An integrated alpha channel has been introduced with the undocumented and with the documented (since Windows 95) and is used within Windows XP logon and theme system as well as Microsoft Office (since v2000); it is supported by some image editing software, such as Adobe Photoshop since version 7 and Adobe Flash since version MX 2004 (then known as Macromedia Flash). It is also supported by GIMP, Google Chrome, Microsoft PowerPoint and Microsoft Word. For compatibility reasons, most applications use the older DIB headers for saving files. With OS/2 no longer supported after Windows 2000, for now the common Windows format is the header. See next table for its description. All values are stored as unsigned integers, unless explicitly noted. The compression method (offset 30) can be: An OS/2 2.x ( in IBM's documentation) contains 24 additional bytes: The halftoning algorithm (offset 60) can be: Color table The color table (palette) occurs in the BMP image file directly after the BMP file header, the DIB header, and after the optional three or four bitmasks if the header with BI_BITFIELDS (12 bytes) or BI_ALPHABITFIELDS (16 bytes) option is used. Therefore, its offset is the size of the plus the size of the DIB header (plus optional 12-16 bytes for the three or four bit masks). Note: On Windows CE the header can be used with the BI_ALPHABITFIELDS option in the biCompression member. The number of entries in the palette is either 2n (where n is the number of bits per pixel) or a smaller number specified in the header (in the OS/2 header format, only the full-size palette is supported). In most cases, each entry in the color table occupies 4 bytes, in the order blue, green, red, 0x00 (see below for exceptions). This is indexed in the in the structure member biBitCount. The color table is a block of bytes (a table) listing the colors used by the image. Each pixel in an indexed color image is described by a number of bits (1, 4, or 8) which is an index of a single color described by this table. The purpose of the color palette in indexed color bitmaps is to inform the application about the actual color that each of these index values corresponds to. The purpose of the color table in non-indexed (non-palettized) bitmaps is to list the colors used by the bitmap for the purposes of optimization on devices with limited color display capability and to facilitate future conversion to different pixel formats and paletization. The colors in the color table are usually specified in the 4-byte per entry RGBA32 format. The color table used with the OS/2 uses the 3-byte per entry RGB24 format. For DIBs loaded in memory, the color table can optionally consist of 2-byte entries – these entries constitute indexes to the currently realized palette instead of explicit RGB color definitions. Microsoft does not disallow the presence of a valid alpha channel bit mask in and for 1bpp, 4bpp and 8bpp indexed color images, which indicates that the color table entries can also specify an alpha component using the 8.8.8.[0-8].[0-8] format via the RGBQUAD.rgbReserved member. However, some versions of Microsoft's documentation disallow this feature by stating that the RGBQUAD.rgbReserved member "must be zero". As mentioned above, the color table is normally not used when the pixels are in the 16-bit per pixel (16bpp) format (and higher); there are normally no color table entries in those bitmap image files. However, the Microsoft documentation (on the MSDN web site as of Nov. 16, 2010) specifies that for 16bpp (and higher), the color table can be present to store a list of colors intended for optimization on devices with limited color display capability, while it also specifies, that in such cases, no indexed palette entries are present in this Color Table. This may seem like a contradiction if no distinction is made between the mandatory palette entries and the optional color list. Pixel storage The bits representing the bitmap pixels are packed in rows. The size of each row is rounded up to a multiple of 4 bytes (a 32-bit DWORD) by padding. For images with height above 1, multiple padded rows are stored consecutively, forming a Pixel Array. The total number of bytes necessary to store one row of pixels can be calculated as: ImageWidth is expressed in pixels. The equation above uses the floor and ceiling functions. The total number of bytes necessary to store an array of pixels in an n bits per pixel (bpp) image, with 2n colors, can be calculated by accounting for the effect of rounding up the size of each row to a multiple of 4 bytes, as follows: ImageHeight is expressed in pixels. The absolute value is necessary because ImageHeight is expressed as a negative number for top-down images. Pixel array (bitmap data) The pixel array is a block of 32-bit DWORDs, that describes the image pixel by pixel. Usually pixels are stored "bottom-up", starting in the lower left corner, going from left to right, and then row by row from the bottom to the top of the image. Unless is used, uncompressed Windows bitmaps also can be stored from the top to bottom, when the Image Height value is negative. In the original OS/2 DIB, the only four legal values of color depth were 1, 4, 8, and 24 bits per pixel (bpp). Contemporary DIB Headers allow pixel formats with 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 and 32 bits per pixel (bpp). GDI+ also permits 64 bits per pixel. Padding bytes (not necessarily 0) must be appended to the end of the rows in order to bring up the length of the rows to a multiple of four bytes. When the pixel array is loaded into memory, each row must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4. This address/offset restriction is mandatory only for Pixel Arrays loaded in memory. For file storage purposes, only the size of each row must be a multiple of 4 bytes while the file offset can be arbitrary. A 24-bit bitmap with Width=1, would have 3 bytes of data per row (blue, green, red) and 1 byte of padding, while Width=2 would have 6 bytes of data and 2 bytes of padding, Width=3 would have 9 bytes of data and 3 bytes of padding, and Width=4 would have 12 bytes of data and no padding. Compression Indexed color images may be compressed with 4-bit or 8-bit RLE or Huffman 1D algorithm. OS/2 2 24bpp images may be compressed with the 24-bit RLE algorithm. The 16bpp and 32bpp images are always stored uncompressed. Note that images in all color depths can be stored without compression if so desired. Pixel format The 1-bit per pixel (1bpp) format supports 2 distinct colors, (for example: black and white). The pixel values are stored in each bit, with the first (left-most) pixel in the most-significant bit of the first byte. Each bit is an index into a table of 2 colors. An unset bit will refer to the first color table entry, and a set bit will refer to the last (second) color table entry. The 2-bit per pixel (2bpp) format supports 4 distinct colors and stores 4 pixels per 1 byte, the left-most pixel being in the two most significant bits (Windows CE only:). Each pixel value is a 2-bit index into a table of up to 4 colors. The 4-bit per pixel (4bpp) format supports 16 distinct colors and stores 2 pixels per 1 byte, the left-most pixel being in the more significant nibble. Each pixel value is a 4-bit index into a table of up to 16 colors. The 8-bit per pixel (8bpp) format supports 256 distinct colors and stores 1 pixel per 1 byte. Each byte is an index into a table of up to 256 colors. The 16-bit per pixel (16bpp) format supports 65536 distinct colors and stores 1 pixel per 2-byte WORD. Each WORD can define the alpha, red, green and blue samples of the pixel. The 24-bit pixel (24bpp) format supports 16,777,216 distinct colors and stores 1 pixel value per 3 bytes. Each pixel value defines the red, green and blue samples of the pixel (8.8.8.0.0 in RGBAX notation). Specifically, in the order: blue, green and red (8 bits per each sample). The 32-bit per pixel (32bpp) format supports 4,294,967,296 distinct colors and stores 1 pixel per 4-byte DWORD. Each DWORD can define the alpha, red, green and blue samples of the pixel. In order to resolve the ambiguity of which bits define which samples, the DIB headers provide certain defaults as well as specific BITFIELDS, which are bit masks that define the membership of particular group of bits in a pixel to a particular channel. The following diagram defines this mechanism: The sample fields defined by the BITFIELDS bit masks have to be contiguous and non-overlapping, but the order of the sample fields is arbitrary. The most ubiquitous field order is: Alpha, Blue, Green, Red (MSB to LSB). The red, green and blue bit masks are valid only when the Compression member of the DIB header is set to BI_BITFIELDS. The alpha bit mask is valid whenever it is present in the DIB header or when the Compression member of the DIB header is set to BI_ALPHABITFIELDS (Windows CE only). RGB video subtypes The BITFIELD mechanism described above allows for the definition of tens of thousands different pixel formats, however only several of them are used in practice, all palettized formats RGB8, RGB4, and RGB1 (marked in yellow in the table above, dshow.h MEDIASUBTYPE names) and: In version 2.1.4 FFmpeg supported (in its own terminology) the BMP pixel formats bgra, bgr24, rgb565le, rgb555le, rgb444le, rgb8, bgr8, rgb4_byte, bgr4_byte, gray, pal8, and monob; i.e., bgra was the only supported pixel format with transparency. Example 1 Following is an example of a 2×2 pixel, 24-bit bitmap (Windows DIB header ) with pixel format RGB24. Example 2 Following is an example of a 4×2 pixel, 32-bit bitmap with opacity values in the alpha channel (Windows DIB Header ) with pixel format ARGB32. Note that the bitmap data starts with the lower left hand corner of the image. Usage of BMP format The simplicity of the BMP file format, and its widespread familiarity in Windows and elsewhere, as well as the fact that this format is relatively well documented and has an open format, makes BMP a very common format that image processing programs from many operating systems can read and write. ICO and CUR files contain bitmaps starting with a BITMAPINFOHEADER. Many older graphical user interfaces used bitmaps in their built-in graphics subsystems; for example, the Microsoft Windows and OS/2 platforms' GDI subsystem, where the specific format used is the Windows and OS/2 bitmap file format, usually named with the file extension of .BMP. While most BMP files have a relatively large file size due to lack of any compression (or generally low-ratio run-length encoding on palletized images), many BMP files can be considerably compressed with lossless data compression algorithms such as ZIP because they contain redundant data. Some formats, such as RAR, even include routines specifically targeted at efficient compression of such data. Related formats The X Window System uses a similar XBM format for black-and-white images, and XPM (pixelmap) for color images. There are also a variety of "raw" formats, which save raw data with no other information. The Portable Pixmap (PPM) and Truevision TGA formats also exist, but are less often used – or only for special purposes; for example, TGA can contain transparency information. References External links Bitmap File Structure, at digicamsoft.com An introduction to DIBs (Device Independent Bitmaps), at herdsoft.com A simple bitmap loader C++ class, at kalytta.com (A2R10G10B10 not supported) The BMP File Format, Part 1 By David Charlap at Dr. Dobb's journal of software tools (drdobbs.com), March 1995 Raster graphics file formats Microsoft Windows multimedia technology	[ 0.5348607301712036, -0.22186526656150818, 0.1675662100315094, 0.04571840912103653, -0.25278693437576294, -0.10669267922639847, -0.633361279964447, 0.19990648329257965, -0.3693963587284088, -0.5198875069618225, -0.4339117705821991, 0.3389942944049835, -0.5458171963691711, 0.10572143644094467, 0.38013193011283875, 0.407733291387558, 0.665493905544281, 0.16465874016284943, -0.1719619333744049, -0.4140605032444, -0.02061205916106701, -0.5517644882202148, -0.10405594855546951, -0.5600895285606384, -0.045194488018751144, -0.13508117198944092, 0.5792312026023865, 0.45838508009910583, 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250338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn%20Bowering	Marilyn Bowering	Marilyn Bowering (born April 13, 1949) is a Canadian poet, novelist and playwright. As well as several adventure novels and many books of poetry, Bowering has also scripted a number of dramatic works and a libretto. Early life Bowering was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and grew up in Victoria, British Columbia. She studied English at the University of Victoria, and graduated with a Master of Arts degree. Career In 1987, Bowering wrote a book of poetic monologues, titled Anyone Can See I Love You, which was later adapted as a radio drama. In 1998 she wrote an adventure story, Visible Worlds, which received positive reviews. In 2012, her book of poetry, Soul Mouth, was published. In 2013 Bowering worked with composer Gavin Bryars to create the libretto for a chamber opera, Marilyn Forever, about Marilyn Monroe. Personal Bowering lives in Sooke, British Columbia; she is married and has one daughter. Bibliography Novels The Visitors Have All Returned - 1979 To All Appearances a Lady - 1989 Visible Worlds - 1997 Cat's Pilgrimage - 2004 What It Takes to Be Human - 2007 Poetry The Liberation of Newfoundland - 1973 One Who Became Lost - 1976 The Killing Room - 1977 The Book of Glass- 1978 Sleeping With Lambs - 1980 Giving Back Diamonds - 1982 The Sunday Before Winter - 1984 Grandfather was a Soldier - 1987 Anyone Can See I Love You - 1987 Calling All the World - 1989 Love As It Is - 1993 Autobiography - 1996 Human Bodies: Collected Poems 1987-1999 - 1999 The Alchemy of Happiness - 2003 Green - 2007 Soul Mouth - 2012 Threshold - 2015 Other Many Voices, An anthology of contemporary Canadian Indian Poetry, co-edited with D. Day. - 1977 In Fine Form: The Canadian Book of Form Poetry, edited by Kate Braid and Sandy Shreve - 2005 Drama Anyone Can See I Love You - 1988 Hajimari-No-Hajimari, four myths of the Pacific Rim - 1986 Temple of the Stars - 1996 Radio Grandfather was a Soldier - 1983 Anyone Can See I Love You - 1986 Laika and Folchakov, a Journey in Time and Space - 1987 A Cold Departure, the Liaison of George Sand and Frederic Chopin - 1989 Awards National Magazine Award for Poetry, Gold 1978 Nominated for the 1984 Governor General's Award (The Sunday Before Winter) National Magazine Award for Poetry, Silver 1989 Long Poem Prize, The Malahat Review, 1994 Pat Lowther Award for poetry, 1997 (Autobiography) Nominated for the 1997 Governor General's Award (Autobiography) Nominated for the 1997 Dorothy Livesay Poetry Prize (Autobiography) Ethel Wilson Fiction Prize, 1998 (Visible Worlds) Short-listed for the Orange Prize, 1999 (Visible Worlds) Short-listed for the Dorothy Livesay Poetry Prize, 2004 (The Alchemy of Happiness) Short-listed for the Ethel Wilson Fiction Prize 2007 (What It Takes to Be Human) References External links Marilyn Bowering Marilyn Bowering fonds at University of Victoria, Special Collections Archives of Marylin Bowering (Marylin Bowering fonds, R15614) are held at Library and Archives Canada 1949 births Living people Canadian women novelists Canadian women poets Writers from Winnipeg 20th-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian poets 21st-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers	[ -0.22784210741519928, 0.5972406268119812, -0.7969904541969299, -0.4249047636985779, -0.15190890431404114, 0.8890377879142761, 0.8265377283096313, 0.12749914824962616, -0.10946470499038696, -0.4109981954097748, -0.08896147459745407, 0.005892133805900812, 0.35240450501441956, 0.2528732419013977, -0.09048644453287125, 0.32319730520248413, -0.28567469120025635, -0.10716087371110916, 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250340	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loreena%20McKennitt	Loreena McKennitt	Loreena Isabel Irene McKennitt, (born February 17, 1957) is a Canadian singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and composer who writes, records and performs world music with Celtic and Middle Eastern influences. McKennitt is known for her refined and clear soprano vocals. She has sold more than 14 million records worldwide. Early life and education McKennitt was born in Morden, Manitoba, of Irish and Scottish descent to parents Jack (died 1992) and Irene McKennitt (1931–2011). In Morden, she developed her love for music, influenced, in part, by the musical traditions of the local Mennonite community. McKennitt enrolled at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg to become a veterinarian. While in Winnipeg she discovered folk music, including fellow Canadians Neil Young, Joni Mitchell, and Gordon Lightfoot. At this time she also developed an interest in Celtic music and visited Ireland to hear it for herself. Developing a passion for Celtic music, she learned to play the Celtic harp and began busking at various places, including St. Lawrence Market in Toronto in order to earn money to record her first album. In 1981, she moved to Stratford, Ontario, to join the Stratford Festival acting company, and still resides there. Career Initial success: 1985–1998 McKennitt's first album, Elemental, was released in 1985, followed by To Drive the Cold Winter Away (1987), Parallel Dreams (1989), The Visit (1991), The Mask and Mirror (1994), A Winter Garden (1995), and The Book of Secrets (1997). All of her work is released under her own label, Quinlan Road. In 1990, McKennitt provided the music for the National Film Board of Canada documentary The Burning Times, a feminist revisionist account of the Early Modern European witchcraft trials. She and the musical team she headed would later re-record the documentary's main theme on her album The Visit under the title "Tango to Evora". In 1993, she toured Europe supporting Mike Oldfield. In 1995, her version of the traditional Irish song "Bonny Portmore" was featured in the Highlander series, followed by the 1994 film Highlander 3: The Sorcerer. McKennitt's single "The Mummers' Dance" received airplay in North American markets during the spring of 1997, and was used as the theme song for the short-lived TV series Legacy. It also saw use in the trailer for a wide-release 1998 Drew Barrymore film Ever After. Her music appeared in the movies The Santa Clause, Soldier. Jade, Holy Man, The Mists of Avalon, and Tinker Bell. It was also featured in the television series Roar, Due South, and Full Circle (Women and Spirituality). Personal tragedy and hiatus In July 1998, McKennitt's fiancé Ronald Rees, his brother Richard, and their close friend Gregory Cook drowned in a boating accident on Georgian Bay. She was deeply affected by the event, and she founded the Cook-Rees Memorial Fund for Water Search and Safety in the same year. At the time of the incident, she was working on a live album of two performances called Live in Paris and Toronto. The proceeds from this album were donated to the newly created memorial fund, totalling some three million dollars. After the release of the live album, McKennitt decided that she would substantially reduce the number of her public performances, and she did not release any new recordings until the studio album An Ancient Muse in 2006. Return to music: 2006–present During 2005, McKennitt began work on the album that would become An Ancient Muse, her seventh full-length studio album, released in November 2006. In September 2006, she performed live at the Alhambra. The performance premiered on PBS and in August 2007 was released on a three-disc DVD/CD set titled Nights from the Alhambra. In 2008, McKennitt wrote and composed a song she titled "To The Fairies They Draw Near" as the theme song for Disney's direct-to-video animated film Tinker Bell. She also provided the narration for the film. In early 2008, she returned to Peter Gabriel's Real World Studios to record A Midwinter Night’s Dream, an extended version of her 1995 mini-album A Winter Garden: Five Songs for the Season. The album was released on October 28, 2008. Since the release of An Ancient Muse, McKennitt has toured consistently, with a European and North American An Ancient Muse tour in 2007 and another extensive tour across Canada and United States later in 2007, a tour of Europe in 2008 and a Mediterranean tour in 2009 with stops in Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Hungary and Italy. On September 17, 2009, McKennitt announced that she planned to release a two-disc album titled A Mediterranean Odyssey. The first CD, "From Istanbul to Athens", consisted of 10 new live recordings made during her 2009 Mediterranean tour, including songs she had never before recorded in concert. The second CD, "The Olive and the Cedar", had a Mediterranean theme which McKennitt herself curated. It contained previously released studio recordings created between 1994 and 2006. November 16, 2010, saw the US release (November 12 for Europe) of McKennitt's latest studio album, The Wind That Shakes the Barley. Recorded at the Sharon Temple, Ontario, it consists of nine traditional Celtic songs. "Every once and again there is a pull to return to one's own roots or beginnings, with the perspective of time and experience, to feel the familiar things you once loved and love still", said McKennitt. When McKennitt released The Wind that Shakes the Barley she visited several countries to help promote the album. During the promotional tour she performed an hour-long concert in the studios of German radio station SWR1, accompanied only by Brian Hughes (guitars) and Caroline Lavelle (cello) who have long been part of her tours and recordings. This live concert was released on CD in 2011. Called Troubadours on the Rhine, the album was nominated for a 2012 Grammy for Best New Age Album. On November 30, 2012, McKennitt lent her support to Kate Winslet's Golden Hat Foundation together with Tim Janis, Sarah McLachlan, Andrea Corr, Hayley Westenra, the Sleepy Man Banjo Boys, Dawn Kenney, Jana Mashonee, Amy Petty, and a choir, along with others, performing on "The American Christmas Carol" concert at Carnegie Hall. McKennitt's 10th studio album, Lost Souls, was released on May 11, 2018. She planned a tour to support the album's release in 2018 and 2019. She had a small acting role in the 2018 film Road to the Lemon Grove, as the voice of God. In 2019, McKennitt released the live album Live at the Royal Albert Hall, recorded earlier that year in London. Legacy Genre McKennitt's music has generally been classified as World or Celtic music even though it contains aspects and characteristics of music from around the globe and is sometimes classified as folk music in record stores. McKennitt is occasionally compared to Enya, but McKennitt's music is more grounded in traditional and classical invocations, using literary works as sources of lyrics and springboards for interpretation such as "The Lady of Shalott" by Lord Tennyson, "Prospero's Speech" (the final soliloquy in William Shakespeare's The Tempest), the Northumbrian murder ballad "The Twa Sisters" (which inspired "The Bonny Swans" on The Mask and Mirror), "Snow" by Archibald Lampman, "Dark Night of the Soul" by St. John of the Cross, Dante's Inferno, William Blake's "Lullaby", Yeats' "The Stolen Child," "The English Ladye and the Knight" by Sir Walter Scott, and "The Highwayman" by Alfred Noyes. Influences Before McKennitt composes any music, she engages in considerable research on a specific subject which then forms the general concept of the album. Before creating Elemental and Parallel Dreams, she travelled to Ireland for inspiration from the country's history, folklore, geography and culture. The album The Mask and Mirror was preceded by research in Spain where she studied Galicia, a Celtic section of Spain, along with its abundant Arabic roots. The result was an album that included elements of Celtic and Arabic music. According to the jacket notes, her album An Ancient Muse was inspired by travels among and reading about the various cultures along the Silk Road. Documentaries Late in the 1990s, McKennitt created No Journey's End, a half-hour documentary, for American television in which she discussed the influences behind her music. No Journey's End contained excerpts from several songs from the albums Parallel Dreams, The Visit, and The Mask and Mirror It also shows live performances of the songs "The Lady of Shalott", "Santiago", and "The Dark Night of the Soul". It was later released on DVD and VHS, the former also containing music videos for "The Mummers' Dance" and "The Bonny Swans." A bonus copy of the DVD was included with the 2004 remastered versions of McKennitt's CDs. In 2008, McKennitt released A Moveable Musical Feast, based on her 2007 An Ancient Muse tour. The DVD included interviews with McKennitt, her band, crew, fans and professional colleagues from the Canadian music industry. Court case In 2005, McKennitt was involved in an acrimonious court case in England when her former friend and employee, Niema Ash, published a book, Travels with Loreena McKennitt: My Life as a Friend, that contained intimate details of their friendship. McKennitt argued that much of the book contained confidential personal information that Ash had no right to publish. The English courts found that there had indeed been a breach of confidence and a misuse of McKennitt's private information, and the case is likely to set important precedents in the law of England and Wales on the privacy of public figures. The House of Lords affirmed the lower court's decisions in 2007. Honours Juno Award, Best Roots/Traditional Album 1992, for The Visit Juno Award, Best Roots/Traditional Album 1994, for The Mask and Mirror Billboard Music Award for International Achievement, 1997 Honorary Doctor of Letters, Wilfrid Laurier University, 2002 Honorary Doctor of Laws, University of Manitoba, June 2005 Canadian Ambassador, Hans Christian Andersen Bicentenary, June 2005 Honorary Doctor of Laws, Queen's University, October 2005 Investiture as Honorary Colonel, 435 Transport and Rescue Squadron, Royal Canadian Air Force, December 2006 Nominated for a Grammy award, Best Contemporary World Music Album, in 2007 Western Canadian Music Awards Lifetime Achievement Award, September 2009 Performed at Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics, Opening Ceremonies, February 12, 2010 Honorary Bachelor of Applied Business, George Brown College, June 2010 Nominated for a Grammy award, Best New Age Album, in 2012 Appointment as Honorary Colonel of the Royal Canadian Air Force, September 2014 Awards and decorations McKennitt's personal awards and decorations include the following: Quinlan Road Quinlan Road is an independent record label founded in 1985 and based in Stratford, Ontario, Canada. It is owned and operated by its sole artist, Loreena McKennitt. Quinlan Road started out at McKennitt's home where she sold recordings by mail order. Today Quinlan Road music is distributed internationally by Verve Records, Universal Music Group, Keltia Musique, and SPV GmbH. Discography Studio albums Live albums EPs Compilations Boxed sets Singles Videos The Mummers' Dance (1997) The Bonny Swans Nights from the Alhambra (2007, live concert in Spain premiered on PBS) A Moveable Musical Feast (2008, a tour documentary from Loreena's 2007 North American Tour) Other No Journey’s End (half-hour profile, aired on PBS; DVD) Heaven on Earth (TV movie 1987 – played "Lady Traveler") Highlander III: The Sorcerer (Soundtrack contribution) The Santa Clause (Soundtrack contribution, "The Bells of Christmas") Léolo (Soundtrack contribution) Una casa con vista al mar (Soundtrack contribution) The Mists of Avalon (Soundtrack use) The Burning Times (Soundtrack contribution) Due South (Soundtrack use) Northern Exposure (Soundtrack use) Tinker Bell (Direct-to-DVD movie, 2008 – Narrator) Soldier (Soundtrack use) See also Eileen McGann – fellow Irish-Canadian female Celtic folksinger. During McKennitt's early career McGann played many of the same venues, and they appeared together on several early compilation recordings. List of ambient music artists References External links Loreena McKennitt interview from the Echoes public radio show 1957 births Canadian folk musicians Canadian harpists Canadian keyboardists Canadian women pianists Canadian singer-songwriters Canadian sopranos Celtic fusion musicians Fast Folk artists Musicians from Ontario Canadian people of Irish descent Canadian people of Scottish descent Living people Members of the Order of Canada Members of the Order of Manitoba People from Morden, Manitoba Verve Records artists Warner Records artists 20th-century Canadian women singers 21st-century Canadian women singers 21st-century Canadian pianists Canadian women record producers	[ 0.0877344161272049, 0.4089420735836029, -0.7029955983161926, -0.22577960789203644, 0.08481651544570923, 0.38497963547706604, 0.7764726877212524, -0.002586083486676216, -0.14153644442558289, -0.37800031900405884, -0.4808320999145508, 0.11987116187810898, 0.1532779484987259, 0.32430049777030945, 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250344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20Lockyer	Norman Lockyer	Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer (17 May 1836 – 16 August 1920) was an English scientist and astronomer. Along with the French scientist Pierre Janssen, he is credited with discovering the gas helium. Lockyer also is remembered for being the founder and first editor of the influential journal Nature. Biography Lockyer was born in Rugby, Warwickshire. His early introduction to science was through his father, who was a pioneer of the electric telegraph. After a conventional schooling supplemented by travel in Switzerland and France, he worked for some years as a civil servant in the British War Office. He settled in Wimbledon, South London after marrying Winifred James, who helped translate at least four French scientific works into English. He was a keen amateur astronomer with a particular interest in the Sun. In 1885 he became the world's first professor of astronomical physics at the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, now part of Imperial College. At the college, the Solar Physics Observatory was built for him and here he directed research until 1913. In the 1860s Lockyer became fascinated by electromagnetic spectroscopy as an analytical tool for determining the composition of heavenly bodies. He conducted his research from his new home in West Hampstead, with a -inch telescope which he had already used in Wimbledon. In 1868 a prominent yellow line was observed in a spectrum taken near the edge of the Sun. Its wavelength was about 588 nm, slightly less than the so-called "D" lines of sodium. The line could not be explained as due to any material known at the time, and so it was suggested by Lockyer, after he had observed it from London, that the yellow line was caused by an unknown solar element. He named this element helium after the Greek word 'Helios' meaning 'sun'. An observation of the new yellow line had been made earlier by Janssen at the 18 August 1868 solar eclipse, and because their papers reached the French academy on the same day, he and Lockyer usually are awarded joint credit for helium's discovery. Terrestrial helium was found about 27 years later by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay. In his work on the identification of helium, Lockyer collaborated with the noted chemist Edward Frankland. To facilitate the transmission of ideas between scientific disciplines, Lockyer established the general science journal Nature in 1869. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1874. He remained its editor until shortly before his death. Lockyer led eight expeditions to observe solar eclipses for example in 1870 to Sicily, 1871 to India and 1898 to India. Lockyer is among the pioneers of archaeoastronomy. Travelling 1890 in Greece he noticed the east–west orientation of many temples, in Egypt he found an orientation of temples to sunrise at midsummer and towards Sirius. Assuming orientation of the Heel-Stone of Stonehenge to sunrise at midsummer he calculated the construction of the monument to have taken place in 1680 BC. Radiocarbon dating in 1952 gave a date of 1800 BC. He also confirmed the alignment of the Parthenon on the rising point of the Pleiades and did extensive work on the solar and stellar alignments of Egyptian temples and their dating, presented in his book The Dawn Of Astronomy. Lockyer's first wife Winifred née James died in 1879. They had six sons and two daughters in all. In 1903, Lockyer started a second marriage, to suffragist Mary Thomasina Brodhurst (née Browne). After his retirement in 1913, Lockyer established an observatory near his home in Salcombe Regis near Sidmouth, Devon. Originally known as the Hill Observatory, the site was renamed the Norman Lockyer Observatory after his death and directed by his fifth son William J.S. Lockyer. For a time the observatory was a part of the University of Exeter, but is now owned by the East Devon District Council, and run by the Norman Lockyer Observatory Society. The Norman Lockyer Chair in Astrophysics at the University of Exeter is currently held by Professor Tim Naylor, who is the member of the Astrophysics group there which studies star formation and extrasolar planets. Naylor was the lead scientist for the eSTAR Project. Lockyer died at his home in Salcombe Regis in 1920, and was buried there in the churchyard of St Peter and St Mary. Publications (1868–94) Questions on Astronomy (1870) (1873) (1873) (1878) (1878) Report to the Committee on Solar Physics on the Basic Lines Common to Spots and Prominences (1880) (1887) (1887) (1890) Penrose, F.C., (communicated by Joseph Norman Lockyer), The Orientation of Greek Temples, Nature, v.48, n.1228, 11 May 1893, pp. 42–43 (1894) Norman Lockyer; William Rutherford (1896). The Rules of Golf: Being the St. Andrews Rules for the Game. Macmillan & Co. (1897) Recent and Coming Eclipses (1900) (1900) (1903) Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered (1906; second edition, 1909) (1907) (1909) (1910) Honours and awards Fellow of the Royal Society (1869) Janssen Medal, Paris Academy of Sciences (1875) Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (1897) President, British Association (1903 – 1904) The crater Lockyer on the Moon and the crater Lockyer on Mars are both named after him. References Further reading - A biography of Lockyer External links Norman Lockyer Observatory & James Lockyer Planetarium Archives of the Norman Lockyer Observatory (University of Exeter) Norman Lockyer Observatory radio station in Sidmouth Certificate of candidacy for Lockyer's election to the Royal Society Brief biography of Lockyer by Chris Plicht Prof. Tim Naylor, Norman Lockyer Professor of Astrophysics Astrophysics Group, University of Exeter The 1871 solar eclipse 1836 births 1920 deaths People from Rugby, Warwickshire Discoverers of chemical elements Fellows of the Royal Society English science writers Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath 19th-century British astronomers 20th-century British astronomers Helium Spectroscopists Nature (journal) editors	[ 0.1119706779718399, 0.8320508599281311, -0.6008523106575012, -0.32086145877838135, -0.1769896000623703, 1.032427191734314, 0.7923336029052734, -0.25816696882247925, -0.342730849981308, 0.16330744326114655, 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250347	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demarcation%20point	Demarcation point	In telephony, the demarcation point is the point at which the public switched telephone network ends and connects with the customer's on-premises wiring. It is the dividing line which determines who is responsible for installation and maintenance of wiring and equipment—customer/subscriber, or telephone company/provider. The demarcation point varies between countries and has changed over time. Demarcation point is sometimes abbreviated as demarc, DMARC, or similar. The term MPOE (minimum or main point of entry) is synonymous, with the added implication that it occurs as soon as possible upon entering the customer premises. A network interface device often serves as the demarcation point. History Prior to Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations separating the ownership of customer premises telecommunication equipment from the telephone network, there was no need for a public standard governing the interconnection of customer premises equipment (CPE) to the United States' telephone network, since both the devices and the “local loop” wiring to the central office were owned and maintained by the local telephone company. Concurrent with the transfer of existing "embedded" CPE to the customer (customers could buy new telephones at retail or could continue to lease their existing equipment from the company), it was necessary to provide a standardized way to connect equipment, and also provide a way to test the phone company's service separately from the customer's equipment. The ability of customers to buy and maintain their CPE and attach it to the network was stimulated by lawsuits by equipment manufacturers, such as the Hush-a-Phone v. FCC suit. Additionally, computer companies’ ability to offer enhanced services to customers was likewise constrained by the telephone companies’ control of all devices connected to the network. As the Bell telephone companies were themselves restricted from offering such enhanced services, there was little momentum to advance the state of the art. The newly developed equipment-network separation was codified in Part 68 of the Code of Federal Regulations in the United States and later in comparable regulatory standards in other countries. The physical and electrical interconnection is called the demarcation point, or Demarc, which includes one or more customer-accessible jack interfaces; previously, the interface was typically hard-wired and often in a telephone company-owned locked enclosure. The premises-vs.-network separation in the United States, insofar as it affected the former Bell System, was independent of AT&T's divestiture of the local telephone companies on January 1, 1984. However, CPE interconnection and Bell System divestiture were part of a larger restructuring of the domestic telecommunications industry which took place during the 1980s and are commonly, if inaccurately, seen as one event. The historical Bell System domination of the United States telecommunications industry was also the de facto standard for other telephone companies such as GTE and other “independent” telephone companies. Equipment Canada The demarcation point varies from building type and service level. In its simplest form, the demarcation point is a junction block where telephone extensions join to connect to the network. This junction block usually includes a lightning arrester (which requires a wire to ground). In multi-line installations such as businesses or apartment buildings, the demarcation point may be a punch down block. In most places this hardware existed before deregulation. United States In the United States, the modern demarcation point is a device defined by FCC rules (47 C.F.R. Part 68) to allow safe connection of third-party telephone customer-premises equipment and wiring to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). The modern demarcation point is the network interface device (NID) or intelligent network interface device (INID) also known as a "smartjack". The NID is the telco's property. The NID may be outdoors (typically, mounted on the building exterior in a weatherproof box) or indoors. The NID is usually placed for easy access by a technician. It also contains a lightning arrestor, fuse and test circuitry which allows the carrier to remotely test whether a wiring fault lies in the customer premises or in the carrier wiring, without requiring a technician at the premises. The demarcation point has a user accessible RJ-11 jack (a "test jack" or "demarcation jack"), which is connected directly to the telephone network, and a small loop of telephone cord connecting to the jack by a modular connector. When the loop is disconnected, the on-premises wiring is isolated from the telephone network and the customer may directly connect a telephone to the network via the jack to assist in determining the location of a wiring fault. In most cases, everything from the central office to and including the demarcation point is owned by the carrier and everything past it is owned by the property owner. As the local loop becomes upgraded, with fiber optic and coaxial cable technologies sometimes replacing the original unshielded twisted pair to the premises, the demarcation point has grown to incorporate the equipment necessary to interface the original premises POTS wiring and equipment to the new communication channel. Demarcation points on houses built prior to the Bell System divestiture usually do not contain a test jack. They only contained a spark-gap surge protector, a grounding post and mount point to connect a single telephone line. The second wire pair was usually left unconnected and were kept as a spare pair in case the first pair was damaged. DEMARCs that handle both telephony and IT fiber optic internet lines often do not look like the ones pictured above. In many places several customers share one central DEMARC for a commercial or strip mall setting. Usually a DEMARC will be located indoors if it is serving more than a single customer. This may impede access. Outdoor ones provide easier access, without disturbing other tenants, but call for weatherproofing and punching through a wall for each new addition of wires and service. Typically indoor DEMARC's will be easily identified by a patch panel of telephone wires on the wall next to a series of boxes with RJ48 jacks for T-1 lines. Each business or individual customer can expect their own separate box for internet access T-1 lines. Demarc extension A demarcation point extension, or demarc extension is the transmission path originating from the interface of the access provider's side of a demarcation point within a premises and ending at the termination point prior to the interface of the edge Customer Premises Equipment (CPE). This may include in-segment equipment, media converters and patch cords as required to complete the circuit's transmission path to the edge CPE. A demarc extension is more correctly termed "Service Interface Extension", and may also be referred to as inside wiring, extended demarc, circuit extension, CPE cabling, riser cabling or DMARC extension. A demarc extension became an important factor to consider in a building's telecommunications infrastructure after the 1984 deregulation of AT&T as well as the supplemental FCC rulings of 1991, 1996 and 1997. Preceding these rulings, the Bell System Companies held a monopoly and did not allow an interconnection with third party equipment. The incumbent local exchange carriers (ILEC) and other local access providers are now mandated by federal law to provide a point where the operational control or ownership changes. This separation between the local access provider and the end user/subscriber is called the demarcation point within a facility (typically a short distance from the minimum point of entry). This then becomes the responsibility of the end user to extend their service to the CPE location within a facility to provide connectivity for service, requiring a service interface extension, or otherwise called a demarc extension. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the demarcation point occurs on the LJU master socket, whose wiring is partly owned by the customer, partly owned by the phone company. Other secondary sockets are the customer's property. Newer NTE-5 master phone sockets have a removable front panel: the front panel and its wiring is the customer's, while the rear wiring is Openreach's. The removable panel allows separation of these two parts and independent maintenance, and access to a test socket to determine whether line faults are in the customer's wiring or Openreach's (formerly BT's) external network. See also 66 block 110 block Carterfone Customer-premises equipment Hush-A-Phone v. 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250348	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Boyd	David Boyd	David Boyd may refer to: Entertainment David Boyd (artist) (1924–2011), Australian artist David Boyd (author) (born 1951), Canadian children's author David Boyd (cinematographer), American cinematographer David Boyd (singer) (born 1988), Danish-American lead singer of the band New Politics David James Boyd (born 1975), American composer and actor Sports Dave Boyd (1927–2017), Australian rules footballer David Boyd (cricketer) (born 1955), Australian cricketer David Boyd (footballer) (1870–1909), Scottish cricketer David Boyd (rugby league) (born 1966), Australian rugby league player Other David French Boyd (1834–1899), Confederate army officer David R. Boyd, Canadian UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and the Environment David Ross Boyd (1853–1936), American academic David William Boyd (born 1941), Canadian mathematician David Boyd (surgeon) (born 1937), American surgeon See also Boyd (surname)	[ 0.5536352396011353, 0.5815502405166626, -0.36008235812187195, -0.38636431097984314, 0.28112685680389404, 0.24834829568862915, 0.39811527729034424, -0.1356208771467209, -0.6656268239021301, -0.17654061317443848, -0.5466809868812561, 0.5971702933311462, 0.07342332601547241, 0.07731570303440094, -0.29623937606811523, 0.7518675923347473, -0.3682275116443634, -0.11835701018571854, 0.09071715921163559, -0.2871287167072296, -0.37545061111450195, -0.2909156084060669, 0.6451501250267029, 0.11359123140573502, -0.09621865302324295, -0.03633108735084534, 0.13439151644706726, 0.03860863298177719, -0.23548322916030884, 0.4206104874610901, -0.45171403884887695, -0.09733979403972626, 0.6506918668746948, 0.15873074531555176, -0.24429601430892944, 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250349	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Donelson	Fort Donelson	Fort Donelson was a fortress built early in 1862 by the Confederacy during the American Civil War to control the Cumberland River, which led to the heart of Tennessee, and thereby the Confederacy. The fort was named after Confederate general Daniel S. Donelson. The Union Army of the Tennessee, commanded by Major General Ulysses S. Grant, who later became president captured the fort in February 1862 from the Confederate Army in the Battle of Fort Donelson. This was a great strategic victory for the Union forces, and part of Grant's campaign to gain control of the Mississippi River. Union forces occupied the fort (and much of Tennessee) for the remainder of the war. A small detachment of Confederate troops made one unsuccessful attempt in 1863 to regain it. History Bushrod Johnson of the Confederate Corps of Engineers had approved the build site and supervised construction completed in early 1862. The site commanded a bend on the west side of the Cumberland River, It was planned to support Fort Henry, which is located on a bend in the Tennessee River about 10 miles to the west. To the north flows Hickman River, a backwater channel that was impassable except by boat or bridge, and to the east a small tributary named Indian Creek enters the Cumberland. The fort, which was intended to house troops and protect the water batteries from sorties, had a few acres of log huts. Like Fort Henry, which fell to Union troops on February 6, Fort Donelson would not be able to defeat a large-scale assault, but officers wanted to be able hold the position as long as possible. Engineers began improving defensive positions by digging rifle pits along a ridgeline and breastworks were built in "a three-mile arc which inclosed the bluff on the north, and the county seat hamlet of Dover on the south, the main supply base." Cannons, including a 128-pounder and two 32-pounders, were placed atop the hundred-foot bluff within the arc. Construction was started by a large force of workers brought from the nearby Cumberland Iron Works. Confederate commanders Bushrod Johnson (Feb 9, 1862) Gideon J. Pillow (Feb 10–13, 1862) John B. Floyd (Feb 14–16, 1862) Simon B. Buckner, Sr. (Feb 16, 1862) Major Rice E. Graves, Jr., Artillery Commander Fort Donelson was garrisoned by the Confederate troops until 1862. The fort was captured by Union General Ulysses S. Grant and his army during a winter offensive to control of the Mississippi River. Grant believed that such control would enable him to divide the Confederacy in two. (see Battle of Fort Donelson) On August 25, 1863, a Confederate force attacked the fort and demanded surrender by Union troops. Their attack was unsuccessful and was repulsed by the Union garrison. Union attack Fort Donelson was attacked by General U.S Grant and Flag Officer Andrew Foote, who surrounded the fort and captured it after a short siege. On February 6, Grant was ordered by General Henry Halleck to assault Fort Donelson immediately and capture it by February 8. Grant made reconnaissance, observed the natural obstacles and Confederate improvements, and knew the fort would not be taken by the 8th. He organized and had Brigadier Generals John A. McClernand, Charles F. Smith, and Lew Wallace prepare for a land assault while Flag Officer Foote moved his gunboats to assault from the river. After minor skirmishes with Confederate cavalry en route, the assault on Fort Donelson began on February 12. On February 14, a naval battle took place, in which Union ships suffered serious damage. After attempting in vain to escape their tenuous position on February 15 via roads to Nashville, the Confederates capitulated, surrendering Fort Donelson to the Union on February 16. Fort Donelson under Union control The Union was ecstatic when the news of Fort Donelson's surrender reached the capital and cities. Union forces now controlled one of the largest forts in the western theater. The war had been going badly for the Union in Virginia, but the captures of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson were promising victories. After the front line shifted away from Fort Donelson, it became of little strategic importance, but continued to hold a garrison of Union troops. Later, the fort was attacked by a Confederate force of 450 infantrymen, 335 cavalrymen, and two field guns. The Union garrison consisted of four companies (404 men) of the 71st Ohio Regiment. After suffering 30 casualties, the Confederates retreated. They were pursued by the Fifth Iowa Cavalry, but to no avail. Union commanders Ulysses S. Grant (Feb 1862) Abner Harding (Sept 1862–1863) William W. Lowe (Feb 1863) After the war The Fort Donelson National Battlefield was created in 1928, and the park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. It was redesignated as a national battlefield on August 16, 1985. Fort Heiman was later incorporated into the park. References Further reading American Battlefield Protection Program (U.S.). Profiles of America's Most Threatened Civil War Battlefields. [Harper's Ferry, W. Va.]: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Center for Cultural Resources Stewardship and Partnership Program, Heritage Preservation Services, American Battlefield Protection Program, 1998. Bearss, Edwin C. Unconditional Surrender: The Fall of Fort Donelson. Dover, Tenn: Eastern National Park and Monument Association, Fort Donelson National Military Park, 1962. Bishop, Randy. Tennessee's Civil War Battlefields: A Guide to Their History and Preservation. Gretna, La: Pelican Pub. Co, 2010. Confederate States of America. Facts and Incidents of the Siege, Defence and Fall of Fort Donelson, February, 1862. Huntsville, Ala. : Printed at the Confederate Office, 1863. Cooling, Benjamin Franklin. Fort Donelson's Legacy: War and Society in Kentucky and Tennessee, 1862–1863. Knoxville : University of Tennessee Press, 1997. Cutter, Bloodgood H. On the Battle of Fort Donelson. Little Neck? N.Y.: s.n, 1862. Davis, William C., and David Muench. Civil War Parks: The Story Behind the Scenery. Las Vegas, NV : KC Publications, 1996. Gifford, Douglas L. Fort Donelson Battlefield Tour Guide. Winfield, Mo: Douglas L. Gifford, 2008. Greenawalt, John G. A Charge at Fort Donelson, February 15, 1862. Washington, 1902. Hamilton, James J. The Battle of Fort Donelson. South Brunswick: T. Yoseloff, 1968. Hicks, Henry George. Fort Donelson. [St. Paul, Minn.]: [s.n.], 1896. Kennedy, Frances H. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990. Knight, James R. The Battle of Fort Donelson: No Terms but Unconditional Surrender. Charleston, SC : The History Press, 2011. Logsdon, David R. Eyewitnesses at the Battle of Fort Donelson. Nashville, Tenn. : Kettle Mills Press, 1998. Silkenat, David. Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. . Tucker, Spencer. Unconditional Surrender: The Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. Abilene, Tex: McWhiney Foundation Press, 2001. United States. Fort Donelson National Battlefield, Tennessee. [Washington, D.C.?]: National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1999. United States. Fort Donelson National Military Park, Tennessee. [Washington, D.C.?]: National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1979. Vandiver, Frank Everson. Civil War Battlefields and Landmarks: A Guide to the National Park Sites : with Official National Park Service Maps for Each Site. New York: Random House, 1996. External links Fort Henry and Fort Donelson Battle of Fort Donelson The Battle of Fort Donelson Battle of Fort Donelson The Battle of Fort Donelson, Tennessee Fort Donelson Battle of Fort Donelson Capture of Donelson Fort Donelson Fort Donelson National Battlefield Fort Donelson National Battlefield Battle of Fort Donelson Fort Donelson Battle of Fort Donelson-February 13–16, 1862 1862 establishments in Tennessee Dover, Tennessee Donelson Donelson	[ -0.5698661804199219, 0.7141242623329163, -0.04314761608839035, -0.1910073459148407, 0.6039465069770813, 0.2749134302139282, 0.772965669631958, 0.10374896228313446, 0.040711574256420135, -0.059477221220731735, 0.18887566030025482, 0.2444760799407959, -0.6961137056350708, 0.5528380870819092, -0.7113602757453918, 1.019828200340271, 0.17663182318210602, -0.1146317571401596, 0.6430606245994568, -0.7626502513885498, -0.20380739867687225, -0.42251938581466675, 0.5442178845405579, 0.43821075558662415, 0.9355385303497314, -0.0296513419598341, 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250355	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Siddal	Elizabeth Siddal	Elizabeth Eleanor Siddall (25 July 1829 – 11 February 1862), better known as Elizabeth Siddal, was an English artist, poet, and artists' model. Significant collections of her artworks can be found at Wightwick Manor and the Ashmolean. Siddal was painted and drawn extensively by artists of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, including Walter Deverell, William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais (including his notable 1852 painting Ophelia), and especially by her husband, Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Early life Elizabeth Eleanor Siddall, named after her mother, was born on 25 July 1829, at the family's home at 7 Charles Street, Hatton Garden. Her parents were Charles Crooke Siddall, and Elizabeth Eleanor Evans, from a family of English and Welsh descent. She had two older siblings, Ann and Charles Robert. At the time of her birth, her father had a cutlery-making business. About 1831, the Siddalls moved to the less affluent borough of Southwark, in south London. The rest of Siddal's siblings were born in Southwark; Lydia, to whom she was particularly close; Mary, Clara, James and Henry. Siddal "received an ordinary education, conformable to her condition in life" and first "read Tennyson by finding one or two poems of his on a piece of paper" that had been wrapped around some butter. This engendered a love of poetry while young and inspired her to write her own. Pre-Raphaelite Model In 1849, while working at a millinery in Cranbourne Alley, London, Siddal made the acquaintance of Walter Deverell. Accounts differ on the circumstances of their meeting: in one account, William Allingham noticed her when he came to admire a co-worker, and then recommended her as a possible model to his friend Deverell, who was struggling with a large oil painting based on the Shakespeare play Twelfth Night. Another account has Deverell accompanying his mother to the millinery where he noticed Siddal in the back of the shop. In either case, Deverell later described Siddal as "magnificently tall, with a lovely figure, and a face of the most delicate and finished modelling ... she has grey eyes, and her hair is like dazzling copper, and shimers with luster." Deverell subsequently employed Siddal as a model and introduced her to the Pre-Raphaelites. As with the other Pre-Raphaelites, Deverell took his inspiration directly from life rather than from an idealized classical figure. In his Twelfth Night painting, he based Orsino on himself, Feste on his friend Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Viola/Cesario on Siddal. This was the first time Siddal sat as a model. According to William Michael Rossetti, Dante Gabriel's brother, "Deverell drew another Viola from her, in an etching for The Germ." Elaine Shefer asserts that Deverell portrayed Siddal in A Pet and The Grey Parrot. William Holman Hunt painted her in A Converted British Family Sheltering a Christian Missionary from the Persecution of the Druids (1849–1850) and Two Gentlemen of Verona, Valentine Rescuing Sylvia From Proteus (1850 or 1851). For Millais's Ophelia, Siddal floated in a bathtub full of water to portray the drowning Ophelia. Millais painted daily through the winter, putting oil lamps under the tub to warm the water. On one occasion, the lamps went out and the water became icy cold. Millais, absorbed by his painting, did not notice and Siddal did not complain. After this, she became ill with a severe cold or pneumonia. Her father held Millais responsible and, under the threat of legal action, Millais paid her doctor's bills. Relationship with Rossetti Dante Gabriel Rossetti met Siddal in 1849, probably while they both modeled for Deverell. Rosetti gave Siddal the nickname "Lizzie" when she entered the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood circle, and "the diminutive enhanced her youthful, dependent role." By 1851, she had become Rossetti's muse, and he began to paint her to the exclusion of nearly all others. He also stopped Siddal from modelling for others. In 1852, she began to study with Rossetti. That same year, Siddal became lovers with Rossetti and moved into his Chatham Place residence. They subsequently became anti-social and absorbed in each other's affections. They coined affectionate nicknames for one another, such as "Guggums" or "Gug" and "Dove", the latter one of Rossetti's names for Siddal. He also shortened the spelling of her name to Siddal, dropping the second 'l'. Perhaps Rossetti's most abundant and personal works were his idealized pencil sketches of Siddal at homes, most of which he entitled simply "Elizabeth Siddal". In these sketches, he portrayed Siddal as a woman of leisure, class, and beauty, often situated in comfortable settings. She also became the subject of much of Rossetti's poetry. One poem, A Last Confession, extolls his love for Siddal, whom he personifies as the heroine with eyes "as of the sea and sky on a grey day." Beginning in 1853, Rossetti used Siddal as a model for a series on Dante-themed paintings, including The First Anniversary of the Death of Beatrice (1852), Beatrice Meeting Dante at a Marriage Feast, Denies him her Salutation (1851), Dante's Vision of Rachel and Leah (1855), and, perhaps his most famous portrait of her, Beata Beatrix (1864–1870), which he painted as a memorial after her death. It has been estimated that there are thousands of Rossetti's drawings, paintings, and poems in which Sidall was a subject. Work In 1854, Siddal painted a self-portrait that differed from the typical Pre-Raphaelite idealised beauty. In 1855, art critic John Ruskin began to subsidise her career and paid £150 per year in exchange for all the drawings and paintings she produced. She produced many sketches, drawings, and watercolours as well as one oil painting. Her sketches are similar to other Pre-Raphaelite compositions illustrating Arthurian legend and other idealized medieval themes, and she exhibited with the Pre-Raphaelites at the summer exhibition at Russell Place in 1857. During Siddal’s career as an artist and poet from 1852 to 1861, she produced over 100 works. Siddal also wrote poetry during this period, often with dark themes about lost love or the impossibility of true love. "Her verses were as simple and moving as ancient ballads; her drawings were as genuine in their medieval spirit as much more highly finished and competent works of Pre-Raphaelite art," wrote critic William Gaunt. Both Rossetti and Ford Madox Brown supported and admired her work. Relationship with Rossetti's family and marriage As Siddal came from a working-class family, Rossetti feared introducing her to his parents. Siddal was the victim of harsh criticism from his sisters. Knowledge that his family would not approve contributed to Rossetti delaying the marriage. Siddal appears to have believed, with some justification, that Rossetti was always seeking to replace her with a younger muse, which contributed to her later depressive periods and illness. Shortly before their marriage, Rossetti produced a famous portrait of Siddal, Regina Cordium or The Queen of Hearts (1860). This painting is a close-up, vibrantly coloured depiction of Siddal. Siddal and Rossetti married on Wednesday, 23 May 1860 at St. Clement's Church in the seaside town of Hastings. There were no family or friends present, only a couple of witnesses whom they had asked in Hastings. Ill health and death It was thought that she suffered from tuberculosis, but some historians believe an intestinal disorder was more likely. Elbert Hubbard wrote that "She suffered much from neuralgia, and the laudanum taken to relieve the pain had grown into a necessity." Others have suggested she might have been anorexic while others attribute her poor health to a laudanum addiction or a combination of ailments. Siddal travelled to Paris and Nice for several years for her health. At the time of her wedding, she was so frail and ill that she had to be carried to the church, despite it being a five-minute walk from where she was staying. She became severely depressed and her long illness gave her access to laudanum to which she became addicted. In 1861, Siddal became pregnant, which ended with the birth of a stillborn daughter. The stillbirth left Siddal with post-partum depression. She became pregnant for a second time in late 1861. Siddal overdosed on laudanum on 10 February 1862. She, Rossetti, and his friend Algernon Charles Swinburne had dined together in a nearby hotel. After having taken Siddal home, Rossetti attended his weekly lecture at the Working Men's College. Upon returning home from teaching, Rossetti found Siddal unconscious in bed and could not revive her. The first doctor Rossetti called claimed that he was unable to save her, upon which Rossetti sent for another three doctors. A stomach pump was used, but to no avail. She died at 7:20am on 11 February 1862 at their home at 14 Chatham Place. The coroner ruled her death as accidental; however, there are suggestions that Rossetti found a suicide note, with the words "Please look after Harry" (her invalid brother, who may have had a slight intellectual disability), supposedly "pinned ... on the breast of her night-shirt." Consumed with grief and guilt Rossetti allegedly went to see Ford Madox Brown who is supposed to have instructed him to burn the note. Since suicide was illegal and considered immoral, it would have brought scandal on the family and barred Siddal from a Christian burial. After Siddal's death Siddal was buried with her father-in-law Gabriele on 17 February 1862 in the Rossetti family grave in the west side of Highgate Cemetery. Later burials in the same grave are her mother-in-law Frances Rossetti (1886), Christina Georgina Rossetti (1895), and William Michael Rossetti (1919). In August 1869, Rosetti authorized Charles Howell to disinter her coffin to retrieve a handwritten book of Rosetti's poems, which he had laid beside her head before burial. With the aid of a Dr. Llewelyn Williams and two others, Howell accomplished this in October 1869. Dr. Williams subsequently disinfected the book. Rossetti then published the contents in Poems (1870). These became part of Rossetti's sonnet sequence entitled The House of Life. This sequence contained the poem "Without Her", a reflection on life once love has departed. Legacy Their home at 14 Chatham Place was demolished and is now covered by Blackfriars Station. Exhibitions and collections The first solo exhibition of Siddal's work was curated by Jan Marsh in 1991at the Ruskin Gallery in Sheffield. Rosalie Glynn Grylls and Geoffrey Mander paid a record sum for her work in the 1960s and donated the art to the National Trust. A 2018 exhibition, "Beyond Ophelia", curated by National Trust Assistant Curator Hannah Squire, ran at Wightwick Manor for nine months and featured twelve artworks by Siddal and owned by the National Trust. Only the second solo exhibition of her work, the exhibition examined Siddal's career, artistic style, subject matter, and the prejudice she faced as a female artist, whilst also exploring the Manders of Wightwick as pioneering collectors. The oil painting Self Portrait (1853–54) and watercolour Lady Clare (1857) are currently in private collections. Lady Affixing a Pennant to a Knight’s Spear (1856), Sir Patrick Spens (1856), and The Quest of the Holy Grail(1855) have all been exhibited in the Tate Gallery in London. The finished drawings The Lady of Shalott and Pippa Passes (1854) are respectively displayed in the J.S. Maas Collection and the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. Siddal’s paintings also include Clerk Saunders (1857), The Haunted Wood, and Madonna and Child with an Angel (c. 1856). Works inspired by Siddal Literature In the literature and memoirs during 1880s and 90s, Elizabeth Siddal was depicted as "a fantasy sex" object in a manner of curious cult. Her admirers include the poet Swinburne and Oscar Wilde. The artist and aethete Charles Ricketts confessed that "Oh, we have all, when young, been in love with Miss Siddal." While in the 1920s and 30s, because of the prevalent paradigms of contemporary psychology and "sexology", the picture of Siddal in fictions and poems began to change by this re-establishment of sexuality environment. She was thus regarded as "a morbid, hysterical, suicidal woman clinging to her virginity and angrily jealous of her rivals." Mollie Hardwick (author of Upstairs, Downstairs) wrote a mystery novel entitled The Dreaming Damozel in 1990. The plot follows antique dealer Doran Fairweather, who is elated to find a small oil painting she believes to be of Elizabeth Siddal but is shocked when she happens on the body of a girl, floating dead in a pond. The death scene mimics the Millais painting of Ophelia featuring Elizabeth Siddal. Doran' excited by the coincidence and mystery, ignores the advice of her husband who warns her the story of Rossetti and Siddal was plagued by unhappiness. Elizabeth Siddal, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Algernon Charles Swinburne are the subjects of the short comics story How They Met Themselves, part of The Sandman series by Neil Gaiman, drawn by Michael Zulli, and published in Vertigo: Winter's Edge #3 (2000). In it, a dying Lizzie drugged with laudanum revives the last New Year's Day, in which the trio had a train trip to a magic forest owned by Desire. The title makes reference to the Rossetti's 1864 doppelgänger painting, How They Met Themselves. Fiona Mountain's 2002 mystery novel, Pale as the Dead centres a "genealogical mystery" around the fictional descendants of Elizabeth Siddal and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Sleep, Pale Sister, a 2004 Gothic novel set in the Victorian art world by the author Joanne Harris, draws heavily on the character of Siddal and her relationship with Rossetti. In Tim Powers' 2012 novel Hide Me Among the Graves, Siddal is a victim of the vampire John Polidori, her husband's uncle and author of what is likely the first vampire story. This becomes an explanation for her illness and death, as well as for her husband's exhumation of her grave, which is not to regain his poems but is part of a strategy to defeat the vampire. Ophelia's Muse is a 2015 historical novel by Rita Cameron. It tells the story of Siddal and the Pre-Raphelites. Lizzie Siddal, a play written by Jeremy Green, was performed at the Arcola Theatre, London in 2013. Television Rossetti's relationship with Siddal has been the subject of television dramas, notably Dante's Inferno (1967), by Ken Russell, in which she was played by and Rossetti by Oliver Reed; The Love School (1975) in which she was played by Patricia Quinn; and Desperate Romantics (2009) in which she was played by Amy Manson. Art Holly Trostle Brigham has created works portraying and inspired by Siddal, exhibited in 2022 at the Delaware Art Museum, which also has a substantial Pre-Raphaellite collection. Gallery Works by Siddal Works with Siddal as a model Bibliography See also List of paintings by Dante Gabriel Rossetti Notes References Sources Further reading External links Selected Poetry of Elizabeth Siddal Beyond Ophelia Exhibition, Wightwick Manor, Wolverhampton Birmingham Museums & Art Gallery's Pre-Raphaelite Online Resource includes many portraits of Elizabeth Siddal by Rossetti Portraits of Elizabeth Siddal from major Rossetti exhibition Letters written by Elizabeth Siddal Photographs of Elizabeth Siddal's grave 1829 births 1862 deaths 19th-century British painters 19th-century British women artists 19th-century British writers 19th-century English women writers Accidental deaths in England British women painters Burials at Highgate Cemetery Drug-related deaths in England English artists' models English women poets Muses Painters from London People from Holborn Polidori-Rossetti family Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood artists' models Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood Pre-Raphaelite 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250357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvetham%20Heath	Elvetham Heath	Elvetham Heath is a residential area and civil parish, containing around 2000 homes on a site, just outside the north western boundary of the town of Fleet in the English county of Hampshire. Construction of Elvetham Heath began in the summer of 1999 and ended in June 2008. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 Census was 5,183. Location Elvetham Heath was built on reclaimed pine plantation/heathland between the M3 motorway and the London-Southampton railway line, north of Fleet town centre. Formerly known as Railroad Heath, it previously belonged to the local Calthorpe Estate. Elvetham Heath serves as a commuter area to local towns; Basingstoke some to the west, Reading is to the north and London is to the northeast. The development is located precisely midway between Southampton and London. It is adjacent to the M3 motorway, from the M4, and from the M25. Fleet railway station is approximately from the centre of the development. Nature reserve The district has a Local Nature Reserve, Elvetham Heath LNR. It is managed by Hart District Council, with the intent to move it back to typical heathland, with some marsh areas. The area supports species including slowworms, lizards, and dragonflies. Rare breed cattle graze in the nature reserve during the summer and autumn. References External links Official site of Elvetham Heath Parish Council Elvetham Heath Primary School Site for Elvetham Heath's primary school heathforum.co.uk Heath forum for residents and businesses of Elvetham Heath - smartphone and tablet friendly Elvetham Heath Forum On The Heath Local community website and forum for Elvetham Heath Civil parishes in Hampshire Local Nature Reserves in Hampshire	[ -0.09456879645586014, 0.11449310183525085, 0.7034897208213806, -1.0290617942810059, 0.6287640333175659, 0.6519442796707153, -0.004537385422736406, -0.1267273724079132, -0.30212530493736267, -0.4340343177318573, -0.18076500296592712, 0.31641143560409546, 0.23239587247371674, 0.09762516617774963, -0.9099330306053162, 0.42737331986427307, -0.08534857630729675, 0.560201108455658, 0.41941431164741516, -0.5646187663078308, 0.4067258834838867, -0.6360695362091064, -0.8204669952392578, 0.4085727334022522, 0.015400316566228867, -0.1916646659374237, 0.5046873092651367, -0.3380984663963318, 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250363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gartner	Gartner	Gartner, Inc is a technological research and consulting firm based in Stamford, Connecticut that conducts research on technology and shares this research both through private consulting as well as executive programs and conferences. Its clients include large corporations, government agencies, technology companies, and investment firms. In 2018, the company reported that its client base consisted of over 12,000 organizations in over 100 countries. As of 2022, Gartner has over 15,000 employees located in over 100 offices worldwide. It is a member of the S&P 500. History Gideon Gartner founded Gartner, Inc in 1979. Originally private, the company launched publicly as Gartner Group in 1986 before Saatchi & Saatchi acquired it in 1988. In 1990, Gartner Group was acquired by some of its executives, including Gartner himself, with funding from Bain Capital and Dun & Bradstreet. The company went public again in 1993. In 2000, the name was simplified from Gartner Group to Gartner. In 2000, Gartner coined the term Supranet. Gene Hall has been the CEO of the company since August 2004. In the course of its growth, Gartner has acquired numerous companies providing related services, including Real Decisions—which became Gartner Measurement, now part of Gartner's consulting division—and Gartner Dataquest, a market research firm. It has also acquired a number of direct competitors, Meta Group in 2005, AMR Research and Burton Group in early 2010, and Ideas International in 2012. In March 2014, Gartner announced that it had acquired the privately held company Software Advice for an undisclosed amount. In 2014, Gartner also coined the term "Digital BizOps" and further developed the early philosophy for digital business operations. In July 2015, Gartner acquired Nubera, the business app discovery network that owns properties like GetApp (a peer review site), AppStorm, AppAppeal, and CloudWork. Terms of the deal were not disclosed. In September 2015, it acquired the privately held peer review site (PRS) Capterra. In June 2016, Gartner announced that it had acquired the privately held company SCM World, headquartered in London, U.K. On January 5, 2017 Gartner announced it had reached an agreement to acquire CEB, Inc. in a cash and stock deal worth about US$2.6 billion. On March 7, 2017 Gartner announced that it has agreed to buy New York–based L2 Inc, which specialises in benchmarking the digital performance of brands. Terms of the deal were not disclosed. See also Hype Cycle Magic Quadrant CEB SoundView Technology Group, formerly Gartner Securities Corp References External links Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Consulting firms established in 1979 International information technology consulting firms Research and analysis firms Research and analysis firms of the United States Companies based in Stamford, Connecticut 1993 initial public offerings Futures studies organizations	[ 0.05569740757346153, 0.7180261015892029, 0.13626933097839355, 0.01964213140308857, 0.06967603415250778, 0.21787764132022858, 0.011870427057147026, 0.0008676377474330366, 0.1799084097146988, -0.1575930267572403, -0.5249204039573669, 0.632684051990509, 0.2722715139389038, 0.7163137793540955, -0.45404115319252014, -0.11246436834335327, -0.11621072888374329, 0.016169501468539238, -0.2658350169658661, -0.19577324390411377, -0.5100141167640686, -0.42399951815605164, 0.5268138647079468, -0.10402437299489975, 0.09159320592880249, 0.08257275074720383, 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250370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucille%20Hegamin	Lucille Hegamin	Lucille Nelson Hegamin (November 29, 1894 – March 1, 1970) was an American singer and entertainer and an early African-American blues recording artist. Life and career Lucille Nelson was born in Macon, Georgia, the daughter of John and Minnie Nelson. From an early age she sang in local church choirs and theatre programs. By the age of 15 she was touring the US South with the Leonard Harper Minstrel Stock Company. In 1914 she settled in Chicago, Illinois, where, often billed as "The Georgia Peach", she worked with Tony Jackson and Jelly Roll Morton before marrying the pianist-composer Bill Hegamin. She later told a biographer, "I was a cabaret artist in those days, and never had to play theatres, and I sang everything from blues to popular songs, in a jazz style. I think I can say without bragging that I made the 'St. Louis Blues' popular in Chicago; this was one of my feature numbers." The Hegamins moved to Los Angeles, California, in 1918, then to New York City the following year. Bill Hegamin led the band accompanying his wife, the Blue Flame Syncopators; Jimmy Wade was a member of this ensemble. In November 1920, Hegamin became the second African-American blues singer to record, after Mamie Smith. Hegamin made a series of recordings for Arto Records and then Paramount in 1922. One of her biggest hits was "Arkansas Blues", recorded for Arto and released on many other labels, including Black Swan. She recorded one of Tom Delaney's earliest compositions, "Jazz Me Blues", in 1921, and it went on to become a jazz standard. She subsequently played theatre dates but did not tour extensively. Lucille Hegamin lived at the Shuffle Inn in Harlem from November 1921 to January 1922. On January 20, 1922, she competed in a blues singing contest with Daisy Martin, Alice Leslie Carter and Trixie Smith at the Fifteenth Infantry's First Band Concert and Dance in New York City. Hegamin placed second to Smith in the contest, which was held at the Manhattan Casino. Then from February to May of that year she toured with the African-American musical revue Shuffle Along and this was the second of three companies. In the first company Florence Mills had the same role with the same musical revue. From 1922 through late 1926 she recorded over forty sides for Cameo Records; in this association she was billed as "The Cameo Girl". After her marriage to Bill Hegamin ended in 1923, her most frequent accompanist was the pianist J. Cyrill Fullerton. In 1926, she recorded with Clarence Williams's band for the Columbia label. She sang with a band that was led by George "Doc" Hyder in 1927 for a show in Philadelphia. Further into the decade she performed in further revues with Hyder that were staged in Harlem theaters. She performed in Williams's Revue at the Lincoln Theater in New York and then in various revues in New York and Atlantic City, New Jersey, through 1934. In 1929 she performed on the radio program Negro Achievement Hour, on WABC, in New York. In 1932 she recorded two sides for Okeh Records. About 1934, she retired from music as a profession and worked as a nurse. She came out of retirement in 1961 to record four songs, accompanied by a band led by Willie "The Lion" Smith, on the album Songs We Taught Your Mother, for Bluesville Records. In 1962 she recorded Basket of Blues for Spivey Records. She performed at a benefit concert for Mamie Smith at the Celebrity Club in New York City in 1964. Hegamin died in Harlem Hospital, in New York City, on March 1, 1970, and was interred in the Cemetery of the Evergreens, in Brooklyn, New York. Partial discography Style Hegamin's stylistic influences included Annette Hanshaw and Ruth Etting. According to Derrick Stewart-Baxter, "Lucille's clear, rich voice, with its perfect diction, and its jazz feeling, was well in the vaudeville tradition, and her repertoire was wide." Like Mamie Smith, Hegamin sang classic female blues in a lighter style, more influenced by pop tunes, than the rougher rural-style blues singers such as Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith, who became more popular a few years later. References Bibliography Gates, H. L., Higginbotham, E. B., and American Council of Learned Societies. (2009). Harlem Renaissance Lives from the African American National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . Harris, Sheldon (1994). Blues Who's Who. (Rev. ed.) New York: Da Capo Press. . Harrison, Daphne Duval (1990). Black Pearls: Blues Queens of the 1920s. New Brunswick and London: Rutgers. . Stewart-Baxter, Derrick (1970). Ma Rainey and the Classic Blues Singers. London: Studio Vista. . External links Stuart A. 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250374	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Life%20and%20Death%20of%20Cardinal%20Wolsey	The Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey	The Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey is an 1815 book by George Cavendish about Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. 1815 books British biographies Books of Christian biography	[ -0.5998367071151733, -0.00965961441397667, -0.2945275902748108, -0.08918828517198563, -0.05174589157104492, 0.6104155778884888, 0.47858086228370667, 0.056520067155361176, -0.31543704867362976, -0.11150715500116348, -0.2154887169599533, 0.4673936665058136, -0.04637801647186279, 0.1967083066701889, 0.23854097723960876, -0.03677020221948624, -0.046179112046957016, -0.040319040417671204, -0.23310676217079163, -0.575598418712616, 0.2803138196468353, -0.40672266483306885, 0.5402757525444031, -0.3072865605354309, 0.7359737753868103, -0.17753271758556366, 0.1203465685248375, -1.0036985874176025, -0.1938628852367401, -0.03840586170554161, -0.0058491770178079605, 0.3105226159095764, -0.08035212010145187, 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250376	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santos%2C%20S%C3%A3o%20Paulo	Santos, São Paulo	Santos (, Saints) is a municipality in the Brazilian state of São Paulo, founded in 1546 by the Portuguese nobleman Brás Cubas. It is located mostly on the island of São Vicente, which harbors both the city of Santos and the city of São Vicente, and partially on the mainland. It is the main city in the metropolitan region of Baixada Santista. The population is 433,656 (2020 est.) in an area of . The city is home to the Coffee Museum, where world coffee prices were once negotiated. There is also a football memorial, dedicated to the city's greatest players, which includes Pelé, who spent the majority of his career with Santos Futebol Clube. Its beachfront garden, in length, figures in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest beachfront garden in the world. History Early colonization There are reports about the island of São Vicente just two years after the official discovery of Brazil, in 1502, with the expedition of Amerigo Vespucci to explore the Brazilian coast. When passing through the island formerly named Goiaó (or Guaiaó) by the natives, the expedition decided to give it the name of Sao Vincente, for the day's saint. However, in 1531, due to the decline of the Portuguese crown's business in India, Brazil rose on importance. King D. João III sent for a squad for the demarcation of territories on the island of São Vicente. The captain, Martim Afonso de Sousa, discovered a small village and a dock, known as Porto de São Vicente. One of the exiles brought by Amerigo Vespucci's expedition, Cosme Fernandes, had founded the trading village, which had boomed. Miguel Alfonso took the town by force, granting land on the island to settlers. In 1543, with the completion of the construction of a chapel on a hillock in honor of Santa Catarina by Luís de Góis, Brás Cubas ordered the port to be moved to the site of Enguaguaçu, which was calmer. The town booked to facilitate the trade that was unlocked with this move. The Portuguese nobleman ordered the construction of Brazil's second, and at the time only hospital, as Hospital da Santa Casa de Misericórdia is closed, similar to the Santa Casa de Lisboa. The hospital was called Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Todos os Santos in Olinda was closed. The new town of Enguaguaçu was then known as the town of Todos os Santos. There is speculation that the name Santos would come from the port of Santos in Lisbon, similar to the location of the new settlement. Hence, the region close to Outeiro was known as "Vila do Porto de Santos", and later, just "Santos". Twentieth Century The export of coffee from the Port of Santos gave rise to the city and mostly accounted for the wealth of the city at the turn of the 20th century. Export and import through its port have made it the modern city one finds today and turned it into the indispensable outlet for the production of the powerhouse that is São Paulo State. Adorning the landscape of the port city are the canals that are over a hundred years old. In 1899, Santos was the point of entry for the bubonic plague into Brazil. In 1924 it became the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Santos. In October 2006, light crude oil was discovered off the coast in the Santos basin. Santos became a tourist city from the 1910s onwards, with the construction of the International Hotel and Parque Balneário and the construction of the beach front gardens in 1935. Until today, tourism in Santos is one of the main economic activities, mainly linked to beaches and historical heritage. Geography Santos is about 31 km (19 mi) from the metropolis São Paulo, capital of the state São Paulo, which is also the most populous city in Brazil. The municipality contains the Laje de Santos Marine State Park, created in 1993, the first marine park to be created by the state. It is divided into two distinct geographic areas: the heavily urbanized island and the continental area, about 70% of which is protected. The areas differ radically in terms of population, economy and geography. Insular area Santos partially lies on the island of São Vicente (Saint Vincent), whose territory is divided with the neighboring municipality of São Vicente. It is a densely urbanized area of that houses almost all the inhabitants of the city. It includes a flat area - Plain Coastal extension of the State of São Paulo - which has altitudes that rarely go above twenty meters above sea level, and an area composed of isolated hills called the Mass of São Vicente, the former home and endowed an urban illegal occupation with a mix of families characterized by high and low incomes, whose height does not exceed 200 meters above sea level. The flat region of the island is almost completely devoid of native vegetation, although in the north region of the island - especially in the Alemoa, Chico de Paula and Saboó neighbourhoods - there are still remnants of mangroves. Before the occupation of the area of the island by 'chácaras' - rural residences, and subsequently by urbanization, there was a vast flooded land covered by mangroves, the native Atlantic Forest, and coastal vegetation. On the city hills one can still find vast areas covered by the native Atlantic Forest, in spite of the existing chácaras and banana harvesting farms in the area. The 'Lagoa da Saudade' (Homesickness Lagoon), a pond located in one of the aforementioned hills, Morro Nova Cintra, was known to host a kind of caiman. The lagoon is also a popular destination among families in the city due to its playgrounds, barbecue kiosks, picnic spots and green areas. The disordered occupation of the hills represents both an environmental as well as a geological risk: the deforestation leads to frequent landslides, mainly from January to March, the traditional rainy season in the region. Most rivers in the island were channeled when engineer Saturnino de Brito designed the system of canals in the city. As examples, we can cite the rivers Dois Rios ("Two Rivers") and Ribeirão dos Soldados ("Soldiers Creek"), which is nowadays referred by santistas as the 'Canal 4' on Avenue Siqueira Campos. Major water courses cut the island in the north, such as the Rio de São Jorge (St. George River), which suffers from the problems of pollution and silting due to the occupation of its banks by slums. Beaches José Menino Beach Pompeia Beach Gonzaga Beach Boqueirão Beach Embaré Beach Aparecida Beach Ponta da Praia Beach Islands Urubuqueçaba Island Barnabé Island Diana Island Climate Despite the fact that it is located just outside the tropics, Santos has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af) with no real dry season. Tropical rainforest climates are typically found near the equator, so Santos featuring this type of climate is an exceptional situation. All months of the year averages more than 60 mm of rainfall during the course of the year. Santos features warm weather throughout the year, though June in Santos is somewhat cooler (and drier) than January. Mean temperatures in the city are around 19 °C during wintertime and around 25 °C in the summer months. Precipitation in Santos is very high, amounting to around annually. Santos lies in one of the few isolated regions of Brazil outside of the tropical Amazon Basin that receive more than of total average precipitation annually, although nearby Ubatuba, approximately to the east-northeast, is considerably wetter than Santos, receiving an average of of precipitation annually. Economy The Port of Santos is the biggest seaport in Latin America, which handled 96 million tons and 2.7 million TEUs in 2010. It has large industrial complexes and shipping centers, which handle a large portion of the world's coffee exports, as well as a number of other Brazilian exports including steel, oil, cars, oranges, bananas and cotton. As of 2014, the municipality of Santos was the 6th largest exporting city, by value, in Brazil by trading $4.36B (USD) worth of goods. The top four products exported from Santos were raw sugar (23% of total exports), refined petroleum (16%), coffee (15%), and soybeans (13%). Transportation Air Force Base Santos Air Force Base - BAST, a base of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in the adjoining city of Guarujá. Notable People Gylmar dos Santos Neves - Born in Santos. Former Santos FC football player and two-time FIFA World Cup champion (1958 and 1962 ) with Brazilian National Football Team Pepe - Born in Santos. Former Santos FC football player and two-time FIFA World Cup champion (1958 and 1962 ) with Brazilian National Football Team Neymar- Raised in Santos since 11 years old, former Santos FC football player. Pelé - Arrived in Santos with 16 years old. Former Santos FC football player, three-time FIFA World Cup champion (1958, 1962 and 1970) with Brazilian National Football Team. Best football player of all time, Athlete of the Century by the International Olympic Committee and onde of the 100 most important people of the 20th century by Time Magazine. Twin towns – sister cities Santos is twinned with: Alajuela, Costa Rica Ansião, Portugal Arouca, Portugal Cádiz, Spain Callao, Peru Coimbra, Portugal Colón, Panama Constanța, Romania Fernando de la Mora, Paraguay Funchal, Portugal Havana, Cuba Kenitra, Morocco Nagasaki, Japan Ningbo, China Porto, Portugal Rizhao, China Shimonoseki, Japan Taizhou, China Trieste, Italy Ulsan, South Korea Ushuaia, Argentina Veracruz, Mexico Viseu, Portugal See also Santos-Jundiaí Railroad Line 9 (CPTM) Line 10 (CPTM) All Saints' Church Santos tramways Trolleybuses in Santos Engenho dos Erasmos References External links SantosCity.com.br - Santos, São Paulo A Tribuna Santos FC Santos Port cities in Brazil Populated coastal places in São Paulo (state) Populated places established in 1546 1546 establishments in the Portuguese Empire	[ -0.036018554121255875, 0.1498703807592392, -0.04711393639445305, 0.5635988116264343, 0.42652130126953125, 0.4184238910675049, 0.38291868567466736, 0.7710978388786316, 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250381	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Physical%20Laboratory%20%28United%20Kingdom%29	National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)	The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) is the national measurement standards laboratory of the United Kingdom. It is one of the most extensive government laboratories in the UK and has a prestigious reputation for its role in setting and maintaining physical standards for British industry. Founded in 1900, it is one of the oldest metrology institutes in the world. The former heads of NPL include many individuals who were pillars of the British scientific establishment. Research work at NPL contributed to the advancement of many disciplines of science, including the development of atomic clocks as well as packet switching, which is today one of the fundamental technologies of the Internet. NPL is based at Bushy Park in Teddington, England. It is under the management of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. History Precursors In the 19th century, the Kew Observatory was run by self-funded devotees of science. In the early 1850s, the observatory began charging fees for testing meteorological instruments and other scientific equipment. As universities in the United Kingdom created and expanded physics departments, the governing committee of the Observatory became increasingly dominated by paid university physicists in the last two decades of the nineteenth century, by which time instrument-testing was the observatory’s main role. Physicists sought the establishment of a state-funded scientific institution for testing electrical standards. Founding The National Physical Laboratory was established in 1900 at Bushy House in Teddington on the site of the Kew Observatory. Its purpose was "for standardising and verifying instruments, for testing materials, and for the determination of physical constants". The laboratory was run by the UK government, with members of staff being part of the civil service. It grew to fill a large selection of buildings on the Teddington site. Late 20th century Administration of NPL was contracted out in 1995 under a Government Owned Contractor Operated model, with Serco winning the bid and all staff transferred to their employment. Under this regime, overhead costs halved, third-party revenues grew by 16% per annum, and the number of peer-reviewed research papers published doubled. NPL procured a large state-of-the-art laboratory under a Private Finance Initiative contract in 1998. The construction was undertaken by John Laing. 21st century The maintenance of the new laboratory building, which was being undertaken by Serco, was transferred back to the DTI in 2004 after the private sector companies involved made losses of over £100m. It was decided in 2012 to change the operating model for NPL from 2014 onwards to include academic partners and to establish a postgraduate teaching institute on site. The date of the changeover was later postponed for a year. The candidates for lead academic partner were the Universities of Edinburgh, Southampton, Strathclyde and Surrey with an alliance of the Universities of Strathclyde and Surrey chosen as preferred partners. Funding was announced in January 2013 for a new £25m Advanced Metrology Laboratory that will be built on the footprint of an existing unused building. The operation of the laboratory transferred back to the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (now the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy) ownership on 1 January 2015. Notable researchers Researchers who have worked at NPL include: D. W. Dye who did important work in developing the technology of quartz clocks; the inventor Sir Barnes Wallis who did early development work on the "Bouncing Bomb" used in the "Dam Busters" wartime raids; H.J. Gough, one of the pioneers of research into metal fatigue, who worked at NPL for 19 years from 1914 to 1938; and Sydney Goldstein and Sir James Lighthill who worked in NPL's aerodynamics division during World War II researching boundary layer theory and supersonic aerodynamics respectively. Alan Turing, known for his work at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park during the Second World War to decipher German encrypted messages, worked at the National Physical Laboratory from 1945 to 1947. He designed there the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine), which was one of the first designs for a stored-program computer. Dr Clifford Hodge also worked there and was engaged in research on semiconductors. Others who have spent time at NPL include Robert Watson-Watt, generally considered the inventor of radar, Oswald Kubaschewski, the father of computational materials thermodynamics and the numerical analyst James Wilkinson. Metallurgist Walter Rosenhain appointed the NPL's first female scientific staff members in 1915, Marie Laura Violet Gayler and Isabel Hadfield. Research NPL research has contributed to physical science, materials science, computing, and bioscience. Applications have been found in ship design, aircraft development, radar, computer networking, and global positioning. Atomic clocks The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by Louis Essen and Jack Parry in 1955 at NPL. Calibration of the caesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale ephemeris time (ET). This led to the internationally agreed definition of the latest SI second being based on atomic time. Computing Early computers NPL has undertaken computer research since the mid-1940s. From 1945, Alan Turing led the design of the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE) computer. The ACE project was overambitious and floundered, leading to Turing's departure. Donald Davies took the project over and concentrated on delivering the less ambitious Pilot ACE computer, which first worked in May 1950. Among those who worked on the project was American computer pioneer Harry Huskey. A commercial spin-off, DEUCE was manufactured by English Electric Computers and became one of the best-selling machines of the 1950s. Packet switching Beginning in the mid-1960s, Donald Davies and his team at the NPL pioneered packet switching, now the dominant basis for data communications in computer networks worldwide. Davies designed and proposed a national data network based on packet switching in his 1965 Proposal for the Development of a National Communications Service for On-line Data Processing. Subsequently, the NPL team (Davies, Derek Barber, Roger Scantlebury, Peter Wilkinson, Keith Bartlett, and Brian Aldous) developed the concept into a local area network which operated from 1969 to 1986, and carried out work to analyse and simulate the performance of packet-switched networks, including datagram networks. Their research and practice influenced the ARPANET in the United States, the forerunner of the Internet, and other researchers in the UK and Europe, including Louis Pouzin. NPL sponsors a gallery, opened in 2009, about the development of packet switching and "Technology of the Internet" at The National Museum of Computing. Internetworking NPL internetworking research was led by Davies, Barber and Scantlebury, who were members of the International Networking Working Group (INWG). Connecting heterogeneous computer networks creates a "basic dilemma" since a common host protocol would require restructuring the existing networks. NPL connected with the European Informatics Network (Barber directed the project and Scantlebury led the UK technical contribution) by translating between two different host protocols; that is, using a gateway. Concurrently, the NPL connection to the Post Office Experimental Packet Switched Service used a common host protocol in both networks. NPL research confirmed establishing a common host protocol would be more reliable and efficient. The EIN protocol helped to launch the proposed INWG standard. Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf acknowledged Davies and Scantlebury in their 1974 paper "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication". Scrapbook Scrapbook was an information storage and retrieval system that went live in mid-1971. It included what would now be called word processing, e-mail and hypertext. In this it anticipated many elements of the World Wide Web. The project was managed by David Yates who said of it "We had a community of bright people that were interested in new things, they were good fodder for a system like Scrapbook" and "When we had more than one Scrapbook system, hyperlinks could go across the network without the user knowing what was happening". It was decided that any commercial development of Scrapbook should be left to industry and it was licensed to Triad and then to BT who marketed it as Milepost and developed a transaction processor as an additional feature. Various implementations were marketed on DEC, IBM and ITL machines. All NPL implementations of Scrapbook were closed down in 1984. Network security In the early 1990s, the NPL developed three formal specifications of the MAA: one in Z, one in LOTOS, and one in VDM. The VDM specification became part of the 1992 revision of the International Standard 8731-2, and three implementations in C, Miranda, and Modula-2. Electromagnetics NPL provides accurate and repeatable measurements of electromagnetic parameters across the entire spectrum, from DC up to optical frequencies, which can be traced back to the SI system. Many new technologies like 5G, and the use cases they enable, like smart cities, Industry 4.0, connected and autonomous vehicles (CAV) and precision farming, rely on accurate and traceable measurements at RF, microwave and millimetre-wave frequencies. NPL’s work helps to test and validate new technology innovations and bring them to market. A 2020 study by researchers from Queen Mary University of London and NPL successfully used microwaves to measure blood-based molecules known to be influenced by dehydration. Metrology The National Physical Laboratory is involved with new developments in metrology, such as researching metrology for, and standardising, nanotechnology. It is mainly based at the Teddington site, but also has a site in Huddersfield for dimensional metrology and an underwater acoustics facility at Wraysbury Reservoir near Heathrow Airport. Directors of NPL Directors of NPL include a number of notable individuals: Sir Richard Tetley Glazebrook, 1900–1919 Sir Joseph Ernest Petavel, 1919–1936 Sir Frank Edward Smith, 1936–1937 (acting) Sir William Lawrence Bragg, 1937–1938 Sir Charles Galton Darwin, 1938–1949 Sir Edward Victor Appleton, 1941 (acting) Sir Edward Crisp Bullard, 1948–1955 Dr Reginald Leslie Smith-Rose, 1955–1956 (acting) Sir Gordon Brims Black McIvor Sutherland, 1956–1964 Dr John Vernon Dunworth, 1964–1977 Dr Paul Dean, 1977–1990 Dr Peter Clapham, 1990–1995 Managing Directors Dr John Rae, 1995–2000 Dr Bob McGuiness, 2000–2005 Steve McQuillan, 2005–2008 Dr Martyn Sené, 2008–2009, 2015 (acting) Dr Brian Bowsher, 2009–2015 Chief Executive Officers Dr Peter Thompson, 2015–present NPL buildings See also List of UK government scientific research institutes National Institute of Standards and Technology in the United States National Physical Laboratory of India References Further reading External links Official website The birth of the Internet in the UK Google video featuring Roger Scantlebury, Peter Wilkinson, Peter Kirstein and Vint Cerf, 2013 NPL Video Podcast Second Health in Second Life NMS Home Page NPL YouTube channel NPL Sports and Social Club Ethos Journal profile of the National Physical Laboratory The National Physical Laboratory apprentices Benjamin Stone MP & the NPL – UK Parliament Living Heritage 1900 establishments in the United Kingdom Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames Bushy Park Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Laboratories in the United Kingdom Metrology Organisations based in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames Physics laboratories Research institutes established in 1900 Research institutes in London Science and technology in London Serco Standards organisations in the United Kingdom Teddington Alan Turing	[ 0.6363803148269653, 0.1406005471944809, 0.09036526829004288, -0.3888377845287323, 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250389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPL	NPL	NPL can refer to: Sport Nepal Premier League, a professional cricket league National Pool League, a defunct American pool league Football Namibia Premier League, the top tier of football in Namibia National Premier League, the top tier of football in Jamaica National Premier Leagues, the second tier of football in Australia Nigerian Premier League, the top tier of football in Nigeria Northern Premier League, at the seventh and eighth tier of football in England Northern Premier League (Tasmania), a third tier football league in Australia covering northern Tasmania Norwegian Premier League, the top tier of football in Norway Computing Netscape Public License, a free software license New programming language, the original name of PL/I by IBM in 1964 Nonprocedural language, by T.D. Truitt et al. in 1980 NPL programming language, a functional programming language by Rod Burstall and John Darlington in 1977 NORD Programming Language, an internal systems language used at Norsk Data NPL neural parallel language, open source programming language by Li Xizhi in 2005, used in ParaEngine NPL network, a computer network from 1967 until 1986, a precursor to the world wide web Organisations National Puzzlers' League, the oldest puzzlers' organization in the world Non-Partisan League, an American socialist political organization National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) National Physical Laboratory of India New Paradise Laboratories, an experimental theater ensemble in Pennsylvania, USA Places Nepal (ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 code) New Plymouth Airport (IATA code), New Zealand Other uses Nuclear pumped laser, a laser pumped with the energy of fission fragments Nauru Pacific Line, the national shipping line of the Republic of Nauru Non-Patent Literature, used before the United States Patent and Trademark Office Non-performing loan, a loan close to, or in default National Priorities List, an EPA list of hazardous waste sites in the United States	[ -0.07342284172773361, -0.48211851716041565, -0.12226969003677368, 0.045564837753772736, -0.28371506929397583, 0.31757086515426636, 0.1221148669719696, 0.36416390538215637, -0.8816369771957397, 0.03503550961613655, -0.12137400358915329, 0.06451168656349182, -0.3374008238315582, -0.05699007585644722, 0.6760333776473999, 0.585666298866272, 0.3191286623477936, 0.4400629997253418, 0.3952513635158539, -0.19269318878650665, -0.2340572476387024, -0.1796315610408783, 0.342387318611145, -0.20762011408805847, 0.06643067300319672, -0.034324076026678085, 0.18820923566818237, 0.313609778881073, -0.3849523067474365, 0.19161243736743927, -0.16397275030612946, 0.014962712302803993, -0.31808599829673767, 0.16240878403186798, 0.05644787475466728, -0.09397431463003159, -0.21084076166152954, 0.045979928225278854, -0.2620319426059723, 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250392	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council%20of%20Clermont	Council of Clermont	The Council of Clermont was a mixed synod of ecclesiastics and laymen of the Catholic Church, called by Pope Urban II and held from 17 to 27 November 1095 at Clermont, Auvergne, at the time part of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Pope Urban's speech on November 27 included the call to arms that would result in the First Crusade, and eventually the capture of Jerusalem and the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In this, Urban reacted to the request by Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus who had sent envoys to the Council of Piacenza requesting military assistance against the Seljuk Turks. Several accounts of the speech survive; of these, the one by Fulcher of Chartres, who was present at the council, is generally accepted as the most reliable. Urban also discussed Cluniac reforms of the Church, and also extended the excommunication of Philip I of France for his adulterous remarriage to Bertrade of Montfort. The council also declared a renewal of the Truce of God, an attempt on the part of the church to reduce feuding among Frankish nobles. Participants The council was attended by about 300 clerics. No official list of the participants or of the signatories to the decrees of the Council survives. A partial list of some of the attendees can nonetheless be constructed. Joannes, Cardinal Bishop of Porto Dagobert, Archbishop of Pisa Bruno, Bishop of Segni Galterius, Cardinal Bishop of Albano Rangerius, O.S.B., Archbishop of Reggio Calabria Richard, Cardinal Priest and Abbot of S. Victor in Marseille Teuzo, Cardinal Priest of SS. Joannis et Pauli Albertus, O.S.B., Cardinal Priest of Santa Sabina Joannes Gattellus, the Pope's Chancellor Gregory Papiensis, deacon Hugo of Verdun, deacon Hugues de Die, Archbishop of Lyon and Papal Legate Amatus, Archbishop of Bordeaux and Papal Legate Rainaldus, Archbishop of Reims Richerius, Archbishop of Sens Rollandus, Bishop of Dol Dalmatius, Archbishop of Narbonne Bernard de Sedirac, Archbishop of Toledo and Legate in Spain Hoellus (Hoël) Bishop of Le Mans Geoffrey of Vendôme, cardinal-priest of the titular church of Santa Prisca on the Aventine Benedict, Bishop of Nantes Petrus, Bishop of Poitiers Ivo, Bishop of Chartres Joannes, Bishop of Orléans Roger, Bishop of Beauvais Radulfus (Raoul), Archbishop of Tours Hilgot, former Bishop of Soissons, monk of Marmoutiers Speech There are six main sources of information about this portion of the council: A letter that was written by Urban himself in December 1095 referring to the council; The anonymous Gesta Francorum ("The Deeds of the Franks" dated c. 1100/1101); Fulcher of Chartres, who was present at the council, in his Gesta Francorum Jerusalem Expugnantium (c. 1100–1105); Robert the Monk, who may have been present at the council, in Historia Hierosolymitana (1107); Baldric, archbishop of Dol (written c. 1105); Guibert de Nogent, Dei gesta per Francos (1107/8). The five versions of the speech vary widely in their details, and especially those of Baldric and Guibert, both of whom were not present at the council, are certainly colored by later events. The account by Fulcher, who is known to have been present at the council, is generally considered the most reliable version. Urban's own letter, written in December 1095 and addressed to the faithful "waiting in Flanders," does lament that "a barbaric fury has deplorably afflicted and laid waste the churches of God in the regions of the Orient". Urban does allude to Jerusalem, saying that this barbaric fury has "even grasped in intolerable servitude its churches and the Holy City of Christ, glorified by His passion and resurrection". He calls upon the princes to "free the churches of the East", appointing Adhemar of Le Puy as the leader of the expedition, to set out on the day of the Assumption of Mary (15 August 1096). The Gesta Francorum does not give an account of the speech at any length, it merely mentions that Urban called upon all to "take up the way of the Lord" and be prepared to suffer much, assured of their reward in heaven. It goes on to emphasize how news of Urban's call to arms quickly spread by word of mouth "through all the regions and countries of Gaul, the Franks, upon hearing such reports, forthwith caused crosses to be sewed on their right shoulders, saying that they followed with one accord the footsteps of Christ, by which they had been redeemed from the hand of hell." Fulcher Fulcher of Chartres was present at the speech, and recorded it in Gesta Francorum Jerusalem Expugnantium. He was writing from memory a few years later (c. 1100–1105). He asserts, in his prologue, that he is recording only such events as he had seen with his own eyes, and his record is phrased in a way consistent with the style of oration known from papal speeches in the 11th century. In Fulcher's text, Urban begins by reminding the clergy present that they are shepherds, and that they must be vigilant and avoid carelessness and corruption. He reminds them to refrain from simony and to adhere to the laws of the church. Urban complains about the lack of justice and public order in the Frankish provinces and calls for the re-establishment of the truce protecting clergy from violence. In the historiography of the Crusades, there is a long-standing argument as to how much the pacification of the Frankish realm was designed to go hand in hand with the "export of violence" to the enemy in the east. Fulcher reports that everyone present agreed to the pope's propositions and promised to adhere to the church's decrees. Then, after this and other matters had been attended to, Urban spoke about the suffering of Christianity in another part of the world. In this second part of his speech, Urban urges the Frankish Christians that once they have re-established peace and righteousness in their own land, they should turn their attention to the East and bring aid to the Christians there, as the Turks had attacked them and had recently conquered the territory of Romania (i.e. Byzantine Anatolia) as far west as the Mediterranean, the part known as the "Arm of Saint George" (the Sea of Marmara), killing and capturing many Christians and destroying churches and devastating the kingdom of God. In order to avoid further loss of territory and even more widespread attacks on Christians, Urban calls on the clergy present to publish his call to arms everywhere, and persuade all people of whatever rank, both nobles and commoners, to go to the aid of the Christians currently under attack. Concluding his call to arms with "Christ commands it" (Christus autem imperat), Urban defines the crusade both as a defensive just war and as a religious holy war. Urban goes on to promise immediate absolution to all who die either on the way or in battle against the infidels. He then connects his call to arms with his previous call for peace in Gaul: "Let those who have been accustomed unjustly to wage private warfare against the faithful now go against the infidels and end with victory this war which should have been begun long ago. Let those who for a long time, have been robbers, now become knights. Let those who have been fighting against their brothers and relatives now fight in a proper way against the barbarians. Let those who have been serving as mercenaries for small pay now obtain the eternal reward. Let those who have been wearing themselves out in both body and soul now work for a double honor." Robert Some historians prefer the version of the speech reported by Robert the Monk in his Historia Iherosolimitana, written in 1107. Robert gives a more vivid account, consisting both of a more elaborate sermon and the "dramatic response" of the audience, bursting into spontaneous cries of Deus vult. In Robert's version, Urban calls the "race of the Franks" to Christian orthodoxy, reform and submission to the Church and to come to the aid of the Greek Christians in the east. As in Fulcher's account, Urban promises remission of sins for those who went to the east. Robert's account of Urban's speech has the rhetoric of a dramatic "battle speech". Urban here emphasizes reconquering the Holy Land more than aiding the Greeks, an aspect lacking in Fulcher's version and considered by many historians an insertion informed by the success of the First Crusade. Both Robert's and Fulcher's account of the speech include a description of the terrible plight of the Christians in the East under the recent conquests of the Turks and the promise of remission of sins for those who go to their aid. Robert's version, however, includes a more vivid description of the atrocities committed by the conquerors, describing the desecration of churches, the forced circumcision, beheading and torture by disemboweling of Christian men and alluding to grievous rape of Christian women. Perhaps with the wisdom of hindsight, Robert makes Urban advise that none but knights should go, not the old and feeble, nor priests without the permission of their bishops, "for such are more of a hindrance than aid, more of a burden than advantage... nor ought women to set out at all, without their husbands or brothers or legal guardians." Other versions About the same time, Baldric, archbishop of Dol, also basing his account generally on Gesta Francorum, reported an emotional sermon focusing on the offenses of the Muslims and the reconquest of the Holy Land in terms likely to appeal to chivalry. Like Fulcher he also recorded that Urban deplored the violence of the Christian knights of Gaul. "It is less wicked to brandish your sword against Saracens," Baldric's Urban cries, comparing them to the Amalekites. The violence of knights he wanted to see ennobled in the service of Christ, defending the churches of the East as if defending a mother. Baldric asserts that Urban, there on the spot, appointed the bishop of Puy to lead the crusade. Guibert, abbot of Nogent in his Dei gesta per Francos (1107/8) also made that Urban emphasize the reconquest of the Holy Land more than help to the Greeks or other Christians there. This emphasis may, as in the case of Robert and Baldric, be due to the influence account of the reconquest of Jerusalem in the Gesta Francorum. Urban's speech in Guibert's version, emphasizes the sanctity of the Holy Land, which must be in Christian possession so that prophecies about the end of the world could be fulfilled. References Literature Somerville, Robert, "The Council of Clermont and the First Crusade", Studia Gratiana 20 (1976), 325–337. Somerville, Robert, "The Council of Clermont (1095), and Latin Christian Society", Archivum Historiae Pontificiae 12 (1974): 55–90 (jstor.org). Strack, Georg, "The sermon of Urban II in Clermont 1095 and the Tradition of Papal Oratory", Medieval Sermon Studies 56 (2012): 30–45 () (pdf). 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250396	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ComedySportz	ComedySportz	ComedySportz (CSz) is an improvisational comedy organization started in 1984 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, by a group of local comedians including Dick Chudnow, Bob Orvis, Brian Green, and others. Match format The traditional format of a ComedySportz match features two teams of improvisational performers ("Players"), competing in various rounds, using improv games and performing scenes. Audience members judge the results and award points as directed by the Referee. In every match, a ComedySportz referee monitors the action, awarding points, and administering Fouls as necessary. The flavor is somewhat like the television show Whose Line Is It Anyway?, though the ComedySportz organization precedes that show's debut by 4 years. The CSz format is a more competitive and For Everyone (content-wise) version of the Theatresports format, which preceded ComedySportz by 7 years. ComedySportz penalties (put in place for the audience's benefit) include: Brown Bag Foul: called when a player uses explicit language or refers to something crass or off-color. The Brown Bag Foul is infamously punished by making the offender wear a brown paper bag over their head for the remainder of the scene, even if the offender is an audience member. (In some ComedySportz venues, this has been replaced with the "Potty Mouth" Foul, and the brown paper bag has been replaced with a toilet seat.) This Foul is the "bagged" mentioned in the ComedySportz theme song. Groaner Foul: whereby any player who speaks a pun bad enough to make the audience groan causing their team to lose one point (or awarding the other team with a point), unless their apology to the audience is heartfelt enough and accepted. Example: Why does the Norwegian navy put barcodes on ships? So they can Scandenavian" Any spontaneously generated Foul the referee feels is needed to move the match forward. Although the image of competition is maintained, the teams are often dynamic, with rosters depending on which player (many of whom have other occupations such as secret CIA agents) are available for a match at any given time, and match outcomes are not pre-determined as audience voting/selected judges decide the winner. Organization CSz Worldwide and ComedySportz are licensed by the World Comedy League Incorporated. There are over 28 cities with licensed ComedySportz organizations, most in the United States. In recent years, ComedySportz has been licensed in Manchester, England (although this team originated in Chorley, Lancashire) and Berlin, Germany. Most ComedySportz cities operate their own "arenas," some with theatre type settings, others as nightclubs. Few (including ComedySportz Milwaukee) have their very own bar and restaurant. Sometimes the members of the comedic improv team also work sound and lights. The clean content and audience focused nature of the ComedySportz match allows CSz groups to perform thousands of road shows for corporate, college, church, school, and association clients each year; most CSz groups also lead corporate team-building workshops. In addition, players from some cities coach ComedySportz high school and middle school leagues, in which students perform in shows similar to those seen at the "professional" level. World Championship Teams meet annually at the ComedySportz World Championship for a competitive tournament, training, and exchange of artistic, marketing, and organizational ideas. The location of the tournament rotates among the member cities. The first world championship that Milwaukee won was in 1988. The banner hangs in the Milwaukee stadium. The first World Championship in Milwaukee’s new arena was August 4–7, 2004, also served as the Grand Opening for Milwaukee's all-new ComedySportz Arena at 420 South 1st Street in Milwaukee. In 2009, the World Championship returned to Milwaukee for the 25th anniversary celebration, and returned again in 2014 to celebrate both its 30th anniversary and rebranding of the logo. Prior to 2004, this mostly annual event was billed as the "ComedySportz National Tournament." In 2020 and 2021 due to the COVID Pandemic the championships were held online. Portland defeated Jersey Shore in the 2021 Championship match. Championship history {\| class="wikitable" border="1" \|- ! Year ! Host City ! World Champion \|- \| 2021 \| Online \| Portland \|- \| 2020 \| Online \| Houston \|- \| 2019 \| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \| Philadelphia \|- \| 2018 \| Los Angeles, California \| Los Angeles \|- \| 2017 \| San Jose, California \| San Jose \|- \| 2016 \| Indianapolis \| Indianapolis \|- \|2015 \| Quad Cities IA & IL \| Quad Cities \|- \| 2014 \| Milwaukee \| Milwaukee \|- \| 2013 \| Buffalo, New York \| Buffalo \|- \| 2012 \| Chicago \| Chicago \|- \| 2011 \| Indianapolis \| Indianapolis \|- \| 2010 \| Philadelphia \| Philadelphia \|- \| 2009 \| Milwaukee \| DRAW - Milwaukee & Twin Cities \|- \| 2008 \| Portland, Oregon \| Portland \|- \| 2007 \| Quad Cities, IA & IL \| Quad Cities \|- \| 2006 \| San Jose, California \| San Jose \|- \| 2005 \| Los Angeles \| Los Angeles \|- \| 2004 \| Milwaukee \| Minneapolis \|} Notable players and alumni Steve Agee (The Sarah Silverman Program) James Thomas Bailey (The Drew Carey Show) Joe Bereta (YouTube personality, Barats and Bereta) Wayne Brady (Whose Line Is It Anyway?, Let's Make A Deal) Liz Cackowski (writer, Saturday Night Live, "Last Man On Earth") Frank Caeti (MADtv) Kay Cannon (producer/writer, 30 Rock, New Girl, Pitch Perfect, Pitch Perfect 2, Pitch Perfect 3) Jeremy Carter (Superego) Bill Chott (actor, Wizards of Waverly Place, Galaxy Quest, The Dana Carvey Show) Jeff Davis (Whose Line Is It Anyway?, Harmontown) Jack DeSena (actor, All That, Avatar: The Last Airbender) Matt Gourley (Superego, Drunk History, The Pistol Shrimps Radio) Dan Harmon (Community, Rick and Morty, Harmontown) Dustin Hodge (producer/writer, Little Britches Rodeo (TV series)) Derek Mears (actor, Friday the 13th) Kevin Miller (voice actor) (Sly Cooper) Eric Christian Olsen (actor, NCIS: Los Angeles, Community, Beerfest) Jack Packard ("RedLetterMedia" contributor on Best Of The Worst) Eric Price (MADtv) Lauren Pritchard (MADtv) Rob Schrab (Scud: The Disposable Assassin, The Sarah Silverman Program) Iliza Shlesinger (stand up comedian, winner of NBC's Last Comic Standing; numerous Netflix specials) Matt Sloan (director, voice actor, playwright, and comedian) Ari Stidham (actor, musician, Scorpion) Jason Sudeikis (cast, Ted Lasso, Saturday Night Live, Horrible Bosses) Nick Swardson (stand up comedian, writer & producer, Reno 911!: Miami, Grown Ups 2) Chris Tallman (Thank God You're Here, The Thundermans) Victor Varnado (actor, comic book writer, End of Days) Jessica Williams (correspondent on The Daily Show , actor in The Incredible Jessica James) See also Improvisational theatre Whose Line Is It Anyway? The Second City Saturday Night Live Theatresports List of improvisational theatre companies References External links Home page for ComedySportz and CSz Worldwide Official ComedySportz Milwaukee website Improvisational troupes Culture of Milwaukee American comedy troupes 1984 establishments in California	[ 0.3966771066188812, 0.2946949005126953, 0.22693856060504913, -0.003922551404684782, -0.15788450837135315, 0.0171015877276659, 0.5395246744155884, 0.45379671454429626, -0.17271766066551208, -0.7173900008201599, 0.0865500420331955, 0.08231277763843536, -0.146208718419075, -0.0679343193769455, -0.33038076758384705, 0.10990683734416962, -0.2703400254249573, 0.22117400169372559, -0.05509156361222267, 0.15389442443847656, -0.33700257539749146, -0.3195471167564392, -0.022691641002893448, 0.08567587286233902, -0.4393194019794464, 0.3041974604129791, 0.07622118294239044, -0.0693449154496193, -0.045325201004743576, 0.07183799147605896, 0.730021595954895, 0.6225975751876831, 0.3720732033252716, 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250401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakten%20p%C3%A5%20Odin	Jakten på Odin	The Search for Odin (Norwegian: Jakten på Odin) is the project title of Thor Heyerdahl's last series of archaeological excavations, which took place in Azov (Tanais) in Russia. Theoretical background Heyerdahl's intention was to prove the veracity of the account of Snorri Sturluson in the Ynglinga saga, written in the 13th century, about the origin of the Norse royal dynasties, and the pre-Christian Norse gods. Snorri provides a euhemeristic account, in which he describes the Norse god Odin and some other Norse gods, the Æsir, as having been real people who emigrated from the area around the river Don to Scandinavia at the time of the Roman expansion into their old homeland. In Scandinavia, Snorri writes, they so impressed the native population that they started worshipping them as gods. Heyerdahl tried to seek the origins of the Æsir, following the route set out by Snorri Sturluson in the Ynglinga saga, from the Black Sea and the river Tanais (referred to by Snorri Sturluson by the names Tanaís and Tanakvísl) via Saxon homelands in northern Germany, Odense on Fyn, Denmark to Old Sigtuna, ancient Sweden. When Heyerdahl died in 2002 the second season of excavations had just been finished. Critique Heyerdahl's Odin project was subjected to fierce criticism from Norwegian academics within the fields of research upon which the theory touches. Both the first book detailing the Odin project, Ingen grenser from 1999, and the second book, Jakten på Odin from 2001, were met with a forceful and detailed response from leading academics in which the reasons were laid out to the wider public as to why Heyerdahl's theory in their view was false. After the last book the attacks against Heyerdahl were also worded in a way that was seen by many as disrespectful. The five leading academics responsible for the reviews explained that although popular literature would not normally be subject to such scrutiny, they felt it was necessary in this case, partly because Heyerdahl himself laid claim to academic credentials and partly due to his popularity. The reviewers, speaking on behalf of the academic community of Norway, categorize Heyerdahl's theory as an example of pseudoarchaeology, based on a selective reading of sources, and a lack of understanding, or a lack of willingness to use basic scientific methodology. Much of the foundation of his theory, they point out, is based on similarities between names of figures from Norse mythology and geographical place-names of the present time in the Pontic steppe and Caucasus. Comparison of these names is done with disregard of linguistic theory, according to the reviewers. Azov is believed by Heyerdahl to have derived its name from as-hof – temple of the Æsir. Mainstream linguists and historians will say that the city of Azov got its name from the Turks, over 1000 years after Heyerdahl believes the Æsir lived there. Heyerdahl also points to the similarities between the word Æsir and the Azeri and Ossetian peoples of the Caucasus, between the god Odin and the Caucasian language group Udi and between the god Tyr and Turkey, and between the Vanir (a group of Norse gods) and the word Vannic, which was for a time in the 19th and 20th centuries the name used for the Urartian language, spoken in ancient times in the area around Lake Van. See also House of Ynglings Mythological kings of Sweden References Further reading The background for the project is described in two books, Ingen grenser, 1999, Heyerdahl, Thor and Per Lillieström, Oslo: Stenersens forlag, and Jakten på Odin—På sporet av vår fortid, 2001, Heyerdahl, Thor and Per Lillieström, Oslo: Stenersens forlag, . Rix, Robert. "'The North' and 'the East': The Odin Migration Theory." Cian Duffy (ed.), Romantic Norths: Anglo-Nordic Exchanges, 1770–1842. Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. pp. 153–179. External links Bjornar Storfjell's account: A personal account of an anthropologist who worked with Thor Heyerdahl. Azerbaijan International, Vol. 10:2 (Summer 2002), p. 25. "Thor Heyerdahl's Final Projects." Maal og minne 1, 2002: Review of Heyerdahl's book 'Jakten på Odin. På sporet av vår fortid' (2001), by Even Hovdhaugen, Christian Keller, Else Mundal, Anne Stalsberg and Gro Steinsland. (In Norwegian.) 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250405	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consuelo%20Vanderbilt	Consuelo Vanderbilt	Consuelo Vanderbilt-Balsan (formerly Consuelo Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough; born Consuelo Vanderbilt; 2 March 1877 – 6 December 1964) was a member of the prominent American Vanderbilt family. Her first marriage to the ninth Duke of Marlborough has become a well-known example of one of the advantageous, but loveless, marriages common during the Gilded Age. The Duke obtained a large dowry by the marriage, and reportedly told her just after the marriage that he married her in order to "save Blenheim" Palace, his ancestral home. Although the teenage Consuelo was opposed to the marriage arranged by her mother, she became a popular and influential Duchess. For much of the marriage, the Marlboroughs lived separately and the marriage was finally annulled. She went on to marry a wealthy French aviator and continued her charitable endeavours. Her first marriage produced two sons, John Spencer-Churchill and Lord Ivor Spencer-Churchill. Life Early life Born in New York City, Consuelo Vanderbilt was the only daughter and eldest child of William Kissam Vanderbilt, a New York railroad millionaire, and his first wife, a Southern belle and budding suffragist Alva Erskine Smith (1853–1933, who later married Oliver Belmont) from Mobile, Alabama. Her Spanish name was in honor of her godmother, Consuelo Yznaga (1853–1909), a half-Cuban, half-American socialite who created a social stir a year earlier when she married the fortune-hunting George, Viscount Mandeville, a union of Old World aristocracy and New World money that caused the groom's father, the 7th Duke of Manchester, to openly wonder if his son and heir had married a "Red Indian". Consuelo and her friends were the inspiration for Edith Wharton's unfinished novel The Buccaneers. Consuelo Vanderbilt was largely dominated by her mother, who was determined that her daughter would make a great marriage like that of her famous namesake. In her autobiography, Consuelo Vanderbilt described how she was required to wear a steel rod, which ran down her spine and fastened around her waist and over her shoulders, to improve her posture. She was educated entirely at home by governesses and tutors, and learned foreign languages at an early age. Her mother was abusive and whipped her with a riding crop for minor infractions. When, as a teenager, Consuelo objected to the clothing her mother had selected for her, Alva told her that "I do the thinking, you do as you are told." Like her godmother, Consuelo Vanderbilt attracted numerous title-bearing suitors anxious to trade social position for cash. Her mother reportedly received at least five proposals for her hand. Consuelo was allowed to consider the proposal of just one of the men, Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg, but she developed an instant aversion to him. None of the others, however, was good enough for Alva Vanderbilt, herself the daughter of a cotton broker. Consuelo Vanderbilt was considered a great beauty, with a face compelling enough to cause the playwright Sir James Barrie, author of Peter Pan, to write, "I would stand all day in the street to see Consuelo Marlborough get into her carriage." Oxford undergraduate Guy Fortescue later described how he and his friends were captivated by her "piquante oval face perched upon a long slender neck, her enormous dark eyes fringed with curling lashes, her dimples, and her tiny teeth when she smiled." She came to embody the "slim, tight look" that was in vogue during the Edwardian era. First marriage Determined to secure the highest-ranking mate possible for her only daughter, a union that would emphasize the preeminence of the Vanderbilt family in New York society, Alva Vanderbilt engineered a meeting between Consuelo and the indebted, titled Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough, chatelain of Blenheim Palace. The matchmaker was a minor American heiress turned major English hostess, Lady Paget, the wife of Sir Arthur Paget. Born as Mary "Minnie" Stevens, Lady Paget was the daughter of Paran Stevens, the socially ambitious widow of an American hotel entrepreneur who had successfully obtained admittance to the exclusive New York society of the fabled "Four Hundred". Lady Paget, always short of money, soon became a sort of international marital agent, introducing eligible American heiresses to British noblemen. Consuelo Vanderbilt had no interest in the duke, being secretly engaged to an American, Winthrop Rutherfurd. Her mother cajoled, wheedled, begged, and then, ultimately, ordered her daughter to marry Marlborough. When Consuelo – a docile teenager whose only notable characteristic at the time was abject obedience to her fearsome mother – made plans to elope, she was locked in her room as Alva threatened to murder Rutherfurd. Still she refused. It was only when Alva Vanderbilt claimed that her health was being seriously and irretrievably undermined by Consuelo's stubbornness and appeared to be at death's door that the malleable girl acquiesced. Alva made an astonishing recovery from her entirely phantom illness, and when the wedding took place, Consuelo stood at the altar reportedly weeping behind her veil. The duke, for his part, gave up the woman he reportedly loved back in England and collected US$2.5 million (approximately US$75.2 million in 2019 dollars) in railroad stock as a marriage settlement. Consuelo's father built a mansion for her in London, Sunderland House in Curzon Street. Consuelo Vanderbilt married The 9th Duke of Marlborough at St. Thomas Episcopal Church, New York City, on 6 November 1895. They had two sons, John Albert William Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford (who became 10th Duke of Marlborough) and Lord Ivor Spencer-Churchill. The new duchess was adored by the poor and less fortunate tenants on her husband's estate, whom she visited and to whom she provided assistance. She later became involved with other philanthropic projects and was particularly interested in those that affected mothers and children. She was also a social success with royalty and the aristocracy of Britain. However, given the ill-fitting match between the duke and his wife, it was only a matter of time before their marriage was in name only. The duchess eventually was smitten with her husband's cousin, the Hon. Reginald Fellowes (the liaison did not last, to the relief of Fellowes's parents), while the duke fell under the spell of Gladys Marie Deacon, an eccentric American of little money but, like Consuelo, dazzling to look at and of considerable intellect. The Marlboroughs separated in 1906, divorced in 1921, and the marriage was annulled, at the duke's request and with Consuelo's assent, on 19 August 1926. Though largely embarked upon as a way to facilitate the Anglican duke's desire to convert to Roman Catholicism, the annulment, to the surprise of many, also was fully supported by the former duchess's mother, who testified that the Vanderbilt–Marlborough marriage had been an act of unmistakable coercion. "I forced my daughter to marry the duke", Alva Belmont told an investigator, adding: "I have always had absolute power over my daughter." In later years, Consuelo and her mother enjoyed a closer, easier relationship. Second marriage and later life Consuelo's second marriage, on 4 July 1921, was to Lt. Col. Jacques Balsan, a record-breaking pioneer French balloon, aircraft, and hydroplane pilot who once worked with the Wright Brothers. Also a textile manufacturing heir, Balsan was a younger brother of Etienne Balsan, who was an early lover of Coco Chanel. Jacques Balsan died in 1956 at the age of 88. After the annulment of her marriage to the Duke of Marlborough, she still maintained ties with favorite Churchill relatives, particularly Winston Churchill. He was a frequent visitor to her château, in Saint-Georges-Motel, a small commune near Dreux about 50 miles from Paris, in the 1920s and 1930s, where he completed his last painting before the war. Records in Florida show that in 1932 Consuelo Vanderbilt Balsan built a home in Manalapan, Florida, just south of Palm Beach. It was designed as a love nest by Maurice Fatio. The dream home of 26,000 square feet is called Casa Alva, in honor of her mother. Although Consuelo sold her home in 1957, it still exists. Many believe that Churchill polished his famous Iron Curtain Speech in that house as he visited his cousin's former wife on his way to Fulton, Missouri, to deliver an address at Westminster College. Consuelo Balsan published her insightful but not entirely candid autobiography, The Glitter and the Gold, in 1953. It was ghostwritten by Stuart Preston, an American writer who was an art critic for The New York Times. A reviewer in the same paper called it "an ideal epitaph of the age of elegance." Consuelo Balsan died at Southampton, Long Island, New York, on 6 December 1964. She was buried alongside her younger son, Lord Ivor Spencer-Churchill, in the churchyard at St Martin's Church, Bladon, Oxfordshire, England, near her former home, Blenheim Palace. Public service During World War I, Consuelo Vanderbilt worked as the chair of the Economic Relief Committee for the American Women's War Relief Fund. During the inter-war period, she and Winaretta Singer-Polignac (the Princess de Polignac and Singer Sewing Machine heiress) worked together in the construction of a 360-bed hospital destined to provide medical care to middle class workers. The result of this effort is the Foch Hospital, located in Suresnes, a suburb of Paris, France. The hospital also includes a school of nursing and is one of the top ranked hospitals in France, especially for renal transplants. It has remained true to its origins and stayed a private not-for-profit institution that still serves the Paris community. It is managed by the Fondation médicale Franco-américaine du Mont-Valérien, commonly called Foundation Foch. Gallery Images of Vanderbilt by artist Paul César Helleu: Notes External links A Message to the Diocese on the Action of the Vatican Court upon the Marlborough Marriage, by William Thomas Manning, 1926 The marriage of Consuelo Vanderbilt Video footage of Consuelo Vanderbilt Consuelo Consuelo Marlborough American people of Dutch descent 1877 births 1964 deaths Burials at St Martin's Church, Bladon Gilded Age People from Manhattan	[ -0.6310012340545654, -0.14498011767864227, -0.007707240059971809, 0.3137909770011902, -0.17260923981666565, 0.2414766550064087, 0.4149622321128845, -0.2698637843132019, -0.20375411212444305, 0.014129294082522392, -0.19755740463733673, -0.03221982344985008, -0.25971922278404236, 1.2970253229141235, -0.17639009654521942, 0.05720727890729904, -0.10751636326313019, 0.3178741931915283, -0.3443096876144409, -0.661006510257721, -0.35103026032447815, 0.041824258863925934, 0.08370335400104523, 0.2723539471626282, 0.05437064915895462, -0.1384751796722412, 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250412	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel%20Lentz	Michel Lentz	Michel Lentz (May 21, 1820 – September 8, 1893) was a Luxembourg poet. He is best known for having written Ons Hémécht, the national anthem of Luxembourg. External links Luxembourgian poets 1820 births 1893 deaths People from Luxembourg City National anthem writers Alumni of the Athénée de Luxembourg Luxembourgian male writers Male poets 19th-century poets 19th-century Luxembourgian people 19th-century male writers 19th-century Luxembourgian writers	[ -0.6878831386566162, 0.33038151264190674, -0.19842925667762756, -0.3064010441303253, -0.4274504780769348, 0.9345212578773499, 0.8114086985588074, 0.12730617821216583, -0.5519965887069702, -0.654775857925415, 0.0595388300716877, 0.03436578810214996, -0.1230681836605072, 0.08168453723192215, -0.015660515055060387, 0.36518898606300354, -0.11193150281906128, -0.6829336881637573, -0.18908265233039856, -0.4998934268951416, -0.37500518560409546, -0.5674406886100769, 0.38445428013801575, -0.12106846272945404, -0.14534656703472137, -0.16555997729301453, 0.23993678390979767, 0.442094087600708, 0.3034341335296631, -0.15343062579631805, 0.002670979592949152, 0.7474147081375122, 0.6887905597686768, 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250413	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Antoine%20Zinnen	Jean Antoine Zinnen	Jean Antoine Zinnen (25 April 1827 – 16 May 1898) was a Luxembourgian composer, best known for the Luxembourgish national anthem, Ons Hémécht. Career Zinnen was born in Neuerburg, in the Prussian Rhineland, close to the border with Luxembourg. When he was six, his family moved to Luxembourg. After serving as a musician in the army, he naturalised as a Luxembourg citizen in 1849. In 1851, he became the first director of the Diekirch choral society Sangerbond. In 1852, he was appointed Luxembourg City's director of music, and, soon after, director of the city conservatoire. In 1863, he was appointed the director of the newly founded Allgemeiner Luxemburger Musikverein (ALM) which, in 1947, was renamed Union Grand-Duc Adolphe, the national umbrella organisation for music societies, bands, choirs and orchestras. Ons Hémecht The following year, at the first celebration of the ALM in Ettlebrück, Ons Hémecht was sung by a choir. Michel Lentz, the national poet who was a member of the ALM's central committee, had written the words, wishing to convey a powerful feeling of patriotism. Zinnen set the poem to music, later transforming it into a solemn hymn. On 25 June 1865, on the occasion of a music festival in Vianden, Ons Hémecht was performed for the first time with an instrumental accompaniment. Ons Heemecht was adopted as Luxembourg's national anthem in 1895. Jean-Antoine Zinnen died in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, at the age of 71, and was buried in Limpertsberg, Luxembourg City. Two years after his death, a monument was constructed at the churchyard in which he is buried, paid for by private donations. References 1827 births 1898 deaths German emigrants to Luxembourg Luxembourgian composers Luxembourgian soldiers National anthem writers Naturalised citizens of Luxembourg People from Neuerburg People from the Rhine Province	[ -0.12576879560947418, 0.6008269190788269, 0.07140952348709106, -0.45663049817085266, -0.6716837286949158, 0.49260929226875305, 0.25156912207603455, -0.07476358860731125, -0.5807747840881348, -0.4961574375629425, 0.0015743040712550282, 0.28292712569236755, -0.46673423051834106, 0.41283851861953735, -0.12269365042448044, 0.15633483231067657, 0.047025714069604874, -0.3393896818161011, -0.35181725025177, -0.4567877948284149, -0.3067009150981903, -0.2831405997276306, 0.47231602668762207, 0.33366063237190247, 0.1655939221382141, -0.11984245479106903, -0.1114424616098404, 0.12686607241630554, 0.2219213843345642, 0.21805773675441742, 0.020085511729121208, 0.5932223796844482, 0.5428680777549744, -0.35678204894065857, -0.5746523141860962, 0.24344760179519653, 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250414	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God%20%26%20Golem%2C%20Inc.	God & Golem, Inc.	God & Golem, Inc.: A Comment on Certain Points Where Cybernetics Impinges on Religion is a book written by MIT cybernetician Norbert Wiener. It won the second annual U.S. National Book Award in category Science, Philosophy and Religion. It is based on material from a series of lectures that Wiener gave at Yale in 1962, and a seminar he led at the Colloques Philosophiques Internationaux de Royaumont near Paris later that year. God and Golem presents Wiener's ideas on machine learning, machine reproduction, and the place of machines in society, with some religious context. Wiener mentions some of his secondary concerns: sensory feedback in artificial limbs, the problems of human responsibility in relation with technology, the limits of machine game-playing, Darwinism, Marxism, the Cold War, the rigidity of ideological thinking, and a critique of the claims of econometrics and mathematical economics to be regarded as being scientific. In the conclusion, he brings the burden of ethics to politics, away from religion. Statements in the book are quoted in the science-fiction novels Hyperion and The Fall of Hyperion, written by Dan Simmons. References External links God and Golem, Inc. at MIT Press God & Golem, Inc. (full text), English and Spanish language Ethics books National Book Award-winning works 1964 non-fiction books MIT Press books	[ 0.0037036235444247723, 0.9450218677520752, -0.32349348068237305, -0.42784690856933594, -0.5892854928970337, 0.2040678858757019, 0.38273948431015015, 0.4386425018310547, -0.4670293927192688, -0.10726438462734222, -0.5153278708457947, 0.021168235689401627, -0.14443299174308777, 0.8113457560539246, -0.11394555121660233, 0.047313250601291656, -0.47811436653137207, 0.8516874313354492, -0.24751654267311096, -0.607618510723114, -0.1161637082695961, -0.5355556011199951, 0.205027773976326, -0.6324045658111572, -0.38156986236572266, 0.14437414705753326, 0.30165985226631165, -0.10574210435152054, -0.44473883509635925, 0.10203927010297775, -0.0429685153067112, 0.4082455337047577, 0.44183772802352905, -0.7711751461029053, 0.173526331782341, -0.1933821737766266, 0.11247427016496658, -0.33640289306640625, -0.334357887506485, -0.5266777873039246, 0.33935409784317017, 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250415	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warded%20lock	Warded lock	A warded lock (also called a ward lock) is a type of lock that uses a set of obstructions, or wards, to prevent the lock from opening unless the correct key is inserted. The correct key has notches or slots corresponding to the obstructions in the lock, allowing it to rotate freely inside the lock. History The warded lock is one of the oldest lock designs which can be found as far back as ancient China and Rome. During the Middle Ages they were used prolifically on monasteries where, because money and time were not issues, their complexity grew. Warded locks are still in use today in the UK and Ireland for low security applications, and on heritage sites such as ancient monuments and churches to preserve original features, with primary security being provided by other means such as a lever lock mechanism installed alongside. Design In a basic warded lock, a set of obstructions, often consisting of concentric plates protruding outwards, blocks the rotation of a key not designed for that lock. Warded locks may have one simple ward, or many intricate wards with bends and complex protrusions; the principle remains the same. Unless the notches or slots in the key correspond to the wards in the lock, the key will strike an obstruction and will not turn. Additionally, a series of grooves on either side of the key's blade limit the type of lock the key can slide into. As the key slides into the lock through the keyway, the wards align with the grooves in the key's profile to allow or deny entry into the lock cylinder. Although this is not commonly recognized when discussing warded locks, it is more applicable to current locksmithing applications such as pin-tumbler or wafer-tumbler locks. In double sided locks (meaning locks where the key can be inserted from either side of the door) the centre of the key shaft is solid and protrudes past the end of the bit which slots into a hole on the opposite side of the lock. Double sided ward locks nearly always have perfectly symmetrical bits. For single sided locks a cylindrical post is typically located in the center of the lock. Its purpose is to provide a point of leverage for rotating the key, and to help correctly align the key with the wards. The key has a corresponding hole which fits over the post. When the correct key is inserted, it will clear the wards and rotate about the center post. The key may then strike a lever, activating a latch or sliding bolt, or it may itself push against the latch or bolt. In a double acting lever lock, the key may additionally push against a spring-loaded lever which holds the sliding bolt in place. Vulnerabilities Due to the design of the lock, a well designed skeleton key can be made to bypass the wards. For this reason warded lock mechanisms are generally used in low security applications. There are also a very limited number of unique keys that can be created, so many keys will be able to open other doors that they were not designed to open. The invention of the lever tumbler lock solves this problem, as each lever is required to be lifted to a certain height in order to operate the locking mechanism. See also Skeleton keys Lever tumbler lock Padlocks Mortise lock References Locks (security device)	[ 0.09768408536911011, 0.13568560779094696, -0.0706297904253006, 0.026648202911019325, 0.13198091089725494, 0.00633965851739049, 0.707400381565094, -0.6579565405845642, -0.3090536892414093, -0.15796948969364166, -0.6875320076942444, 0.0893857404589653, -0.5897199511528015, 0.5913063287734985, -0.4959751069545746, 0.5559446215629578, 0.6324203610420227, -0.09807958453893661, -0.1135605201125145, -0.21915839612483978, -0.1823003888130188, -0.13216330111026764, 0.235769584774971, -0.37872201204299927, 0.4294489920139313, -0.022052647545933723, 0.03768819943070412, -0.31405210494995117, -0.4569982588291168, -0.04024769738316536, 0.5448492169380188, 0.20877793431282043, 0.02900463156402111, -0.3376798629760742, 0.6773268580436707, 0.07378475368022919, 0.10309963673353195, -0.24108251929283142, -0.19605569541454315, -0.5956242084503174, -0.09330642968416214, 0.3160475790500641, 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250420	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bielefeld%20conspiracy	Bielefeld conspiracy	The Bielefeld conspiracy (German: or , ) is a satirical conspiracy theory that claims that the city of Bielefeld, Germany, does not exist, but is an illusion propagated by various forces. First posted on the German Usenet in 1994, the conspiracy has since been mentioned in the city's marketing, and alluded to in a speech by Chancellor Angela Merkel. Synopsis The story goes that the city of Bielefeld (population of 341,755 ) in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia does not actually exist. Rather, its existence is merely propagated by an entity known only as ("they" in German, always in block capitals), which has conspired with the authorities to create the illusion of the city's existence. The theory poses three questions: Do you know anybody from Bielefeld? Have you ever been to Bielefeld? Do you know anybody who has ever been to Bielefeld? A majority are expected to answer no to all three queries. Anybody claiming knowledge about Bielefeld is promptly disregarded as being in on the conspiracy, or having been themselves deceived. The origins of and reasons for this conspiracy are not a part of the original theory. Speculated originators jokingly include the CIA, Mossad, or aliens who use Bielefeld University as a disguise for their spaceship. History The conspiracy theory was first made public in a posting to the newsgroup de.talk.bizarre on 16 May 1994 by Achim Held, a computer science student at the University of Kiel. When a friend of Achim Held met someone from Bielefeld at a student party in 1993, he said "", a phrase comparable to "I don't believe it", signifying disbelief or surprise. However, its literal translation is "That does not exist", thus suggesting (ambiguously) not only that claim wasn't real but also that the town isn't real either. From there, it spread throughout the German-speaking Internet community, and has lost little of its popularity, even after years. In a television interview conducted for the tenth anniversary of the newsgroup posting, Held stated that this myth definitely originated from his Usenet posting which was intended only as a joke. According to Held, the idea for the conspiracy theory formed in his mind at a student party while speaking to an avid reader of New Age magazines, and from a car journey past Bielefeld at a time when the exit from the Autobahn to it was closed. There are a number of conflicting theories about the reasons behind the joke's gain in popularity, the most popular being a flame war between Usenet admins and the Bielefeld-based Z-Netz BBS about text encodings. Historian Alan Lessoff notes that a reason for the amusement value of the theory is Bielefeld's lack of notable features, as being home to no major institutions or tourist attractions and not being on the course of a major river, "Bielefeld defines nondescript". Public reception The Bielefeld conspiracy remains one of the most popular internet jokes originating in Germany. In November 2012, German Chancellor Angela Merkel referred to the conspiracy in public when talking about a town hall meeting she had attended in Bielefeld, adding: "... if it exists at all", and "I had the impression that I was there." Official response The city council of Bielefeld made efforts to generate publicity for Bielefeld and build a nationally known public image of the city. However, even 10 years after the conspiracy started, the mayor's office still received phone calls and e-mails which claimed to doubt the existence of the city. In 1999, five years after the myth started to spread, the city council released a press statement titled (Bielefeld does exist!) on April Fools' Day. In allusion to the origin of the conspiracy the 800th anniversary of Bielefeld was held in 2014 under the motto (That cannot be real). In August 2019, the council offered to give 1 million euros to any person who could provide "incontrovertible evidence" of its nonexistence in an effort to increase interest in the city. As no one was able to prove Bielefeld's non-existence, the city therefore sees its existence as conclusive and the conspiracy as ended. To commemorate it, the city erected a glacial erratic block in the historic center near the Leineweber monument. A QR code on it directs to further background information. Film In 2009, film students at Bielefeld University started a project to develop a feature film based on the Bielefeld conspiracy. The project was financed by the university and local sponsors. Most of the project's staff and actors were students or university employees; a few professionals, such as the actress Julia Kahl and the cameraman Alexander Böke, also joined the project. The screenplay was written by Thomas Walden. The film premiered in Bielefeld on 2 June 2010. Similar satirical conspiracy theories Similar satirical conspiracy theories have been made about the Brazilian state Acre, the Italian region of Molise, the Mexican state Tlaxcala, Finland, Australia, the Belgian cities of Hasselt and Andenne, the Chilean cities of Rancagua and Combarbalá, the Colombian city of Barrancabermeja, the Argentinian province of La Pampa, the Dutch province of Drenthe, the Hungarian Lake Balaton, the Romanian city of Zalau, the city of Bras-Panon in Réunion Island, and the US states of Wyoming. The Wyoming theory originated in an episode of Garfield and Friends that first aired in November 1989. See also Birds Aren't Real, another satirical conspiracy theory References Bibliography External links Conspiracy theories in Germany Internet memes introduced in the 1990s Internet humor Usenet Bielefeld Hoaxes in Germany 1994 in Germany Contemporary German history 1990s in Internet culture Culture of North Rhine-Westphalia German satire Parodies of conspiracy theories	[ 0.7851101756095886, 0.3210303783416748, 0.16149915754795074, -0.25228163599967957, -0.03149852156639099, -0.03292618319392204, 0.45587050914764404, 0.2615991234779358, -0.31312885880470276, 0.02743658795952797, -0.4066712558269501, -0.2823954224586487, -0.4807981550693512, 1.1612178087234497, -0.15559209883213043, 0.0038211115170270205, 0.30491209030151367, 0.4739566445350647, -0.18976955115795135, -0.1444626748561859, -0.04294704645872116, 0.2335614562034607, 0.2623182237148285, 0.004441145341843367, -0.5757688283920288, -0.17007529735565186, 0.5863394141197205, -0.07592395693063736, -0.15527234971523285, 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250423	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson%20String%20Quartet	Emerson String Quartet	The Emerson String Quartet, also known as the Emerson Quartet, is an American string quartet that was initially formed as a student group at the Juilliard School in the 1970s. It was named for American poet and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson and began touring professionally in 1976. The ensemble taught in residence at The Hartt School in the 1980s and is currently (2022) the quartet in residence at Stony Brook University. Both of the founding violinists studied with Oscar Shumsky at Juilliard, and the two alternated as first and second violinists for the group. The Emerson Quartet was one of the first such ensembles with the two violinists alternating chairs. The Emerson Quartet was inducted into the Classical Music Hall of Fame in 2010. , they have released more than thirty albums and won nine Grammy Awards, as well as the prestigious Avery Fisher Prize. In August 2021 the quartet announced its plan to disband at the end of the 2022–2023 season in order to focus on teaching and solo work. Members Eugene Drucker, violin Philip Setzer, violin Lawrence Dutton, viola Paul Watkins, cello Longtime cellist David Finckel was replaced at the end of the 2012/13 concert season by Paul Watkins. History In the early 1980s, Deutsche Grammophon chose the Emerson Quartet to begin a series of recordings of the string quartet literature to be released on the new CD digital format. Cellist David Finckel called this a "huge break" for the ensemble, allowing it to develop a worldwide audience for its performances. Awards and recognition Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance: 1989 Bartók: 6 String Quartets 1993 Ives: String Quartets Nos. 1, 2; Barber: String Quartet Op.11 (American Originals) 1997 Beethoven: The String Quartets 2000 Shostakovich: The String Quartets 2005 Mendelssohn: The Complete String Quartets 2006 Intimate Voices 2009 Intimate Letters Grammy Award for Best Classical Album: 1989 Bartók: 6 String Quartets2000 Shostakovich: The String Quartets Gramophone Classical Music Awards: Chamber (Record of the Year) 1989 - Bartók: String Quartets Nos. 1–6 Chamber 2000 – Shostakovich, Complete String Quartets (Nos 1–15 In 2002 the Quartet were the Music Directors of the Ojai Music Festival. They also played for the Oscar nominated short film, The Little Match Girl. They have also won the Avery Fisher Prize, and in 2010, were inducted into the Classical Music Hall of Fame, with a ceremony held in 2011. In January 2015, the Quartet received the Richard J. Bogomolny National Service Award, the highest award in the classical chamber music world. Recordings Volume I - Dvorák: Quartet No. 12 in F, Op. 96 "American;" Smetana: Quartet No. 1 in E "From My Life." (1990) Book of the Month Records Volume II - Brahms: Quartet No. 1 in c, Op. 51; Schumann: Quartet in A, Op. 41, No. 3 (1990) Book of the Month Records Volume III - Borodin: Quartet No. 2 in D; Tchaikovsky: Quartet No. 1 in D, Op.11 (1990) Book of the Month Records Volume IV - Debussy: Quartet in g, Op. 10; Ravel: Quartet in F Major. (1990) Book of the Month Records Piston: Concerto for String Quartet, Winds and Percussion (1990) Composers Recording Inc Cowell: Quartet Euphometric; Harris: Three Variations on a Theme (Quartet No. 2) (1990) New World Imbrie: Quartet No. 4; Schuller: Quartet No. 2 (1990) New World Beethoven: Quartet in F, Op. 135; Schubert: Quartet in G, D. 887 (1990) Deutsche Grammophon Dvorák: Quartet No. 12 in F, Op. 96 "American"; Smetana: Quartet No. 1 in E, "From My Life." (1990) Deutsche Grammophon Debussy: Quartet in g, Op. 10; Ravel: Quartet in F (1990) Deutsche Grammophon Tchaikovsky: Quartet No. 1 in D, Op. 11; Borodin: Quartet No. 2 in D (1990) Deutsche Grammophon Mozart: Quartet in B-flat, K. 458 "Hunt"; Quartet in C, K. 465 "Dissonance"; Haydn: Quartet in C, Op. 76, No. 3 "Emperor (1990) Deutsche Grammophon Brahms: Quartet No. 1 in c, Op. 51; Schumann: Quartet in A, Op. 41, No. 3 (1990) Deutsche Grammophon Beethoven: Quartet in f, Op. 95; Schubert: Quartet No. 14 in d, D. 810 "Death and the Maiden" (1990) Deutsche Grammophon Bartók: Complete String Quartets (1990) Deutsche Grammophon Mozart: The "Haydn" Quartets (complete) (1992) Deutsche Grammophon Mozart: The Flute Quartets with Carol Wincenc (1992) Deutsche Grammophon Prokofiev: String Quartets Nos. 1 & 2/Sonata for 2 Violins (1992) Deutsche Grammophon Schubert: String Quintet in C, D. 956 with Mstislav Rostropovich (1992) Deutsche Grammophon American Originals: String Quartets of Ives and Barber (1993) Deutsche Grammophon American Contemporaries: Harbison, Wernick, and Schuller (1994) Deutsche Grammophon Dvorák: Quartet in E-flat, Op. 87; Quintet in A, Op. 81 with Menahem Pressler (1994) Deutsche Grammophon Mozart: String Quartet in G, K. 387; String Quartet in d, K. 421 (1995) Deutsche Grammophon Webern: Works for String Quartet/String Trio Op. 20 (1995) Deutsche Grammophon Schumann Piano Quintet Op. 44/ Piano Quartet Op. 47 with Menahem Pressler (1996) Deutsche Grammophon Beethoven: The String Quartets (Complete) (1997) Deutsche Grammophon Beethoven: Key to the Quartets (1997) Deutsche Grammophon Meyer: String Quintet/Rorem: String Quartet No. 4 with Edgar Meyer (1998) Deutsche Grammophon Music of Curt Cacioppo: "Monsterslayer") (1998) Capstone Records Schubert: String Quintet; Late Quartets (1999) Deutsche Grammophon Mozart/Brahms: Clarinet Quintets with David Shifrin (1999) Deutsche Grammophon Shostakovich: The String Quartets (complete) (2000) Deutsche Grammophon The Haydn Project (2001) Deutsche Grammophon The Emerson Encores (2002) Deutsche Grammophon Bach: The Art of Fugue, BWV 1080 (2003) Deutsche Grammophon Haydn: The Seven Last Words of our Savior on the Cross, Op. 51 (2004) Deutsche Grammophon Mendelssohn: The Complete String Quartets (2005) Deutsche Grammophon Intimate Voices (2006) Deutsche Grammophon The Little Match Girl (2007) Disney Brahms: String Quartets (2007) Deutsche Grammophon Bach Fugues (2008) Deutsche Grammophon Intimate Letters (2009) Deutsche Grammophon Old World-New World (Dvorak) with Paul Neubauer (2010) Deutsche Grammophon Mozart: The Prussian Quartets (2011) Sony Classical Journeys: Tchaikovsky, Schönberg (2013) Sony Classical Berg: Lyric Suite; Wellesz: Sonnets By Elizabeth Barrett Browning (2015) Decca Emerson String Quartet: The Complete DG Recordings (2016) Deutsche Grammophon (52 CDs) Chaconnes And Fantasias - Music Of Britten And Purcell (2017) Decca Schumann - String Quartets (2020) PENTATONE See also List of string quartet ensembles References External links Emerson String Quartet official website Artists' page on IMGArtists BACH & friends Documentary Musical groups established in 1976 American string quartets Grammy Award winners University of Hartford Hartt School 1976 establishments in New York City Deutsche Grammophon artists	[ -0.2977787256240845, 0.006160401739180088, -0.006668612360954285, -0.28511473536491394, 0.10990872234106064, 0.18455563485622406, 0.05821770429611206, 0.0839574858546257, -0.1069752424955368, -0.4375643730163574, 0.03992090001702309, 0.029041660949587822, -0.47522321343421936, 0.661419689655304, -0.6483927369117737, -0.12496454268693924, 0.7727487683296204, -0.25013992190361023, -0.4292566180229187, -0.4718819260597229, 0.04428169131278992, -0.18974366784095764, 0.3963847756385803, 0.14371465146541595, -0.3188951015472412, -0.12462177127599716, 0.09577010571956635, 0.03757060691714287, 0.9212163686752319, 0.11374008655548096, -0.07130696624517441, 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250424	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring%20theory	Ring theory	In algebra, ring theory is the study of rings—algebraic structures in which addition and multiplication are defined and have similar properties to those operations defined for the integers. Ring theory studies the structure of rings, their representations, or, in different language, modules, special classes of rings (group rings, division rings, universal enveloping algebras), as well as an array of properties that proved to be of interest both within the theory itself and for its applications, such as homological properties and polynomial identities. Commutative rings are much better understood than noncommutative ones. Algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory, which provide many natural examples of commutative rings, have driven much of the development of commutative ring theory, which is now, under the name of commutative algebra, a major area of modern mathematics. Because these three fields (algebraic geometry, algebraic number theory and commutative algebra) are so intimately connected it is usually difficult and meaningless to decide which field a particular result belongs to. For example, Hilbert's Nullstellensatz is a theorem which is fundamental for algebraic geometry, and is stated and proved in terms of commutative algebra. Similarly, Fermat's Last Theorem is stated in terms of elementary arithmetic, which is a part of commutative algebra, but its proof involves deep results of both algebraic number theory and algebraic geometry. Noncommutative rings are quite different in flavour, since more unusual behavior can arise. While the theory has developed in its own right, a fairly recent trend has sought to parallel the commutative development by building the theory of certain classes of noncommutative rings in a geometric fashion as if they were rings of functions on (non-existent) 'noncommutative spaces'. This trend started in the 1980s with the development of noncommutative geometry and with the discovery of quantum groups. It has led to a better understanding of noncommutative rings, especially noncommutative Noetherian rings. For the definitions of a ring and basic concepts and their properties, see Ring (mathematics). The definitions of terms used throughout ring theory may be found in Glossary of ring theory. Commutative rings A ring is called commutative if its multiplication is commutative. Commutative rings resemble familiar number systems, and various definitions for commutative rings are designed to formalize properties of the integers. Commutative rings are also important in algebraic geometry. In commutative ring theory, numbers are often replaced by ideals, and the definition of the prime ideal tries to capture the essence of prime numbers. Integral domains, non-trivial commutative rings where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero, generalize another property of the integers and serve as the proper realm to study divisibility. Principal ideal domains are integral domains in which every ideal can be generated by a single element, another property shared by the integers. Euclidean domains are integral domains in which the Euclidean algorithm can be carried out. Important examples of commutative rings can be constructed as rings of polynomials and their factor rings. Summary: Euclidean domain ⊂ principal ideal domain ⊂ unique factorization domain ⊂ integral domain ⊂ commutative ring. Algebraic geometry Algebraic geometry is in many ways the mirror image of commutative algebra. This correspondence started with Hilbert's Nullstellensatz that establishes a one-to-one correspondence between the points of an algebraic variety, and the maximal ideals of its coordinate ring. This correspondence has been enlarged and systematized for translating (and proving) most geometrical properties of algebraic varieties into algebraic properties of associated commutative rings. Alexander Grothendieck completed this by introducing schemes, a generalization of algebraic varieties, which may be built from any commutative ring. More precisely, the spectrum of a commutative ring is the space of its prime ideals equipped with Zariski topology, and augmented with a sheaf of rings. These objects are the "affine schemes" (generalization of affine varieties), and a general scheme is then obtained by "gluing together" (by purely algebraic methods) several such affine schemes, in analogy to the way of constructing a manifold by gluing together the charts of an atlas. Noncommutative rings Noncommutative rings resemble rings of matrices in many respects. Following the model of algebraic geometry, attempts have been made recently at defining noncommutative geometry based on noncommutative rings. Noncommutative rings and associative algebras (rings that are also vector spaces) are often studied via their categories of modules. A module over a ring is an abelian group that the ring acts on as a ring of endomorphisms, very much akin to the way fields (integral domains in which every non-zero element is invertible) act on vector spaces. Examples of noncommutative rings are given by rings of square matrices or more generally by rings of endomorphisms of abelian groups or modules, and by monoid rings. Representation theory Representation theory is a branch of mathematics that draws heavily on non-commutative rings. It studies abstract algebraic structures by representing their elements as linear transformations of vector spaces, and studies modules over these abstract algebraic structures. In essence, a representation makes an abstract algebraic object more concrete by describing its elements by matrices and the algebraic operations in terms of matrix addition and matrix multiplication, which is non-commutative. The algebraic objects amenable to such a description include groups, associative algebras and Lie algebras. The most prominent of these (and historically the first) is the representation theory of groups, in which elements of a group are represented by invertible matrices in such a way that the group operation is matrix multiplication. Some relevant theorems General Isomorphism theorems for rings Nakayama's lemma Structure theorems The Artin–Wedderburn theorem determines the structure of semisimple rings The Jacobson density theorem determines the structure of primitive rings Goldie's theorem determines the structure of semiprime Goldie rings The Zariski–Samuel theorem determines the structure of a commutative principal ideal ring The Hopkins–Levitzki theorem gives necessary and sufficient conditions for a Noetherian ring to be an Artinian ring Morita theory consists of theorems determining when two rings have "equivalent" module categories Cartan–Brauer–Hua theorem gives insight on the structure of division rings Wedderburn's little theorem states that finite domains are fields Other The Skolem–Noether theorem characterizes the automorphisms of simple rings Structures and invariants of rings Dimension of a commutative ring In this section, R denotes a commutative ring. The Krull dimension of R is the supremum of the lengths n of all the chains of prime ideals . It turns out that the polynomial ring over a field k has dimension n. The fundamental theorem of dimension theory states that the following numbers coincide for a noetherian local ring : The Krull dimension of R. The minimum number of the generators of the -primary ideals. The dimension of the graded ring (equivalently, 1 plus the degree of its Hilbert polynomial). A commutative ring R is said to be catenary if for every pair of prime ideals , there exists a finite chain of prime ideals that is maximal in the sense that it is impossible to insert an additional prime ideal between two ideals in the chain, and all such maximal chains between and have the same length. Practically all noetherian rings that appear in applications are catenary. Ratliff proved that a noetherian local integral domain R is catenary if and only if for every prime ideal , where is the height of . If R is an integral domain that is a finitely generated k-algebra, then its dimension is the transcendence degree of its field of fractions over k. If S is an integral extension of a commutative ring R, then S and R have the same dimension. Closely related concepts are those of depth and global dimension. In general, if R is a noetherian local ring, then the depth of R is less than or equal to the dimension of R. When the equality holds, R is called a Cohen–Macaulay ring. A regular local ring is an example of a Cohen–Macaulay ring. It is a theorem of Serre that R is a regular local ring if and only if it has finite global dimension and in that case the global dimension is the Krull dimension of R. The significance of this is that a global dimension is a homological notion. Morita equivalence Two rings R, S are said to be Morita equivalent if the category of left modules over R is equivalent to the category of left modules over S. In fact, two commutative rings which are Morita equivalent must be isomorphic, so the notion does not add anything new to the category of commutative rings. However, commutative rings can be Morita equivalent to noncommutative rings, so Morita equivalence is coarser than isomorphism. Morita equivalence is especially important in algebraic topology and functional analysis. Finitely generated projective module over a ring and Picard group Let R be a commutative ring and the set of isomorphism classes of finitely generated projective modules over R; let also subsets consisting of those with constant rank n. (The rank of a module M is the continuous function .) is usually denoted by Pic(R). It is an abelian group called the Picard group of R. If R is an integral domain with the field of fractions F of R, then there is an exact sequence of groups: where is the set of fractional ideals of R. If R is a regular domain (i.e., regular at any prime ideal), then Pic(R) is precisely the divisor class group of R. For example, if R is a principal ideal domain, then Pic(R) vanishes. In algebraic number theory, R will be taken to be the ring of integers, which is Dedekind and thus regular. It follows that Pic(R) is a finite group (finiteness of class number) that measures the deviation of the ring of integers from being a PID. One can also consider the group completion of ; this results in a commutative ring K0(R). Note that K0(R) = K0(S) if two commutative rings R, S are Morita equivalent. Structure of noncommutative rings The structure of a noncommutative ring is more complicated than that of a commutative ring. For example, there exist simple rings, containing no non-trivial proper (two-sided) ideals, which contain non-trivial proper left or right ideals. Various invariants exist for commutative rings, whereas invariants of noncommutative rings are difficult to find. As an example, the nilradical of a ring, the set of all nilpotent elements, need not be an ideal unless the ring is commutative. Specifically, the set of all nilpotent elements in the ring of all n x n matrices over a division ring never forms an ideal, irrespective of the division ring chosen. There are, however, analogues of the nilradical defined for noncommutative rings, that coincide with the nilradical when commutativity is assumed. The concept of the Jacobson radical of a ring; that is, the intersection of all right/left annihilators of simple right/left modules over a ring, is one example. The fact that the Jacobson radical can be viewed as the intersection of all maximal right/left ideals in the ring, shows how the internal structure of the ring is reflected by its modules. It is also a fact that the intersection of all maximal right ideals in a ring is the same as the intersection of all maximal left ideals in the ring, in the context of all rings; whether commutative or noncommutative. Noncommutative rings serve as an active area of research due to their ubiquity in mathematics. For instance, the ring of n-by-n matrices over a field is noncommutative despite its natural occurrence in geometry, physics and many parts of mathematics. More generally, endomorphism rings of abelian groups are rarely commutative, the simplest example being the endomorphism ring of the Klein four-group. One of the best known noncommutative rings is the division ring of quaternions. Applications The ring of integers of a number field The coordinate ring of an algebraic variety If X is an affine algebraic variety, then the set of all regular functions on X forms a ring called the coordinate ring of X. For a projective variety, there is an analogous ring called the homogeneous coordinate ring. Those rings are essentially the same things as varieties: they correspond in essentially a unique way. This may be seen via either Hilbert's Nullstellensatz or scheme-theoretic constructions (i.e., Spec and Proj). Ring of invariants A basic (and perhaps the most fundamental) question in the classical invariant theory is to find and study polynomials in the polynomial ring that are invariant under the action of a finite group (or more generally reductive) G on V. The main example is the ring of symmetric polynomials: symmetric polynomials are polynomials that are invariant under permutation of variable. The fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials states that this ring is where are elementary symmetric polynomials. History Commutative ring theory originated in algebraic number theory, algebraic geometry, and invariant theory. Central to the development of these subjects were the rings of integers in algebraic number fields and algebraic function fields, and the rings of polynomials in two or more variables. Noncommutative ring theory began with attempts to extend the complex numbers to various hypercomplex number systems. The genesis of the theories of commutative and noncommutative rings dates back to the early 19th century, while their maturity was achieved only in the third decade of the 20th century. More precisely, William Rowan Hamilton put forth the quaternions and biquaternions; James Cockle presented tessarines and coquaternions; and William Kingdon Clifford was an enthusiast of split-biquaternions, which he called algebraic motors. These noncommutative algebras, and the non-associative Lie algebras, were studied within universal algebra before the subject was divided into particular mathematical structure types. One sign of re-organization was the use of direct sums to describe algebraic structure. The various hypercomplex numbers were identified with matrix rings by Joseph Wedderburn (1908) and Emil Artin (1928). Wedderburn's structure theorems were formulated for finite-dimensional algebras over a field while Artin generalized them to Artinian rings. In 1920, Emmy Noether, in collaboration with W. Schmeidler, published a paper about the theory of ideals in which they defined left and right ideals in a ring. The following year she published a landmark paper called Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen, analyzing ascending chain conditions with regard to (mathematical) ideals. Noted algebraist Irving Kaplansky called this work "revolutionary"; the publication gave rise to the term "Noetherian ring", and several other mathematical objects being called Noetherian. Notes References . 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250429	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain%20stitch	Chain stitch	Chain stitch is a sewing and embroidery technique in which a series of looped stitches form a chain-like pattern. Chain stitch is an ancient craft – examples of surviving Chinese chain stitch embroidery worked in silk thread have been dated to the Warring States period (5th – 3rd century BC). Handmade chain stitch embroidery does not require that the needle pass through more than one layer of fabric. For this reason the stitch is an effective surface embellishment near seams on finished fabric. Because chain stitches can form flowing, curved lines, they are used in many surface embroidery styles that mimic "drawing" in thread. Chain stitches are also used in making tambour lace, needlelace, macramé and crochet. In Azerbaijan, in the Sheki region, this ancient type of needlework is called tekeldus. History The earliest archaeological evidence of chain stitch embroidery dates from 1100 BC in China. Excavated from royal tombs, the embroidery was made using threads of silk. Chain stitch embroidery has also been found dating to the Warring States period. Chain stitch designs spread to Iran through the Silk Road. Applications Hand embroidery Chain stitch and its variations are fundamental to embroidery traditions of many cultures, including Kashmiri numdahs, Iranian Resht work, Central Asian suzani, Hungarian Kalotaszeg "written embroidery", Jacobean embroidery, and crewelwork. Machine sewing and embroidery Chain stitch was the stitch used by early sewing machines; however, as it is easily unravelled from fabric, this was soon replaced with the more secure lockstitch. This ease of unraveling of the single-thread chain stitch, more specifically known as ISO 4915:1991 stitch 101, continues to be exploited for industrial purposes in the closure of bags for bulk products. Machine embroidery in chain stitch, often in traditional hand-worked crewel designs, is found on curtains, bed linens, and upholstery fabrics. Variants Hand variants Variations of the basic chain stitch include: Back-stitched chain stitch Braided stitching Cable chain stitch Knotted chain stitch Open chain stitch Petal chain stitch Rosette chain stitch Singalese chain stitch Twisted chain stitch Wheat-ear stitch Zig-zag chain stitch Hand stitch gallery Machine variants The Basic Chain stitch is made by first sending the needle down through the material. Then, as the needle rises upward, the friction of the thread against the fabric is sufficient to form a small loop on the underside of the material. That loop is caught by a circular needle which is beneath the work. The machine then moves the material forward projecting the loop on the underside from the previous stitch. The next drop of the needle goes through the previous loop. The circular needle then releases the first loop and picks up the new loop and the process repeats. The Double chain stitch uses two threads. It is rarely used in today's machines except for ornamental purposes because it uses a lot of thread. It is found in bulk material packaging, where it is used to close big bags. In this case it is useful to allow an easy opening of the bag. Machine stitch gallery Notes Union Special Portable Chain Stitch machine internal mechanism 2200 Portable bag closing machines See also List of knots References Virginia Churchill Bath, Needlework in America, Viking Press, 1979 S.F.A. Caulfield and B.C. Saward, The Dictionary of Needlework, 1885. Mrs. Archibald Christie. Samplers and Stitches, a handbook of the embroiderer's art, London 1920, 1989 facsimile: Batsford, , or online at Project Gutenberg John Gillow and Bryan Sentance: World Textiles, Bulfinch Press/Little, Brown, 1999, Reader's Digest Complete Guide to Needlework. The Reader's Digest Association, Inc., March 1992, External links Kalotaszeg embroidery at MagyarMuseum.org Embroidery stitches Sewing stitches Chinese inventions	[ 0.5377832055091858, -0.0955621749162674, -0.2978927493095398, -0.2567761242389679, -0.5604726672172546, 0.23569399118423462, 0.3495512008666992, -0.20506766438484192, -0.5178852081298828, -0.5307623147964478, -0.5416631102561951, 0.05441870912909508, -0.5623910427093506, 0.5006742477416992, -0.6325260996818542, 0.5785925984382629, 0.722204864025116, -0.09964470565319061, 0.0872185081243515, -0.17283283174037933, -0.5373940467834473, -0.22310158610343933, -0.011120769195258617, 0.08141548931598663, 0.23018436133861542, 0.25785592198371887, -0.14953741431236267, 0.03768133372068405, 0.28330639004707336, -0.1323757767677307, 0.5940966010093689, 0.6130638718605042, 0.32692667841911316, -0.4009966254234314, 0.22295305132865906, -0.3153594434261322, -0.09637372195720673, -0.4034232199192047, -0.28253501653671265, 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250436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultaneous%20equations%20model	Simultaneous equations model	Simultaneous equations models are a type of statistical model in which the dependent variables are functions of other dependent variables, rather than just independent variables. This means some of the explanatory variables are jointly determined with the dependent variable, which in economics usually is the consequence of some underlying equilibrium mechanism. Take the typical supply and demand model: whilst typically one would determine the quantity supplied and demanded to be a function of the price set by the market, it is also possible for the reverse to be true, where producers observe the quantity that consumers demand and then set the price. Simultaneity poses challenges for the estimation of the statistical parameters of interest, because the Gauss–Markov assumption of strict exogeneity of the regressors is violated. And while it would be natural to estimate all simultaneous equations at once, this often leads to a computationally costly non-linear optimization problem even for the simplest system of linear equations. This situation prompted the development, spearheaded by the Cowles Commission in the 1940s and 1950s, of various techniques that estimate each equation in the model seriatim, most notably limited information maximum likelihood and two-stage least squares. Structural and reduced form Suppose there are m regression equations of the form where i is the equation number, and is the observation index. In these equations xit is the ki×1 vector of exogenous variables, yit is the dependent variable, y−i,t is the ni×1 vector of all other endogenous variables which enter the ith equation on the right-hand side, and uit are the error terms. The “−i” notation indicates that the vector y−i,t may contain any of the y’s except for yit (since it is already present on the left-hand side). The regression coefficients βi and γi are of dimensions ki×1 and ni×1 correspondingly. Vertically stacking the T observations corresponding to the ith equation, we can write each equation in vector form as where yi and ui are T×1 vectors, Xi is a T×ki matrix of exogenous regressors, and Y−i is a T×ni matrix of endogenous regressors on the right-hand side of the ith equation. Finally, we can move all endogenous variables to the left-hand side and write the m equations jointly in vector form as This representation is known as the structural form. In this equation is the T×m matrix of dependent variables. Each of the matrices Y−i is in fact an ni-columned submatrix of this Y. The m×m matrix Γ, which describes the relation between the dependent variables, has a complicated structure. It has ones on the diagonal, and all other elements of each column i are either the components of the vector −γi or zeros, depending on which columns of Y were included in the matrix Y−i. The T×k matrix X contains all exogenous regressors from all equations, but without repetitions (that is, matrix X should be of full rank). Thus, each Xi is a ki-columned submatrix of X. Matrix Β has size k×m, and each of its columns consists of the components of vectors βi and zeros, depending on which of the regressors from X were included or excluded from Xi. Finally, is a T×m matrix of the error terms. Postmultiplying the structural equation by , the system can be written in the reduced form as This is already a simple general linear model, and it can be estimated for example by ordinary least squares. Unfortunately, the task of decomposing the estimated matrix into the individual factors Β and is quite complicated, and therefore the reduced form is more suitable for prediction but not inference. Assumptions Firstly, the rank of the matrix X of exogenous regressors must be equal to k, both in finite samples and in the limit as (this later requirement means that in the limit the expression should converge to a nondegenerate k×k matrix). Matrix Γ is also assumed to be non-degenerate. Secondly, error terms are assumed to be serially independent and identically distributed. That is, if the tth row of matrix U is denoted by u(t), then the sequence of vectors {u(t)} should be iid, with zero mean and some covariance matrix Σ (which is unknown). In particular, this implies that , and . Lastly, assumptions are required for identification. Identification The identification conditions require that the system of linear equations be solvable for the unknown parameters. More specifically, the order condition, a necessary condition for identification, is that for each equation , which can be phrased as “the number of excluded exogenous variables is greater or equal to the number of included endogenous variables”. The rank condition, a stronger condition which is necessary and sufficient, is that the rank of equals , where is a matrix which is obtained from by crossing out those columns which correspond to the excluded endogenous variables, and those rows which correspond to the included exogenous variables. Using cross-equation restrictions to achieve identification In simultaneous equations models, the most common method to achieve identification is by imposing within-equation parameter restrictions. Yet, identification is also possible using cross equation restrictions. To illustrate how cross equation restrictions can be used for identification, consider the following example from Wooldridge where z's are uncorrelated with u's and y's are endogenous variables. Without further restrictions, the first equation is not identified because there is no excluded exogenous variable. The second equation is just identified if , which is assumed to be true for the rest of discussion. Now we impose the cross equation restriction of . Since the second equation is identified, we can treat as known for the purpose of identification. Then, the first equation becomes: Then, we can use as instruments to estimate the coefficients in the above equation since there are one endogenous variable () and one excluded exogenous variable () on the right hand side. Therefore, cross equation restrictions in place of within-equation restrictions can achieve identification. Estimation Two-stages least squares (2SLS) The simplest and the most common estimation method for the simultaneous equations model is the so-called two-stage least squares method, developed independently by and . It is an equation-by-equation technique, where the endogenous regressors on the right-hand side of each equation are being instrumented with the regressors X from all other equations. The method is called “two-stage” because it conducts estimation in two steps: Step 1: Regress Y−i on X and obtain the predicted values ; Step 2: Estimate γi, βi by the ordinary least squares regression of yi on and Xi. If the ith equation in the model is written as where Zi is a T×(ni + ki) matrix of both endogenous and exogenous regressors in the ith equation, and δi is an (ni + ki)-dimensional vector of regression coefficients, then the 2SLS estimator of δi will be given by where is the projection matrix onto the linear space spanned by the exogenous regressors X. Indirect least squares Indirect least squares is an approach in econometrics where the coefficients in a simultaneous equations model are estimated from the reduced form model using ordinary least squares. For this, the structural system of equations is transformed into the reduced form first. Once the coefficients are estimated the model is put back into the structural form. Limited information maximum likelihood (LIML) The “limited information” maximum likelihood method was suggested M. A. Girshick in 1947, and formalized by T. W. Anderson and H. Rubin in 1949. It is used when one is interested in estimating a single structural equation at a time (hence its name of limited information), say for observation i: The structural equations for the remaining endogenous variables Y−i are not specified, and they are given in their reduced form: Notation in this context is different than for the simple IV case. One has: : The endogenous variable(s). : The exogenous variable(s) : The instrument(s) (often denoted ) The explicit formula for the LIML is: where , and λ is the smallest characteristic root of the matrix: where, in a similar way, . In other words, λ is the smallest solution of the generalized eigenvalue problem, see : K class estimators The LIML is a special case of the K-class estimators: with: Several estimators belong to this class: κ=0: OLS κ=1: 2SLS. Note indeed that in this case, the usual projection matrix of the 2SLS κ=λ: LIML κ=λ - α (n-K): estimator. Here K represents the number of instruments, n the sample size, and α a positive constant to specify. A value of α=1 will yield an estimator that is approximately unbiased. Three-stage least squares (3SLS) The three-stage least squares estimator was introduced by . It can be seen as a special case of multi-equation GMM where the set of instrumental variables is common to all equations. If all regressors are in fact predetermined, then 3SLS reduces to seemingly unrelated regressions (SUR). Thus it may also be seen as a combination of two-stage least squares (2SLS) with SUR. Applications in social science Across fields and disciplines simultaneous equation models are applied to various observational phenomena. These equations are applied when phenomena are assumed to be reciprocally causal. The classic example is supply and demand in economics. In other disciplines there are examples such as candidate evaluations and party identification or public opinion and social policy in political science; road investment and travel demand in geography; and educational attainment and parenthood entry in sociology or demography. The simultaneous equation model requires a theory of reciprocal causality that includes special features if the causal effects are to be estimated as simultaneous feedback as opposed to one-sided 'blocks' of an equation where a researcher is interested in the causal effect of X on Y while holding the causal effect of Y on X constant, or when the researcher knows the exact amount of time it takes for each causal effect to take place, i.e., the length of the causal lags. Instead of lagged effects, simultaneous feedback means estimating the simultaneous and perpetual impact of X and Y on each other. This requires a theory that causal effects are simultaneous in time, or so complex that they appear to behave simultaneously; a common example are the moods of roommates. To estimate simultaneous feedback models a theory of equilibrium is also necessary – that X and Y are in relatively steady states or are part of a system (society, market, classroom) that is in a relatively stable state. See also General linear model Seemingly unrelated regressions Reduced form Parameter identification problem References Further reading External links by Mark Thoma Simultaneous equation methods (econometrics) Regression models Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)	[ -0.34079062938690186, -0.23988516628742218, 0.035462383180856705, 0.5813684463500977, -0.20664870738983154, 0.3947523534297943, 0.32300207018852234, -0.13104118406772614, -0.18691441416740417, -0.5944809913635254, -0.08167614787817001, 0.5047057271003723, -0.6836293935775757, 0.15906183421611786, -0.029898328706622124, 0.42437294125556946, 0.009643791243433952, 0.3482699692249298, 0.17830847203731537, -0.29926711320877075, -0.11900119483470917, -0.04463984817266464, 0.33216434717178345, -0.04106884449720383, -0.602308452129364, -0.1715027093887329, 0.3742121756076813, 0.0924331396818161, 0.046526338905096054, 0.16018377244472504, 0.054856423288583755, 1.0959059000015259, 0.018994925543665886, 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250437	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Como	Lake Como	Lake Como ( , ; , Cómm or Cùmm ), also known as Lario (; after the ), is a lake of glacial origin in Lombardy, Italy. It has an area of , making it the third-largest lake in Italy, after Lake Garda and Lake Maggiore. At over deep, it is the fifth deepest lake in Europe, and the deepest outside Norway; the bottom of the lake is more than below sea level. Lake Como has been a popular retreat for aristocrats and wealthy people since Roman times, and a very popular tourist attraction with many artistic and cultural gems. It has many villas and palaces such as Villa Olmo, Villa Serbelloni, and Villa Carlotta. Many famous people have had and have homes on the shores of Lake Como. One of its particularities is its characteristic "Y" shape, which forms the so-called "Larian Triangle", with the little town of Canzo as its capital. In 2014, The Huffington Post called it the most beautiful lake in the world for its microclimate and environment with prestigious villas and villages. Etymology The lake's name in Latin is Larius, Italianised as Lario, but this name is rarely used; it is usually called Lago di Como (literally "lake of Como"). In guidebooks the lake may be variously referred to as Lake Como, Lake of Como, or Como Lake. Its name comes from the city of Como, known to the Romans as Comum. Geography The lake is shaped much like an inverted letter "Y". The northern branch begins at the town of Colico, while the towns of Como and Lecco sit at the ends of the southwestern and southeastern branches respectively. The small towns of Bellagio, Menaggio and Varenna are situated at the intersection of the three branches of the lake: a triangular boat service operates between them. Lake Como is fed primarily by the Adda, which enters the lake near Colico and flows out at Lecco. This geological conformation makes the southwestern branch a dead end, and so Como, unlike Lecco, is often flooded. The mountainous pre-alpine territory between the two southern arms of the lake (between Como, Bellagio, and Lecco) is known as the Larian Triangle, or Triangolo lariano. The source of the river Lambro is here. At the centre of the triangle, the town of Canzo is the seat of the Comunità montana del Triangolo lariano, an association of the 31 municipalities that represent the 71,000 inhabitants of the area. Climate Lake Como weather is humid subtropical (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification). In the winter, the lake helps to maintain a higher temperature in the surrounding region. Average daily temperatures range from about in January to in July, according to historical weather data from Como. Water temperatures can reach an average of during the month of July. Snowfall is erratic and primarily affects the higher elevations. Rainfall is heaviest in May and lowest during the winter months. Tourism As a tourist destination, Lake Como is popular for its landscapes, wildlife, and spas. It is a venue for sailing, windsurfing, and kitesurfing. In 1818 Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote to Thomas Love Peacock: "This lake exceeds anything I ever beheld in beauty, with the exception of the arbutus islands of Killarney. It is long and narrow, and has the appearance of a mighty river winding among the mountains and the forests". In the area surrounding Lake Como there are several farms which produce goods such as honey, olive oil, cheese, milk, eggs and salamis. Visitors can find lists of these farms and typically visit the farm itself in person to make their purchases. In 2018, the Italian luxury label Dolce and Gabbana held a fashion event on Lake Como. Lakeside villas The lake is well known for the attractive villas that have been built there since Roman times, when Pliny the Younger built the Comedia and the Tragedia resorts. Many villas on the lake shores have admirable gardens that benefit from the mild climate induced by the stabilizing presence of of lake water and can sustain many subtropical and Mediterranean plants. Villa Carlotta was built for the Milanese Marquis Giorgio Clerici in 1690 and occupies a site of over at Tremezzo, facing the Bellagio peninsula. An Italian garden (with steps, fountains, and sculptures) was laid out at the same time. The villa was later sold to powerful banker and Napoleonic politician Giovanni Battista Sommariva. Stendhal was his guest in 1818, and his visit is recalled at the start of La Chartreuse de Parme. In 1843 it was purchased by Princess Marianne of Nassau as a wedding present for her daughter Carlotta, after whom the villa is now named. The latter, together with her husband Georg II of Saxen-Meiningen, laid out the woodland landscape park in Romantic style. The villa today includes a museum of agricultural implements as well as important works of sculpture by Sommariva's friend Antonio Canova and by Luigi Acquisti. Villa d'Este, in Cernobbio, was built in 1568 by Cardinal Tolomeo Gallio, a native of the town. In 1816–1817 the villa was home to Caroline of Brunswick, estranged wife of the Prince of Wales and shortly to become Queen Consort of King George IV of the United Kingdom. The landscaped gardens in the English style are a product of this period. Later in the century it was turned into a luxury hotel. Today the Villa d'Este is known for attracting celebrity guests. Villa del Balbianello, famous for its elaborate terraced gardens, lies on a promontory of the western shore of the lake near Isola Comacina. Built in 1787 on the site of a Franciscan monastery, it was the final home of the explorer Guido Monzino and today houses a museum devoted to his work. Villa Melzi d'Eril in Bellagio was built in neo-classical style by architect Giocondo Albertolli in 1808–1810 as the summer residence of Duke Francesco Melzi d'Eril, who was vice-president of the Napoleonic Italian Republic. The park includes an orangery, a private chapel, fine statues, and a Japanese garden, and is planted, as often on lake Como, with huge rhododendrons. 19th-century guests at the Villa included Stendhal and Franz Liszt. Villa Serbelloni, also in Bellagio, hosts the Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Center, a international conference center set up and managed by the Rockefeller Foundation since 1959, which also operates a "scholar-in-residence" program for scholars from around the world. This is believed to have been the site of Pliny the Younger's villa "Tragedia". Its well-known park was created at the end of the 18th century by Alessandro Serbelloni. Many famous people have or have had homes on the shores of Lake Como, such as Matthew Bellamy, John Kerry, Madonna, George Clooney, Gianni Versace, Ronaldinho, Sylvester Stallone, Julian Lennon, Richard Branson, Ben Spies, Pierina Legnani, Lionel Messi and José Mourinho. Ferries The Lake Como ferry service is a highly developed public transport system linking the many small towns around the Lake. A motorized service began in 1826 when a steamship with sails, the "Lario", was launched by the newly established Società privilegiata per l'impresa dei battelli a vapore nel Regno Lombardo Veneto. Since 1952 the system has been run under the auspices of a government organization called first the Gestione Commissariale Governativa and subsequently the Gestione Governativa Navigazione Laghi, which is also responsible for services on Lake Maggiore and Lake Garda. Today there are three main services: Motorship services along the western branch and northern end of the Lake (between Colico or Piona and Como town), with additional shuttles to the mid-lake area. Fast services that follow broadly the same route, but use faster hydrofoils, stop less frequently, and cost extra. Ferries that run only between the popular mid-lake villages of Menaggio, Bellagio, and Varenna, plus Cadenabbia. Some of these boats carry vehicles as well as passengers. Sacro Monte di Ossuccio The Sacro Monte di Ossuccio ("Holy Mount of Ossuccio") is a sanctuary located on a hillside slope between olive groves and woods along the western edge of Lake Como facing Isola Comacina. Fifteen Baroque inspired chapels, built between 1635 and 1710, and dedicated to the Mysteries of the Rosary are dotted along the way that leads to the Monastery. This building is the last in the chain and is dedicated to the Coronation of the Virgin. In 2003, the Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy, including that of Ossuccio, were added by UNESCO to the World Heritage List. Villages, resorts, and other notable localities near the lake Gallery Notes Footnotes References Macadam, Alta (1997). Blue Guide. Northern Italy: From the Alps to Bologna. London: A & C Black. . 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250438	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slag	Slag	Slag is a by-product of smelting (pyrometallurgical) ores and used metals. Broadly, it can be classified as ferrous (by-products of processing iron and steel), ferroalloy (by-product of ferroalloy production) or non-ferrous/base metals (by-products of recovering non-ferrous materials like copper, nickel, zinc and phosphorus). Within these general categories, slags can be further categorized by their precursor and processing conditions (e.g., Blast furnace (BF) slags, air-cooled blast furnace (ACBF) slag, basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, and electric arc furnace (EAF) slag) . Due to the large demand for these materials, slag production has also significantly increased throughout the years despite recycling (most notably in the iron and steelmaking industries) and upcycling efforts. The World Steel Association (WSA) estimates that 600 kg of by-products (~90 wt% is slags) are generated per tonne of steel produced. Environmental Impact Slags are transported along with slag tailings to "slag dumps," where they are exposed to weathering, sparking concerns about leaching of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and hyperalkaline runoffs into the soil and water, endangering the local ecological communities. Leaching concerns are typically towards non-ferrous or base metal slags, which tend to have higher concentrations of PTEs. However, ferrous and ferroalloy slags may also have them, which raises concerns about highly weathered slag dumps and upcycled materials. Dissolution of slags can produce highly alkaline groundwater with pH values above 12. The calcium silicates (CaSiO4) in slags react with water to produce calcium hydroxide ions that leads to a higher concentration of hydroxide (OH-) in ground water. This alkalinity promotes the mineralization of the dissolved (from the atmosphere) to produce calcite (CaCO3), which can accumulate to as thick as 20 cm. Consequently, this can also lead to the dissolution of other metals in slag, such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mg), nickel (Ni), and molybdenum (Mo), which become insoluble in water and mobile as particulate matter. The most effective method to detoxify alkaline ground water discharge is air sparging. Additionally, fine slags and slag dusts generated from re-processing (i.e., milling) slags to be recycled into the smelting process or upcycled in a different industry, can be carried by the wind, affecting a larger ecosystem. It can be ingested, posing a direct health risk to the communities near the plant, mines, and disposal sites. According to the 2019 International Energy Agency (IEA) report, the iron and steel industry directly contributed 2.6 Gt to the global CO2 emissions and accounted for 7% of the global energy demand. The IEA report and the WSA project a continual increase in demand in the coming years prompting greater efforts toward a circular economy Ore smelting In nature, iron, copper, lead, nickel, and other metals are found in impure states called ores, often oxidized and mixed in with silicates of other metals. During smelting, when the ore is exposed to high temperatures, these impurities are separated from the molten metal and can be removed. Slag is the collection of compounds that are removed. In many smelting processes, oxides are introduced to control the slag chemistry, assisting in the removal of impurities and protecting the furnace refractory lining from excessive wear. In this case, the slag is termed synthetic. A good example is steelmaking slag: quicklime (CaO) and magnesite (MgCO3) are introduced for refractory protection, neutralizing the alumina and silica separated from the metal, and assisting in the removal of sulfur and phosphorus from the steel. As a co-product of steelmaking, slag is typically produced either through the blast furnace - oxygen converter route or the electric arc furnace - ladle furnace route. To flux the silica produced during steelmaking, limestone and/or dolomite are added, as well as other types of slag conditioners such as calcium aluminate or fluorspar. Compositions Slag is usually a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. However, slags can contain metal sulfides and elemental metals. The major components of these slags include the oxides of calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, and aluminium, with lesser amounts of manganese, phosphorus, and others depending on the specifics of the raw materials used. Furthermore, slag can be classified based on the abundance of iron among other major components. Classifications There are three types of slag: ferrous, ferroalloy, non-ferrous slags, which are produced through different smelting processes. Ferrous slag Ferrous slags are produced in different stages of the iron and steelmaking processes resulting in varying physiochemical properties. Additionally, the rate of cooling of the slag material affects its degree of crystallinity further diversifying its range of properties. For example, slow cooled BF slags (or air-cooled slags) tend have more crystalline phases than quenched BF slags (ground granulated blast furnace slags) making it denser and better suited as an aggregate. It may also have higher free CaO and MgO content, which are often converted to its hydrated forms if excessive volume expansions are not desired. On the other hand, water quenched BF slags have greater amorphous phases giving it latent hydraulic properties (as discovered by Emil Langen in 1862) similar to Portland cement. During the process of smelting iron, ferrous slag is created, but dominated by calcium and silicon compositions. Through this process, ferrous slag can be broken down into blast furnace slag (produced from iron oxides of molten iron), then steel slag (forms when steel scrap and molten iron combined). The major phases of ferrous slag contain calcium-rich olivine-group silicates and melilite-group silicates. Slag from steel mills in ferrous smelting is designed to minimize iron loss, which gives out the significant amount of iron, following by oxides of calcium, silicon, magnesium, and aluminium. As the slag is cooled down by water, several chemical reactions from a temperature of around (such as oxidization) taken place within the slag. Based on a case study at the Hopewell National Historical Site in Berks and Chester counties, Pennsylvania, USA, ferrous slag usually contains lower concentration of various types of trace elements than non-ferrous slag. However, some of them, such as arsenic (As), iron, and manganese, can accumulate in groundwater and surface water to levels that can exceed environmental guidelines. Non-ferrous slag Non-ferrous slag is produced from non-ferrous metals of natural ores. Non-ferrous slag can be characterized into copper, lead, and zinc slags due to the ores' compositions, and they have more potential to impact the environment negatively than ferrous slag. The smelting of copper, lead and bauxite in non-ferrous smelting, for instance, is designed to remove the iron and silica that often occurs with those ores, and separates them as iron-silicate-based slags. Copper slag, the waste product of smelting copper ores, was studied in an abandoned Penn Mine in California, USA. For six to eight months per year, this region is flooded and become a reservoir for drinking water and irrigation. Samples collected from the reservoir showed the higher concentration of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) that exceeded regulatory guidelines. Applications Slags can serve other purposes, such as assisting in the temperature control of the smelting, and minimizing any re-oxidation of the final liquid metal product before the molten metal is removed from the furnace and used to make solid metal. In some smelting processes, such as ilmenite smelting to produce titanium dioxide, the slag can be the valuable product. Ancient uses During the Bronze Age of the Mediterranean area there were a vast number of differential metallurgical processes in use. A slag by-product of such workings was a colorful, glassy, vitreous material found on the surfaces of slag from ancient copper foundries. It was primarily blue or green and was formerly chipped away and melted down to make glassware products and jewelry. It was also ground into powder to add to glazes for use in ceramics. Some of the earliest such uses for the by-products of slag have been found in ancient Egypt. Historically, the re-smelting of iron ore slag was common practice, as improved smelting techniques permitted greater iron yields—in some cases exceeding that which was originally achieved. During the early 20th century, iron ore slag was also ground to a powder and used to make agate glass, also known as slag glass. Modern uses Construction Utilization of slags in the construction industry dates back to the 1800s, where BF slags were used to build roads, and railroad ballast. During this time, it was also used as an aggregate and have begun being integrated into the cement industry as a geopolymer. Today, ground granulated blast furnace slags (GGBFS) are used in combination with Portland cement (PC) to create "slag cement." GGBFS react with portlandite (Ca(OH)2), which is formed during cement hydration, via the pozzolanic reaction to produce cementitious properties that primarily contribute to the later strength gain of concrete. This leads to concrete with reduced permeability and better durability. Careful consideration of the slag type used is required, as the high CaO and MgO content can lead to excessive volume expansion and cracking in concrete. These hydraulic properties have also been used for soil stabilization in roads and railroads constructions. Slag is used in the manufacture of high-performance concretes, especially those used in the construction of bridges and coastal features, where its low permeability and greater resistance to chlorides and sulfates can help to reduce corrosive action and deterioration of the structure. The slag can also be used to create fibers used as an insulation material called slag wool. Wastewater treatment and agriculture Dissolution of slags generate alkalinity that can be used to precipitate out metals, sulfates, and excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in wastewater treatment. Similarly, ferrous slags have been used as soil conditioners to rebalance soil pH and fertilizers as sources of calcium and magnesium. Because of the slowly released phosphate content in phosphorus-containing slag, and because of its liming effect, it is valued as fertilizer in gardens and farms in steel making areas. However, the most important application is construction. Emerging applications Slags have one of the highest carbonation potential among the industrial alkaline waste due their high CaO and MgO content, inspiring further studies to test its feasibility in CO2 capture and storage (CCS) methods (e.g., direct aqueous sequestration, dry gas-solid carbonation among others). Across these CCS methods, slags can be transformed into precipitated calcium carbonates to be used in the plastic, and concrete industries and leached for metals to be used in the electronic industries. However, high physical and chemical variability across different types of slags results in performance and yield inconsistencies. Moreover, stoichiometric-based calculation of the carbonation potential can lead to overestimation that can further obfuscate the material's true potential. To this end, some have proposed performing a series of experiments testing the reactivity of a specific slag material (i.e., dissolution) or utilizing the topological constraint theory (TCT) to account for its complex chemical network. See also Calcium cycle Circular economy Clinker (waste) Dross Fly ash Ground granulated blast furnace slag Mill scale Pozzolan Slag (welding) Spoil tip Tailings References Further reading Amorphous solids Materials with minor glass phase Steelmaking Smelting	[ 0.04184683784842491, 0.7442886233329773, -0.2174353301525116, 0.17470362782478333, 0.1520274430513382, -0.0800340473651886, 0.062099456787109375, 0.7554171681404114, 0.13116972148418427, -0.09122367203235626, -0.2875992953777313, -0.40237095952033997, -0.2768552601337433, 0.6269016265869141, 0.1810295134782791, 0.06294570118188858, 0.5693147778511047, 0.6880351901054382, 0.7133017182350159, -0.277816504240036, 0.1670575588941574, -0.06619705259799957, 0.48081690073013306, -0.06873942166566849, 0.6714775562286377, -0.031582895666360855, 0.04887593165040016, 0.14393165707588196, -0.5076789259910583, 0.12486303597688675, -0.6249916553497314, 0.8173562288284302, -0.41360440850257874, 0.1423562467098236, 0.4075419008731842, 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250442	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Como%20%28disambiguation%29	Lake Como (disambiguation)	Lake Como may refer to: Lakes Italy Lake Como, a lake of glacial origin in Lombardy, Italy United States Lake Como (Minnesota), a lake in Saint Paul, Minnesota Lake Como (New York), a lake in Cayuga County, New York Lake Como (Montana), a lake in Ravalli County's Bitterroot Valley Lake Como (Colorado), a lake in Alamosa County, Colorado Places United States Lake Como, Florida, unincorporated community Lake Como, Mississippi, unincorporated community Lake Como, New Jersey, borough Lake Como, Pennsylvania, unincorporated community Lake Como, Wisconsin, unincorporated community See also Como Lake (disambiguation)	[ -0.09862683713436127, 0.3686075806617737, -0.025241604074835777, 0.0022647150326520205, -0.06442063301801682, 0.29026588797569275, 0.687703013420105, 0.7207616567611694, -0.7102679014205933, -0.33597761392593384, -0.17518825829029083, 0.1400059014558792, -0.24527551233768463, 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250447	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod%20Grams	Rod Grams	Rodney Dwight Grams (February 4, 1948 – October 8, 2013) was an American politician from Minnesota. He served as a Republican in both the United States House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate. Early life Grams was born in Princeton, Minnesota and attended Brown Institute (1966–68), Anoka-Ramsey Community College (1970–72), and Carroll College (1974–75). Grams spent 23 years in the field of television and radio broadcasting before launching a career in politics. From 1982–91 he was the senior news anchor at KMSP-TV in Minneapolis/St. Paul. Before that, he worked as a news anchor/producer for KFBB-TV in Great Falls, Montana; WSAU-TV in Wausau, Wisconsin; and WIFR-TV in Rockford, Illinois. Prior to his years in broadcasting, Grams worked at an engineering consulting firm for seven years. In 1985, Grams formed Sun Ridge Builders, a Twin Cities construction and residential development company, serving as its president and CEO. He was involved in architectural design and the use of solar energy in residential homes. Early political career Grams launched his political career by winning the 1992 Republican nomination in Minnesota's 6th congressional district. He defeated Democratic incumbent Gerry Sikorski in the general election. During the campaign, Grams benefited from high name recognition in the district—from years as news anchor at KMSP-TV—and Sikorski's involvement in the House banking scandal. He served in the 103rd Congress as a member of the House of Representatives, and 104th, 105th, and 106th congresses as a member of the U.S. Senate. U.S. Senate After David Durenberger announced he would not seek reelection, Grams surprised many by announcing, just months into beginning his first term in the U.S. House, that he would run for the U.S. Senate. However, Grams faced opposition for the Republican party endorsement from State Senator Gen Olson, Bert McKasy (former chief of staff to David Durenberger), and Doug McFarland. During the party endorsement process, the Grams campaign closely aligned itself with supporters of Allen Quist, who was challenging incumbent Governor Arne Carlson for reelection in the 1994 Gubernatorial race. Weeks before the Republican Party's state convention, McFarland dropped out of the U.S. Senate race after endorsing Allen Quist for Governor and joining his ticket to become Quist's Lieutenant Governor running mate. Later, McFarland threw his support behind McKasy in the U.S. Senate Republican Party endorsement campaign. After numerous ballots at the convention in St. Paul, Grams won the state Republican party endorsement against State Senator Gen Olson and Bert McKasy. Grams moved on to win the Republican primary against Arne Carlson's Lieutenant Governor Joanell Dyrstad, who had been replaced as his running mate with State Senator Joanne Benson. In the general election against Democratic Farm Labor candidate Ann Wynia and Independence Party candidate future Senator Dean Barkley, Grams won a close election (49% to 44%) to become Minnesota's next U.S. Senator. Grams ran for re-election in 2000 as the incumbent, losing to Mark Dayton. During the campaign, Grams' wife Christine Gunhus was revealed to have written anonymous disparaging emails about Grams' potential Democratic rival, Mike Ciresi, from her home computer. She received a fine and suspended sentence for violating political advertising regulations. The Grams campaign also ran a commercial during the campaign featuring the mother of Rod Grams. The spot ended with Audrey Grams uttering, "Uffda, vote for Rod." Post-Senate career After his 2000 re-election defeat, Grams went back into private business and in 2004 became the owner of three radio stations in Little Falls, Minnesota. Grams attempted a political comeback in the 2006 U.S. Senate campaign. He sought the GOP nomination for his former US Senate seat, facing Mark Kennedy and Gil Gutknecht. However, after a poor showing early in the endorsement process, Grams dropped his candidacy. Grams switched his political plans and ran in the 2006 U.S. House election, challenging the incumbent Jim Oberstar in Minnesota's 8th congressional district. Oberstar defeated Grams handily. Grams remained active in politics and interested in running for public office. In 2008, Grams considered challenging incumbent Norm Coleman for the Republican U.S. Senate nomination but was too busy in his private life to make a run, stating, "And my wife (Chris) would have killed me if I would have, because of some things that we're doing." However, it became unclear whether Grams would run as a Republican. In an interview, he expressed disappointment over the perceived failings of the Republican Party, going as far as to ponder whether he can call himself a Republican or vote for party candidates anymore. Grams considered a 2010 run for Governor of Minnesota stating, "I'm so damn unhappy with the Republicans right now ... I'm so unhappy with the candidates that we have I could puke. I wanted to get out there and mix it up." However, Grams endorsed Republican Tom Emmer in the 2010 campaign for governor. Emmer, like Grams a decade before, lost to Mark Dayton. Illness and death On September 4, 2013, it was announced that Grams had been battling colon cancer since 2012 and was receiving hospice care at his home. He died on October 8, 2013, at his home in Crown, Minnesota, aged 65. Electoral history References Further reading The Senatorial records of Rod Grams are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society. External links 1948 births 2013 deaths American Lutherans American television news anchors Deaths from cancer in Minnesota Carroll College (Montana) alumni Businesspeople from Minnesota Deaths from colorectal cancer Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota Minnesota Republicans People from Princeton, Minnesota Republican Party United States senators United States senators from Minnesota Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives 20th-century American politicians 20th-century American businesspeople 20th-century Lutherans	[ -0.13647077977657318, 0.06544865667819977, -0.29884567856788635, -0.01987636834383011, -0.26020291447639465, 0.5198020935058594, 0.2894211411476135, -0.7258533239364624, -0.6884390115737915, 0.24587994813919067, 0.8929620385169983, 0.16328057646751404, -0.5753009915351868, 0.12653301656246185, -0.5726797580718994, 0.033089395612478256, -0.07739581167697906, 0.15092048048973083, -0.2943418622016907, 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250448	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Odyssey%3A%20A%20Modern%20Sequel	The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel	The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel is an epic poem by Greek poet and philosopher Nikos Kazantzakis, based on Homer's Odyssey. It is divided into twenty-four rhapsodies as is the original Odyssey and consists of 33,333 17-syllable verses. Kazantzakis began working on it in 1924 after he returned to Crete from Germany. Before finally publishing the poem in 1938 he had drafted seven different versions. Kazantzakis considered this his most important work. It was fully translated into English in 1958 by Kimon Friar. Synopsis Odysseus (Ulysses) returns to Ithaca and decides to undertake new adventures after he quickly becomes dissatisfied with his quiet family life and they too with his brutality. First he travels to Sparta to save Helen, the wife of the king of Sparta Menelaus, whose abduction by Paris had led to the Trojan War. He goes to Crete where a conspiracy dethrones the king. He is abandoned by Helen who runs off with a black slave and continues to Egypt, where again a workers' uprising takes place. He leaves again on a journey up the Nile eventually stopping at the lake-source. Upon arrival his companions set up camp and he climbs the mountain in order to concentrate on his god. Upon his return to the lake he sets up his city based on the commandments of his religion. The city is soon destroyed by an earthquake. Odysseus laments his failure to understand the true meaning of god with the sacrifice of his companions. His life transforms into that of an ascetic. Odysseus meets Motherth (an incarnation of the Buddha), Kapetán Énas (English: Captain Sole, literally "Captain One", a Greek folk expression for people who are insubordinate and single-minded to a fault), alias Don Quixote, and an African village fisherman, alias Jesus. He travels further south in Africa while constantly spreading his religion and fighting the advances of death. Eventually he travels to Antarctica and lives with villagers for a year until an iceberg kills him. His death is glorious as it marks his rebirth and unification with the world. Themes The Odyssey represents Kazantzakis' ideology and metaphysical concerns. A central theme is the importance of struggle for its own sake, as opposed to reaching a final goal. External links A 1958 review from TIME magazine 1938 books 1938 poems Poetry based on the Odyssey Ancient Egypt in fiction Ancient Greece in fiction Antarctica in fiction Epic poems in Greek Works by Nikos Kazantzakis	[ -0.42297065258026123, 0.39750826358795166, -0.09273441135883331, -0.12729990482330322, 0.21988976001739502, 0.5629282593727112, 0.3109211027622223, -0.1723826676607132, 0.01955960877239704, -0.5949758291244507, -0.5987542867660522, 0.17129556834697723, -0.28508448600769043, 0.16041293740272522, 0.025248510763049126, 0.13958697021007538, 0.5153687000274658, -0.16231566667556763, -0.19441340863704681, -0.4307984709739685, -0.20591969788074493, 0.7860088348388672, 0.6130221486091614, -0.5098726153373718, 0.27598005533218384, 0.21023499965667725, 0.4132159948348999, 0.056849878281354904, -0.3230586349964142, 0.024777851998806, -0.7060107588768005, 0.13361181318759918, -0.5052823424339294, -0.2372668832540512, -0.09339521825313568, -0.17880094051361084, -0.18518230319023132, 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250450	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Durenberger	David Durenberger	David Ferdinand Durenberger (born August 19, 1934) is an American politician and a former Republican member of the U.S. Senate from Minnesota. Early life Durenberger was born in St. Cloud, Minnesota, the son of Isabelle Marie (Cebulla) and George Gephard Durenberger. He is a Roman Catholic of German and Polish descent. His father was the athletic director and a coach at Saint John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota, and the family lived on campus. Durenberger graduated from St. John's Prep School there in 1951, and from the university in 1955. He attended the University of Minnesota Law School and received his J.D. in 1959. At St. John's he was the top-rated cadet in his ROTC class, and after college was a lieutenant in the Army Counter-Intelligence Corps in 1956 and a captain in the United States Army Reserve from 1957 to 1963. Professional career After law school, Durenberger was employed by a South St. Paul law firm with strong political connections. It had been founded in 1929 by Republican Harold Stassen, later the governor of Minnesota from 1939 to 1943, and Elmer Ryan, a Democrat who was member of the U.S House of Representatives from 1935 to 1941. When Durenberger joined it was headed by Harold LeVander. The firm took the name LeVander, Gillen, Miller and Durenberger. LeVander, a Republican, was elected governor of Minnesota in 1966 and took office in January 1967, and Durenberger became his executive secretary from then until the end of LeVander's term in 1971. He then joined the H.B. Fuller Company as in-house counsel, corporate secretary, and manager of international licensing until 1978. He also served as chair of the Metropolitan Open Space Advisory Board from 1972 to 1974 and was on the Minnesota State Ethical Practices Board from 1974 to 1978. U.S. Senate On November 7, 1978, Durenberger was elected in a special election to complete the unexpired term of Senator Hubert Humphrey, whose position had temporarily been filled by Humphrey's wife Muriel. He was reelected in 1982 and again in 1988, this time defeating Minnesota Attorney General Skip Humphrey, son of Hubert and Muriel. Durenberger ended up serving from November 8, 1978, to January 3, 1995 in the 96th, 97th, 98th, 99th, 100th, 101st, 102nd and 103rd Congresses. Durenberger was chair of the Select Committee on Intelligence in the 99th Congress, and the Health Subcommittee of the Senate Finance Committee, giving him a leadership role in national health reform. He also chaired the Intergovernmental Relations Subcommittee, led President Reagan's New Federalism effort in 1982, and was a 14-year member of the Advisory Committee on Intergovernmental Relations. He was a member of the Senate Environment Committee, the Government Affairs Committee, and the committee now known as the Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee, and served as vice chair of the Pepper Commission in 1989-90. Durenberger was Senate sponsor of the Medicare Catastrophic act, the AHCPR (now AHRQ) on voting rights for the disabled, the Americans with Disabilities Act, George H. W. Bush's 1000 Points of Light and Bill Clinton's National and Community Service Act, National Service Learning, the Consumer Choice Education Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Direct Lending Act, and the Women's Economic Equity Act. Durenberger voted for the bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday and the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 (as well as to override President Reagan's veto). He voted to confirm Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas to the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1990, the senate voted 96-0 to censure Durenberger for ethics violations related to evading limits on $100,000 in speaking fees and using his own condo in Minneapolis to collect $40,000 in travel reimbursements. He remains the most recent United States senator to be censured. The Minnesota Supreme Court indefinitely suspended Durenberger's Minnesota law license on January 11, 1991, pursuant to a stipulation. The Court reinstated his license on March 22, 2000. Durenberger did not run for reelection in 1994 and was succeeded by Rod Grams. In 1995, he pleaded guilty to charges of misuse of public funds while in office and was sentenced to one year of probation. Post-Senate life In 2005 Durenberger gave an interview on the Inside Minnesota Politics Podcast in which he said that he is no longer a supporter of the Republican Party but is not a supporter of the Democratic Party either. In an interview, he said that Democrats are better equipped to handle health care and that President George W. Bush was wrong about the Iraq War. In 2010, Durenberger endorsed his former chief of staff, Independence Party member Tom Horner, for governor. Durenberger chaired the National Institute of Health Policy (NIHP) and is a Senior Health Policy Fellow at the University of St. Thomas in Saint Paul. He served on the board of National Coalition on HealthCare. He has also served on national health commissions and boards, including the Medicare Payment Advisory Commission and Board of the National Commission on Quality Assurance (NCQA), and the Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured. Durenberger endorsed former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton for president in 2016 and endorsed former Vice President Joe Biden for president in 2020. He is a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One. Writings A collection of Durenberger's senatorial files is held by the Minnesota Historical Society. It documents his three terms in the United States Senate and is strongest in its documentation of the third (1989–95). The papers are perhaps most significant for the information they contain about his interest in, and legislative activities regarding, health policy and health care reform issues. Durenberger's books include When Republicans were Progressive, which traces the history of Minnesota's Republican party from the era of Harold Stassen, a moderate Republican governor who took office in 1939, to the ascendency of a more conservative strain within the party in the late 1980s (Durenberger laments the polarization of more recent politics); Neither Madmen nor Messiahs: A Policy of National Security for America (1984), on defense policy; and Prescription for Change (1986), on health care reform. Electoral history 1978 race for U.S. Senate (special election) David Durenberger (R), 61% Bob Short (DFL), 35% 1982 race for U.S. Senate David Durenberger (R) (inc.), 53% Mark Dayton (DFL), 47% 1988 race for U.S. Senate David Durenberger (R) (inc.), 52% Skip Humphrey (DFL), 48% See also List of American federal politicians convicted of crimes List of federal political scandals in the United States List of United States senators expelled or censured References External links \|- \|- 1934 births American people convicted of misusing public funds American people of German descent Censured or reprimanded United States senators College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University alumni Disbarred American lawyers Living people Military personnel from Minnesota Minnesota Independents Minnesota politicians convicted of crimes Minnesota Republicans Politicians from St. Cloud, Minnesota Republican Party United States senators United States Army officers University of Minnesota Law School 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250451	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis%20Kucinich	Dennis Kucinich	Dennis John Kucinich (; born October 8, 1946) is an American politician. A U.S. Representative from Ohio from 1997 to 2013, he was also a candidate for the Democratic nomination for president of the United States in 2004 and 2008. He ran for governor of Ohio in the 2018 election, losing in the primary to Richard Cordray. From 1977 to 1979, Kucinich served as the 53rd mayor of Cleveland, a tumultuous term in which he survived a recall election and was successful in a battle against selling the municipal electric utility before being defeated for reelection by George Voinovich. Due to redistricting following the 2010 state elections, Ohio's 10th congressional district was redrawn in southern Ohio. Kucinich faced Representative Marcy Kaptur in the 2012 race for the U.S. House, Ohio's 9th congressional district having absorbed part of Cuyahoga County. Kaptur defeated Kucinich. In January 2013, he became a contributor on the Fox News Channel appearing on programs such as The O'Reilly Factor. Kucinich was also an unsuccessful primary candidate in the 2021 Cleveland mayoral election. Early life and education Kucinich was born in Cleveland's West Side Tremont neighborhood, the oldest of the seven children of Virginia (née Norris) and Frank J. Kucinich. His father, a truck driver, was of Croat ancestry; his Irish American mother was a homemaker. Growing up, his family moved 21 times and Dennis was often charged with the responsibility of finding apartments they could afford. Kucinich graduated from St. John Cantius High School in 1965. He attended Cleveland State University from 1967 to 1970. In 1973, he graduated from Case Western Reserve University with both a Bachelor and a Master of Arts degree in speech and communication. Early political career Kucinich's political career began in 1967 when he ran unsuccessfully for office. In 1969, he was elected to the Cleveland City Council at the age of 23. In 1972, Kucinich ran for the U.S. House of Representatives, losing narrowly to incumbent Republican William E. Minshall Jr. After Minshall's retirement in 1974 Kucinich sought the seat again, this time failing to get the Democratic nomination, which went to Ronald M. Mottl. Kucinich ran as an Independent candidate in the general election, placing third with about 30% of the vote. In 1975, Kucinich became clerk of the municipal court in Cleveland and served in that position for two years. Cleveland mayor Kucinich was elected mayor of Cleveland in 1977 and served in that position until 1979. At age 31, he was the youngest mayor of a major city in the United States, earning him the nickname "the boy mayor of Cleveland". Kucinich's tenure as mayor is often regarded as one of the most tumultuous in Cleveland's history. After Kucinich refused to sell Municipal Light (now Cleveland Public Power), Cleveland's publicly owned electric utility, the Cleveland mafia sought to murder him in a contract killing. A hit man from Maryland planned to shoot him in the head during the Columbus Day Parade, but the plot fell apart when Kucinich was hospitalized and missed the event. When the city fell into default shortly thereafter, the mafia leaders called off the contract killer. The Cleveland Trust Company suddenly required all the city's debts be paid in full, forcing the city into default, after news of Kucinich's refusal to sell the city utility. For years, these debts were routinely rolled over, pending future payment, until Kucinich's announcement was made public. In 1998, the Cleveland City Council honored him for having had the "courage and foresight" to stand up to the banks, which saved the city an estimated $195 million between 1985 and 1995. Post-mayoralty After losing his reelection bid for mayor to George Voinovich in 1979, Kucinich initially kept a low profile in Cleveland politics. He criticized a tax referendum Voinovich proposed in 1980, which voters eventually approved. He also struggled to find employment and moved to Los Angeles, where he stayed with a friend, actress Shirley MacLaine. For the next three years, Kucinich worked as a radio talk-show host, lecturer, and consultant. It was a difficult period for him financially. Without a steady paycheck, Kucinich fell behind in his mortgage payments, nearly lost his house in Cleveland, and borrowed money from friends, including MacLaine, to keep it. On his 1982 income tax return, Kucinich reported an income of $38. Of this period, Kucinich has said, "When I was growing up in Cleveland, my early experience conditioned me to hang in there and not to quit... It's one thing to experience that as a child, but when you have to as an adult, it has a way to remind you how difficult things can be. You understand what people go through." In 1982, Kucinich moved back to Cleveland and ran for Secretary of State; he lost the Democratic primary to Sherrod Brown. In 1983, Kucinich won a special election to fill the seat of a Cleveland city councilman who had died. His brother, Gary Kucinich, was also a councilman at the time. In 1985, there was some speculation that Kucinich might run for mayor again. Instead, his brother Gary ran against (and lost to) the incumbent Voinovich. Kucinich, meanwhile, gave up his council position to run for governor of Ohio as an independent against Richard Celeste, but later withdrew from the race. After this, Kucinich, in his own words "on a quest for meaning," lived quietly in New Mexico until 1994, when he won a seat in the Ohio State Senate. House of Representatives In 1996, Kucinich was elected to represent Ohio's 10th district in the U.S. House of Representatives, defeating two-term Republican incumbent Martin Hoke by three percentage points. He never faced another general election contest that close and was reelected seven times. Committee assignments Committee on Education and the Workforce Subcommittee on Workforce Protections Subcommittee on Health, Employment, Labor, and Pensions Committee on Oversight and Government Reform Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs, Stimulus Oversight and Government Spending (Ranking Member) Kucinich served as chair of the Congressional Progressive Caucus from 1999 to 2003, after founding chair Bernie Sanders, and was succeeded by Peter DeFazio. Kucinich was one of the 31 House Democrats who voted to not count the 20 electoral votes from Ohio in the 2004 presidential election, despite Republican President George Bush winning the state by 118,457 votes. Domestic policy voting record In 2008, Kucinich introduced articles of impeachment in the House of Representatives against President George W. Bush for the invasion and occupation of Iraq. Although his voting record is not always in line with that of the Democratic Party, on March 17, 2010, after being courted by President Barack Obama, his wife and others, Kucinich reluctantly agreed to vote with his colleagues for the Affordable Care Act without a public option component. Kucinich criticized the flag-burning amendment and voted against the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. His congressional voting record was strongly anti-abortion, although he has noted that he never supported a constitutional amendment prohibiting abortion altogether. In 2003, however, he began describing himself as pro-abortion rights and said he had shifted away from his earlier position. Press releases indicated that he supported abortion rights, ending abstinence-only sex education and increasing the use of contraception to make abortion "less necessary" over time. His voting record since 2003 received mixed ratings from abortion rights groups. Presidential campaigns 2004 Kucinich was criticized during his 2004 campaign for changing his stance on the issue of abortion. His explanation was "I've always worked to make abortions less necessary, through sex education and birth control. But the direction that Congress has taken, increasingly, is to make it impossible for women to be able to have an abortion if they need to protect their health. So when I saw the direction taken, it finally came to the point where I understood that women will not be truly free unless they have the right to choose." On December 10, 2003, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) announced the removal of its correspondents from the campaigns of Kucinich, Carol Moseley Braun and Al Sharpton. Previously critical of the limited coverage given his campaign, Kucinich characterized ABC's decision as an example of media companies' power to shape campaigns by choosing which candidates to cover and questioned its timing, coming immediately after the debate. ABC News, while stating its commitment to give coverage to a wide range of candidates, argued that focusing more of its "finite resources" on the candidates most likely to win would best serve the public. In the 2004 Democratic presidential nomination race, national polls consistently showed Kucinich's support in single digits. In the Iowa caucuses, he finished fifth, receiving about 1% of the state delegates, far below the 15% threshold for receiving national delegates. He performed similarly in the New Hampshire primary, placing sixth among the seven candidates with 1% of the vote. In the Mini-Tuesday primaries, he finished near the bottom in most states. His best performance was in New Mexico, where he received over 5% of the vote but still no delegates. Kucinich's best showing in any Democratic contest was in the February 24 Hawaii caucus, in which he won 31% of caucus participants, finishing second behind Senator John Kerry and winning Maui County, the only county Kucinich won in either of his presidential campaigns. He also had a double-digit showing in Maine on February 8, receiving 16% percent in the state's caucus. On Super Tuesday, March 2, Kucinich had another strong showing in the Minnesota caucus, receiving 17% of the vote. In Ohio, he received 9%. Kucinich campaigned heavily in Oregon, spending 30 days there during the two months leading up to the state's May 18 primary. He continued his campaign because "the future direction of the Democratic Party has not yet been determined" and chose to focus on Oregon "because of its progressive tradition and its pioneering spirit." He won 16% of the vote. Even after Kerry won enough delegates to secure the nomination, Kucinich continued to campaign until just before the convention, citing an effort to help shape the agenda of the Democratic Party. He was the last candidate to end his campaign. He endorsed Kerry on July 22, four days before the start of the Democratic National Convention. 2008 On December 11, 2006, in a speech at Cleveland City Hall, Kucinich announced he would seek the Democratic nomination for president in 2008. Kucinich told his supporters in Iowa that if he did not appear on the second ballot in a caucus that they should back Barack Obama. At an October 2007 debate, NBC's Tim Russert cited a passage from a book by Shirley MacLaine in which she writes that Kucinich had seen a UFO. Asked if it was true, Kucinich confirmed it. In November 2007, Larry Flynt hosted a fundraiser for Kucinich that drew criticism from Flynt's detractors. Campaign representatives declined to comment. Kucinich was endorsed by author Gore Vidal and actor Viggo Mortensen. In January 2008, he asked for a New Hampshire recount based on alleged discrepancies between the machine-counted ballots and the hand-counted ballots. He stated that he wanted to make sure "100% of the voters had 100% of their votes counted." In January 2008, Kucinich was excluded from a Democratic presidential debate on MSNBC due to his poor showing in the Iowa and New Hampshire primaries. A ruling that the debate could not go ahead without him was overturned on appeal. Later that month, Kucinich dropped out of the race and did not endorse any other candidate. He endorsed Barack Obama after Obama won the nomination. On August 27, 2008, he delivered a speech at the Democratic National Convention. Congressional campaigns Until 2012, Kucinich was reelected to Congress by big margins in his strongly Democratic-leaning districts. 2006 Kucinich defeated a Democratic primary challenger by a wide margin and defeated Republican Mike Dovilla in the general election with 66% of the vote. 2008 His opponents included Cleveland City Councilman Joe Cimperman and North Olmsted Mayor Thomas O'Grady. In February 2008, Kucinich raised around $50,000 compared to Cimperman's $228,000, but through a YouTube fund-raising campaign he managed to raise $700,000, surpassing Cimperman's $487,000. Cimperman, who was endorsed by the mayor of Cleveland and The Plain Dealer, criticized Kucinich for focusing too much on campaigning for president and not on the district. Kucinich accused Cimperman of representing corporate and real estate interests. Cimperman described Kucinich as an absentee congressman who failed to pass any major legislative initiatives in his 12-year House career. In an interview, Cimperman said he was tired of Kucinich and Cleveland being joke fodder for late-night talk-show hosts, saying: "It's time for him to go home." A Cimperman campaign ad stated that Kucinich had missed over 300 votes, but the actual number was 139. It was also suggested that Kucinich's calls for universal health care and an immediate withdrawal from Iraq made him a thorn in the side of the Democrats' congressional leadership, as well as his refusal to pledge to support the eventual presidential nominee, which he later reconsidered. Kucinich took part in a debate with the other primary challengers. Barbara Ferris criticized him for not bringing as much money back to the district as other area legislators and authoring just one bill that passed during his 12 years in Congress. Kucinich responded: "It was a Republican Congress and there weren't many Democrats passing meaningful legislation during a Republican Congress." He won the primary with 68,156 votes out of 135,589 cast, beating Cimperman 52% to 33%. Kucinich defeated former State Representative Jim Trakas in the November 4 general election with 157,268 votes, 57.02% of those cast. Trakas received 107,918 votes (39.13%). 2010 Kucinich defeated Republican nominee Peter J. Corrigan and Libertarian nominee Jeff Goggins in the November 2 general election with 101,343 votes, 53.1% of those cast. 2012 Redistricting after the 2010 census eliminated Kucinich's district. The new map shifted the bulk of Kucinich's territory, including his home, to the Toledo-based 9th District, represented since 1983 by fellow Democrat Marcy Kaptur. Kucinich had been endorsed by another House member, Barney Frank of Massachusetts. The two competed in the Democratic primary on March 6, with Graham Veysey, a small-business owner from Cleveland, also on the ballot. Kaptur won the primary with 56% of the vote to Kucinich's 40%. The redrawn district contained roughly 60% of Kaptur's former territory. In the general election, with 73% of the vote, Kaptur won a 16th term against Republican Samuel "Joe the Plumber" Wurzelbacher and Libertarian Sean Stipe. Kucinich had been mentioned frequently as a possible 2012 candidate for Congress in Washington's newly created 10th district, but he decided to retire from Congress when his term ended in January 2013. 2018 gubernatorial campaign In January 2018, Kucinich announced his candidacy for governor of Ohio in the 2018 election. He was criticized for working as a Fox News contributor. Tara Samples, an Akron city councilwoman, was his running mate. Our Revolution, a grassroots progressive organization founded by Bernie Sanders, endorsed Kucinich, but Sanders did not. Kucinich lost the primary to Richard Cordray, 62.3% to 22.9%. 2021 Cleveland mayor campaign In December 2020, Kucinich announced his candidacy for mayor of Cleveland in the 2021 election. Though seen as likely to qualify in the 7-way nonpartisan primary for the two runoff spots, Kucinich finished in third place with 16.54%. Television pundit In January 2013, Kucinich joined Fox News Channel as a regular contributor. He appeared on The O'Reilly Factor and other Fox News shows. Kucinich quit Fox News in January 2018 as he announced plans to run for governor. Since running for governor, Kucinich has reappeared on the network, in 2019 discussing Democratic primary debates, and has appeared on Larry King's PoliticKING program, speaking against the Democrats' push to impeach President Trump. Political positions After being elected to Congress in 1996, Kucinich began to position himself on the left. Based on his voting record in Congress, the American Conservative Union (ACU) gave Kucinich a conservative rating of 9.73%, and for 2008, the liberal Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) gave him a liberal rating of 95%. He was often regarded as one of the most liberal members of the United States House of Representatives. Describing his views in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries, he said, "I'm from the universal-health-care wing of the Democratic Party. I'm from the Roe v. Wade-litmus-test wing of the Democratic Party. I'm from the abolish-the-death-penalty wing of the Democratic Party." Abortion Until 2002, Kucinich's voting record was strongly anti-abortion, but he maintained a pro-abortion rights stance thereafter. In 1996, he was quoted as saying that "life begins at conception", and he voted in favor of banning partial birth abortion and preventing the transport of minors to undergo abortion procedures. He said in a 2003 interview that he had a "journey" on the abortion issue that "caused me to break from a voting record that had not been pro-choice". Attempted impeachment of George W. Bush On June 10, 2008, Kucinich introduced 35 articles of impeachment against President George W. Bush on the floor of the House of Representatives. On June 11, the resolution was referred to the House Judiciary Committee. Calling it "a sworn duty" of Congress to act, co-sponsor Robert Wexler said, "President Bush deliberately created a massive propaganda campaign to sell the war in Iraq to the American people and the charges detailed in this impeachment resolution indicate an unprecedented abuse of executive power." On July 10, 2008, Kucinich introduced an additional article of impeachment accusing Bush of misleading Congress into war. On July 14, 2008 Kucinich introduced a new resolution of impeachment against Bush, charging him with manufacturing evidence to sway public opinion in favor of the war in Iraq. This resolution was also sent to the judiciary committee. Attempted impeachment of Dick Cheney On April 17, 2007, Kucinich sent a letter to his Democratic colleagues saying that he planned to file impeachment proceedings against Dick Cheney, then Vice President of the United States. Kucinich planned to introduce the impeachment articles on April 24, 2007, but in light of Cheney's visit to his doctor for an inspection of a blood clot, Kucinich postponed the press conference "until the vice president's condition is clarified." Kucinich held a press conference on April 24, 2007, revealing House Resolution 333 and the three articles of impeachment against Cheney. He charged Cheney with manipulating the evidence of Iraq's weapons program, deceiving the nation about Iraq's connection to al-Qaeda, and threatening aggression against Iran in violation of the United Nations charter. Kucinich opened his press conference by quoting from the Declaration of Independence, and said, "I believe the Vice President's conduct of office has been destructive to the founding purposes of our nation. Today, I have introduced House Resolution 333, Articles of Impeachment Relating to Vice President Richard B. Cheney. I do so in defense of the rights of the American people to have a government that is honest and peaceful." On November 6, 2007, Kucinich used special parliamentary procedure and moved for a vote on impeaching Cheney. House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer and House Speaker Pelosi opposed the measure and stood by previous comments that "impeachment is not on our agenda", and they initially moved to table the bill. When that attempt failed, Hoyer moved to refer the bill to the House Judiciary Committee. That motion succeeded. Barack Obama In March 2011, Kucinich said that President Obama's decision to approve air strikes against Gaddafi's forces in the Libyan Civil War was an "impeachable offense." Cannabis During his 2004 presidential campaign, Kucinich expressed support for a drug policy that "sets reasonable boundaries for marijuana use by establishing guidelines similar to those already in place for alcohol". He stated: "Most marijuana users do so responsibly, in a safe, recreational context. These people lead normal, productive lives–pursuing careers, raising families and participating in civic life." Kucinich also released a detailed plan for cannabis policy reform during his 2018 campaign for Ohio governor. Civil liberties Kucinich has opposed the USA PATRIOT Act since its inception. He voted against the act in 2001, and against its renewal in 2006. He voted for an amendment to the constitution outlawing flag burning and desecration, but later took the opposite stance, voting against a similar amendment in 2005. In 2007, Kucinich voted to require the Department of Defense to present a detailed plan for transferring prisoners out of Guantanamo Bay detention camp. Donald Trump Kucinich has praised and defended President Donald Trump in Fox News appearances. He praised Trump's inaugural speech, calling it "GREAT" and a "message of unity"; others characterized the speech as dark and "white nationalist". According to The Washington Post, Kucinich "was a rare left-wing voice attacking 'the deep state' for undermining the president." On Sean Hannity's show, Kucinich said he believed that a deep state intelligence community worked against Trump and that it was "very dangerous to America", "a threat to our republic" and "a clear and present danger to our way of life." In February 2017, Kucinich defended Michael Flynn, saying that the intelligence community had treated him unfairly; in December 2017, Flynn pleaded guilty to lying to the FBI. Kucinich defended Trump's claims that he was being wiretapped, saying that he himself had been wiretapped. He also defended Trump's efforts to improve relations with Russia. Kucinich criticized some House Democrats for attempting to start impeachment proceedings against Trump. He said, "The Democratic Party had best be identified with something more than impeachment." He said that efforts to assess Trump's mental and physical fitness to be president were "destroying the party as an effective opposition." After the 2021 United States Capitol attack that attempted to overturn Trump's defeat, Kucinich denounced the storming as "an affront to the U.S. Constitution". Environment and energy Kucinich had a 100% rating during 2005 and 2006 from the League of Conservation Voters, indicating pro-environment votes. He has said that clean water is "a basic human right". As mayor of Cleveland, Kucinich favored the city's existing Municipal Light System and opposed construction of the Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Plant and Perry Nuclear Power Plant on Lake Erie. He opposed a planned regional radioactive waste dump, and has long advocated renewable energy and efficient energy use. Fairness Doctrine Kucinich was involved in efforts to bring back the Fairness Doctrine, requiring radio stations to give liberal and conservative points of view equal time, which he and other critics of talk radio argue is not presently the case. Fellow Democrat Maurice Hichney, Vermont's independent Senator Bernie Sanders, and others have joined him in this effort. Conservatives have criticized these plans, alleging that what they believe to be a liberal-dominated Hollywood, academia, new media, and mainstream media would not be subject to these regulations. Foreign policy Kucinich is a supporter of a non-interventionist foreign policy and has called war a profitable racket. Iraq War Kucinich voted against the authorization of military force against Iraq in 2002. He also voted consistently against funding the war. In a visit to the rest of the Middle East in September 2007, Kucinich said he did not visit Iraq because "I feel the United States is engaging in an illegal occupation." Military intervention in Libya Kucinich objected to the 2011 military intervention in Libya missile strikes and suggested they were impeachable offenses. He also asked why Democratic leaders didn't object when Obama told them of his plan for US participation in enforcing the Libyan no-fly zone. He said Obama's action in Libya was "a grave decision that cannot be made by the president alone", and that failing to first seek Congress's approval was unconstitutional. On August 31, Al Jazeera reported that a document had been found in the Libyan intelligence agency's headquarters that according to the author appeared to be a summary of a conversation between Kucinich and an intermediary for Saif al-Islam Gaddafi in which Kucinich asks for information about the anti-Gaddafi National Transitional Council (NTC), possible links between it and al-Qaeda, and evidence of corruption, to lobby US lawmakers to put an end to NATO airstrikes and suspend their support for the NTC. It also listed information necessary to defend al-Islam against International Criminal Court war crimes charges. Kucinich defended himself in a message to The Atlantic Wire, saying that the document was simply a summary of Kucinich's public positions on the Libyan campaign by a Libyan bureaucrat who never consulted Kucinich. "Al Jazeera found a document written by a Libyan bureaucrat to other Libyan bureaucrats. All it proves is that the Libyans were reading The Washington Post... Any implication I was doing anything other than trying to bring an end to an unauthorized war is fiction." In March 2011, Kucinich criticized the Obama administration's decision to participate in the UN intervention in Libya without Congressional authorization. He also called it an "indisputable fact" that Obama's decision was an impeachable offense since he believes the U.S. Constitution "does not provide for the president to wage war any times he pleases", but he did not introduce a resolution to impeach Obama. In response, Libyan officials invited Kucinich to visit that country on a "peace mission", but he declined, saying that he "could not negotiate on behalf of the administration." Syria and Bashar al-Assad Kucinich was criticized for his visit to Syria in 2007 and praise of President Bashar al-Assad on Syrian national TV. He praised Syria for taking in Iraqi refugees. "What most people are not aware of is that Syria has taken in more than 1.5 million Iraqi refugees," Kucinich said. "The Syrian government has actually shown a lot of compassion in keeping its doors open, and being a host for so many refugees." Kucinich has met with Assad on several occasions. He has supported Assad, citing him as a lesser evil in the Syrian Civil War. Asked by Tucker Carlson how he could defend a war criminal, Kucinich said the choice was to let ISIS take over Syria or "try to stabilize the region and let the people of Syria make their own decisions about who their leaders are going to be". He helped Fox News get an interview with Assad. In October 2016, Kucinich warned against a prospective United States military intervention against Russia in Syria. He argued that "a concerted effort is being made through fearmongering, propaganda, and lies to prepare our country for a dangerous confrontation, with Russia in Syria" and said that Russia was being demonized as part of a "calculated plan to resurrect a raison d'être for stone-cold warriors trying to escape from the dustbin of history by evoking the specter of Russian world domination." Guns Kucinich is graded "F" by the National Rifle Association, indicating a pro-gun control voting record. He also received a 100% lifetime rating from the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence. Health care Kucinich believes that health care is a "right in a democratic society". He is a critic of the for-profit health insurance and pharmaceutical industries, and is concerned about the large number of uninsured and underinsured in the United States. He contends that if the for-profit insurance system's overhead, such as "stock options, executive salaries, [and] advertising", were used for medically necessary care, there would be enough money in the system to cover everyone at no extra cost. In July 2009, the House Education and Labor Committee approved an amendment by Kucinich to its version of the unsuccessful America's Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009 by a vote of 27-19, with 14 Democrats and 13 Republicans voting for it. The amendment empowers the Secretary of Health and Human Services to waive the federal law that preempts state law on employee-related health care, the Employee Retirement Income Security Act, in response to state requests. It has been speculated that the amendment's bipartisan support was for its appeal to states' rights in supporting progressive legislation. In the past, states attempting to enact single-payer reforms had been sued and stopped under ERISA. It has also been speculated that the law would open up vital new avenues for promoting and implementing a single-payer system, as newly unbound states would show single-payer's success, just as Saskatchewan did for Canada. But the Kucinich Amendment was stripped from the merged House bill. Speaker Nancy Pelosi said that it would have violated Obama's promise that Americans who liked their health insurance could keep it. In March 2010, Kucinich announced that he supported the Affordable Care Act, after previously indicating opposition. LGBT rights Kucinich supports same-sex marriage. He voted for the expansion of hate crime laws in the United States and against banning LGBT adoption in Washington, D.C. Trade Kucinich has consistently opposed free trade on the grounds that it costs American jobs and enables abusive working conditions in other countries. Youth rights In a Democratic debate during the 2008 Presidential Election, Kucinich and Mike Gravel were the only two candidates to favor lowering the legal drinking age to 18. Kucinich also supported lowering the voting age to 16. Electoral history Recognition In 2003, Kucinich received the Gandhi Peace Award, an annual award bestowed by the Religious Society of Friends-affiliated organization Promoting Enduring Peace. In 2010, he was awarded the US Peace Prize by the US Peace Memorial Foundation “in recognition of his national leadership to prevent and end wars.” After Kucinich lost to Marcy Kaptur in the 2012 Democratic primary, Representative Keith Ellison said of Kucinich, "At the end of the day, we're really going to miss Dennis. Dennis is a transformative leader. He stood up and spoke eloquently, passionately about Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran. He was a consistent voice for peace... He almost didn't vote for the health care bill because it wasn't good enough." Personal life Kucinich was baptized a Roman Catholic. He married Sandra Lee McCarthy in 1977; they had a daughter, Jackie, in 1981 and divorced in 1986. He married his third wife, British citizen Elizabeth Harper, on August 21, 2005. They met while Harper was working as an assistant for the Chicago-based American Monetary Institute, which brought her to Kucinich's House of Representatives office for a meeting. Kucinich, a vegan since 1995, is an advocate of veganism, like Elizabeth. Kucinich was raised with four brothers and two sisters. Perry Kucinich, the youngest brother, died in December 2007. His youngest sister, Beth Ann Kucinich, died in November 2008. In 2011, Kucinich sued a Capitol Hill cafeteria for damages after a 2008 incident in which he claimed to have suffered a severe injury when he bit into a sandwich and broke a tooth on an olive pit. The broken tooth became infected, and complications led to three surgeries for dental work. The lawsuit, for $150,000 in punitive damages, was settled with the defendant agreeing to pay Kucinich's costs. Bibliography The Courage To Survive A Prayer for America The Division Of Light And Power (June 2021) See also Kucinich Resolution List of animal rights advocates List of peace activists References External links Re-Elect Congressman Kucinich official campaign site Column archive at The Huffington Post The Peace Alliance Dennis Kucinich Interview at PR.com, November 17, 2008 \|- \|- 1946 births Living people 20th-century American politicians 20th-century Roman Catholics 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American politicians 21st-century Roman Catholics Candidates in the 2004 United States presidential election Candidates in the 2008 United States presidential election Candidates in the 2021 United States elections American columnists American environmentalists American male non-fiction writers American people of Croatian descent American people of Irish descent American political writers Anti-corporate activists Case Western 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250453	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriel%20Humphrey%20Brown	Muriel Humphrey Brown	Muriel Fay Buck Humphrey Brown (February 20, 1912 - September 20, 1998) was an American politician who served as the second lady of the United States from 1965 to 1969, and as a U.S. Senator from Minnesota in 1978. She was married to the 38th vice president of the United States, Hubert Humphrey. Following her husband's death, she was appointed to his seat in the United States Senate, serving for most of the year 1978, thus becoming the first woman to serve as a Senator from Minnesota, and the only Second Lady of the United States to hold public office. After leaving office, she remarried and took the name Muriel Humphrey Brown. Early life and marriage Humphrey was born Muriel Fay Buck on February 20, 1912, in Huron, South Dakota, daughter of Andrew E. Buck and his wife, the former Jessie Mae Pierce. She attended Huron College and met her future husband; Hubert Humphrey in 1934, when she was twenty-two years old and working as a bookkeeper. They married on September 3, 1936, saying, "It was love at first waltz". After living with their daughter in South Dakota, she moved to the South to join her husband when he pursued a graduate degree at Louisiana State University, where she found work in the Department of Government as a typist. She had four children: Hubert III, Nancy, Robert, and Douglas. The Humphreys built a home and moved to Waverly, a small village west of Minneapolis, in the mid-1950s and maintained it as their primary residence until Hubert Humphrey was elected Vice President in the U.S. presidential election of 1964. Political life Muriel served as an informal adviser to her husband after he entered politics. His first office was mayor of Minneapolis. From there, he served three consecutive terms as Senator from Minnesota. It was during his second Senatorial campaign that Muriel began making campaign appearances alongside her husband. Hubert Humphrey ran for his party's nomination in the Presidential primaries of 1960, losing to John F. Kennedy; during this campaign, Muriel made speeches for him in Wisconsin. Humphrey remained in the senate and President Lyndon B. Johnson chose him as his vice-presidential running mate in 1964. With Muriel often campaigning alongside her husband and being profiled favorably in US media, the ticket won the election. Hubert thereafter served as Vice President of the United States from January 1965 to January 1969. As Second Lady of the United States, Muriel had a busy schedule of travel and involvement in various causes. A catalogue of her papers at the Minnesota Historical Society gives a clear sense of the breadth of activities. She served as a member of the President's Committee for People with Intellectual Disabilities from 1966-1969, convened many meetings of women associated with the Democratic Party, and travelled extensively. During her husband's subsequent run for President in 1968, Muriel made a number of public appearances, garnering praise from President Johnson. After Hubert lost the 1968 election to former Vice President Richard M. Nixon, he made a decision which would ultimately lead to Muriel's entry into politics: He chose to run for a US Senate seat from Minnesota in the 1970 elections. Hubert won the election and returned to the Senate in January 1971. Hubert Humphrey died of cancer on January 13, 1978. He was 66. Muriel was nominated by the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party and subsequently appointed to the Senate vacancy by Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich, serving from January 25, 1978, to November 7, 1978, in the 95th Congress. She was the first spouse of a former Vice President to serve in Congress as well as the first woman to represent Minnesota in the U.S. Senate, preceding the Democrats Amy Klobuchar and Tina Smith. Muriel had years of experience as a public speaker, and was an active Senator. According to Karina Karr, Humphrey was ostracised by the all-male Senate, but served on the Foreign Relations Committee and voted reliably to support the foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration. According to an official Congressional biographical summary, "Muriel Humphrey pursued her own interests during her brief tenure, supporting an extension of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) ratification deadline and advocating several programs to benefit persons with mental disabilities." Among the issues which she championed was public visibility for Down Syndrome, a topic she had become passionate about due to her granddaughter Victoria Solmonson's condition. During her husband's presidential campaign in 1967 and 1968, she visited facilities for people with Down Syndrome in Long Island and was featured by the New York Times. In 1970, she gave a speech on this topic which was reprinted in a prestigious medical journal. As a Senator, she sponsored the Mental Health Advocacy Act of 1978. After consulting with President Jimmy Carter, Muriel chose not to stand as a candidate for the 1978 United States Senate special election in Minnesota for the remaining term. "It was the most challenging thing I've done in my whole life," she said. Looking back at her political life, Humphrey reflected "There's something I've been wanting to say for a long time. I'm a liberal and I'm proud of it. In fact, I was probably a little more liberal than Hubert was. I just wanted to say that." While in office, and after, she pressed for the right for women to choose to have an abortion and worked towards legislation for the rights of the mentally disabled. Second marriage In 1981, Humphrey married Max Brown, a friend from childhood. "I don't live a life of politics any more," she said after her second marriage. "Max and I have so much fun. We have a wonderful companionship that Hubert and I didn't have, couldn't have. We were so busy and it was so official almost all the time." Max Brown died in 2004 at the age of 93. Death When Muriel Humphrey Brown died, she was survived by her husband of 17 years, Max Brown, and her children, who were at her side when she died at the age of 86. She is interred in Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis, Minnesota, next to her first husband, Hubert H. Humphrey. See also Women in the United States Senate References External links Muriel Humphrey Papers are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society. \|- \|- 1912 births 1998 deaths Burials at Lakewood Cemetery Democratic Party United States senators Female United States senators Hubert Humphrey Humphrey family Huron University alumni Minnesota Democrats People from Huron, South Dakota Second Ladies of the United States Spouses of Minnesota politicians Spouses of United States mayors United States senators from Minnesota Women in Minnesota politics 20th-century American women politicians 20th-century American politicians	[ -0.5476279854774475, 0.029109030961990356, -0.4235977828502655, 0.09693023562431335, -0.2447982281446457, 0.6711245775222778, 0.657310962677002, -0.13820330798625946, -0.8648821711540222, -0.024675697088241577, 0.003552746959030628, 0.33199647068977356, -0.4030918478965759, 0.4451218545436859, -0.43979835510253906, -0.1989305317401886, 0.2222626507282257, 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250456	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Wayne%20Airport	John Wayne Airport	John Wayne Airport is a commercial and general aviation airport that serves Orange County, California, and the Greater Los Angeles area. The airport is located in an unincorporated area of Orange County, and it is owned and operated by the county. John Wayne Airport is surrounded by the cities of Irvine, Newport Beach, and Costa Mesa, although its IATA airport code and mailing address are both registered to Santa Ana, the county seat. Originally named Orange County Airport, the Orange County Board of Supervisors renamed the airport in 1979 in honor of actor John Wayne, who lived in neighboring Newport Beach and died that year. A statue of John Wayne was installed at the airline terminal in 1982. John Wayne Airport is the sole commercial airport in Orange County. The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 categorized it as a primary commercial service airport since it has over 10,000 passenger boardings per year. Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 4,584,147 enplanements in calendar year 2014, an increase from 4,450,628 in 2013. In 2014, John Wayne Airport was the second busiest airport in the Greater Los Angeles area (by passenger count) with over 9 million total passengers. , the largest airlines at John Wayne Airport were Southwest Airlines, American Airlines, United Airlines, Alaska Airlines, and Delta Air Lines. In addition to the airline terminal, several facilities at the airport serve the general aviation and corporate aviation community. General aviation operations outnumber commercial operations. The only other general aviation airport in Orange County is Fullerton Municipal Airport. John Wayne Airport has two runways. The main runway, 2L/20R, at in length, is one of the shortest of any major airport in the United States, and passenger jetliners operating from the airport have never been larger than the Boeing 757 (although some larger cargo aircraft fly from SNA, such as the widebody Airbus A300 operated by FedEx). Runway 2R/20L is long and serves general aviation aircraft. No widebody passenger jetliners have ever been operated into SNA in scheduled airline service. History The first airstrip on the grounds was constructed in 1923, when Eddie Martin signed a five-year lease with James Irvine to operate a flying school on land owned by the Irvine Company. It was purchased through a land swap by the County of Orange in 1939 and remains under the county's ownership and management. Martin added the first hangar in 1926. In 1935 Howard Hughes staged his world speed record-setting flight from the Eddie Martin Airport. With the opening of the Santa Ana Army Air Base in 1942, the adjacent Martin Field was temporarily closed. After serving as a military base during World War II, the Santa Ana Army Airfield was returned by the federal government to the county with the stipulation that it remain open to all kinds of aviation uses. In addition to continuing to serve aviation, the field became an important drag racing center. From 1950 to 1959, C.J. "Pappy" Hart and Creighton Hunter operated the Santa Ana Drag Strip, credited for being the world's first commercial drag strip, on the airport runway every Sunday, when it was closed to air traffic. The original single runway was long, on a magnetic heading of 210 degrees (Runway 21) and 30 degrees (Runway 3). In 1964 the airport was rebuilt, with its present two parallel runway configuration, oriented 190/10 degrees magnetic. The longer runway, 19R (now 20R), at , is only longer than the old Runway 21 but long enough to accommodate jet airliners. A full instrument landing system (ILS) was also installed. In the 1950s, the only airline flights were Bonanza's few flights between Los Angeles and Phoenix, via San Diego. In 1963 Bonanza started nonstop F27s to Phoenix, and to Las Vegas in 1965; in 1967 Air California started Electra nonstops to San Francisco, 48 flights a week each way. The first scheduled jet flights were Bonanza DC-9s later in 1967. In 1967, the Eddie Martin Terminal was built to accommodate 400,000 annual passengers. Remodeling added two passenger holding areas in 1974, a new baggage claim area in 1980 and a terminal annex building in 1982, bringing the facility to . Nonstop flights reached Salt Lake City in 1976–77 (Hughes DC9s), Denver in 1982 (Frontier MD80s), Dallas/Fort Worth in 1983 (American MD80s), Chicago in 1986 (AirCal 737-300s), and New York–Kennedy in 1991 (America West 757s). After the Orange County Airport was renamed John Wayne Airport on June 20, 1979, the John Wayne Associates commissioned sculptor Robert Summers to create a bronze statue of "the Duke". The statue, created at Hoka Hey Foundry in Dublin, Texas, was dedicated to the County on November 4, 1982. Today, the bronze statue is in the Thomas F. Riley Terminal on the Arrival Level. In 1990, the Thomas F. Riley Terminal opened. The aging Eddie Martin Terminal was replaced with a modern facility. The new facility included 14 loading bridges, four baggage carousels, wide-open spaces and distinct roadside arrival and departure levels. In 1994, the then-unused Eddie Martin Terminal was demolished. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a new, larger airport was proposed for the nearby site of the then recently closed El Toro Marine Corps Air Station. However, after a series of political battles, combined with significant opposition from residents in the vicinity of El Toro, the proposal was defeated, and no new airport was built. In 2011, additional terminal space was added and existing terminals were refreshed as part of a $543 million expansion project. A new Terminal C with six additional gates was built along with dedicated commuter gate areas in the new Terminal C and new commuter facilities in Terminal A. A new parking lot C was added along with additional support facilities such as a Central Utility plant. In June 2020, a name change was requested, due to comments the actor made believed to be in support of white supremacy to Playboy in a 1971 interview. In September 2020, Orange County officials have planned to end all of JSX operations at SNA on January 1, 2021, stating it is "no longer welcomed". This announcement prompted the airline to seek support from customers, encouraging them to contact the Orange County officials for reconsideration in order for the airline to continue operations at Orange County. Since December 2020, the airline has filed a lawsuit against the airport, stating that it has "refused to offer any accommodations" to the airline. It stated that the airport "discriminatorily chose" to terminate the airline's operations at SNA "in favor of two large airlines [Spirit and Allegiant Airlines]..." which the former already operates the same flights to Las Vegas, Reno, and Oakland. Shortly afterwards, the airline won a temporary restraining order, preventing the airport officials from terminating the airline's operations in which a spokeswoman said the airport will comply. Terminals There are 22 gates in total. The main passenger terminal, the Thomas F. Riley Terminal, is named for the late county supervisor who lobbied for the airport's expansion in the 1980s. The Thomas F. Riley Terminal is divided into three terminal areas, A, B and C, with dedicated commuter gate areas at the north end of Terminal A and south end of Terminal C. All three terminals, A, B and C, are within the same Thomas F. Riley building and security screened passengers can move "airside" between all terminal areas. Security screening lanes exist in all three terminals adjacent to check-in. All security screening areas also have a "fast track" lane for first-class and elite frequent fliers along with full TSA Pre Check availability based on TSA defined schedules. Switching between terminals indoors before security "landside" is also possible, the check-in counter areas between all three terminals have connecting walkways to allow access between all terminals. Complimentary Wi-Fi is provided in all three terminals. Terminals A and B Terminals A and B were built in 1990 to replace the former Eddie Martin Terminal which was closed upon the new terminals' opening. In November 2011, Terminal A added a dedicated commuter gate area, along with refreshed gates, signage and information displays at both Terminals A and B. Terminals A and B were designed by Gensler & Associates, Leason Pomeroy Associates, and Thompson Consultants International. They contain restaurants, bars and shops, with a themed restaurant located in the airside connecting area of both terminals. In the upper rotunda above the themed restaurant is an American Airlines Admirals Club (operating out of Terminal A) and a United Club (operating out of Terminal B). The two lounges lie adjacent to each other on the mezzanine level. Terminal A has gates 1–8, and Terminal B has gates 9–15. Terminal C Terminal C opened in November 2011 and added seven new gates, a dedicated commuter gate area and new eateries and retail. Terminal C also provides a U.S. Customs and Border Protection FIS/Federal Inspection Service for international flights that do not have pre-clearance. Two arrival gates feed into the FIS and passengers once cleared exit at the south end of the Terminal C arrivals area. The FIS facility has Global Entry kiosks for registered users to shorten processing time. The FIS facility was designed by Gensler. Terminal C has gates 16–22. Arrivals level The Arrivals level is on the lower level of the airport and provides seven baggage claim belts, two in Terminal A, two in Terminal B and three in Terminal C. Baggage Claim 7 is for international arrivals. Immediately outside the baggage claim is the curbside arrivals pickup area. Rental car offices are between Terminal A and B baggage claim areas with most rental agencies on-site in the lower levels of the parking facility across the arrivals pickup area between Terminal A and B. Across the roadway from the arrivals pickup area between Terminal A and B is an island for public transportation, including taxis and buses. International service John Wayne Airport offers international flights to Mexico and Canada. The airport did not have any regularly scheduled international service up until 2010 when Air Canada began operations to Toronto, Canada. Flights from Canada complete immigration and customs formalities in Canada via United States border preclearance. Southwest Airlines is operating international flights to Puerto Vallarta and San José del Cabo in Mexico as of March 11, 2021. Prior to resumption, it previously served flights to Puerto Vallarta from June 18, 2015, until March 2017. Southwest has also served flights to Cabo San Lucas until March 2020, alongside terminating other destinations at the time due to passenger limitations following a 1985 settlement agreement. Canadian airline WestJet provides non-stop year round service to Vancouver since May 2011. It is also serving direct flights to Calgary; it previously served that route from June 2011 to 2013 before ending operations up until its resumption on November 4, 2021. Air Canada also provides daily non-stop flights to Vancouver, Canada since October 2, 2021. It was set to start flights in June 2020, and then delayed to September 8, 2020, and then to May 2021, which would have marked its return to service to Orange County after 10 years. It previously operated flights to Toronto, Ontario, Canada from April 8, 2010, becoming the first-ever international airline to serve Orange County, until it ceased flights later that year. Alaska Airlines was scheduled for international service to Vancouver in 2002. However, a stop in Seattle (or change of planes) was required shortly after launch as John Wayne Airport was not authorized for pre-clearance or international flights by U.S. agencies at the time. Southwest Airlines' then-subsidiary AirTran Airways began a new service in June 2012 from John Wayne Airport to Cabo San Lucas and Mexico City. This was the first international service to use the new FIS in Terminal C. After its merger with AirTran was completed in 2014, Southwest continued to operate the Mexico flights under its original brand. However, Southwest then ended its service to Mexico City (MEX) from SNA in January 2017 before completely discontinuing all flights to MEX in March 2019. Mexico's low-cost carrier Interjet began a new service in October 2012 from Orange County to Guadalajara and Mexico City. It ended both flights in July 2014; the airport officials are seeking a replacement. Alaska Airlines began a Mexico service in October 2015. The airline began offering non-stop flights from John Wayne Airport to Los Cabos on October 8 and Puerto Vallarta on the following day, October 9. Alaska Airlines has continued this service to each airport on an every-other-day rotation. Since August 2019, the airline has discontinued flights to Mexico. Airline officials have also been in negotiations with Mexican low-cost airline Volaris, which has applied for an Orange County slot. Aircraft noise abatement and curfew A 1985 settlement agreement defined the scope of operation for John Wayne Airport in how it affects the local community. The area that lies directly south of John Wayne Airport is considered a noise-sensitive area. The agreement in conjunction with a Phase 2 Commercial Airline Access Plan and Regulation controls the number of noisier operations (mainly commercial aircraft) allowed from the airport. Noise abatement enforcement is carried out with the aid of 10 permanent noise monitoring stations. These stations are placed in areas that exceed a community noise equivalent level (CNEL) of 65 dB. The short primary runway (20R/2L), coupled with the local noise restrictions, can require a takeoff at or near full power (95–97% power). Some aircraft departing from the airport may cycle to full power while holding at the runway then release the brakes when engines are fully spooled up (short-field procedure). On operations from runway 20R a steep climb may also be required to allow for a power reduction at about for a quieter overflight over the city of Newport Beach. For 20R departures, a left turn after departure to 175 degrees allows for a passage over Newport Beach within the confines of the noise abatement profile. Departures from 2L (normally during Santa Ana wind conditions) are not affected by these noise abatement procedures. Landings almost always include full flap extensions and the use of full reverse thrust. Extension of the runway is almost impossible, as it on both ends is enclosed by freeways and, past the freeways, numerous residences and businesses which would require relocation in case of such a proposition, which is a costly endeavour. The county prohibits commercial departures between 10:00 PM and 7:00 AM (8:00 AM on Sundays) and commercial arrivals between 11:00 PM and 7:00 AM (8:00 AM on Sundays). Exceptions can be made for an emergency, mechanical, air traffic control or weather delay, which is beyond the control of the airline. In 2003, the settlement agreement was amended to increase operations but focused on increases only for aircraft meeting the lowest noise signatures. Access and noise reports are published by the airport and are available to the public. These reports are generated on a regular basis and outline curfew exceptions per carrier and overall noise impact. John Wayne Airport has been rated as one of the nation's scariest airports. To compensate for a short runway, and to comply with local noise restrictions, small private planes are required to take off at angles of up to 20 degrees, while commercial planes often reach 25 degrees which is steeper than other airports. Maximum takeoff weight restrictions apply to some aircraft at such steep pitches; and airlines have had to halt boarding before all ticked passengers had boarded. Airlines and destinations Passenger The following airlines offer scheduled passenger service. All international arrivals (excluding flights from destinations with U.S. border preclearance) are processed in Terminal C. Cargo Destinations map Runways John Wayne Airport covers . The airport has multiple general aviation facilities, an airline concourse building split into three terminal areas, and 2 paved runways. Runway 2L/20R: , used by commercial aircraft and general aviation serving most incoming and departing traffic to the west of the airport. This runway is ILS equipped. Runway 2R/20L: , used by smaller general aviation aircraft and light aircraft. General aviation The airport is the home base for approximately 450 general aviation aircraft. The General Aviation Master Plan adopted in the early 1990s limits John Wayne Airport to two FBOs (fixed-base operator). Effective January 1, 2021, these two fixed-base operators are Clay Lacy Aviation and ACI Jet. In addition to supporting fuel sales and other aircraft services, these companies lease facilities to flight training, charter, and aircraft maintenance businesses. FBOs: ACI Jet Clay Lacy Aviation Airport businesses Clay Lacy Aviation Martin Aviation Aircraft Maintenance HeliStream OC Helicopters Orange County Flight Center Regency Air Sunrise Aviation Western Avionics Law enforcement operations Orange County Sheriff's Department John Wayne Airport has been the main base for the Orange County Sheriff's Department's Air Support Unit since 1985 when the county's board of supervisors approved the purchase of two Hughes MD 500E aircraft nicknamed "Duke I" and "Duke II". In 1998, the OCSD traded their MD 500E helicopters for newer McDonnell Douglas MD 600N helicopters, becoming the first law enforcement agency to operate the MD 600N. These helicopters were faster, quieter, and safer than the MD 500E. The Air Support Unit currently operates of fleet of Eurocopter AS350 AStar helicopters, with a Bell UH-1 Iroquois used for search and rescue purposes. Costa Mesa Police Department The Costa Mesa Police Department operated an aviation unit out of John Wayne Airport for 41 years. The division was called "ABLE" for Airborne Law Enforcement. ABLE disbanded in 2012; the unit's helicopters at the time of the disbandment were three Eurocopter EC120 Colibris. Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Annual traffic Ground transportation Roads and highways John Wayne Airport is located next to the interchange between I-405 (San Diego Freeway) and MacArthur Boulevard. The airport is also near I-405's interchange with SR 55 (Costa Mesa Freeway). Heading south on MacArthur Boulevard from the airport provides access to SR 73 (Corona del Mar Freeway), which becomes the San Joaquin Hills Transportation Corridor (toll road) southeast of MacArthur Boulevard. Bus The airport is served by Orange County Transportation Authority ("OCTA") route 76, which runs only on weekdays from 6 am to 6 pm. Car rental On-site car rentals are available in the basement level of the Parking A2/B2 garages. Off-site car rental shuttles are available at the Ground Transportation Center. Parking The airport has four parking garages open in the main terminal area: A1, A2, B2 and C. Valet parking is available between at a drop off/pick up area Terminals A and B, and between Terminals B and C. An off-airport parking lot (Main Street Parking) is also available at 1512 Main Street in Irvine, with free shuttle service to the terminals. Irvine iShuttle The City of Irvine's iShuttle route A serves the airport and Tustin Metrolink station. The iShuttle service runs only during weekday rush hours. Taxis and private shuttles Taxis and private shuttles are available from the Ground Transportation Center located outside the lower level between Terminal A and B. Transportation network companies Transportation network companies, Lyft, Uber and Wingz, are available. Drop-offs can be made at the departure level outside each terminal; pickups are allowed only in designated parking structure areas assigned for pickups for transportation network companies (No pickups are allowed on the arrivals or departures level.) Accidents and incidents On February 17, 1981, Air California (AirCal) Flight 336 (a Boeing 737-200), with 105 passengers and five crew members, was flying from San Jose, to John Wayne Airport and crashed upon initiating a go-around. The crew was cleared for a visual approach to Runway 19R while the controller had cleared a smaller plane to take off from 19R. Upon realizing that the landing aircraft might overtake the departing one, the controller ordered the flight to go around and the other aircraft to abort its takeoff, which it did. The captain of the landing Air California aircraft delayed the go-around then initiated a gear up procedure before a positive rate of climb was achieved, causing the plane to stall. The 737 then banked left at low altitude causing the left wingtip to make contact with the runway. Then the nose came down, striking the ground, and the airplane spun around and skidded down the runway before coming to rest in the margin. A fire started, but the passengers and crew exited the plane. Of the passengers, four sustained serious injuries, and 29 suffered minor injuries. The aircraft, registered N468AC, was damaged beyond repair and was written off. On December 15, 1993, a chartered IAI Westwind business jet carrying two flight crew members and three passengers (including Rich Snyder, president of In-N-Out Burger), crashed while on approach to John Wayne Airport. All five occupants were killed in the crash. The aircraft, which departed Brackett Field, 30 miles to the north in La Verne, followed a Boeing 757 for landing, became caught in the 757's wake turbulence, rolled into a deep descent, and crashed near the intersection of State Route 55 and Edinger Avenue. The crash investigation led to the FAA requirement for an adequate period between heavy aircraft and following light aircraft to allow wake turbulence to diminish. On February 13, 2017, Harrison Ford accidentally landed his Aviat Husky on taxiway C, to the left of runway 20L. A Boeing 737 was holding short of 20L on the taxiway when Ford overflew them. On June 30, 2017, a Cessna 310 twin-engine aircraft crashed short of a runway into a highway median on Interstate 405. The pilot made a mayday call shortly after taking off from John Wayne Airport and attempted to land after being cleared for emergency landing on runway 20R. Two people on board were injured in the crash. On August 5, 2018, a Cessna 414 scheduled to land at John Wayne Airport crashed into a Staples parking lot a few blocks north of the airport in nearby Santa Ana, killing at least five people. On January 26, 2020, a Sikorsky S-76B helicopter took off from John Wayne Airport at approximately 9:06 am PST carrying retired NBA basketball player Kobe Bryant along with his 13-year-old daughter, and 7 others bound for Camarillo Airport for a basketball event in Thousand Oaks. En route, the helicopter crashed into a hillside in Calabasas south of U.S. Route 101, killing everyone on board. The helicopter had been seen in distress under heavy fog, according to witnesses. The cause of the crash was pilot error and spatial disorientation. On the evening of August 20, 2021, an unauthorized person bypassed security and gained access to the tarmac near Terminal C, prompting a lockdown of the airport. The suspect took control of a ground crew vehicle and drove it around before abandoning it and re-entering the terminal. Police later discovered the suspect hiding in an attic space inside the terminal and took him into custody. Lyon Air Museum Lyon Air Museum, founded by Major General William Lyon in 2009, is located in a hangar on the west side of the airport. It focuses particularly on World War II military aircraft and vehicles. The museum hosts the Collings Foundation, an annual flight experience program, every spring, allowing the public the opportunity to fly in a historic Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress or Consolidated B-24 Liberator. The air museum features a rotating selection of antique cars from General Lyon's personal collection every year for a limited time. Past features include a collection of the General's Duesenbergs and Packard collections. Climate The area around John Wayne Airport has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) characteristic of coastal Southern California. 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250460	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20bromide	Potassium bromide	Potassium bromide (KBr) is a salt, widely used as an anticonvulsant and a sedative in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with over-the-counter use extending to 1975 in the US. Its action is due to the bromide ion (sodium bromide is equally effective). Potassium bromide is used as a veterinary drug, as an antiepileptic medication for dogs. Under standard conditions, potassium bromide is a white crystalline powder. It is freely soluble in water; it is not soluble in acetonitrile. In a dilute aqueous solution, potassium bromide tastes sweet, at higher concentrations it tastes bitter, and tastes salty when the concentration is even higher. These effects are mainly due to the properties of the potassium ion—sodium bromide tastes salty at any concentration. In high concentration, potassium bromide strongly irritates the gastric mucous membrane, causing nausea and sometimes vomiting (a typical effect of all soluble potassium salts). Chemical properties Potassium bromide, a typical ionic salt, is fully dissociated and near pH 7 in aqueous solution. It serves as a source of bromide ions. This reaction is important for the manufacture of silver bromide for photographic film: KBr(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgBr(s) + KNO3(aq) Aqueous bromide Br− also forms complexes when reacted with some metal halides such as copper(II) bromide: 2 KBr(aq) + CuBr2(aq) → K2[CuBr4](aq) Preparation A traditional method for the manufacture of KBr is the reaction of potassium carbonate with an iron(III, II) bromide, Fe3Br8, made by treating scrap iron under water with excess bromine: 4 K2CO3 + Fe3Br8 → 8 KBr + Fe3O4 + 4 CO2 Applications Medical and veterinary The anticonvulsant properties of potassium bromide were first noted by Sir Charles Locock at a meeting of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society in 1857. Bromide can be regarded as the first effective medication for epilepsy. At the time, it was commonly thought that epilepsy was caused by masturbation. Locock noted that bromide calmed sexual excitement and thought this was responsible for his success in treating seizures. In the latter half of the 19th century, potassium bromide was used for the calming of seizure and nervous disorders on an enormous scale, with the use by single hospitals being as much as several tons a year (the dose for a given person being a few grams per day). By the beginning of the 20th century the generic word had become so widely associated with being sedate that bromide came to mean a dull, sedate person or a boring platitude uttered by such a person. There was not a better epilepsy drug until phenobarbital in 1912. The British Army has historically been claimed to lace soldiers' tea with bromide to quell sexual arousal but that is likely untrue as doing so would also diminish alertness in battle. Several other substances have also been named in anaphrodisiac myths. Bromide compounds, especially sodium bromide, remained in over-the-counter sedatives and headache remedies (such as the original formulation of Bromo-Seltzer) in the US until 1975, when bromides were outlawed in all over-the-counter medicines, due to chronic toxicity. Bromide's exceedingly long half life in the body made it difficult to dose without side effects. Medical use of bromides in the US was discontinued at this time, as many better and shorter-acting sedatives were known by then. Potassium bromide is used in veterinary medicine to treat epilepsy in dogs, either as first-line treatment or in addition to phenobarbital, when seizures are not adequately controlled with phenobarbital alone. Use of bromide in cats is limited because it carries a substantial risk of causing lung inflammation (pneumonitis) in them. The use of bromide as a treatment drug for animals means that veterinary medical diagnostic laboratories are able as a matter of routine to measure serum levels of bromide on order of a veterinarian, whereas human medical diagnostic labs in the US do not measure bromide as a routine test. Potassium bromide is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in humans to control seizures. In Germany, it is still approved as an antiepileptic drug for humans, particularly children and adolescents. These indications include severe forms of generalized tonic-clonic seizures, early-childhood-related tonic–clonic seizures, and also severe myoclonic seizures during childhood. Adults who have reacted positively to the drug during childhood/adolescence may continue treatment. Potassium bromide tablets are sold under the brand name Dibro-Be mono (Rx-only). The drug has almost complete bioavailability, but the bromide ion has a relatively long half life of 12 days in the blood, making bromide salts difficult to adjust and dose. Bromide is not known to interfere with the absorption or excretion of any other anticonvulsant, though it does have strong interactions with chloride in the body, the normal body uptake and excretion of which strongly influences bromide's excretion. The therapeutic index (ratio of effectiveness to toxicity) for bromide is small. As with other antiepileptics, sometimes even therapeutic doses (3 to 5 grams per day, taking 6 to 8 weeks to reach stable levels) may give rise to intoxication. Often indistinguishable from 'expected' side-effects, these include: Bromism These are central nervous system reactions. They may include: depression, lethargy, somnolence (from daytime sleepiness to coma) loss of appetite and cachexia, nausea/emesis with exicosis (loss of body fluid) loss of reflexes or pathologic reflexes clonic seizures tremor ataxia loss of neural sensitivity paresis cerebral edema with associated headache and papilledema of the eyes delirium: confusion, abnormal speech, loss of concentration and memory, aggressiveness psychosis Acne-form dermatitis and other forms of skin disease may also be seen, as well as mucous hypersecretion in the lungs. Asthma and rhinitis may worsen. Rarely, tongue disorder, aphthous stomatitis, bad breath, and constipation occur. Optics Potassium bromide is transparent from the near ultraviolet to long-wave infrared wavelengths (0.25-25 µm) and has no significant optical absorption lines in its high transmission region. It is used widely as infrared optical windows and components for general spectroscopy because of its wide spectral range. In infrared spectroscopy, samples are analyzed by grinding with powdered potassium bromide and pressing into a disc. Alternatively, samples may be analyzed as a liquid film (neat, as a solution, or in a mull with Nujol) between two polished potassium bromide discs. Due to its high solubility and hygroscopic nature it must be kept in a dry environment. The refractive index is about 1.55 at 1.0 µm. Photography In addition to manufacture of silver bromide, potassium bromide is used as a restrainer in black and white developer formulas. It improves differentiation between exposed and unexposed crystals of silver halide, and thus reduces fog. References External links Veterinary use note at Auburn University Potassium compounds Bromides Sedatives Anticonvulsants Pesticides Optical materials Photographic chemicals Metal halides GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators Alkali metal bromides Rock salt crystal structure	[ -0.16609403491020203, 0.5296790599822998, -0.17000266909599304, -0.10098227113485336, -0.6288446187973022, -0.7016429305076599, 0.6423118710517883, -0.24134542047977448, 0.3872014582157135, 0.44224268198013306, -0.34858810901641846, 0.40255123376846313, -0.31181028485298157, 0.8417275547981262, 0.3093516528606415, 0.893775999546051, 0.6740604639053345, 0.8465141654014587, 0.1552392989397049, 0.03779258579015732, -0.07590626180171967, 0.22895483672618866, 0.18194085359573364, -0.268076628446579, 0.4933527112007141, 0.3380088210105896, -0.00532333692535758, -0.06438183039426804, -0.15118750929832458, 0.19884920120239258, 0.13781943917274475, 0.7820863127708435, 0.041703492403030396, 0.10929565131664276, 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250461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio%20Bassani	Giorgio Bassani	Giorgio Bassani (4 March 1916 – 13 April 2000) was an Italian novelist, poet, essayist, editor, and international intellectual. Biography Bassani was born in Bologna into a prosperous Jewish family of Ferrara, where he spent his childhood with his mother Dora, father Enrico (a doctor), brother Paolo, and sister Jenny. In 1934 he completed his studies at his secondary school, the liceo classico L. Ariosto in Ferrara. Music had been his first great passion and he considered a career as a pianist; however literature soon became the focus of his artistic interests. In 1935 he enrolled in the Faculty of Letters of the University of Bologna. Commuting to lectures by train (third class) from Ferrara, he studied under the art historian Roberto Longhi. His ideal of the "free intellectual" was the liberal historian and philosopher Benedetto Croce. Despite the anti-Semitic race laws which were introduced from 1938, he was able to graduate in 1939, writing a thesis on the nineteenth-century writer, journalist, radical and lexicographer Niccolò Tommaseo. As a Jew in 1939, however, work opportunities were now limited and he became a schoolteacher in the Jewish School of Ferrara in via Vignatagliata. In 1940 his first book, Una città di pianura ("A City of the Plain"), was published under the pseudonym "Giacomo Marchi" in order to evade the race laws. During this period, along with friends he had made in Ferrara's intellectual circle, he became a clandestine political activist. His activity in the anti-fascist resistance led to his arrest in May 1943; he was released on 26 July, the day after Benito Mussolini was ousted from power. A little over a week later he married Valeria Sinigallia, whom he had met playing tennis. They moved to Florence for a brief period, living under assumed names, then at the end of the year, to Rome, where he would spend the rest of his life. His first volume of poems, Storie dei poveri amanti e altri versi, appeared in 1944; a second, Te lucis ante, followed in 1947. He edited the literary review Botteghe oscure for Princess Marguerite Caetani from its founding in 1948 until it ceased publication in 1960. In 1953 La passeggiata prima di cena appeared and in 1954 Gli ultimi anni di Clelia Trotti. In the same year he became editor of Paragone, a journal founded by Longhi and his wife Anna Banti. Bassani's writings reached a wider audience in 1956 with the publication of the Premio Strega-winning book of short stories, Cinque storie ferraresi (the five stories are Lida Mantovani, La passeggiata prima di cena, Una lapide in via Mazzini, Gli ultimi anni di Clelia Trotti, and Una notte del '43). As an editorial director of Feltrinelli Bassani was responsible for the posthumous publication in 1958 of Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa's Il Gattopardo, a novel which had been rejected by Elio Vittorini at Mondadori, and Einaudi. It became one of the great successes of post-war Italian literature. Bassani's enthusiastic editing of the text, following instructions from (daughter of Benedetto) who had offered him the manuscript, later became controversial, however; recent editions have been published which follow the manuscript more closely. Also in 1958 Bassani's novel Gli occhiali d'oro (made into a film in 1987) was published, an examination, in part, of the marginalisation of Jews and homosexuals. Together with stories from Cinque storie ferraresi (reworked and under the new title Dentro le mura (1973)) it was to form part of a series of works known collectively as Il romanzo di Ferrara, which explored the city, with its Christian and Jewish elements, its perspectives and its landscapes. The series includes: Il giardino dei Finzi-Contini (The Garden of the Finzi-Continis) (1962, Premio Viareggio prizewinner); Dietro la porta (1964); L'airone (1968) and L'odore del fieno (1972). These works realistically document the Italian Jewish community under Fascism in a style that manifests the difficulties of searching for truth in the meanderings of memory and moral conscience. In 1960 one of his short stories (Una notte del '43, from Cinque storie ferraresi) was adapted as the film Long Night in 1943. A stage adaptation of The Garden of the Finzi-Continis by opera composer Ricky Ian Gordon is set to premiere in January 2022. It is a co-production of National Yiddish Theatre Folksbiene and the New York City Opera. From 1965 to 1980, Giorgio Bassani was the president of the organization Italia Nostra. Bassani died in 2000 and was buried in the Jewish Cemetery in Ferrara. He was survived by his estranged wife Valeria and their two children Paola (born 1945-09-01) and Enrico (born 1949-06-29). He had been with his companion Portia Prebys, since shortly after they met in 1977. Bassani received the , the Strega, the Campiello, the Viareggio and the Nelly Sachs prizes. He collaborated on several screen plays. Publications Within the Walls (Dentro le mura) – 1956 The Gold-rimmed Spectacles (Gli occhiali d'oro) – 1958 A Prospect of Ferrara (Cinque storie ferraresi) – 1962 The Garden of the Finzi-Continis (Il giardino dei Finzi-Contini) – 1962 The Heron (L'airone) – 1970 Five Stories of Ferrara (Cinque storie ferraresi) – 1971 The Smell of Hay (L'odore del fieno) – 1972 Behind the Door (Dietro la porta) – 1972 Il romanzo di Ferrara (1974; revised 1980). The Novel of Ferrara, trans. Jamie McKendrick (2018) Rolls Royce and Other Poems (extracts from Epitaffio and In gran segreto) – 1982 Film adaptations Long Night in 1943 The Garden of the Finzi-Continis The Gold Rimmed Glasses References Bibliography Guia Risari, The Document within the Walls. The Romance of Bassani, Troubador Publishing, Leics, I. ed. 1999, II ed. 2004, Alessandro Giardino, Giorgio Bassani. Percorsi dello sguardo nelle arti visive,Fernandel, 2011 Giorgio Pozzi Editore, 2013 Paola Polito, L'officina dell'ineffabile. Ripetizione, memoria e non detto in Giorgio Bassani, Giorgio Pozzi Editore, 2014 Giorgio Bassani, Lezioni americane di Giorgio Bassani, a cura di Valerio Cappozzo, Ravenna, Giorgio Pozzi Editore, 2016 www.italialibri.net :: Il romanzo di Ferrara – Bassani Poscritto a Giorgio Bassani. Saggi in Memoria del Decimo Anniversario della Morte [Postscriptum: Critical Essays on Giorgio Bassani in Memory of the Tenth Anniversary of his Death], R. Antognini e R. Diaconescu Blumenfeld (edd.), LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano 2012, External links Jonathan Keates, 2000, Giorgio Bassani, obituary for The Guardian cronologia.leonardo.it :: Giorgio Bassani 1916 births 2000 deaths Italian male poets Jewish poets 20th-century Italian male writers 20th-century Italian Jews Italian resistance movement members Writers from Ferrara Writers from Bologna Strega Prize winners Viareggio Prize winners 20th-century Italian novelists 20th-century Italian poets Italian male novelists Premio Campiello winners Jewish Italian writers	[ -0.12902536988258362, 0.26151376962661743, -0.7300262451171875, -0.278482586145401, -0.18716563284397125, 0.6530522108078003, 0.403024822473526, 0.16484874486923218, -0.4919150173664093, -0.2416476458311081, -0.6825664639472961, 0.5019329786300659, -0.293268620967865, 0.3629873991012573, 0.41451966762542725, -0.11295359581708908, 0.032877106219530106, -0.8011383414268494, -0.35822099447250366, -0.2977389097213745, 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250462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Francisco%20International%20Airport	San Francisco International Airport	San Francisco International Airport is an international airport in San Mateo County, south of Downtown San Francisco, California. It has flights to points throughout North America and is a major gateway to Europe and Asia. SFO is the largest airport in the San Francisco Bay Area and the second busiest in California, after Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). In 2017 it was the seventh-busiest airport in the United States and the 24th-busiest in the world by passenger count. It is the fifth-largest hub for United Airlines, which operates out of Terminal 3 and the International Terminal. SFO functions as United's primary transpacific gateway. It is a major maintenance hub for United Airlines and houses the SFO Museum that was created in 1980 and was the first museum in an international airport. It also serves as a hub for Alaska Airlines, which operates in Terminal 2. The airport is owned and operated by the City and County of San Francisco, although it is outside of San Francisco in unincorporated San Mateo County. Between 1999 and 2004 the San Francisco Airport Commission operated city-owned SFO Enterprises, Inc., to oversee its business purchases and operations of ventures. History The City and County of San Francisco first leased at the present airport site on March 15, 1927, for what was then to be a temporary and experimental airport project. San Francisco held a dedication ceremony at the airfield, officially named the Mills Field Municipal Airport of San Francisco, on May 7, 1927, on the 150-acre cow pasture. The land was leased from the Mills Estate in an agreement made with Ogden L. Mills who oversaw the large tracts of property originally acquired by his grandfather, the banker Darius O. Mills. San Francisco purchased the property and the surrounding area expanding the site to beginning in August 1930. The airport's name was officially changed to San Francisco Airport in 1931 upon the purchase of the land. "International" was added at the end of World War II as overseas service rapidly expanded. Early operations The earliest scheduled carriers at the airport included Western Air Express, Maddux Air Lines, and Century Pacific Lines. United Airlines was formed in 1934 and quickly became the key carrier at the airport, with Douglas DC-3 service to Los Angeles and New York beginning in January 1937. A new passenger terminal opened in 1937, built with Public Works Administration funding. The March 1939 Official Aviation Guide shows 18 airline departures on weekdays—seventeen United flights and one TWA flight. The August 1952 chart shows runway 1L 7,000 feet long, 1R 7,750 feet, 28L 6,500 feet, and 28R 8,870 feet. In addition to United, Pacific Seaboard Air Lines flew between San Francisco and Los Angeles in 1933; the Bellanca CH-300s flew San Francisco – San Jose – Salinas – Monterey – Paso Robles – San Luis Obispo – Santa Maria – Santa Barbara – Los Angeles. Competition with United led Pacific Seaboard to move all of its operations to the eastern U.S., and rename itself Chicago and Southern Air Lines (C&S). It became a large domestic and international air carrier. Chicago & Southern was acquired by and merged into Delta Air Lines in 1953, giving Delta its first international routes. Delta used the route authority inherited from C&S to fly one of its first international services operated with Convair 880 jet aircraft from San Francisco to Montego Bay, Jamaica and Caracas, Venezuela via intermediate stops in Dallas and New Orleans in 1962. World War II During World War II the airport was used as a Coast Guard base and Army Air Corps training and staging base. The base was called Naval Auxiliary Air Facility Mills Field and Coast Guard Air Station, San Francisco. Pan American World Airways (Pan Am), which had operated international flying boat service from Treasure Island, had to move its Pacific and Alaska seaplane operations to SFO in 1944 after Treasure Island was expropriated for use as a military base. Pan Am began service from SFO after World War II with five weekly flights to Honolulu, one of which continued to Canton Island, Fiji, New Caledonia, and Auckland. International operations The first service by foreign carriers was on Australian National Airways (ANA) Douglas DC-4s flown by British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines. Sydney – Auckland – Fiji – Kanton Island – Honolulu – San Francisco – Vancouver, BC. The first flight left Australia on September 15, 1946. In 1947 Pan American World Airways began its "round the world" flights from SFO to Guam, Japan, the Philippines, China and other countries; Pan Am also flew to Sydney from SFO. 1947 saw the start of United Airlines Douglas DC-6 flights to Hawaii and Philippine Airlines flights to Manila. TWA began flying Lockheed Constellations (L-1649A's) nonstop to London Heathrow and Paris Orly in 1957. In 1954 Qantas took over the ANA/BCPA route from SFO to Sydney; starting in 1959 their Boeing 707s flew to Sydney via Honolulu and Nadi, Fiji. Pan Am scheduled Boeing 707-320s from Tokyo nonstop to SFO (winter only at first) starting in 1960–61; the westbound nonstops had to await the longer range Boeing 707-320B. British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC, a predecessor of British Airways) arrived in 1957; in 1960 its Bristol Britannias flew London – New York City – San Francisco – Honolulu – Wake Island – Tokyo – Hong Kong as part of BOAC's around-the-world service. By 1961 BOAC had replaced the Britannias with Boeing 707s that did not require the fuel stop at the Wake Island Airfield. Japan Airlines (JAL) arrived at SFO in 1954; in 1961 it was flying Douglas DC-8s San Francisco – Honolulu – Tokyo. In 1961 Lufthansa had begun serving SFO with Boeing 707s flying San Francisco – Montreal Dorval Airport – Paris Orly Airport – Frankfurt three days a week. Lufthansa operated Boeing 720Bs on this routing in 1963 along with Boeing 707s to Frankfurt via Montreal and London Heathrow Airport. Pan Am/Panagra service from SFO to South America was taken over in the late 1960s by Braniff International, which operated Douglas DC-8-62s to SFO after Braniff's acquisition of Panagra. In 1970 CP Air (formerly Canadian Pacific Air Lines) Boeing 737-200s flew nonstop to Vancouver, BC and on to Winnipeg, Toronto, Ottawa and Montreal. Domestic expansion The first nonstops to the U.S. east coast were United Douglas DC-7s in 1954. The airport's new Terminal Building opened on August 27, 1954. The large display of aircraft including a Convair B-36 Peacemaker bomber, a marvel for its time. The building became the Central Terminal with the addition of the South Terminal and the North Terminal and was heavily rebuilt as the International Terminal in 1984 and then modified again as the current Terminal 2. Domestically, the April 1957 Official Airline Guide (OAG) lists 71 scheduled weekday departures on United (plus ten flights a week to Honolulu), 22 on Western Airlines, 19 on Southwest Airways (which was later renamed Pacific Air Lines), 12 on Trans World Airlines (TWA), seven on American Airlines and three on Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA). As for international flights, Pan American had 21 departures a week, Japan Airlines (JAL) had five, and Qantas also had five. Southwest/Pacific/Air West Southwest Airways began flying scheduled passenger operations from SFO in 1946 with war surplus C-47s, the military version of the Douglas DC-3. In the late 1950s, Southwest Airways changed its name to Pacific Air Lines, which was based at SFO. In 1959 Pacific Air Lines began flying new Fairchild F-27s from SFO and by 1966 was flying new Boeing 727-100s from the airport. Pacific used the 727 to introduce the first jet service from San Francisco to several cities in California including Bakersfield, Eureka/Arcata, Fresno, Lake Tahoe, Monterey and Santa Barbara. In 1968 Pacific merged with Bonanza Air Lines and West Coast Airlines to form Air West, which also had its headquarters at SFO. West Coast Airlines had served SFO mainly with Douglas DC-9-10s and Fairchild F-27s to Oregon and Washington state. In 1970, Air West was acquired by Howard Hughes who renamed the airline Hughes Airwest, which continued to be based at the airport where it also operated a hub. By the late 1970s, the airline was operating an all-jet fleet of Boeing 727-200, Douglas DC-9-10 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jetliners serving an extensive route network in the western U.S. with flights to Mexico and western Canada as well. Hughes Airwest was eventually acquired by Minneapolis-based Republic Airlines (1979–1986) in 1980 and the airline's headquarters office at SFO was closed. Jet age The jet age arrived at SFO in March 1959 when TWA introduced Boeing 707-131s nonstop to New York Idlewild Airport (which was renamed JFK Airport in 1963). United then constructed a large maintenance facility at San Francisco for its new Douglas DC-8s, which were also flying nonstop to New York. In July 1959 the first jetway bridge was installed at SFO, one of the first in the United States. The cover of the January 3, 1960, American Airlines timetable contained this message: "NOW! 707 JET FLAGSHIP SERVICE – NONSTOP SAN FRANCISCO – NEW YORK: 2 FLIGHTS DAILY" Also in 1960, Western Airlines was operating "champagne flights" with Boeing 707s and Lockheed L-188 Electras to Los Angeles, Seattle, San Diego and Portland, OR. In 1961 the airport had helicopter service on San Francisco and Oakland Helicopter Airlines (known as SFO Helicopter Airlines, and as SFO Helicopter) with 68 flights a day. Helicopters flew from SFO to downtown heliports in San Francisco and Oakland, to a new heliport near the Berkeley Marina and to Oakland Airport (OAK). In its timetable, SFO Helicopter Airlines, which was based at the airport, described its rotorcraft as "modern, jet turbine powered Sikorsky S-62 ten passenger amphibious helicopters". By 1962 Delta Air Lines was flying Convair 880s to SFO on one its first international jet services, San Francisco – Dallas Love Field – New Orleans – Montego Bay, Jamaica – Caracas, Venezuela. Also in 1962, National Airlines began flying Douglas DC-8s San Francisco – Houston Hobby Airport – New Orleans – Miami. Service in California By 1960 all Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) flights out of SFO were operated with Lockheed L-188 Electras nonstop to Los Angeles (LAX) and Burbank (BUR, now Bob Hope Airport) with some flights continuing to San Diego. In summer 1962 PSA had 14 departures a day Monday through Thursday to southern California, 21 departures on Friday and 22 on Sunday. In 1965 PSA was operating new Boeing 727-100s which were joined in 1967 by Boeing 727-200s and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30s. In 1974 PSA was flying two wide body Lockheed L-1011 TriStars. After the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, PSA expanded outside of California. In 1967 another intrastate airline joined PSA at SFO: Air California, flying Lockheed L-188 Electras nonstop to Orange County Airport (SNA, now John Wayne Airport). Like PSA, Air California (later renamed AirCal) eventually became an all-jet airline and expanded outside of California. AirCal was merged into American Airlines while PSA was merged into USAir (later renamed US Airways which in turn eventually merged with American Airlines). Earthquake and planned Bay fill expansion The airport closed following the Loma Prieta earthquake on October 17, 1989, reopening the following morning. Minor damage to the runways was quickly repaired. In 1989, a master plan and Environmental Impact Report were prepared to guide development over the next two decades. During the boom of the 1990s and the dot-com boom SFO became the sixth busiest airport in the world, but since 2001, when the boom ended, SFO has fallen out of the top 20. United Express turboprops were scheduled 60 minutes apart to shuttle connecting passengers between SFO and nearby San Jose International Airport during the boom era. United Groundlink supplemented this service with alternate 60-minute frequencies. A $2.4 billion International Terminal Complex opened in December 2000, replacing Terminal 2 (known then as the International Terminal). The new International Terminal includes the San Francisco Airport Commission Aviation Museum and Library and the Louis A. Turpen Aviation Museum, as part of the SFO Museum. SFO's long-running museum exhibition program, now called SFO Museum, won unprecedented accreditation by the American Alliance of Museums in 1999. SFO experiences delays (known as flow control) in overcast weather when only two of the airport's four runways can be used at a time because the centerlines of the parallel runway sets (01R/01L and 28R/28L) are only apart. Airport planners advanced proposals that would extend the airport's runways by adding up to of fill to San Francisco Bay and increase their separation by up to in 1998 to accommodate arrivals and departures during periods of low visibility. Other proposals included three floating runways, each approximately long and wide. The airport would be required by law to restore Bay land elsewhere in the Bay Area to offset the fill. One mitigation proposal would have the airport purchase and restore the of South Bay wetlands owned by Cargill Salt to compensate for the new fill. These expansion proposals met resistance from environmental groups, including the Sierra Club, fearing damage to the habitat of animals near the airport, recreational degradation (such as windsurfing) and bay water quality. State Senator John L. Burton introduced SB 1562 on February 18, 2000, to bypass the environmental impact study that would normally be required for a large project like the proposed Bay fill and mitigation in order to expedite construction. SB 1562 was signed into law on September 29, 2000. A study commissioned by the airport and released in 2001 stated that alternatives to airport expansion, such as redirecting traffic to other regional airports (Oakland or San Jose), capping the number of flights, or charging higher landing fees at selected times of the day 2001 would result in higher fares and poorer service. However, the proposal to build new runways on Bay fill continued to attract opposition from environmental groups and local residents. The airport expansion cost was estimated at in 1998, rising to a year later, including an estimate of for the Cargill wetlands purchase and restoration. The delays during poor weather (among other reasons) caused some airlines, especially low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines, to shift all of their service from the airport to Oakland and San Jose. However, Southwest eventually returned to SFO in 2007. BART to SFO A long-planned extension of the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) system to the airport opened on June 22, 2003, allowing passengers to board BART trains at the international or domestic terminals and have direct rail transportation to downtown San Francisco, Oakland, and the East Bay. On February 24, 2003, the AirTrain people mover opened, transporting passengers between terminals, parking lots, the BART station, and the rental car center on small automatic trains. Recent developments SFO became the base of operations for start-up airline Virgin America, with service to over 20 destinations. On October 4, 2007, an Airbus A380 jumbo jet made its first visit to SFO. On July 14, 2008, SFO was voted Best International Airport in North America for 2008 in the World Airports Survey by Skytrax. The following year on June 9, Skytrax announced SFO as the second-best International Airport in North America in the 2009 World Airports Survey, losing to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. In response to longstanding FAA concerns that the airport's air traffic control tower, located atop Terminal 2, could not withstand a major earthquake, on July 9, 2012, crews broke ground for a new torch-shaped tower. The new tower is located between Terminals 1 and 2, and the base of the tower building contains passages between the two terminals for passengers both pre- and post-security screening, which dictated the narrow tower base. Originally scheduled for completion in the summer of 2016 at a cost of $102 million, the new tower began operations on October 15, 2016. SFO was one of several US airports that operated the Registered Traveler program from April 2007 until funding ended in June 2009. This program let travelers who had paid for pre-screening pass through security checkpoints quickly. Baggage and passenger screening is operated by Covenant Aviation Security, a Transportation Security Administration contractor, nicknamed "Team SFO". SFO was the first airport in the United States to integrate in-line baggage screening into its baggage handling system and has been a model for other airports since the September 11 attacks in 2001. In September 2018, SFO announced plans to use sustainable fuels after signing an agreement with fuel suppliers, airlines, and agencies. As part of the agreement, Shell and SkyNRG began supplying sustainable aviation fuel to KLM, SAS, and Finnair flights operating out of SFO. Runways The airport covers at an elevation of . It has four asphalt runways, arranged in two intersecting sets of parallel runways: Runway 01L/19R: , Surface: asphalt, has approved GPS approaches Runway 01R/19L: , surface: asphalt, ILS/DME equipped, and has approved GPS/VOR approaches Runway 10L/28R: , surface: asphalt, Category III ILS/DME equipped, and has approved GPS approaches Runway 10R/28L: , surface: asphalt, ILS/DME equipped, and has approved GPS approaches Runways are named for their magnetic heading, to the nearest ten degrees; hence the runways at 14° from magnetic north are 01L/01R, and the runways at 284° are 28R/28L. The layout of the parallel runways (1L/1R and 28R/28L) was established in the 1950s, and have a separation (centerline to centerline) of only . During normal operations (approximately 81% of the time), domestic departures use Runways 1L and 1R for departure while overseas international departures and all arrivals use Runways 28L and 28R, taking advantage of the prevailing west-northwesterly wind coming through the San Bruno Gap. During periods of heavy winds or if operations at Oakland International Airport conflict with SFO departures (approximately 15% of the time), Runways 1L and 1R cannot be used, and so all departures and all arrivals use Runways 28L and 28R. These configurations are known collectively as the West Plan, and accommodate arrivals at a rate of up to 60 aircraft per hour. Under visual flight rules, aircraft may safely land side-by-side essentially simultaneously on 28L and 28R while maintaining visual separation. When the visual approach is compromised, the West Plan is maintained with a modification to allow aircraft landing on 28L to use Instrument Landing System (ILS) while the aircraft landing on 28R takes an offset course, monitored via high scan rate ground radar, to maintain a lateral spacing greater than 750 ft until the aircraft can maintain visual separation. Visual separation typically occurs once the aircraft has descended below the cloud deck at an altitude of 2,100 feet (640 m). This is known as the Precision Runway Monitor/Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach and reduces the capacity to 36 arriving aircraft per hour. In poor visibility conditions, FAA instrument approach rules require aircraft to maintain lateral separation of 4,300 feet (1,300 m), meaning only one runway may be used, reducing the capacity of SFO to 25-30 arriving aircraft per hour. During rainstorms (approximately 4% of the time), the prevailing winds shift to a south-southeasterly direction, and departing aircraft use Runways 10L and 10R and arriving aircraft use Runways 19L and 19R. This configuration is known as the Southeast Plan. On rare occasions (less than one day per year, on average), wind conditions dictate other runway configurations, including departures and landings on Runways 10L and 10R, departures and landings on Runways 1L and 1R, and departures on Runways 19L and 19R and landings on Runways 28L and 28R. Based aircraft and operations In 2019, SFO had 458,496 aircraft operations, an average of 1,255 per day. This consisted of 86% scheduled commercial, 11% air taxi, 2% general aviation and <1% military. There was 14 aircraft based at SFO, 6 jets, 1 helicopter and 7 military aircraft. Aircraft noise abatement SFO was one of the first airports to implement a Fly Quiet Program, which grades airlines on their performance on noise abatement procedures while flying in and out of SFO. The Jon C. Long Fly Quiet Program was started by the Aircraft Noise Abatement Office to encourage airlines to operate as quietly as possible at SFO. SFO was one of the first U.S. airports to conduct a residential sound abatement retrofitting program. Established by the FAA in the early 1980s, this program evaluated the cost-effectiveness of reducing interior sound levels for homes near the airport, within the 65 CNEL noise contour. The program made use of a noise computer model to predict improvement in specific residential interiors for a variety of noise control strategies. This pilot program was conducted for a neighborhood in South San Francisco and success was achieved in all of the homes analyzed. The costs turned out to be modest, and the post-construction interior sound level tests confirmed the predictions for noise abatement. To date over $153 million has been spent to insulate more than 15,000 homes in the neighboring cities of Daly City, Pacifica, San Bruno, and South San Francisco. Terminals The airport has four terminals (1, 2, 3, and International) and seven concourses (Boarding Areas A through G) with a total of 115 gates arranged alphabetically in a counterclockwise ring. Terminal 1 (Boarding Area B), Terminal 2 (Boarding Areas C and D), and Terminal 3 (Boarding Areas E and F) handle domestic flights (including precleared flights from Canada). The International Terminal (Boarding Areas A and G) handle international flights and some domestic flights. Historically, the oldest terminal building still standing is Terminal 2, which was originally completed in 1954 as the Central Terminal with four concourses (Piers B, C, D, and E, lettered sequentially from north to south). Terminal 1 was added as the South Terminal in 1963 with Piers F/FF (Pier F had two satellite rotundas) and G, and Pier E was reassigned to the South Terminal upon its completion. International traffic was routed through Pier G, and a new Rotunda G was completed in 1974 to expand Pier G. Terminal 3 was added as the North Terminal in 1979 with Pier A. Also once the North Terminal was completed in 1979, the piers were renamed counterclockwise, with letter designations corresponding to present-day Boarding Areas, starting with Pier A (present-day Boarding Area A, originally Pier G), Pier B (present-day Boarding Area B, originally Pier F/FF), and Pier C (present-day Boarding Area C, originally Pier E). A new Pier E was added to the North Terminal in 1981 approximately where the old Pier B stood, and the Central Terminal was rebuilt with a single pier (D) to serve international flights in 1983, until a new International Terminal opened in 2000. Since then, the terminals were renamed with numbers in 2001, and the older terminals are in the process of renovation. A rebuild of Terminal 2 (formerly the Central Terminal) was completed in 2011, followed by the completion of the rebuild of Terminal 3 East (North Terminal Pier E) in 2015, and rebuilds of Terminal 1 (South Terminal) and Terminal 3 West (North Terminal) are scheduled to be complete by 2024. Airside connectors There are airside connectors at SFO that enable passengers to roam (post-security) between most adjacent terminal buildings. A short airside connector links T3's Boarding Area F (adjacent to Amex Centurion Lounge) to the International Terminal Boarding Area G. An airy 500-foot airside connector links Boarding Area C to the rest of T2. There are no airside connectors between International Boarding Areas A and G (the main terminal area of the International Terminal separates the two boarding areas). In May 2021, the demolition and rebuild of the southern portion of T1 (Boarding Area B) was completed and an airside connector to International Boarding Area A was added. In November 2021, new airside and landside connectors connected Terminals 2 and 3 (though planned offices originally part of the project were postponed). By 2024, renovation of Boarding Area C will add an airside connection between it and the rest of renovated Terminal 1. This means that all gates at the airport will be connected post-security. Harvey Milk Terminal 1 Formerly known as the "South Terminal", Harvey Milk Terminal 1 is composed of Boarding Area B, which currently has 18 gates (gates B6-B9, B12-B14, B17, B18, and B19-B27). Prior to June 23, 2020, Boarding Area C was also considered part of Terminal 1. A third boarding area, Rotunda A, was demolished in early 2006, as its functions had been taken over by the new International Terminal. The South Terminal, which cost , was initially dedicated on . The terminal was designed by Welton Becket and Associates. When it opened, the South Terminal had three piers: Pier G (for international flights, approximately at the same location as the present-day Boarding Area (B/A) A in the International Terminal), Pier F/FF (used by Trans World Airlines (TWA) and Western Airlines, later renamed B/A B), and Pier E (used by American Airlines; originally part of Terminal 2, approximately at the present-day B/A C). The three-level Rotunda A addition was completed in 1974 at the end of Pier G. When the North Terminal was completed in 1979, Pier G was renamed Pier A, with the other piers renamed in a counterclockwise direction proceeding from the new Pier A. International flights were moved to the rebuilt Central Terminal (Terminal 2) in 1983, and then to the new International Terminal in 2000. The South Terminal underwent a renovation designed by Howard A. Friedman and Associates, Marquis Associates and Wong & Brocchini that was completed in 1988. Terminal 1 is undergoing a project to modernize the concourse and add gates; the project broke ground on June 29, 2016. The phase of the project to expand Boarding Area B includes the demolition of the old TWA hangar, the demolition of the two rotundas, and the relocation of two taxiways. The multi-phase project will yield a total of 24 gates when complete in 2020 (the existing Boarding Area B has fewer than 20 usable gates), including a secure Federal Inspection Services (FIS) connector to the existing customs facilities in the International Terminal. This will effectively add six new gates that can handle international arrivals. Planning for a renovation of Boarding Area C is underway, with construction to commence after the completion of work on Boarding Area B. The projected completion date for Boarding Area C work is mid-2024. In April 2018, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors and mayor Mark Farrell approved and signed legislation renaming Terminal 1 after deceased gay rights activist and former member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors Harvey Milk, and planned to install artwork memorializing him. This followed a previous attempt to rename the entire airport after him, which was turned down. Following the art and photo installation, the renamed terminal was opened to the media and public for preview tours in advance of its official opening on July 23, 2019. Harvey Milk Terminal 1 is the world's first airport terminal named after a leader of the LGBTQ community. The first nine gates at the newly reconstructed Boarding Area B opened on July 23, 2019, with Southwest Airlines and JetBlue becoming the first tenants. JetBlue operates two gates preferentially (B6 and B7) and shares one with Southwest (B8), while Southwest operates five gates preferentially (B9, B12-B14, and B17). In late-April 2020, the terminal's new lobby opened, with new ticket counters for Southwest and JetBlue, and a new permanent exhibit honoring Milk. On May 12, 2020, in conjunction with the launch of nine new gates at Boarding Area B (B19-B27), American Airlines moved into the new facility, with new ticket counters, baggage systems, and a new Admirals Club lounge. American operates six of the nine new gates preferentially (B22-B27). The final seven Boarding Area B gates (B2-B5, B10-B11, B15-B16) in the new terminal opened on May 25, 2021. Frontier Airlines, Hawaiian Airlines, and Sun Country Airlines are scheduled to move in by 2023. Terminal 2 Formerly known as the "Central Terminal," Terminal 2 is composed of Boarding Area C, which has 10 gates (gates C2-C11), and Boarding Area D, which has 15 gates (D1-D12 and D14-D16). The D gates is where Alaska Airlines has their hub. Gate D13 does not exist as the number has been reserved for future development. Terminal 2 opened in 1954 as the main airport terminal. After a drastic rebuilding designed by Gensler, it replaced Rotunda A as SFO's international terminal in 1983 until it was closed for renovation after the current international terminal opened in 2000. The initial plan was to convert Terminal 2 for domestic travel and reopen it by fall 2001, but the loss of passenger traffic after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 put those plans on hold. The upper levels continued to be used as office spaces and for the airport's medical clinic, and the control tower remained in use. On May 12, 2008, a renovation project was announced that included a new control tower, the use of green materials, a seismic retrofit, and an expansion from ten to fourteen gates. The terminal reopened for commercial travel on April 14, 2011, with Virgin America (later Alaska Airlines) and American Airlines sharing the new 14-gate common-use facility. Approximately a week earlier, on , Virgin America's ceremonial flight VX2001 was the first to arrive at the renovated Terminal 2, an Airbus A320 bearing founder Richard Branson with other invited celebrity guests, such as Buzz Aldrin, Rachel Hunter, and Gavin Newsom. VX2001 had rendezvoused with White Knight Two/SpaceShipTwo over Point Reyes before making a side-by-side landing. The newly renovated terminal also designed by Gensler features permanent art installations from Janet Echelman, Kendall Buster, Norie Sato, Charles Sowers, and Walter Kitundu. Transition zones (the immediate post-security line area for "passenger recomposure") and exit areas (where disembarking passengers may be greeted) were designed with generous space. Terminal 2 set accolades by being the first U.S. airport to achieve LEED Gold status. Paolo Lucchesi, a local food critic, noted the sustainable food and dining program featuring local vendors and sources. Following the construction of a new control tower in 2016, the tower and the offices above the terminal were demolished and a new office space was constructed in their place. On February 14, 2020, a new public, outdoor observation deck, called SkyTerrace, was opened in the new office space. Until May 12, 2020, American's check-in counters were consolidated to T2, but its operations were split between Boarding Area D and Boarding Area C (linked via an airside connector). Following American's move to T1, the existing Admirals Club location is scheduled to be repurposed as retail and dining space for T2. A new Alaska lounge was set to open in 2020 but is on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As of June 23, 2020, SFO advertises Boarding Area C as part of Terminal 2 due to construction. During the construction of Boarding Area B, Boarding Area C continues to operate, with Delta Air Lines operating as the main tenant. Terminal 3 Formerly known as the "North Terminal", Terminal 3 is composed of Boarding Area E with 13 gates (gates E1-E13) and Boarding Area F with 23 gates (gates F1-F3, F3A, F4-F22). Terminal 3 is used for United Airlines' domestic flights. Mainline United flights use both boarding areas, while United Express regional flights use Boarding Area F. This $82.44 million terminal was originally designed by San Francisco Airport Architects (a joint venture of John Carl Warnecke and Associates, Dreyfuss + Blackford Architecture, and minority architects). The groundbreaking ceremony for the North Terminal was held on April 22, 1971, and Boarding Area F opened in 1979 and Boarding Area E opened in 1981. All terminals (except the International Terminal) were redesignated by number starting October 1, 2001. A solar roof was installed in 2007 with sufficient generating capacity to power all Terminal 3 lights during the day. American Airlines and Air Canada occupied Boarding Area E until it closed for refurbishment in 2011 under the airport's FY 2010/11 – FY 2014/15 Capital Plan. Designed by Gensler, the renovation. included architectural enhancements, structural renovations, replacement of HVAC systems, roof repair, and new carpeting. Initial modest renovation plans were replaced by a more ambitious project after the popularity of the remodeling of Terminal 2. After the completion of the project, Boarding Area E reopened on January 28, 2014, followed by Terminal 3 East on November 18, 2014 The project moved one gate from Boarding Area F to Boarding Area E to provide a total of ten aircraft parking positions at T3E. Following a 2019 renumbering of all gates at SFO, three additional gates moved from Boarding Area F to Boarding Area E, with the latter now containing 13 gates. There are three United Clubs in Terminal 3—one near the rotunda for Boarding Area F, one on the mezzanine across from gate E2, and another at the beginning of Boarding Area E. Terminal 3 also houses the American Express Centurion Lounge, located across from Gate F2. International Terminal The International Terminal is composed of Boarding Areas A and G. Designed by Craig W. Hartman of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, the terminal opened in December 2000 to replace the International Departures section of Terminal 2. It is the largest international terminal in North America, and the largest building in the world built on base isolators to protect against earthquakes. Food service focuses on quick service versions of leading San Francisco Bay Area restaurants, following other SFO terminals. Planners attempted to make the airport a destination in and of itself, not just for travelers passing through. The international terminal is a common-use facility, with all gates and all ticketing areas shared among international airlines and several domestic carriers. Common-use terminal equipment (CUTE) is used at check-in counters and gates. All international arrivals and departures are handled here (except flights from cities with customs preclearance). The International Terminal houses the airport's BART station, adjacent to the garage leading to Boarding Area G. The SFO Medical Clinic is located next to the security screening area of Boarding Area A. All gates in this terminal have at least two jetway bridges, except gates A3 and A12, which have one. Gates A1 and A2 can accommodate two aircraft. Six of the gates are designed for the Airbus A380, making SFO one of the first airports in the world with such gates when it was built in 2000. Gate A11 has three jetways for boarding. Four other gates have two jetways fitted for A380 service. The International Terminal completed a continuous ring of terminals, by filling in the last remaining gap to the west of then-existing terminals. Its geometry required that the terminal structure be built above the main access road, at enormous expense, including building dedicated ramps for connectivity to Highway 101. The design and construction of the international terminal was by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Del Campo & Maru Architects, Michael Willis Associates, and built by Tutor Perini (main terminal building), Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum in association with Robin Chiang & Company, Robert B. Wong Architects, and built by Tutor Perini (Boarding Area G), and Gerson/Overstreet Architects and built by Hensel Phelps Construction (Boarding Area A). The contracts were awarded after an architectural design competition. Most international flights operated by Star Alliance carriers, including all United international flights and select United domestic flights, are assigned to Boarding Area G's 14 gates (G1-G14). Most international flights operated by SkyTeam, Oneworld, and non-aligned international carriers board and deplane at Boarding Area A's 15 gates (gates A1–A15). However, Star Alliance carrier Avianca El Salvador operates out of Boarding Area A, and non-aligned carriers Aer Lingus, Fiji Airways, and WestJet typically park at Boarding Area G. Boarding Area A is also used by domestic carriers Frontier Airlines, Sun Country Airlines, and Hawaiian Airlines. When all gates in an airline's designated international boarding area are full, the passengers will board or deplane from the opposite international boarding area. Air Canada, Aer Lingus, and WestJet operate from airports with United States border preclearance, allowing arriving passengers to skip the wait at customs and immigration when they arrive at SFO, and exit the airport from the departure level. The two main designations for the International Terminal are "I", and "INTL" (abbreviations for "International"). Oftentimes travel itineraries will say "T-I", and this has led to instances where passengers misinterpret the "I" as Terminal 1, especially since both Boarding Area A and Boarding Area G are used for a limited number of domestic flights. SFO Museum SFO Museum was created in 1980 as a collaboration between the San Francisco Airport Commission and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and was the first museum in an international airport. It was accredited by the American Association of Museums in 1999, and contains both permanent artwork and temporary exhibitions in more than 20 galleries. The Aviation Museum and Library (officially, the San Francisco Airport Commission Aviation Library and Louis A. Turpen Aviation Museum) is located in the International Terminal, featuring a model of a DC-3. Other prominent installations include works by: Robert Bechtle, San Francisco Nova (T3, boarding area E) Kendall Buster, Topograph (T2, departure lounge) Janet Echelman, Every Beating Second (T2, recomposure area) Joyce Kozloff, Bay Area Victorian, Bay Area Deco, Bay Area Funk; tile wall (IT–T1 connector) Seiji Kunishima, Stacking Stones (T2) Ursula von Rydingsvard, Ocean Voices II (T3, E Plaza) Norie Sato, Air Over Under (T2, exterior) Larry Sultan and Mike Mandel, Waiting (IT, b/a A) Rufino Tamayo, Conquest of Space (IT, exterior) Wayne Thiebaud, 18th Street Downgrade (T3, b/a E) James Torlakson, Behind Ted McMann's Garage (T3, b/a E) Bob Zoell, BFILRYD (T3–IT connector) Frequent travelers and airline staff have reportedly told SFO Museum officials they make it a point to arrive to the airport early in order to view the galleries. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Traffic numbers Ground transportation Transit The AirTrain is a landside people-mover system that connects the terminals, the two international terminal garages, the BART station, the Grand Hyatt hotel, the airport's Rental Car Center, and the Long-Term Parking garage. The AirTrain is fully automated and free to ride. Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) serves the airport at San Francisco International Airport station, located west of the International Terminal. The nearest Caltrain station, Millbrae station, is one stop away on BART. San Mateo County's transit agency, SamTrans, serves the airport with several routes Buses stop at the arrivals/baggage claim level of the domestic terminals and in courtyard A or G in the International Terminal. The airport provides free shuttle bus service to and from the South San Francisco Ferry Terminal, connecting with San Francisco Bay Ferry services from Alameda and Oakland. Numerous door-to-door "shared ride" van and hotel courtesy shuttles stop at the center transportation island on the departure level, while Marin Airporter buses and limousines are on the arrivals/baggage claim level of the airport. Charter services are also available in the courtyards. Car The airport is located on U.S. Route 101, south of downtown San Francisco. It is near the US 101 interchange with Interstate 380, a short freeway that connects US 101 with Interstate 280. Short term parking is located in the central terminal area and two international terminal garages. Long term parking is located on South Airport Blvd. and San Bruno Ave. and are served by shuttle buses. Passengers can also park long-term at a select number of BART stations that have parking lots, with a permit purchased online in advance. Taxi Taxis depart from designated taxi zones located at the roadway center islands, on the Arrivals/Baggage Claim Level of all terminals. Ride app services such as Uber and Lyft are available via their respective mobile app. The designated ride app pickup area for domestic terminals is on the fifth floor of the adjacent garage. The designated pickup area for the International Terminal is on the Departures/Check-In Level roadway center island. Other facilities SFO is home to the one of the largest single aircraft maintenance bases in the world with complete MRO base operations (maintenance, repair, overhaul, painting, welding, machine shop, tool and die, parts manufacturing, fabrication, engineering, and retrofitting (Boeing and Airbus certified, among others)). It serves as the principal Global MRO Base for United Airlines and serves over 40 other airlines, military customers, and aircraft lease operators. Nippon Cargo Airlines has its San Francisco branch on the airport property. Prior to its merger that formed AirWest, Pacific Air Lines had its corporate headquarters on the grounds of the airport. Hughes Airwest, the successor to Air West, also had its headquarters on the grounds of the airport. The United States Coast Guard operates Coast Guard Air Station San Francisco with its ramp and buildings near the cargo terminal, operating six MH-65 Dolphin helicopters. Accidents and incidents On February 9, 1937, a United Airlines Douglas DC-3A-197 transport liner circled the airport, then crashed into the bay, killing 11 people. On September 12, 1951, United Airlines Flight 7030 plunged into the bay during a training exercise killing all three crew members. On April 20, 1953, Western Airlines Flight 366, a Douglas DC-6 on a scheduled evening crossbay flight to Oakland International Airport, crashed three minutes after departing SFO into San Francisco Bay. There were eight fatalities (4 crew, 4 passengers) of the 10 occupants on board. On October 29, 1953, British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines flight 304, a Douglas DC-6 en route from Sydney, Australia, with fuel stops in Auckland, New Zealand, Fiji, and Honolulu, crashed on approach to SFO into Kings Mountain in San Mateo County. All 19 passengers and crew members died. On February 20, 1959, a Pan American DC-7C crashed and burned on the runway. The three crew members on board survived. On February 3, 1963, Slick Airways Flight 40 crashed and burned after striking approach lights on runway 28R, killing the four people on board. On December 24, 1964, Flying Tiger Line Flight 282, a Lockheed Constellation cargo aircraft departing for New York City, crashed in the hills west of the airport, killing all three crew members on board. On June 28, 1965, Pan Am Flight 843, a Boeing 707, had just departed for Honolulu, Hawaii, when its #4 engine exploded, causing part of the wing and the engine itself to break off and fall into the streets below. The crew was able to extinguish the ensuing fire and land safely at the nearby Travis Air Force Base. On November 22, 1968, a Japan Air Lines DC-8, named the Shiga, operating Flight 2, crash-landed on final approach at 9:30 a.m. on a shallow submerged reef at the eastern tip of Coyote Point (three miles short of the runway southeast of the airport). The plane was on a trip from Tokyo to San Francisco, after making a stop in Honolulu. The pilot was experienced but misread the instruments on the DC-8, which was less than a year old. There were 107 people on the plane. There were no deaths or serious injuries. The plane was salvaged by Bigge Drayage Company soon after the crash. All luggage and fuel were removed to cut the weight and the plane was lifted onto a barge and taken to the airport for repairs. The cost of repairs was $4 million and the plane re-entered service the following April. The aircraft flew for Japan Air Lines until 1983 and then several air freight companies for 18 years until it was scrapped in December 2001. On July 30, 1971, Pan Am Flight 845, a Boeing 747 (registration: N747PA, name: Clipper America), struck navigational aids at the end of runway 1R on takeoff for Tokyo. The aircraft's landing gear and other systems were damaged. Two passengers were seriously injured by metal components of the runway approach light pier entering the cabin. The flight proceeded out over the Pacific Ocean to dump fuel to reduce weight for an emergency landing. Emergency services deployed at the airport, and the plane returned and landed on runway 28R. During landing, the aircraft veered off the runway. There was no fire. After coming to a stop, the aircraft slowly tilted aft, coming to rest on its tail in a nose-high attitude. The forward evacuation slides were therefore in a nearly vertical position. Evacuation using these slides caused all of the additional injuries, some severe. There were no fatalities among the 218 passengers and crew members aboard. An investigation determined that the cause of the accident was erroneous information from the flight dispatcher to the crew members regarding weight and runway length. On July 5, 1972, Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 710, a Boeing 737-200, was hijacked by two Bulgarian immigrants demanding $800,000 and to be taken to the Soviet Union. After flying for an hour and landing back at SFO, the plane was stormed by four FBI agents. Both hijackers were killed along with one passenger. Two other passengers were injured. On September 13, 1972, TWA Flight 604, a Boeing 707-331C cargo plane crashed into the bay on takeoff. All three crew members survived. On October 8, 1984, a Clay Lacy Aviation Learjet 24 crashed shortly after takeoff after descending in a steep left-wing low nose attitude after entering a broken cloud at 600 feet. All three occupants (two crew, one occupant) were killed. On February 19th, 1985, China Airlines Flight 006 made an emergency landing at the airport after a fatigued crew mishandled a single engine flameout, eventually leading to a stall and catastrophic dive that nearly led the Boeing 747SP to hit the ocean. On , United Airlines Flight 863 was forced to shut down an engine just after takeoff, and then nearly collided with San Bruno Mountain due to improper flight procedure. The aircraft returned safely to the airport. In response, United instituted new training procedures for its flight crews. On September 11, 2001, United Airlines Flight 93 was destined for San Francisco. It was hijacked by four al-Qaeda terrorists and diverted towards Washington DC, with the intent of crashing the plane into either The Capitol or the White House. After learning of the previous attacks on the World Trade Center and The Pentagon, the passengers attempted to regain control of the plane. The hijackers subsequently crashed the plane in a field in Pennsylvania, killing everyone on board. On , an arriving SkyWest Airlines Embraer EMB 120 nearly collided with a Republic Airline Embraer 170 Regional Jet at the junction of Runways 01L and 28R. After the SkyWest EMB 120 passed the Runway 28R threshold, the Republic E-170 was cleared for takeoff on 01L, in contradiction to local and FAA orders requiring the arriving aircraft to pass the intersection before clearing departing aircraft on the intersecting runway. On June 28, 2008, an ABX Air Boeing 767 preparing to depart with cargo caught fire and was seriously damaged. The pilots escaped uninjured. Although the airline had received a threat the week before, investigations revealed no evidence of any malicious device on board, eventually concluding the fire was caused by an electrical system malfunction. On September 22, 2012, a PrimeFlight catering truck accidentally drove into the wing of a parked NetJets Gulfstream V. The wing sliced into the cab of the truck, killing the 60-year old driver. On July 6, 2013, Asiana Airlines Flight 214, a Boeing 777-200ER registered HL7742, crashed while landing. The crash occurred due to a combination of mistakes made by the aircraft's flight crew. The flight crew had selected an incorrect autopilot mode when attempting to descend, followed by placing the thrust levers into "idle", which disabled the autopilot from maintaining speed as the aircraft approached the seawall. Upon descending below the desired flight path, the flight crew should have determined that their speed was too low and attempt a "go-around" and re-attempt to land; however, this decision was not made. The tail section of the aircraft struck the seawall at the end of the runway and became detached from the airframe; the plane ended up down the runway. Passengers and crew members evacuated before a fire, due to the ignition of engine lubricant, destroyed the aircraft. There were three fatalities, making this the first fatal Boeing 777 crash. On July 7, 2017, Air Canada Flight 759, an Airbus A320-200, from Toronto Pearson was instructed by air traffic control to go around after overflying Taxiway C for 0.25 miles (400 m) while on visual approach for 28R. The A320 overflew the first two aircraft lined up on Taxiway C by roughly 100 feet (30 m). The pilots landed the aircraft afterward without incident. A total of three wide-body aircraft and one narrow-body aircraft were lined up awaiting takeoff on Taxiway C. The NTSB launched an investigation into the incident, publishing the final report in September 2018. On October 22, 2017, Air Canada Flight 781, another Airbus A320-200, from Montreal landed on Runway 28R after being instructed by the ATC six times to go around, without any response from the pilots. This was because the pilots had radio problems in the cockpit. See also California World War II Army Airfields List of airports in California Transportation in the San Francisco Bay Area References External links San Francisco International Airport website San Francisco International Airport Community Roundtable Homepage San Francisco International Airport Live Flight Track (ten-minute delay) San Francisco International Airport Aircraft Noise Abatement Office Overscheduling at SFO dead link, archived at Overscheduling The aerial view c. 1940 looks west along the runway that is now 28R; the seaplane harbor at right is still recognizable north of the airport. Earlier aerial looking NW 1943 vertical aerial (enlargeable). 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250464	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic%20system%20%28philosophy%29	Deterministic system (philosophy)	A deterministic system is a conceptual model of the philosophical doctrine of determinism applied to a system for understanding everything that has and will occur in the system, based on the physical outcomes of causality. In a deterministic system, every action, or cause, produces a reaction, or effect, and every reaction, in turn, becomes the cause of subsequent reactions. The totality of these cascading events can theoretically show exactly how the system will exist at any moment in time. To understand this concept, start with a fairly small system. Visualize a set of three dominoes lined up in a row with each domino less than a domino's length away from its neighbors. Once the first domino has toppled, the third domino will topple because the second will topple upon being contacted by the first domino. Small deterministic systems are easy to visualize, but are necessarily linked to the rest of reality by an initial cause and/or final effect. To go back to the dominoes, something outside the system has to cause the first domino to topple. The last domino falling might cause something else outside the system to happen. And the system itself must be considered in isolation—if external forces such as hurricanes, earthquakes or the hands of nearby people were taken into consideration, the final domino toppling might not be a predetermined outcome. Complete isolation of a system is unrealistic, but useful for understanding what would normally happen to a system when the possibility of external influences is negligible. Complex physical systems are necessarily built using simpler ones, and using isolated systems as a starting model can help bridge the gap and aid in understanding. The domino example is developed in the Petri net computational model. This example assumes that dominoes toppling into each other behave deterministically. Even the above-mentioned external forces which might interrupt the system are causes which the system did not consider, but which could be explained by cause and effect in a larger deterministic system. Some deterministic systems Classical physics is the deterministic system assumed in the domino example which scientists can use to describe all events which take place on a scale larger than individual atoms. Classical physics includes Newton's laws of motion, Classical electrodynamics, thermodynamics, the Special theory of relativity, the General theory of relativity, chaos theory and nonlinear dynamics. Some of these systems are complex, and events may be difficult to predict in practice, but if the starting conditions were known in enough detail, the outcomes of events in such systems could be predicted. Nearly all electronic computers in use today are based on theoretical von Neumann computers or Turing machines, i.e.: they are devices that perform one small, deterministic step at a time. If all inputs are specified, the computer will always produce a particular output which is calculated deterministically. Computer scientists also study other models of computation including parallel computers (more than one deterministic step at a time), and quantum computers (which are based on non-deterministic quantum mechanical models). Computer systems or programs are often described as non-deterministic if their behavior depends on factors that cannot be predicted or reliably reproduced, such as the time of day or the speed at which the user enters data at the keyboard. This, however, is a somewhat different usage of the term. Behaviorism, an approach to psychology based on the proposition that behavior can be researched scientifically without recourse to inner mental states, is usually considered to be deterministic and opposed to free will. Non-deterministic systems Events without natural causes cannot be part of a deterministic system. Whether such events actually occur is a matter of philosophical and scientific debate – however, possible uncaused events include: Random Quantum events Quantum physics holds that certain events such as radioactive decay and movement of particles are completely random when taken at the level of single atoms or smaller. Schrödinger's cat is a famous thought experiment in which a cat's survival cannot be determined theoretically before the experiment is done. For almost all everyday non-microscopic occurrences, however, the probability of such random events is extremely close to zero, and can be approximated to almost certainty with statistics using the correspondence principle. The philosophical consequences of quantum physics were once considered by many (including Albert Einstein) to be a major problem for the scientific method which traditionally used a strong version of scientific determinism (see Philosophy of science). Systems with controversial classification Some systems are particularly difficult to classify as deterministic or not, and have generated much philosophical debate. The major example would be human minds, and possibly animal minds too. Can people have free will if their minds are truly deterministic? Conversely, when deterministic computers are said to exhibit artificial intelligence, how are their minds similar to ours? The entire universe The larger the deterministic system, the longer the necessary chain of cause and effect. The entire universe may be considered as such a system, which creates its own philosophical questions (see Determinism). 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250466	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20art	Generative art	Generative art refers to art that in whole or in part has been created with the use of an autonomous system. An autonomous system in this context is generally one that is non-human and can independently determine features of an artwork that would otherwise require decisions made directly by the artist. In some cases the human creator may claim that the generative system represents their own artistic idea, and in others that the system takes on the role of the creator. "Generative art" often refers to algorithmic art (algorithmically determined computer generated artwork) and synthetic media (general term for any algorithmically-generated media), but artists can also make it using systems of chemistry, biology, mechanics and robotics, smart materials, manual randomization, mathematics, data mapping, symmetry, tiling, and more. History The use of the word "generative" in the discussion of art has developed over time. The use of "Artificial DNA" defines a generative approach to art focused on the construction of a system able to generate unpredictable events, all with a recognizable common character. The use of autonomous systems, required by some contemporary definitions, focuses a generative approach where the controls are strongly reduced. This approach is also named "emergent". Margaret Boden and Ernest Edmonds have noted the use of the term "generative art" in the broad context of automated computer graphics in the 1960s, beginning with artwork exhibited by Georg Nees and Frieder Nake in 1965: The first such exhibition showed the work of Nees in February 1965, which some claim was titled "Generative Computergrafik". While Nees does not himself remember, this was the title of his doctoral thesis published a few years later. The correct title of the first exhibition and catalog was "computer-grafik". "Generative art" and related terms was in common use by several other early computer artists around this time, including Manfred Mohr. Vera Molnár (born 1924) is a French media artist of Hungarian origin. Molnar is widely considered to be a pioneer of generative art, and is also one of the first women to use computers in her art practice. The term "Generative Art" with the meaning of dynamic artwork-systems able to generate multiple artwork-events was clearly used the first time for the "Generative Art" conference in Milan in 1998. The term has also been used to describe geometric abstract art where simple elements are repeated, transformed, or varied to generate more complex forms. Thus defined, generative art was practised by the Argentinian artists Eduardo McEntyre and Miguel Ángel Vidal in the late 1960s. In 1972 the Romanian-born Paul Neagu created the Generative Art Group in Britain. It was populated exclusively by Neagu using aliases such as "Hunsy Belmood" and "Edward Larsocchi." In 1972 Neagu gave a lecture titled 'Generative Art Forms' at the Queen's University, Belfast Festival. In 1970 the School of the Art Institute of Chicago created a department called Generative Systems. As described by Sonia Landy Sheridan the focus was on art practices using the then new technologies for the capture, inter-machine transfer, printing and transmission of images, as well as the exploration of the aspect of time in the transformation of image information. Also noteworthy is John Dunn, first a student and then a collaborator of Sheridan. In 1988 Clauser identified the aspect of systemic autonomy as a critical element in generative art: In 1989 Celestino Soddu defined the Generative Design approach to Architecture and Town Design in his book Citta' Aleatorie. In 1989 Franke referred to "generative mathematics" as "the study of mathematical operations suitable for generating artistic images." From the mid-1990s Brian Eno popularized the terms generative music and generative systems, making a connection with earlier experimental music by Terry Riley, Steve Reich and Philip Glass. From the end of the 20th century, communities of generative artists, designers, musicians and theoreticians began to meet, forming cross-disciplinary perspectives. The first meeting about generative Art was in 1998, at the inaugural International Generative Art conference at Politecnico di Milano University, Italy. In Australia, the Iterate conference on generative systems in the electronic arts followed in 1999. On-line discussion has centred around the eu-gene mailing list, which began late 1999, and has hosted much of the debate which has defined the field. These activities have more recently been joined by the Generator.x conference in Berlin starting in 2005. In 2012 the new journal GASATHJ, Generative Art Science and Technology Hard Journal was founded by Celestino Soddu and Enrica Colabella jointing several generative artists and scientists in the Editorial Board. Some have argued that as a result of this engagement across disciplinary boundaries, the community has converged on a shared meaning of the term. As Boden and Edmonds put it in 2011: In the call of the Generative Art conferences in Milan (annually starting from 1998), the definition of Generative Art by Celestino Soddu: Discussion on the eu-gene mailing list was framed by the following definition by Adrian Ward from 1999: A similar definition is provided by Philip Galanter: Types Music Johann Philipp Kirnberger's "Musikalisches Würfelspiel" (Musical Dice Game) 1757 is considered an early example of a generative system based on randomness. Dice were used to select musical sequences from a numbered pool of previously composed phrases. This system provided a balance of order and disorder. The structure was based on an element of order on one hand, and disorder on the other. The fugues of J.S. Bach could be considered generative, in that there is a strict underlying process that is followed by the composer. Similarly, serialism follows strict procedures which, in some cases, can be set up to generate entire compositions with limited human intervention. Composers such as John Cage, Farmers Manual, and Brian Eno have used generative systems in their works. Visual art The artist Ellsworth Kelly created paintings by using chance operations to assign colors in a grid. He also created works on paper that he then cut into strips or squares and reassembled using chance operations to determine placement. Artists such as Hans Haacke have explored processes of physical and social systems in artistic context. François Morellet has used both highly ordered and highly disordered systems in his artwork. Some of his paintings feature regular systems of radial or parallel lines to create Moiré Patterns. In other works he has used chance operations to determine the coloration of grids. Sol LeWitt created generative art in the form of systems expressed in natural language and systems of geometric permutation. Harold Cohen's AARON system is a longstanding project combining software artificial intelligence with robotic painting devices to create physical artifacts. Steina and Woody Vasulka are video art pioneers who used analog video feedback to create generative art. Video feedback is now cited as an example of deterministic chaos, and the early explorations by the Vasulkas anticipated contemporary science by many years. Software systems exploiting evolutionary computing to create visual form include those created by Scott Draves and Karl Sims. The digital artist Joseph Nechvatal has exploited models of viral contagion. Autopoiesis by Ken Rinaldo includes fifteen musical and robotic sculptures that interact with the public and modify their behaviors based on both the presence of the participants and each other. Jean-Pierre Hebert and Roman Verostko are founding members of the Algorists, a group of artists who create their own algorithms to create art. A. Michael Noll, of Bell Telephone Laboratories, Incorporated, programmed computer art using mathematical equations and programmed randomness, starting in 1962. The French artist Jean-Max Albert, beside environmental sculptures like Iapetus, and O=C=O, developed a project dedicated to the vegetation itself, in terms of biological activity. The Calmoduline Monument project is based on the property of a protein, calmodulin, to bond selectively to calcium. Exterior physical constraints (wind, rain, etc.) modify the electric potential of the cellular membranes of a plant and consequently the flux of calcium. However, the calcium controls the expression of the calmoduline gene. The plant can thus, when there is a stimulus, modify its « typical » growth pattern. So the basic principle of this monumental sculpture is that to the extent that they could be picked up and transported, these signals could be enlarged, translated into colors and shapes, and show the plant's « decisions » suggesting a level of fundamental biological activity. Maurizio Bolognini works with generative machines to address conceptual and social concerns. Mark Napier is a pioneer in data mapping, creating works based on the streams of zeros and ones in ethernet traffic, as part of the "Carnivore" project. Martin Wattenberg pushed this theme further, transforming "data sets" as diverse as musical scores (in "Shape of Song", 2001) and Wikipedia edits (History Flow, 2003, with Fernanda Viegas) into dramatic visual compositions. The Canadian artist San Base developed a "Dynamic Painting" algorithm in 2002. Using computer algorithms as "brush strokes," Base creates sophisticated imagery that evolves over time to produce a fluid, never-repeating artwork. Since 1996 there have been ambigram generators that auto generate ambigrams. Italian composer Pietro Grossi, pioneer of computer music since 1986, he extended his experiments to images, (same procedure used in his musical work) precisely to computer graphics, writing programs with specific auto-decisions, and developing the concept of HomeArt, presented for the first time in the exhibition New Atlantis: the continent of electronic music organized by the Venice Biennale in 1986. Software art For some artists, graphic user interfaces and computer code have become an independent art form in themselves. Adrian Ward created Auto-Illustrator as a commentary on software and generative methods applied to art and design. Architecture In 1987 Celestino Soddu created the artificial DNA of Italian Medieval towns able to generate endless 3D models of cities identifiable as belonging to the idea. In 2010, Michael Hansmeyer generated architectural columns in a project called "Subdivided Columns – A New Order (2010)". The piece explored how the simple process of repeated subdivision can create elaborate architectural patterns. Rather than designing any columns directly, Hansmeyer designed a process that produced columns automatically. The process could be run again and again with different parameters to create endless permutations. Endless permutations could be considered a hallmark of generative design. Literature Writers such as Tristan Tzara, Brion Gysin, and William Burroughs used the cut-up technique to introduce randomization to literature as a generative system. Jackson Mac Low produced computer-assisted poetry and used algorithms to generate texts; Philip M. Parker has written software to automatically generate entire books. Jason Nelson used generative methods with speech-to-text software to create a series of digital poems from movies, television and other audio sources. Live coding Generative systems may be modified while they operate, for example by using interactive programming environments such as SuperCollider, Fluxus and TidalCycles, including patching environments such as Max/MSP, Pure Data and vvvv. This is a standard approach to programming by artists, but may also be used to create live music and/or video by manipulating generative systems on stage, a performance practice that has become known as live coding. As with many examples of software art, because live coding emphasises human authorship rather than autonomy, it may be considered in opposition to generative art. Theories Philip Galanter In the most widely cited theory of generative art, in 2003 Philip Galanter describes generative art systems in the context of complexity theory. In particular the notion of Murray Gell-Mann and Seth Lloyd's effective complexity is cited. In this view both highly ordered and highly disordered generative art can be viewed as simple. Highly ordered generative art minimizes entropy and allows maximal data compression, and highly disordered generative art maximizes entropy and disallows significant data compression. Maximally complex generative art blends order and disorder in a manner similar to biological life, and indeed biologically inspired methods are most frequently used to create complex generative art. This view is at odds with the earlier information theory influenced views of Max Bense and Abraham Moles where complexity in art increases with disorder. Galanter notes further that given the use of visual symmetry, pattern, and repetition by the most ancient known cultures generative art is as old as art itself. He also addresses the mistaken equivalence by some that rule-based art is synonymous with generative art. For example, some art is based on constraint rules that disallow the use of certain colors or shapes. Such art is not generative because constraint rules are not constructive, i.e. by themselves they don't assert what is to be done, only what cannot be done. Margaret Boden and Ernest Edmonds In their 2009 article, Margaret Boden and Ernest Edmonds agree that generative art need not be restricted to that done using computers, and that some rule-based art is not generative. They develop a technical vocabulary that includes Ele-art (electronic art), C-art (computer art), D-art (digital art), CA-art (computer assisted art), G-art (generative art), CG-art (computer based generative art), Evo-art (evolutionary based art), R-art (robotic art), I-art (interactive art), CI-art (computer based interactive art), and VR-art (virtual reality art). Questions The discourse around generative art can be characterised by the theoretical questions which motivate its development. McCormack et al. propose the following questions, shown with paraphrased summaries, as the most important: Can a machine originate anything? Related to machine intelligence - can a machine generate something new, meaningful, surprising and of value: a poem, an artwork, a useful idea, a solution to a long-standing problem? What is it like to be a computer that makes art? If a computer could originate art, what would it be like from the computer's perspective? Can human aesthetics be formalised? What new kinds of art does the computer enable? Many generative artworks do not involve digital computers, but what does generative computer art bring that is new? In what sense is generative art representational, and what is it representing? What is the role of randomness in generative art? For example, what does the use of randomness say about the place of intentionality in the making of art? What can computational generative art tell us about creativity? How could generative art give rise to artefacts and ideas that are new, surprising and valuable? What characterises good generative art? How can we form a more critical understanding of generative art? What can we learn about art from generative art? For example, can the art world be considered a complex generative system involving many processes outside the direct control of artists, who are agents of production within a stratified global art market. What future developments would force us to rethink our answers? Another question is of postmodernism—are generative art systems the ultimate expression of the postmodern condition, or do they point to a new synthesis based on a complexity-inspired world-view? See also Artmedia Conway's Game of Life Digital morphogenesis Evolutionary art Generative music Interactive art New media art Non-fungible token Post-conceptualism Synthetic media Systems art Virtual art References Further reading Oliver Grau (2003). Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion (MIT Press/Leonardo Book Series). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. . Wands, Bruce (2006). Art of the Digital Age, London: Thames & Hudson. . Matt Pearson, ''Generative art : a practical guide using processing". Manning 2011. Playing with Time A conversation between Will Wright and Brian Eno on generative creation. Off Book: Generative Art - Computers, Data, and Humanity Documentary produced by Off Book (web series) Thomas Dreher: History of Computer Art, chap.III.2, IV.3, VIII.1 "Epigenetic Painting:Software as Genotype", Roman Verostko(International Symposium on Electronic Art, Utrecht, 1988); Leonardo, 23:1,1990, pp. 17–23 Visual arts media Computer art Digital art New media Electronic music Visual arts genres Art movements Painting techniques Conceptual art	[ 0.34184858202934265, 0.22553689777851105, -0.5157306790351868, 0.18239836394786835, -0.6382170915603638, 0.5216978788375854, 0.570447564125061, 0.4482437074184418, -0.30486008524894714, -1.0692375898361206, -0.7249095439910889, 0.5391150712966919, -0.36296921968460083, 0.37559887766838074, 0.205688938498497, 0.30708369612693787, 0.6179311871528625, 0.2264927327632904, -0.32593828439712524, 0.14284875988960266, -0.4508773684501648, -0.0016353095415979624, -0.0991542860865593, -0.42355814576148987, 0.005855729803442955, 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250471	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Hastings%2C%201st%20Baron%20Hastings	William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings	William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings KG (c. 1431 – June 1483) was an English nobleman. A loyal follower of the House of York during the Wars of the Roses, he became a close friend and one of the most important courtiers of King Edward IV, whom he served as Lord Chamberlain. At the time of Edward's death he was one of the most powerful and richest men in England. He was executed following accusations of treason by Edward's brother and ultimate successor, Richard III. The date of his death is disputed; early histories give 13 June, which is the traditional date. Biography William Hastings, born about 1430–1431, was the eldest son of Sir Leonard Hastings (c. 1396 – 20 October 1455), and his wife Alice Camoys, daughter of Thomas de Camoys, 1st Baron Camoys. Hastings succeeded his father in service to the House of York and through this service became close to his distant cousin the future Edward IV, whom he was to serve loyally all his life. He was High Sheriff of Warwickshire and High Sheriff of Leicestershire in 1455. He fought alongside Edward at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross, and was present at the proclamation of Edward as king in London on 4 March 1461, and then when the new king secured his crown at the Battle of Towton shortly thereafter. He was knighted on the field of battle. With the establishment of the Yorkist regime, Hastings became one of the key figures in the realm, most importantly as Master of the Mint and Lord Chamberlain, an office he held for the duration of the reign, and which made him one of the most important means of access to the king. He was also created Baron Hastings, a title reinforced by grants of land and office, primarily in Leicestershire and Northamptonshire. In 1462, he was invested as a Knight of the Garter. Hastings' tenure as Master of the Mint occurred during the Great Bullion Famine and the Great Slump in England. In 1474, he was awarded royal licence to crenellate at three of his landholdings in Leicestershire; at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Kirby Muxloe, and at Bagworth. He built extensively at Ashby, mostly making additions to the pre-existing manor house built by the de la Zouch family in the thirteenth century. His greatest achievement at Ashby was the Hastings Tower. At Kirby Muxloe Castle he began an intricate fortified house of red brick, one of the first of its kind in the county. Thanks to English Heritage, the castles at Ashby and Kirby can still be seen, but nothing survives to indicate any construction at Bagworth. His importance in these years is recorded in a number of sources, and was recognised by the greatest peer in the realm, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. In 1462, Warwick arranged for Hastings to marry his widowed sister, Katherine Neville. (Katherine's first husband, Lord Bonville, had been killed at St Albans in 1461, and their infant daughter, Cecily, succeeded to the Bonville titles and estates.) Despite this matrimonial relationship with the Nevilles, when Warwick drove Edward IV into exile in 1470, Hastings went with Edward, and accompanied the king back the following spring. Hastings raised troops for Edward in the English Midlands and served as one of the leading captains of the Yorkist forces at both Barnet and Tewkesbury. His service, loyalty and ability, along with the fall of his Neville in-laws, made Hastings even more important during the second half of Edward IV's reign. He continued to serve as Chamberlain, and was awarded the position of Chamberlain of the Exchequer in 1471, which he held until 1483. He was also appointed Lieutenant of Calais, which made him an important player in foreign affairs, and given authority over an increasingly large section of the English Midlands. At court, he was involved in two lengthy feuds with members of Queen Elizabeth Woodville's family, most notably with her son Thomas Grey, first Marquess of Dorset. Death After the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483, the Dowager Queen appointed family members to key positions and rushed to expedite the coronation of her young son Edward V as king, circumventing Richard, Duke of Gloucester, whom the late king had appointed Lord Protector. Hastings, who had long been friendly with Richard and hostile to the Woodvilles, was a key figure in checking these manoeuvres. While keeping the Woodvilles in check in London, Hastings informed Richard of their proceedings and asked him to hasten to London. Richard intercepted the young king, who was on his way to London, with his Woodville relatives. Hastings then supported Richard's formal installation as Lord Protector and collaborated with him in the royal council. Affairs changed dramatically on 13 June 1483 during a council meeting at the Tower of London: according to Thomas More's unfinished 16th-century polemic, Richard, supported by the Duke of Buckingham, accused Hastings and two other council members of having committed treason by conspiring against his life with the Woodvilles, with Hastings's mistress Jane Shore (formerly also mistress to Edward IV and possibly Dorset), acting as a go-between. The contemporary (1483) account of Domenico Mancini records Richard's claim that those who were arrested "had come with concealed weapons so that they could be the first to unleash a violent attack"; this was later confirmed in a public proclamation. While the other alleged conspirators were imprisoned, Hastings was beheaded. The timing of his execution is disputed, although Charles Ross, in his biography of Richard III, argued for the traditional date of 13 June. The summary execution of the popular Hastings was controversial among contemporaries and has been interpreted differently by historians and other authors. The traditional account, harking back to authors of the Tudor period, including William Shakespeare, considered the conspiracy charge invented and merely a convenient excuse to remove Hastings, who was known for his loyalty to the dead king and his heirs, as while he remained alive he would have been too formidable an obstacle to Richard's own plans to seize the throne. Others have been more open to the possibility of such a conspiracy and that Richard merely reacted to secure his position. Clements R. Markham argues that Hastings was executed one week after his arrest on 20 June 1483, and after a trial. Several witnesses were present, hence a treason trial could have been conducted at an ad hoc Court of Chivalry convened by Richard as High Constable of England. Despite the accusation of treason, no attainder was issued against Hastings which again suggests a trial by the Court of Chivalry which had no power to attaint. Hence, his wife and sons were allowed to inherit his lands and properties. Hastings was buried in the north aisle of St George's Chapel, Windsor, next to Edward IV. In literature He is portrayed in two of Shakespeare's plays: Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. Family Hastings married, before 6 February 1462, Katherine Neville, sister of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, known as "Warwick the Kingmaker," and widow of William Bonville, 6th Baron Harington, slain at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460, by whom he had had four sons and two daughters: Edward Hastings, 2nd Baron Hastings, who married Mary Hungerford. Sir William Hastings. Sir Richard Hastings, who married, and had two daughters and coheirs, Elizabeth Hastings, who married John Beaumont of Gracedieu, Leicestershire, Master of the Rolls, and Mary Hastings, who married Thomas Saunders of Harringworth, Northamptonshire. George Hastings. Anne Hastings, who married her father's ward, George Talbot, 4th Earl of Shrewsbury. Elizabeth Hastings. Notes References Sources Further reading Brondarbit, Alexander. Political Power-Brokers and the Yorkist State, 1461-1485 (Woodbridge, 2020) Carpenter, Christine. The Wars of the Roses (Cambridge, 1997) Dunham, William Huse. Lord Hastings' indentured retainers, 1461–1483 (New Haven, 1955) Hancock, Peter A. – Richard III and the Murder in the Tower (2009) Horrox, Rosemary. Richard III : a study of service (Cambridge, 1989) Kendall, Paul Murray, Richard III, London, Allen & Unwin (1955) Ross, Charles. Edward IV (Berkeley, 1974) Ross, Charles. Richard III (1981) Seward, Desmond. 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250472	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland%20International%20Airport	Oakland International Airport	Oakland International Airport is an international airport located 10 miles (16 km) south of Downtown Oakland in Oakland, California, United States located in the San Francisco Bay Area. It is owned by the Port of Oakland and has domestic passenger flights to cities throughout the United States and international flights to Mexico and the Azores, in addition to cargo flights to China and Japan. The airport covers . History Early years The city of Oakland looked into the construction of an airport starting in 1925. In 1927 the announcement of the Dole prize for a flight from California to Hawaii provided the incentive to purchase 680 acres (275 ha) in April 1927 for the airport. The 7,020-foot-long (2 140 m) runway was the longest in the world at the time, and was built in just 21 days to meet the Dole race start. The airport was dedicated by Charles Lindbergh on September 17. In its early days, because of its long runway enabling safe takeoff rolls for fuel-heavy aircraft, Oakland was the departing point of several historic flights, including Charles Kingsford Smith's historic US-Australia flight in 1928, and Amelia Earhart's final flight in 1937. Earhart departed from this airport when she made her final, ill-fated voyage, intending to return there after circumnavigating the globe. Boeing Air Transport (a predecessor of United Airlines) began scheduled flights to Oakland in December 1927. It was joined by Trans World Airlines (TWA) in 1932. In 1929 Boeing opened the Boeing School of Aeronautics on the field, which expanded rapidly in 1939 as part of the Civilian Pilot Training Program. Thousands of pilots and mechanics were trained before the facility was changed into the United Air Lines training center in 1945. In 1943 the U.S. Armed Forces temporarily took over Oakland Airport and opened Naval Air Station Oakland. It was transformed into an airlift base for military flights to the Pacific islands, ordering all scheduled service to move to San Francisco International Airport. After the war, airlines slowly returned to Oakland; Western Airlines began flights in 1946, and was followed by American Airlines, TWA, United, Transocean Air Lines and Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA). Oakland became a larger center for non-scheduled and supplemental air carriers: The four largest such companies were based and headquartered in Oakland: Transocean Air Lines, World Airways, Trans International Airlines and Saturn Airways. Oakland became one of the largest overhaul and maintenance operations in the country when Aircraft Engine and Maintenance Company (AEMCO) processed thousands of aircraft. The airport's first Jet Age terminal (now Terminal 1) was designed by John Carl Warnecke & Associates and opened in 1962, part of a $20 million expansion on bay fill that included the 10,000-foot (3048 m) runway 11/29 (now 12/30). The May 1963 OAG showed 15 airline flights arriving in Oakland each day, including nine from San Francisco; in June 1963, TWA flew Oakland's first scheduled jet, a Convair 880, to Chicago. American Airlines scheduled service from Oakland to Phoenix then into Dallas using the Boeing 720 aircraft. Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) provided several flights within California from OAK using Boeing 727 and DC-9 aircraft. United Airlines introduced non-stop service to Chicago, and on the San Francisco-Oakland-Los Angeles route using the Boeing 727. During the Vietnam War, World Airways shuttled thousands of military passengers through Oakland to their bases in Southeast Asia, and an international arrivals facility was built, allowing the airport to handle international flights for the first time. World Airways had broken ground on the World Airways Maintenance Center at Oakland International Airport. The maintenance hangar could store four Boeing 747s. It opened in May 1973. During its operation, World Airways contract maintenance services for 14 airlines in the facility. By 1988, World Airways vacated the Oakland maintenance base and moved its headquarters to Washington Dulles. That same year, United Airlines assumed the lease on the maintenance base. After the war Oakland's traffic slumped, but airline deregulation prompted several low-fare carriers to begin flights. This increase prompted the airport to build a $16.3 million second terminal, the Lionel J. Wilson Terminal 2, with seven gates for PSA and AirCal service. In the mid-1980s, People Express Airlines provided scheduled Boeing 747 transcontinental flights from OAK to Newark. SFO Helicopter Airlines served scheduled passenger flights between SFO and the Oakland Convention Center from OAK for many years until 1985. In 1987, British Airways and Air France Concorde visited Oakland to provide supersonic two-hour flights to the Pacific halfway to Hawaii and back to Oakland. Additionally a special around-the-world trip covering 38,215 miles over a three-week tour in March 1989. FedEx Express opened a cargo base at OAK in 1988, which is now one of the busiest air freight terminals in the United States. In the 1990s, Southwest Airlines opened a crew base in Oakland, and expanded its flights to become the airport's dominant passenger carrier. The airport has international arrival facilities, including U.S. Customs and Border Protection officials. The 1990s saw a rise of low-cost carriers serving Oakland, Morris Air (later became Southwest Airlines) and MarkAir to name a few, provided several domestic destinations from OAK. During the 1990s, tour operator SunTrips contracted Aerocancun and Leisure Air to provide scheduled charter flights from OAK to sun destinations during the early 1990s. TAESA and Mexicana Airlines also flew between Oakland and cities in Mexico for many years. In the past Tower Air and Corsairfly flew Orly Airport to OAK to Papeete, Tahiti, Martinair flew to Schiphol Airport and CityBird flew to Brussels Airport in Brussels. 2000s United Airlines vacated its Oakland Maintenance Center in May 2003 and transferred work to its base across the bay at San Francisco International Airport (SFO). Oakland International Airport began a $300 million expansion and renovation project in 2004, including adding five gates in Terminal 2. The new concourse partially opened in fall 2006, was fully opened by spring 2007, and a new baggage claim in Terminal 2 opened in summer 2006. The former Terminal 2 baggage claim has been replaced by a renovated and expanded security screening area. As part of this program, airport roadways, curbsides and parking lots were also renovated by the end of 2008. In 2008 Oakland saw a series of cutbacks due to high fuel costs and airline bankruptcies, more than other Bay Area airports. In just a few days, Oakland's numerous non-stops to Hawaii were eliminated following the liquidation of ATA Airlines and Aloha Airlines, although Hawaiian Airlines started a daily flight to Honolulu a month later. Skybus Airlines stopped flying to Columbus, OH when it ended operations on April 5. American Airlines and Continental Airlines both dropped Oakland on September 3, United Airlines ended service to Los Angeles on November 2, and TACA ended service to San Salvador on September 1. 2010s Following the years of the Great Recession, during which a few airlines were either liquidated (ATA Airlines and Aloha Airlines), or consolidated business to San Francisco International Airport, OAK started a gradual recovery, which has continued through 2017. In 2009 Allegiant Air moved operations from San Francisco International Airport, before designating OAK as a focus city. After the bankruptcies of ATA and Aloha Airlines, Alaska Airlines and Hawaiian Airlines replaced their nonstop services to Hawaii. In the same year, Volaris began service to OAK as their first destination in the San Francisco Bay Area and held a commercial agreement with Southwest Airlines, until its merger with AirTran Airways in 2011. Malaysia-based AirAsia X honored its new partners, the Oakland Raiders of the National Football League (NFL). AirAsia X had one of their planes full of its executives and crew members "touch down" at OAK in acknowledgment of the to-be announced sponsorship. AirAsia executives had new optimism that service between the U.S. and the airline's main base in Kuala Lumpur, could possibly happen earlier than originally expected, but has yet to come to fruition as of 2020. In 2009 OAK had the highest on-time arrival percentage among the 40 busiest North American airports. In 2011 Spirit Airlines returned to OAK after several years of absence, eventually flying a combined total of seven year-round and seasonal routes by the summer of 2017. Oakland International Airport also celebrated its 85th Anniversary in 2011, commemorating the first transpacific crossing by air from OAK to Hawaii, which took place on June 29, 1927, in The Bird of Paradise, flown by Hegenberger and Maitland. In 2012 United Airlines pulled out of OAK, consolidating operations at San Francisco International Airport, its Bay Area hub. Arkefly (which later re-branded as TUI Airlines Netherlands) chose OAK as a San Francisco Bay Area gateway, flying twice-weekly to Amsterdam, via a stop at Los Angeles International Airport. Arkefly provided 18 weeks of scheduled service in the summer of 2012. The airline followed with a similar schedule during the summer of in 2013, before discontinuing service at OAK. In 2013 FedEx Express opened a $30 million upgrade of its hub facility at OAK, including additions to accommodate the airline's new Boeing 777 Freighter fleet. In 2014, Norwegian Air Shuttle announced its first two year-round flights to Stockholm and Oslo airport, using Boeing 787-8 aircraft seating 291 passengers operated by Norwegian Long Haul. The flights were the first-ever nonstop services offered from the two Scandinavian capitals to the San Francisco Bay Area, providing several connections throughout Europe. The Oslo flight was later changed to a seasonal schedule. A long-proposed extension of the BART system to the airport opened on November 22, 2014, allowing passengers to board BART people mover trains and transport from the BART Coliseum station platform to the entrance of all terminals. The new system consists of a mostly elevated structure, running the length of Hegenberger Road. In May 2015 Oakland International Airport's Moving Modern program construction commenced a $100 million renovation of the Terminal 1 complex. The project included seismic architectural retrofits in central buildings, replacement and upgrading of infrastructure and improvement of the passenger environment. The project was completed in Spring 2017. In 2016 Norwegian Air Shuttle announced nonstop flights connecting Oakland with London beginning the following spring. British Airways responded with their own service to London, with both airlines providing service to London's Gatwick Airport. American Airlines also returned and re-branded, following a merger with US Airways; the latter previously having a short-term presence at OAK, following a separate merger with America West Airlines during the previous decade. Southwest Airlines inaugurated nonstop flights from Oakland to Mexico for the airline's first international nonstop flights from OAK. The additional routes also gave the airline a combined total of 30 year-round and seasonal flights at the airport as of early 2017. In 2017 Norwegian Air Shuttle announced nonstop flights connecting Oakland with Copenhagen on a seasonal basis from March 28, and Oakland with Barcelona from June 7 to operate year-round. Level, a new carrier owned by IAG, responded with their own Barcelona service, started flights initially operated by IAG partner Iberia on June 2, with both airlines providing service to Barcelona El Prat Airport. In the months following, Norwegian announced in May the introduction of nonstop flights between Oakland and Rome Fiumicino started on February 6, 2018, and in July the introduction of nonstop flights between Oakland and Paris Charles de Gaulle began on April 10, 2018. Recent Years Between mid-2018 through early 2020, OAK had both lost and was losing domestic and international nonstop routes; the indefinite grounding of the Boeing 737 MAX by both Southwest and American Airlines, the "restructuring" of schedules by airlines, and a lack of demand all contribute to this. British Airways ended service in October 2018. Level moved its operations to San Francisco International Airport, as did Norwegian Air Shuttle for its seven routes serving OAK. Southwest Airlines ended systemwide service with Newark Liberty International Airport in November 2019, followed by discontinuing three more routes with OAK effective January 2020. Three other routes are currently suspended by Southwest until further notice, while American did the same during summer 2019 for service with Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. JetBlue withdrew operations from OAK in April 2020 while American Airlines withdrew in early June 2020. Future Developments Despite these recent challenges, the Port of Oakland is eyeing a major expansion to consolidate and modernize existing terminals while creating a third passenger terminal. This project is in the early stages of planning, with a draft environmental report not expected to be released until 2022. The Oakland airport handled 13.38 million passengers in 2019, but is projecting passenger numbers to reach 15 million by 2023, 20 million by 2028, and 25 million by 2035. Terminals 1 and 2 would be condensed into a single terminal, with shared ticketing, baggage handling, and security. Additionally, customs facilities would be expanded to accommodate additional international flights. A connector will connect the consolidated terminal with the new terminal. Current plans call for a net of 17 gates to be added (unclear if any gates will be added or removed from existing terminals), with construction commencing in 2025. As part of the project, OAK plans to reconfigure cargo facilities and improve roadways, parking, and other support facilities. Facilities Terminals Oakland International Airport has two terminals with a total of 32 gates. The terminals are connected at post-security and gate areas, enabling arriving passengers to go straight to their connecting flights without having to re-enter the security check. All non pre-cleared international flights are processed in Terminal 1. Terminal 1 contains 18 gates. (Alaska, Allegiant, Azores, Contour, Delta, Frontier, Hawaiian, Southwest, Spirit, Volaris) Terminal 2 contains 14 gates. (Southwest) JSX is housed in a facility separate from the main passenger terminals. Runways Oakland International Airport has four runways. Changes to Earth's magnetic field required runways 27 and 29 to be renamed 28 and 30 in 2013. South Field (commercial and cargo operations): Runway 12/30: asphalt North Field (general aviation operations): Runway 10R/28L: asphalt Runway 10L/28R: asphalt Runway 15/33: asphalt General aviation Signature Flight Support is the primary fixed-base operator (FBO) at Oakland International Airport. Before BBA Aviation acquired Landmark Aviation, the FBO at OAK was the first in the Bay Area and the twelfth location added to Landmark's network in 2011. The FBO is centrally located at OAK's North Field in the Hangar 5 facility. Landmark has initiated a multimillion-dollar renovation project, having already upgraded the FBO terminal along with beginning hangar and property improvements. KaiserAir also provides FBO services at Oakland's North Field, performing maintenance on Gulfstream, Hawker, Cessna and other business jet aircraft. KaiserAir operates Kona Shuttle with flights to Hawaii and charter business jets. Ground transportation Oakland International Airport is accessible from Interstate 880 (Nimitz Freeway) which is away. The airport can be reached by exiting Hegenberger Road or 98th Avenue heading west; both streets converge into Airport Road before looping around in front of the terminals. Doolittle Drive (State Route 61) crosses both Hegenberger Road and 98th Avenue just to the east of where they converge into Airport Road, providing access to the city of Alameda. Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) serves the airport via Oakland International Airport station. The station is served by the Coliseum–Oakland International Airport line, also known as BART to OAK Airport, which is an automated guideway transit (AGT) system that connects Coliseum station to the airport. The AGT vehicles depart from the airport and Coliseum station every five minutes during daily peak hours, and are designed to transport travelers to and from the airport in about eight minutes with an on-time performance of more than 99 percent. The Oakland Airport Connector Project is largely attributable to the work of former BART director and port commissioner Carole Ward Allen who was responsible for securing local, state, and federal funding for the project. Ward Allen advocated for its approval before several transportation authorities endorsed the project, which created between 2,500 and 5,200 direct and indirect jobs. Some critics of the project argued that the money would be better spent on supporting existing local transit agencies, which had financial issues at the time. There are three AC Transit routes that serve Oakland Airport, one route runs during the daytime and early evenings, one route runs at all times, and the last route runs overnights as a part of the Bay Area's All Nighter bus network: Route 21 provides daytime and early evening service from the airport to the Dimond District via Bay Farm Island, Alameda, and Fruitvale, making a limited connection with the Alameda Harbor Bay Ferry at Bay Farm Island, and a full-time connection with BART at Fruitvale station. Route 73 provides 24/7 service from the airport to the Eastmont Transit Center via Hegenberger Road and 73rd Avenue, connecting with Amtrak's Capitol Corridor service and BART at Oakland Coliseum station. This route provides a cheaper alternative to BART's Coliseum–Oakland International Airport line. Route 805 is an All Nighter service from the airport to the 12th Street/Oakland City Center BART station in Downtown Oakland. Route 805 supplements Route 73 service to the Eastmont Transit Center before traveling north on MacArthur Boulevard and Grand Avenue to the 12th Street/Oakland City Center station, making a limited connection with Amtrak's Capitol Corridor service at Oakland Coliseum station, and additional limited connections with BART at Oakland Coliseum station and 19th Street/Oakland station. Airlines and destinations Passenger Destinations map Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Annual traffic Accidents at or near OAK April 27, 1943: A US Navy Douglas DC-3 crashed in the hills near the Lake Chabot Golf Course, about 4 miles east of Oakland, CA during approach. Eight out the 10 occupants were killed. January 18, 1944: A USAAF Douglas C-47 attempted to return to Oakland Municipal Airport because of the failure of the No. 1 engine, it stalled and crashed into a house. All eight occupants perished. February 13, 1945: A US Navy Douglas DC-3 crashed into the Bay one mile from Naval Air Station Oakland 13 minutes after takeoff due to engine failure, all 24 occupants died. January 20, 1947: A US Navy Douglas DC-4 struck an embankment while on a radar-guided approach to Oakland Airport. A fire broke out, but 20 out of the 21 occupants got out safely, one died. August 24, 1951: United Airlines Flight 615, a Douglas DC-6B impacted mountainous terrain 15 miles southeast of OAK during approach because of the failure of the captain to adhere to instrument procedures. All six crew and 44 passengers perished. November 17, 1951: An Overseas National Airways (ONA) Douglas C-54, a training flight, collided with another C-54 at Oakland Range, the ONA aircraft crashed on a highway, the other C-54 made an emergency landing at San Francisco International Airport. All three occupants lost their lives, 11 people on the ground were injured. April 20, 1953: Western Airlines Flight 636, a Douglas DC-6B crashed into the bay on approach to OAK after departing San Francisco Int'l Airport. Eight of the 10 occupants (four crew, four passengers) were killed. February 5, 1959: A USAF Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar crashed and burned on a test flight, 1.5 miles south of Oakland Int'l Airport. All three occupants perished. January 12, 1995: A West Air Cessna 208 Caravan, a cargo flight, impacted terrain 4 miles west of Pleasanton, California, 14 miles from OAK during the approach. The sole occupant, the pilot was killed. 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250473	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood%20Burbank%20Airport	Hollywood Burbank Airport	Hollywood Burbank Airport, legally and formerly marketed as Bob Hope Airport after entertainer Bob Hope , is a public airport northwest of downtown Burbank, in Los Angeles County, California, United States. The airport serves Downtown Los Angeles and the northern Greater Los Angeles area, which include Glendale, Pasadena, and the San Fernando Valley. It is closer to many popular attractions including Griffith Park, Universal Studios Hollywood, Hollywood, and Downtown Los Angeles than Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), and is the only airport in the area with a direct rail connection to Downtown Los Angeles, with service from two stations: Burbank Airport–North and Burbank Airport–South. Non-stop flights mostly serve cities in the western United States and short-haul international flights to western Canada, while JetBlue has daily flights to New York City. Originally the entire airport was within the Burbank city limits, but the north end of Runway 15/33 has been extended into the city of Los Angeles. The airport is owned by the Burbank–Glendale–Pasadena Airport Authority and controlled by the governments of those cities. The Airport Authority contracts with TBI Airport Management, Inc., to operate the airport, which has its own police and fire departments, the Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport Authority Police. Boarding uses portable boarding steps or ramps rather than jet bridges. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021 categorized it as a medium-hub primary commercial service facility. For the purposes of noise abatement, commercial flights are scheduled between the hours of 7:00 am and 10:00 pm, all departing flights take off to the south on runway 15, and all arriving flights land on runway 8. Hollywood Burbank Airport is linked to Los Angeles International Airport by land via FlyAway express coach. History The airport has been named United Airport (1930–1934), Union Air Terminal (1934–1940), Lockheed Air Terminal (1940–1967), Hollywood–Burbank Airport (1967–1978), Burbank–Glendale–Pasadena Airport (1978–2003), and Bob Hope Airport after comedian Bob Hope (since 2003 as the legal name). In 2017 it was rebranded as Hollywood Burbank Airport due to the lack of recognition of Bob Hope Airport's geographic region. United Aircraft and Transport Corporation (UA&T) was a holding company created in 1928 that included Boeing Aircraft and United Air Lines, itself a holding company for a collection of small airlines that continued to operate under their own names. One of these airlines was Pacific Air Transport (PAT), which Boeing had acquired because of PAT's west coast mail contract in January 1928. UA&T sought a site for a new airport for PAT and found one in Burbank. UA&T had the benefit of surveys that the Aeronautics Department of the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce had conducted starting in 1926 to identify potential airport sites. It took UA&T a year and the cooperation of the city to assemble the site. The site was rife with vines and trees and the ground had to be filled and leveled, but it had good drainage, a firm landing surface, steady winds, and good access to ground transport. Construction was completed in just seven months. In an age when few aircraft had brakes and many had a tail skid instead of a wheel, runways were not usually paved; those at Burbank had a mixture of oil and sand. There were no taxi strips, but the designers left room for them. Two of the runways were over long; a third was ; all were wide. These were generous dimensions, and the site had room for expansion. United Airport was dedicated amid much festivity (including an air show) on Memorial Day weekend (May 30 – June 1), 1930. The airport and its handsome Spanish Revival-style terminal was a showy competitor to nearby Grand Central Airport in Glendale, which was then Los Angeles' main airline terminal. The new Burbank facility was actually the largest commercial airport in the Los Angeles area until it was eclipsed in 1946 by the Los Angeles Airport in Westchester when that facility (formerly Mines Field, then Los Angeles Municipal Airport) commenced scheduled airline operations. The Burbank facility remained United Airport until 1934 when it was renamed Union Air Terminal. The name change came the same year that Federal anti-trust actions caused United Aircraft and Transport to dissolve, which took effect September 26, 1934. The Union Air Terminal moniker stuck until Lockheed bought the airport in 1940 and renamed it Lockheed Air Terminal. In March 1939 sixteen airline departures a day were scheduled out of Burbank: eight on United Airlines, five on Western Airlines and three on TWA (American Airlines' three departures were still at Glendale). Commercial air traffic continued even while Lockheed's extensive factories supplied the war effort and developed military and civil aircraft into the mid-1960s. The April 1957 OAG lists nine weekday departures on Western, six on United, six on Pacific Air Lines, one on TWA and one on American Airlines (a nonstop to Chicago Midway Airport). Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) had 48 Douglas DC-4 departures a week to SFO and SAN (PSA did not fly out of LAX until 1958). In 1958, Oakland-based Transocean Air Lines was operating Lockheed Constellation propliner service three times a week nonstop to Honolulu as well as a Constellation flight operated twice a week on a round trip routing of Oakland - Burbank - Chicago Midway Airport - New York Idlewild Airport (now JFK Airport) - Hartford. By the summer of 1962, PSA was operating all of its nonstop flights to San Francisco and San Diego with new Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprop aircraft with a combined total of 32 departures a week from Burbank. Jet service arrived at Burbank during the late 1960s with Pacific Air Lines operating Boeing 727-100s nonstop to Las Vegas and San Francisco as well one-stop direct to Eureka/Arcata. Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) flew from Burbank to the San Francisco Bay Area and San Diego with 727s, and Hughes Airwest (previously Air West) flew Douglas DC-9-10s and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30s nonstop to Las Vegas, Phoenix, Salt Lake City and Denver with one-stop DC-9s to Houston Hobby Airport. Hughes Airwest even operated one-stop DC-9 jet service to Grand Canyon National Park Airport near the south rim of the Grand Canyon. In 1986 United Airlines Boeing 767-200s flew nonstop to Chicago O'Hare Airport; the wide body 767 was the largest passenger airliner ever to serve Burbank. AirCal McDonnell Douglas MD-80s flew nonstop to the Bay Area and direct to Lake Tahoe. In 1967 Lockheed renamed the facility Hollywood-Burbank Airport. In 1970 Continental Airlines began Boeing 727-200 flights to Portland and Seattle via San Jose and also flew the short hop to Ontario. Continental later offered flights to Chicago via Ontario. Continental went on to serve Denver with nonstop Boeing 727-200s from BUR. Alaska Airlines began serving Burbank in 1981 with Boeing 727-100s and 727-200s flying nonstop and direct to Seattle and Portland, which was Alaska Air's first service to southern California. Aloha Airlines pioneered nonstop jet service from BUR to Hawaii, flying Boeing 737-700s to Honolulu before ceasing all passenger operations. A 1973 decision by the United States Supreme Court in City of Burbank v. Lockheed Air Terminal, Inc. overturned an airport curfew imposed by the city of Burbank on flights between 11:00 pm and 7:00 am under the U.S. Constitution's Supremacy Clause on the grounds that airports were subject to federal oversight by the Federal Aviation Administration and under the terms of the Noise Control Act of 1972. The airport now has a strict voluntary noise abatement procedure to reduce noise of aircraft arriving and departing from the airport. Commercial flights are scheduled between the hours of 7:00 am and 10:00 pm, all departing flights take off to the south on runway 15, and all arriving flights land on runway 8. The facility remained Hollywood-Burbank Airport for more than a decade until 1978 when Lockheed sold it to the Burbank–Glendale–Pasadena Airport Authority. The airport then got its fifth name: Burbank–Glendale–Pasadena Airport (1978–2003). On November 6, 2003, the airport authority voted to change the name to Bob Hope Airport in honor of comedian Bob Hope, a longtime resident of nearby Toluca Lake, who had died earlier that year and who had kept his personal airplane at the airfield. The new name was unveiled on December 17, 2003, on the 100th anniversary of the Wright brothers' first flight in 1903, the year that Bob Hope was born. After much debate between the Airport Authority, the city of Burbank, the Transportation Security Administration, and Burbank residents, in November 2007 it was decided that a new $8-million to $10-million baggage screening facility for Terminal B is legal, considering the anti-growth limitations placed on the airport. The facility will house a $2.5-million explosive detection system, used for the automatic detection of explosives within checked luggage. However, the facility is still in the early planning phases. On June 27, 2014, a $112 million Regional Transportation Center opened. The 520,000-square-foot (48,310-square-meter) center at Hollywood Way and Empire Avenue was also built to withstand a major earthquake while serving as an emergency "nerve center." The industrial-looking hub with a red steel roof will be adorned by 16, three-story art panels. Solar panels generating 1.5 megawatts of electricity will also be added to its roof. A nearby parking garage was built to handle more than 1,000 cars, while traffic lights have been reworked around the airport. In 2022, the airport used the California Environmental Quality Act to file a lawsuit to block approval for California high-speed rail construction. Future There is also a replacement terminal in the works at the airport. A plan to develop a new airport terminal building was unveiled by the Burbank–Glendale–Pasadena Airport Authority in 2013. The replacement terminal would cost a reported $400 million and meet newer seismic standards and be further from the runway as required by the Federal Aviation Administration. The new location is west of Hollywood Way on undeveloped property that has been used in recent years for parking. The Burbank City Council allowed voters decide on the plan. Known as Measure B, the proposal went before Burbank city voters on November 8, 2016, and passed with 69% of voters approving. The next step in the terminal replacement process is for the Airport Authority to finalize the new terminal's design, get FAA approval (NEPA clearance for which was obtained on Tuesday, May 18, 2021) and then secure the required financing from the FAA and other sources. Airport funding sources include FAA grants, parking fees, landing fees charged to airlines, as well as rents from restaurants and other concession businesses operating at the airport. There are also fees charged on airline tickets sold, including passenger facility charges and federal taxes. Once the funding is secured, the Airport Authority will accept bids for the project. The replacement terminal is expected to encompass 355,000 square feet (32,981 square meters) and the same number of gates (14). Travelers will have more restrooms, additional restaurant and concession space, improved security screening areas, and other enhanced passenger amenities in the new facility. Facilities Hollywood Burbank Airport covers 555 acres (224 ha) at an elevation of 778 feet (237 m) above sea level. It has two asphalt runways: 15/33 is 6,886 by 150 feet (2,099 x 46 m) and 8/26 is 5,802 by 150 feet (1,768 x 46 m). Airliners generally take off on Runway 15 due to wind from the south, and land crosswind on Runway 8 since that is the only runway with ILS and clear terrain for the approach. Flights from the northeast sometimes land visually on Runway 15 to save the extra distance circling to Runway 8. When the wind is from the north airliners often make a visual left-base approach to Runway 33, with a left turn close to the airport. In the year ending September 30, 2018, the airport had 133,669 operations, average 366 per day: 43% general aviation, 40% scheduled commercial, 17% air taxi, and <1% military. In October 2018, 91 aircraft were then based at this airport: 38 jet, 28 single-engine, 16 multi-engine, and 9 helicopter. Hollywood Burbank Airport also has its own Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting (ARFF) station, which is housed in a hangar in the northwest quadrant of the airport. In addition to providing emergency services to support airport operations, the department supports the airport AED program, fire extinguisher inspections and training, in addition to inspections and emergency support for all airport structures. Beginning in 2012, Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport Authority equipped its ARFF with Rosenbauer Panther 1500 vehicles. Burbank was the first airport in the US to operate state-of-the-art Class 4 ARFF vehicles employing compressed air foam (CAF) technologies, which provide enhanced firefighting capabilities when paired with other tools like forward looking infrared (FLIR) and thermal imaging cameras (TICs). The airport operates with five firefighters and one captain, while FAA standards require Index C airports like Hollywood Burbank to have a minimum of two firefighters and one captain. Terminals Hollywood Burbank Airport has two terminals, "A" and "B", joined together as part of the same building. Terminal A has nine gates numbered A1 to A9 and Terminal B has five gates numbered B1 to B5. Ground transportation Hollywood Burbank Airport can be reached using the Hollywood Way exit off Interstate 5, the Hollywood Way (westbound) or Pass Avenue (eastbound) exit off State Route 134, or the Victory Boulevard exit off State Route 170. Car and pedestrian access to the terminal is provided at either Hollywood Way and Thornton Avenue or on Empire Avenue one block west of Hollywood Way. On-site parking consists of valet parking, short-term parking, and Parking Lots E and G. Remote Parking Lot A is located at Hollywood Way and Winona Avenue. Remote Parking Lot C is located on Thornton Avenue west of Ontario Street. Shuttle buses are provided from Parking Lots A and C to the terminal buildings. A shuttle stop is also located at the corner of Hollywood Way and Thornton Avenue. Lyft, Uber, and Wingz all use the passenger drop-off location in front of the main terminal for departing travelers—and arrivals use the adjacent Short Term Parking structure directly opposite the terminal. There are two bus stop areas: Hollywood Way-Thornton Avenue (a short walk east of Terminal A) and Empire Avenue/Intermodal, a short walk south of Terminal B next to the train station. All Burbank-bound lines serve the Downtown Burbank Metrolink station. Amtrak's Coast Starlight and Pacific Surfliner and Metrolink's Ventura County Line serve the Burbank Airport–South station located south of the airport. The train station is a short quarter mile walk from the terminal area. From this station, the Ventura County Line provides access to downtown Los Angeles and Ventura County; Amtrak's Pacific Surfliner provides access to San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, downtown Los Angeles, Anaheim, and San Diego. Metrolink's Antelope Valley Line stops at the Burbank Airport–North station located about 1 mile north of the terminal near the intersection of San Fernando Boulevard and Hollywood Way, and a free on-demand shuttle takes passengers to the terminal. From this station, the Antelope Valley Line provides access to downtown Los Angeles and the Antelope Valley. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Annual traffic Accidents and incidents On September 21, 1938, USAAC Chief Maj. Gen. Oscar Westover was killed in the crash of Northrop A-17AS, 36-349, c/n 289, '1', out of Bolling Field, Washington, D.C., in a crosswind short of the runway. The single-engined attack design, used as a high-speed staff transport, crashed into a house at 1007 Scott Road in Burbank. Also killed was Westover's mechanic, S/Sgt Samuel Hymes. (Another source identifies him as Sgt. Samuel Hyne.) Northeast Air Base, Massachusetts, was renamed Westover Field on December 1, 1939, later Westover AFB on January 13, 1948. The location of the crash may indicate that Gen. Westover's intended landing field was not Hollywood Burbank Airport (then Union Air Terminal), but a nearby landing field, Lockheed Aircraft Company Plant B-1 Airfield (34.189°N, 118.331°W), 1 mile southeast of Hollywood Burbank Airport, which existed from ca. 1928 until World War II. The site is now (2022) the Empire Center Shopping Center, with a Staples, Lowe's, and Target where the runway had been. On August 6, 1945, leading U.S. fighter ace Richard Bong was killed when his plane's primary fuel pump malfunctioned during takeoff on the acceptance flight of P-80A 44-85048. Bong either forgot to switch to the auxiliary fuel pump, or for some reason was unable to do so. Bong bailed out of the aircraft but was too low for his parachute to deploy. The plane crashed into a narrow field at Oxnard St & Satsuma Ave, North Hollywood. On October 31, 1951, a Pacific Southwest DC-3 crashed shortly after take-off into Valhalla Memorial Park Cemetery, immediately south of the airport. Though damaged, the fuselage remained intact and there were only very minor injuries. On September 8, 1955, Currey Air Transport Flight 24, a Douglas DC-3 bound for Oakland, crashed on the airport property while returning to the airfield after experiencing an engine failure shortly after takeoff. The plane, N74663, struck a power line on the southern boundary of the airport, causing it to crash into two parked Air Force C-54 aircraft and a Lockheed Aircraft service hangar. The pilot, co-pilot and an airport employee on the ground were killed; the plane's stewardess and one passenger were seriously injured. The remaining 29 passengers on board received minor injuries. On December 14, 1962, a Flying Tiger Line Lockheed L-1049H Super Constellation freighter (N6913C) crashed in dense fog 1-1/2 miles west of the airport during an instrument landing system (ILS) approach to Runway 07. The Constellation clipped a telephone pole and billboard and crashed in an industrial and residential neighborhood near the intersection of Lankershim Boulevard and Vose Street in North Hollywood after the aircraft's 38-year-old pilot suffered a heart attack at a critical point in the landing approach. All five occupants of the Constellation—the pilot, co-pilot, flight engineer and two non-revenue passengers—died in the crash. Also killed were two persons in a commercial building and a teen-age girl in a house that were among the structures struck by the plane. On December 5, 1982, Douglas C-53 N163E operated by P. Crossman was damaged beyond repair in a taxiing accident. On March 5, 2000, Southwest Airlines Flight 1455, upon landing on Runway 8 at Burbank following a flight from Las Vegas, overran the runway, injuring 44. The Boeing 737 crashed through a metal blast barrier at the end of the runway, then an airport perimeter fence, and came to rest in the traffic lanes of Hollywood Way, a main north–south thoroughfare. The plane stopped near a Chevron gasoline station located across the street from the runway. The incident resulted in the dismissal of the pilots. The Chevron gasoline station was subsequently closed and removed due to safety concerns. On September 21, 2005, JetBlue Flight 292 took off from Burbank, and the nose gear failed to retract and instead jammed sideways. The aircraft spent several hours in the air before safely making an emergency landing at LAX, with 140 passengers and 6 crew members aboard. The Airbus A320 was originally bound for JFK International Airport, in New York City. After the aircraft took off, the incident was quickly captured by news helicopters which ran feed that was shown live nationally on cable news. Many passengers on the flight said they watched images of their own aircraft's flight on JetBlue's LiveTV system. On October 13, 2006, a Gulfstream Aerospace jet overran the runway upon landing. There were no reported injuries amongst the five passengers and two crew members. New York Yankees third baseman Alex Rodriguez was on board, enroute to attend the funeral of teammate Cory Lidle. Rodriguez was uninjured, but the accident happened two days after the fatal plane crash of his teammate. On December 6, 2018, Southwest Airlines Flight 278 from Oakland overran the runway in heavy rain. The flight was stopped by the EMAS installed following the similar Southwest Airlines Flight 1455 incident in 2000. See also California World War II Army Airfields List of airports in California References External links Hollywood Burbank Airport, official site Elevate BUR, official replacement terminal site Burbank Airport at Burbank.com Aerial image as of March 2004 from USGS The National Map Airports in Los Angeles County, California Buildings and structures in Burbank, California Public transportation in Los Angeles County, California Public transportation in the San Fernando Valley Transportation in the San Fernando Valley Airports established in 1930 1930 establishments in California Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Technical Service Command Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in California	[ 0.13268119096755981, 0.050461962819099426, 0.48093217611312866, -0.06688310205936432, 0.8371710181236267, -0.1907700002193451, 0.1288854330778122, 0.35272017121315, 0.4716687500476837, -0.42853593826293945, -0.6161328554153442, 0.026448262855410576, -0.30323755741119385, 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250476	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20Beach%20Airport	Long Beach Airport	Long Beach Airport is a public airport three miles northeast of downtown Long Beach, in Los Angeles County, California, United States. It is also called Daugherty Field, named after local aviator Earl Daugherty. The airport was an operating base for JetBlue, but this ended on October 6, 2020, as the carrier moved its operating base to LAX. Long Beach Airport's largest airline is now Southwest Airlines as JetBlue has ended all services at Long Beach. The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 categorized it as a primary commercial service airport. Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 1,413,251 passenger boardings in calendar year 2008, 1,401,903 in 2009 and 1,451,404 in 2010. Overview Located near the border between Los Angeles County and Orange County, Long Beach Airport serves the Los Angeles MSA. Due to its close proximity to the busier and larger LAX 20 miles away, the airport sees more domestic commercial passenger, cargo, military, and general aviation activity. The airport's placement near many residential areas has led to it having one of the country's strictest ordinances limiting airport noise. It is the 10th busiest airport in California based on passenger boardings, at 1.4 million. As of May 2018, JetBlue operated the most airline flights out of Long Beach; the other airlines are American, Delta, Hawaiian, and Southwest. Air cargo carriers, including FedEx and UPS, also use LGB. 57,000 tons of goods are carried each year. The Boeing Company (formerly McDonnell Douglas) maintains maintenance facilities for Boeing and McDonnell Douglas/Douglas aircraft (including the historic DC-9 and DC-10 aircraft) near the Long Beach Airport, and produced the C-17 through 2015. The manufacture facilities were leased to Mercedes-Benz and Relativity Space. Virgin Galactic established the satellite launch vehicles at the Long Beach Airport and operates by Virgin Orbit. Gulfstream Aerospace operates a completion/service center. Airline flights are restricted, but there are many charters, private aviation, flight schools, law enforcement flights, helicopters, advertising blimps, planes towing advertising banners, etc. Long Beach airport is one of the busiest general aviation airports in the world, with 398,433 aircraft movements in 2007. The Long Beach Airport has an aggressive noise abatement program, with three full-time noise specialists. Under Long Beach municipal law, the city can criminally prosecute the aircraft's owner and the pilots for breaking the noise ordinance. As the airport continues to grow and air traffic increases, so do the complaints about loud and low flying aircraft. The airport produces a monthly noise and complaint report. Long Beach Airport has one terminal in Streamline Moderne style that is a historical landmark and was renovated in early 2013. History The first transcontinental flight, a biplane flown by Calbraith Perry Rodgers, landed in 1911 on Long Beach's sandy beach. From 1911 until the airport was created, planes used the beach as a runway. Barnstormer Earl S. Daugherty had leased the area that later became the airport for air shows, stunt flying, wing walking and passenger rides. Later, he started the world's first flight school in 1919 at the same location. In 1923 Daugherty convinced the city council to use the site to create the first municipal airport. Douglas "Wrong Way" Corrigan used to fly regularly out of Daugherty Field. Before his infamous flight from Brooklyn, New York, to Ireland in 1938, he had flown from Long Beach to New York. After authorities refused his request to continue on to Ireland, he was supposed to return to Daugherty Field, but a claimed navigational error routed him to Ireland. He never publicly acknowledged having flown there intentionally. The main terminal building was designed by architects William Horace Austin and Kenneth Smith Wing, and was constructed in 1941. The murals and mosaics were created by artist Grace Clements and completed in 1941, with the support of the Works Progress Administration. They depict aviation, navigation, and constellations. In the 1940s and 1950s the only airline nonstops from Long Beach Airport were to Los Angeles, San Diego, and sometimes Catalina Island; in 1962 Western Airlines introduced a daily Electra to San Francisco and one a day to San Diego. Jet schedules began in 1968; in 1969 Western Boeing 737-200s flew to Las Vegas, Oakland, and San Francisco. In 1980 the only jets were Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) flights to SFO. In 1981 a new airline based in Long Beach, Jet America, began nonstop MD-80s to Chicago and, in 1982, to Dallas-Fort Worth. That year Alaska Airlines began nonstop Boeing 727s to Portland and Seattle. In 1983 American Airlines introduced nonstops to Chicago O'Hare and Dallas-Fort Worth, and United Airlines began nonstops to Denver; Continental Airlines started nonstops to Denver as well. In 1984 United scheduled two Boeing 767-200s a day nonstop to Denver, the largest passenger airliners ever to serve LGB. Between 1990 and 1992 Continental, Delta, TWA, and USAir ended service to LGB, and American Airlines left in early 2006. Alaska Airlines later ended mainline service, and ended codeshare service in 2015. Delta Connection and American Eagle regional jet flights continue at LGB. In February 2016 Southwest Airlines announced plans to begin service to the airport with an initial four available slots. On July 9, 2020, JetBlue announced that they would end service to the airport in October 2020, instead expanding their operations at nearby Los Angeles International Airport. Military use To attract the United States Navy, the City of Long Beach built a hangar and an administrative building and then offered to lease it to the Navy for $1 a year for the establishment of a Naval Reserve air base. On May 10, 1928, the U.S. Navy commissioned the field as a Naval Reserve air base (NRAB Long Beach). Two years later the city built a hangar and administrative building for the United States Army Air Corps as well. Significant developments to the little city airport began only after the city built hangars and administrative facilities for the Army and Navy in 1928–30. As a Naval Reserve Air Base the mission was to instruct, train and drill Naval Reserve personnel. A ground school was offered three nights a week at the base and two nights a week at the University of California in Los Angeles until 1930, when ground school was continuously offered at the base. On April 9, 1939, training in night flight began, and shortly thereafter its facilities began to be used by fleet aircraft as well. With increased activity by airlines and the private airplane industry, particularly with Douglas Aircraft showing an interest in the Long Beach Municipal Airport, the facility needed more space. With Douglas Aircraft as a resident, the attitude of Long Beach's authorities became openly hostile to naval aviation, with its city manager saying that "the sooner the Navy gets out of the Long Beach airport, the better we will like it." The Navy began a survey for another site, unknown to city officials at the time. Admiral Ernest J. King, then the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, and Admirals William D. Leahy, Joseph K. Taussig, and Allen E. Smith pointedly requested that the city of Long Beach repair the runways and reminded the city that the Pacific Fleet, then lying offshore in Long Beach and San Pedro harbors, had a payroll of more than $1 million a month. Eventually the city complied with the Navy's requests. The city remained hostile toward approving a lease on any additional land that the Naval Reserve now required. The Navy, fed up with the city of Long Beach, decided upon the purchase of some property owned by a Mrs. Susanna Bixby Bryant, a fact made known by the commander of the base, Commander Thomas A. Gray, to the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Admiral John H. Towers. The circumstances behind the purchase were revealed to James V. Forrestal, Under Secretary of the Navy, and by him to the House Naval Affairs committee who approved the purchase. Although Comdr. Gray had offered Mrs. Bryant $350 an acre, in the best patriotic spirit she sold the property at $300 an acre. With the site acquired, in 1941, construction funds soon followed and NAS Los Alamitos began to take shape. Upon the transfer of the Naval Reserve Training Facility to Los Alamitos, to the surprise of city officials of Long Beach, in 1942, instead of returning the Naval Reserve Air Base facilities at Long Beach to the city, the Navy turned over the facilities to the United States Army Air Forces, which had established a training base next to it. NARB Long Beach was not totally abandoned but became a Naval Auxiliary Air Station (NAAS). Through World War II the airfield was given over to the war effort. In August 1941 the Civil Aeronautics Administration took over control of the airport, which had grown to . Once Los Alamitos became an operational base in 1941, NAAS Long Beach now turned to servicing carrier borne F4Fs, SBDs, FM-2s, F4Us, F6Fs, TBF/TBMs, and SB2Cs. In addition, it had utility aircraft and such patrol planes as the PBY, SNB, GB3, NH, GH, and SNJ. As the Navy's activities began to be shifted to Los Alamitos, the Long Beach Army Airfield at Long Beach became the home of the Army's Air Transport Command's Ferrying Division, with the 1736th Ferrying Squadron assigned, which included a squadron of 18 women pilots commanded by Barbara London, a long time Long Beach aviator. Like the Naval Air Ferry Command at NAS Terminal Island, the Army's ferrying work was an immense undertaking, thanks to Douglas Aircraft's wartime production. Ground was broken for the initial Douglas Aircraft facility in November 1940, with dedication in October 1941. Douglas had been drawn to Long Beach's growing municipal airport with its Army and Navy facilities. With wartime contracts the company went into intensive production. The company's first C-47 was delivered 16 days after the attack of Pearl Harbor and another 4,238 were produced during the war. The plant turned out some 1,000 A-20 Havocs, not to mention 3,000 B-17 Flying Fortresses and 1,156 A-26 Invaders. With the end of the war the U.S. Navy abandoned any use of Long Beach Municipal Airport and with it the designation of Long Beach as a Naval Auxiliary Air Station. Facilities Long Beach Airport covers 1,166 acres (472 ha) at an elevation of 60 feet (18 m). It has three asphalt runways: 12/30 is 10,000 by 200 feet (3,048 x 61 m) 8L/26R is 6,192 by 150 feet (1,887 x 46 m) 8R/26L is 3,918 by 100 feet (1,194 x 30 m) It has six helipads: H1 is 20 by 20 feet (6 x 6 m) H2 is 20 by 20 feet (6 x 6 m) H3 is 300 by 35 feet (91 x 11 m) H4 is 20 by 20 feet (6 x 6 m) H5 is 20 by 20 feet (6 x 6 m) H6 is 20 by 20 feet (6 x 6 m) Runway 16L/34R and runway 16R/34L were permanently closed on July 21, 2016. Runway 16L/34R was 3,330 by 75 feet (1,015 x 23 m), and runway 16R/34L was 4,470 by 75 feet (1,362 x 23 m). Both runways were removed. In the year ending September 30, 2019, the airport had 293,587 aircraft operations, average 804 per day: 86% general aviation, 11% airline, 3% air taxi, and <1% military. 369 aircraft were then based at the airport: 224 single-engine, 46 multi-engine, 41 jet, and 58 helicopter. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share JetBlue no longer serves LGB as of October 2020. Annual traffic Ground transportation Long Beach Transit routes 102, 104, 111, and 176 serve the airport. Specifically, route 111 southbound from the airport connects at the Downtown Long Beach Station, where a passenger can easily transfer to the Blue Line northbound, and destinations in downtown Los Angeles. The San Diego Freeway (I-405) can be reached from the airport via Lakewood Boulevard (SR 19). Wardlow Road runs from the airport to the Los Angeles County/Orange County border, where it becomes Ball Road and crosses the north edge of the Disneyland Resort; Long Beach Airport is the second closest airport to Disneyland, after John Wayne Airport. Airport improvements program On December 12, 2012, the Long Beach Airport completed a $136 million improvement project designed to modernize the main terminal without sacrificing its historic Art Deco architecture or reputation among travelers for convenience. It was developed to improve the customer experience by providing resort-like amenities, having a central palm garden, outdoor dining areas with fire pits, wine bars, and 11 gates. A new 2,000-space parking structure was completed ahead of schedule and below budget. $5 million was spent to refurbish the old terminal, which was originally built in 1941 and declared a historic landmark by the city decades later. The new terminal retains the open-air feeling of the current terminal complex, and passengers still walk across the tarmac when boarding or leaving their planes. The baggage claim also is partially enclosed, as it was before. In February 2020, the Long Beach City Council approved of a new $80-million Phase II improvement project. The project will create a new ticketing building and seismically retrofit the historic terminal building which currently holds the ticketing counter. The project also includes moving the rental car area into the old ticketing area, upgraded baggage claim areas, and a new meet-and-greet area. Design and construction began in 2020 and will continue through 2022. Accidents and incidents On March 16, 2011, a privately owned Beechcraft King Air crashed shortly after takeoff, killing five people and injuring another. The NTSB determined the cause of the crash to be a result of poor pilot technique that failed to maintain aircraft control, following a momentary interruption of power to the left engine caused by water contamination of the fuel. The NTSB found the water contamination was allowed to build up in the aircraft's fuel sumps due to poor maintenance and pre-flight practices, and lack of communication between the pilot and aircraft mechanics over who was responsible for draining the sumps before each flight. Because of this, enough water was allowed to build up in the fuel sumps to initiate this accident. Movies and television The airport appears in: See also California World War II Army Airfields Western Air Defense Force References External links Long Beach Airport, official website Historic California Posts: Long Beach Army Air Field Aerial image as of 29 March 2004 from USGS The National Map Buildings and structures in Long Beach, California Transportation in Long Beach, California Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command in North America Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in California Streamline Moderne architecture in California Airports in Los Angeles County, California Landmarks in Long Beach, California	[ 0.07757265865802765, -0.4120449125766754, 0.09447421878576279, 0.16335713863372803, 0.5019078254699707, -0.20741471648216248, -0.1416129618883133, 0.23080481588840485, 0.13438016176223755, -0.43014809489250183, -0.5208784937858582, 0.24597017467021942, -0.3123677372932434, 0.02890227921307087, -0.2028818428516388, 0.4771438241004944, 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250477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario%20International%20Airport	Ontario International Airport	Ontario International Airport is a public airport two miles east of downtown Ontario, in San Bernardino County, California, United States, about east of downtown Los Angeles and west of downtown San Bernardino. It is owned and operated under a joint-powers agreement with the city of Ontario and San Bernardino County. The airport covers and has two parallel runways. It is the West Coast air and truck hub for UPS Airlines and is a major distribution point for FedEx Express. , ONT has more than 64 daily departures and arrivals. As Ontario's long runways (runway 8L/26R) are longer than three of the four runways at Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), it is an alternate landing site for large aircraft destined for LAX. History Origins In 1923, a landing field was established east of Central Avenue ( west of the current airport) on land leased from the Union Pacific Railroad. The airfield was named Latimer Field after an orange-packing company next to the airstrip. An airport was built there by one of the first flying clubs in Southern California, the Friends of Ontario Airport. In 1929, the city of Ontario purchased , now in the southwest corner of the airport, for , and established the Ontario Municipal Airport. In 1941, the city bought around the airport and approved construction of new runways, which were completed by 1942, with funds from the Works Progress Administration. The east–west runway and the northeast–southwest runway cost . On 27 February 1942, an Army Air Corps plane made the first landing at the new airport. By 1943, the airport was an Army Air Corps Lockheed P-38 Lightning training base and North American P-51 Mustang operating base. After the war, it was one of the five large storage, sales, and scrapping centers for Army Air Forces aircraft established by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; others were at Albuquerque AAF, New Mexico; Altus AAF, Oklahoma; Kingman AAF, Arizona; and Walnut Ridge AAF, Arkansas. Ontario International Airport In 1946, Ontario Municipal Airport was renamed "Ontario International Airport" because of the trans-Pacific cargo flights originating there. On 17 May 1946, two Army surplus steel hangars arrived at the airport, which the Ontario city council had authorized the $50,000 purchase of just the previous week. City officials were pleased to have secured a bargain. Thought to be the only pair available in the U.S., City Manager Harold J. Martin observed that even if they could be acquired at a later date, the cost would be several times that afforded by prompt action. A Pacific Overseas Airlines flight from Shanghai arrived at Ontario on 18 May 1946, "which inaugurated regular round-trip air passenger air service between the United States and the Orient." In 1949, Western Airlines began scheduled flights; in 1955, Bonanza Air Lines flights started. Western and Bonanza nonstops did not reach beyond Las Vegas. In 1962, Western began nonstop flights to San Francisco (one Electra daily). In 1967, Bonanza began nonstop F27 flights to Phoenix. Ontario and Los Angeles entered into a joint-powers agreement, making Ontario International Airport part of the Los Angeles regional airports system in 1967. In 1968, the airport had its first scheduled jet flights. In 1969, Continental Airlines started Boeing 720B nonstops to Denver and Chicago; Air California started Boeing 737 flights to San Jose; Pacific Southwest Airlines started San Francisco flights; and Western began 737 nonstops to Sacramento and Salt Lake City. In 1970, United Airlines started a nonstop to Chicago and American started flights to Dallas (and Chicago, for a short time). In September 1986, Ontario hosted the Concorde supersonic airliner during a promotional round-the-world flight. In 1981, a second east–west runway, 26L/8R, was built, necessitating the removal of the old NE-SW runway 4/22. Remnants of the 4/22 runway are visible in the present-day taxiways. With the completion of the new runway, the existing runway 25/7 became 26R/8L. In 1985, the city of Los Angeles acquired Ontario International Airport outright from the city of Ontario. In 1987, Runway 26R/8L was extended to the east to bring the two runway thresholds side by side, so aircraft would be higher over neighborhoods. 26R/8L became the main departing runway and 26L/8R the main arrival runway. For a number of years, the airport operated alongside Ontario Air National Guard Station, which was closed as a result of the 1995 Base Realignment and Closure Commission. In 1998, the new and larger airport terminal opened, designed by DMJM Aviation. Two older terminals, west of the current terminal, the main terminal and a small terminal were discontinued when the new Terminal 2 and Terminal 4 facilities were opened. The old terminals currently house the administration and the USO. In 2005 and 2006, runway 26R/8L was repaved and strengthened, and received storm drains and better runway lighting, and additional improvements to taxiway intersections were made. In 2006, Ontario International Airport became "LA/Ontario International Airport." The "LA" portion was added to remind fliers of Los Angeles and to avoid confusion with the province of Ontario in Canada. The airport's traffic peaked in 2005 with 7.2 million passengers, and remained steady through 2007. Around the time of the 2008 financial crisis, JetBlue suspended service to ONT, and major legacy carriers significantly decreased their passenger volume at the airport. Southwest Airlines transferred a significant portion of its Ontario capacity to Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), making LAX fares more competitive with ONT, while being coupled with more attractive frequencies and a wider range of destinations. The surrounding Inland Empire region was hit hard by the financial crisis, with the nearby city of San Bernardino declaring bankruptcy. The airport suffered a 40% decline in traffic between 2007 and 2012, during which time traffic at LAX recovered to surpass prerecession levels. Ontario International Airport Authority Ownership and control of the airport became an issue in late 2010, when the city of Ontario, supported by the Southern California Association of Governments, criticized and questioned LAWA's operation of the airport. A group of local government officials, led by Ontario city council member Alan Wapner, began a campaign to transfer control of the airport away from Los Angeles World Airports. Wapner argued that the City of Los Angeles had no interest in maintaining service at an airport well beyond its borders. In 2013, LAWA offered to return the airport to local control for a purchase price of $474M, which was rejected. Local groups then sued the city of Los Angeles, a suit that was temporarily suspended when both sides agreed to attempt to work together. In 2015, Los Angeles World Airports tentatively agreed to turn over ownership of Ontario Airport to the city of Ontario. LAWA was "to be reimbursed for its investments in the facility, job protection for the facility's 182 employees and the settlement of a lawsuit in which Ontario sought to regain control of the airport. Once ownership is transferred, the airport will be operated by the Ontario International Airport Authority, formed under a joint-powers agreement between the city of Ontario and San Bernardino County." The Ontario International Airport Authority took over control of operations in November 2016, and the airport's operating name was reverted to Ontario International Airport, since the City of Los Angeles no longer oversaw operations of the airport. The airport's continuing traffic decline reversed in early 2017, when the airport experienced faster growth than LAX for the first time since 2007. On September 30, 2017, it was announced that China Airlines would begin nonstop flights from Ontario to Taipei, which started in spring 2018. Facilities Terminals Ontario International Airport has two terminals with 27 gates and a separate adjacent international arrivals facility with 2 arrival-only gates, totaling 29 gates. Terminal 2 has and 13 gates. Terminal 4 has and 14 gates. The international arrivals facility has two gates for arrivals only, containing the airport's U.S. Customs and Border Protection facility. International flights depart from the main terminals. A USO is housed in the old terminal complex near the international arrivals facility. Remote parking is located on the east end of the airport (moved from its former location at the west end). On the east end is a ground transportation center that consolidates the rental car companies in one central location. A bus circles the airport and provides connections to each of the terminals, rental car and remote parking lots, and public transit stops. General aviation is located at the south side of the airport, although most general-aviation pilots tend to use a number of nearby airports: Redlands Airport, Chino Airport, Brackett Field in La Verne, Cable Airport in Upland, or San Bernardino International Airport. Ground transportation The airport is about east of downtown Los Angeles, west of downtown San Bernardino, and northwest of downtown Riverside. Motorists can use the San Bernardino Freeway (Interstate 10), Ontario Freeway (Interstate 15), or the Pomona Freeway (State Route 60). It is served by Omnitrans bus routes 61 and 80 and by private shuttles. The Metrolink Riverside Line runs to Ontario–East station at peak commuter hours, Monday to Friday only, located roughly south of the terminal, Omnitrans Bus line 81 can shuttle people to and from the station to the airport, Monday through Saturday. The 61 bus connects to the Downtown Pomona station on one end, and the Fontana Station on the other end, seven days a week. Bus stops are located east of baggage claim at terminals 2 and 4. The Ontario Airport Loop was endorsed by the San Bernardino County Transportation Authority Board of Directors on June 3, 2020. The Boring Company has purposed a high-speed tunnel linking Rancho Cucamonga with Terminal 2. In 2021, SBCTA offered a Lyft credit from the Montclair TransCenter for passengers traveling to the airport. Noise restrictions Ontario has few noise restrictions/abatement rules, unlike other Southern California airports such as John Wayne Airport, Bob Hope Airport, Long Beach Airport, and San Diego International Airport, which all have very strict policies. The airport is allowed to operate 24/7, but during the hours of 10 pm to 7 am, all aircraft must arrive from the east on runway 26L or 26R and take off to the east on runway 8R or 8L, depending on ATC instruction. This procedure is known as "Contra-Flow" operations and applies to turbojet or turbofan aircraft. This procedure is similar to the one employed by LAX, where all landings are conducted from the east and all takeoffs are to the west (known as "over-ocean" operations) between midnight and 6:30 am. Both of these procedures are employed as long as weather and/or construction activity permits. This is done in an effort to be better neighbors and minimize the noise impact to the surrounding communities as much as possible. Residents of cities west of the airport have complained of increased noise as a result of the airport's refusal to abide by noise abatement rules. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Annual traffic Accidents and incidents On December 25, 1945, a USAAF Douglas C-47 was stolen by two non-pilot ground members. It crashed four miles east of the airport, killing both occupants. On March 31, 1971, Western Airlines Flight 366, a Boeing 720 on a training flight, crashed on approach to Ontario during a three-engine ILS approach in limited visibility due to a loss of left rudder control. All five occupants on board were killed. On January 9, 1975, Golden West Airlines Flight 261, a De Havilland Twin Otter DHC-6 en route to Los Angeles collided with a Cessna 150 near Whittier. Four crew and twelve passengers on the two aircraft were killed. References External links Official Ontario International Airport website Ontario International Airport Master Plan openNav: ONT / KONT charts Weikel, Dan. 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250478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Edgware%20Dies	Lord Edgware Dies	Lord Edgware Dies is a work of detective fiction by British writer Agatha Christie, published in the UK by the Collins Crime Club in September 1933 and in the US by Dodd, Mead and Company later in the same year under the title of Thirteen at Dinner. Before its book publication, the novel was serialised in six issues (March–August 1933) of The American Magazine as 13 For Dinner. The novel features Hercule Poirot, Arthur Hastings and Chief Inspector Japp. An American actress married to Lord Edgware asks Poirot to aid her in getting a divorce from her husband. Poirot agrees to help her, meeting her husband. That evening, the actress is seen at a dinner with thirteen guests, which has an associated superstition. By the next morning Lord Edgware and another American actress are found murdered, each at their own homes. Poirot investigates. The novel was well received at publication, in both London and New York, noting the clue that came from the chance remark of a stranger, calling it ingenious. A later review called it clever and unusual. Plot summary Attending a performance by impressionist Carlotta Adams, Hercule Poirot is approached by actress Jane Wilkinson. She requests his help in asking her husband, Lord Edgware, to divorce her. Although a Catholic, Poirot agrees but is surprised to learn Edgware has already agreed to a divorce and sent a letter to his wife confirming this; Wilkinson denies receiving it. The following morning, Inspector Japp informs Poirot and his friend Arthur Hastings that Edgware was murdered at his home in Regent Gates the previous evening, stabbed in the neck. While Wilkinson was witnessed by Edgware's butler and his secretary visiting her husband that night, a morning newspaper reveals she attended a dinner party that evening, whose guests confirm this. Poirot soon becomes concerned for Adams' safety, recalling she could impersonate Wilkinson. Adams is found dead that same morning from an overdose of Veronal. Seeking answers, Poirot notes a few facts: Bryan Martin, a former lover of Wilkinson before she met the wealthy Duke of Merton, bitterly describes her as an amoral person; Donald Ross, a guest at the party, witnessed her take a telephone call from someone that night; Adams possessed a pair of pince-nez, along with a gold case that contained the drug, which has a puzzling inscription in it; Edgware's nephew, Ronald Marsh, had been cut off from his allowance by his uncle three months earlier; a sum of francs formerly in Edgware's possession has disappeared, along with the butler. Learning Adams had sent a letter to her sister in America before her death, Poirot makes a request for it. A copy is sent via telegram, revealing Adams was offered $10,000 for an undisclosed endeavor. Poirot suspects she was hired to impersonate Wilkinson. Japp soon arrests Marsh, based on this letter. Marsh denies hiring Adams or killing his uncle but states that he and his cousin Geraldine went to Regent Gates on the night of the murder, where he spotted Martin entering the house although Geraldine did not as she was retrieving something for him. Poirot later receives the original letter in the post and notes some oddities with it. Hastings attends a luncheon party along with Wilkinson and Ross, in which the guests talk about Paris of Troy. Wilkinson presumes they are talking of the French capital and begins discussing fashion. Ross, puzzled by this, considering how clever Wilkinson had been the last time he met her, confides his concerns to Hastings. He later telephones Poirot but is fatally stabbed before he can explain in detail. Seeking a theory, Poirot overhears a chance remark from a crowd leaving a theatre, which leads him to talk with Ellis, Wilkinson's maid. Gathering the suspects together, Poirot reveals that the killer in all three murders is Jane Wilkinson. Her motive in killing Lord Edgware is that the devout Duke of Merton would not marry a divorced woman. A widow, however, is a different matter. She recruited Adams to impersonate her at the dinner party, while she killed her husband and then killed Adams afterward with a fatal dose of Veronal. The women met at a hotel to exchange clothing before and after the party. While waiting for Adams to return from the party, Wilkinson discovers a letter among Adams's belongings that had yet to be posted and tampers with the letter to implicate the last man it mentions for the murders. Ross was killed because he realised that Wilkinson did not attend the dinner party; her ignorance of Greek mythology gave her away, as Adams had been knowledgeable on the subject and thus talked about it while impersonating her. Poirot reveals what led him to his theory: Wilkinson lied about receiving her husband's letter and used Poirot to prove she had no motive for his murder; the telephone call to Adams was to confirm if their deception had yet to be exposed; the pince-nez belong to Ellis, used in a disguise that she and Wilkinson wore to keep their hotel meetings secret; the gold case was created a week before the murder, not nine months as its inscription implied - Wilkinson had it made under a false name and then sent Ellis to collect it; a corner of a page in Adams' letter was torn by Wilkinson, changing the word "she" to "he", to imply that a man hired Adams. Poirot reveals that the butler stole the missing money, whom Marsh had witnessed entering Regent Gates to hide it elsewhere; his disappearance was because he panicked when the police sought another suspect. Wilkinson is arrested and writes to Poirot from prison about wishing an audience for her hanging, surprisingly evincing no anger at being foiled by him. Nor any remorse. Characters Hercule Poirot - The famed Belgian detective. Drawn into the case, after being asked by Wilkinson to aid her in getting a divorce from her husband. Captain Hastings - Poirot's friend and assistant on the case. He is the narrator of the story. Inspector Japp - The investigating officer for the case. Lord Edgware - The first victim of the case. A wealthy English peer with a harsh personality, who is a noted collector of objets d'art. His full title is George Alfred St Vincent Marsh, fourth Baron Edgware. Carlotta Adams - The second victim of the case. An American impersonator conducting a tour in London and Paris. Hired to impersonate Edgware's wife by an unknown employer. Donald Ross - The third victim of the case. A young actor who attends the dinner party Wilkinson joins. Jane Wilkinson - The killer of the case. A beautiful but amoral American actress and Edgware's estranged wife. She seeks to marry the Duke of Merton. Initially suspected of her husband's murder; her alibi is later revealed to have been concocted as part of her plan. Geraldine Marsh - Edgware's daughter from his first marriage. Staying at home having recently finished a term of school. Captain Ronald Marsh - Edgware's nephew and heir to his title. Initially suffering from money troubles until his uncle's death. Genevieve "Jenny" Driver - Adams' friend in London. She specialises in the creation of fashionable hats. Bryan Martin - A successful actor who worked with Wilkinson and was recently in love with her. He is now fond of Driver, and grew up with Adams. Miss Carroll - Edgware's housekeeper. Present at his home on the night of the murder, and claims Wilkinson visited him. Alton - Edgware's butler, who disappears after police begin looking for another suspect. Ellis - Wilkinson's personal maid at her new accommodations. Duke of Merton - A devout Anglo-Catholic, and the current love of Jane Wilkinson, whom he plans to marry. Dowager Duchess of Merton - The Duke's mother, vehemently opposed to his planned marriage to Jane Wilkinson. Alternative title Lord Edgware Dies is alternatively titled Thirteen at Dinner. This second title, used on American editions, arises from a superstition that sitting down thirteen to dinner means bad luck to the person who first leaves the table. The dinner at which Carlotta successfully impersonated Jane Wilkinson had an unexpected missing guest, leaving them thirteen instead of the invited fourteen. The superstition weighs heavily on young actor Donald Ross, but plays out for both him and Jane Wilkinson, and her impersonator. Literary significance and reception The Times Literary Supplement of 21 September 1933 reviewed the book positively, commenting on the fact that "it was the chance remark of a stranger in the street that put him on the right track. Three such murders, however, are enough to tax the powers of the most superhuman sleuth, and we do not grudge him one stroke of good fortune." Isaac Anderson concluded his review in the 24 September 1933 issue of The New York Times Book Review by saying, "This story presents a most ingenious crime puzzle and a still more ingenious solution, all set forth with the consummate skill of which Agatha Christie is mistress." Robert Barnard: "Deals with a social/artistic milieu rather off Christie's usual beat: aristocrats, actresses, socialites, rich Jews. The anti-Semitism is more muted than in the early thrillers, but still leaves a nasty taste (this is the last book in which it obtrudes). Otherwise clever and unusual, with the Hastings/Poirot relationship done less crudely than usual." References to other works In chapter 7, Poirot mentions that he once found a clue, but since it was four feet long instead of four centimetres, nobody would believe in it. This is probably a reference to a situation which occurred in The Murder on the Links, where Poirot found a piece of lead-piping which he concluded was used to disfigure the victim's face so that it would be unrecognisable. Nevertheless, the artefact was described in that novel as a piece of lead-piping only two feet long. In chapter 19, the Duchess of Merton tells Poirot that Lady Yardly had told her about him. Lady Yardly had previously appeared in the short story, "The Adventure of the Western Star" from the Poirot Investigates collection. In chapter 25, Hastings tells Donald Ross that Poirot has left for an appointment relating to his investigation of another case, "the strange disappearance of an Ambassador's boots". When Poirot returns from the appointment, he tells Hastings that it was a case of cocaine smuggling, and that he had spent the last hour in a ladies' beauty parlor. This case sounds identical to the one in the Tommy and Tuppence story, "The Ambassador's Boots" from Partners in Crime (1929), except that Poirot mentions a girl with red hair (Hastings is often described by Poirot as partial to redheads), while the girl in "The Ambassador's Boots" has blonde hair, or black hair when in disguise. References to actual history, geography and current science The character of Carlotta Adams was based on the American dramatist Ruth Draper (1884–1956). In her Autobiography, Christie says, "I thought how clever she was and how good her impersonations were; the wonderful way she could transform herself from a nagging wife to a peasant girl kneeling in a cathedral. Thinking about her led me to the book Lord Edgware Dies.” Draper was also the inspiration for a character in the short story The Dead Harlequin, published in The Mysterious Mr. Quin (1930), where the character was called Aspasia Glen and was the murderer's accomplice, rather than the victim. In Chapter 7, Chief Inspector Japp mentions the Elizabeth Canning case which was a real kidnapping case that occurred in London in 1753. The case created a sensation at the time due to the inconsistencies in the victim's declarations and the alibis of the perpetrators. Japp mentions this case due to the peculiar fact that the suspect was seen at two places at the same time. In the novel Lady Edgware was seen at a dinner party at the same time that she was also seen visiting the victim. Similarly, in the Canning case the suspect, Mary Squires, was seen travelling at the time that Elizabeth Canning said that she had been imprisoned by her. Adaptations Radio John Moffatt starred as Poirot in a five-part BBC Radio 4 adaptation by Michael Bakewell directed by Enyd Williams and also starring Simon Williams as Captain Hastings and Nicola Pagett as Jane Wilkinson. Film The novel was first adapted in 1934 as an eighty-minute film directed by Henry Edwards for Real Art Productions. The film was the third to star Austin Trevor in the role of Poirot after his appearances in Alibi and Black Coffee, both in 1931. Television 1985 adaptation The novel was first adapted for television as an eighty-seven-minute film in 1985, under the American version's title Thirteen at Dinner. It starred Peter Ustinov in one of his six appearances as Hercule Poirot, David Suchet as Chief Inspector Japp, and co-starred Faye Dunaway in the dual role of Jane Wilkinson and Carlotta Adams. The adaptation updated the setting of the story to contemporary times, rather than within the 1930s. 2000 adaptation A second television adaptation of Lord Edgware Dies was created in 2000, as an episode for the series Agatha Christie's Poirot on 19 February 2000. It starred David Suchet in the role of Hercule Poirot, and was produced by Carnival Films. While remaining faithful to most of the plot of the novel, it featured a number of changes: The investigation takes place after Poirot comes out of his retirement, following the events in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. Hastings has recently returned from Argentina to find a new place for himself and his wife, following a financial mistake he made. The adaptation adds Miss Lemon to the story, who assists Poirot in his investigation towards the end. In addition, Jenny Driver's first name is changed to Penny. Poirot learns about Wilkinson attending the dinner party when she is interviewed by both himself and Japp. Alton dies in an accident, when police attempt to arrest him for the theft of the stolen money. Donald Ross is a playwright instead of an actor. During the dinner party, he discusses at length about The Judgement of Paris, mainly because he plans to write a play on The Fall of Troy. Wilkinson knew of the discussion from Adams, but not the subject itself (Paris the character versus Paris the city), which trips her up when Ross talks about it at a luncheon meal with those involved in the case. His murder happens while talking to Poirot, who is visiting a hotel. The Duchess of Merton is omitted. Instead of Poirot going to visit the Duke of Merton, the Duke himself goes to visit Jane Wilkinson in her apartment, where he introduces himself to Poirot and is much friendlier than in the novel. After Poirot has solved the crime, the Duke offers him a large monetary reward in gratitude for his narrow escape from marrying a murderess, but Poirot insists that the reward be given to Hastings (who provided the "vital clue") to help him in his financial situation. Four clues received significant changes in the adaptation: The gold case is made within London, and collected by Wilkinson in disguise. The inscription makes no mention of a location, while the initial is changed to "P". The pince-nez belong to Ellis, and were taken by Wilkinson so she could disguise herself as an old woman to conceal her meeting with Adams. They are mislaid when the women change clothes after the murder. Poirot is given Adams' letter in its entirety from her sister, and not a copy beforehand, after he meets her shortly after she arrives and learns Adams is dead. The important clue that solves the case comes from Hastings, when he is correcting himself over who left the luncheon meal first. Wilkinson remarks, before she is arrested after the denouement, on how she believes her crime will make her famous and may lead to her being immortalised in a waxworks at Madame Tussauds. Adaptor: Anthony Horowitz Director: Brian Farnham Cast: David Suchet as Hercule Poirot Hugh Fraser as Captain Arthur Hastings Philip Jackson as Chief Inspector Japp Pauline Moran as Miss Lemon Helen Grace as Jane Wilkinson/Lady Edgware John Castle as Lord Edgware Fiona Allen as Carlotta Adams Dominic Guard as Bryan Martin Fenella Woolgar as Ellis Deborah Cornelius as Penny Driver Hannah Yelland as Geraldine Marsh Tim Steed as Ronald Marsh Lesley Nightingale as Miss Carroll Christopher Guard as Alton Iain Fraser as Donald Ross Virginia Denham as Alice 2012 French television adaptation A third television adaption of the novel was made as an episode for the French series Les Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie ("The Little Murders of Agatha Christie") on 14 September 2012, under the title "Le couteau sur la nuque" ("The Knife on the Neck"). The adaptation changed the setting to a theatre in the city of Amiens, France, in the 1950s, made changes in a number of characters – Christie's detectives were replaced by Commissaire Larosière (Antoine Duléry) and his clumsy assistant, Inspecteur Lampion (Marius Colluci), while the killer is glamorous actress Sarah Morlant (Maruschka Detmers), and the victim is Morlant's inconvenient husband is fellow actor Pierre Fougère (Jean-Marie Winling) – and featured an additional murder subplot involving the theatre's concierge. Publication history 1933, The American Magazine, serialised in six issues (March–August 1933) as 13 For Dinner Illustrations by Weldon Trench 1933, Collins Crime Club (London), September 1933, Hardcover, 256 pp The UK edition retailed at seven shillings and sixpence (7/6). 1933, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), 1933, Hardcover, 305 pp The US edition retailed at $2.00. 1944, Dell Books (New York), Paperback, (Dell number 60 [mapback]), 224 pp 1948, Penguin Books, Paperback, (Penguin number 685), 251 pp 1954, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 192 pp 1969, Greenway edition of collected works (William Collins), Hardcover 1970, Greenway edition of collected works (Dodd Mead), Hardcover, 255 pp 1970, Ulverscroft Large-print Edition, Hardcover, 380 pp; 2007, Poirot Facsimile Edition (Facsimile of 1933 UK first edition), 5 February 2007, Hardcover, 256 pp; Book dedication The dedication of the book reads: To Dr. and Mrs. Campbell Thompson Reginald Campbell Thompson (21 August 1876 – 23 May 1941), married to Barbara, was an eminent British archaeologist and the second expedition leader to employ Christie's husband Max Mallowan to work on one of his digs. The offer of work came in 1930 when Mallowan's employer, Leonard Woolley, was proving difficult over his proposed marriage to Agatha and their wish that she should join her husband on the dig at Ur although the real opposition came from Leonard Woolley's difficult wife, Katharine (see the dedication to The Thirteen Problems). Thompson's dig was at Nineveh and Max joined the team there in September 1931 followed the next month by Agatha. The invitation was only confirmed after the Mallowans had joined Thompson for a weekend in the country near Oxford where they were subjected to a cross-country scramble on "the wettest day possible over rough country" followed by another test to ensure that neither Agatha nor Max were fussy eaters. These were to ensure that both could withstand the rigours of a season in the wilds of Iraq. Used to walking over Dartmoor and having a very healthy appetite, Agatha passed the tests with flying colours. The relationship between the Mallowans and the Thompsons was far more relaxed than it had been with the Woolleys. The only source of contention was that Thompson was notoriously frugal with money and questioned every expense. Horses were a vital part of the expedition but Thompson only bought poor, badly-trained animals. He nevertheless insisted that Max ride them with skill as to fall off one would mean that "not a single workman will have a scrap of respect for you". Christie's clash with Thompson in regards to this facet of his character was over her insistence on purchasing a solid table to place her typewriter on in order that she could complete her next book. Not seeing why she couldn't use orange boxes, Thompson was aghast at her personal expenditure of ten pounds on a table at a local bazaar (although Max's recollection in his own memoir was that three pounds was the sum.) and he took some two weeks to recover his temper over this 'extravagance'. After this though, he made frequent polite enquiries over the progress of the book, Lord Edgware Dies, which was dedicated to him and his wife. A skeleton found on the dig was named 'Lord Edgware'. A singular honour that Christie bestowed on the Thompsons was to read aloud the manuscript of the book to them, something that she normally only ever did to her family (See External Links below). Dustjacket blurb The blurb on the inside flap of the dustjacket of the first edition (which is also repeated opposite the title page) reads: "Supper at the Savoy! Hercule Poirot, the famous little detective, was enjoying a pleasant little supper party there as the guest of Lady Edgware, formerly Jane Wilkinson, a beautiful young American actress. During the conversation Lady Edgware speaks of the desirability of getting rid of her husband. Lord Edgware, since he refuses to divorce her, and she wants to marry the Duke of Merton. M. Poirot jocularly replies that getting rid of husbands is not his speciality. Within twenty-four hours, however, Lord Edgware dies. This amazing story once more reveals Agatha Christie as the perfect teller of Detective stories. It will be difficult indeed to lay down the book until one learns the true solution of the mystery." References External links Lord Edgware Dies at Agatha Christie website Lord Edgware Dies at the official Agatha Christie website British Museum webpage on the Mallowans' work with Dr and Mrs Campbell Thompson 1933 British novels Hercule Poirot novels Novels first published in serial form Works originally published in The American Magazine Novels about actors Collins Crime Club books British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into television shows	[ -0.7784650325775146, 0.3508011996746063, 0.10417011380195618, -0.1709195077419281, 0.03643765300512314, 0.42586520314216614, 0.15184158086776733, -0.47819188237190247, -0.1655448079109192, 0.023280546069145203, -0.051632169634103775, 0.11824090778827667, -0.1631234735250473, 0.32175686955451965, 0.287066251039505, 0.056724682450294495, 0.41770660877227783, 0.34693780541419983, -0.47734981775283813, -0.5364040732383728, 0.2483430802822113, -0.6614048480987549, 0.264664888381958, 0.1095033660531044, 0.10723701119422913, 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250479	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Abercrombie%20%28British%20Army%20general%29	James Abercrombie (British Army general)	General James Abercrombie or Abercromby (1706 – 23 April 1781) of Glassaugh, Banffshire was a British Army general and Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1734 to 1754. He was commander-in-chief of forces in North America during the French and Indian War, best known for the disastrous British losses in the 1758 Battle of Carillon. Biography Abercrombie was born in Glassaugh, Banffshire, Scotland, the eldest son of Alexander Abercromby, also MP for Banffshire, and his wife Helen Meldrum. He was appointed an ensign in the 25th Regiment of Foot at age eleven. He married Mary Duff (sister of William Duff, 1st Earl Fife) and they had one daughter. At the 1734 British general election, he was returned by his brother-in-law, William Duff, later Lord Braco, as Member of Parliament for Banffshire. He voted regularly with the Government. Abercrombie was promoted to captain in 1736, and by 1739 was lieutenant-governor of Stirling castle. He was re-elected MP for Banff at the 1741 British general election. In 1742, he purchased a major's commission. He was promoted to colonel in 1746 and served in the Flemish Campaign of the War of Austrian Succession. He was quartermaster general under General James St Clair at the Raid on Lorient in 1746 and was wounded at Hulst in 1747. At the 1747 British general election, he was returned unopposed as MP for Banff as an Old Whig, but stood down in 1754 in favour of Lord Braco’s son, now of age. With the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756, Abercrombie was promoted major general and ordered to America as second in command to Lord Loudoun for the upcoming campaigns against the French. Abercrombie commanded a brigade at Louisbourg in 1757 and became Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in North America after Loudoun's departure in December. In the summer of 1757, Abercrombie was ordered to lead an expedition against Fort Carillon (later known as Fort Ticonderoga), to prepare to take Montreal. Abercrombie was a genius at organization but vacillated in his leadership to the point where, after his defeat, he was called Mrs. Nanny Cromby. He managed the remarkable feat of assembling fifteen thousand troops and moving them and their supplies through the wilderness. Then, after losing George Howe, 3rd Viscount Howe, his second-in-command, in a skirmish on 7 July while reconnoitring, he directed his troops on 8 July into a frontal assault on a fortified French position, without the benefit of artillery support. More than two thousand men were killed or wounded. Eventually his force panicked and fled, and he retreated to his fortified camp south of Lake George. This disaster caused in September 1758 Abercrombie's recall to Great Britain and his replacement by General Jeffery Amherst. Despite his failure, he was promoted to lieutenant general in 1759, and general in 1772. See also James Abercrombie (Bunker Hill) References External links Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Scottish constituencies British Army generals British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession British Army personnel of the French and Indian War 1706 births 1781 deaths People from Banffshire Royal Scots officers 44th Regiment of Foot officers	[ -0.2409505993127823, 0.540873646736145, 0.14500212669372559, -0.32459113001823425, -0.10130135715007782, 0.4330371022224426, 1.1771342754364014, -0.33587706089019775, -0.12786628305912018, -0.4406445324420929, -0.30838945508003235, -0.09844250231981277, -0.9145565032958984, 0.3270339369773865, -0.09110406786203384, 0.3734690845012665, 0.44380879402160645, -0.20560842752456665, -1.0308738946914673, -0.3530460596084595, 0.06750928610563278, -0.030805541202425957, 0.02281205728650093, 0.26718392968177795, 0.09412871301174164, 0.31470057368278503, 0.3904672861099243, -0.09294892847537994, 0.07701990753412247, 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250480	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount%20Network	Paramount Network	Paramount Network is an American basic cable television channel owned by the MTV Entertainment Group unit of Paramount Media Networks. The network's headquarters are located at the Paramount Pictures studio lot in Los Angeles. The channel was originally founded by a partnership between radio station WSM and Westinghouse Broadcasting as The Nashville Network (TNN) and began broadcasting March 7, 1983. It initially featured programming catering towards the culture of the Southern United States, including country music, variety shows, outdoors programming, and motor racing coverage (such as NASCAR). TNN was purchased by the Gaylord Entertainment Company in 1983. After Gaylord bought CMT in 1991, TNN's music programming was shifted to CMT, leaving TNN to focus on entertainment and lifestyle programming. In 1995, TNN and CMT were acquired by Westinghouse, which was in turn acquired by Viacom in 1999. Under Viacom ownership, TNN would phase out country-influenced programming in favor of a general entertainment format appealing to Middle America. It was renamed The National Network in September 2000, coinciding with the network premiere of WWF Raw. In August 2003, TNN relaunched as Spike TV, which targeted a young adult male audience. From June 2006, the network's programming had a more explicit focus on the action genre, while in 2010, the network had an increased focus on original reality series. This culminated with a final rebrand in 2015 to emphasize gender-balanced series (such as Lip Sync Battle) and a return to original scripted programming. On January 18, 2018, Spike relaunched as Paramount Network, aiming to align the network with its namesake studio (which previously lent its name to the now defunct United Paramount Network), and to position the network as the company's "flagship" outlet. As of September 2018, approximately 80.24 million households in the United States receive Paramount Network. History The Nashville Network (1983–2000) The Nashville Network first launched on March 7, 1983; it was dedicated to the culture and lifestyle of country music and the U.S. South. It originally operated as a joint venture of WSM, Inc., at the time owned by National Life and Accident Insurance Company, and Group W Satellite Communications. TNN operated from the now-defunct Opryland USA theme park near Nashville, Tennessee. Country Music Television (CMT), founded by Glenn D. Daniels, beat TNN's launch by two days, robbing them of the claim of the "first country music cable television network." TNN's flagship shows included Nashville Now, The Statler Brothers Show, American Sports Cavalcade and Grand Ole Opry Live. Nashville Now and the Grand Ole Opry were broadcast live from Opryland USA. The Gaylord Entertainment Company purchased WSM, along with TNN and the Opryland properties, in the latter half of 1987. Much of TNN's programming (except for its sports) during the Gaylord era was originally produced by Opryland Productions, also owned by Gaylord Entertainment. From 1983 to 1992, all of TNN's auto racing and motor sports coverage was produced by Diamond P Sports. Starting in 1993, TNN started having its NASCAR coverage produced by World Sports Enterprises, and the American Speed Association coverage produced by Group 5 Sports, while Diamond P continued to produce most of the rest of the racing coverage. Programming included variety shows, talk shows, game shows, outdoor shows (such as hunting and fishing), and lifestyle shows; all centered in some way around country music or the country style of living. Some of TNN's popular on-air talent included local Nashville media personalities Ralph Emery, Dan Miller, Charlie Chase and Lorianne Crook, as well as established stars such as country music singer Bill Anderson and actresses Florence Henderson and Dinah Shore. By 1995, TNN was acquired by Westinghouse Electric Corporation, which had recently acquired CBS around that time; two years later, Westinghouse bought CMT, TNN's chief competitor. In 1998, the channel dropped its "The Nashville Network" moniker and shortened its official name to TNN. Ownership shifted to Viacom in the late 1990s after its acquisition of CBS Corporation, Westinghouse's successor. The National Network, the New TNN, and professional wrestling (2000–2003) In 1999, TNN began to downplay its previous country lifestyle programming to appeal to a wider demographic, including younger viewers; capitalizing on the success of RollerJam (a roller derby-inspired series with elements of professional wrestling), TNN reached a three-year deal to broadcast a weekly television series from the Philadelphia-based wrestling promotion Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW), which would air on Friday nights beginning in late-August 1999. Under the contract, ECW also agreed to revenue sharing with TNN for all of the promotion's events (including live shows and pay-per-views) and merchandising. These two programs would air as part of a Friday-night block themed around extreme sports programming, alongside Motor Madness and Championship Bull Riding; a TNN executive described bull riding as being "the original extreme sport". In November 1999, TNN announced new programming and primetime theme blocks it planned to introduce in 2000, including a new, female-oriented Movie Monday, Action Wednesday, Friday Night Thrill Zone, Classic Country on Saturday nights, and TNN Outdoors on Sundays. The new schedule, along with new series such as the action drama 18 Wheels of Justice, collegiate bowling competition series Rockin' Bowl, reruns of the Western anthology Dead Man's Gun, and a new promotional campaign targeting younger viewers, were intended to introduce a broader audience to the network. Despite ECW reportedly driving a 200% increase in young male viewership in its timeslot, relations were strained with the nework, as TNN gave ECW little promotion. On September 25, 2000, TNN was folded into the MTV Networks division based in New York City, and was renamed The National Network. The rebranding coincided with major changes to the network's programming, including the network premiere of RAW Is War—the flagship weekly program of the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, later WWE)—which moved to TNN from USA Network as part of a new contract with Viacom. As WWF programs were among USA Network's top programs, the move was considered a major coup for TNN. MTV Networks chairman Tom Freston described TNN as now being a general entertainment service, albeit one with a "sort of populist middle-America flavor" rather than "another network for New York or Los Angeles." Football also became more prominent on the network, as it began airing games of the original Arena Football League (AFL) with Eli Gold as an announcer. TNN was also one of three networks to air games of the ill-fated, WWF-backed XFL (along with NBC and UPN). As part of its contract, TNN had the rights to a late Sunday afternoon game each week except for the first week, when UPN aired the afternoon game instead. In 2001, TNN aired CBS Sports-produced coverage of the inaugural opening round game of the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. The opening round game would later move to ESPN in 2002. In 2001, TNN added off-network sitcoms and dramas such as Diff'rent Strokes, The Wonder Years, The Rockford Files, WKRP in Cincinnati, Newhart, Hangin' With Mr. Cooper, Miami Vice and Taxi. It also became the first channel to air reruns of MADtv. These moves went unnoticed for the most part, due to TNN's lack of popularity. By this time, all country-western programming had been purged from the network; some of The Nashville Network's former programming was picked up by CMT, while other classic TNN shows were picked up by Great American Country, including eventually the Grand Ole Opry, which was pushed off to CMT and eventually removed by Viacom after they did not renew the agreement to carry the series. In 2001, TNN began to market itself as "The New TNN", an inadvertent pleonasm in its full context. By late 2002, the channel had picked up more male-oriented shows, such as Baywatch, Monster Jam, the hidden camera game show Oblivious, Robot Wars Extreme Warriors, Star Trek: The Next Generation, and Slamball. Spike (2003–2018) In April 2003, it was announced that the network would be relaunched as Spike TV on June 16. Promoted with the slogan "The First Network for Men", Viacom aimed to target young adult males aged 18–34 — a demographic they believed were being served insufficiently by other cable networks. Spike's launch programming would include a slate of new adult animation series such as Gary the Rat, Ren & Stimpy "Adult Party Cartoon" (an adult-oriented revival of the former Nickelodeon series The Ren & Stimpy Show, led by its original creator John Kricfalusi), and Stripperella, as well as other new series such as Ride with Funkmaster Flex, joined by its recent acquisitions CSI, Star Trek, and Raw. Other planneded programming included interstitial segments on health, technology, and finance in collaboration with Men's Health, Stuff, and MarketWatch. Three days before the planned launch date, film director Spike Lee won a New York Supreme Court injunction preventing Viacom from using the name "Spike TV". Lee claimed that because of his well-known popularity in Hollywood, viewers would therefore assume that he was associated with the new channel. Lee stated in court papers that: "The media description of this change of name, as well as comments made to me and my wife, confirmed what was obvious—that Spike TV referred to Spike Lee." Spike Jones Jr., son of comic musician Spike Jones, became a party to the lawsuit as part of Viacom's defense to protect the rights to his father's name. Most of the new programming would premiere on the originally-planned date as a soft launch; at this time, the TNN name and logo was downplayed heavily in favor of the "First Network for Men" tagline. The suit was settled on July 8, 2003, in announcing the settlement, Lee admitted that he did not believe that the channel intentionally tried to trade on his name. On July 28, 2003, it was announced that Spike TV would officially launch on August 11, 2003 — eight weeks later than initially scheduled. Its launch night programming featured two programs originally intended to air on June 16, including Party with Spike—a launch special filmed at the Playboy Mansion, and the premiere of Most Extreme Elimination Challenge—a comedic dub of the Japanese game show Takeshi's Castle. Klasky Csupo's Immigrants and the John Leguizamo-produced Zilch & Zero were originally slated to run on Spike TV's animation block, but these plans never materialized and the former was broadcast as a film instead. Later that year, the networked debuted The Joe Schmo Show, and the Spike Video Game Awards. On January 17, 2005, Spike TV premiered The Ultimate Fighter, a reality competition series produced by mixed martial arts Ultimate Fighting Championship. The show's success led to an expanded partnership between the UFC and Spike, which saw the network air other UFC series such as UFC Unleashed, UFC Primetime and UFC All Access. The Ultimate Fighter would run for 14 seasons, ending its run on the network in 2011 following the announcement that Fox Sports had acquired the U.S. television rights to the UFC under a new, seven-year deal. In March 2005, Viacom announced that it would not renew its contract with WWE when it expired in September 2005. Spike's new president, Doug Herzog, stated that the network had planned to "expand its investments in original programming and new acquisitions for its core audience", including new scripted programming. The following month, it was announced that WWE Raw would return to USA Network. Spike subsequently reached a deal with another wrestling promotion, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, which saw TNA Impact! premiere on Saturday, October 1, 2005. Later in the month, Spike TV debuted the video game news show Game Head, hosted by Geoff Keighley. "Get More Action" In 2005, Viacom conducted research which found that word-of-mouth knowledge narrowly perceived Spike TV's programming as being predominantly "low-brow", violent, and reliant on sex appeal. These findings led Viacom to pursue a rebrand in an effort to clarify the network's focus. At its upfront presentations in 2006, Viacom unveiled a new logo for the channel (officially shortening its name to simply "Spike"), and the new slogan "Get More Action". The new brand was described as being "authentic" and "unapologetically" masculine, and emphasizing action as a core genre of programming for the network. The new branding would launch alongside the premiere of Blade: The Series in June 2006. Spike also attracted advertisers with product placement opportunities, such as the "Men of Action" promos, which featured homages and parodies of "classic action moments". On September 5, 2006, Spike premiered the documentary film Metal of Honor: The Ironworkers of 9/11 by filmmaker Rachel Maguire, which profiled the ironworkers' efforts in the attempts for rescue and recovery following the September 11 attacks at the World Trade Center site. The film proceeds through the ironworkers' dismantling of the fallen towers. On October 10, 2006, Spike debuted the Scream Awards, the first awards show honoring horror, science fiction, fantasy and comic book-based entertainment. In October 2007, Kevin Kay was appointed network president after serving as executive vice president and general manager of the channel for the previous two years. The post had been vacant since December 2006. In 2008, the network debuted DEA, a reality series based on the Drug Enforcement Administration. On April 7, 2008, Spike acquired cable syndication rights for the sitcom Married... with Children. Five new unscripted series were also picked up for the channel's Summer 2008 lineup, including 1000 Ways To Die. In the fall of 2009, Spike broadcast live Australian rugby league semifinal games from the National Rugby League and also showed the grand final, as part of efforts by David Niu to bring the National Rugby League USA to the United States. On June 1, 2010, Spike launched into the first crowd-sourced pilot episode contest with Scripped, a web-based screenwriting community. "Get Real" In 2011, Spike's began a large shift to reality television, which was described at that year's network upfront presentation as way to evolve the network's brand by targeting a broader audience of males 18–45 years old, and shifting away from overtly masculine imagery; they described the changes as making the channel more akin to Esquire magazine than Maxim. A promotional campaign emphasized adversity as a common theme in Spike's programming. New programming introduced durin this time included original series such as Bar Rescue, Car Boss, Coal, Ink Master, Repo Games. In 2013, Bellator MMA made its network debut with the premiere of its eighth season; the now Viacom-owned mixed martial arts promotion previously aired on sibling channel MTV2. Later that year, Fox reality series Cops moved to Spike beginning September 14. In the fall, kickboxing promotion Glory made its network debut with Glory 11: Chicago. This was not Spike's first time broadcasting a kickboxing event as, in 2012, they partnered with K-1 to broadcast several events on their website. The end of the year saw the Video Game Awards revamped and become known as VGX. The event was held on December 7, 2013, on Spike's website. At the end of the year, Impact Wrestling would air its last episode on Spike on December 24, 2014, before moving to Destination America in 2015. Spike also announced that they would drop their video game award show; Geoff Keighley would go on to create his own award show in the form of The Game Awards. In January 2015, following a similar deal made by NBC, Spike announced they would air monthly fight cards by the Haymon Boxing-created "Premier Boxing Champions". "The Ones to Watch" During its upfronts on March 3, 2015, Spike unveiled a new logo and tagline, "The Ones to Watch". The re-branding aimed to make the network more inclusive to women, emphasizing a focus on "big talent, engaging shows and hits that get people talking" and further expansions into scripted series. Alongside the miniseries Tut and the announcement of an expanded episode order for the series Lip Sync Battle (a spin-off of a segment from Late Night with Jimmy Fallon), the network announced an output deal with Dwayne Johnson's Seven Bucks Productions for a series of specials, Emergency Broadcast, an original drama co-created by Max Brooks, and Sweat Inc., a fitness-oriented reality series hosted by Jillian Michaels. Paramount Network (2018–present) On February 9, 2017, Viacom announced that Spike TV would relaunch as Paramount Network in 2018 and move its headquarters to Paramount Pictures in Hollywood to give the network a closer association with the film studio. This was part of a restructuring plan by new Viacom CEO Bob Bakish to refocus the majority of its media business around six flagship brands, which included Paramount, BET, Comedy Central, Nickelodeon, Nick Jr., and MTV. Spike signed off on the night of January 18, 2018 at around 8:59 p.m. ET after an airing of Pitch Perfect, leading to the network's relaunch as Paramount Network that was marked by a live, Michael Jackson-themed Lip Sync Battle special broadcast from the Dolby Theatre. New original series announced in the first half of 2018 included the miniseries Waco and Yellowstone, along with American Woman and Heathers—two comedies originally slated for TV Land. The Shannara Chronicles, which moved to Spike for season 2 from MTV, was not renewed by Paramount Network. Paramount Network is being positioned as a "premium" basic cable network, similar to AMC and FX. Network president Kevin Kay explained that Bakish wanted Viacom to have a "flagship" outlet for scripted programming, as opposed to making inefficient investments into them across individual channels. He added that Paramount Network's offerings would be distinguished from other "premium" basic cable networks by continuing to emphasize Middle America as a key viewer base. Even with its subsequent rebrandings, Paramount Network still had significant carriage strength and viewership in the Midwest and South due to its heritage as TNN. Kay argued that its initial slate of original dramas were not as "dark", citing the setting of Yellowstone as making it "brighter and a bit more blue sky than some of the things that are on premium cable TV now". In regards to the programs moved to Paramount Network from TV Land, American Woman was moved to take advantage of its prominent leads Alicia Silverstone and Mena Suvari, while Heathers was moved because, in Kay's opinion, the show was not appropriate for TV Land's target audience. In June 2018, Heathers was dropped by Paramount Network and Viacom, citing network concerns over the content of the series in the wake of recent shootings in the U.S., such as the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting. The series would eventually air on Paramount Network in October 2018 in an edited form, with two episodes dropped due to the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. Paramount Network began a viral marketing campaign to promote its launch in December 2017. The campaign included a Times Square advertisement asking viewers to phone and email Paramount Network's chief marketing officer Niels Schuurmans to protest Spike's "firing", as well as a string of self-deprecating posts by the network's Twitter account about its history and programming (including that "My favorite number is 329 because it's the number of times Cops is on every night", "We had a show called The Joe Schmo Show. Apparently every decent show name was taken", and that "There's a reason all our early shows were CSI, UFC, TNA, MXC, UTI. No one around here knew how to read"). A network executive stated that the campaign was meant to represent a "public meltdown" by a fired employee. Spike additionally held a Facebook live streaming event on January 17, 2018, where users could vote on various ways a crew would deface a large model of the former Spike logo, culminating in its demolition. In May 2019, the Spike brand was relaunched in the U.S. as two streaming channels on Pluto TV, which was acquired by Viacom in March 2019. The relaunch consisted of a main Spike-branded channel and a second channel called "Spike Outdoors". Aborted rebrand as a movie network In early 2020, Paramount Network began to cut back on scripted series development, having dropped upcoming projects such as Emily in Paris (which was subsequently picked up by Netflix), and cancelling 68 Whiskey after a single season. On September 11, 2020, it was announced that Bellator would move to CBS Sports Network in October 2020. It would later move to Showtime in April 2021. On September 22, 2020, ViacomCBS president of Entertainment and Youth Brands Chris McCarthy told Variety in an exclusive that Paramount Network would relaunch as a movie channel "within the next year" (to be tentatively known as Paramount Movie Network). The relaunched network was to focus primarily on original made-for-TV films featuring major talent, with a plan to premiere 52 films per-year. These films would have been largely produced by Paramount Pictures and MTV Studios, with plans for co-productions with Paramount International properties such as Argentina's Telefe, Australia's Network 10, and the United Kingdom's Channel 5. The reformatted network would continue to carry at least one scripted series or miniseries per-quarter, including Yellowstone (albeit with episodes premiering in a different format), but would abandon non-scripted programming. Shows like Bar Rescue and Lip Sync Battle would have moved to other Paramount Global networks, while Ink Master was ultimately moved to Paramount+, and Wife Swap was cancelled. These changes would mirror a similar shift in programming that McCarthy undertook at sister channel Comedy Central, which also dropped live-action series development in favor of television specials, original films, and a focus on adult animation. In the interim, new seasons of Bar Rescue and Yellowstone (the latter in its regular format) would premiere on the network in 2021. In January 2022, Deadline reported that the network relaunch had been shelved, partly due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on TV and film production, in addition to Yellowstone'''s ratings success. Programming Paramount Network's current programming consists of feature films, television dramas, and sitcoms. The network's lone original drama is Yellowstone, which grew in viewership throughout its first four seasons, and proved popular to spawn several spin-offs for streaming service Paramount+. One of these series, 1883, would air on Paramount Network on the same day of its launch on Paramount+. As Spike TV, male-oriented programs constituted the majority of the network's schedule upon its original relaunch in 2003. By 2011, Spike had shifted its programming towards reality series that were aimed at more broader audiences (such as Bar Rescue and Ink Master), and with its 2015 rebrand, the network attempted to add more "gender-balanced" programming. Throughout its incarnations, the network had formerly carried combat sports, being the first basic cable home of mixed martial arts promotion the Ultimate Fighting Championship and the early seasons of The Ultimate Fighter. Other promotions and sports-related programming have included Glory kickboxing events; professional wrestling from Impact Wrestling, WWE, and Extreme Championship Wrestling; Premier Boxing Champions; and the Paramount-owned Bellator MMA and Bellator Kickboxing. Website On October 15, 2005, Viacom acquired iFilm, which was initially launched in 1997. After acquiring the website for $49 million, it was eventually rebranded to Spike.com and provided hosting of user-uploaded videos in a short-lived attempt to compete with YouTube (which Viacom had sued to remove user-generated uploads of its programming from), a strategy eventually abandoned to refocus Spike.com as a general network site. The iFilm.com domain redirected to the Screen Junkies website for a period of time. During the era where they hosted user generated content, Spike.com's managers only approved videos pre-screened to meet their standards. On January 18, 2018, Spike.com was sunsetted, and viewers were redirected to the new Paramount Network site and domain. International availability Canada In April 1984, while as TNN, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) approved the channel for carriage by Canadian cable and satellite television providers. Following its re-branding as Spike TV, the Canadian Association of Broadcasters filed a complaint with the CRTC on behalf of Canwest Global, demanding the channel be removed from Canadian television providers. The CAB felt that its new general entertainment format would unduly compete with various Canadian-run specialty channels, arguing that there was overlap in its niche and its then-current schedule with Men TV (men's lifestyle), Space (Star Trek), sports channels (The Score (now Sportsnet 360) is the WWE's Canadian broadcast partner), Discovery Health (interstitial segments focusing on men's health, although the network did not air any full-length programs on the topic), along with the inexplicable naming of Report on Business Television and CTV Travel for reasons unknown. In January 2005, the CRTC dismissed the CAB's complaint, ruling that it provided insufficient evidence that Spike was directly competing with Canadian specialty channels. The CRTC ruled that Spike did not unduly compete with Men TV, since it was licensed to broadcast lifestyle programming oriented towards men (in contrast to Spike, which the CRTC classified as being a general entertainment channel targeting a male audience), and that the remaining allegations of overlap with domestic Canadian specialty channels represented only a minority of Spike's overall programming. Due to programming rights issues, programs which the channel does not hold rights to air outside of the U.S. are replaced with alternate programs.🌐Paramount Network Canada (East) - TV Listings Guide Czech Republic In December 2020, ViacomCBS announced Prima Comedy Central will be rebranded as Paramount Network. Paramount Network launched effectively on January 12, 2021. Spain In May 2018, Viacom announced that it would rebrand Paramount Channel in Spain under the Paramount Network name on June 10, 2018, marking Viacom's first property outside of the U.S. to adopt the brand. Paramount Channel in Spain had been among Viacom's most successful international properties. The channel adopted a similar general entertainment format to the U.S. version, with its launch lineup featuring the fifth season of Alaska y Mario (moving from MTV Spain), and a lineup of imported dramas and films. Italy On March 16, 2019, Viacom rebranded the Italian version of Paramount Channel into Paramount Network. On January 16, 2022, the Italian version of Paramount Network ceased existing. Hungary On December 17, 2020, Paramount Channel in Hungary rebranded as the Paramount Network. United Kingdom Paramount Network launched in the UK on July 4, 2018, it is operated by the Viacom-owned network Channel 5. It is the second Paramount-branded property in that market; its domestic version of Comedy Central launched as the Paramount Channel in 1995, then was Paramount Comedy from 1997 until 2009, when it took the Comedy Central name. On January 7, 2020, it replaced the British version of Spike in its channel allotments on Freeview, cable, and satellite. Latin America On April 14, 2020, ViacomCBS rebranded the Latin American version of Paramount Channel into Paramount Network. Spike Viacom began to launch localized versions of Spike in 2015. On April 15, 2015, a British version of Spike was launched; owned by Viacom International Media Networks Europe, it is operated as a sister digital terrestrial television channel to Channel 5, which Viacom had acquired the previous year. Its launch lineup primarily featured Spike's original programs and reruns from its parent network, acquired U.S. drama imports (such as Breaking Bad, Justified and The Walking Dead''), along with Bellator MMA and the domestic MMA promotion BAMMA. On 31 October 2017, the channel changed its name to 5Spike to better-signify its connection to Channel 5's other digital networks. On 7 January 2020, 5Spike was shut down, with its channel allotments and selected programs being assumed by the British version of Paramount Network. On August 18, 2015, Viacom announced that a Dutch version of Spike would launch in the Netherlands and Flanders. The channel began as a timeshare on the Dutch Nickelodeon channel, airing from 21:00 to 02:30 CET daily. On December 12, 2016, Spike launched in the Netherlands as a 24-hour channel on Ziggo. Spike and Nickelodeon continued time-sharing in Flanders until January 6, 2021, when Nickelodeon became a 24-hour channel again. In July 2016, an Australian version of Spike was launched on Fetch TV. On December 1, 2016, a Hungarian version of the channel named RTL Spike was launched, via brand licensing and advertising sales agreements with the RTL Group. On October 20, 2020, ViacomCBS announced the channel's closure, and the closure date was confirmed on November 23 that year. RTL Spike was shut down on January 12, 2021, and was replaced by TeenNick. On March 15, 2017, a Russian version of Spike was launched as a separate channel, airing alongside the local version of Paramount Channel. This channel was shut down on June 1, 2021. On October 22, 2017, an Italian version of Spike was launched in the country as a free-to-air channel, replacing Fine Living on Digital TV channel 49. The channel, however, ceased broadcasting on January 16, 2022. Note References External links Television networks in the United States English-language television stations in the United States Former video hosting services Television channels and stations established in 1983 Television channels and stations established in 2018 1983 establishments in Tennessee 2018 establishments in California Paramount Pictures ViacomCBS Domestic Media Networks	[ 0.26336246728897095, -0.14963799715042114, 0.47713595628738403, 0.3018621504306793, 0.4898104965686798, -0.2462310642004013, -0.07477086782455444, 0.36936014890670776, -0.21475514769554138, -0.09259055554866791, -0.11622913181781769, 0.7565957307815552, -0.2663494944572449, 0.3922877609729767, -0.12165919691324234, 0.040423013269901276, 0.03723059967160225, 0.45791757106781006, -0.21825160086154938, -0.73102205991745, -0.8052175641059875, -0.20295950770378113, 0.4511544704437256, 0.26213526725769043, -0.8659891486167908, 0.21165652573108673, 0.26156651973724365, -0.11289625614881516, 0.12053652852773666, 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250482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxnard%20Airport	Oxnard Airport	Oxnard Airport is a county-owned, public airport a mile west of downtown Oxnard, in Ventura County, California. The airport has not had scheduled passenger service since June 8, 2010, when United Express (operated via a code sharing agreement with United Airlines by SkyWest Airlines) ended flights to Los Angeles International Airport. America West Express also served the airport with nonstop flights to Phoenix in the early-2000s via a code sharing agreement with America West Airlines. Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 15,961 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 12,060 in 2009 and 4,074 in 2010. The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 called it a primary commercial service airport based on enplanements in 2008 (over 10,000 per year). By the time of the next NPIAS report, for 2015–2019, Oxnard Airport had been downgraded to a regional general aviation airport with only 19 enplanements. History Ventura County opened Oxnard Airport in 1934 by clearing a 3,500 ft dirt runway. In the 1930s aviator Howard Hughes erected a tent at the airport to shelter his famous H-1 monoplane racer, which he tested from the dirt strip. In 1938 Ventura County paved the dirt runway and built a large hangar. In 1939 James McLean opened the Oxnard Flying School with a Piper J-3 Cub and a Kinner 2-seat airplane. Housing was built nearby for instructors and students at the school. In late 1941, the airport was assigned to the U.S. Navy until the Naval Air Station at Point Mugu could be completed. The Navy moved to NAS Point Mugu in 1945 and the Oxnard Flying School returned to the airport. Ventura County regained control of the airport in 1948, receiving a final quitclaim deed. The state of California issued the airport an operating permit in 1949. Past airline service Scheduled airline service started in 1946 with Southwest Airways flying Douglas DC-3s on a multi-stop route between Los Angeles and San Francisco. Southwest then changed its name to Pacific Air Lines which in turn began operating Martin 4-0-4 prop aircraft followed by Fairchild F-27 turboprops into the airport. In 1968 Pacific merged with Bonanza Air Lines and West Coast Airlines to form Air West which was subsequently renamed Hughes Airwest which in turn continued to serve Oxnard with F-27s. Also in 1968, Cable Commuter Airlines was operating de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter service to LAX. Hughes Airwest ended all service to Oxnard in the early 1970s and was then replaced by Golden West Airlines and other commuter air carriers. Golden West operated de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter and Short 330 turboprops nonstop to Los Angeles (LAX), San Diego and Santa Barbara. Other service included Wings West with Beech 99 turboprops to Los Angeles and Desert Pacific Airlines flying Piper twin prop aircraft nonstop to San Francisco, Sacramento and Las Vegas. By 1980, Golden Gate Airlines was operating nonstop service to Bakersfield, Las Vegas, Monterey, and Santa Barbara with direct service to San Francisco. In 1981, two airlines were serving the airport according to the Official Airline Guide (OAG): Golden West Airlines with ten nonstop flights every weekday from Los Angeles (LAX) plus two nonstop flights every weekday from San Diego (SAN) primarily flown with Twin Otter aircraft with some flights being operated with the Short 330, and Santa Barbara-based Apollo Airways operating Handley Page Jetstream propjets with five nonstop flights every weekday from Santa Barbara (SBA) with this Apollo service featuring connecting flights via Santa Barbara from the California cities of Bakersfield (BFL), Fresno (FAT), Monterey (MRY), Oakland (OAK), Sacramento (SMF), San Francisco (SFO) and San Jose (SJC). Oxnard never received scheduled jet service; however, the airport did have Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia propjet service operated by WestAir as United Express nonstop to San Francisco in the 1990s. Most service was operated to LAX with a few flights to Santa Barbara, Santa Maria and other cities at this time. In 1985, Evergreen Airspur, a division of Evergreen International Airlines, was operating de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otters to LAX. In 1987 Resort Commuter Airlines was operating nonstop service to LAX as a Trans World Express air carrier on behalf of Trans World Airlines (TWA). By 1988 Qwest Air was flying nonstop service to San Diego (SAN) and Sacramento (SMF) with Dornier 228 commuter turboprops. Also during the late 1980s into the mid 1990s, two airlines were flying Oxnard-LAX service: American Eagle operated by Wings West flying Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner propjets and United Express operated by WestAir flying British Aerospace BAe Jetstream 31 propjets. The United Express service would later be taken over by SkyWest Airlines with this airline operating Embraer EMB-120 Brasilias. United Express subsequently ended all scheduled passenger flights at the airport and Oxnard no longer has passenger airline service but is served by two cargo airlines. California Air Shuttle was a commuter airline based at the Oxnard Airport. In 1990, it briefly operated nonstop service with a Swearingen Metro II propjet aircraft between the airport and Las Vegas, San Francisco, San Jose and Sacramento. This new start-up air carrier quickly went out of business. Facilities and aircraft Oxnard Airport covers 230 acres (93 ha) at an elevation of 45 feet (14 m) above mean sea level. Its one runway, 7/25, is 5,953 by 100 feet (1,814 x 30 m) asphalt. In 2010 the airport had 55,323 aircraft operations, average 151 per day: 92% general aviation, 8% air taxi, and <1% military. 157 aircraft were then based at this airport: 79% single-engine, 17% multi-engine, and 5% helicopter. Airlines and destinations Cargo See also California World War II Army Airfields References External links Oxnard Airport at Ventura County web site General Information for Airport Users Oxnard Airport Association www.airfieldsdatabase.com Aspen Helicopters (also known as the Oxnard Jet Center) is a fixed-base operator (FBO) located at the airport. Golden West Jet Centers: Oxnard is an Oxnard-based FBO Light Helicopter Depot: Oxnard is an Oxnard-based Robinson Helicopter Overhaul Facility Aerial image as of September 1994 from USGS The National Map Airports in Ventura County, California County airports in California Airports established in 1934 Transportation in Oxnard, California Buildings and structures in Oxnard, California 1934 establishments in California	[ -0.26214146614074707, 0.03387866169214249, 0.11913129687309265, 0.03067816235125065, 0.2993427813053131, -0.21268372237682343, -0.08129508793354034, 0.5789527893066406, 0.06317197531461716, -0.6824110746383667, -0.3061777353286743, 0.39117446541786194, -0.20235386490821838, 0.03591996058821678, 0.1663552224636078, 0.23874306678771973, -0.042240340262651443, 0.5766551494598389, 0.48671063780784607, -0.5498443245887756, -0.5504387021064758, -0.5388768315315247, 0.2786382734775543, 0.42702677845954895, -0.1558861881494522, -0.5460259914398193, -0.20721864700317383, 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250486	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mirror%20Crack%27d%20from%20Side%20to%20Side	The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side	The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side, a novel by Agatha Christie, was published in the UK in 1962 and a year later in the US under the title The Mirror Crack'd. The story features amateur detective Miss Marple solving a mystery in St. Mary Mead. Plot summary Jane Marple falls while walking in St. Mary Mead. She is helped by Heather Badcock, who brings her into her own home to rest. Over a cup of tea, Mrs Badcock tells Miss Marple how she once met the American actress Marina Gregg, who recently moved into the area and bought Gossington Hall from Miss Marple's friend Dolly Bantry. Marina and her latest husband, film producer Jason Rudd, host a fête in honour of St John Ambulance. Guests include Mrs Bantry, actress Lola Brewster, Marina's friend Ardwyck Fenn, and Mrs Badcock with her husband Arthur. Heather Badcock corners Marina and launches into a long story about how they met years ago while Marina was visiting Bermuda, where Heather Badcock worked at the time. Heather had been ill, but being such big fan of Marina’s she left her sickbed to meet her favourite star and get her autograph. Mrs Bantry, standing nearby, notices a strange look cross Marina’s face during Mrs Badcock’s monologue. A short while later, Mrs Badcock collapses and dies. When Mrs Bantry recounts the events to Miss Marple she uses lines from the poem “The Lady of Shalott” (in which a curse falls upon the heroine of the poem) to describe the look she observed on Marina Gregg's face. Detective-Inspector Dermot Craddock investigates the death, discovering that Mrs Badcock died after ingesting six times the recommended dose of a tranquillizer, Calmo. The drug was in a daiquiri, originally Marina's, which Marina gave to Mrs Badcock after she had spilled her own drink. Craddock delves into the complicated past of the presumed target, Marina Gregg. Desperate to have a child, she had adopted three before giving birth to a mentally disabled son and suffering a nervous breakdown as a result. One of the adopted children, Margot Bence, was at Gossington Hall on the day of the fête. Despite bad feeling towards her adoptive mother she denies putting the drug into Marina’s drink. Two more people are killed while the investigation continues: Ella Zielinsky, Rudd's social secretary, dies from a poisoned atomizer she used for hay fever; and Giuseppe, Marina's butler, is shot that night after spending the day in London and depositing £500 into his bank account. Ardwyck Fenn tells Craddock he received a phone call days before, accusing him of killing Mrs Badcock, and that he recognized the anonymous caller as Zielinsky when she sneezed. Miss Marple's cleaner, Cherry Baker, tells Miss Marple that her friend Gladys, who was a server at Gossington Hall on the day of the fête, believes Marina Gregg deliberately spilled Mrs Badcock’s drink, and that she was going to meet Giuseppe before he died. Miss Marple sends Gladys on holiday to Bournemouth, before travelling to Gossington Hall to discover Marina has died in her sleep from an overdose. Miss Marple talks to Jason Rudd and explains to him and DI Craddock how she has deduced that Marina must have been the murderer. Mrs Badcock had been sick with German measles when she sought Marina's autograph in Bermuda. Marina, in the early stages of pregnancy at the time, had contracted the disease, which led to her baby being born disabled, and her own subsequent nervous breakdown. The look on Marina’s face, observed by Mrs Bantry at the fete, was triggered by Marina looking at a picture of a Madonna and Child on the wall behind Heather Badcock, and finally realising what had happened. Overcome with emotion, Marina put the Calmo in her own daiquiri, jolted Mrs Badcock's arm to make her spill her drink, and then gave Heather her own drugged cocktail as a replacement. To cover her crime Marina tried to convince everyone she had been the target of a murder attempt. She killed Zielinsky and Giuseppe after they guessed her involvement and Giuseppe blackmailed her. Miss Marple had sent Gladys away to protect her from becoming Marina's next victim. Miss Marple implies that she believes Jason Rudd administered Marina's overdose to prevent her from taking another life. Rudd simply comments on his wife's beauty and the suffering she endured as the story ends. The novel's title The title comes from the poem The Lady of Shalott by Alfred, Lord Tennyson. The Lady of Shalott weaves in a tower near Camelot and may only see the outside world reflected in a mirror. She will be doomed if she looks directly; when Lancelot appears, she looks directly at him and Camelot and the mirror cracks. This poem is referred to several times in the novel, with these lines quoted: Out flew the web and floated wide- The mirror crack'd from side to side; "The curse is come upon me," cried The Lady of Shalott. At the end, Miss Marple quotes the last three lines in referring to the dead actress: He said, "She has a lovely face; God in his mercy lend her grace, The Lady of Shalott." Characters Miss Marple: an old lady in St Mary Mead who is recovering from an illness. Mrs Cherry Baker: Miss Marple's house cleaner. Jim Baker: Cherry's husband, who does odd jobs for Miss Marple. Miss Knight: Miss Marple's carer, sent by Marple's nephew Raymond West, to help during her recuperation. Dolly Bantry: Miss Marple's friend, present at the fête at Gossington Hall. She first appeared in the novel The Body in the Library. Dr Haydock: Miss Marple's physician in St Mary Mead. He first appeared in Murder at the Vicarage. Marina Gregg: a middle-aged film star, who married many times and recently settled in England with her husband to make a film together. Her mood swings from happy to upset, which her husband thinks is tied to her acting. Jason Rudd: Gregg's husband, a film director. Giuseppe: a butler at Gossington Hall. Dr Gilchrist: Gregg's physician, who lives at the Hall. Ella Zielinsky: Rudd's secretary. Gladys Dixon: a seamstress who works at the film studio's canteen. Heather Badcock: a volunteer for the St John Ambulance corps. Arthur Badcock: Heather's husband, who works in real estate. He was married to Gregg before she became a film star and later changed his name. Margot Bence: a portrait photographer at the fête. She was adopted by Gregg before Gregg became pregnant. Lola Brewster: an American actress who arrives unexpectedly at the party. She was married to one of Gregg's ex-husbands. Ardwyck Fenn: an American man who was once wildly in love with Marina Gregg. Dermot Craddock: Chief Inspector at Scotland Yard, sent to St Mary Mead to solve the Badcock's murder. He is a godson of Sir Henry Clithering, who is a close friend of Marple. Craddock often discusses the case with her. He was introduced in A Murder Is Announced. William Tiddler: a sergeant assisting Craddock. Frank Cornish: a local police inspector. Developing the character of Marina Gregg Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology emphasized that "Gregg" is the surname of the ophthalmologist who first described cataracts in congenital rubella syndrome, Norman Gregg, and described this as "one of [Christie's] most subtle clues to identify the murderer". The official site of the Agatha Christie estate suggests that, in writing Gregg, Christie was "influenced" by the life of American actress Gene Tierney. Tierney contracted German measles while pregnant with her first child, during her only appearance at the Hollywood Canteen in June 1943. The baby developed congenital rubella syndrome and was born prematurely, underweight and needing a total blood transfusion. The deaf, partially blind and developmentally disabled child was later institutionalised in a psychiatric hospital. About two years after that birth a woman asked Tierney for an autograph at a garden party. The woman said she had skipped quarantine while ill with German measles to visit the Hollywood Canteen and meet Tierney. Tierney's story was publicised before the novel was written. Tierney described the event in her autobiography years after Christie wrote the novel Publication history 1962, Collins Crime Club (London), 12 November 1962, Hardback, 256 pp 1963, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), September 1963, Hardback, 246 pp 1964, Pocket Books (New York), Paperback 1965, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 192 pp 1966, Ulverscroft Large-print Edition, Hardcover, 255 pp 1974, Penguin Books, Paperback, 224 pp 2006, Marple Facsimile edition (Facsimile of 1962 UK first edition), 6 March 2006, Hardcover, 2011 William Morrow and Company, Trade Paperback, 288 pp, The Star Weekly Novel, a Toronto newspaper supplement, serialised the novel in two abridged instalments from 9–16 March 1963 under the title The Mirror Crack'd with each issue containing a cover illustration by Gerry Sevier. Film and television adaptations English language movie The novel was adapted for a 1980 feature film with Angela Lansbury in the role of Miss Marple. The film's co-stars were Elizabeth Taylor as Marina and Kim Novak as Lola Brewster, and the cast also included Rock Hudson and Tony Curtis. The film was released as The Mirror Crack'd, the shortened US book title. The film changed a number of elements in the novel, including Marina's surname (she uses Rudd, not Gregg), her associates, removing the character of Giuseppe, adding death threats, amongst other modifications, including shifting the setting to 1953, nine years before the book's publication. BBC adaptation A second adaptation of the novel was made by BBC television in 1992 as part of its series Miss Marple with the title role played by Joan Hickson (in her final performance as Jane Marple), and starring Claire Bloom as Marina Gregg and Glynis Barber as Lola Brewster. The only major changes were that Giuseppe is not killed, Arthur Badcock is not a former husband of Marina Gregg, Superintendent Slack and Sergeant Lake are written in and the character of Hailey Preston is removed. The novel was the final adaptation for the BBC series Miss Marple. Margaret Courtenay appeared in this adaptation as Miss Knight, having previously portrayed Dolly Bantry in the 1980 feature film version. ITV adaptation ITV Studios and WGBH Boston produced another adaptation for the Marple television series starring Julia McKenzie as Miss Marple, with Joanna Lumley reprising her role as Dolly Bantry, Lindsay Duncan as Marina Gregg and Hannah Waddingham as Lola Brewster. Investigating the murder along with Miss Marple is Inspector Hewitt, played by Hugh Bonneville. This version, while ultimately faithful to Christie's original text, included a number of notable changes. Some of these changes were influenced by the changes that were made in the 1980 film adaptation: Ella's surname is changed from Zielinsky to Blunt. The reason for her murder was changed, mixing in elements from the 1980 film and the motive for Giuseppe's murder – Ella was attempting to blackmail the killer, but kept ringing the wrong people because she knew someone at the reception had done it, until she learned something that led her to phoning Marina and pointing out what she had done. Her love of Jason remains, but there is no affair. Giuseppe is omitted from the adaptation, and there is no reference to car-man Inch selling his business within it. Unlike the 1980 film adaptation, only one film is being shot in England, and that focuses on Nefertiti. Lola Brewster is married to one of Marina's old husbands, Vincent Hogg (added in the adaptation.) He is a journalist, who writes a couple of pieces regarding the murders and who does not have much love of Marina; she is an actress and had competed with Marina for the love of Jason, who married the latter, leaving Lola bitter about it. Both she and Vincent attend the reception and the filming of one of Marina's scenes. Bengali language film Film director and screenwriter Rituparno Ghosh created a Bengali language version of Christie's story as Shubho Mahurat, which reset the story in the film industry of Kolkata. In this version, Sharmila Tagore plays the ageing star Padmini, the counterpart to Christie's Marina Gregg. The 2003 movie features Rakhi Gulzar in the role of the equivalent of Miss Marple. French television adaptation The novel was adapted as a 2017 episode of the French television series Les Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie. Japanese television adaptation TV Asahi adapted the novel in 2018 starring Ikki Sawamura and Hitomi Kuroki, with the title Two Nights Drama Special: Murder of the Great Actress – The Mirror Crack’d From Side to Side () as the second night, and the first night was 4.50 from Paddington. This drama changed the main role to a chief inspector from Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department. Cast: Ikki Sawamura – Chief Inspector Ryuya Shokokuji, based on Jane Marple and Dermot Craddock Yoshiyoshi Arakawa – Inspector Banpei Tatara Erena Mizusawa – Inspector Fueko Misaki Hitomi Kuroki – Madoka Irodori, based on Marina Gregg Ikko Furuya – Akira Kaido, based on Jason Rudd Naomi Zaizen – Sagiri Asakaze, based on Lola Brewster Masahiko Tsugawa – Hiraomi Danbara, based on Ardwyck Fenn Mari Nishio – Shimeko Akada, based on Ella Zielinsky Tomoharu Hasegawa – Toshiro Inden, based on Giuseppe Ryuji Katagiri – Kansuke Aramaki, based on Dr Gilchrist Kami Hiraiwa – Rin Kannokoji, based on Heather Badcock Takeo Nakahara – Koki Kannokoji, based on Arthur Badcock Haruna Kawaguchi – Kosame Taniguchi, based on Margot Bence Hayato Isomura – Matsubushi Matsuda, based on Margot Bence and Gladys Dixon Narumi Fukuda – Hinata Hanakage, also based on Margot Bence Zuimaru Awashima – Sosuke Aiba, based on Donald McNeil Korean television adaptation The novel was also adapted as part of the Korean television series Ms. Ma, Nemesis. References External links The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side at the official Agatha Christie website The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side at the new Home of Agatha Christie website Miss Marple novels 1962 British novels Novels about actors Collins Crime Club books Rubella British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into television shows Cultural depictions of Empress Elisabeth of Austria	[ -0.3502730429172516, 0.18897630274295807, -0.1718144565820694, -0.4424589276313782, -0.817963182926178, 0.6127272248268127, 0.5385511517524719, 0.11152573674917221, -0.3890931308269501, -0.07827991247177124, 0.07249008119106293, 0.27681347727775574, 0.31132274866104126, 0.6582451462745667, 0.11816716194152832, 0.34923630952835083, 0.3557566702365875, 0.40343087911605835, -0.17814728617668152, -0.7216760516166687, 0.10702773183584213, -0.25212088227272034, 0.23225438594818115, -0.5440165400505066, -0.1265992969274521, 0.21156540513038635, 0.15056797862052917, -0.15738971531391144, 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250491	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree%20planting	Tree planting	Tree-planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purpose. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture, and from the lower cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds. Trees contribute to their environment over long periods of time by providing oxygen, improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife. During the process of photosynthesis, trees take in carbon dioxide and produce the oxygen we breathe. In silviculture the activity is known as reforestation, or afforestation, depending on whether the area being planted has or has not recently been forested. It involves planting seedlings over an area of land where the forest has been harvested or damaged by fire, disease or human activity. Tree planting is carried out in many different parts of the world, and strategies may differ widely across nations and regions and among individual reforestation companies. Tree planting is grounded in forest science, and if performed properly can result in the successful regeneration of a deforested area. Reforestation is the commercial logging industry's answer to the large-scale destruction of old growth forests, but a planted forest rarely replicates the biodiversity and complexity of a natural forest. Because trees remove carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, tree planting can be used as a geoengineering technique to remove from the atmosphere. Desert greening projects are also motivated by improved biodiversity and reclamation of natural water systems, but also improved economic and social welfare due to an increased number of jobs in farming and forestry. By country Australia Australian forests have been heavily affected since European colonisation, and some attempts been made to restore native habitats, both by government and individuals. Greening Australia is a national Non profit set up to run the "National Tree Program" initiated by the Federal Government in 1982. Greening Australia completed the 1 Billion Tree target and has gone on to become one of the major tree planting organisations in the country. There is a strong volunteer movement for conservation in Australia through Landcare and other networks. National Tree Day is organised annually by Planet Ark in the last week in July, encouraging the public to plant 1 million native trees per year. Growing trees for Timber industries is a long-term project. It may take many years for a tree to mature to an age and size that is appropriate for the Timber to be used by industry. Some trees are many hundreds of years old. Many state governments run their own "Million Tree" programs each year to encourage community involvement. Trees for Life (Brooklyn Park) is an excellent example of a community organisation having a sustainable impact. Canada Most tree planting in Canada is carried out by private reforestation companies. The reforestation companies compete with one another for contracts which are provided by logging companies. The annual allowable cut for the following year is based upon how much money the logging company invests into reforestation and other silvicultural practices. Planting is carried out in accordance to the client's specifications, and planters are expected to learn the quality standards for each contract that they work on. Planted blocks are spot checked on a regular basis. Although quality concerns vary across contracts, spot checkers are typically looking for such things as: species appropriate site choice, species appropriate spacing, how tight the saplings are in the ground, how straight the saplings are, and whether or not the saplings have been damaged. These concerns vary from region to region, and from contract to contract. Tree-planting is typically piece work and tree prices can vary widely depending on the difficulty of the terrain and on the winning contract's bid price. As a result, there is a saying among planters: "There is no bad land, only bad contracts." 4 months of hard work can yield enough to live on for an entire year, but conditions are harsh. Tree planting crews often do not permanently reside in the areas where they work, thus much planting is based out of motels or bush camps. Bush camp accommodations usually consist of a mess tent, cook shack, dry goods tent, first aid tent, freshly dug outhouses, and a shower tent or trailer. Planters are responsible for bringing either a tent or car to sleep in. A camp also contains camp cooks and support staff. The average British Columbian planter plants 1 600 trees per day, but it is not uncommon for experienced planters to plant up to 4,000 trees per day while working in the interior. These numbers are higher in central and eastern Canada, where the terrain is generally faster, however the price per tree is slightly lower as a result. Average daily totals of 2500 are common, with experienced planters planting upwards of 5000 trees a day. Numbers as high as 7500 a day have been recorded. Planters typically work 8–11 hours per day with an additional 1 to 2 hours of (usually) unpaid traveling time. Work weeks on British Columbian planting contracts are usually 3–4 days long, with 1 day off. In Ontario, work weeks are generally 5–6 days long, with 1 day off. Quite often, tree planting contractors will deduct some of the cost associated with the operation of the contract directly from the tree planter's daily earned wages. These imposed fees typically vary from $10 to $30 per day, and are referred to as "camp costs". Once inflation is factored in, real tree planter earnings have declined for many years in Canada. This has adversely affected the sector's ability to attract and retain workers. Higher wages and much better working conditions in many other industries, from construction, to oil and gas, and even information technology, has led to fewer Canadian young people wanting to plant trees. Based on statistics for British Columbia, the average tree planter: lifts a cumulative weight of over , bends more than 200 times per hour, drives the shovel into the ground more than 200 times per hour and travels over with a heavy load, every day of the entire season. The reforestation industry has an average annual injury rate of approximately 22 claims per 100 workers, per year. It is often difficult and sometimes dangerous. Great Britain Planting in Britain is commonly referred to as restocking, when it takes place on land that has recently been harvested. When occurring on previously unforested land it is known as new planting. Under the British system, in order to acquire the necessary permissions to clearcut, the landowner must agree a management plan with the Forestry Commission (the regulatory body for all things forestry) which must include proposals for the re-establishment of tree cover on the land. Planting contractors will be engaged by the landowner/management company, a contract drawn up and work will typically take place from November to April when most of the transplants are dormant. Planting is part of the rotational nature of much British plantation forestry. Productive tree crops are planted and subsequently clearcut. Some form of soil cultivation may take place and the ground is then restocked. Where the production of timber is a management priority, a prescribed stocking density must be achieved. For coniferous species this will be a minimum of 2500 stems per hectare at year 5 (from planting). Planting at this density has been shown to favour the development of straighter knot-free logs. Planters are normally paid under piece work terms and an experienced worker will plant around 1500 trees a day under most conditions. Israel See: Jewish National Fund#Afforestation; List of forests in Israel. Tree-planting is an ancient Jewish tradition. The Talmudic rabbi Yohanan ben Zakai used to say that if a person planting a tree heard that the Messiah had arrived, he should finish planting before going to greet him. Due to massive afforestation efforts, this fact echoed in diverse campaigns. Israeli forests are the product of a major afforestation campaign by the Jewish National Fund (JNF). The largest planted forest in Israel is Yatir Forest, located on the southern slopes of Mount Hebron, on the edge of the Negev Desert. It covers an area of 30,000 dunams (30 square kilometers). It is named after the ancient Levite city within its territory, Yatir, as written in the Torah: "And unto the children of Aaron the priest they gave Hebron with its suburbs, the city of refuge for the manslayer, and Libnah with its suburbs, and Jattir with its suburbs, and Eshtemoa with its suburbs" (Book of Joshua 21:13-14). In 2006, the JNF signed a 49-year lease agreement with the State of Israel which gives it control over 30,000 hectares of Negev land for the development of forests. Research on climate change is being carried out in Yatir Forest. Studies of the Weizmann Institute of Science, in collaboration with the Desert Research Institute at Sde Boker, have shown that the trees function as a trap for carbon in the air. Shade provided by trees planted in the desert also reduces evaporation of the sparse rainfall. Yatir Forest is a part of the NASA project FluxNet, a global network of micrometeorological tower sites used to measure the exchanges of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy between terrestrial ecosystem and atmosphere. The Arava Institute for Environmental Studies conducts research that focuses on crops such as dates and grapes grown in the vicinity of Yatir forest. The research is part of a project aimed at introducing new crops into arid and saline zones. The JNF has been criticized for planting non-native pine trees which are unsuited to the climate, rather than local species such as olive trees. Others say that JNF deserves credit for this decision, and the forests would not have survived otherwise. According to JNF statistics, six out of every 10 saplings planted at a JNF site in Jerusalem do not survive, although the survival rate for planting sites outside Jerusalem is much higher – close to 95 percent. New Zealand Kaingaroa Forest in New Zealand is the second largest planted forest in the southern hemisphere after the Sabie/Graskop area in South Africa. It is one of the many plantation forests planted since European settlement. The Monterey Pine (Pinus radiata) is commonly used for plantations since a fast-growing cultivar suitable for a wide range of conditions has been developed. Government agencies, environmental organisations and private trusts carry out tree planting for conservation and climate change mitigation. While some work is carried out by private enterprise, there are also planting days organised for volunteers. Landcare Research use planted forests for their EBEX21 system for greenhouse gas emissions mitigations. South Africa South Africa's forests have been a heavily depleted mostly due to agriculture, traditional farming and urbanisation in the coastal regions. Various organizations are working on increasing the forest cover in parts of the country. Currently there is less than 0.5% forest cover in South Africa. Wildlands Conservation Trust and Food & Trees for Africa (FTFA) are some of the oldest NGOs working to plant trees throughout South Africa - both established in the early 1990s. Greenpop is a national Social Enterprise established in 2010 which focusses on tree planting in sustainable urban greening and forest restoration in Sub-Saharan Africa. There is a strong volunteer movement for conservation in South Africa. National Tree Day or Arbor Day is organised annually in September, and has gone on to become national Arbor Month. The largest planted forest in the Southern Hemisphere is located in the Sabie/Graskop area in South Africa and covers approximately 6000 km2 United States Hand planting is the most widely practiced planting method in the United States. Hand planting is possible on most terrain, in most soil conditions, and around obstacles. Equipment for hand planting is inexpensive, but hand planting is labor-intensive resulting in costs that are generally 20% to 50% greater than those of machine planting. Hand planting is an attractive option for landowners and conservation organizations planting small acreages; especially if volunteer labor is available. Seedling survival rates will vary based on planters' experience levels. In the U.S., common hand planting tools include dibbles, mattocks, augers, and hoedads that are paired with a hip or shoulder harness style planting bag. Machine planting is another common planting method in the United States. Equipment and transportation costs are such that machine planting is generally used for larger acreages where reduced labor cost and high planting productivity are desired. Machine planting is generally restricted to reasonably level terrain with good soil and limited obstacles. While machine planting is most often associated with plantation silvaculture in the Southeast and Upper Midwest, it has been used in ecological restoration. Machine planting was used for forest restoration on Alaska's Kenai Peninsula following a large scale Spruce Bark Beetle outbreak in the 1990s. Common tree planting machines include the C&G Tree Planter, Hoedag Tree Planter, Taylor Tree Planter, Reynolds Tree Planter, and Whitfield Tree Planter. Trees for the Future and Plant With Purpose are non-profit organizations based in the U.S. that plant trees in developing countries to improve land management. Other organizations that plant trees in the United States include: American Forests Planting Shade Student run non-profit based in Virginia Beach. Gives citizens the resources to plant trees in their own backyard and other residential areas. Arbor Day Foundation Nature Conservancy Plant-it 2020 USDA Forest Service "Plant-A-Tree" program in which a person can donate to plant trees in the National Forests. Our City Forest TreeFolks empowers central Texans to build stronger communities through planting and caring for trees. Since 1989, TreeFolks has planted over 1.5 million trees in parks, neighborhoods, and natural areas throughout central Texas. India Tree Plantation drives combat many environmental issues like deforestation, erosion of soil, desertification in semi-arid areas, global warming and hence enhancing the beauty and balance of the environment. Trees absorb harmful gases and emit oxygen resulting in an increase in oxygen supply. On average, a single tree emits 260 pounds of oxygen annually. Similarly, a fully-grown tree is sufficient for 18 human beings in one acre of land in one year stressing the importance of tree plantation for mankind. Aniruddha’s Academy of Disaster Management (Mumbai, India) carries out numerous projects to plant trees on a huge scale. The foundation trains volunteer on this subject at Govidyapeetham (Cattle Conservation Institute) in the city of Karjat in Maharashtra, India. The trained volunteers then plant saplings, trees in groups on available land. Local government authorities also provide vacant plots, land on highways sides and on the hills for tree plantation. Ek Kadam Sansthan (Jaipur, India) involves in many plantation projects including one tree my duty to plant trees on the earth. The Ek Kadam plant trees and hand them over to the individual at the village, who meets beneficiary criteria like they are financially challenged, physically challenged etc. After handing over the process Sansthan pays them 100 INR per tree for watering and safety from grazing cattle. Hence by this process Ek Kadam sansthan want to ensure 100% survivability of planted trees. Many volunteers are added to this campaign. The trained volunteers help Ek Kadam Sansthan to plant saplings, and managing all processes. Ek Kadam Sansthan not taking any support from government agencies. The management committee is regularised and managed by retired bureaucrats to ensure transparency in funds and performance measures. Ek Kadam Sansthan's campaign One Tree My Duty is working with technology-enabled tree plantation work. Role in climate change The development of markets for tradeable pollution permits in recent years have opened up a new source of funding for tree planting projects: carbon offsets. The creation of carbon offsets from tree planting projects hinges on the notion that trees help to mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide as they grow. However, the science linking trees and climate change is largely unsettled, and trees remain a controversial source of offsets. Climate impacts Climate scientists working for the IPCC believe human-induced global deforestation is responsible for 18-25% of global climate change. The United Nations, World Bank and other leading nongovernmental organizations are encouraging tree planting to mitigate the effects of climate change. Trees sequester carbon through photosynthesis, converting carbon dioxide and water molecules into molecular dioxygen (O2) and plant organic matter, such as carbohydrates (e.g., cellulose). Hence, forests that grow in area or density and thus increase in organic biomass will reduce atmospheric levels. (Carbon is released as if a tree or its lumber burns or decays, but as long as the forest is able to grow back at the same rate as its biomass is lost due to oxidation of organic carbon, the net result is carbon neutral.) In their 2001 assessment, the IPCC estimated the potential of biological mitigation options (mainly tree planting) is on the order of 100 Gigatonnes of carbon (cumulative) by 2050, equivalent to about 10% to 20% of projected fossil fuel emissions during that period. However, the global cooling effect of forests from carbon sequestration is not the only factor to be considered. For example, the planting of new forests may initially release some of the area's existing carbon stores into the atmosphere. Specifically, the conversion of peat bogs into oil palm plantations has made Indonesia the world's third largest producer of greenhouse gases. Compared to less vegetated lands, forests affect climate in three main ways: Cooling the Earth by functioning as carbon sinks, and adding water vapor to the atmosphere and thereby increasing cloudiness. Warming the Earth by absorbing a high percentage of sunlight due to the low reflectivity of a forest's dark surfaces. This warming effect, or reduced albedo, is large where evergreen forests, which have very low reflectivity, shade snow cover, which is highly reflective. To date, most tree planting offsets strategies have taken only the first effect into account. A study published in December 2005 combined all these effects and found that tropical forestation has a large net cooling effect, because of increased cloudiness and because of high tropical growth and carbon sequestration rates. Trees grow three times faster in the tropics than in temperate zones; each tree in the rainy tropics removes about 22 kilograms (50 pounds) of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year. However, this study found little to no net global cooling from tree planting in temperate climates, where warming due to sunlight absorption by trees counteracts the global cooling effect of carbon sequestration. Furthermore, this study confirmed earlier findings that reforestation of colder regions — where long periods of snow cover, evergreen trees, and slow sequestration rates prevail — probably results in global warming. According to Ken Caldeira, a study co-author from the Carnegie Institution for Science, "To plant forests outside of the tropics to mitigate climate change is a waste of time.". His premise that grassland reflects more sun, keeping temperatures lower, is, however, applicable only in arid regions. A well-watered lawn, for example, is as green as a tree, but absorbs far less . Deciduous trees also have the advantage of providing shade in the summer and sunlight in the winter; so these trees, when planted close to houses, can be utilized to help increase energy efficiency of these houses. This study remains controversial and criticized for assuming dark colored trees might replace the frozen, white tundra in the upper northern hemisphere. Regular tree planting projects typically take place on lands that are only slightly different in color. The warming impact was also measured over hundreds of years, rather than a 30- to 70-year time horizon most climate experts believe we have to fix climate change. Furthermore, the described warming effect (of temperate and boreal latitude forest) is only apparent once the trees have grown to create a dense 'close canopy', and it is at precisely this point that trees grown for offset purposes should be harvested and their absorbed carbon fixed for the long-term as timber. Costs While the benefits of tree planting are subject to debate, the costs are low compared to many other mitigation options. The IPCC has concluded that "The mitigation costs through forestry can be quite modest (US$0.1–US$20 / metric ton carbon dioxide) in some tropical developing countries.... The costs of biological mitigation, therefore, are low compared to those of many other alternative measures". The cost-effectiveness of tropical reforestation is due not only to growth rate, but also to farmers from tropical developing countries who voluntarily plant and nurture tree species which can improve the productivity of their lands. As little as US$90 will plant 900 trees, enough to annually remove as much carbon dioxide as is annually generated by the fossil-fuel usage of an average United States resident. Types of trees planted The type of tree planted may have great influence on the environmental outcomes. It is often much more profitable to outside interests to plant fast-growing species, such as eucalyptus, casuarina or pine (e.g., Pinus radiata or Pinus caribaea), even though the environmental and biodiversity benefits of such monoculture plantations are not comparable to native forest, and such offset projects are frequently objects of controversy. To promote the growth of native ecosystems, many environmentalists advocate only indigenous trees be planted. A practical solution is to plant tough, fast-growing native tree species which begin rebuilding the land. Planting non-invasive trees that assist in the natural return of indigenous species is called "assisted natural regeneration." There are many such species that can be planted, of which about 12 are in widespread use in the US, such as Leucaena leucocephala. Alternatively, farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR), involves farmers preserving trees (not replanting), and is considered to be a more cost-effective method of reforestation than regular tree planting. Season of planting Bareroot stock The classical silvicultural literature unanimously advocates spring as the time to plant bareroot stock, with lifting and outplanting taking place while the trees are still apparently dormant. This view, in which spring planting is implicit, was epitomized by Toumey and Korstian (1942): "Almost without exception the most favourable time for ... planting is 2 weeks or more before buds [of the planting stock] begin their growth". Soil moisture conditions are generally favourable at the time when the growing season is about to begin, while dormant stock is less subject to mechanical injury and physiological shock. If the size of the planting program allows, there is little doubt that such scheduling would be advantageous in that it satisfies one, and commonly 2, of the factors essential for success: (1) the use of planting stock that is physiologically capable of responding to a growth environment at planting, and (2) planting when site factors favour tree survival and growth. The 3rd factor a good planting job, and although desirable in all plantings, is probably somewhat less critical in conventional spring plantings than at other times. If, however, a planting program cannot be completed in this way, there are other options: conventional fall planting with fresh-lifted stock; summer planting with fresh-lifted stock; and spring and summer planting with stored spring-lifted or fall-lifted stock. Conventional spring planting with fresh spring-lifted stock In the context of regeneration silviculture, "spring", "summer", etc. lack precise meaning. Typically, the spring planting season begins as soon as lifting becomes possible in the nursery, and ends with the completion of the program. At this time, planting stock is physiologically attuned to the oncoming growing season, and the outplant has the whole of that season in which to establish its root system before it is challenged by any frost heaving. In practice, ideals are seldom attained. That stock is normally dormant when spring-planted is a widespread fallacy. Active growth is commonly obvious at the time of planting, but in any case the metabolic activity increases in planting stock before the tops give visible expression to this. The difficulty of obtaining, in quantity, spring-lifted stock in dormant condition increases with increasing continentality of climate. In many areas, the period of springlike weather is unreliable and often short. As well, the soil moisture advantage claimed for spring planting is also insecurely founded. Soils that are sandy or gravelly, and shallow soils of any texture are highly dependent on current weather due to their limited available water capacities. Nor will a plentiful supply of soil moisture benefit an outplant whose roots are enveloped in anaerobic and/or cold soil, and mortality of trees outplanted into soil colder than about 6 °C may be excessive. Flushing increases the vulnerability of planting stock to both physiological stress (because of increased water requirements and reduced root growth capacity) and mechanical damage, which probably accounts for the commonly asserted superiority of early spring over late spring planting. In fact, the spruces may be planted not only throughout the spring planting period provided that the period of most active shoot elongation is avoided, but virtually throughout the whole growing season, with little loss of performance other than some reduction in increment. Mullin's (1971) study at Midhurst in southern Ontario illustrates both the success with which white spruce can be planted throughout the period in question and the need to minimize stresses on the planting stock. Mullin used 3+0 stock from regular shipping beds in a series of 6 weekly plantings beginning with apparently dormant trees on 3 May and ending on 7 June, by which time the new leading shoots were several centimetres long. Trees were lifted with and without root dipping, planted on the day of lifting after their root systems had been exposed for 0, 1, 2, or 3 hours. Whereas 2nd year survival in the control (root exposure = 0) condition varied little among the 6 plantings, with averages of 83.5% +/- 4.7% for root-dipped trees and 77.2 +/- 7.0% for non-dipped, mortality rates among root-exposed stock were very much more variable. For instance, 2nd-year survival among root-dipped trees whose root systems had been exposed for 1 hour varied from 17% to 84%. Conventional fall planting with fresh-lifted stock The fall planting season is generally considered to begin when nursery stock has hardened off and soil moisture reserves have been replenished by autumnal rain. It then continues until the planting program has been completed or is terminated by freeze-up or heavy snow. The advantages of fall planting were once considered "To outweigh those of spring so certainly" that in the National Forests of the Lake States almost all planting was done in the fall, but in spite of some success, operational fall plantings in North America have tended to be less successful than operational spring plantings. On certain sites, a major disadvantage of fall planting is that the root systems of outplants have little time in which to become firmly anchored before being subjected to frost heaving. Such plants are also vulnerable to "winter browning", which in fact may occur in the fall soon after planting, especially among stock having high shoot:root ratios. Relationships between dormancy progression and physiological condition, including root-growth capacity, are much less clear in the spruces than in the pines, but certainly there is good evidence that, in the absence of frost heaving, plantings of spruces can be just as successful in fall as in spring. Summer planting with fresh-lifted stock Conceptually and logistically, the simplest way of extending the conventional planting season is to extend lifting and planting of fresh stock through summer until the planting program has been competed. There is evidence that spruces may be planted successfully throughout the summer. Summer planting has also been successful in a number of research studies with white spruce, e.g., Crossley 1956; Ackerman and Johnson 1962; Decie 1962 cited by Revel and Coates 1976; Burgar and Lyon 1968; Mullin 1971, 1974; Revel and Coates 1976. Success depends on minimizing stresses to planting stock at all stages from lifting through planting and on planting when site conditions are conducive to survival and growth. Spring and summer planting with stored stock Refrigerated storage of planting stock has been developed largely with the aim of overcoming problems experienced in using flushed planting stock. Storage provides a means of holding stock for use when fresh stock is either unavailable or at a stage of development that renders it unsuitable for planting. It also offers possibilities of manipulating the physiological condition of the stock. However, there are problems associated with storage, e.g., mold, cold injury, desiccation, and depletion of food reserves. The rate of deterioration depends very much on the physiological condition of the planting stock at the time of lifting, as well as on the storage environment and duration of storage. In attempts to devise safe schedules for spring-lifting of stock for frozen storage, Mullin (1978) used a base of 0 °C and accumulated daily maximum soil temperatures at 15 cm depth to calculate degree days (DD). He interpreted the evidence to mean that white spruce destined for frozen storage should have accumulated no more than 50 DD before being lifted. With regard to cool-stored, spring-lifted stock, the main ingredients for success are lifting before flushing has begun, prevention of desiccation, maintenance of a constant temperature within 1 or 2 degrees of freezing, minimization of mold by good temperature control and sanitation, avoidance of crushing and other mechanical damage, and avoidance of longer than necessary periods of storage. Mullin and Forcier (1976) and Mullin and Reffle (1980) examined the effects of spring-lifting date and planting date on several species, including 3+0 white spruce after frozen storage, with fresh-lifted controls planted on each planting date for comparison. In all plantings, the earliest (2 May) lifting gave highest average second-year survival in all species. In another study, Mullin (1978) found that outplantings of frozen-stored 3+0 white spruce were consistently successful to the end of July only with the earliest -lifted (25 April) stock. Sutton (1982) also used 3+0 white spruce in outplanting every 2 weeks from the end of June through the growing season in 3 successive years on a variety of sites in northern Ontario. Despite variation in planting stock, poor storage environments and adverse weather, 4th-year results showed a consistent pattern of reasonable survival and growth rates among trees planted through July, with a rapid decline in performance of trees planted thereafter. Overwinter storage of stock has also been employed. It has the advantage of lifting stock at the end of the growing season when physiological processes are invoking natural dormancy. Time of fall lifting was investigated by Mullin and Parker (1976) along with overwinter storage temperature to determine their effects on the performance of spring-planted 3+0 white spruce. There were 5 lifts, weekly from 19 October through 16 November, after which frozen ground put a stop to lifting. Two storage temperatures were used, -18 °C and -4 °C. Nearly all of the trees stored at -18 °C died. The other stock was planted in shallow furrows in sparsely sodded field of loamy sand on 12 April, 17 May, and 14 June along with fresh-lifted stock on each date. Fresh and stored white spruce gave comparable results in plantings extended into mid-June in the Midhurst area of Ontario. Natural refrigerated overwinter storage has been used in root cellars and snow caches. Using natural refrigeration in root cellar storage, Jorgensen and Stanek (1962) kept 3+0 and 2+2 white spruce in dormant condition for 6 months without apparent detriment to performance after outplanting. Moreover, the stock was highly resistant to spring frost damage. Natural cold storage for overwintering 3+0 and 2+2 white spruce was also used by Mullin (1966). Unlike Jorgensen and Stanek's (1962) stock, which was raised 550 km to the south of where it was planted, Mullin's stock was raised in a nursery at about the same latitude as the planting site; the stock experienced inside-bale temperatures down to -15 °C in mid-winter, but still showed first- and second-year survival rates of 85.9% and 65.9%, respectively, compared with 91.4% and 76.2%, respectively, for fresh-lifted stock. However, Mullin's stored stock was much more damaged by spring frost than was fresh-lifted stock and it "showed a reduction in vigour as measured in terms of survival, susceptibility to damage and growth". History See also Arbor Day Billion Tree Campaign Ecosia Farmer-managed natural regeneration Hoedad (tool) Hoedads Reforestation Cooperative Johnny Appleseed Mattock Planet Ark Plant-for-the-Planet Pottiputki Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Tree planting bar Tu Bishvat Tubestock Urban reforestation Propagation of Christmas trees Further reading References External links Forestry occupations Forest management Reforestation Habitat management equipment and methods Trees	[ 0.3134928345680237, 0.033317793160676956, -0.4138822555541992, 0.35117611289024353, 0.24414709210395813, 0.6335007548332214, -0.06789572536945343, 0.48226210474967957, -0.4366680979728699, -0.120477095246315, -0.39069586992263794, -0.007937093265354633, -0.10292032361030579, 0.050175540149211884, -0.3835841119289398, 0.36647000908851624, 0.6820914149284363, 0.2672818899154663, 0.3142484128475189, 0.0034004836343228817, -0.4627903699874878, -0.6802390813827515, 0.2469717413187027, 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250493	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orly%20Airport	Orly Airport	Paris Orly Airport (), commonly referred to as Orly , is an international airport located partially in Orly and partially in Villeneuve-le-Roi, south of Paris, France. It serves as a secondary hub for domestic and overseas territories flights of Air France and as the homebase for Transavia France. Flights operate to destinations in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Caribbean and North America. Prior to the opening of Charles de Gaulle Airport in March 1974, Orly was the main airport of Paris. Even with the shift of most international traffic to Charles de Gaulle Airport, Orly remains the busiest French airport for domestic traffic and the second busiest French airport overall in passenger traffic, with 33,120,685 passengers in 2018. The airport is operated by Groupe ADP under the brand Paris Aéroport. Since February 2018, the CEO of the airport has been Régis Lacote. Location Orly Airport covers of land. The airport area, including terminals and runways, spans over two départements and seven communes: Essonne département: communes of Paray-Vieille-Poste (West Terminal and half of South Terminal), Wissous, Athis-Mons, Chilly-Mazarin, and Morangis; Val-de-Marne département: communes of Villeneuve-le-Roi and Orly (half of South Terminal). Management of the airport, however, is solely under the authority of Aéroports de Paris, which also manages Charles de Gaulle Airport, Le Bourget Airport, and several smaller airports in the suburbs of Paris. History First years Originally known as Villeneuve-Orly Airport, the facility was opened in the southern suburbs of Paris in 1932 as a secondary airport to Le Bourget. Before this two huge airship hangars had been built there by the engineer Eugène Freyssinet from 1923 on. World War II As a result of the Battle of France in 1940, Orly Airport was used by the occupying German Luftwaffe as a combat airfield, stationing various fighter and bomber units at the airport throughout the occupation. Consequently, Orly was repeatedly attacked by the Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), destroying much of its infrastructure, and leaving its runways with numerous bomb craters to limit its usefulness to the Germans. After the Battle of Normandy and the retreat of German forces from the Paris area in August 1944, Orly was partially repaired by USAAF combat engineers and was used by Ninth Air Force as tactical airfield A-47. The 50th Fighter Group flew P-47 Thunderbolt fighter-bomber aircraft from the airport until September, then liaison squadrons used the airfield until October 1945. Post-war The USAAF diagram from March 1947 shows the 27/207 (degrees magnetic) runway (later 03R) with 81/261 runway (later 08L) crossing it at its north end. The November 1953 Aeradio diagram shows four concrete runways, all wide: 03L , 03R , 08L and 08R . The American United States Army Air Forces 1408th Army Air Force Base Unit was the primary operator at Orly Field until March 1947 when control was returned to the French Government. (The United States Air Force leased a small portion of the Airport to support Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) at Rocquencourt). The Americans left in 1967 as a result of France's withdrawal from NATO's integrated military command, and all non-French NATO forces were asked to leave France. In May 1958, Pan Am Douglas DC-7Cs flew to Los Angeles in 21 hr 56 min; TWA, Air France and Pan Am flew nonstop to New York in 14 hrs 10–15 min. Air France flew to Tokyo in 31 hr 5 min via Anchorage or 44 hr 45 min on a seven-stop Lockheed Constellation (1049G model) via India. Air France's ten flights a day to London were almost all Vickers Viscounts; the only other London flight was Alitalia's daily Douglas DC-6B (BEA was at Le Bourget). A development project voted in 2012 planned to merge the airport's south and west terminals with the construction of an building to create one great terminal. On 14 April 2016, the Groupe ADP rolled out the Connect 2020 corporate strategy and the commercial brand Paris Aéroport was applied to all Parisian airports, including the Orly airport. On November 7th, 2015, the failure of a two-decade-old Windows 3.1 system which was responsible for communicating visual range information in foggy weather to pilots caused a temporary cease of operations. Whether the failure was hardware- or software-based is not specified, though the highlighting of the operating system suggests a software failure. As part of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on aviation, the airport was closed to all commercial traffic from 1 April 2020 to 25 June 2020. During this period, commercial traffic and flights were relocated to Charles de Gaulle Airport, while Orly was still used for State flights, emergency diversions, and medical evacuations. Terminals Terminals 1 and 2 Known as the West Terminal until March 2019, these two terminals consist of two floors and a gate area of four "fingers" rather than a brick-style layout. The ground level 0 features the arrivals facilities including eight baggage reclaim belts as well as several service facilities and shops. The departures area is located on level 1 with more stores and restaurants located here. This central departures area is connected to three gate areas split between Orly 1 (A and B gates) and Orly 2 (C gates). 23 stands at this terminal are equipped with jet-bridges, with several of them also able to handle wide-body aircraft. Terminal 3 Inaugurated in April 2019, Terminal 3 is a junction building between Terminals 1, 2 and 4. The terminal allows customers to travel between all areas of the airport under one roof. It includes around 5,000 sqm of Duty Free shopping along with several restaurants and lounges. It houses gates D and E, with direct access to Orly 4 departure gates. Terminal 4 Formerly known as the South Terminal this innovative 1961 steel-and-glass terminal building consists of six floors. While the smaller basement level −1 as well as the upper levels 2, 3 and 4 contain only some service facilities, restaurants and office space, level 0 features the arrivals facilities as well as several shops and service counters. The airside area and departure gates are located on the upper level 1. The waiting area, which features several shops as well, houses gates E and F. 15 of the terminal's departure gates are equipped with jet-bridges, some of them are able to handle wide-body aircraft. Airlines and destinations Statistics Other facilities AOM French Airlines had its head office in Orly Airport Building 363 in Paray-Vieille-Poste. After AOM and Air Liberté merged in 2001, the new airline, Air Lib, occupied building 363. Ground transportation Train Orly Airport is connected to the RER B train line at Antony train station by the Orlyval automatic shuttle. Orlyval is free to use between the two Orly terminal stations (Orly 4 and Orly 1,2,3), however it costs €9.30 between Antony and Orly Airport. Tramway T7 connects Orly 4 to Villejuif – Louis Aragon on Paris Métro Line 7. Bus 183 connects Orly Airport to the RER C train at Pont de Rungis – Aéroport d'Orly. Paris Métro Line 14 is being extended to Orly. Opening of the extension is expected in 2024. The airport will also serve as a terminus for the future Paris Métro Line 18, due to enter service in 2026. Car Orly Airport is connected to the A106 autoroute (spur route of the A6 autoroute). Buses and coaches the RATP buses: Orlybus direct to Denfert-Rochereau 183 to Rungis International Market the Albatrans buses: 91.10 to gare de Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines through gare de Massy-Palaiseau the Keolis Ouest Val-de-Marnebuses: 480 to gare de Villeneuve-Saint-Georges through gare d'Ablon the Keolis Orly Rungis buses: 191.100 to the Marché international de Rungis and gare d'Yerres through gare de Juvisy the VEA buses: a shuttle direct to Disneyland Paris the Noctilien night buses: N22 to Place du Châtelet in Paris and gare de Juvisy N31 to Paris-Gare de Lyon N131 to Paris-Gare de Lyon and gare de Brétigny-sur-Orge N144 to gare de Paris-Est and gare de Corbeil-Essonnes Accidents and incidents On 10 February 1948, SNCASE Languedoc P/7 F-BATH of Air France was damaged beyond economical repair at Orly Airport. On 20 September 1952, a USAF Douglas C-47 Skytrain on final approach to ORY struck a telephone pole, rooftops and crashed and caught fire 1 km (0.6 mi) from ORY. Three of the four occupants on board died. On 27 November 1953, a USAF Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar crashed 4 km (2.5 mi) NE of ORY on approach, crashing in flames in the Cholsy-le-Roy neighborhood of Paris. The cause was the rear clam shell doors broke off striking striking the horizontal stabilizer, causing a catastrophic failure of the empennage. All six occupants were killed. On 24 November 1956, Alitalia - Linee Aerre Italiane S.p.A. Flight 451, a Douglas DC-6 crashed 0.6 km (0.4 mi) W of ORY moments after takeoff, some 10–15 seconds later altitude was lost and the DC-6 struck a house 600 m past the runway end. All 10 crew and 34 of the 35 passengers were killed. Cause unknown. On 21 January 1957, a SNCASE Armagnac crashed attempting to land at night with instrument landing system monitored by GCA. One crewmember and one passenger out of the 70 on board died. On 3 June 1962, Air France Flight 007, a chartered Boeing 707 named the Chateau de Sully bound for Atlanta, US, crashed on take-off with 132 people on board; 130 of them were killed. The only survivors were two stewardesses seated in the rear of the plane. The charter flight was carrying home Atlanta's civic and cultural leaders of the day. At the time, this was the highest recorded death toll for an incident involving a single aircraft. On 11 July 1973, Varig Flight 820, a Boeing 707, made a forced landing due to fire in a rear lavatory, incoming from Rio de Janeiro–Galeão. The aircraft landed 5 kilometers short of the runway, in a full-flap and gear down configuration. Due mainly to smoke inhalation, there were 123 deaths whilst 11 people survived (10 crew, one passenger). On 3 March 1974, Turkish Airlines Flight 981, in an event known as the "Ermenonville air disaster", crashed in Ermenonville forest after take-off from Orly on a flight to London's Heathrow Airport when an improperly closed cargo door burst open. The explosive decompression that resulted brought down the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. All 346 people on board were killed, making the accident one of the deadliest in aviation history. Non-aircraft related On 13 and 19 January 1975, a series of RPG attacks by Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine caused collateral damage and injured 23. On 20 May 1978, three terrorists armed with submachine guns opened fire at the El Al boarding gate, killing 5 and injuring 5. On 15 July 1983, a bombing of a Turkish Airlines check-in counter by ASALA killed 8 people and injured 55. On 18 March 2017, a man attempted to grab the gun of a soldier who was patrolling the airport as part of Opération Sentinelle. The attacker was shot and killed. See also Groupe ADP Paris Aéroport United States Air Force in France List of the busiest airports in France References Citations Bibliography McAuliffe, Jerome J.: U.S. Air Force in France 1950–1967 (2005), Chapter 14, "Paris-USAF Operations". 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250496	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric%20Tepee	Electric Tepee	{{Album ratings \|rev1 = AllMusic \|rev1score = \| rev2 = The Encyclopedia of Popular Music\| rev2Score = }}Electric Tepee is the seventeenth studio album by the English space rock group Hawkwind, released in 1992. It spent one week on the UK albums chart at #53. After a European tour in March and April 1991, long-standing bass guitarist and keyboardist Harvey Bainbridge chose to leave the group. Vocalist Bridget Wishart would also end her association with the group in September. The group would go on to operate as a three piece of guitarist Dave Brock, bassist Alan Davey and drummer Richard Chadwick, making heavy use of sequencers, synthesisers and computers, both in the studio and live. The style of Electric Tepee is predominately space rock, with elements of trance, ambient and techno. The album was recorded in 1992 at Brock's own Earth Studios, produced with Paul Cobbold. "Mask of the Morning" re-uses the lyrics from "Mirror of Illusion" from the 1970 debut album Hawkwind. "Death of War" uses lyrics written by Mark Rowntree, credited as "Rown Tree", a convicted killer who has been held in a secure hospital since 1976. "Rites of Netherworld" is a brief keyboard piece based on Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring. The instrumental track "Don't Understand" includes samples of dialogue from Star Trek the Motion Picture and Star Trek the Next Generation (specifically the episode, The Offspring). The group undertook a 23 date UK tour in April and May to promote the album, appearing behind a curtain on which the lightshow was projected. An all-nighter at the Brixton Academy on 15 August, when they were joined on-stage by Salt Tank, was released as Brixton Academy 15.8.92'', using an amateur video shoot of the event. Track listing "L.S.D." (Richard Chadwick, Alan Davey) – 8:17 "Blue Shift" (Davey) – 4:17 "Death of War" (Ron Tree, Dave Brock) – 4:47 "The Secret Agent" (Brock) – 8:11 "Garden Pests" (Brock, Davey) – 2:09 "Space Dust" (Davey) – 5:18 "Snake Dance" (Harvey Bainbridge, Brock, Chadwick, Davey) – 3:54 "Mask of Morning" (Brock) – 8:49 "Rites of Netherworld" (Brock) – 0:36 "Don't Understand" (Brock, Chadwick, Davey) – 7:04 "Sadness Runs Deep" (Brock) – 5:58 "Right to Decide" (Brock, Davey) – 4:25 "Going to Hawaii" (Brock, Chadwick, Davey) – 7:35 "Electric Tepee" (Brock) – 3:07 Personnel Dave Brock – electric guitar, keyboards, vocals Alan Davey – bass guitar, vocals, keyboards Richard Chadwick – drums Release history May 1992: Essential Records, ESDLP181, UK Double LP (Limited edition of 5000) May 1992: Essential Records, ESSCD181, UK CD May 1992: Essential Records, ESSMC181, UK Cassette July 1995: Griffin Music, GN0931-2, USA January 2009: Atomhenge (Cherry Red) Records, ATOMCD1008, UK CD External links Atomhenge 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250497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Pierre%20Augereau	Charles-Pierre Augereau	Charles Pierre François Augereau, 1st Duke of Castiglione (21 October 1757 – 12 June 1816) was a French military commander and a Marshal of the Empire who served during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. After serving in the Revolutionary Wars, he earned rapid promotion while fighting against Spain and soon found himself as a division commander under Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy. He fought in all of Bonaparte's battles of 1796 with great distinction. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon entrusted Augereau with important commands. His life ended under a cloud because of his poor timing in switching sides between Napoleon and King Louis XVIII of France. Napoleon wrote of Augereau that he "has plenty of character, courage, firmness, activity; is inured to war; is well liked by the soldiery; is fortunate in his operations.". Augereau is generally counted as one of the most capable generals of the Napoleonic Wars. Early years Augereau was born in Faubourg Saint-Marceau, Paris, as the son of a Parisian fruit seller (in some accounts, a servant). He enlisted in the army at the age of seventeen in the Clare Infantry Regiment, but was soon discharged. Later, he joined the dragoons. He became a noted swordsman and duellist, but he had to flee France after killing an officer in a quarrel. For the next 13 years Augereau drifted across Europe. He claimed to have served in the Russian Army against the Ottoman Empire, being present at the Siege of Izmail as a sergeant before deserting afterwards. He later enlisted in the infantry regiment of Prince Henry of Prussia and claimed he served in the Prussian Foot Guards as well. He deserted by masterminding a mass escape and reached Saxony, where he taught fencing. In 1781, King Louis XVI of France proclaimed an amnesty for deserters, so Augereau returned to his native land. He joined the cavalry in 1784, and after serving in the carabiniers he was sent to the Kingdom of Naples as part of a military mission. While in Naples, he eloped with Gabrielle Grach and the two lovers traveled to Portugal where they spent the years 1788–1791. After the French Revolution broke out, the Portuguese jailed Augereau as a dangerous foreigner. Somehow, Gabrielle persuaded the authorities to release her husband and the couple returned to France. In September 1792, Augereau joined a volunteer cavalry unit, the German Legion, but this is without proof as Augereau claims that the papers were taken away from him during the Portuguese Inquisition. French Revolutionary Wars Augereau's unit was sent to put down the revolt in the Vendée in April 1793. The German Legion proved useless in battle because many of the soldiers switched sides, and the officers, including Augereau and François Marceau, found themselves in prison. Released, he served briefly in the 11th Hussars before serving as wagonmaster and as aide de camp to General Jean Antoine Rossignol. He was then assigned to train recruits for General Jean-Antoine Marbot at Toulouse. Marbot liked his work and Augereau soon became a close friend of the Marbot family. It is not clear when, or if, Augereau was promoted to general of brigade, but he transferred to the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees and was promoted to general of division on 23 December 1793. When General Jacques François Dugommier became commander in January 1794, the army was thoroughly reorganized. Augereau became a divisional commander and played a significant role at the Battle of Boulou from 29 April to 1 May, where his feint attacks lured the Spanish Army led by General Luis Firmín de la Unión into a false position. After the victory at Boulou, the army advanced a short distance into Spain, with Augereau holding the right wing. At the Battle of San-Lorenzo de la Muga on 13 August, he skillfully repelled the assaults of 20,000 Spanish troops with his 10,000 French troops. On 17 November, Dugommier launched a major offensive against the Spanish at the Battle of the Black Mountain. On the first day, Augereau's attack crushed the Spanish left flank while other French attacks proved unsuccessful. Dugommier was killed on the second day, but after a day's pause, the advance resumed and the Spanish were routed. After the Peace of Basel ended the War of the Pyrenees in July 1795, Augereau and his division were transferred to the Army of Italy. On 23 November 1795, Augereau fought at the Battle of Loano against the Austrians and Piedmontese. During the fighting, his troops attacked on the right near the coast, while General André Masséna's division pierced the Allied center. The following April, his close association with Napoleon Bonaparte began when Bonaparte took command of the army and launched the Montenotte campaign. Augereau fought at the Battle of Millesimo on 13 April 1796, and accepted the surrender of the castle of Cosseria the next morning. He led his troops at the Battle of Ceva on the 16th, before serving in the Lodi campaign in early May and at the Battle of Borghetto on 30 May. But it was at the Battle of Castiglione on 5 August 1796 that Augereau rendered the most notable services. In his memoirs, General Marcellin Marbot described Augereau as encouraging even Bonaparte himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle, though Marbot may not be the most reliable source, as he had not witnessed these events directly and because of his outspoken sympathy for Augereau. In any case, it was Bonaparte's undoubted superiority as a strategist that made the victory at Castiglione a possibility. On 3 August, while Bonaparte defeated the Austrian corps of General Peter Quasdanovich, Augereau held off the main Austrian army of General Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser. With 11,000 men, he attacked General Anton Lipthay's brigade and drove it back on the Austrian main body. By the end of the day, Augereau faced 20,000 Austrians. The battle cost the Austrians about 1,000 casualties, while French losses were also heavy, including General Martial Beyrand who was killed. Augereau's bold front allowed Bonaparte to dispose of Quasdanovich, then mass his main strength to beat Wurmser at Castiglione two days later. Shortly after Castiglione, Bonaparte tersely summed up Augereau's military qualities: "Much character, courage, steadiness, activity; is used to war, liked by the soldiers, lucky in his operations." In 1797, Bonaparte sent Augereau to Paris to encourage the Jacobin Directors. Augereau and the troops led by him coerced the "moderates" in the councils and carried through the coup d'état of 18 Fructidor (4 September 1797). He was then sent to command French forces in Germany. Augereau took little part in the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire in November 1799, and did not distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign which followed. Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte's fortunes, Augereau received a Marshal's baton at the beginning of the First French Empire on 19 May 1804. Napoleonic Wars Augereau commanded a camp in Brest, Brittany, during preparations for the invasion of Britain. When Napoleon called off the invasion because of the growing threat from Austria and Russia, the camp became the VII Corps of the Grande Armée. With this force, Augereau fought in the War of the Third Coalition. His corps was charged with protecting the army's lines of communications during the Ulm campaign. He fought in the battles of Konstanz and Bregenz, before tracking down and destroying General Franz Jellacic's Austrian division at Dornbirn in Vorarlberg on 13 November 1805. This was followed by the occupation of Frankfurt am Main. His wife Gabrielle died while he was away. During the War of the Fourth Coalition, Augereau was again commander of the VII Corps. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Jena on 14 October 1806 where his corps made up the left flank. Early in 1807, he fell ill with fever, and at the Battle of Eylau on 7 February 1807, he had to be supported on his horse. Nevertheless, he directed the movements of his corps with his usual bravery. Augereau's corps was almost annihilated and the marshal himself received a wound in the arm from grapeshot. Augereau became Duke of Castiglione on 19 March 1808, a hereditary victory title (i.e. not in chief of an actual fief, but a hollow title), in honour of the 1796 victory. In 1809, he married the 19-year-old Adélaïde Josephine Bourlon de Chavange (1789 – 1869) whom he had become infatuated with. Adélaïde, the daughter of Gilles Bernard Bourlon de Chavange and wife Jeanne Françoise Launuy, had no children with Augereau and the ducal title became extinct upon his death. His wife later remarried Camille de Sainte-Aldegonde (1787 – 1853), by whom she had a daughter Valentine de Sainte-Aldegonde (1820 – 1891), who married the 3rd Duke of Dino. While serving in Catalonia during the Peninsular War from February to May 1810, Augereau gained some successes but tarnished his name with cruelty. During the Russian campaign in 1812 did not leave Berlin. It was Augereau's brother Jean-Pierre, serving under Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers, who was taken prisoner by the Russian vanguard near Smolensk. He sat out the German campaign in spring 1813 due to illness. Before the Battle of Leipzig in October, Napoleon reproached him with not being the Augereau of Castiglione; to which he replied, "Give me back the old soldiers of Italy, and I will show you that I am." Yet, he led the IX Corps at Leipzig with skill and brought off his command in good order. In 1814, Augereau was given command of the army of Lyon, and his slackness exposed him to the charge of having come to an understanding with the Allies. Thereafter, he served the restored Bourbon King Louis XVIII of France. But, after reviling Napoleon, he went over to him during the Hundred Days. The emperor repulsed Augereau and charged him with being a traitor to France in 1814. After being re-restored to the throne in 1815 following Napoleon's defeat, King Louis XVIII deprived Augereau of his military title and pension. Augereau died at his estate of La Houssaye only a year later. He is buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery. Footnotes References Koch, Mémoires de Masséna Andreossi, Baron A. F. La Campagne sur le ..., 1800 - 1801 Bouvier, Bonaparte en Italie Boycott-Brown, Martin. The Road to Rivoli. London: Cassell & Co., 2001. Ducasse, Baron A. Précis de la campagne de ... de Lyon en 1814 Elting, Colonel John R. "The Proud Bandit". Chandler, David (ed.). Napoleon's Marshals. New York: Macmillan, 1987. Marbot, Mémoires Smith, Digby. The Napoleonic Wars Data Book. London: Greenhill, 1998. Michel Cadé, « Augereau (Charles, Pierre, François) », in Nouveau Dictionnaire de biographies roussillonnaises 1789–2011, vol. 1 Pouvoirs et société, t. 1 (A-L), Perpignan, Publications de l'olivier, 2011, 699 p. 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250499	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockhampton	Rockhampton	Rockhampton is a city in the Rockhampton Region of Central Queensland, Australia. The population of Rockhampton in June 2018 was 78,592, making it the fourth-largest city in the state outside of the cities of South East Queensland, and the 22nd-largest city in Australia. Today, Rockhampton is an industrial and agricultural centre of the north, and is the regional centre of Central Queensland. Rockhampton is one of the oldest cities in Queensland and in Northern Australia. In 1853, Charles and William Archer came across the Toonooba river, which is now also known as the Fitzroy River, which they claimed in honour of Sir Charles FitzRoy. The Archer brothers took up a run near Gracemere in 1855, and more settlers arrived soon after, enticed by the fertile valleys. The town of Rockhampton was proclaimed in 1858, and surveyed by William Henry Standish, Arthur F Wood and Francis Clarke, the chosen street design closely resembled the Hoddle Grid in Melbourne and consisted of a grid of wide boulevards and laneways, which was uncommon in Queensland. Within the year, gold was found at Canoona, and led to the first North Australian gold rush. This led to an influx of migrants who quickly transformed Rockhampton into the second-largest port in the state; during this period, Rockhampton was nicknamed as the "City of the Three S's", of which were "Sin, Sweat, and Sorrow". Subsequent gold rushes at Mount Morgan Mine, which was at the time one of the most productive gold mines in the world, laid the foundations for much of the city's Victorian architecture. The city is noted for its Queenslander architecture, especially in the areas of Allenstown and the Range. Rockhampton is also a large tourist destination known for its history and culture supporting such institutions as the Rockhampton Art Gallery, one of the most extensive regional galleries in Australia, the Central Queensland University with campuses across five states, the Rockhampton Heritage Village, and Dreamtime Cultural Centre. It is also famous as the hometown of Rod Laver – one of the best tennis players in history. The city is served by the Rockhampton Airport and acts as a gateway to local tourist locations such as the Capricorn Caves and Mount Archer National Park, as well as regional tourist areas including the historic town of Mount Morgan, Yeppoon and the Capricorn Coast, alongside the island chains offshore that include Great Keppel Island. History Indigenous Australians The Capricorn district is the traditional home of the Darumbal Aboriginal people. The Darumbal (Tarumbul, Tharoombool) language region includes the city of Rockhampton extending south towards Raglan Creek and north towards the Styx River and inland along the Broad Sound Ranges. The Gangulu (Kangulu, Kanolu, Kaangooloo, Khangulu) language region includes the towns of Clermont and Springsure extending south towards the Dawson River, and includes parts of Rockhampton and South Rockhampton. British colonisation The British colonisation of the area began in 1853, when the Archer brothers, Charles and William, who were seeking grazing lands arrived in the Rockhampton area. They were acting on information from earlier expeditions by Ludwig Leichhardt and Thomas Mitchell, who had explored the area in 1844 and 1846 and noted suitable land for grazing then. In January 1854, the New South Wales government proclaimed two new districts: Port Curtis and Leichhardt (roughly today's Fitzroy Region), and the Archer brothers returned in August 1855 to set up their pastoral run at Gracemere. The Fitzroy River provided a convenient waterway for shipping of supplies and produce, and the Archer brothers constructed a wool shed just downstream of a bar of rocks that prevented further upstream navigation from the coast. These rocks were incorporated with the traditional English term for a village, and the name "Rockhampton" was first coined by Charles Archer and the local Commissioner from Crown Lands, William Wiseman. In 1855, Scottish colonists and brothers William Thomas Elliott and George Mackenzie Elliot arrived at Gracemere and soon after, took up landholdings at Canoona, north of present-day Yaamba. Their father was James Elliot, 3rd Laird of Wolfelee House near Hawick in Scotland. One of their other brothers was Walter Elliot of the East India Company and secretary to the governor of the Madras Presidency. In January 1856, after a massacre of local Aboriginal people perpetrated by Lieutenant John Murray of the Native Police at nearby Nankin Creek, some 200 Aboriginal men, women and children came to Canoona and began shouting at the employees of the Elliots. William Thomas Elliot and his men opened fire at random upon the group which fled after a short time. William and an employee were wounded (the employee reportedly died) and about seven of the local inhabitants were killed. Fellow colonist, Charles Archer of Gracemere and a group of Native Police troopers later pursued these Aboriginal people toward the east and punished them further. Local Aboriginal people friendly to Archer were also fired upon, killing one. Permanent British settlement at the Rockhampton township began in July 1856, when Richard Palmer travelled from Gladstone with an escort of Native Police under sub-Lieutenant Walter Powell to set up a store. Powell arrived at the site first and constructed the Native Police barracks. This was the first habitable British building established at Rockhampton and it was located on the south bank of the Fitzroy River at the end of Albert Street. With abundant grazing lands and waters from the Fitzroy River and its many tributaries and lagoons, the region continued to expand rapidly. In 1858, the town of Rockhampton was officially proclaimed. The town was surveyed at this time and the first sales of building allotments were held that year. In 1859, gold was discovered at Canoona. Miners rushed to the new field, using the site of Rockhampton on the Fitzroy River as the nearest navigable port. The Canoona field proved to be very disappointing and thousands of would-be gold seekers were left stranded at Rockhampton. Although many returned south, others stayed, adding to the new town's population. Conflict with Aboriginal people in the region continued and further massacres occurred. In 1859, John Arthur Macartney attempted to stock his cousin's Belmont property just to the north of Rockhampton when a shepherd was killed by local Aboriginal men. 2nd Lieutenant Frederick Carr of the Native Police together with his troopers, the Macartneys, Peter Fitzallan MacDonald and Henry Brisdon, formed an armed group which set out to track down those responsible. The group followed the tracks and "dispersed" them. One account of this incident describes how around hundred of the tribe were rounded up and "it ended in the usual way and the bulk of the wild mob were shot." By 1861, the town boasted a regular newspaper, banks, court house, and school of arts. Direct shipments of imported goods and migrants from the United Kingdom began to be received during the 1860s. In 1862, land in the Kensington Estate, described as just three miles from "the most rapidly rising town and district in the whole of the colonies" was advertised for sale. During the 1860s and '70s, Rockhampton developed as the main port for the developing Central Queensland hinterland, the main export at that time being wool. A Primitive Methodist Church opened in Fitzroy Street, Rockhampton, in January 1864. Gold rushes and expansion In the 1880s and '90s, sea ports were established on the coast, adjacent to the mouth of the Fitzroy River. Broadmount was on the northern side and Port Alma on the south. Railways were subsequently constructed to carry goods to the wharves at these locations, with the railway to Broadmount opening on 1 January 1898 and the line to Port Alma opening on 16 October 1911. Maintenance on the Broadmount line ceased in August 1929. The following month, the wharf caught fire and the line was effectively closed in July 1930. The line to Port Alma closed on 15 October 1986. The significant gold deposit at Mount Morgan to the southwest was discovered in the 1880s, and Rockhampton became the main port through which the wealth of Mount Morgan gold was channelled. Due to the wealth of Mount Morgan, Rockhampton weathered the severe economic depression of the 1890s, and many of the town's substantial brick and stone public buildings date from this period. The historic streetscape of Quay Street still displays a number of substantial historic buildings, built when Rockhampton was envisaged as being capital of a state of North Queensland. Most prominent of these is the sandstone Customs House (1900), which today houses an information centre. Other important 19th-century buildings include the Post Office (1892), the Supreme Court House (1888), and St Joseph's Cathedral (1892). In September 1892 the Anglican Church in Rockhampton was the first new building in Rockhampton to be lit by electricity from the new gasworks. It was also the first church in Australia to be lit with electricity. Central Queensland Separation Movement In 1889 the people of Rockhampton established the Central Queensland Territorial Separation League, a secessionist movement with the intentions of breaking away from the state of Queensland. The core argument of movement was that the seat of government, Brisbane was in the south-east corner of the State. It was so far removed from substantial portions of the state that these areas and their citizens were left disadvantaged and neglected as political and economic interests focused on the south. Supplementing the Central Queensland Territorial Separation League, the women of Rockhampton established their own separation league in October 1892. The inaugural meeting of the Women’s Central Queensland Territorial Separation League was held at the Rockhampton School of Arts and attended by 200 women. Their main focus was preparing a petition to Queen Victoria. The introductory text set out their grievances and described the immense size of Queensland: being twelve times the area of England and Wales, and larger than France, Germany, Spain and Portugal combined. 20th century The City of Rockhampton was proclaimed in 1902. The rail connection south to Brisbane was completed in 1903, but it was not until 1921 that the northern connection to Mackay was finally completed. A railway west from Rockhampton was started in 1867 and by 1892 had reached the terminus at Longreach, away. This further strengthened Rockhampton's role as the port for the whole of Central Queensland. A passenger tramway began operating on 16 June 1909, making Rockhampton the only provincial city in Queensland to have a street tramway. Purrey steam trams ran on a number of routes throughout South Rockhampton, totalling of track. The discomfort of passengers riding in steam trams in a tropical climate in part led to their demise in 1939, replaced by a bus network run by the City Council. Strong shaking was felt in Rockhampton when the "Great Queensland Earthquake of 1918" occurred on 7 June 1918. The earthquake was felt from Mackay in the north, to Grafton in New South Wales, and west to Charleville. Estimated to have reached a 6.0 magnitude, the earthquake caused some damage to buildings including chimney stacks crumbling, plaster being dislodged from walls and ceilings, water tanks bursting and trees being uprooted. Houses and buildings experienced considerable swaying with crockery smashing on the floor and pictures falling off walls. The 1918 earthquake remains as the largest to have ever hit Queensland since European settlement. Restaurant proprietors, Emanuel, William and Nicholas Economos, trading as the Economos Bros., ran their business in East Street, Rockhampton. East Street was a bustling metropolis when the brothers opened their traditional Greek café in the 1920s. Previously known as the Australian Café, the brothers renamed it the Busy Bee Café. During the Second World War, a US army base was established outside the city; it hosted up to 70,000 servicemen en route to action in the Pacific and New Guinea. On 2 March 1949, Rockhampton was severely damaged by a cyclone. The Fitzroy River Barrage was commissioned in 1971. The barrage has a capacity of 81,300 megalitres and holds back a lake long. The barrage was funded by the Rockhampton City Council to provide a reliable source of water to the city, and to effectively drought proof Rockhampton. In 2002, a study showed that salinity was increasing in the Fitzroy Basin and, while only small areas of land were severely affected by salinity, urged that steps be taken to manage salinity by good irrigation practices and better management of tree clearing. In 1989, two bombs exploded inside the Shark Nightclub, causing injuries and extensive damage to the building. The following year, the Factory Nightclub was also damaged by a bomb. It is not known who planted the bombs. 21st century In 2003, Rockhampton was the centre of significant national media interest after local teenager Natasha Ryan was found in the North Rockhampton home of her boyfriend, Scott Black, after being missing for five years. Serial killer Leonard Fraser had been charged with her murder, as her disappearance occurred in the period in which Fraser had abducted and murdered other women and girls. An anonymous tip-off during Fraser's trial led to the discovery of Ryan. Despite Ryan's discovery, Fraser's defence did not seek a mistrial and Fraser was convicted of the murders of other women and girls and was given an indefinite life sentence. On 20 February 2015, Rockhampton was severely damaged by Cyclone Marcia damaging hundreds of homes and businesses with wind speeds over 150 km/h recorded in Rockhampton. Major flooding was experienced in the upper reaches of the Fitzroy River after more than 250mm were recorded. The cyclone left about 100,000 properties across Central Queensland without power. Geography The town lies on the Fitzroy River, approximately from where the river enters the Coral Sea, and some north of the state capital, Brisbane. Rockhampton has a north and south side with three bridges connecting the two sides, one for trains and two for vehicles and people. Rockhampton lies just north of the Tropic of Capricorn in Central Queensland. A sculpture originally marking the latitude was later moved into town to be more accessible to tourists. Although the Tropic of Capricorn is represented on maps as a "dotted line" that lies at 23° 26' 22", there is actually a bio-geographical overlap of Tropical and Temperate zones more than wide; Rockhampton is roughly at its centre on the East Coast of Australia. The city is located on the banks of the Fitzroy River, approximately from the river mouth. The Berserker Range lies on the eastern side of the city, with the Athelstane Range to the west. The coastal area to the east of the city is known as the Capricorn Coast, with the rapidly growing town of Yeppoon its major centre. Climate Rockhampton experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa/Cwa). The city is situated on the Tropic of Capricorn and lies within the southeast trade wind belt, too far south to experience regular north west monsoonal influence, and too far north to gain much influence from cold fronts sweeping in from the Southern Ocean. Typical temperature ranges are in the summer/wet season and in the winter/dry season. The city receives 116.3 days of clear skies annually. Rockhampton lies within the cyclone risk zone and has experienced several large cyclones since European settlement. The Rockhampton area is also subject to summer thunderstorms. There is a high incidence of winter and early spring fogs. Maximum temperatures in the low to mid 40s have been recorded in October to March. The Fitzroy River at Rockhampton has a long and well documented history of flooding with flood records dating back to 1859. The highest recorded flood occurred in January 1918 and reached on the Rockhampton gauge. The second highest flood in Rockhampton was recorded on 19 February 1954, when the Fitzroy River peaked at a height of 9.4 metres. Rockhampton's third worst flood was recorded on 12 January 1991, when the Fitzroy River peaked at 9.3 metres. More recently, Rockhampton was affected by the 2010–2011 Queensland floods when the Fitzroy River peaked at 9.2 metres on 5 January 2011, although the river had been expected to rise as high as 9.4 metres. The highest recorded official temperature in Rockhampton was , while the lowest was . The highest recorded 24-hour rainfall total was on 25 January 2013. Heritage listings Rockhampton has a number of heritage-listed sites. For details see the List of heritage listed buildings in Rockhampton. Governance Rockhampton is governed by the Rockhampton Regional Council. The Council consists of a mayor and seven councillors. The Mayor is elected by the public, and the Councillors are elected from seven single-member divisions using an optional preferential voting system. Elections are held every four years. Tony Williams is the current mayor after the 2021 mayoral by-election following the resignation of long time mayor Margaret Strelow. Margaret Strelow won the mayoral elections in 2013, 2016 and March 2020. Strelow had also served as Mayor of the former City of Rockhampton from 2000 to 2008. The present Rockhampton Regional Council area was formed as a result of the 2008 amalgamation of four local government areas. These were the original City of Rockhampton which comprised most of the Rockhampton metropolitan area, the Shire of Fitzroy comprising Gracemere and surrounding districts, and the Shire of Mount Morgan around the town of Mount Morgan itself. The fourth local government area was the Shire of Livingstone which comprised the adjacent coastal towns and hinterland to the east and north of Rockhampton as well as some outlying Rockhampton suburbs. However, Livingstone Shire de-amalgamated from Rockhampton Region in 2014 following a referendum. Before the 2008 amalgamation, the City of Rockhampton had a population of approximately 74,530, Fitzroy Shire approximately 11,357, and Mount Morgan Shire approximately 2,925 people. Proposed boundary changes between Rockhampton Regional Council and Livingstone Shire Council are under review by the Local Government Change Commission. The changes relate to three suburbs contiguous with Rockhampton City which are presently part of Livingstone Shire. The proposed changes will affect 1170 properties in the suburbs of Glenlee, Rockyview, and Glendale. Economy Agriculture The agricultural sector, specifically the cattle trade, is a dominant industry in Central Queensland. The latter has been visually represented around Rockhampton City with a set of seven large statues of bulls known as the 'Big Bulls'. Two large abattoirs are located on the south-eastern outskirts of Rockhampton provides employment for people living in Rockhampton and also for refugees from overseas who are recruited when the companies experience difficulty finding local workers to fill vacancies. One meat processing plant is located at Lakes Creek, operated by Teys Australia (a Cargill joint venture) while the JBS meatworks is located at Nerimbera. The Teys Australia meatworks at Lakes Creek was previously owned by Kerry Packer's Consolidated Meat Group. CMG temporarily closed the facility in 2002. It was reopened in 2004, when Consolidated Meat Group announced they had formed a joint venture with Teys Australia. In 2011, Cargill bought out CMG's share in the company. Due to drought, floods, general economic conditions and disputes with workers, both facilities have experienced a number of closures over the years including the closure of the Lakes Creek meatworks from 2002 until 2004, but they are both currently operating as normal. The Central Queensland Livestock Exchange at Gracemere is one of the largest livestock sales facilities in the country, lies just to the west of the city. Rockhampton promotes itself as the Beef Capital of Australia but the title has been disputed a number of times by the New South Wales town of Casino. The tri-annual Beef Australia Expo held in the city is a celebration of the local area's cattle industry. Military There is a permanent military presence in Rockhampton with members of the Australian Defence Force based at the Western Street Army Barracks located near the Rockhampton Airport. To the north of the city lies the extensive Shoalwater Bay Military Training Area where large scale ground, air and amphibious operations are regularly conducted. Due to its close proximity to the training area, the city regularly sees military movements between the Western Street Army Barracks and Shoalwater Bay, and hosts service personnel from overseas when joint military exercises are held. When these exercises occur, Rockhampton sees a noticeable increase in activity from military transport, including from defence aircraft that are frequently seen at Rockhampton Airport throughout the exercise periods. The local economy is significantly boosted when visiting overseas troops stay in the city while participating in the army exercises. Military training conducted in the Rockhampton area regularly draws the ire of nomadic peace activists who travel to the city to protest the exercises. In 2011, during Exercise Talisman Sabre, a protester made his way onto the tarmac at Rockhampton Airport and attacked a $36 million Tiger helicopter with a garden mattock. The man was ordered to stand trial charged with wilful damage and threatening an aircraft but died before the matter went to trial. Tourism Tourism is increasingly playing a role in the economic development of city and surrounds. The city is a convenient distance north from Brisbane to provide an overnight stop for tourists, who can then branch out to visit local attractions and spend money at local businesses including eateries, entertainment facilities or on recreational activities. The Capricorn Coast is a 30-minute drive from Rockhampton, with the islands of the Keppel group easily accessible from there. Other attractions that are promoted to the tourist market include the Fitzroy River, the Heritage-listed buildings in the CBD, the Rockhampton Heritage Village, the Dreamtime Cultural Centre, the Archer Park Rail Museum, Mount Archer National Park, Rockhampton Botanic Gardens, and Rockhampton Zoo. A national promotional campaign was launched in 2013 to promote the local area as a premium tourist destination, featuring local singer-songwriter Kate Leahy whose song "We Like" featured as the soundtrack to the television commercials that showed the attractions of Rockhampton and the Capricorn Coast. Other industry Other industries in the Rockhampton area include the transport, manufacturing, mining and energy sectors. Rail group Aurizon (previously known as QR National) has a large workforce in the city, which is the meeting point for the main north coast rail line and the line to the major coalfields to the west. However, the company announced in October 2015 that it was closing its locomotive and maintenance depots in Rockhampton with forty jobs lost from the Rockhampton site. Management of Aurizon's Rockhampton site was criticised by the Australian Manufacturing Workers Union in 2016 who described it as "appalling", prompting 60 workers to walk off the job citing lack of consultation, lack of adequate training for apprentices, a lack of privacy and unfair demands from management for workers to increase productivity. The coal fired 1445 megawatt Stanwell Power Station lies at Stanwell, 30 kilometers west of the city, where Stanwell Corporation provides jobs for people living in Rockhampton. The power station currently has a workforce of about 150 employees and regularly hires new apprentices from Rockhampton Sibelco operates magnesia mine at Kunwarara and processing plant at Parkhurst which employs many locals, although the company announced in 2015 that it would axe 57 jobs from its local operations, with another 45 jobs axed in 2016. Demographics According to the , there were 76,985 people in Rockhampton. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 7.2% of the population. 82.8% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were New Zealand 1.4%, England 1.3%, Philippines 1.1%, India 0.6% and Vietnam 0.4%. 86.4% of people spoke only English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Vietnamese 0.5%, Tagalog 0.5%, Portuguese 0.3%, Filipino 0.3% and Mandarin 0.3% The most common responses for religion were Catholic 26.5%, No Religion 22.6% and Anglican 17.1%. Culture Many local concerts, performances, events, festivals are held at the Rockhampton's numerous venues throughout the city each year. The annual Rockhampton Cultural Festival held each August at the Rockhampton Heritage Village features a variety of market stalls, displays, international foods, music and cultural displays. The Rockhampton Showgrounds plays host to numerous events each year. Most notably, the three-day Rockhampton Show is held in June each year. Like many Australian communities, Rockhampton commemorates Anzac Day on 25 April each year. Rockhampton is believed to be the very first city in Australia to hold an early morning commemoration intentionally scheduled to coincide with when the landing at Gallipoli took place, as the city held a "daybreak" service at 6:30 am on 25 April 1916, in which 700 people attended. In 1893, Alfred Henry Lambton wrote what is recognised as the first crime novel set in Queensland, From Prison to Power. The novel takes place at the fictitious cattle station, 'Banalba', located 200 miles inland from the important tropical Queensland town of 'Rockington' [Rockhampton]. Pilbeam Theatre opened in 1979 and is Rockhampton's largest theatre. The Rockhampton Art Gallery collection, also owned by the Rockhampton Regional Council, is situated next to the Pilbeam Theatre and consists mainly of works by Australian artists from the 1940s to the 1970s. Opened in 1985, closed in 2011 and then re-opened in 2015 the Rockhampton Music Bowl regularly plays host to events including the annual Carols by Candlelight every December. The tri-annual Beef Australia Exposition is held every third May at the Rockhampton Showgrounds. In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Beef Australia Expo was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as an "event and festival". Rockhampton has played quite an important role in the production and exhibition of films in Central Queensland. Films shot in Rockhampton include The Kid Stakes, Buddies, and Broke. Sport Australian rules football / AFL Capricornia – Brothers Roos, Glenmore Bulls, Rockhampton Panthers Basketball – Rockhampton Rockets (Men's); Rockhampton Cyclones (Women's) Cricket – Senior – Frenchville Falcons, North's Tigers, Gracemere Bulls, Rocky United, Capricorn Coast, Brothers, Colts Junior – Frenchville Falcons, North's Tigers, Gracemere Bulls, Capricorn Coast, Brothers, Grammar Football (Soccer) – Capricorn Cougars and Central Queensland Mountain Biking – Rockhampton Mountain Bike Club – "Rocky MTB" '. With three trail networks around the city, Rocky MTB is based at First Turkey MTB Reserve at Norman Gardens adjacent to Mount Archer National Park. The club is a member of Mountain Bike Australia (MTBA) and hosts regional, state and national events. Team members compete throughout Australia at major races. Roller Derby – Rocky Roller Derby – "Beef City Brawlers" Rugby League – Central Comets in the Queensland Cup Rugby League – Central Queensland Capras Rugby League – Central Queensland University – Norths Chargers, Fitzroy – Gracemere Sharks, Rockhampton Brothers in the Rockhampton & District Rugby League (A Grade) Rugby Union – Rockhampton Brahmans, Brothers Old Boys Touch Football – Rockhampton Redbacks Attractions Established in 1869, the Rockhampton Botanic Gardens are located on Spencer Street in South Rockhampton. Excellent specimens of palms, cycads and ferns are found throughout the manicured grounds. Some specimens are over 100 years old. Rockhampton Zoo is located between the Botanic Gardens and Murray Lagoon. Animals and birds include koalas, chimpanzees, saltwater crocodiles, freshwater crocodiles, red kangaroos and the rare cassowary. A second public garden, the Kershaw Gardens, was officially opened in 1988 on the site of the former Rockhampton rubbish dump. Located on the Bruce Highway in North Rockhampton, these gardens specialise in Australian native plants, especially those of Central Queensland. The most striking feature of the gardens is the imitation waterfall constructed on the northern boundary of the site (adjacent to the highway), which aims to recreate a scene from the Blackdown Tableland. The Dreamtime Cultural Centre is Australia's largest Cultural Centre and is set on more than 12 hectares of land, with native plants, trees and waterfalls. The major points of interest at the Dreamtime Cultural Centre include the Torres Strait Islander village, didgeridoo playing, Djarn Djarn dancers, and throwing the returning boomerang. Black flying foxes and occasionally Grey-headed flying foxes can be seen and heard at night and are important native pollinators and seed dispersers of over 100 species of trees. The Archer Park Steam Tram Museum covers the development and history of rail-based transportation in the major central Queensland town of Rockhampton and is set in the 100-year-old Archer Park rail station on Denison Street on the city's southside. The museum tells the story of Archer Park Station (built in 1899) and the unique Purrey Steam Tram, through photographs, soundscapes and object-based exhibitions. Rising out of Rockhampton's north-eastern suburbs, Mount Archer National Park provides views of the city, and showcases a range of native Australian flora and fauna. Frazer Park, at the summit of Mount Archer, is approximately 604 metres above sea level. A short drive north of Rockhampton is the Capricorn Caves. Health The Rockhampton Base Hospital is situated in the suburb of The Range, and is located around from Rockhampton CBD, and is the major hospital for the Central Queensland Region. The smaller Hillcrest and Mater private hospitals are located nearby. The Australian Red Cross Blood Service is located at the rear of the Base Hospital on Quarry Street. Rockhampton is a base for the Royal Flying Doctor Service and the Capricorn Helicopter Rescue Service which operates clinics and provides emergency evacuations in remote communities throughout the region. Facilities The Rockhampton Regional Council operates the Rockhampton Regional Library Administration and History Centre in Rockhampton on the corner of William & Alma Streets. Branch libraries are located in Berserker ("Rockhampton North"), Gracemere, Mount Morgan and West Rockhampton ("Anytime" at Rockhampton Airport). Education The first school, The Rockhampton National School was opened in 1859. Rockhampton is a major education centre for the region and has numerous state and private primary and high schools. CQUniversity Australia was founded in Rockhampton in 1967, however the university now has more than 30,000 students spread across 24 campuses and locations Australia-wide. The university has a focus on engagement, social innovation and engaged research, as well inclusivity and has a history as a leading provider of distance education. The university was recognised within the top 600 universities in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, and was named among the top 150 universities, under 50, by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings in 2016. The university currently delivers more than 300 education and training offerings, from short courses and certificates, through to undergraduate, postgraduate and research degrees. Secondary schools in Rockhampton include Rockhampton State High School, North Rockhampton State High School, Rockhampton Grammar School, Rockhampton Girls Grammar School, The Cathedral College, Rockhampton, Emmaus College and Heights College. Media Newspapers Rockhampton has had a number of newspapers published in the city since European settlement.The Morning Bulletin is the only surviving daily newspaper, first published in 1861 as the Rockhampton Bulletin and Central Queensland Advertiser. The title was changed to the Rockhampton Bulletin in 1871 before finally becoming The Morning Bulletin in 1878. The Morning Bulletin is a member of the Australian Regional Media network of newspapers, now owned by News Corporation. The Morning Bulletin has also previously complimented their main daily newspaper with a free home-delivered community newspaper, with previous incarnations including titles such as the Capricorn Local News, Rockhampton and Fitzroy News and The Rocky Mirror. In 2012, a new Rockhampton newspaper called The Queensland Telegraph was launched by Queensland Media Holdings. However, after publishing the newspaper for about a year, the newspaper's management announced on 17 July 2013 that the local newspaper office had closed.The Central Queensland Herald was a Rockhampton newspaper which was published from 1930 until 1956. The Capricornian was a Rockhampton newspaper which was published from 1875 until 1929. In 1929, The Capricornian merged with The Artesian to become The Central Queensland Herald. The Artesian was a Rockhampton newspaper which was published from 1919 until 1929. In 1929, The Artesian merged with The Capricornian to become The Central Queensland Herald. The Evening News was a Rockhampton newspaper published from 1922 until 1941. The Daily Northern Argus (originally The Northern Argus) was a Rockhampton newspaper published from 1863 until 1896. In 1897 the newspaper merged with The Record and was published as The Daily Record until 1922. Established in 2006, industrial magazine publication Shift Miner is also produced in Rockhampton with its head office located in the Rockhampton CBD.Contact Information , Shift Miner website Radio Rockhampton is serviced by a number of commercial, community and ABC stations 4RO is Rockhampton's local AM station, owned by Grant Broadcasters. 4RO broadcasts local breakfast and morning programs from its local studios each weekday with all other programming sourced from elsewhere. The music played on 4RO is of the classic hits genre. 4RO broadcasts a local news service in the morning, although the bulletins are prepared and read by journalists based at Grant's Sunshine Coast hub, especially for 4RO and its sister station, 4CC. 4CC also owned by Grant Broadcasters, is an AM commercial station servicing Rockhampton on a local AM frequency, although its local breakfast show is presented from a studio in Gladstone. 4CC has a classic hits format and also relies heavily on programming sourced from elsewhere. Triple M Central Queensland is Rockhampton's local commercial FM station owned by Southern Cross Austereo. The station was previously branded as Sea FM. Triple M broadcasts local programs from its Rockhampton studios each weekday morning, before taking networked programming sourced from Gold FM on the Gold Coast and other Triple M stations. Triple M in Rockhampton also produces a local news service with a journalist based at the station, compiling and recording local news bulletins for Triple M and sister station Hit Central Queensland. As part of the Triple M network, the station also broadcasts sports coverage such as Triple M Rocks NRL and Triple M Rocks Test Cricket. Hit Central Queensland, also owned by Southern Cross Austereo, is a commercial FM station servicing Rockhampton on a local FM frequency, although its local breakfast show is broadcast from a studio in Gladstone. The station was previously branded as Hot FM and is skewed towards the younger listeners with a Top 40/pop music format. Following the local breakfast show, the station takes generic Hit Network programming sourced from Southern Cross Austereo's hub at Sea FM on the Gold Coast or nationally networked programs from metropoliton Hit Network stations such as 2Day FM or Fox FM. ABC Capricornia, originally known as 4RK, is the local ABC station in Rockhampton, servicing the entire Central Queensland region. It broadcasts a local breakfast show and a local morning show each weekday. Friday's local morning show is also broadcast to other stations on the ABC Local Radio network enabling listeners from outside of the local listening area to call into the popular gardening talk back program. ABC Capricornia also has a local news service, produced by local journalists. The station also airs a local Saturday breakfast show, which is followed by a local Saturday morning sports program. Apart from local programming, ABC Capricornia takes national programs like AM, Conversations, The World Today, PM, Nightlife, Grandstand, Saturday Night Country and Australia All Over along with a mid-afternoon program, a drive program, an evening show and a weekend morning program syndicated from Brisbane. Other national ABC services that are available in Rockhampton on separate FM frequencies include Triple J, RN, ABC Classic FM and ABC NewsRadio. 4YOU is the local community station, broadcasting local programs from their Rockhampton studio, presented by a number of volunteers. The station is skewed towards the older demographic and plays a lot of easy listening and country music. All programs are locally produced apart from the regular Sunday evening programs the station takes from the national community radio network. 4US is the local indigenous community station, broadcasting from a studio at the Dreamtime Cultural Centre in Rockhampton servicing the local Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population featuring traditional music and focusing on indigenous issues and event within its programming content. KIX Country is a national narrowcast FM broadcasting service provided by Grant Broadcasters, available in Rockhampton. Kix solely broadcasts country music-themed programming, which includes programs which originate from studios in Bundaberg complemented by some nationally syndicated programming. While Kix transmits on a narrowcast licence, the station is allowed to broadcast commercials. Other narrowcast radio services available in Rockhampton include racing station, Radio TAB (formerly 4TAB), Vision Radio Network and Radio FM 88 (Tourist Information). Television Rockhampton is served by three commercial stations and two public broadcasters. Seven Queensland Southern Cross Nine WIN Television Queensland ABC TV SBS TV Each broadcasts television services in digital formats. SBS offers digital high-definition simulcasts of their main channel, SBS ONE on SBS HD. There are also ten other main channels available: ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24, SBS Two, One, Eleven, 7Two, 7mate, 9Gem and 9Go!. Austar Limited provides subscription satellite television services. All three main commercial networks produce local news coverage - Seven Queensland and WIN Television both air 30-minute local news bulletins at 6pm each weeknight, produced from newsrooms in the city but broadcast from studios in Maroochydore and Wollongong respectively. Southern Cross Nine airs a regional Queensland edition of Nine News from Brisbane each weeknight at 6pm, featuring local opt-outs for Rockhampton and Central Queensland. There is also a small television facility at the ABC studios in Rockhampton with a journalist and camera operator employed locally to produce stories for ABC News and programs such as 7.30 and Landline''. The journalist can also be required to do live crosses for ABC News 24. The ABC had also previously produced a nightly local TV news bulletin for Rockhampton and Central Queensland but it was axed in 1985. Infrastructure Transport Rockhampton is an important transport hub in the Central Queensland region. Rockhampton provides important transport links between the Central Highlands and Capricorn Coast regions and the areas to the north and south of the state. Rockhampton Airport is essential to the viability of the tourism industry. The Rockhampton region is well serviced by the national and state highway systems, with the city being located at the main junction of the coastal highway, the Bruce Highway, the central western highway, the Capricorn Highway, and the Rockhampton Hinterland is serviced by the Burnett Highway. Driving time is seven and a half hours from Brisbane to Rockhampton. Rockhampton is also served by long-distance coaches to Brisbane in the south, and as far as Cairns in the north. Daily services operate into Rockhampton with Greyhound Australia. The Hinterland and Central Highlands are also serviced daily by Rothery's Coaches, Pacific Coaches and Emerald Coaches. Bus services are operated by Sunbus Rockhampton, which operates under the QConnect public transport system. Two bus interchanges are located in Rockhampton City through which the majority of services operate. Service include most parts of the city, Parkhurst in the north to Allenstown and Depot Hill in the south and to The Range and Lakes Creek in the west Rockhampton has one major taxi company, Yellow Cabs, who service the City of Rockhampton, Gracemere, and also some services in Yeppoon and Emu Park. Rockhampton railway station is located on the North Coast railway, and is the terminus of the electrified section of line from Brisbane with through diesel service continuing beyond; services are provided by Queensland Rail. Denison St, Rockhampton is one of the few places where the main line runs down the middle of the street. An Electric Tilt Train services connects it to Brisbane, and the Diesel Tilt Train services the station en route to Cairns. Rockhampton Airport is operated by Rockhampton Regional Council and is located (3.7 mi) west of Rockhampton City. It is Australia's twelfth busiest domestic airport. The airport handles flights to major Australian cities, tourist destinations, and regional destinations throughout Central Queensland. It is an important base for general aviation serving the Central Highlands and Capricorn Coast communities. The airport is also a base for the Royal Flying Doctor Service and the Rescue Helicopter. Water The catchment area of the Fitzroy River is approximately 145,000 square kilometres (almost the size of England). It contains six major rivers, and Rockhampton and Central Queensland accordingly enjoy abundant good water. The existing and future dams under construction ensure on-going needs for agriculture, industry and domestic purposes are met. The Fitzroy River Barrage at Rockhampton separates tidal salt water from upstream fresh water, and provides the supply for Rockhampton's domestic and industrial needs. Power Central Queensland's major generating facilities, including the Stanwell, Gladstone and Callide power stations, produce the majority of the State's power. Queensland's newest and most technologically advanced powerhouse at Stanwell, west of the city, came on line in 1993. The Stanwell facility is a key element in the State's program to expand electricity supply and is a major exporter of power station technology. Sister city Ibusuki, Japan (since 20 November 1980) See also List of people from Rockhampton Capricorn Coast References Further reading McDonald L. (1981) Rockhampton: A History of City and District. University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, Qld. Bird JTS. (1904) The Early History of Rockhampton. The Morning Bulletin, Rockhampton, Qld. 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250505	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erica%20Jong	Erica Jong	Erica Jong (née Mann; born March 26, 1942) is an American novelist, satirist, and poet, known particularly for her 1973 novel Fear of Flying. The book became famously controversial for its attitudes towards female sexuality and figured prominently in the development of second-wave feminism. According to The Washington Post, it has sold more than 20 million copies worldwide. Early life and education Jong was born on March 26, 1942 in New York. She is the middle daughter of Seymour Mann (né Nathan Weisman, died 2004), and Eda Mirsky (1911–2012). Her father was a businessman of Polish Jewish ancestry who owned a gifts and home accessories company known for its mass production of porcelain dolls. Her mother was born in England of a Russian Jewish immigrant family, and was a painter and textile designer who also designed dolls for her husband's company. Jong has an elder sister, Suzanna, who married Lebanese businessman Arthur Daou, and a younger sister, Claudia, a social worker who married Gideon S. Oberweger (the chief executive officer of Seymour Mann Inc. until his death in 2006). Among her nephews is Peter Daou, who is a Democratic Party strategist. Jong attended New York's The High School of Music & Art in the 1950s, where she developed her passion for art and writing. As a student at Barnard College, Jong edited the Barnard Literary Magazine and created poetry programs for the Columbia University campus radio station, WKCR. Career A 1963 graduate of Barnard College with additionally an MA (1965) in 18th century English Literature from Columbia University, Jong is best known for her first novel, Fear of Flying (1973), which created a sensation with its frank treatment of a woman's sexual desires. Although it contains many sexual elements, the book is mainly the account of Isadora Wing, a woman in her late twenties, trying to find who she is and where she is going. It contains many psychological and humorous descriptive elements, as well as rich cultural and literary references. The book tries to answer the many conflicts arising for women in late 1960s and early 1970s America, of womanhood, femininity, love, one's quest for freedom and purpose. The saga of thwarted fulfillment of Isadora Wing continues in two further novels, How to Save Your Own Life (1977) and Parachutes and Kisses (1984). Personal life Jong has been married four times. Her first two marriages, to college sweetheart Michael Werthman, and to Allan Jong, a Chinese American psychiatrist, reflect those of the narrator of Fear of Flying. Her third husband was Jonathan Fast, a novelist and social work educator, and son of novelist Howard Fast. This marriage was described in How to Save Your Own Life and Parachutes and Kisses. She has a daughter from her third marriage, Molly Jong-Fast. Jong is now married to Kenneth David Burrows, a New York litigator. In the late 1990s, Jong wrote an article about her current marriage in the magazine Talk. Jong lived on an army base in Heidelberg, Germany, for three years (1966–69) with her second husband. She was a frequent visitor to Venice, and wrote about that city in her novel Shylock's Daughter. In 2007, her literary archive was acquired by Columbia University in New York City. Jong is mentioned in the Bob Dylan song "Highlands" on his album Time Out of Mind (1997), and satirized on the MC Paul Barman track "N.O.W.", in which the rapper fantasizes about a young leftist carrying a fictitious Jong book titled America's Wrong. Jong supports LGBT rights and legalization of same-sex marriage. She says, "Gay marriage is a blessing not a curse. It certainly promotes stability and family. And it's certainly good for kids." Bibliography Fiction Fear of Flying (1973) How to Save Your Own Life (1977) Fanny, Being the True History of the Adventures of Fanny Hackabout-Jones (1980) (a retelling of Fanny Hill) Megan's Book of Divorce: a kid's book for adults; as told to Erica Jong; illustrated by Freya Tanz. New York: New American Library (1984) Megan's Two Houses: a story of adjustment; illustrated by Freya Tanz (1984; West Hollywood, CA: Dove Kids, 1996) Parachutes & Kisses. New York: New American Library (1984) (UK ed. as Parachutes and Kisses: London: Granada, 1984.) Shylock's Daughter (1987): formerly titled Serenissima Any Woman's Blues (1990) Inventing Memory (1997) Sappho's Leap (2003) Fear of Dying (September 8, 2015) Non-fiction Witches; illustrated by Joseph A. Smith. New York: Harry A. Abrams (1981) The Devil at Large: Erica Jong on Henry Miller (1993) Fear of Fifty: A Midlife Memoir (1994) What Do Women Want? bread roses sex power (1998) Seducing the Demon: writing for my life (2006) Essay, "My Dirty Secret". Bad Girls: 26 Writers Misbehave (2007) It Was Eight Years Ago Today (But It Seems Like Eighty) (2008) Anthology Sugar in My Bowl: Real Women Write About Real Sex Ed. Erica Jong (2011) Poetry Fruits & Vegetables (1971, 1997) Half-Lives (1973) Loveroot (1975) At the Edge of the Body (1979) Ordinary Miracles (1983) Becoming Light: New and Selected (1991) Love Comes First (2009) The World Began with Yes (Red Hen Press, 2019) Awards Poetry Magazine's Bess Hokin Prize (1971) Sigmund Freud Award For Literature (1975) United Nations Award For Excellence In Literature (1998) Deauville Award For Literary Excellence In France Fernanda Pivano Award For Literary In Italy Notes References External links – official site "What this woman wants" – in-depth interview & profile in The Guardian, April 3, 1999 Review of Seducing the Demon at Powells.com Aging and Sex with Erica Jong – October 3, 2007 Interview on Fruits and Vegetables at the WNYC Archives 1942 births Living people 20th-century American novelists 21st-century American novelists American feminist writers American people of English-Jewish descent American people of Polish-Jewish descent American people of Russian-Jewish descent American women novelists American women poets Columbia University alumni Barnard College alumni The High School of Music & Art alumni Jewish feminists Jewish American poets Jewish women writers LGBT rights activists from the United States Sex-positive feminists Writers from New York City 20th-century American women writers 21st-century American women writers 20th-century American poets 21st-century American poets Novelists from New York (state) 21st-century American Jews	[ 0.010622057132422924, 0.7587137222290039, -0.8651044368743896, -0.033376336097717285, 0.31746208667755127, 0.5142297148704529, 0.5259960889816284, -0.1980927586555481, -0.047062359750270844, 0.02956927940249443, 0.019594041630625725, 0.26891788840293884, -0.33052194118499756, -0.2616620659828186, 0.19135038554668427, -0.03628424182534218, -0.11490970849990845, -0.09440700709819794, 0.10927765816450119, -0.40087026357650757, -0.6665246486663818, -0.8045899868011475, 0.3884250819683075, 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250506	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Arsuf	Battle of Arsuf	The Battle of Arsuf was a battle during the Third Crusade which took place on 7 September 1191. The battle was a Christian victory, with forces led by Richard I of England defeating a larger Ayyubid army led by Saladin. The battle occurred just outside the city of Arsuf (Arsur in Latin), when Saladin met Richard's army as it was moving along the Mediterranean coast from Acre to Jaffa, following the capture of Acre. During their march from Acre, Saladin launched a series of harassing attacks on Richard's army, but the Christians successfully resisted these attempts to disrupt their cohesion. As the Crusaders crossed the plain to the north of Arsuf, Saladin committed the whole of his army to a pitched battle. Once again the Crusader army maintained a defensive formation as it marched, with Richard awaiting for the ideal moment to mount a counterattack. However, after the Knights Hospitaller launched a charge at the Ayyubids, Richard was forced to commit his entire force to support the attack. After initial success, Richard was able to regroup his army and achieve victory. The battle resulted in Christian control of the central Palestinian coast, including the port of Jaffa. Prelude – south from Acre Following the capture of Acre in 1191, Richard was aware that he needed to capture the port of Jaffa before making an attempt on Jerusalem, Richard began to march down the coast from Acre towards Jaffa in August. Saladin, whose main objective was to prevent the recapture of Jerusalem, mobilised his army to attempt to stop the Crusaders' advance. Richard organised the advance with attention to detail. A large part of the Egyptian fleet had been captured at the fall of Acre, and with no threat from this quarter he could march south along the coast with the sea always protecting his right flank. Mindful of the lessons of the disaster at Hattin, Richard knew that his army's greatest need was water and that heat exhaustion was its greatest danger. Although pressed for time he proceeded at a relatively slow pace. He marched his army only in the morning before the heat of the day, making frequent rest stops, always beside sources of water. The fleet sailed down the coast in close support, a source of supplies and a refuge for the wounded. Aware of the ever-present danger of enemy raiders and the possibility of hit-and-run attacks, he kept the column in tight formation with a core of twelve mounted regiments, each with a hundred knights. The infantry marched on the landward flank, covering the flanks of the horsemen and affording them some protection from missiles. The outermost ranks of the infantry were composed of crossbowmen. On the seaward side was the baggage and also units of infantry being rested from the continuous harassment inflicted by Saladin's forces. Richard wisely rotated his infantry units to keep them relatively fresh. Though provoked and tormented by the skirmish tactics of Saladin's archers, Richard's generalship ensured that order and discipline were maintained under the most difficult of circumstances. Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad, the Muslim chronicler and eyewitness, describes the march: "The Moslems discharged arrows at them from all sides to annoy them, and force them to charge: but in this they were unsuccessful. These men exercised wonderful self-control; they went on their way without any hurry, whilst their ships followed their line of march along the coast, and in this manner they reached their halting-place." Baha al-Din also described the difference in power between the Crusader crossbow and the bows of his own army. He saw Frankish infantrymen with from one to ten arrows sticking from their armoured backs marching along with no apparent hurt, whilst the crossbows struck down both horse and man amongst the Muslims. Saladin's strategy The Crusader army's pace was dictated by the infantry and baggage train; the Ayyubid army, being largely mounted, had the advantage of superior mobility. Efforts to burn crops and deny the countryside to the Frankish army were largely ineffective as it could be continuously provisioned from the fleet, which moved south parallel with it. On 25 August the Crusader rearguard was crossing a defile when it was almost cut off. However, the Crusaders closed up so speedily that the Muslim soldiery was forced to flee. From 26 to 29 August Richard's army had a respite from attack because while it hugged the coast and had gone round the shoulder of Mount Carmel, Saladin's army had struck across country. Saladin arrived in the vicinity of Caesarea before the Crusaders, who were on a longer road. From 30 August to 7 September Saladin was always within striking distance, and waiting for an opportunity to attack if the Crusaders exposed themselves. By early September, Saladin had realised that harassing the Frankish army with a limited portion of his troops was not going to stop its advance. In order to do this he needed to commit his entire army to a serious attack. Fortuitously for Saladin, the Crusaders had to traverse one of the few forested regions of Palestine, the "Wood of Arsuf", which ran parallel to the sea shore for more than . The woodland would mask the disposition of his army and allow a sudden attack to be launched. The Crusaders traversed half of the forest with little incident, and they rested on 6 September with their camp protected by the marsh lying inland of the mouth of the river Nahr-el-Falaik, called by them Rochetaillée. To the south of the camp, in the the Crusaders needed to march before gaining the ruins of Arsuf, the forest receded inland to create a narrow plain wide between wooded hills and the sea. This is where Saladin intended to make his decisive attack. While threatening and skirmishing along the whole length of the Crusader column, Saladin reserved his most sustained direct assault for its rear. His plan appears to have been to allow the Frankish van and centre to proceed, in the hope that a fatal gap might be created between them and the more heavily engaged rearmost units. Into such a gap Saladin would have thrown his reserves in order to defeat the Crusaders in detail. Battle Size of opposing armies - estimations The Itinerarium Regis Ricardi implies that the Ayyubid army outnumbered the Crusaders three-to-one. However, unrealistically inflated numbers, of 300,000 and 100,000 respectively, are described. Modern estimates of Saladin's army place it at around 25,000 soldiers, almost all cavalry (horse archers, light cavalry, and a minority of heavy cavalry). Based on the number of soldiers that the three kings brought to the Holy Land, as well as what troops the Kingdom of Jerusalem could muster, McLynn calculates the total Crusader forces at Arsuf as numbering 20,000: 9,000 English and Norman troops brought by Richard, 7,000 French troops left by Phillip, 2,000 troops from Outremer, and 2,000 more soldiers from every other source (Danes, Frisians, Genoese, Pisans, Turcopoles). Boas notes that this calculation doesn't account for losses in earlier battles or desertions, but that it is probable that the Crusader army had 10,000 men and perhaps more.Boas, Adrian. "The Crusader World." 2015. Page 78. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare lists Richard's army as possessing 10,000 infantry (including spearmen and crossbowmen) and 1,200 heavy cavalry, with Saladin's army possessing twice as many men with a preponderance of cavalry.Bennett, Matthew. "The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487." Vol 1. January 26, 1996. Page 101. Organisation and deployment At dawn on 7 September 1191, as Richard's forces began moving out of camp enemy scouts were visible in all directions, hinting that Saladin's whole army lay hidden in the woodland. King Richard took especial pains over the disposition of his army. The probable posts of greatest danger, at the front and especially the rear of the column, were given to the military orders. They had the most experience of fighting in the East, were arguably the most disciplined, and were the only formations which included Turcopole cavalry who fought like the Turkish horse archers of the Ayyubid army. The vanguard of the Crusader army consisted of the Knights Templar under Robert de Sablé. They were followed by three units composed of Richard's own subjects, the Angevins and Bretons, then the Poitevins including Guy of Lusignan, titular King of Jerusalem, and lastly the English and Normans who had charge of the great standard mounted on its waggon. The next seven corps were made up of the French, the Flemmings, the barons of Outremer and small contingents of crusaders from other lands. Forming the rearguard were the Knights Hospitaller led by Garnier de Nablus. The twelve corps were organised into five larger formations, though their precise distribution is unknown. Additionally, a small troop, under the leadership of Henry II of Champagne, was detached to scout towards the hills, and a squadron of picked knights under King Richard and Hugh of Burgundy, the leader of the French contingent, was detailed to ride up and down the column checking on Saladin's movements and ensuring that their own ranks were kept in order. The first Saracen attack did not come until all the crusaders had left their camp and were moving towards Arsuf. The Ayyubid army then burst out of the woodland. The front of the army was composed of dense swarms of skirmishers, both horse and foot, Bedouin, Sudanese archers and the lighter types of Turkish horse archers. Behind these were the ordered squadrons of armoured heavy cavalry: Saladin's mamluks (also termed ghulams), Kurdish troops, and the contingents of the emirs and princes of Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia. The army was divided into three parts, left and right wings and centre. Saladin directed his army from beneath his banners, surrounded by his bodyguard and accompanied by his kettle-drummers. Saladin's attack In an attempt to destroy the cohesion of the Crusader army and unsettle their resolve, the Ayyubid onslaught was accompanied by the clashing of cymbals and gongs, trumpets blowing and men screaming war-cries. "In truth, our people, so few in number, were hemmed in by the multitudes of the Saracens, that they had no means of escape, if they tried; neither did they seem to have valour sufficient to withstand so many foes, nay, they were shut in, like a flock of sheep in the jaws of wolves, with nothing but the sky above, and the enemy all around them." The repeated Ayyubid harrying attacks followed the same pattern: the Bedouin and Nubians on foot launched arrows and javelins into the enemy lines, before parting to allow the mounted archers to advance, attack and wheel off, a well-practiced technique. Crusader crossbowmen responded, when this was possible, although the chief task among the Crusaders was simply to preserve their ranks in the face of sustained provocation. When the incessant attacks of skirmishers failed to have the desired effect, the weight of the attack was switched to the rear of the Crusader column, with the Hospitallers coming under the greatest pressure. Here the right wing of the Ayyubid army made a desperate attack on the squadron of Hospitaller knights and the infantry corps covering them. The Hospitallers could be attacked from both their rear and flank. Many of the Hospitaller infantry had to walk backwards in order to keep their faces, and shields, to the enemy. Saladin, eager to urge his soldiers into closer combat, personally entered the fray, accompanied by two pages leading spare horses. Sayf al-Din (Saphadin), Saladin's brother, was also engaged in actively encouraging the troops; both brothers were thus exposing themselves to considerable danger from crossbow fire. Hospitallers break formation and charge All Saladin's best efforts could not dislocate the Crusader column, or halt its advance in the direction of Arsuf. Richard was determined to hold his army together, forcing the enemy to exhaust themselves in repeated charges, with the intention of holding his knights for a concentrated counter-attack at just the right moment. There were risks in this, because the army was not only marching under severe enemy provocation, but the troops were suffering from heat and thirst. Just as serious the Saracens were killing so many horses that some of Richard's own knights began to wonder if a counter-strike would be possible. Many of the unhorsed knights joined the infantry. Just as the vanguard entered Arsuf in the middle of the afternoon, the Hospitaller crossbowmen to the rear were having to load and fire walking backwards. Inevitably they lost cohesion, and the enemy was quick to take advantage of this opportunity, moving into any gap wielding their swords and maces. For the Crusaders, the Battle of Arsuf had now entered a critical stage. Garnier de Nablus repeatedly pleaded with Richard to be allowed to attack. He was refused, the Master was ordered to maintain position and await the signal for a general assault, six clear trumpet blasts. Richard knew that the charge of his knights needed to be reserved until the Ayyubid army was fully committed, closely engaged, and the Saracens' horses had begun to tire. Whether through a lack of discipline or acting on Richard’s delegated authority, the Order’s marshal and one of Richard’s household knights, Baldwin le Carron, moved through their own infantry and charged into the Saracen ranks with a cry of “St. George!”; they were then followed by the rest of the Hospitaller knights. Moved by this example, the French knights of the corps immediately preceding the Hospitallers also charged. The traditionally accepted version of events is that Garnier de Nablus and the Hospitaller cavalry charged when goaded beyond endurance, and did so in direct disobedience of Richard's orders. However, this version has been challenged. The established viewpoint draws on two related sources which do not match some other accounts, including Richard’s own letters on the battle. Recently, it has been proposed that Richard may have devolved authority to trusted subordinates to spot and seize any opportune moment to order a charge. Indeed, it is not clear how a trumpet signal would be heard amidst the clashing cymbals and gongs of the Ayyubid army or distinguished from Saladin’s own regular trumpet blasts. Crusader counterattack If the action of the Hospitallers constituted a breach of discipline, it could have caused Richard's whole strategy to unravel. Alternatively, he may have given Baldwin le Carron freedom to act on his own initiative in order to take advantage of a fleeting opportunity. Either way, Richard recognised that the counterattack, once started, had to be supported by all his army and ordered the signal for a general charge to be sounded. Unsupported, the Hospitallers and the other rear units involved in the initial breakout would have been overwhelmed by the superior numbers of the enemy. The Frankish infantry opened gaps in their ranks for the knights to pass through and the attack naturally developed in echelon from the rear to the van. To the soldiers of Saladin's army, as Baha al-Din noted, the sudden change from passivity to ferocious activity on the part of the Crusaders was disconcerting, and appeared to be the result of a preconceived plan. Having already been engaged in close combat with the rear of the Crusader column, the right wing of the Ayyubid army was in compact formation and too close to their enemy to avoid the full impact of the charge. Indeed, some of the cavalry of this wing had dismounted in order to fire their bows more effectively. As a result, the Ayyubid’s suffered great numbers of casualties, the knights taking a bloody revenge for all they had had to endure earlier in the battle. Baldwin le Carron and the marshal of the Hospitallers had chosen their moment well. Baha al-Din noted that "the rout was complete." He had been in the centre division of Saladin's army, when it turned in flight he looked to join the left wing, but found that it also was in rapid flight. Noting the disintegration of the right wing he finally sought Saladin's personal banners, but found only seventeen members of the bodyguard and a lone drummer still with them. Being aware that an over-rash pursuit was the greatest danger when fighting armies trained in the fluid tactics of the Turks, Richard halted the charge after about had been covered. The right flank Crusader units (including the English and Normans), which had formed the van of the column, had not yet been heavily engaged in close combat. They constituted a ready-made reserve, on which the rest regrouped. Freed from the pressure of being actively pursued, many of the Ayyubid troops turned to cut down those of the knights who had unwisely drawn ahead of the rest. James d'Avesnes, the commander of one of the Franco-Flemish units, was the most prominent of those killed in this episode. Amongst the Ayyubid leaders who rallied quickly and returned to the fight was Taqi al-Din, Saladin's nephew. He led 700 men of the Sultan's own bodyguard against Richard's left flank. Once their squadrons were back in order, Richard led his knights in a second charge and the forces of Saladin broke once again. Leading by example, Richard was in the heart of the fighting, as the Itinerarium describes: "There the king, the fierce, the extraordinary king, cut down the Turks in every direction, and none could escape the force of his arm, for wherever he turned, brandishing his sword, he carved a wide path for himself: and as he advanced and gave repeated strokes with his sword, cutting them down like a reaper with his sickle, the rest, warned by the sight of the dying, gave him more ample space, for the corpses of the dead Turks which lay on the face of the earth extended over half a mile." Alert to the danger presented to his scattered ranks, Richard, prudent as ever, halted and regrouped his forces once more after a further pursuit. The Ayyubid cavalry turned once again, showing they still had stomach to renew the fight. However, a third and final charge caused them to scatter into the woodland where they dispersed into the hills in all directions, showing no inclination to continue the conflict. Richard led his cavalry back to Arsuf where the infantry had pitched camp. During the night the Saracen dead were looted. Aftermath As always with medieval battles, losses are difficult to assess with any precision. The Christian chroniclers claim that Saladin's force lost 32 emirs and 7,000 men, but it is possible that the true number may have been fewer. Ambroise mentions that Richard's troops counted several thousand bodies of dead Saracen soldiers on the field of battle after the rout. Baha al-Din records only three deaths amongst the leaders of the Ayyubid army: Musek, Grand-Emir of the Kurds, Kaimaz el Adeli and Lighush. King Richard's own dead are said to have numbered no more than 700. The only Crusader leader of note to die in the battle was James d'Avesnes; a French knight of whom Ambroise made the claim that he cut down 15 Saracen cavalrymen before being killed.Ambroise, p. 121-122 Arsuf was an important victory. The Ayyubid army was not destroyed, despite the considerable casualties it suffered, but it did rout; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. A contemporary opinion stated that, had Richard been able to choose the moment to unleash his knights, rather than having to react to the actions of an insubordinate unit commander, the Crusader victory might have been much more effective. Possibly being so complete a victory that it would have disabled Saladin's forces for a long time. After the rout Saladin was able to regroup and attempted to resume his skirmishing method of warfare but to little effect; shaken by the Crusaders' sudden and devastatingly effective counterattack at Arsuf, he was no longer willing to risk a further full-scale attack. Arsuf had dented Saladin's reputation as an invincible warrior, and proved Richard's courage as a soldier and his skill as a commander. Richard was able to take, defend and hold Jaffa – a strategically crucial move toward securing Jerusalem. Also Saladin had to evacuate and demolish most of the fortresses of southern Palestine: Ascalon, Gaza, Blanche-Garde, Lydda and Ramleh, as he realised he could not hold them. Richard took the fortress of Darum, the sole fortress that Saladin had garrisoned, with only his own household troops, so low had Saracen morale been reduced. By depriving Saladin of the coast, Richard seriously threatened Saladin's hold on Jerusalem. Although the Third Crusade, in the end, failed to retake Jerusalem, a three-year truce was eventually negotiated with Saladin. The truce, known as the Treaty of Jaffa, ensured that Christian pilgrims from the west would once again be allowed to visit Jerusalem. Saladin also recognised the Crusaders' control of the Levantine coast as far south as Jaffa. Both sides had become exhausted by the struggle, Richard needed to return to Europe in order to protect his patrimony from the aggression of Philip of France, and Palestine was in a ruinous state. References Bibliography Primary sources Ambroise, The History of the Holy War, translated by Marianne Ailes, Boydell Press, 2003. Itinerarium Regis Ricardi Anonymous translation of Itinerarium Regis Ricardi, trans. In parentheses Publications, Cambridge, Ontario 2001; Nicholson, H (trans.) (1997) Chronicle of the Third Crusade: A Translation of the Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi, Ashgate;ed. W. Stubbs 1864; ed. M. T. Stead 1920 Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad's Rare and Excellent History of Saladin (his name is also rendered Beha al-Din and Beha Ed-Din), trans. C. W. Wilson (1897) Saladin Or What Befell Sultan Yusuf, Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, London. Secondary sources Bennett, S. (2017), The Battle of Arsuf/Arsur, A Reappraisal of the Charge of the Hospitallers. The Military Orders Volume 6.1 Culture and Conflict in the Mediterranean World. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, pp. 44-53. Lev, Y. (1997) War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean 7th–15th Centuries. Leiden. Nicholson, H. J. (ed.)(1997), The Chronicle of the Third Crusade: The Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi, Ashgate. Oman, Charles William Chadwick. (1924) A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages Vol. I, 378–1278 AD. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, reprinted in 1998. Parry, V. J. & Yapp, M. E. (1975) War, Technology and Society in the Middle East. Runciman, S. (reprinted 1987) A History of the Crusades: Volume III, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, Cambridge University Press Archive. Sweeney, J. R. (1981) Hungary in the Crusades, 1169–1218. The International History Review 3. Verbruggen, J. F. (1997) The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340. Boydell & Brewer. van Werveke, H. (1972) The Contribution of Hainaut and Flanders in the Third Crusade. Le Moyen Age 78. Further reading Conflicts in 1191 1191 in Asia Arsuf Arsuf Arsuf Battles involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem Battles involving the Ayyubids Arsuf Arsuf Arsuf 1190s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem 1190s in the Ayyubid Sultanate	[ -0.5354779958724976, 0.08691510558128357, -0.2756693661212921, -0.2816388010978699, -0.6946181058883667, 0.455772340297699, 0.4005172848701477, -0.33006495237350464, 0.13814271986484528, -0.5504065155982971, 0.36564427614212036, 0.685368001461029, -0.6124465465545654, 0.38795211911201477, -0.396138072013855, 0.730628490447998, 0.5058259963989258, -0.13700170814990997, 0.21545782685279846, -0.6294912099838257, 0.3687373995780945, -0.46570685505867004, -0.009445681236684322, 0.8284520506858826, 0.5049079656600952, 0.013384435325860977, 0.4673628509044647, 0.16486451029777527, 0.15186110138893127, -0.036483440548181534, 0.5018442869186401, 0.45577365159988403, -0.4861504137516022, -0.6263018846511841, -0.508776068687439, 0.07022042572498322, -0.2142641544342041, 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250507	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan%20Me%C5%A1trovi%C4%87	Ivan Meštrović	Ivan Meštrović (; 15 August 1883 – 16 January 1962) was a Croatian sculptor, architect, and writer. He was the most prominent modern Croatian sculptor and a leading artistic personality in contemporary Zagreb. He studied at Pavle Bilinić's Stone Workshop in Split and at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, where he was formed under the influence of the Secession. He traveled throughout Europe and studied the works of ancient and Renaissance masters, especially Michelangelo, and French sculptors Auguste Rodin, Antoine Bourdelle and Aristide Maillol. He was the initiator of the national-romantic group Medulić (he advocated the creation of art of national features inspired by the heroic folk songs). During the First World War, he lived in emigration. After the war, he returned to Croatia and began a long and fruitful period of sculpture and pedagogical work. In 1942 he emigrated to Italy, in 1943 to Switzerland and in 1947 to the United States. He was a professor of sculpture at the Syracuse University and from 1955 at the University of Notre Dame in South Bend, Indiana. Most of his early works of symbolic themes were formed in the spirit of the Secession, some of which, like the Well of Life, show impressionist restless surfaces created under the influence of Rodin's naturalism, and the second, reviving national myth, become stylized monumental plastics (Kosovo cycle, 1908-1910). Before the First World War, he left pathetic epic stylization, expressing increasingly emotional states, as evidenced by the wooden reliefs of biblical themes made in a combination of Archaic, Gothic, Secessionist and Expressionist styles. During the 1920s and 1930s, the classical component prevailed in his works. In this period, he created a number of public monuments of strong plastic expression, pronounced and legible shapes (Grgur Ninski and Marko Marulić in Split, Andrija Medulić, Andrija Kačić-Miošić and Josip Juraj Strossmayer in Zagreb, Pobednik in Belgrade, Svetozar Miletić in Novi Sad and The Bowman and The Spearman in Chicago). Portraits take a special place in his opus. Meštrović achieved works of strong plastic value in the construction-sculptural monuments and projects, mostly with central layout (the Mausoleum of the Račić family in Cavtat, the Mausoleum of the Meštrović family in Otavice, the Meštrović Pavilion in Zagreb, Monument to the Unknown Hero in Belgrade). He also designed a memorial church of King Zvonimir in Biskupija near Knin inspired by old Croatian churches, a representative family palace, today the Ivan Meštrović Gallery, and reconstructed renaissance fortified mansion Crikvine-Kaštilac in Split. Life Early life He was born in Vrpolje, Slavonia, and spent his childhood in the small Dalmatian village of Otavice, the native place of his parents in the Dinaric Alps. His father was a poor peasant and sheep-breeder. At the age of sixteen he was accepted as an apprentice by Pavle Blinić, a master of a stonemasonry in Split. His artistic skills were improved by studying the monumental buildings in the city and his education at the hands of Bilinić's wife, who was a high-school teacher. Soon, they found a mine owner from Vienna who paid for Meštrović to move there and be admitted to the Academy of Fine Arts where he studied under Edmund von Hellmer and Otto Wagner. Quickly he had to learn German from scratch and adjust to the new environment, but he persevered and successfully finished his studies. In 1905 he had his first exhibit with the Secession Group in Vienna, noticeably influenced by the Art Nouveau style. His work quickly became popular, even with the likes of Auguste Rodin who once said that Meštrović is the greatest phenomenon among sculptors and even greater sculptor than he was. Because of that popularity he soon earned enough for him and his wife (since 1904), Ruža Klein, to travel to more international exhibitions. In 1908 Meštrović moved to Paris and the sculptures made in this period earned him international reputation. At this time, Ivan was a friend of the cubist painter Jelena Dorotka (Helene Dorotka von Ehrenwall). In 1911 he moved to Zagreb, and soon after to Rome where he received the grand prix for the Serbian Pavilion on the 1911 Rome International Exhibition. There his work was praised as being strong and monumental compared to the "soft and ineffectual" pieces exhibited by his contemporaries, Hugo Lederer, Anton Hanak, and Franz Metzner. He remained in Rome, spending four years studying ancient Greek sculpture. Meštrović became a supporter of Yugoslavism and Yugoslav identity after he traveled to Serbia and became impressed with Serb culture. He created a sculpture of Serbian folk-legend hero Prince Marko for the International Exhibition of Art (1911), which was exhibited along with 73 sculptures at the pavilion of Kingdom of Serbia. When asked about the statue, Meštrović replied "This Marko is our Yugoslav people with its gigantic and noble heart". Meštrović wrote poetry speaking of a "Yugoslav race". Those who knew Meštrović's views referred to him as "The Prophet of Yugoslavism". First World War and Yugoslavia At the onset of World War I, after the assassination in Sarajevo, Meštrović tried to move back to Split via Venice, but was dissuaded by threats made against him because of his political opposition to the Austro-Hungarian authorities. During the war he travelled to present exhibits in Paris, Cannes, London and in Switzerland. He was a founding member of the Yugoslav Committee. He was the first artist of Croatian origin to exhibit his work at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London, in 1915. After World War I he moved back home to the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and met the second love of his life, Olga Kesterčanek, whom he married shortly thereafter. They had four children: Marta, Tvrtko, Maria and Mate, all of whom were born in Zagreb, where Ivan and Olga settled in 1922. He was a contemporary and friend of Nikola Tesla. Meštrović and his family would later spend the winter months in their mansion in Zagreb and the summer months in a summer house he built by the end of the 1930s in Split. He became a professor and later the director of the Academy of Fine Arts in Zagreb, and proceeded to build numerous internationally renowned works as well as many donated chapels and churches and grants to art students. By 1923 he designed the mausoleum for the Račić Family Memorial Chapel in Cavtat, also known as Our Lady of the Angels. He also created a set of statues for a never-built Yugoslav national temple that would have been erected in Kosovo to commemorate the 1389 Battle of Kosovo. Meštrović sculpted numerous sculptures commissioned by the Karađorđević dynasty, especially Alexander I of Yugoslavia. Among the orders of King Alexander are sculptures of a sphinx, Miloš Obilić, Marko Kraljević, the hero of the Kosovo myth Srđo Zlopogleđa, sculptures of female counterparts to Kosovo's heroes, as well as a self-portrait of Meštrović. Most of the commissioned sculptures had the idea of an integral Yugoslav nation as ideological background. Today, the works are mostly located within the royal compound in Dedinje. Meštrović had a role in the constitution of Yugoslav national identity. He continued to travel to post his exhibits around the world: he displayed at the Brooklyn Museum in New York in 1924, in Chicago in 1925, he even travelled to Egypt and Palestine in 1927. In 1927 he entered a design for the coins of the Irish Free State, and though his design arrived too late for consideration it was adopted in 1965 as the seal of the Central Bank of Ireland. Second World War During the April War in 1941 Meštrović was living in Split. After being warned by novelist and Independent State of Croatia (NDH) minister Mile Budak that the Croatian authorities could not guarantee his safety in Split, he moved to Zagreb in September 1941. Meštrović and painter Jozo Kljaković were arrested by the Ustaše in Zagreb on 7 November 1941, ostensibly due to the regime's fears that the two would emigrate. He eventually served three and a half months in the Savska Cesta prison. With help from archbishop Aloysius Stepinac and subsequently the Vatican he was released, on condition that he travel to Venice to attend the Independent State of Croatia pavilion at the Venice Biennale. From there he relocated to Rome, where he stayed and worked at the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome. He was sponsored here by Fra Dominik Mandić, and during his time in the city was received by Pope Pius XII. In July 1943, Meštrović secured a visa to Switzerland through NDH diplomat Stijepo Perić and moved there. Not all of his family managed to escape — his first wife Ruža died in 1942 and many from her Jewish family were murdered in the Holocaust. Later, his brother Petar was imprisoned for publicly advising Ivan not to return to the country. Marshal Josip Broz Tito's government in Yugoslavia eventually invited Meštrović to return, but he refused to do so. In 1946, Syracuse University offered him a professorship, and he moved to the United States. He became the first artist of Croatian origin to exhibit his work at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City in 1947. From 1951 he began making contributions to the Croatian emigrant journal Hrvatska revija, which would later publish his memoirs. He was awarded the American Academy of Arts and Letters' Gold Medal for sculpture in 1953. President Dwight D. Eisenhower personally presided over the 1954 ceremony granting Meštrović American citizenship. He went on to become a professor at the University of Notre Dame in 1955. At the end of January 1951 Meštrović joined the American campaign for the release of Archbishop Stepinac from prison. Later years Before he died, Meštrović returned to Yugoslavia one last time to visit with the imprisoned Cardinal Stepinac and with Tito. At the request of various people from his homeland he sent 59 statues from the United States to Yugoslavia (including the monument of Petar Petrovic-Njegos), and in 1952 signed off his Croatian estates to the people of Croatia,<ref>Ivan Meštrović Museums: The History of the Institution: "In 1952, a contract of donation was concluded between Ivan Meštrović and the People's Republic of Croatia, by means of which Ivan Meštrović donated to the people of Croatia his family house and atelier in Zagreb (later adapted into an exhibition space - the Meštrović Atelier), the family villa with ateliers in Split (which later became the Ivan Meštrović Gallery), the sacral and art complex Kaštelet-Crikvine in Split, and the Meštrović family vault - The Most Holy Redeemer Church near Otavice. The donation also included several Meštrović's works of art, today the bases of the museum holdings of the mentioned institutions."</ref> including more than 400 sculptures and numerous drawings. Upon his return he vowed to his colleague painter Jozo Kljaković that he would not return to the country as long as the communists were in power. Two of his children predeceased him. His daughter Marta, who moved with him to the U.S., died in 1949 at the age of 24. His son Tvrtko, who remained in Zagreb, was 39 when he died in 1961. In 1960 he suffered a minor stroke which affected his eyesight. In 1961, his memoir, Uspomene na političke ljude i događaje (Reminiscences of Political People and Events), was published by the Croatian emigrant publishing house Hrvatska revija (Croatian Review) in Buenos Aires, Argentina. In 1969, they were published by Matica hrvatska in Zagreb. After creating four clay sculptures to memorialize his children, Meštrović died in early 1962, aged 79, in South Bend, Indiana. His funeral mass was celebrated by the bishops of Šibenik, Josip Arnerić, and bishop of Split-Makarska Frane Franić. His remains were interred at a mausoleum in his childhood home of Otavice. Communist Yugoslav authorities had originally promised the Meštrović family that his remains could lie in repose at the cathedrals in Zagreb and Split. Once his remains had arrived in Yugoslavia, however, the authorities reneged and did not allow this to take place. After communist officials interfered during his funeral, his son Mate Meštrović sharply criticized the level of religious freedom in the country. His son, Mate, is a Croatian-American diplomat, university professor and editor at Time magazine, who served as a lieutenant in the US Army PsyWar. Later, he served as president of the Croatian National Congress and lobbied on behalf of Croatian self-determination in Washington, D.C., Western Europe and Australia, and was a deputy in the Croatian Parliament, a member of Croatia's delegation to the Council of Europe, and the Inter-Parliamentary Union. He also served as an ambassador in the Foreign Ministry. Meštrović's grandson Stjepan is an American sociology professor at Texas A&M and author of several books. Reputation and legacy His sculptural strengths are manifested in the lyrical and dramatic expression of the human body. Critics in Europe and the United States ranked him highly in the first half of the 20th century. He is one of the most prominent Croatian artists whose work has at times gained worldwide recognition. Professor Miljenko Jurkovic of the University of Zagreb states he: is the most renowned modern Croatian sculptor. His works combine various influences, and they are both monumental and poetic. He sculpted in stone, bronze and wood, covering a diverse range of themes – spreading to religious, portraits and symbolic themes. Historians Wojciech Roszkowski and Jan Kofman report: "Meštrović's sculpture of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo Field won first prize at an international exhibition in 1911, and critics acclaimed him the greatest sculptor of modern times." Auguste Rodin's evaluation was often quoted: "Meštrović was the greatest phenomena among the sculptors" of his time. Alonzo Lansford, editor of Arts Magazine in New York City, reviewed the Mestrovic show of 1947 at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. He wrote: "It is therefore singularly significant that he is almost unanimously revered by American sculptors of all schools as one of the greatest living sculptors." Several streets in Serbia are named after him. Work Meštrovic created over fifty monuments during his two years in Paris (1908–1910). The theme of the Battle of Kosovo particularly moved him, prompting one of his first great works, the Paris Kosovo Monument, as well as other works in bronze and stone. Much of his early work commemorated such epic moments from Slavic history, as he attempted to foster the pan-Slavic cause in his native country. With the creation of the first Yugoslavia, Meštrović's focus shifted to more mundane topics such as musical instruments or chapels. He particularly oriented himself towards religious items, mostly made of wood, under artistic influence from the Byzantine and Gothic architecture. The most renowned works from his early period are the Crucifix and Madonna; later he became inspired by Michelangelo Buonarroti and created a large number of stone reliefs and portraits. The Croatian dinar featured Meštrović's work History of the Croats. Meštrović's most famous monuments include: Canadian Phalanx, a marble relief, 284 Wellington Street in Ottawa, Ontario Gregory of Nin in Split Josip Juraj Strossmayer in Zagreb Monument of Gratitude to France in Belgrade Monument to the Unknown Hero, Avala, Belgrade Victor monument on Kalemegdan Fortress in Belgrade Svetozar Miletić in Novi Sad Nadežda Petrović in Čačak Nikola Tesla in Zagreb Mausoleum of Njegoš on Mount Lovćen in Montenegro The Spring of Life in Zagreb Domagoj's Archers in Zagreb (Meštrović Foundation) The Bowman and The Spearman in Chicago Martin Kukučín in the Medical Garden, Bratislava, Slovakia Ion I. C. Brătianu in Bucharest, Romania (24 noiembrie 1937) King Carol I in Bucharest, Romania (1939) - this monument was destroyed by communists after 1948 Relief of Cardinal Stepinac with Christ, Zagreb Cathedral St. Jerome the Priest, Washington, D.C. Christ and the Samaritan Woman and St. Luke (1957), Notre DameCrucifix and Young Christ Teaching in the Temple (1957), Keenan and Stanford Halls, Notre Dame Galleries displaying his work include: Ivan Meštrović Gallery in Split, created after his major donation in 1950, which includes 86 statues in marble, stone, bronze, wood and gypsum, 17 drawings, and also eight bronze statues in the open garden, 28 reliefs in wood in the kaštelet and one stone crucifix Ivan Meštrović Memorial Gallery created in 1973 in Vrpolje, his birthplace, with 35 works in bronze and plaster stone Snite Museum of Art at the University of Notre Dame has many of his works. He was artist-in-residence at Notre Dame and resided in South Bend, Indiana, until his death. National Museum of Serbia holds sculptures and monuments (a total of 45 works) including Miloš Obilić, Kosovo girl, Srđa Zlopogleđa, Kraljević Marko, and Widow Louisiana Arts and Science Museum (LASM) (retrieved January 29, 2016) in Baton Rouge has a large collection of his sculpture and drawings. Church of Sts. Cyril & Methodius and St. Raphael (New York City) He painted in oil (Moja majka [My mother], 1911). Written works He wrote essays (Moji razgovori s Michelangelom [My Interviews with Michelangelo], 1926), memoirs about the public and political life of his time (Uspomene na političke ljude i događaje [Memories of Political People and Events], 1969) and short stories (Ludi Mile [Crazy Mile], 1970). Stepinac - duhovni heroj (Stepinac - Spiritual Hero), Hrvatska revija, Buenos Aires 1956. Uspomene na političke ljude i događaje (Memories of Political Persons and Events), Hrvatska revija, Buenos Aires 1961, reprinted by Matica hrvatska in 1969. Gallery References Notes Bibliography Adamec, Ana. (1984). Ivan Meštrović 1883-1962, SANU, Belgrade. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. (1915). Meštrović and Serbian Sculpture, Matthews, London. Casson, Stanley. (1929). Some Modern Sculptors, Oxford University Press, London Ćurčin, Milan. (1919) Ivan Meštrović - A Monograph, Williams & Norgate, London. Goode, James M. (1974). The Outdoor Sculpture of Washington D. C., Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. G. Bozidar/N. Gattin (1987) Ivan Meštrović, Zagreb Kečkemet, Duško. (1970). Ivan Meštrović. The Only Way To Be An Artist Is To Work, Spektar, Zagreb. Kraševac, Irena. (2002). Ivan Meštrović i secesija Beć-Muenchen-Prag 1900-1910, HAZU, Zagreb. Schmeckebier, Laurence E. (1959). Ivan Meštrović – Sculptor and Patriot'', Syracuse University Press, Syracuse. Further reading External links Official Website by Meštrović Museums of Croatia Official Website by Meštrović Memorial Gallery Vrpolje Inventory of Meštrović Papers at the Syracuse University Archives 1883 births 1962 deaths People from Vrpolje People from the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia Croatian sculptors Austro-Hungarian expatriates in France Yugoslav emigrants to the United States Syracuse University faculty University of Notre Dame faculty Art Nouveau sculptors Symbolist sculptors Members of the Vienna Secession American male sculptors Members of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts Academy of Fine Arts Vienna alumni 19th-century Croatian sculptors 20th-century Croatian people 20th-century Croatian sculptors 20th-century American sculptors 20th-century male artists Yugoslavism Croatian anti-communists Catholic sculptors	[ 0.38697129487991333, 0.6689853668212891, -0.3159565329551697, -0.15535585582256317, -0.28024762868881226, 1.4748460054397583, 0.5169075131416321, 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250510	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotless%20starling	Spotless starling	The spotless starling (Sturnus unicolor) is a passerine bird in the starling family, Sturnidae. It is closely related to the common starling (S. vulgaris), but has a much more restricted range, confined to the Iberian Peninsula, Northwest Africa, southernmost France, and the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia. It is largely non-migratory. Taxonomy and systematics Subsequent to the recent split of the genus Sturnus, this species and the common starling are the only species retained in the genus. Hybrids with the common starling are found occasionally where the breeding ranges overlap in northeastern Spain. Description The adult spotless starling is very similar to the common starling, but marginally larger (21–23 cm length; 70–100 g weight), and has darker, oily-looking black plumage, slightly purple- or green-glossed in bright light, which is entirely spotless in spring and summer, and only with very small pale spots in winter plumage, formed by the pale tips of the feathers. It also differs in having conspicuously longer throat feathers (twice the length of those on common starlings), forming a shaggy "beard" which is particularly obvious when the bird is singing. Its legs are bright pink. In summer, the bill is yellow with a bluish base in males and a pinkish base in females; in winter, it is duller, often blackish. Young birds are dull brown, darker than young common starlings, and have a black bill and brown legs. Confusion with the common starling is particularly easy during the winter, when common starlings are abundant throughout the spotless starling's range, but also in summer where their breeding ranges overlap in northeastern Spain and the far south of France. It can also be confused with the common blackbird (Turdus merula), which differs most obviously in its longer tail and lack of plumage gloss. Like the common starling, it walks rather than hops, and has a strong direct flight, looking triangular-winged and short-tailed. It is a noisy bird and a good mimic; its calls are similar to the common starling's, but louder. Distribution and habitat The spotless starling uses a wide range of habitats and can be found in any reasonably open environment, from farmland and olive groves to human habitation. The highest population densities are in open grazed holm oak woods, and in urban habitats such as Gibraltar, where it is common. The population has grown in recent decades with a northward expansion in range, spreading to the whole of Spain (previously absent from the northeast) between 1950 and 1980, and colonising locally along the southern coast of mainland France since 1983. Like its more common relative, it is an omnivore, taking a wide variety of invertebrates, berries, and human-provided scraps. It is gregarious, forming sizeable flocks, often mixed with common starlings, of up to 100,000 in winter. Like most starlings, it is a cavity-nesting species, breeding in tree holes, buildings and in cliff crevices. It typically lays three to five eggs. References External links Ageing and Sexing (PDF; 4.5 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze spotless starling spotless starling Birds of Southern Europe Birds of North Africa Fauna of the Iberian Peninsula spotless starling	[ -0.19619324803352356, 0.03888626769185066, -0.4264961779117584, -0.32505589723587036, 0.04725322872400284, 0.13398654758930206, 0.17393290996551514, 0.5419241786003113, -1.1867326498031616, -0.21336548030376434, -0.36885613203048706, -0.04785660654306412, -0.860770583152771, 0.26587948203086853, -0.2542254328727722, 0.985375702381134, 0.6902041435241699, 0.5476833581924438, 0.07023613899946213, -0.39876097440719604, -0.34168753027915955, -0.09237847477197647, 0.243461012840271, -0.5674495697021484, -0.44748586416244507, 0.07086707651615143, -0.13576744496822357, 0.241168811917305, 0.04808302968740463, 0.27616259455680847, -0.13356603682041168, 1.0033994913101196, 0.32894840836524963, 0.39494797587394714, -0.028367994353175163, 0.21715402603149414, 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250512	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eschscholzia	Eschscholzia	Eschscholzia is a genus of 12 annual or perennial plants in the Papaveraceae (poppy) family. The genus was named after the Baltic German/Imperial Russian botanist Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz (1793–1831). All species are native to Mexico or the southern United States. Description Leaves are deeply cut, glabrous and glaucous, mostly basal, though a few grow on the stem. Flowers have four yellow or orange petals, and grow at the end of the stem, either alone or in many-flowered cymes. The petals are wedge-shaped, forming a funnel. The two fused sepals fall off as the flower bud opens. There are 12 to numerous stamens. The flowers close in cloudy weather. Seeds are tiny and black, held in long pointed pods that split open when ripe often with enough force to fling the seeds some distance with an audible snap. The taproot gives off a colorless or orange clear juice, which is mildly toxic. Cultivation The best-known species is the California poppy (Eschscholzia californica), the state flower of California. Eschscholzia caespitosa is very similar to E. californica, but smaller and without a collar below the petals. Another species common in cultivation is Eschscholzia lobbii, which is often sold as Eschscholzia caespitosa. E. lobbii has yellow flowers and very narrow leaves. They prosper in warm, dry climates, but withstand some frost. They grow in poor soils with good water drainage. The cultivars 'Apricot Chiffon', with orange/yellow flowers, and 'Rose Chiffon', with pink and cream flowers, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Species References External links Calflora: Database: Eschscholzia species — with images. 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250515	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landform	Landform	A landform is a natural or artificial feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body which is part of the terrain. Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography. Landforms include hills, mountains, plateaus, canyons, and valleys, as well as shoreline features such as bays, peninsulas, and seas, including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes, and the great ocean basins. Physical characteristics Landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Gross physical features or landforms include intuitive elements such as berms, mounds, hills, ridges, cliffs, valleys, rivers, peninsulas, volcanoes, and numerous other structural and size-scaled (e.g. ponds vs. lakes, hills vs. mountains) elements including various kinds of inland and oceanic waterbodies and sub-surface features. Mountains, hills, plateaux, and plains are the four major types of landforms. Minor landforms include buttes, canyons, valleys, and basins. Tectonic plate movement under the Earth can create landforms by pushing up mountains and hills. Hierarchy of classes Oceans and continents exemplify the highest-order landforms. Landform elements are parts of a high-order landforms that can be further identified and systematically given a cohesive definition such as hill-tops, shoulders, saddles, foreslopes and backslopes. Some generic landform elements including: pits, peaks, channels, ridges, passes, pools and plains. Terrain (or relief) is the third or vertical dimension of land surface. Topography is the study of terrain, although the word is often used as a synonym for relief itself. When relief is described underwater, the term bathymetry is used. In cartography, many different techniques are used to describe relief, including contour lines and TIN (Triangulated irregular network). Elementary landforms (segments, facets, relief units) are the smallest homogeneous divisions of the land surface, at the given scale/resolution. These are areas with relatively homogeneous morphometric properties, bounded by lines of discontinuity. A plateau or a hill can be observed at various scales ranging from few hundred meters to hundreds of kilometers. Hence, the spatial distribution of landforms is often scale-dependent as is the case for soils and geological strata. A number of factors, ranging from plate tectonics to erosion and deposition, can generate and affect landforms. Biological factors can also influence landforms— for example, note the role of vegetation in the development of dune systems and salt marshes, and the work of corals and algae in the formation of coral reefs. Landforms do not include man-made features, such as canals, ports and many harbors; and geographic features, such as deserts, forests, and grasslands. Many of the terms are not restricted to refer to features of the planet Earth, and can be used to describe surface features of other planets and similar objects in the Universe. Examples are mountains, hills, polar caps, and valleys, which are found on all of the terrestrial planets. The scientific study of landforms is known as geomorphology. In onomastic terminology, toponyms (geographical proper names) of individual landform objects (mountains, hills, valleys, etc.) are called oronyms. Recent developments Landforms may be extracted from a digital elevation model using some automated techniques where the data has been gathered by modern satellites and stereoscopic aerial surveillance cameras. Until recently, compiling the data found in such data sets required time consuming and expensive techniques involving many man-hours. The most detailed DEMs available are measured directly using LIDAR techniques. See also Geomorphology List of landforms Open-geomorphometry project Terrain Geomorphologist Beach erosion and accretion Beach evolution Beach nourishment Modern recession of beaches Raised beach Strand plain Coastal management, to prevent coastal erosion and creation of beach Coastal and oceanic landforms Coastal development hazards Coastal erosion Coastal geography Coastal engineering Coastal morphodynamics Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation (CERF) Erosion Bioerosion Blowhole Natural arch Wave-cut platform Longshore drift Deposition (sediment) Coastal sediment supply Sand dune stabilization Submersion References Sources Further reading Hargitai Hetal. (2015) Classification and Characterization of Planetary Landforms. In: Hargitai H (ed) Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Springer. DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3134-3 https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bbm%3A978-1-4614-3134-3%2F1.pdf Page D (2015) The Geology of Planetary Landforms. In: Hargitai H (ed) Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Springer. 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250516	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mer%20Hayrenik	Mer Hayrenik	Mer Hayrenik (, ; 'Our Fatherland') is the national anthem of Armenia. Barsegh Kanachyan composed the music, while the lyrics were authored by Mikayel Nalbandian. First adopted in 1918 as the anthem of the short-lived First Republic of Armenia, it was subsequently banned after the country was invaded and incorporated into the Soviet Union. Following the Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the restoration of sovereignty in 1991, the song was re-adopted as the national anthem albeit with slightly modified lyrics. History Composition and first republic (until 1920) The lyrics of Mer Hayrenik were derived from The Song of an Italian Girl, a poem written by Mikael Nalbandian in 1861. (), it is more well known by its incipit, Mer Hayrenik ("Our Fatherland"). In the early 20th century, the music was composed by Barsegh Kanachyan. Subsequently, both the lyrics and music were adopted as the national anthem of the First Republic of Armenia, which briefly existed from 1918 to 1920. Soviet era (1920–1991) The Red Army invaded Armenia in November 1920, in spite of the Treaty of Sèvres – which granted the country international recognition as a sovereign state – having been signed only three months earlier. In 1922, it was absorbed into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR), together with Azerbaijan and Georgia, and the TSFSR subsequently became part of the Soviet Union at the end of that same year. As an unmistakable symbol of Armenian nationalism, Mer Hayrenik was outlawed by the Bolshevik authorities. In its place, the Anthem of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was utilized from 1944 onwards. Because of this, Mer Hayrenik took on a new status as a protest song against Soviet rule during this time. Restoration of sovereignty and beyond (1991–present) Mer Hayrenik was reinstated as Armenia's national anthem on 1 July 1991 by the constituent republic's Supreme Soviet. The lyrics are not identical to the 1918 version, however, because several of the words have been modified. As an intrinsic element of civic education in Armenia, the anthem is one of several national symbols which feature prominently in the classrooms of the country's schools. By dignifying the song in this manner, teachers reckon that this "encourage[s] students to sing the national anthem every day". A debate of the national anthem was a question in the Armenian Parliament in 2006 and 2019. The new government had called for the restoration of the Soviet era anthem with newer lyrics in its place. Lyrics Current text Original text Mer Hayrenik is based on the first, third, fourth and sixth stanzas of Nalbandian's poem The Song of an Italian Girl. Context of lyrics The lyrics of "Mer Hayrenik" promotes the worthiness of "dying for the freedom" of Armenia. Its discussion of death, however, has led several commentators to complain that the anthem is overly "wimpy" and "gloomy". Specifically, some members of the National Assembly are of the opinion that the song – written at the time of the first fight for independence – does not accurately reflect the present era of triumph and success. However, none of the proposals to replace "Mer Hayrenik" have come to fruition, as the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun) – which were part of the coalition government – have so far resisted efforts to change the national anthem. In popular culture The title of the national anthem is used as the name of a television channel for Armenian expatriates residing in Russia. Mer Hayrenik TV is based in the city of Novosibirsk, the administrative centre of both Novosibirsk Oblast as well as the Siberian Federal District. Notes References External links State symbols of Armenia Vocal version of "Mer Hayrenik" in MP3 format Armenian part of nationalanthems.info: includes midi, lyrics, a music sheet Armenian music National symbols of Armenia Asian anthems European anthems National anthems National anthem compositions in F major	[ 0.09884617477655411, 0.9167574048042297, 0.1418108344078064, -0.43206119537353516, -0.6879336833953857, 0.7113516330718994, 0.667529284954071, 0.3494360148906708, -0.36312997341156006, -0.26661205291748047, -0.5516271591186523, 0.490741103887558, -0.38847997784614563, 0.49900007247924805, -0.7273319959640503, 0.7883678674697876, 0.18484161794185638, 0.7930223941802979, -0.055705100297927856, -0.5200762748718262, -0.19492845237255096, 0.4418104887008667, 0.9081693887710571, -0.05556904524564743, 0.3624357283115387, 0.0010717024561017752, 0.49576181173324585, -0.10173900425434113, -0.3846280872821808, 0.37390491366386414, -0.27828410267829895, -0.05236280336976051, 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250519	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quentin%20Blake	Quentin Blake	Sir Quentin Saxby Blake (born 16 December 1932) is an English cartoonist, caricaturist, illustrator and children's writer. He has illustrated over 300 books, including 18 written by Roald Dahl, which are among his most popular works. For his lasting contribution as a children's illustrator he won the biennial international Hans Christian Andersen Award in 2002, the highest recognition available to creators of children's books. From 1999 to 2001 he was the inaugural British Children's Laureate. He is a patron of the Association of Illustrators. Early life Blake was born in 1932 in Sidcup, Kent, and was evacuated to the West Country during the Second World War. He attended Holy Trinity Lamorbey Church of England Primary School and Chislehurst and Sidcup Grammar School, where his English teacher, J. H. Walsh, influenced him into literature. His artistic development during his school years was helped by contact with the painter and cartoonist Alfred Jackson, the husband of Blake's Latin teacher, who encouraged his first submissions to Punch, resulting in his first publication at the age of 16. In the sixth form, the school's art teacher, the painter Stanley Simmonds recognized Blake's talents and provided support and exposure to the work of other artists. He read English Literature at Downing College, Cambridge, under F. R. Leavis, from 1953 to 1956, received his postgraduate teaching diploma from the University of London Institute of Education, and later studied part-time at the Chelsea School of Art and later Camberwell College of Art. He has since denied that studying at the University of Cambridge contributed to his artistic or creative talent. Career During the 1960s, Blake taught English at the Lycée Français de Londres which cemented his long association with France and culminated in the award of the Legion of Honour. He taught at the Royal College of Art for over twenty years, where he was head of the Illustration department from 1978 to 1986. The first book that Blake illustrated was The Wonderful Button by Evan Hunter, published by Abelard-Schuman in 1961. In his subsequent career he gained a reputation as a loyal, reliable and humorous illustrator of more than 300 children's books, including some written by Joan Aiken, Elizabeth Bowen, Sylvia Plath, Roald Dahl, Nils-Olof Franzén, William Steig, and Dr. Seuss. He illustrated the first Seuss book that Seuss did not illustrate himself, Great Day for Up! (1974). By 2006, Blake had illustrated 323 books, of which he had written 35 and Dahl had written 18. To date, Blake has illustrated two of David Walliams' books and has illustrated Folio Society Limited Editions such as Don Quixote, Candide and 50 Fables of La Fontaine. In the 1970s, Blake was an occasional presenter of the BBC children's story-telling programme Jackanory, when he would illustrate the stories on a canvas as he was telling them. In 1993, he designed the five British Christmas issue postage stamps featuring episodes from A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens. Blake is a member of the Chelsea Arts Club. He is patron of the Blake Society, Downing College's arts and humanities society. He is also a patron of "The Big Draw" which aims to get people drawing throughout the United Kingdom, and of The Nightingale Project, a charity that provides art to hospitals. Since 2006 he has produced work for several hospitals and mental health centres in the London area, a children's hospital (hopital Armand Trousseau) in Paris, and a maternity hospital in Angers, France. These projects are detailed in Blake's 2012 book Quentin Blake: Beyond the Page, which describes how, in his seventies, his work has increasingly appeared outside the pages of books, in public places such as hospitals, theatre foyers, galleries and museums. In 2007, he designed a huge mural on fabric, suspended over and thus disguising a ramshackle building immediately opposite an entrance to St Pancras railway station. The rendering of an "imaginary welcoming committee" greets passengers arriving on the Eurostar high-speed railway. Blake is a supporter of and ambassador for the indigenous rights NGO Survival International. In 2009, he said, "For me, Survival is important for two reasons; one is that I think right that we should give help and support to people who are threatened by the rapacious industrial society we have created; and the other that, more generally, it gives an important signal about how we all ought to be looking after the world. Its message is the most fundamental of any charity I'm connected with." Blake is the Founding Trustee of House of Illustration, a centre in London for exhibitions, educational events and activities related to the art of illustration. He was also the subject of the first exhibition at this venue, entitled Inside Stories", which opened in July 2014. In August 2020, it was announced that the centre will be relocating to the 18th century Engine House at New River Head in the Clerkenwell area of London, and will be renamed the Quentin Blake Centre for Illustration. Besides children's books, Blake is also the designer of Ben, the logo of the shop chain Ben's Cookies. He designed several illustrations for the story time segments for the Scottish TV series Squeak!. Comics Blake was additionally the artist behind the comic strip Waldo and Wanda, written by John Yeoman. Selected works The following books were both written and illustrated by Blake: Patrick (Jonathan Cape, 1968) and Nancy (Cape, 1969) Angelo (Cape, 1970) Snuff (Cape, 1973) Lester at the Seaside (William Collins, Sons, 1975) Lester and the Unusual Pet (Collins, 1975) The Adventures of Lester (BBC, 1977) Mister Magnolia (Cape, 1980) —winner of the Kate Greenaway Medal Quentin Blake's Nursery Rhyme Book (Cape, 1983) The Story of the Dancing Frog (Cape, 1984) Mrs Armitage On Wheels (Cape, 1987) Quentin Blake's ABC (Cape, 1989) All Join In (Cape, 1990) —winner of the Kurt Maschler Award for integrated text and illustration Cockatoos (Cape, 1992) Simpkin (Cape, 1993) The Quentin Blake Book of Nonsense Verse (Viking Press, 1994) Clown (Cape, 1995) —commended runner-up for the Greenaway Medal La Vie de la Page (Gallimard, 1995) Mrs Armitage and the Big Wave (Cape, 1997) Dix Grenouilles (Ten Frogs) (Gallimard, 1997) The Green Ship (Cape, 1998) Zagazoo (Cape, 1998) Zap! The Quentin Blake Guide to Electrical Safety (Eastern Electricity, 1998) Fantastic Daisy Artichoke (Cape, 1999) The Twelve Days of Christmas (Correspondence) (Atlantic Books, 1999) The Laureate's Party (Random House, 2000) Un Bateau Dans le Ciel (Rue du Monde, 2000) Words and Pictures (Cape, 2000) Tell Me a Picture (National Gallery, 2001) Loveykins (Cape, 2002) Laureate's Progress (Cape, 2002) Mrs Armitage, Queen of the Road (Cape, 2003) A Sailing Boat In The Sky (Random House: Red Fox, 2003) Angel Pavement (Cape, 2004) You're Only Young Twice (Andersen Press, 2008) Daddy Lost his Head (Andre Bouchard, 2009) Quentin Blake: Beyond the Page (Tate Publishing Ltd, 2012) Blake has illustrated a score of books by Roald Dahl. He also illustrated the British edition of Agaton Sax, a Swedish-language series of comedy detective novels by Nils-Olof Franzén (originally illustrated by Åke Lewerth, 1955 to 1978). Agaton Sax and the Diamond Thieves, 1965 Agaton Sax and the Scotland Yard Mystery, 1969 Agaton Sax and the Max Brothers (a.k.a. Bank Robbers), 1970 Agaton Sax and the Criminal Doubles, 1971 Agaton Sax and the Colossus of Rhodes, 1972 Agaton Sax and the London Computer Plot, 1973 Agaton Sax and the League of Silent Exploders, 1974 Agaton Sax and the Haunted House, 1975 Agaton Sax and the Big Rig (extended), 1976 Agaton Sax and Lispington's Grandfather Clock, 1978 Other The Learning Journey —National Curriculum, key stages 1 and 2, illustrated editions for parents Three Little Monkeys 2016, illustrated by Emma Chichester Clark Three Little Monkeys Ride Again 2019, illustrated by Emma Chichester Clark Three Little Monkeys at Christmas 2021, illustrated by Emma Chichester Clark Honours and awards Blake was the inaugural British Children's Laureate (1999–2001) and he received the biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award from the International Board on Books for Young People for his career contribution to children's literature in 1987. He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2005 New Year Honours for his services to children's literature. In France he was made a Knight of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2002 and elevated to Officer in 2007. For Mister Magnolia, which he also wrote, Blake won the 1980 Kate Greenaway Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book illustration by a British subject. For the 50th anniversary of the Medal (1955–2005), a panel of experts named it one of the top ten winning works, which composed the ballot for a public election of the nation's favourite. He was also a highly commended Greenaway runner-up for The Wild Washerwomen: A new folk tale, by John Yeoman (1979), and a commended runner-up for Clown (1995), which he wrote himself. He made the Greenaway shortlist for Zagazoo (1998), which he wrote, and for Sad Book (2004) by Michael Rosen. He won the Kurt Maschler Award, or the Emil, for All Join In (Jonathan Cape, 1990), which he wrote and illustrated. The award from Maschler Publications and Booktrust annually recognised one British "work of imagination for children, in which text and illustration are integrated so that each enhances and balances the other." Blake was awarded the Prince Philip Designers Prize in 2011, and received the Eleanor Farjeon Award in November 2012. This annual award administered by Children's Book Circle recognises outstanding commitment and contribution to the world of British children's books. Blake was created a Knight Bachelor in the 2013 New Year Honours for his services to illustration. In March 2014 he was awarded the insignia of a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur at a ceremony at the Institut Français in London. See also Notes References D. Martin, "Quentin Blake", in Douglas Martin, The Telling Line: Essays On Fifteen Contemporary Book Illustrators (Julia MacRae Books, 1989), pp. 243–263 Quentin Blake, "Research from an illustrator's point of view", in Research in Illustration: Conference Proceedings Part II (Brighton Polytechnic) (1981), pp. 25–61 External links (current); Lambiek Comiclopedia article. 1932 births 20th-century English writers 20th-century English male writers 21st-century English writers Living people English cartoonists English caricaturists English children's book illustrators English children's writers English illustrators English comics artists Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Hans Christian Andersen Award for Illustration winners Kate Greenaway Medal winners Punch (magazine) cartoonists Writers who illustrated their own writing Academics of the Royal College of Art Alumni of Downing College, Cambridge Alumni of Chelsea College of Arts Alumni of the Royal College of Art Alumni of the 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250522	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regime	Regime	In politics, a regime (also "régime") is the form of government or the set of rules, cultural or social norms, etc. that regulate the operation of a government or institution and its interactions with society. Usage While the word régime originates as a synonym for any type of government, modern usage has given it a negative connotation, implying an authoritarian government or dictatorship. Webster's definition states that the word régime refers simply to a form of government, while Oxford English Dictionary defines regime as "a government, especially an authoritarian one". Contemporary academic usage of the term "regime" is broader than popular and journalistic usage, meaning "an intermediate stratum between the government (which makes day-to-day decisions and is easy to alter) and the state (which is a complex bureaucracy tasked with a range of coercive functions)." In global studies and international relations the concept of regime is also used to name international regulatory agencies (see International regime), which lie outside of the control of national governments. Some authors thus distinguish analytically between institutions and regimes while recognizing that they are bound up with each other: In other words, regimes can be defined as sets of protocols and norms embedded either in institutions or institutionalized practices – formal such as states or informal such as the "liberal trade regime" – that are publicly enacted and relatively enduring. See also Ancien Régime Carbon audit regime Exchange rate regime International regime Legal practice Regime change Regime theory References Citations Sources O'Neill, Patrick, Essentials of Comparative Government Government	[ 0.5227543711662292, -0.20894944667816162, -0.3066926896572113, 0.4740138053894043, 0.05033073201775551, -0.5559374094009399, 0.40216922760009766, 0.050202902406454086, -0.1886850893497467, -0.5172213315963745, -0.7006954550743103, 0.6049706339836121, -0.3393821716308594, 0.338688462972641, -0.27794158458709717, 0.48692628741264343, 0.4230175018310547, 0.45402559638023376, 0.18776832520961761, 0.011754072271287441, -0.6758689880371094, 0.23058664798736572, -0.278696745634079, -0.370113730430603, 0.1559726744890213, -0.24117660522460938, 0.490180104970932, -0.13560056686401367, -0.4013133645057678, 0.09876351058483124, 0.003945833072066307, -0.03564835712313652, -0.23816269636154175, 0.3551664650440216, 0.05473283305764198, -0.000013113604836689774, 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250523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrainona	Bahrainona	(; "Our Bahrain"; also known as "the national anthem of Bahrain") is the national anthem of Bahrain. Originally composed as an instrumental in 1942, lyrics were added in 1985, which were changed in 2002 following the country's transformation from an emirate into a kingdom. History The anthem was originally composed in 1942 to be played at official events such as receptions, making Bahrain one of the first Arab countries to adopt a national anthem. The leaders of the police band made many modifications and additions to the music over the following years, most significantly in 1972, a year after Bahrain's independence from the United Kingdom, when it was extended by playing it twice. In 1985, former leader of the police band Colonel Mohamed Sudqi Ayyash wrote lyrics for the anthem, which were used until 2002. That year, with the emergence of the National Action Charter and a constitutional amendments referendum that declared the country's ruler Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifah a king and the country a kingdom, the lyrics were changed by Minister of the Royal Court Khalid bin Ahmed Al Khalifa. Band leader Major General Mubarak Najm Al-Najm made the appropriate adjustments to the military band arrangement, including the ending, while an orchestral version was arranged by Bahraini composer Ahmed Al-Jumairi and recorded with the London Philharmonic Orchestra in London. Lyrics Current lyrics Former lyrics (1985–2002) Notes References External links Bahrain: Bahrainona - Audio of the national anthem of Bahrain, with information and lyrics (archive link) Himnuszok - A vocal version of the Anthem, featured in the Himnuszok website. 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250524	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amar%20Sonar%20Bangla	Amar Sonar Bangla	"Amar Sonar Bangla" (, ) is the national anthem of Bangladesh. An ode to Mother Bengal, the lyrics was written by Bengali polymath Rabindranath Tagore in 1905, while the melody of the hymn was adopted from the Baul singer Gagan Harkara's song "Ami Kothay Pabo Tare" () set to Dadra Tala. The modern instrumental rendition was arranged by Bangladeshi musician Samar Das. Etymology The word sonar literally means "made of gold", with "sona" meaning gold, and "amar" showing possession. It is used as a term of endearment meaning "beloved", but in the song the words sonar Bangla may be interpreted to express the preciousness of Bengal. History The song was written in 1905 during the first partition of Bengal, when the ruling British Empire had an undivided province of Bengal Presidency split into two parts; the decision was announced on 19 July by the then-Viceroy of India Lord Curzon, taking effect on 16 October. This divide of Bengal, being along communal lines–East Bengal and Assam having a majority of Muslims and West Bengal having a majority of Hindus–is claimed to have undermined India's national movement against the UK's imperialism and to have been politically motivated. Along with a host of others, songs such as this were meant to rekindle the unified spirit of Bengal, to raise public consciousness against the communal political divide. The lyrics first appeared in the September issues of "Bongodorshon" and "Baul" simultaneously, in 1905. The song along with the musical notation (referred to as swaralipi in Bengali), first appeared in the periodical musical journal Shongeet Biggnan Probeshika in the same month and year. Indira Devi, Tagore's niece, Satyendranath Tagore's daughter, jotted down the musical notation hearing it from Tagore himself (this was the common norm, Tagore singing the song, and someone formally jotting down the musical notations). Official adaption The first ten (10) lines of this song constitute Bangladesh's national anthem, adopted in 1971 during its liberation war. Only those lines are given in the following section. The instrumental orchestra rendition was composed by Samar Das. Lyrics Original poem The following provides the lyrics of the "Amar Sonar Bangla" as written by Rabindranath Tagore. Only the first ten lines of this song currently constitute Bangladesh's national anthem. Lyrics as sung The following are the lyrics of the national anthem as sung, which differ slightly from the original poem. Notable performances and covers The Ministry of Cultural Affairs planned to stage an event on Bangladesh's 44th independence day, in a bid to have the world record of the most people singing a national anthem simultaneously. Consequently, on 2 March, the ministry launched a program titled "Lakho Konthe Sonar Bangla" whose main objective was to hold an event with the cooperation of Bangladesh Armed Forces where approximately 300,000 people would sing the national anthem. Several popular Bangladeshi musicians and cultural groups later joined the program. The record was broken at 11:20 on 26 March 2014 by 254,537 participants at Dhaka's National Parade Ground. The event was attended by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad, and all the members of the cabinet. After receiving the required evidence, the Guinness Book of World Records approved the record on 9 April 2014. The record was broken by India on 21 January 2017. See also Notuner Gaan, the national march of Bangladesh, written by Kazi Nazrul Islam. Ekusher Gaan, a song in the memory of the martyrs of the Bengali language movement Jana Gana Mana, national anthem of India, also written by Rabindranath Tagore Banga Mata Joy Bangla Notes References External links Bangladeshi songs Songs written by Rabindranath Tagore Asian anthems Bengali-language songs Bengali-language poems Bangladeshi patriotic songs National anthem compositions in A-flat major Poems by Rabindranath Tagore Rabindra Sangeet	[ 0.026776187121868134, 0.04391344636678696, -0.20713113248348236, -0.3997993469238281, -0.8729414939880371, 0.1330547034740448, 0.18910746276378632, 0.7218480110168457, -0.7876165509223938, 0.159210205078125, -0.400730699300766, 0.5085838437080383, -0.5682660937309265, 0.32764554023742676, -0.2963274419307709, 1.155524730682373, 0.3588215410709381, -0.05922229215502739, -0.10251013189554214, -0.11853346228599548, 0.07432492822408676, 0.023985380306839943, 0.6828057765960693, 0.3784036934375763, 0.5083900094032288, 0.3548629581928253, 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250527	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Belarusy	My Belarusy	The "State Anthem of the Republic of Belarus" (), better known as "My Belarusy" (; "We Belarusians"), is the national anthem of Belarus. It was originally written in the 1940s and adopted in 1955 for use in the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The music of the Byelorussian SSR's regional anthem was composed by Niescier Sakałoŭski and the lyrics were written by Michas Klimkovič. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the music composed by Sakalowski was kept and the lyrics were discarded. New lyrics, which were written by Klimkovič and Uladzimir Karyzna, were adopted by a presidential decree issued on 2 July 2002. The lyrics now speak of a friendly Belarus, honoring past military battles and looking forward to the future. Evolution Anthem of the Byelorussian SSR "My Belarusy" was originally used as the anthem of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic starting from 24 February 1955. The original anthem was composed by Sakałoŭski and the lyrics were written by Maxim Klimkovich. It was presented in front of a jury in 1944, but it took 11 years of modifications before it was officially adopted. When Belarus became an independent country, the national anthem was modified to drop the Communist-era lyrics. An attempt was made in 1995 to adopt Natallia Arsiennieva's poem "O God Almighty" as the national anthem, but the suggestion was not acted on even though it was supported by a parliamentary committee. Anthem of the Republic of Belarus The only legal mention of a national anthem in Belarusian law before 2002 was in the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus. Section One, Article 19 of the constitution states that "The symbols of the Republic of Belarus as a sovereign state shall be its national flag, national emblem and national anthem." While the constitution only mentioned the use of the flag, national anthem, and arms as state symbols, each symbol had to be defined by law. A law specifying a national anthem was not enacted until Presidential Decree 350 took effect on 18 July 2002, the day before Belarus's independence day. The decree's main objective was to establish lyrics for the anthem and introduce musical notation along with the new lyrics. Moreover, the decree designated when, where, and how the anthem was to be performed. According to the newspaper Soviet Byelorussia, President Lukashenko decided on the anthem on 12 June 2002 and chose to have its first performance on 3 July—Belarusian independence day, the anniversary of the date in 1944 when the Wehrmacht was driven away from Minsk by the Red Army. However, the first performance actually took place on 2 July at a concert organized by the government as part of the Belarusian independence festivities. When Lukashenko issued his decree selecting a new national anthem, only slight changes were made to the Soviet-era hymn. While the references to Russia, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Vladimir Lenin were replaced; the overall theme of "friendship of peoples" and the original music composed by Sakałoŭski were preserved. The government decided to keep Sakałoŭski's music in order to maintain historical continuity, and also on account of its popularity and musical quality. After the national anthem was adopted, the process of adopting national symbols was completed. Reaction The organization Freedom House commented on the adoption of the anthem in a report about the country, published in 2003. On page 125 of the "Country Report of Belarus", Freedom House says that President Lukashenko has "reintroduced the state symbols used by the old Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 2002, the president approved a streamlined version of the Soviet-era anthem "My Belarusy" ("We Belarusians"), as the country's new national anthem." The report also mentioned President Lukashenko's ban of the symbols that were used since Belarus's independence in 1991, such as the Pahonia arms and the white, red, white flag, which Lukashenko claims are associated with fascism (because the pro-Nazi Belarusian Central Rada in World War II used these symbols). In 2003, Dr. Taras Kuzio wrote in Radio Free Europe that President Lukashenko "is the quintessential Soviet Belarusian patriot who presides over a regime steeped in Soviet nostalgia." Kuzio said that the motives of Russia and Belarus in re-adopting Soviet-era symbols are part of restoring that nostalgia. Usage and regulations The anthem must be performed in accordance with the lyrics and sheet music established by law. Each day, all national free to air radio stations and television networks across the country are required to play it twice; at 06:00 when going on air and again at 00:00 upon going off air. The anthem can also be performed on certain occasions, such as at government meetings, before sporting events and presidential inaugurations. While the anthem is being performed, citizens are required to stand at attention and those in military or police uniform must to be in Full Russian-style salute. National anthem proposals Vajacki Marš "Vajacki Marš" (March of the Warriors) was the official anthem of the Belarusian Democratic Republic, a Belarusian state that was created in 1918 but lasted only 10 months, during World War I. Since 1919, the song has been used as an anthem of Belarus by Belarusian emigrant communities in Western Europe and North America. It is still considered the official anthem used by the government-in-exile of the Belarusian Democratic Republic. Mahutny Boža Mahutny Boža, a religious hymn, is also actively used by those who oppose the Lukashenko Government. Pahonia The song Pahonia, based on the poem by Maksim Bahdanovich and set to music by Mikalay Shchahlou-Kulikovich, has been performed acapella during the 2020 Belarusian protests and experienced a resurged popularity following them. Young Belarus A favourite in the anthem competition was the poem called Young Belarus (Маладая Беларусь) by Janka Kupala. However, the poem was never set to a musical composition so Young Belarus could not be selected as the anthem. Lyrics Belarusian original In Russian Alongside Belarusian, Russian is a second state language of Belarus. 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250528	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dymaxion%20car	Dymaxion car	The streamlined Dymaxion car was designed by American inventor Buckminster Fuller during the Great Depression and featured prominently at Chicago's 1933/1934 World's Fair. Fuller built three experimental prototypes with naval architect Starling Burgess – using donated money as well as a family inheritance – to explore not an automobile per se, but the 'ground-taxiing phase' of a vehicle that might one day be designed to fly, land and drive – an "Omni-Medium Transport". Fuller associated the word Dymaxion with much of his work, a portmanteau of the words dynamic, maximum, and tension, to summarize his goal to do more with less. The Dymaxion's aerodynamic bodywork was designed for increased fuel efficiency and top speed, and its platform featured a lightweight hinged chassis, rear-mounted V8 engine, front-wheel drive (a rare RF layout), and three wheels. With steering via its third wheel at the rear (capable of 90° steering lock), the vehicle could steer itself in a tight circle, often causing a sensation. Fuller noted severe limitations in its handling, especially at high speed or in high wind, due to its rear-wheel steering (highly unsuitable for anything but low speeds) and the limited understanding of the effects of lift and turbulence on automobile bodies in that era – allowing only trained staff to drive the car and saying it "was an invention that could not be made available to the general public without considerable improvements." Shortly after its launch, a prototype crashed after being hit by another car, killing the Dymaxion's driver. Subsequent investigations exonerated the prototype. Despite courting publicity and the interest of auto manufacturers, Fuller used his inheritance to finish the second and third prototypes, selling all three, dissolving Dymaxion Corporation and reiterating that the Dymaxion was never intended as a commercial venture. One of the three original prototypes survives, and two semi-faithful replicas have recently been constructed. The Dymaxion was included in the 2009 book Fifty Cars That Changed The World and was the subject of the 2012 documentary The Last Dymaxion. In 2008, The New York Times said Fuller "saw the Dymaxion, as he saw much of the world, as a kind of provisional prototype, a mere sketch, of the glorious, eventual future." History Fuller would ultimately go on to fully develop his Comprehensive Anticipatory Design Science, his theory of using all technology on behalf of all people as soon as possible, but by this point it was "his job, Fuller decided, to identify a problem, develop a way to solve it, and wait – perhaps as long as twenty-five years – for public awareness to catch up. In 1930, Fuller had purchased an architectural magazine, T-Square, which he ultimately renamed Shelter. Fuller edited the magazine anonymously for two years, and in 1928 published sketches of his land-air-water vehicle, called a 4D Transport. 4D stood for Four Dimensional, a term used in physics and mathematics, referring to length, width, depth and time. Regarding the 4D transport, author Lloyd S. Sieden, wrote in his 2000 book Bucky Fuller's Universe: To his daughter, Allegra, he described the Dymaxion as: Fuller was offered $5,000 (2015: $91,000) from wealthy former stock trader and socialite Philip (variously reported as Phillip) Pearson and his wife Temple Pearson (niece of Isadora Duncan) of Philadelphia. Pearson was a stock broker and had presciently sold short a large quantity of stock before the Great Depression, becoming instantly wealthy. Pearson had known of Fuller's studies, had more wealth than he needed, and felt he could put Fuller and others to work in a way that would also do something to alleviate unemployment. Fuller initially refused his benefactor, concerned about potential profit motives and short-sightedness. Fuller devised a contract, famously adding a so-called "ice cream soda clause" where Fuller could freely buy only ice cream sodas with all the donated money, should he so choose. On March 4, 1933 – as President Roosevelt instituted a banking moratorium, Fuller formed Dymaxion Corporation, set up a workshop in the former dynamometer building of the defunct Locomobile Company at Tongue Point, on the west side of the harbor in Bridgeport, Connecticut, and hired naval architect Starling Burgess and a team of 27 workmen, including former Rolls-Royce mechanics. 1000 workmen had applied for the 27 jobs. The first of three prototypes was completed in three months – on Fuller's 38th birthday, July 12, 1933. On October 18, 1933, Fuller filed a patent, which was granted in 1937. Dymaxion Corporation location: ) Note: Blueprints of the Dymaxion carried the name of the company as the 4D Company,Signage on the Tongue Pointe, former Locomobile building read 4D Dymaxion. Design Because he was aiming for what Fuller called Omni Medium Transport, a vehicle that could go anywhere, the Dymaxion would ultimately have "wheels for ground travel and jet stilts for instant takeoff and flight." Jet stilts were Fuller's placeholder idea for a future technology that could provide compact, concentrated lift – twenty years before the commercial availability of jets. Estimating that designing a land-sea-air vehicle was then financially and technically out of reach, Fuller focused on the most dangerous and challenging mode of such vehicle: landing and taxiing on hard ground. Fuller favored front-wheel drive, studying the way a wheelbarrow could more effectively pull its load rather than pitch forward when pushing a load. He began studies of the relationships between vehicles (cars, trucks – and also birds and fish) with the media in which they operated (fluid dynamics) – as well as steering mechanisms in nature, especially the rear "single fin" steering of birds and fish. Burgess, inventor of the first delta-wing aircraft, was invaluable to the project – but skeptical the vehicle would ever fly. Fuller theorized that getting a long, aerodynamic 'plane' fuselage – which was also inclined to have trailing, rear steering – to land safely and not immediately turn into the wind, would be a major challenge. The vehicle would inherently exhibit something he called "ground-loopiness," and chose to focus his energy there. Although it was never intended as such, Fuller anticipated the public would instinctively call such a vehicle an automobile, and when licensing to drive the vehicle on Connecticut roads, acquiesced and applied for an automobile registration. Fuller had worked with sculptor Isamu Noguchi to create plaster wind tunnel models of the Dymaxion to help determine its teardrop shape. Authors of a 2011 detailed computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis at Coventry University of the Dymaxion bodywork noted the form's "similarity in shape to a humpback whale" and concluded "the Dymaxion car looks close to a drag optimum style and serves as a useful reference for low drag forms." Prototypes One, Two and Three Prototype One, at long, was built on a hinged two-frame chassis constructed of lightweight chromoly steel with aircraft-type dished lightening holes – and powered by a Ford V8 engine producing in a rear-engine, front-wheel-drive layout. The front axle was a re-purposed and inverted (the flipped axle must be inverted to prevent the pinion gears from running the wrong way) rear axle from a contemporary Ford roadster. Tires were provided by Goodyear. The suspension used leaf springs "turned sideways" (transverse leaf springs) and bodywork featured sheet aluminum over an ash wood frame, with a roof partially constructed of snap-on painted canvas. Original blueprints indicate seating for four, including the driver. Fuller said he had achieved fuel economy of 36 mpg (7.8l/100 km) and to have reached a speed of . Prototypes Two and Three featured developmental improvements including a lighter three-frame chassis central periscope providing rearward vision, larger side windows, recessed headlights and a roof-mounted stabilizer with rear-facing exhaust outlet. Videos: In contemporary videos (see External links, below), Fuller is seen driving the vehicle at high speed. In another Fuller showing off his speeding ticket, demonstrating its ability to turn "on itself", easily parallel parking in a space only six inches longer than the car, remarking that he averaged over 22 mpg (up to 30 mpg), and commenting on its stability, with a center of gravity both low and ahead of the midpoint of its wheelbase. Later prototype history Prototype One was badly damaged in the noted car accident at the time of the 1933 Chicago Century of Progress fair. The car was repaired and sold to the director of the automotive division of the U.S. Bureau of Standards (BoS), only to be subsequently destroyed in a fire at the Washington D.C. garage of the BoS. Prototype Two survives in the Harrah Collection of the National Automobile Museum in Reno, Nevada. Prototype Two was initially purchased by Alfred Williams, manager of the Gulf Refining Company and driven cross country in a nationwide advertising promotion of aircraft fuel. In a contemporary video (see External links, below), Fuller notes that good friend Amelia Earhart asked that the Dymaxion be her official car for the celebration of her receiving the National Gold Medal from National Geographic. Dymaxion Prototype Two was driven to Washington and garnered considerable publicity. Prototype Three changed hands many times but was lost, presumed scrapped, in the 1950s. Once owned by Leopold Stokowski, it was estimated to have been driven 300,000 miles. In 1934, Noguchi drove a completed Dymaxion on an extended road trip through Connecticut with Clare Boothe Luce and Dorothy Hale, stopping to see Thornton Wilder in Hamden, Connecticut, before driving to Hartford for the out-of-town opening of Gertrude Stein's and Virgil Thomson's Four Saints in Three Acts. One of the prototypes was driven extensively in a campaign to raise funds in support of the Allies in WW II. Handling limitations Fuller and Burgess realized early that the Dymaxion concept would present considerable challenges. As anticipated, and in line with the purpose of the exploration, maneuvering in high winds proved problematic, with the vehicle having a strong tendency to turn into the wind. Steering difficulty and lift at the rear of the vehicle were also observed. Fuller realized the Dymaxion "was an invention that could not be made available to the general public without considerable improvements," and instituted a program of constant refinement and improvement to the platform. Because of its limitations, Fuller and Burgess limited driving to a list of trained drivers and restricted use in high winds or inclement weather. Speed record Soon after launching Prototype One, Fuller was invited to exhibit the Dymaxion at a Bronx race track, beating the track record by 50% and drawing attention because it did not slide or drift across the track like the other race cars. Accidents A highly publicized accident in Prototype One on October 27, 1933, occurred "virtually at the entrance to the Chicago Century of Progress World's Fair." Another car, driven by a Chicago South Park Commissioner, had hit the Dymaxion, causing it to roll over – killing the dymaxion's driver (race car driver Francis T. Turner of Birmingham, Alabama) and seriously injuring its passengers: aviation pioneer (and noted spy) William Sempill and Charles Dollfuss, Air Minister of France. The politician's car was quickly and illegally removed from the scene of the accident before reporters arrived. Turner was wearing a seatbelt but was killed when the canvas-covered roof framing collapsed. Dollfuss was not wearing a seatbelt, was ejected and landed nearby on his feet. Sempill was severely injured and took months to recover before he could testify at the subsequent inquest. The Dymaxion itself had rolled over and was badly damaged but was subsequently repaired by Fuller and Burgess. In the press, no mention was made that the Dymaxion had been involved in a two-car accident. Instead, the cause of the accident was attributed to the car's unconventional configuration: headlines in New York and Chicago read, "Freak car rolls over – killing famous driver – injuring international passengers". The subsequent formal investigation, a coroner's inquest (because someone had died) was delayed sixty days in order to receive Sempill's testimony. It found the actual cause of the impact was a collision with a car driven by the Chicago South Park commissioner who wanted a closer look at the Dymaxion – and immediately left the scene after the accident. According to the official coroner's inquest, the two vehicles were traveling at 70 mph, with Turner trying to evade the politician's car. The inquest found the design of the Dymaxion was not a factor in the accident. Fuller himself would later crash Prototype Two, with his only surviving daughter, Allegra (Allegra Fuller Snyder) aboard. Auto industry Fuller received interest from Walter Chrysler, Henry Ford, and Henry Kaiser as well as companies including Packard, Studebaker and Curtiss-Wright. Chrysler said Fuller had "produced exactly the car [he had] always wanted to produce", when his company had set out to design a highly advanced, aerodynamic car, the Airflow, which Walter Chrysler ultimately found inferior. Chrysler commissioned Fuller to study the development of the Airflow, finding Fuller had used one quarter the money and a third the time to make his prototype. At various points, it appeared several manufacturers were interested in marketing the Dymaxion. Walter Chrysler was interested – though he advised Fuller that such an advanced design would meet considerable resistance and would make every used car on the road obsolete, threatening the wholesale dealer distribution and finance network. In his 1988 book The Age of Heretics, author Art Kleiner said bankers had threatened to recall their loans, feeling the car would destroy sales for second-hand cars and for vehicles already in the distribution channels. Replicas Hemmings Motor News cites two "faithful or semi-faithful" replicas: The Foster Dymaxion Replica was built in October 2010, by architect and student of Buckminster Fuller, Sir Norman Foster. Foster's team conducted extensive research to replicate its interior, which had completely deteriorated on the only surviving prototype and had not been well documented. Foster was able to borrow Prototype Two under the condition he would also restore its interior. Prototype Two was shipped to the U.K. in order for the work to be carried out before returning to the National Automobile Museum in Reno, Nevada. The Lane Dymaxion Replica was commissioned by the Lane Motor Museum in Nashville, Tennessee, and built by craftsmen in Pennsylvania (chassis) and the Czech Republic (bodywork). After driving the Lane replica in 2015, automotive journalists Jamie Kitman and Dan Neil described it as having very poor stability and vehicle control. See also Streamliner: Automobiles for overview of early aerodynamic automobiles Flying cars Early "teardrop" cars, chronologically Rumpler Tropfenwagen (1921), first aerodynamic "teardrop" car to be designed and serially produced (about 100 units built) Persu car (1922–1923), designed by Romanian engineer Aurel Persu, improved on the Tropfenwagen by placing the wheels inside the car body Stout Scarab (1932–1935, 1946), US Schlörwagen (1939), German prototype, never produced References Further reading External links , excerpt from the Robert Snyder film, The World of Buckminster Fuller, 1971 , with Amelia Earhart as passenger The Dymaxion Car – The Futuristic Vehicle That Remains in the Future CFD Analysis of Dymaxion Car Buckminster Fuller Concept cars Three-wheeled motor vehicles Rear-engined, front-wheel-drive vehicles	[ 0.0022651851177215576, 0.1963328868150711, -0.162955641746521, 0.5418139696121216, 0.01205399725586176, 0.19360649585723877, -0.33514371514320374, 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250531	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr.%20Potato%20Head	Mr. Potato Head	Mr. Potato Head is an American toy consisting of a plastic model of a potato "head" to which a variety of plastic parts can attach — typically ears, eyes, shoes, hat, nose, pants and mouth. Mr. Potato Head was invented and manufactured by George Lerner in 1949, but was first distributed by Hasbro in 1952, was the first toy advertised on television and has remained in production since. In its original form, Mr. Potato Head was offered as separate plastic parts with pushpins to be attached into a real potato or other vegetable. Due to complaints regarding rotting vegetables and new government safety regulations, Hasbro began including a plastic potato body with the toy set in 1964. The original toy was subsequently joined by Mrs. Potato Head and supplemented with accessories including a car and boat trailer. Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head characters appeared in the Toy Story franchise, voiced by Don Rickles and Estelle Harris. Additionally, in 1998, The Mr. Potato Head Show aired but was short-lived, with only one season being produced. As one of the prominent marks of Hasbro, a Mr. Potato Head balloon has also joined others in the annual Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. Toy Story Midway Mania!, in Disney California Adventure at the Disneyland Resort, also features a large talking Mr. Potato Head. Hasbro updated the brand in 2021, dropping the honorific in the name and marketing the toy simply as Potato Head, while retaining the individual characters of Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head. History In the early 1940s, Brooklyn-born toy inventor George Lerner came up with the idea of inserting small, pronged body and face parts into fruits and vegetables to create a "funny face man". Some speculate he got the idea from his wife's nephew Aaron Bradley, who was seen placing sticks inside of potatoes in the family garden. Lerner would often take potatoes from his mother's garden and, using various other fruits and vegetables as facial features, he would make dolls with which his younger sisters could play. The grape-eyed, carrot-nosed, potato-headed dolls became the principal idea behind the plastic toy which would later be manufactured. Originally, Lerner's toy proved controversial. With World War II and food rationing a recent memory for most Americans, the use of fruits and vegetables to make toys was considered irresponsible and wasteful. Toy companies rejected Lerner's creation. After several years of trying to sell the toy, Lerner finally convinced a food company to distribute the plastic parts as premiums in breakfast cereal boxes. He sold the idea for $5,000. In 1951, Lerner showed the idea to Henry and Merrill Hassenfeld, who conducted a small school supply and toy business called Hassenfeld Brothers (later changed to Hasbro). Realizing the toy was quite unlike anything in their line, they paid the cereal company $2,000 to stop production and bought the rights for $5,000. Lerner was offered an advance of $500 and a 5% royalty on every kit sold. The toy was named Mr. Potato Head and went into production on May 1, 1952. The original set cost $0.98, and included toy hands, feet, ears, two mouths, two pairs of eyes, four noses, three hats, eyeglasses, a pipe, and eight felt pieces resembling facial hair. The original kit included no potato "body", relying on parents to provide a potato, into which children could stick the different pieces. Shortly after the toy's initial release, an order form for 50 additional pieces was enclosed in every kit. On April 30, 1952, Mr. Potato Head became the first toy advertised on television. The campaign was also the first to be aimed directly at children; before this, commercials were only targeted at adults, including toy advertisements. The commercial revolutionized marketing, and caused an industrial boom. Over one million kits were sold in the first year. In 1953, a Mrs. Potato Head variant was added, and soon after, Brother Spud and Sister Yam completed the family, followed by accessories reflecting the affluence of the 1950s: a car, boat trailer, kitchen set, stroller, and pets marketed as Spud-ettes. Originally produced as separate plastic parts to be attached to a real potato or other vegetable, however in the early 1960s, government regulations forced the Potato Head parts to be less sharp, leaving them unable to puncture vegetables easily. Children were also choking on the small pieces or cutting themselves with the sharp pieces, so by 1964, the company included a plastic potato "body" in its kit. About this time, Hasbro introduced Oscar the Orange and Pete the Pepper, a plastic orange and green pepper with attachable face parts similar to Mr. Potato Head's. Each came with Mr. Potato Head in a separate kit. Female characters Katie the Carrot and Cooky the Cucumber also made an appearance. Hasbro also made a fast food based line called Mr. Potato Head's Picnic Pals. Some characters were Mr. Soda Pop Head and Frankie Frank. The friends and pals were later discontinued, but Funko revived Oscar and Pete as bobbleheads (along with a Mr. Potato Head bobblehead) in 2002. In 1975, the main potato part of the toy doubled in size and the dimensions of its accessories were similarly increased. This was done mainly because of new toy child safety regulations that were introduced by the U.S. government. The size change increased the market to younger children, enabling them to play and attach the facial pieces easily. Hasbro also replaced the holes with flat slats, allowing only one possible orientation for the attached parts. In the 1980s, Hasbro reduced the range of accessories for Mr. Potato Head to one set of parts. The company reintroduced round holes in the main potato body, and once again parts were able to go onto the toy in any orientation. In 1985, Mr. Potato Head received four postal votes in the run for mayor of Boise, Idaho in the "most votes for Mr. Potato Head in a political campaign" as verified by Guinness World Records. In 1987, Mr. Potato Head became "Spokespud" for the annual Great American Smokeout and surrendered his pipe to Surgeon General C. Everett Koop in Washington, D.C. In 1995, Mr. Potato head was featured in a leading role in the Disney/Pixar animated feature Toy Story, with the voice provided by comedian Don Rickles. Potato Head returned in Toy Story's three sequels - Toy Story 2 (1999), Toy Story 3 (2010) and Toy Story 4 (2019) - with Rickles reprising the role. In 1995, Mr. Potato Head Pals was made. This box has hats, mouths, and pairs of shoes in different colors. It also has four bodies and eight hands while the eyes and nose are the same and four cards and every card has each name and a spinner is also included. In 2000, Mr. Potato Head was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester, New York. In 2006, Hasbro also began to sell sets of pieces without bodies for customers to add to their collections. Some of these themed sets included Chef, Construction Worker, Firefighter, Halloween, King, Mermaid, Police Officer, Pirate, Princess, Rockstar, and Santa Claus. In the same year, Hasbro introduced a line called "Sports Spuds" with a generic plastic potato (smaller than the standard size) customized to a wide variety of professional and collegiate teams. In 2020, Hasbro announced a sustainable version of the toy known as Mr. Potato Head Goes Green. This version was made from plant-based plastic derived from sugarcane. In February 2021 Hasbro announced a new gender-neutral version of the toy line, dropping the formal gender titles, unveiling a new "Potato Head" logo, and offering an expanded playset. While continuing to offer the classic Mr. and Mrs. characters, Hasbro was praised by some for being progressive, while others called it a "PR stunt". Versions In recent years, Hasbro had produced Mr. Potato Head sets based on media properties that Hasbro produces toys for under license. These include the Star Wars-themed "Darth Tater," "Spud Trooper," and "R2-POTATOO," a 2007 Transformers film-themed "Optimash Prime" (the appearance is based on Optimus Prime from the original television series), a pair of Spider-Man-themed "Spider-Spud / Peter Tater" (both red suit and black suit, to tie in with Spider-Man 3), an Indiana Jones-themed "Taters of the Lost Ark" set (which, despite the title, was released as a tie-in to 2008's Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull), an Iron Man 2-themed "Tony Starch," and a "Trick or Tater" version for Halloween in October 2008. An additional five Star Wars-themed potato heads were sold exclusively through Disney theme parks: "Luke Frywalker," "Yam Solo," "Spuda Fett," "Princess Tater," and "Darth Mash." In 2009, "Bumble Spud" was produced based on Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. A Kiss version of Mr. Potato Head was produced recently. Disney, in cooperation with Hasbro, also released "Chipbacca", "Mashter Yoda", and "C-3PotatO" in October 2009 at Disney Parks. To celebrate Toy Story 3, five new Mr. Potato Heads were unveiled including Woody, Buzz Lightyear, Jessie, Mrs. Potato Head, and the classic Mr. Potato Head. To promote The Looney Tunes Show, Hasbro unveiled Bugs Bunny-, Daffy Duck-, and Tasmanian Devil-themed Mr. Potato Head dolls. In 2011, it was announced at the New York Toy Fair that a second Elvis Mr. Potato Head (based on his 1968 TV special) would be released, as well as sets for The Wizard of Oz (Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man and the Lion), the Three Stooges, and Star Trek (Kirk and Kor). These were all released through PPW toys. From Hasbro. Since 2011, new models of the Mr. Potato Head toys, commonly referred to as Jason, have been produced. The Mrs. Potato Head version of the toy was also brought out in early 2012, commonly known as Rachel, and has a baked bean-like head. In 2012, Hasbro and PPW Toys released Mr. Potato Head in Batman form for the movie The Dark Knight Rises. The model, known as "The Dark Spud", features Mr. Potato Head dressed up as the Caped Crusader. Before the release, the model was unveiled at the 2012 New York Toy Fair. In 2014, to celebrate The Simpsons 25th anniversary, a Homer Simpson Mr. Potato Head was produced. In 2019, Toy Story 4-themed Mr. and Mrs. Potato Heads were released. These versions feature the "Jason" model of the spuds with a mix of various parts, including the classic versions of the arms and shoes, (near) film-accurate facial features and the newer designs of the parts. On April Fools Day 2019, Hasbro jokingly announced that Mr. Potato Head would be replaced by "Mr. Avo Head", a hipster avocado. In popular culture Mr. Potato Head's popularity has led to some appearances in films and television. In 1985, Mr. Potato Head played a supporting role in Potato Head Kids, his first dramatic television appearance. From 1998 to 1999, he had his own short-lived Fox Kids series The Mr. Potato Head Show. In addition to film and television, the character has been the subject of a comic strip created by Jim Davis. Cartoonist Gary Larson included the character in several of his The Far Side cartoons. In commercial for Bridgestone tires during Super Bowl XLIII in 2009, Mr. Potato Head is driving a car and Mrs. Potato Head is nagging him. Mr. Potato Head has also acted as spokesman for several causes. In 1987, Mr. Potato Head surrendered his pipe to become the spokesperson for the American Cancer Society's annual "Great American Smokeout" campaign. He performed the role for several years. In 1992, he received a special award from the President's Council for Physical Fitness. In 1996, Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head joined the League of Women Voters and their "Get Out to Vote" campaign. Larger-than-life versions of Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head are "guests" in the 1980s section of Pop Century Resort at Walt Disney World in Florida. In 1991, the sketch comedy show In Living Color parodied the toy and entertainer Michael Jackson and his penchant for plastic surgery, offering children a multitude of different noses to represent different stages in Jackson's career. Jackson's skin bleaching was also mocked when one child said the toy did not look quite right and then peels it, revealing white skin underneath. Starting in the 2000s, Mr. and Mrs Potato Head also starred in commercials for other brands. An example is an ad for Lay's Potato Chips where Mr. Potato Head comes home to see Mrs. Potato Head eating them despite being a potato herself. At the end Mr. Potato Head joins in and tells her to keep it their "little secret". A spoof named Mr. Zucchini Head appeared as a proposed new toy in the Family Guy episode "The King Is Dead" in 2000. A similar spoof named Mr. Carrot Head appeared in The Simpsons episode "Angry Dad: The Movie" in 2011. The toy was also referenced in the Rocko's Modern Life episode Junk Junkies as Mr. Onion Head. In 2015, Melanie Martinez released the song "Mrs. Potato Head" on her debut album Cry Baby. Toy Story franchise Mr. Potato Head is also a character in the Disney/Pixar Toy Story franchise, voiced by Don Rickles. He was one of Andy's toys before being given to Bonnie. In Toy Story (1995), Mr. Potato Head is shown to be moody towards Andy's other toys, though he is friends with Hamm the piggy bank (John Ratzenberger). When Sheriff Woody (Tom Hanks) accidentally pushes Buzz Lightyear (Tim Allen) out of a window, Potato Head accuses Woody of doing it on purpose. At the end of the film, he is overjoyed to hear Andy's sister Molly getting a Mrs. Potato Head on Christmas. In Toy Story 2 (1999), Mr. Potato Head goes with Andy's other toys to rescue Woody, who has been stolen by Al McWhiggin (Wayne Knight). After Mr. Potato Head saves three Alien toys (Jeff Pidgeon) from falling out of a Pizza Planet truck, only for them to continually pester him, his wife Mrs. Potato Head (Estelle Harris) decides to adopt them, much to her husband's dismay. In Toy Story 3 (2010), Mr. Potato Head is one of Andy's remaining toys, alongside his wife, the Aliens, and others. The toys are donated to a daycare center and are later almost killed in a landfill incinerator. When the Aliens rescue the toys with a giant crane, Mr. Potato Head finally accepts them as his sons. Eventually, Mr. Potato Head and his friends are donated to a new owner named Bonnie (Emily Hahn). Mr. Potato Head has appeared in all three Toy Story Toons shorts: Hawaiian Vacation (2011), Small Fry (2011), and Partysaurus Rex (2012), with Rickles reprising the role in the first and third shorts. He also appeared in the Halloween special Toy Story of Terror! (2013), where he disappears and Bonnie's other toys must find him. Mr. Potato Head appeared in the Christmas special, Toy Story That Time Forgot (2014). Mr. Potato Head appeared in Toy Story 4 (2019). However, Rickles died in 2017 due to kidney failure, and did not record any lines for him for the film. With permission from Rickles's family, Pixar used unreleased lines that Rickles recorded in previous Toy Story films for his final performance as the character. Mr. Potato Head only had 7 lines in Toy Story 4, which was dedicated to Rickles's memory. Mr. Potato Head first appears in the prologue of the movie. Later during the main events of the film, he and his wife join Bonnie and her parents on their RV road trip. At the end of the film, they say goodbye Woody who chooses to stay with Bo Peep (Annie Potts). Games In 1995, a computer game called "Mr. Potato Head Saves Veggie Valley" was released by Hasbro Interactive, aimed at young children. In 1997, Hasbro Interactive released another game called "Mr. Potato Head's Activity Pack." Mr. Potato Head has also appeared as the host in all installments of the popular video game series Hasbro Family Game Night. He also appeared in several Toy Story-based video games along with Toy Story Activity Center. See also List of toys Potato gun References External links Mr. Potato Head Brand Update, February 2021 1950s toys 1970s toys 1980s toys 1990s toys 2000s toys 2010s toys Doll brands Fictional humanoids Potato Head Potato Head Hasbro franchises Hasbro products Products introduced in 1952 Potato Head	[ -0.04203014448285103, 0.6270820498466492, 0.27789023518562317, 0.24620012938976288, 0.2458144575357437, 0.02848448045551777, -0.22640100121498108, 0.6847513914108276, -0.30078163743019104, -0.11247469484806061, -0.5265644788742065, 0.3631691038608551, -0.009992627426981926, 0.3720428943634033, 0.3052331507205963, 0.4621191918849945, 0.3146124482154846, 0.7018488049507141, -0.3911772668361664, -0.658135712146759, 0.03843291103839874, -0.2813185453414917, 0.18021593987941742, -0.1694270670413971, -0.04058052599430084, 0.051400452852249146, -0.28935983777046204, -0.004520458169281483, -0.08231542259454727, -0.08148965984582901, -0.5782367587089539, -0.19610626995563507, 0.385897159576416, 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250532	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Aube%20nouvelle	L'Aube nouvelle	"L'Aube Nouvelle" ("The Dawn of a New Day") is the national anthem of Benin. Written and composed by Father Gilbert Jean Dagnon, it was adopted upon independence of the Republic of Dahomey from France in 1960. After Dahomey became the People's Republic of Benin in 1975, the anthem was retained, but the words and were changed to and . 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250534	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20anthem%20of%20Yemen	National anthem of Yemen	"United Republic" () is the national anthem of Yemen. It was written by Abdollah Abdolwahâb Noʿmân and composed by ʾAyub Ṭâreš. The music was formerly used as the national anthem of South Yemen, but was adopted by Yemen when the country was unified in 1990. During its usage by South Yemen from 1979 to 1990, the title was "National Anthem of People's Democratic Republic of Yemen" (). Lyrics Official lyrics (2006–present) Original lyrics (1990–2006) References External links Instrumental version of "United Republic" in RealAudio Lyrics in Arabic Himnuszok - A vocal version of the Anthem, featured in "Himnuszok" website. 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250535	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20zoology%20through%201859	History of zoology through 1859	The history of zoology before Charles Darwin's 1859 theory of evolution traces the organized study of the animal kingdom from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of zoology as a single coherent field arose much later, systematic study of zoology is seen in the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This work was developed in the Middle Ages by Islamic medicine and scholarship, and in turn their work was extended by European scholars such as Albertus Magnus. During the European Renaissance and early modern period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were the anatomist Vesalius and the physiologist William Harvey, who used experimentation and careful observation, and naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record, as well as the development and behavior of organisms. Microscopy revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched the argument from design). Over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so. Pre-scientific zoology The earliest humans must have had and passed on knowledge about animals to increase their chances of survival. This may have included unsystematic knowledge of human and animal anatomy and aspects of animal behavior (such as migration patterns). People learnt more about animals with the Neolithic Revolution about 10,000 years ago. Humans domesticated animals as people became pastoralists and then farmers instead of hunter-gatherers in civilisations such as those of ancient Egypt. Ancient eastern cultures The ancient cultures of Mesopotamia, the Indian subcontinent, and China, among others, produced renowned surgeons and students of the natural sciences such as Susruta and Zhang Zhongjing, reflecting independent sophisticated systems of natural philosophy. Taoist philosophers, such as Zhuangzi in the 4th century BC, expressed ideas related to evolution, such as denying the fixity of biological species and speculating that species had developed differing attributes in response to differing environments. The ancient Indian Ayurveda tradition independently developed the concept of three humours, resembling that of the four humours of ancient Greek medicine, though the Ayurvedic system included further complications, such as the body being composed of five elements and seven basic tissues. Ayurvedic writers also classified living things into four categories based on the method of birth (from the womb, eggs, heat & moisture, and seeds) and explained the conception of a fetus in detail. They also made considerable advances in the field of surgery, often without the use of human dissection or animal vivisection. One of the earliest Ayurvedic treatises was the Sushruta Samhita, attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BC. It was also an early materia medica, describing 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources, and 57 preparations based on animal sources. However, the roots of modern zoology are usually traced back to the secular tradition of ancient Greek philosophy. Ancient Greek traditions The pre-Socratic philosophers asked many questions about life but produced little systematic knowledge of specifically zoological interest—though the attempts of the atomists to explain life in purely physical terms would recur periodically through the history of zoology. However, the medical theories of Hippocrates and his followers, especially humorism, had a lasting impact. Aristotelian zoology Aristotle The philosopher Aristotle created the science of biology, basing its theory on both his metaphysical principles and on observation. He proposed theories for the processes of metabolism, temperature regulation, information processing, embryonic development and inheritance. He made detailed observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of animals in the sea at Lesbos. He classified 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle, and nearly all Western scholars after him until the 18th century, believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to humans: the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being. Hellenistic zoology A few scholars in the Hellenistic period under the Ptolemies—particularly Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios—amended Aristotle's physiological work, even performing experimental dissections and vivisections. Claudius Galen became the most important authority on medicine and anatomy. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological Aristotelian viewpoint that all aspects of life are the result of design or purpose, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) remained central to biological thought until the 18th and 19th centuries. Medieval and Islamic zoology The decline of the Roman Empire led to the disappearance or destruction of much knowledge, though physicians still incorporated many aspects of the Aristotelian tradition into training and practice. In Byzantium and the Islamic world, many of Aristotle's works were translated into Arabic and commented upon by scholars such as Avicenna and Averroes. Medieval Muslim physicians, scientists and philosophers made significant contributions to zoological knowledge between the 8th and 13th centuries during the Islamic Golden Age. The Arab scholar al-Jahiz (781–869) described early evolutionary ideas such as the struggle for existence. He also introduced the idea of a food chain, and was an early adherent of environmental determinism. During the High Middle Ages, a few European scholars such as Hildegard of Bingen, Albertus Magnus and Frederick II expanded the natural history canon. Magnus's De animalibus libri XXVI was one of the most extensive studies of zoological observation published before modern times. Renaissance and early modern From anatomy to systematic taxonomy The Renaissance was the age of collectors and travellers, when many of the stories were actually demonstrated as true when the living or preserved specimens were brought to Europe. Verification by collecting of things, instead of the accumulation of anecdotes, then became more common, and scholars developed a new faculty of careful observation. The Renaissance brought expanded interest in both empirical natural history and physiology. In 1543, Andreas Vesalius inaugurated the modern era of Western medicine with his seminal human anatomy treatise De humani corporis fabrica, which was based on dissection of corpses. Vesalius was the first in a series of anatomists who gradually replaced scholasticism with empiricism in physiology and medicine, relying on first-hand experience rather than authority and abstract reasoning. Bestiaries—a genre that combines both the natural and figurative knowledge of animals—also became more sophisticated. Conrad Gessner great zoological work, Historiae animalium, appeared in four volumes, 1551–1558, at Zürich, a fifth being issued in 1587. His works were the starting-point of modern zoology. Other major works were produced by William Turner, Pierre Belon, Guillaume Rondelet, and Ulisse Aldrovandi. Artists such as Albrecht Dürer and Leonardo da Vinci, often working with naturalists, were also interested in the bodies of animals and humans, studying physiology in detail and contributing to the growth of anatomical knowledge. In the 17th century, the enthusiasts of the new sciences, the investigators of nature by means of observation and experiment, banded themselves into academies or societies for mutual support and discourse. The first founded of surviving European academies, the Academia Naturae Curiosorum (1651) especially confined itself to the description and illustration of the structure of plants and animals; eleven years later (1662) the Royal Society of London was incorporated by royal charter, having existed without a name or fixed organisation for seventeen years previously (from 1645). A little later the Academy of Sciences of Paris was established by Louis XIV, later still the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala was founded. Systematizing, naming and classifying dominated zoology throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species. While Linnaeus conceived of species as unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy, the other great naturalist of the 18th century, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of common descent. Though he was writing in an era before evolution existed, Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought; his "transformist" theory would influence the evolutionary theories of both Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Charles Darwin. Before the Age of Exploration, naturalists had little idea of the sheer scale of biological diversity. The discovery and description of new species and the collection of specimens became a passion of scientific gentlemen and a lucrative enterprise for entrepreneurs; many naturalists traveled the globe in search of scientific knowledge and adventure. Extending the work of Vesalius into experiments on still living bodies (of both humans and animals), William Harvey investigated the roles of blood, veins and arteries. Harvey's De motu cordis in 1628 was the beginning of the end for Galenic theory, and alongside Santorio Santorio's studies of metabolism, it served as an influential model of quantitative approaches to physiology. Impact of the microscope In the early 17th century, the micro-world of zoology was just beginning to open up. A few lensmakers and natural philosophers had been creating crude microscopes since the late 16th century, and Robert Hooke published the seminal Micrographia based on observations with his own compound microscope in 1665. But it was not until Antony van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic improvements in lensmaking beginning in the 1670s—ultimately producing up to 200-fold magnification with a single lens—that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the sheer strangeness and diversity of microscopic life. Similar investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Debate over the flood described in the Bible catalyzed the development of paleontology; in 1669 Nicholas Steno published an essay on how the remains of living organisms could be trapped in layers of sediment and mineralized to produce fossils. Although Steno's ideas about fossilization were well known and much debated among natural philosophers, an organic origin for all fossils would not be accepted by all naturalists until the end of the 18th century due to philosophical and theological debate about issues such as the age of the earth and extinction. Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. In 1838 and 1839, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, though they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory. In advance of On the Origin of Species Up through the 19th century, the scope of zoology was largely divided between physiology, which investigated questions of form and function, and natural history, which was concerned with the diversity of life and interactions among different forms of life and between life and non-life. By 1900, much of these domains overlapped, while natural history (and its counterpart natural philosophy) had largely given way to more specialized scientific disciplines—cytology, bacteriology, morphology, embryology, geography, and geology. Widespread travel by naturalists in the early-to-mid-19th century resulted in a wealth of new information about the diversity and distribution of living organisms. Of particular importance was the work of Alexander von Humboldt, which analyzed the relationship between organisms and their environment (i.e., the domain of natural history) using the quantitative approaches of natural philosophy (i.e., physics and chemistry). Humboldt's work laid the foundations of biogeography and inspired several generations of scientists. The emerging discipline of geology also brought natural history and natural philosophy closer together; Georges Cuvier and others made great strides in comparative anatomy and paleontology in the late 1790s and early 19th century. In a series of lectures and papers that made detailed comparisons between living mammals and fossil remains Cuvier was able to establish that the fossils were remains of species that had become extinct—rather than being remains of species still alive elsewhere in the world, as had been widely believed. Fossils discovered and described by Gideon Mantell, William Buckland, Mary Anning, and Richard Owen among others helped establish that there had been an 'age of reptiles' that had preceded even the prehistoric mammals. These discoveries captured the public imagination and focused attention on the history of life on earth. Charles Darwin, combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Thomas Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise, created a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions. Charles Darwin's early interest in nature led him on a five-year voyage on which established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author. Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin investigated the transmutation of species and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority. He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay which described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, a seminal work of scientific literature, was to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. 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250536	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagonistas%20de%20Novela	Protagonistas de Novela	Protagonistas de Novela () is a television series in Spanish that has been produced since 2002 by Telemundo Network USA, based on the Protagonistas... franchise. Protagonistas de Novela has the same format and rules as Protagonistas de la Música, and that is because Protagonistas de Novela, a reality show where the winners are guaranteed a spot in a future telenovela, was released before its musical version. Both shows are produced by Telemundo USA. The female winner of the show's first season, Millie Ruperto, has already participated in a soap opera, playing a boxing trainer, alongside Venezuelan superstar Gaby Spanic. The winners of the show's second season in 2003 were Mexican Erick Elías and Dominican Michelle Vargas. This particular season was highly criticized for its results, since Elías won with an alleged 50.1% of the vote over the heavy favorite, Puerto Rican actor Alfredo De Quesada, who had 49.1% of the vote according to the show. There are also versions of Protagonistas de Novela in Chile (called Protagonistas de la Fama), Colombia and Venezuela. In Chile (airing on Canal 13), the winners were Catalina Bono and Álvaro Ballero. In Colombia (airing on RCN), the winners were Ximena Córdoba and Jaider Villa. External links Telemundo original programming	[ -0.13254405558109283, 0.059630200266838074, 0.3093718886375427, 0.2361537218093872, 0.12074565142393112, -0.004603959619998932, 0.014467127621173859, 0.509214460849762, -0.27971428632736206, -0.19311782717704773, -0.1787278652191162, 0.8698818683624268, -0.1770571917295456, 0.08654756844043732, -0.053949519991874695, 0.21624509990215302, 0.20945540070533752, 0.5141421556472778, 0.07758554071187973, -0.5856970548629761, -0.6866875290870667, -0.2558750808238983, 0.7733126878738403, -0.19253627955913544, -0.19182389974594116, -0.022864483296871185, 0.12358841300010681, 0.557481050491333, 0.090279221534729, 0.16650688648223877, 0.3509830832481384, -0.01529073715209961, 0.35046085715293884, 0.28287312388420105, 0.1317029744386673, 0.061594221740961075, -0.49480941891670227, -0.18198809027671814, -0.27362048625946045, -0.5890132188796997, 0.4355199635028839, 0.03930184990167618, -0.7559369206428528, -0.056564297527074814, 0.15609396994113922, 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250540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodopsin	Rhodopsin	Rhodopsin, also known as visual purple, is a light-sensitive receptor protein involved in visual phototransduction. Its name derives from Ancient Greek () for "rose", due to its pinkish color, and () for "sight". Rhodopsin is a biological pigment found in the rods of the retina and is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). It belongs to a group of photoswitchable opsins. Rhodopsin is extremely sensitive to light, and thus enables vision in low-light conditions. When rhodopsin is exposed to light, it immediately photobleaches. In humans, it is regenerated fully in about 30 minutes, after which rods are more sensitive. Rhodopsin was discovered by Franz Christian Boll in 1876. Structure Rhodopsin consists of two components, a protein molecule also called scotopsin and a covalently-bound cofactor called retinal. Scotopsin is an opsin, a light-sensitive G protein coupled receptor that embeds in the lipid bilayer of cell membranes using seven protein transmembrane domains. These domains form a pocket where the photoreactive chromophore, retinal, lies horizontally to the cell membrane, linked to a lysine residue in the seventh transmembrane domain of the protein. Thousands of rhodopsin molecules are found in each outer segment disc of the host rod cell. Retinal is produced in the retina from retinol. Isomerization of 11-cis-retinal into all-trans-retinal by light sets off a series of conformational changes ('bleaching') in the opsin, eventually leading it to a form called metarhodopsin II (Meta II), which activates an associated G protein, transducin, to trigger a cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) second messenger cascade. Rhodopsin of the rods most strongly absorbs green-blue light and, therefore, appears reddish-purple, which is why it is also called "visual purple". It is responsible for monochromatic vision in the dark. Several closely related opsins differ only in a few amino acids and in the wavelengths of light that they absorb most strongly. Humans have eight other opsins besides rhodopsin, as well as cryptochrome (light-sensitive, but not an opsin). The photopsins are found in the cone cells of the retina and are the basis of color vision. They have absorption maxima for yellowish-green (photopsin I), green (photopsin II), and bluish-violet (photopsin III) light. The remaining opsin, melanopsin, is found in photosensitive ganglion cells and absorbs blue light most strongly. In rhodopsin, the aldehyde group of retinal is covalently linked to the amino group of a lysine residue on the protein in a protonated Schiff base (-NH+=CH-). When rhodopsin absorbs light, its retinal cofactor isomerizes from the 11-cis to the all-trans configuration, and the protein subsequently undergoes a series of relaxations to accommodate the altered shape of the isomerized cofactor. The intermediates formed during this process were first investigated in the laboratory of George Wald, who received the Nobel prize for this research in 1967. The photoisomerization dynamics has been subsequently investigated with time-resolved IR spectroscopy and UV/Vis spectroscopy. A first photoproduct called photorhodopsin forms within 200 femtoseconds after irradiation, followed within picoseconds by a second one called bathorhodopsin with distorted all-trans bonds. This intermediate can be trapped and studied at cryogenic temperatures, and was initially referred to as prelumirhodopsin. In subsequent intermediates lumirhodopsin and metarhodopsin I, the Schiff's base linkage to all-trans retinal remains protonated, and the protein retains its reddish color. The critical change that initiates the neuronal excitation involves the conversion of metarhodopsin I to metarhodopsin II, which is associated with deprotonation of the Schiff's base and change in color from red to yellow. The structure of rhodopsin has been studied in detail via x-ray crystallography on rhodopsin crystals. Several models (e.g., the bicycle-pedal mechanism, hula-twist mechanism) attempt to explain how the retinal group can change its conformation without clashing with the enveloping rhodopsin protein pocket. Recent data support that rhodopsin is a functional monomer, instead of a dimer, which was the paradigm of G-protein-coupled receptors for many years. Phototransduction Rhodopsin is an essential G-protein coupled receptor in phototransduction. Function The product of light activation, Metarhodopsin II, initiates the visual phototransduction pathway by stimulating the G protein transducin (Gt), resulting in the liberation of its α subunit. This GTP-bound subunit in turn activates cGMP phosphodiesterase. cGMP phosphodiesterase hydrolyzes (breaks down) cGMP, lowering its local concentration so it can no longer activate cGMP-dependent cation channels. This leads to the hyperpolarization of photoreceptor cells, changing the rate at which they release transmitters. Deactivation Meta II (metarhodopsin II) is deactivated rapidly after activating transducin by rhodopsin kinase and arrestin. Rhodopsin pigment must be regenerated for further phototransduction to occur. This means replacing all-trans-retinal with 11-cis-retinal and the decay of Meta II is crucial in this process. During the decay of Meta II, the Schiff base link that normally holds all-trans-retinal and the apoprotein opsin (aporhodopsin) is hydrolyzed and becomes Meta III. In the rod outer segment, Meta III decays into separate all-trans-retinal and opsin. A second product of Meta II decay is an all-trans-retinal opsin complex in which the all-trans-retinal has been translocated to second binding sites. Whether the Meta II decay runs into Meta III or the all-trans-retinal opsin complex seems to depend on the pH of the reaction. Higher pH tends to drive the decay reaction towards Meta III. Retinal disease Mutation of the rhodopsin gene is a major contributor to various retinopathies such as retinitis pigmentosa. In general, the disease-causing protein aggregates with ubiquitin in inclusion bodies, disrupts the intermediate filament network, and impairs the ability of the cell to degrade non-functioning proteins, which leads to photoreceptor apoptosis. Other mutations on rhodopsin lead to X-linked congenital stationary night blindness, mainly due to constitutive activation, when the mutations occur around the chromophore binding pocket of rhodopsin. Several other pathological states relating to rhodopsin have been discovered including poor post-Golgi trafficking, dysregulative activation, rod outer segment instability and arrestin binding. Microbial rhodopsins Some prokaryotes express proton pumps called bacteriorhodopsins, archaerhodopsins, proteorhodopsins, heliorhodopsins and xanthorhodopsins to carry out phototrophy. Like animal visual pigments, these contain a retinal chromophore (although it is an all-trans, rather than 11-cis form) and have seven transmembrane alpha helices; however, they are not coupled to a G protein. Prokaryotic halorhodopsins are light-activated chloride pumps. Unicellular flagellate algae contain channelrhodopsins that act as light-gated cation channels when expressed in heterologous systems. Many other pro- and eukaryotic organisms (in particular, fungi such as Neurospora) express rhodopsin ion pumps or sensory rhodopsins of yet-unknown function. Very recently, microbial rhodopsins with guanylyl cyclase activity have been discovered. While all microbial rhodopsins have significant sequence homology to one another, they have no detectable sequence homology to the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family to which animal visual rhodopsins belong. Nevertheless, microbial rhodopsins and GPCRs are possibly evolutionarily related, based on the similarity of their three-dimensional structures. Therefore, they have been assigned to the same superfamily in Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP). References Further reading See also bacteriorhodopsin, used in some halobacteria as a light-driven proton pump. External links The Rhodopsin Protein Photoisomerization of rhodopsin, animation. Rhodopsin and the eye, summary with pictures. 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250543	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walker%20%28surname%29	Walker (surname)	Walker is an English and German surname derived from either a worker who cleanses wool through fulling, from the Middle High German walker, meaning "a fuller of cloth", or an officer whose duty consisted of walking or inspecting a certain part of a forest. The surname "Walker" was first found in Germany where records of the name date back to the thirteenth century. In 1253, Sigelo dictus Welkere was recorded in Weißenburg in Bayern, and in 1209, Bruno Welkiner was a citizen of Cologne. The Walker Families of England are believed to originate from Yorkshire. With close to 100,000 bearers, Walker is the 18th most common surname in England. As of the 2000 U.S. Census, 501,307 people had the surname Walker, making it the 28th most common surname in America. It is the 14th most common surname in Australia, with 26,688 people as of 2007. Notable people with the surname A Abby Walker, American actress Abi Walker, Scottish surgeon Abram Joseph Walker (1819–1872), American judge Ada Hill Walker (1879–1955), British illustrator Adele Walker (born 1976), British biathlete Admiral Walker (1898–2001), American baseball player Adrian Walker, American journalist Adrian Walker (computer scientist), American computer scientist Aida Overton Walker (1880–1914), American actress Aidee Walker (born 1981), New Zealand actress Al Walker (born 1959), American basketball coach Alasdair Walker (1956–2019), British doctor Albertina Walker (1929–2010), American singer-songwriter Aldace F. Walker (1842–1901), American railroad executive A'Lelia Walker (1885–1931), American businesswoman Alexia Walker (born 1982), English cricketer Alf Walker (1884–1961), English football manager Alice Walker (born 1944), American author Alice Walker (scholar) (1900–1982), British scholar Alick Walker (1925–1999), British paleontologist Alison Walker, Scottish broadcaster Alison Walker (scientist), English physicist Alistair Walker (1944–2021), English racing driver Alister Walker (born 1982), English squash player Alan Walker (born 1997), Norwegian DJ Allan Walker (born 1986), Scottish footballer Allan S. Walker (1887–1958), Australian army officer Alleyne Walker, Grenadian politician Ally Walker (born 1961), American actress Alvin Walker (born 1954), American football player A. Maceo Walker (1909–1994), American businessman Amanda Walker (born 1935), English actress Amani Walker (born 1989), Jamaican footballer Amara Walker (born 1981), American journalist Amasa Walker (1799–1875), American politician Amelia Himes Walker (1880–1974), American suffragist Amy Walker (born 1982), American actress Andre Walker (born 1956), American hairstylist Angus Walker (born 1939), Canadian musician Annabel Walker, English author Annor Walker, Ghanaian football coach Antoine Walker (born 1976), American basketball player Antonio Walker (born 1961), Chilean politician and lawyer Antony Walker (born 1934), British army officer Antony Walker (conductor), Australian conductor April Walker (born 1943), British actress Archibald Walker (1858–1945), Scottish rugby union footballer Arnetia Walker, American actress A. S. Walker (1826–1896), American judge Asa Walker (1845–1916), American admiral Ash Walker, English musician Ashlie Walker, British acting coach Asiedu Walker (born 1955), Ghanaian politician Astia Walker (born 1975), Jamaican athlete Audrey Walker (1928–2020), American textile artist Aundrey Walker (born 1993), American football player Austin Walker (1883–1945), American politician Ayana Walker (born 1979), American basketball player B Baldwin Wake Walker (1802–1876), English naval officer Barry Walker (born 1968), American rugby league footballer Beau Walker (born 1985), Australian surfer Ben Walker (born 1976), American rugby league footballer Beth Walker (judge) (born 1965), American judge Bettina Walker (1837–1893), Irish pianist Betty Walker (1928–1982), American actress Blythe Walker (born 1968), Bermudian sailor Bracy Walker (born 1970), American football player Brady Walker (1921–2007), American basketball player Brandon Walker (born 2002), Australian rules footballer Bree Walker (born 1953), American radio personality Brenda Walker (born 1957), Australian writer Bret Walker (born 1954), Australian barrister Brett Walker (1961–2013), American songwriter Brígida Walker (1863–1942), Chilean teacher Bryant Walker (1856–1936), American malacologist Bub Walker (1907–1963), American football player Butch Walker (born 1969), American musician Byron Walker (born 1960), American football player Byron Edmund Walker (1848–1924), Canadian banker C Carl Walker (born 1934), English police inspector Carlene M. Walker (born 1947), American politician Carmaine Walker (born 1979), English footballer Carole Walker, British news correspondent Carolyn Walker (born 1945), American politician Cas Walker (1902–1998), American businessman Casey Walker (born 1989), American football player Casey Walker (baseball) (1912–1998), American baseball player Cavon Walker (born 1994), American football player Cecil Walker (1924–2007), Northern Irish politician Cedric Walker (born 1971), American football player Chad N. Walker, American filmmaker Challis Walker (1912–2000), American sculptor C. Harding Walker (1859–1934), American politician Charlotte Walker (1876–1958), American actress Charls Walker (1923–2015), American treasurer Ché Walker, English actor Cherryl Walker, South African professor Chev Walker (born 1982), English rugby league footballer Chevon Walker (born 1987), Jamaican-American football player Chico Walker (born 1957), American baseball player Chuck Walker (born 1941), American football player Cindy Walker (1918–2006), American songwriter Claiborne Walker (1899–1927), American fencer Clarissa Walker (??–2011), American activist Claudia Walker (born 1996), English footballer Clay Walker (born 1969), American singer-songwriter Clay Walker (filmmaker) (born 1968), American filmmaker Clement Walker (??–1651), English politician Cleo Walker (born 1948), American football player Clint Walker (1927–2018), American actor Clinton Walker (born 1957), Australian writer Clifford Walker (1877–1954), American politician Clifford Walker (cricketer) (1919–1992), English cricketer Colleen Walker (1956–2012), American golfer Constantine Walker (born 1951), Jamaican singer-songwriter Cora Walker (1922–2006), American lawyer Cora Faith Walker, American politician Corey D. B. Walker, American sociologist Cory Walker (born 1980), American comic book artist Curtis Walker (born 1961), British actor D Daisy Walker (born 2002), Australian rules footballer Dallas Walker (born 1988), American football player D'Andre Walker (born 1997), American football player Danielle Walker (born 1985), American writer Danielle Walker (politician) (born 1976), American politician Danville Walker, Jamaican politician Darby Walker (born 1974), Canadian ice hockey player Darius Walker (born 1985), American football player Darnell Walker (born 1970), American football player Darrell Walker (born 1961), American basketball coach Darren Walker (born 1959), American lawyer and banker Darren Walker (cricketer) (born 1966), Australian cricketer Darwin Walker (born 1977), American football player Daryl Walker (born 1981), American goalball player Dave Walker (born 1945), British singer Davie Walker (1884–1935), English footballer Dawn Walker, Australian politician Dawson Walker (1916–1973), Scottish football manager Dean Walker (born 1962), English footballer Delanie Walker (born 1984), American football player Deloss Walker (1931–1996), American advertiser DeMarcus Walker (born 1994), American football player DeMya Walker (born 1977), American basketball player Denard Walker (born 1973), American football player Denis Walker (born 1933), Zimbabwean politician Denis Walker (activist) (1947–2017), Australian activist Derel Walker (born 1991), American football player Derrick Walker (born 1945), British auto racing owner Derrick Walker (American football) (born 1967), American football player Des Walker (born 1965), English footballer Devin George Edward Walker, American physicist Devon Walker (born 1990), American football player DeVon Walker (born 1985), American football player Devondrick Walker (born 1992), American basketball player DeWayne Walker (born 1960), American football coach Dexter Walker (footballer) (born 1971), Saint Vincentian footballer Diana Barnato Walker (1918–2008), British pilot Dianne Walker (born 1951), American tap dancer Dixie Walker (1910–1982), American baseball player Dixie Walker (pitcher) (1887–1965), American baseball player Django Walker (born 1981), American singer-songwriter Doak Walker (1927–1998), American football player Dobby Walker (1919–2009), American lawyer Donny Walker (born 1980), American mixed martial artist Dora Walker (1890–1980), British boat skipper D. Ormonde Walker (1890–1955), American academic administrator D. P. Walker (1914–1985), English historian Dublin Walker, American politician Dugald Stewart Walker (1883–1937), American illustrator Duncan Walker (1899–1963), Scottish footballer Duncan Stephen Walker (1841–1912), American brigadier general Dwight Walker (born 1959), American football player E Eamonn Walker (born 1962), British actor E. C. Walker (1820–1894), American politician Edmund Murton Walker (1877–1969), Canadian entomologist Edsall Walker (1910–1997), American baseball player Egan Walker (born 1961), American lawyer E. Jean Walker, American academic Eli Walker (born 1992), Welsh rugby union footballer Elkanah Walker (1805–1877), American pioneer Ella May Walker (1892–1960), Canadian-American artist Elle Walker, American vlogger Elliot Walker, British sculptor Elliott Walker (born 1956), American football player Elyse Walker (born 1967), American fashion designer Emery Walker (1851–1933), English photographer Emily Wilson Walker (1904-2007), American doctor Emmett H. Walker Jr. (1924–2007), American lieutenant general Erica N. Walker (born 1971), American mathematician Ericka Walker (born 1981), American artist Ernesto Walker (born 1999), Panamanian footballer Erving Walker (born 1990), American basketball player Erwin Walker (1917–2008), American policeman Esther Walker (1894–1943), American comedian Ethan Walker (born 2002), English footballer Ethel Walker (1861–1951), Scottish painter F Fiona Walker (born 1944), English actress Fiona Walker (author) (born 1969), English author Flem Walker, American general Foots Walker (born 1951), American basketball player François Walker (1888–1951), French gymnast Fraser Walker (born 1972), Scottish medley swimmer Fredi Walker (born 1962), American actress Freeman Walker (1780–1827), American politician G Galal Walker (born 1943), American professor Garry Walker (born 1974), Scottish conductor Gee Walker (1908–1981), American baseball player Gene Walker (1893–1924), American motorcycle racer Geordie Walker (born 1958), English musician Georgia Walker (born 1998), Australian rules footballer Georgina Walker (born 1985), English table tennis player Gerald Walker (born 1987), American rapper Gerran Walker (born 1983), American football player Gertrude Walker (1902–1995), American screenwriter Giles Walker (1946–2020), Scottish-Canadian film director Gina Luria Walker, American professor Glen Walker (born 1952), American football player Gordie Walker (born 1965), Canadian ice hockey player Gus Walker (1912–1986), English pilot Gwyneth Van Anden Walker (born 1947), American composer H Hal Walker (1896–1972), American director Hamish Walker (born 1985), New Zealand politician Harriet G. Walker (1841–1917), American hospital administrator Hazel Walker (1914–1990), American basketball player Hazel M. Walker (1889–1960), American lawyer Helene Walker (1904–1994), British trade unionist Henderson Walker (1659–1704), English politician Herschel Walker (born 1962), American football player Hezekiah Walker (born 1962), American musician Hilda Annetta Walker (1877–1960), English sculptor Hilman Walker (1912–1983), American football player Hiram Walker (1816–1899), American entrepreneur H. M. Walker (1884–1937), American scriptwriter Holly Walker (born 1982), New Zealand politician Horace Walker (1838–1908), English mountaineer Horace Walker (basketball) (1937–2001), American basketball player Horatio Walker (1858–1938), Canadian painter Hoss Walker (1904–1984), American baseball player Hovenden Walker (1656–1728), British naval officer Hub Walker (1906–1982), American baseball player Hunter Walker (born 1984), American reporter I Iain Walker (born 1976), British diplomat Ida Walker (1876–1968), American politician Ignacio Walker (born 1956), Chilean politician Ivy Walker (1911–??), English athlete J Jabari Walker (born 2000), American basketball player Jabez K. Walker, American politician Jamall Walker (born 1977), American basketball coach Jamil Walker (born 1981), American soccer player Jane Brotherton Walker (1925–2009), English taxonomist Jane Harriett Walker (1859–1938), English doctor Janet Walker, Canadian scholar Janet Walker (costumier) (1850–1940), Australian businesswoman Jarrett Walker (born 1962), American transit consultant Jarvis Walker (basketball) (born 1966), American basketball player Jasmine Walker (born 1998), American basketball player Javon Walker (born 1978), American football player Jayden Walker (born 1996), Italian rugby league footballer J. Brent Walker (born 1950), American minister and lawyer Jean Nellie Miles Walker (1878–1918), Australian nurse Jearl Walker (born 1945), American physicist Jemma Walker, English actress Jenny Walker (born 1956), Australian tennis player Jenonne R. Walker (born 1934), American ambassador Jermaine Walker (born 1977), American basketball player Jerry Walker (born 1939), American baseball player Jerry Jeff Walker (1942–2020), American singer-songwriter Jesse Walker (born 1970), American editor Jesse Walker (Methodist) (1766–1835), American minister Jessica Walker (born 1990), British canoeist Jessie Walker (born 1994), English cyclist J. H. Walker (1860–1947), American land commissioner Jimmie Walker (born 1947), American actor and comedian Joan Walker, Canadian writer Joaquín Garrigues Walker (1933–1980), Spanish politician Jon Walker (born 1985), American musician Josiah Walker (1761–1831), Scottish author Josie Walker (born 1970), Northern Irish actress Joyce Walker (born 1961/1962), American basketball player J. P. Walker (born 1976), American snowboarder J. Samuel Walker, American historian Judy L. Walker, American mathematician Julian Walker (born 1986), Swiss ice hockey player Julius Waring Walker Jr. (1927–2003), American diplomat Junior Walker (1931–1995), American instrumentalist K Kara Walker (born 1969), American artist Kara Odom Walker, American physician Kareem Walker (born 1998), American football player Katie Walker (born 1969), British furniture designer Katie Walker (netball) (born 1978), Australian netball player Kathryn Walker (born 1943), American actress Keenyn Walker (born 1990), American baseball player Kelley Walker (born 1969), American artist Kemba Walker (born 1990), American professional basketball player Ken Walker (1919–2013), Australian rules footballer Kenney Walker (born 1988), American soccer player Kenronte Walker (born 1990), American football player Kent Walker, American corporate executive Kenyatta Walker (born 1979), American football player Kerry Walker (born 1948), Australian actress Kev Walker, British comic artist Kristen Walker, Australian lawyer Kristina Walker (born 1996), Canadian rower Kyle Walker (born 1990), English footballer Kyree Walker (born 2000), American basketball player L Lamar Walker (born 2000), Jamaican footballer Lance E. Walker (born 1972), American judge Lancelot Walker (1829–1907), New Zealand politician Landry Walker (born 1971), American writer Langston Walker (born 1979), American football player Larrington Walker (1946–2017), Jamaican-British actor Lary Walker, American neuroscientist Latrice Walker (born 1979), American politician Laudie Walker (1898–1962), American baseball player Lauren Walker (born 1989), English footballer LaVar Walker, American comedian Leanne Walker (born 1968), New Zealand basketball player Lee Walker (born 1976), Welsh snooker player Lee Walker (footballer) (born 1973), Australian rules footballer Len Walker (born 1944), English footballer Leonard Walker (1877–1964), British painter Les Walker, South African bishop Les Walker (politician) (born 1965), Australian politician Lesley Walker, British film editor Lewis L. Walker (1873–1944), American politician Lewis Walker (footballer) (born 1999), English footballer Liam Walker (born 1988), Gibraltarian footballer Lillian Walker (1887–1975), American actress Lillian Walker (politician) (1923–2016), American politician Linda T. Walker (born 1960), American judge Livingstone Walker (1879–1940), English cricketer Liza Walker (born 1972), English actress Lonnie Walker (born 1998), American basketball player Lorraine Walker, Australian judge Lou Ann Walker, American author Louie Walker (born 1953), American football player L. T. Walker, American football coach Lucas Walker (born 1984), Australian basketball player Lucius M. Walker (1829–1863), American soldier Luise Walker (1910–1998), Austrian composer Luther Walker (1864–1903), English footballer Lyman Walker (1799–1886), American politician Lyndsay Walker (born 1974), Australian cricketer M Mack Walker (1929–2021), American historian Madam C. J. Walker (1867–1919), American entrepreneur Maggie L. Walker (1864–1934), American businesswoman Mandy Walker (born 1963), Australian cinematographer Magnus Walker (born 1967), British fashion designer Mallory Walker (1935–2014), American musician Mamie Dowd Walker (1880–1960), American judge Marco Walker (born 1970), Swiss footballer Marcy Walker (born 1961), American actress Marietta Walker (1834–1930), American academic administrator Marilyn Walker, American computer scientist Marilyn I. Walker (born 1934), Canadian artist Marquis Walker (born 1972), American football player Marquise Walker (born 1978), American football player Marty Walker (1899–1978), American baseball player Max Walker (1948–2016), Australian cricketer Max Walker (actor) (born 1986), Canadian actor Megan Walker (born 1998), American basketball player Melaine Walker (born 1983), Jamaican hurdler Melissa Walker (born 1977), American author Meriwether Lewis Walker (1869–1947), American brigadier general Merv Walker (born 1952), Canadian football player Miles Walker (born 1940), English businessman and politician M. J. Walker (born 1998), American basketball player Molly Manning Walker (born 1993), English cinematographer Monica Walker (born 1987), American curler Monica Walker (illustrator), British illustrator Mort Walker (1923–2018), American cartoonist Moses B. Walker (1819–1895), American general Moses Fleetwood Walker (1856–1924), American baseball player Murdoch Walker (??–1580), Scottish stonemason Murray Walker (1923–2021), English journalist Mykal Walker (born 1997), American football player Mysterious Walker (1884–1958), American athlete and coach N Nancy Walker (1922–1992), American actress Naomi Ruiz Walker (born 1992), Spanish artistic gymnast Natalie Walker, American vocalist Natalie Walker (actress), Australian actress Nate Walker (born 1952), American businessman Nathan Walker (born 1994), Australian ice hockey player Nefertiti A. Walker, American academic administrator Nella Walker (1886–1971), American actress Nellie Walker (1874–1973), American sculptor Neva Walker (born 1971), American politician Nicky Walker (born 1962), Scottish footballer Nico Walker (born 1985), American author Nicola Walker (born 1970), English actress Nicole Walker (writer), American writer Niel Walker (1895–1960), British cricketer Nikki Walker (born 1982), Scottish rugby union footballer Norma Ford Walker (1893–1968), Canadian scientist Norma O. Walker (born 1928), American politician O Obadiah Walker (1616–1699), English academic Obie Walker (1911–1989), American boxer Olene Walker (1930–2015), American politician Ordell Walker, American football coach Orris George Walker (1942–2015), American bishop Oscar Walker (1854–1889), American baseball player Owen Walker, New Zealand computer hacker P Pamela Gaye Walker, American actress Pat Walker (born 1959), Irish footballer Patricio Walker (born 1969), Chilean politician Peahead Walker (1899–1970), American football and baseball coach Percy Walker (1812–1880), American politician Pinkney H. Walker (1815–1885), American jurist P. J. Walker (born 1995), American football player Polly Walker (born 1966), English actress Purcy Walker (born 1951), American politician Q Quay Walker (born 2000), American football player Quentin Walker (born 1961), American football player Quock Walker (1753–??), American slave R Ramon Walker (born 1979), American football player Rana Walker, American psychologist Ranginui Walker (1932–2016), New Zealand academic and writer Regan Walker (born 1996), English footballer Reuben Lindsay Walker (1827–1890), American general Rhys Walker (born 1994), English badminton player Rick Walker (born 1955), American football player Ricky Walker (born 1996), American football player Rod Walker (born 1976), American football player Roderick Walker (1932–2008), British military officer Roland Walker (born 1970), British army officer Roman Walker (born 2000), Welsh cricketer Rose A. Walker (1879–1942), Australian painter Roslyn Walker (born 1981), English entertainer Roslyn Walker (curator), American curator Rowan Walker (born 1970), Australian runner R. T. Walker (1914–?), American baseball player R. Tracy Walker (1939–2019), American politician Rube Walker (1926–1992), American baseball player Rudolph Walker (born 1939), Trinidadian actor Ruel C. Walker (1910–1998), American judge Russell Walker (1842–1922), English cricketer Ryley Walker (born 1989), American singer-songwriter Rysa Walker (born 1961), American writer S Samaki Walker (born 1976), American basketball player Sammy Walker (born 1952), American singer-songwriter Sammy Walker (American football) (born 1969), American football player Sampson Walker (1843–1933), English-Canadian businessman Sandy Walker (born 1942), American artist Sara Imari Walker, American physicist Sears Cook Walker (1805–1853), American astronomer Sebo Walker (born 1988), American skateboarder Seth Walker (born 1972), American guitarist Shannon Walker (born 1965), American physicist Shannon Walker (rugby) (born 1988), Australian rugby union footballer Shelby Walker (1975–2006), American boxer Sherron Walker (born 1956), American athlete Shiloh Walker (born 1976), American author Shirley Walker (1945–2006), American composer Skeeter Werner Walker (1933–2001), American skier S. Lynne Walker, American journalist Solomon Walker, American guitarist Sophie Walker (born 1971), British activist Speed Walker (1898–1959), American baseball player Speedy Walker (1906–2004), American basketball player Steele Walker (born 1996), American baseball player Stéphane Walker (born 1990), Swiss figure skater Stephanie Walker (born 1994), Australian rules footballer Sullivan Walker (1946–2012), Trinidadian actor Summer Walker (born 1996), American singer-songwriter Suzanne Walker, American microbiologist Syd Walker (1886–1945), British actor Sydney Walker (1921–1994), American actor Sylford Walker (born 1955), Jamaican singer Sylvia Walker (1937–2004), American professor T Taijuan Walker (born 1992), American baseball player Tamara Walker (born 1966), American singer-songwriter T. B. Walker (1840–1929), American businessman T-Bone Walker (1910–1975), American musician Ted Walker (1934–2004), English poet Terence Walker (born 1935), British politician Terri Walker (born 1979), English singer-songwriter Thelma Walker (born 1957), British politician Theresa Walker (1807–1876), Australian sculptor Tippy Walker (born 1947), American actress Tirame Walker (born 1975), American basketball player Tisha Walker (born 1975), American figure skater Todd Walker (born 1973), American baseball player Tonette Walker (born 1955), American social figure Toni Walker (born 1952), American politician Tonja Walker (born 1960), American soap opera actress Tony Walker (outfielder) (born 1959), American baseball player Tony Walker (Negro leagues), American baseball player Tracy Walker (American football) (born 1995), American football player Travis Walker (born 1979), American boxer Tray Walker (1992–2016), American football player Trent Walker, American sound engineer Trevor Walker, Barbadian politician Tricia Walker (1964–2018), British author Tristan Walker (born 1991), Canadian luger Tristen Walker (born 1984), Australian rules footballer Ty Walker (born 1997), American snowboarder Ty Walker (basketball) (born 1989), American basketball player Tyrunn Walker (born 1990), American football player U Uncle Homer Walker (1898–1980), American banjo player Uroyoán Walker, American academic administrator V Val Walker (1890–1969), English magician Val Joe Walker (1930–2013), American football player Vance Walker (born 1987), American football player Vanessa Siddle Walker, American professor Vaughn Walker (born 1944), American judge V. E. Walker (1837–1906), English cricketer Vernon L. Walker (1894–1948), American cinematographer Vicki Walker (born 1956), American politician Victor B. Walker (1864–??), American lawyer and businessman Vincent Walker (born 1980), American singer Virginia Walker (1916–1946), American film actress Vordell Walker (born 1982), American professional wrestler W Wade Walker (1923–2013), American football player Wally Walker (born 1954), American basketball player Walt Walker (1860–1922), American baseball player Walton Walker (1889–1950), American general W. Danforth Walker, American philatelist Weldy Walker (1860–1937), American baseball player Wendell Walker (born 1952), American politician Wendy Jane Walker (born 1964), English actress Wickliffe Walker (born 1946), American canoeist Wilbert Walker (born 1985), Jamaican triple jumper Willis Walker (1892–1991), English footballer Williston Walker (1860–1922), American historian Wirt Dexter Walker (1860–1899), American lawyer Wyatt Tee Walker (1928–2018), American pastor and activist Z Zain Walker (born 2002), English footballer Zena Walker (1934–2003), English actress Disambiguation pages A Aaron Walker (disambiguation) Abraham Walker (disambiguation) Adam Walker (disambiguation) Alan Walker (disambiguation) Albert Walker (disambiguation) Alexander Walker (disambiguation) Alfred Walker (disambiguation) Andrew Walker (disambiguation) Andy Walker (disambiguation) Angela Walker (disambiguation) Ann Walker (disambiguation) Anna Walker (disambiguation) Anne Walker (disambiguation) Annie Walker (disambiguation) Anthony Walker (disambiguation) Arnold Walker (disambiguation) Art Walker (disambiguation) Arthur Walker (disambiguation) Ashley Walker (disambiguation) B Barbara Walker (disambiguation) Benjamin Walker (disambiguation) Bert Walker (disambiguation) Bill Walker (disambiguation) Billy Walker (disambiguation) Bob Walker (disambiguation) Brad Walker (disambiguation) Brian Walker (disambiguation) Brooke Walker (disambiguation) Bruce Walker (disambiguation) Bryan Walker (disambiguation) C Cameron Walker (disambiguation) Caroline Walker (disambiguation) Charles Walker (disambiguation) Cheryl Walker (disambiguation) Chris Walker (disambiguation) Christian Walker (disambiguation) Christopher Walker (disambiguation) C. J. Walker (disambiguation) Clarence Walker (disambiguation) Clive Walker (disambiguation) Cody Walker (disambiguation) Colin Walker (disambiguation) Connie Walker (disambiguation) Craig Walker (disambiguation) Cyril Walker (disambiguation) D Dan Walker (disambiguation) Daphne Walker (disambiguation) David Walker (disambiguation) Dennis Walker (disambiguation) Derek Walker (disambiguation) Dominic Walker (disambiguation) Don Walker (disambiguation) Dorothy Walker (disambiguation) Douglas Walker (disambiguation) E Ed Walker (disambiguation) Edward Walker (disambiguation) Edwin Walker (disambiguation) Elaine Walker (disambiguation) Eliza Walker (disambiguation) Elizabeth Walker (disambiguation) Eric Walker (disambiguation) Ernest Walker (disambiguation) Evan Walker (disambiguation) F Felix Walker (disambiguation) Francis Walker (disambiguation) Frank Walker (disambiguation) Frederick Walker (disambiguation) G Gary Walker (disambiguation) Geoff Walker (disambiguation) George Walker (disambiguation) Gilbert Walker (disambiguation) Glenn Walker (disambiguation) Gordon Walker (disambiguation) Graham Walker (disambiguation) Gregory Walker (disambiguation) H Hamilton Walker (disambiguation) Harold Walker (disambiguation) Harry Walker (disambiguation) Helen Walker (disambiguation) Henry Walker (disambiguation) Herbert Walker (disambiguation) Howard Walker (disambiguation) Hugh Walker (disambiguation) I Ian Walker (disambiguation) Isaac Walker (disambiguation) J Jack Walker (disambiguation) Jackie Walker (disambiguation) Jake Walker (disambiguation) James Walker (disambiguation) Jamie Walker (disambiguation) Jason Walker (disambiguation) Jay Walker (disambiguation) Jeff Walker (disambiguation) Jeremy Walker (disambiguation) Jimmy Walker (disambiguation) Joe Walker (disambiguation) Joel Walker (disambiguation) John Walker (disambiguation) Johnnie Walker (disambiguation) Jonathan Walker (disambiguation) Jordan Walker (disambiguation) Joseph Walker (disambiguation) Josh Walker (disambiguation) Joshua Walker (disambiguation) Julie Walker (disambiguation) Justin Walker (disambiguation) K Karen Walker (disambiguation) Kate Walker (disambiguation) Katherine Walker (disambiguation) Keith Walker (disambiguation) Kenneth Walker (disambiguation) Kevin Walker (disambiguation) Kim Walker (disambiguation) Kurt Walker (disambiguation) L Larry Walker (disambiguation) Laura Walker (disambiguation) Laurie Walker (disambiguation) Lawrence Walker (disambiguation) Leroy Walker (disambiguation) Leslie Walker (disambiguation) Lisa Walker (disambiguation) Lucy Walker (disambiguation) Luke Walker (disambiguation) Lynne Walker (disambiguation) M Mabel Walker (disambiguation) Malcolm Walker (disambiguation) Marcus Walker (disambiguation) Margaret Walker (disambiguation) Mark Walker (disambiguation) Martin Walker (disambiguation) Mary Walker (disambiguation) Matt Walker (disambiguation) Matthew Walker (disambiguation) Mel Walker (disambiguation) Michael Walker (disambiguation) Mick Walker (disambiguation) Mike Walker (disambiguation) Mitch Walker (disambiguation) N Neil Walker (disambiguation) Nick Walker (disambiguation) Nigel Walker (disambiguation) Norman Walker (disambiguation) O Oliver Walker (disambiguation) P Patrick Walker (disambiguation) Paul Walker (disambiguation) Peter Walker (disambiguation) Phil Walker (disambiguation) Phillip Walker (disambiguation) R Rachel Walker (disambiguation) Ralph Walker (disambiguation) Randy Walker (disambiguation) Ray Walker (disambiguation) Rebecca Walker (disambiguation) Reggie Walker (disambiguation) Richard Walker (disambiguation) Rob Walker (disambiguation) Robert Walker (disambiguation) Robin Walker (disambiguation) Rodney Walker (disambiguation) Roger Walker (disambiguation) Ronald Walker (disambiguation) Roy Walker (disambiguation) Russ Walker (disambiguation) Ryan Walker (disambiguation) S Sally Walker (disambiguation) Sam Walker (disambiguation) Samuel Walker (disambiguation) Sarah Walker (disambiguation) Scott Walker (disambiguation) Sean Walker (disambiguation) Shane Walker (disambiguation) Shaun Walker (disambiguation) Simon Walker (disambiguation) Stanley Walker (disambiguation) Stephen Walker (disambiguation) Steve Walker (disambiguation) Stewart Walker (disambiguation) Stuart Walker (disambiguation) Sue Walker (disambiguation) Susan Walker (disambiguation) T Tanya Walker (disambiguation) Taylor Walker (disambiguation) Terry Walker (disambiguation) Thomas Walker (disambiguation) Timothy Walker (disambiguation) Tyler Walker (disambiguation) W Walter Walker (disambiguation) Wayne Walker (disambiguation) William Walker (disambiguation) Fictional characters Allen Walker, a character on the Manga series D.Gray-man Brenda Walker, a character in the American sitcom television series The Hogan Family Brenda Walker, a character on the soap opera Emmerdale Cordell Walker, main character of the television show Walker, Texas Ranger Dexter Walker, a character on the soap opera Home and Away Gennie Walker, a character on the soap opera Emmerdale Indi Walker, a character on the soap opera Home and Away Dr. Julia Walker, a character on the television series Helix Julia Walker, a character on the television series Brothers & Sisters Molly Walker, a character on the drama series Heroes Nicole Walker, a character on the soap opera Days of Our Lives Nora Walker, a character on the television series Brothers & Sisters Patsy Walker, a character from the comic series Marvel Comics Private Walker, a character on the television series Dad's Army Renee Walker, a character on the television series 24 Saint Walker, a character from the comic series DC Comics Sid Walker, a character on the soap opera Home and Away See also Walker (given name), a page with people for the given name "Walker" Walker (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for "Walker" Walker (taxonomic authority), the taxonomic authority titled "Walker" Attorney General Walker (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Attorney Generals surnamed "Walker" Captain Walker (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Captains surnamed "Walker" General Walker (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Generals surnamed "Walker" Governor Walker (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Governors surnamed "Walker" Justice Walker (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Justices surnamed "Walker" Lord Walker (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Lords surnamed "Walker" Senator Walker (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Senators surnamed "Walker" References English-language surnames German-language surnames Occupational surnames es:Walker fr:Walker it:Walker he:ווקר (פירושונים) ja:ウォーカー no:Walker pt:Walker fi:Walker vo:Walker	[ -0.15448205173015594, 0.12936240434646606, -0.5109301209449768, -0.7237404584884644, -0.0897284597158432, 0.7943087220191956, 0.8873447179794312, -0.41760775446891785, -0.7497304677963257, -0.19111408293247223, -0.40936988592147827, 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250544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Manuel%20Pruneda	Carlos Manuel Pruneda	Carlos Manuel (born 1973) is a Cuban singer, known simply as "Carlos Manuel". Career in Cuba Carlos Manuel had been a member of the Mayohuacan, Carapacho and Irakere groups in Cuba, and had had success within Cuba as vocalist with Carlos Manuel y su Clan, which he founded in 1997. In 2001, he was voted the most popular artist in Cuba, Clan decreed the best new band, and his song "Malo Cantidad" the most listened to. In 2003, after performing a concert in Mexico City, Pruneda boarded a plane and flew to Monterrey, Mexico. He boarded a cab and drove to the US border crossing at Brownsville, Texas where he asked for asylum. NEW CD IN THE UNITED STATES Title: Carlos Manuel Producers: Carlos Manuel & Jossel Calveiro Carlos Manuel has finally released his first production in Miami titled "Carlos Manuel." Carlos Manuel has had the CD in stores for three weeks and his latest hit "El amor eres tu" it is now in the top of the Spanish broadcasting radio "Salsa 98.3" "This Cd has influenced me in every way, I have made songs for everyone in this production, and i have a lot more to come" Said Carlos Manuel Pruneda, whom it is now living in Coral Gables and currently working on his second production in the United States to conquest the world." References 1973 births Living people Cuban male singers Cuban musicians	[ -0.30579155683517456, 0.20847919583320618, 0.06530486792325974, 0.06996024399995804, 0.02792595885694027, 0.4563461244106293, 0.0894550010561943, 0.5407068729400635, -0.6364301443099976, 0.043997179716825485, 0.3534577190876007, 0.8104629516601562, 0.06417059153318405, -0.030725717544555664, -0.48504891991615295, 0.22747290134429932, -0.14565406739711761, 0.4529050290584564, -0.4201752543449402, -0.566276490688324, -0.9741194248199463, -0.3099040687084198, -0.08850789070129395, -0.07118215411901474, -0.2927217185497284, 0.15777587890625, -0.3719952702522278, 0.416345477104187, 0.03858071193099022, -0.09316576272249222, 0.43418458104133606, 0.42362144589424133, 0.7077751755714417, -0.31690284609794617, -0.13222073018550873, 0.46263960003852844, -0.16844703257083893, -0.394965797662735, 0.12390615791082382, -0.7635934948921204, -0.01828925870358944, -0.23918795585632324, 0.033471088856458664, -0.29600000381469727, 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