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250831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Andros	Edmund Andros	Sir Edmund Andros (6 December 1637 – 24 February 1714) was an English colonial administrator in British America. He was the governor of the Dominion of New England during most of its three-year existence. At other times, Andros served as governor of the provinces of New York, East and West Jersey, Virginia, and Maryland. Before his service in North America, he served as Bailiff of Guernsey. His tenure in New England was authoritarian and turbulent, as his views were decidedly pro-Anglican, a negative quality in a region home to many Puritans. His actions in New England resulted in his overthrow during the 1689 Boston revolt. He became governor of Virginia three years later. Andros was considered to have been a more effective governor in New York and Virginia, although he became the enemy of prominent figures in both colonies, many of whom worked to remove him from office. Despite these enmities, he managed to negotiate several treaties of the Covenant Chain with the Iroquois, establishing a long-lived peace involving the colonies and other tribes that interacted with that confederacy. His actions and governance generally followed the instructions he was given upon appointment to office, and he received approbation from the monarchs and governments that appointed him. Andros was recalled to England from Virginia in 1698, and resumed the title of Bailiff of Guernsey. Although he no longer resided entirely on Guernsey, he was appointed lieutenant governor of the island, and served in this position for four years. Andros died in 1714. Early life Andros was born in London on 6 December 1637. Amice Andros, his father, was Bailiff of Guernsey and a staunch supporter of Charles I. His mother was Elizabeth Stone, whose sister was a courtier to the king's sister, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia. Although it has been claimed that Andros was present at the surrender in 1651 of Guernsey's Castle Cornet, the last royalist stronghold to surrender in the English Civil War, there is no firm evidence to support this. It is possible that he fled Guernsey with his mother in 1645. In 1656, he was apprenticed to his uncle, Sir Robert Stone, captain of a cavalry company. Andros then served in two winter campaigns in Denmark, including the relief of Copenhagen in 1659. As a result of these experiences he gained fluency in French, Swedish, and Dutch. He remained a firm supporter of the Stuarts while they were in exile. Charles II, after his restoration to the throne, specifically commended the Andros family for its support. Andros served as a courtier to Elizabeth of Bohemia from 1660 until her death in 1662. During the 1660s he served in the English army against the Dutch. He was next commissioned a major in the regiment of Sir Tobias Bridge, which was sent to Barbados in 1666. He returned to England two years later, carrying despatches and letters. In 1671, he married Mary Craven, the daughter of Thomas Craven of Burnsall in the West Riding of Yorkshire (now North Yorkshire), the son of a cousin to the Earl of Craven, one of the queen's closest advisors, and a friend who served as his patron for many years. In 1672 he was commissioned major. Governor of New York After his father died in 1674, Andros acquired Sausmarez Manor and was named to succeed him as Bailiff of Guernsey. He was also appointed by the Duke of York to be the first proprietary governor of the Province of New York. The province's territory included the former territories of New Netherland, ceded to England by the Treaty of Westminster, including all of present-day New Jersey, the Dutch holdings on the Hudson River from New Amsterdam (renamed New York City) to Albany, as well as Long Island, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket. In 1664 Charles II had granted James all of this territory, as well as all of the land in present-day Maine between the Kennebec and St. Croix Rivers, but with the intervening Dutch retaking of the territory, Charles issued a new patent to James. Andros arrived in New York harbor in late October, and negotiated the handover of the Dutch territories with local representatives and Dutch Governor Anthony Colve, which took place on 10 November 1674. Andros agreed to confirm the existing property holdings and to allow the Dutch inhabitants of the territory to maintain their Protestant religion. Connecticut boundary dispute Andros was also involved in boundary disputes with the neighboring Connecticut Colony. Dutch claims had originally extended as far east as the Connecticut River, but these claims had been ceded in the 1650 Treaty of Hartford, and reduced to a boundary line east of the Hudson in 1664. York's territorial claim did not acknowledge these, and Andros announced to Connecticut authorities his intentions to reclaim that territory (which included Connecticut capital, Hartford) in early 1675. Connecticut leaders pointed out the later revisions to Connecticut's boundaries, but Andros pressed his claim, arguing that those revisions had been superseded by York's grant. Andros used the outbreak of King Philip's War in July 1675 as an excuse to go by ship to Connecticut with a small military force to establish the duke's claim. When he arrived at Saybrook at the mouth of the river on 8 July he found the fort there occupied by Connecticut militia, who were flying the English flag. Andros came ashore, had a brief conversation with the fort commander, read his commission, and returned to New York City. This was the full extent of Andros' attempt to claim the territory, but it would be remembered in Connecticut when later attempts were made to assert New York authority. King Philip's War Following his Connecticut expedition, Andros traveled into Iroquois country to establish relations there. He was well received, and agreed to continue the Dutch practice of supplying firearms to the Iroquois. This action successfully blunted French diplomatic successes with the Iroquois. It also led to charges in New England that Andros provided arms to Indians allied to King Philip (as the Wampanoag leader Metacom was known to the English); in fact, Andros provided gunpowder to Rhode Island that was used in the Great Swamp Fight against the Narragansetts in December 1675, and specifically outlawed the sale of munitions to tribes known to be allied to Philip. The charges poisoned the atmosphere between Andros and Massachusetts leaders, even though Andros' conduct met with approval in London. In the meeting with the Iroquois Andros was given the name "Corlaer", a name historically used by the Iroquois to refer to the Dutch governor in New Netherland and continued when the English took over the colony and renamed it New York (in the same way the French governor was dubbed "Onontio"). One other consequence was the establishment at Albany of a colonial department for Indian affairs, with Robert Livingston as its first head. Philip was known to be in the Berkshires in western Massachusetts that winter, and New Englanders accused Andros of sheltering him. Historian John Fiske suggests that Philip's purpose was not to draw the Iroquois into the conflict, but instead to draw the Mahicans into the conflict with a view toward attacking Albany. An offer by Andros to send New York troops into Massachusetts to attack Philip was rebuffed, based on the idea that it was covert ploy to again assert authority to the Connecticut River. Instead, Mohawks from the Albany area did battle with Philip, driving him eastward. When Connecticut authorities later appealed to Andros for assistance, Andros replied that it was "strange" that they would do so, considering their previous behavior, and refused to help. In July 1676 Andros established a haven for the Mahicans and other Indian war refugees at Schaghticoke. Although the conflict came to an end in southern New England in 1676, there continued to be friction between the Abenakis of northern New England and New England settlers. These prompted Andros to send a force to the duke's territory in Maine, where they established a fort at Pemaquid (present-day Bristol). Andros annoyed Massachusetts fishermen by restricting their use of the duke's land for drying fish. In November 1677 Andros departed for England, where he would spend the next year. During this visit he was knighted as a reward for his performance as governor, and he sat in on meetings of the Lords of Trade in which agents for Massachusetts Bay defended its charter, and gave detailed accounts of the state of his colony. Southern border disputes The southernmost territories of the duke, roughly encompassing northern Delaware, were desired by Charles Calvert, Baron Baltimore, who sought to extend the reach of his proprietary Province of Maryland into the area. At the same time Calvert was seeking an end to a frontier war with the Iroquois to the north, having persuaded the intervening Susquehannocks to move to the Potomac River, well within Maryland territory. Furthermore, the Lenape, who dominated Delaware Bay, were unhappy with seizures of their lands by Virginia and Maryland settlers, and war between these groups had been imminent in 1673 when the Dutch retook New York. When Andros came to New York, he moved to stabilize the situation. He befriended the Lenape sachems (chiefs), convincing them to act as mediators between the English and other tribes. Peace appeared to be imminent when Bacon's Rebellion broke out in Virginia, resulting in an attack on the Susquehannock fort on the Potomac. The surviving Susquehannocks sneaked out of the fort one night, some of them making their way east toward Delaware Bay. In June 1676 Andros offered, in exchange for their moving into his jurisdiction, to protect them from their enemies among the Virginian and Maryland settlers. He also extended an offer given by the Mohawk for the Susquehannocks to settle among them. These offers were well received, but Maryland authorities were unable to convince their Indian allies to make the peace offered by Andros, and organized them to march toward the Delaware, which would also fulfil the goal of strengthening the Maryland claim to the area. Andros responded by urging the Susquehannocks to retreat into New York, where they would be beyond Maryland's reach, and delivering a strongly worded threat to Maryland, that it would either have to acknowledge his sovereignty over the Susquehannocks, or they would have to peaceably take them back. He also offered his services as a mediator, pointing out that the absence of the Susquehannocks now left Maryland settlements open to direct attack by the Iroquois. In a council held at the Lenape village of Shackamaxon (site of present-day Philadelphia) in February and March 1677, all of the major parties met, but no final agreements were reached, and Andros ordered the Susquehannocks remaining with the Lenape to disperse to other parts of New York in April. Maryland sent Henry Coursey to New York to engage Andros and eventually the Iroquois in peace talks, while at the same time they sent surveyors to lay out plots on land also claimed by New York on Delaware Bay. Coursey was instructed to offer Andros what was in essence a £100 bribe that an Indian peace might be reached in exchange for that land. Andros refused the bribe, and Coursey ended up being compelled to negotiate further through Andros and the Mohawk in Albany. The peace agreed in negotiations that followed in Albany in the summer of 1677 is considered one of the foundations of the set of alliances and treaties called the Covenant Chain. Although Andros was unable to prevent Baltimore from granting some land on the Delaware, he did successfully blunt the Maryland leader's attempt to control an even greater portion of land. The duke eventually deeded those lands to William Penn, and they became part of the state of Delaware. Control of the Jerseys Governance of the Jerseys also created problems for Andros. James had awarded the territory west of the Hudson River to proprietors John Berkeley and George Carteret, and Berkeley had then deeded the western portion (which became known as West Jersey) to a partnership of Quakers. Berkeley had not transferred his proprietary rights to this group, and the exact nature of the rights James had given both Berkeley and Carteret was disputed, in part because James believed that the second patent granted to him in 1674 overrode the earlier grants he had made to Berkeley and Carteret. This resulted in conflict when Andros attempted to extend his government over East Jersey, the territory governed on behalf of Carteret by the latter's cousin Philip. Possibly based on orders given to him during his visit to England, Andros began to assert New York authority over East Jersey after George Carteret's death in 1680. Despite a friendly personal relationship between Andros and Governor Carteret, the issue of governance eventually prompted Andros to have Carteret arrested. In a dispute centering on the collection of customs duties in ports on the Jersey side of the Hudson, Andros in 1680 sent a company of soldiers to Philip Carteret's home in Elizabethtown. According to Carteret's account of the incident, he was beaten by the troops, who jailed him in New York. In a trial over which Andros presided, Carteret was acquitted by a jury on all charges. Carteret returned to New Jersey, but injuries he sustained in the arrest affected his health, and he died in 1682. In the aftermath of the incident the Duke of York surrendered his claims to East Jersey to the Carterets. Andros acquired in 1683, from the widow of Carteret, for £200, the Patent to the Lordship of Alderney. A less contentious standoff also occurred when settlers sent by William Penn sought to establish what is now Burlington, New Jersey. Andros insisted they had no right to settle there without the duke's permission, but agreed to allow their settlement after they agreed to receive commissions falling under the authority of the New York gubernatorial administration. This situation was permanently resolved in 1680 when York renounced in favor of Penn his remaining claims to West Jersey. Recall and analysis The political opponents of Andros in the colony brought a number of charges against him to the Duke of York. Among them were accusations of favoritism toward Dutch businessmen, and engaging in business for private gain rather than that of the duke. Statements were also made to the duke that claimed that his revenues were lower than they should have been; this, in addition to the other complaints, led the duke to order Andros back to England to explain the situation. Andros left the province in January 1681, charging Anthony Brockholls with the administration of the New York government. Expecting a short visit to England, his wife remained in New York. During his time in New York he was thought to have demonstrated good administrative abilities, but his manner was considered imperious by his opponents among the colonists, and he made numerous enemies during his tenure as governor. Dominion of New England In 1686 he was appointed governor of the Dominion of New England. He arrived in Boston on 20 December 1686, and immediately assumed the reins of power. His commission called for governance by himself, with a council. The initial composition of the council included representatives from each of the colonies the dominion absorbed, but because of the inconvenience of travel and the fact that travel costs were not reimbursed, the council's quorums were dominated by representatives from Massachusetts and Plymouth. The Lords of Trade had insisted that he govern without an assembly, something he expressed concern over while his commission was being drafted. In a brief work, Sir Edmund Andros, historian Henry Ferguson attested to the fact that the deliberation of certain policies by an assembly of legislators may have proven inefficient. The Dominion initially consisted of the territories of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (including present-day Maine), Plymouth Colony, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire, and was extended to include New York, and East and West Jersey in 1688. Andros' wife, who had joined him in Boston, died there in 1688 not long after her arrival. Church of England Shortly after his arrival, Andros asked each of the Puritan churches in Boston if its meetinghouse could be used for services of the Church of England. When he was rebuffed, he demanded and was given keys to Samuel Willard's Third Church in 1687. Services were held there under the auspices of Rev. Robert Ratcliff until 1688, when King's Chapel was built. These actions highlighted him as pro-Anglican in the eyes of local Puritans, who would later accuse him of involvement in a "horrid Popish plot." Revenue laws His council engaged in a lengthy process to harmonize dominion and English laws. This work consumed such a great amount of time that Andros in March 1687 issued a proclamation stating that pre-existing laws would remain in effect until they were revised. Since Massachusetts had no pre-existing tax laws, a scheme of taxation was created that would apply to the entire dominion. Developed by a committee of landowners, the first proposal derived its revenues from import duties, principally alcohol. After much debate, a different proposal was abruptly proposed and adopted, essentially reviving previous Massachusetts tax laws. These laws had been unpopular with farmers who felt the taxes on livestock were too high. To bring in immediate revenue, Andros also received approval to increase the import duties on alcohol. The first attempts to enforce the revenue laws were met with stiff resistance from a number of Massachusetts communities. Several towns refused to choose commissioners to assess the town population and estates, and officials from a number of them were consequently arrested and brought to Boston. Some were fined and released, while others were imprisoned until they promised to perform their duties. The leaders of Ipswich, who had been most vocal in their opposition to the law, were tried and convicted of misdemeanor offenses. The other provinces did not resist the imposition of the new law, even though, at least in Rhode Island, the rates were higher than they had been under the previous colonial administration. Plymouth's relatively poor landowners were hard hit because of the high rates on livestock, and funds derived from whaling, once sources of profit for the individual towns, were now directed to the dominion government. Town meeting laws One consequence of the tax protest was that Andros sought to restrict town meetings, since these were where that protest had begun. He therefore introduced a law that limited meetings to a single annual meeting, solely for the purpose of electing officials, and explicitly banning meetings at other times for any reason. This loss of local power was widely hated. Many protests were made that the town meeting and tax laws were violations of the Magna Carta, which guaranteed taxation by representatives of the people. It was noted that those who made these complaints had, during the colonial charter, excluded large numbers of voters through the requirement of church membership, and then taxed them. Land title reform Andros had been instructed to bring colonial land title practices more in line with those in England, and introduce quit-rents as a means of raising colonial revenues. Titles previously issued in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine under the colonial administration often suffered from defects of form (for example, lacking an imprint of the colonial seal), and most of them did not include a quit-rent payment. Land grants in colonial Connecticut and Rhode Island had been made before either colony had a charter, and there were conflicting claims in a number of areas. The manner in which Andros approached the issue was necessarily divisive, since it threatened any landowner whose title was in any way dubious. Some landowners went through the confirmation process, but many refused, since they did not want to face the possibility of losing their land, and they viewed the process as a thinly veiled land grab. The Puritans of Plymouth and Massachusetts, some of whom had extensive landholdings, were among the latter. Since all of the existing land titles in Massachusetts had been granted under the now-vacated colonial charter, Andros essentially declared them to be void, and required landowners to recertify their ownership, paying fees to the dominion and becoming subject to the charging of a quit-rent. Andros attempted to compel the certification of ownership by issuing writs of intrusion, but large landowners who owned many parcels contested these individually, rather than recertifying all of their lands. Connecticut charter Since Andros' commission included Connecticut, he asked Connecticut Governor Robert Treat to surrender the colonial charter not long after his arrival in Boston. Unlike Rhode Island, whose officials readily acceded to the dominion, Connecticut officials formally acknowledged Andros' authority, but did little to assist him. They continued to run their government according to the charter, holding quarterly meetings of the legislature and electing colony-wide officials, while Treat and Andros negotiated over the surrender of the charter. In October 1687 Andros finally decided to travel to Connecticut to personally see to the matter. Accompanied by an honour guard, he arrived in Hartford on 31 October, and met that evening with the colonial leadership. According to legend, during this meeting the charter was laid out on the table for all to see. The lights in the room unexpectedly went out, and when relit, the charter had disappeared. The charter was said to have been hidden in a nearby oak tree (referred to afterward as the Charter Oak) so that a search of nearby buildings would not locate the document. Whatever the truth of the account, Connecticut records show that its government formally surrendered its seals and ceased operation that day. Andros then traveled throughout the colony, making judicial and other appointments, before returning to Boston. On 29 December 1687, the dominion council formally extended its laws over Connecticut, completing the assimilation of the New England colonies. Inclusion of New York and the Jerseys On 7 May 1688, the provinces of New York, East Jersey, and West Jersey were added to the Dominion. Because they were remote from Boston, where Andros had his seat, New York and the Jerseys were run by Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson from New York City. Nicholson, an army captain and protégé of colonial secretary William Blathwayt, came to Boston in early 1687 as part of Andros' honor guard, and had been promoted to his council. During the summer of 1688, Andros traveled first to New York, and then to the Jerseys, to establish his commission. Dominion governance of the Jerseys was complicated by the fact that the proprietors, whose charters had been revoked, had retained their property, and petitioned Andros for what were traditional manorial rights. The dominion period in the Jerseys was relatively uneventful, due to their distance from the power centers, and the unexpected end of the dominion in 1689. Indian diplomacy In 1687 the governor of New France, the Marquis de Denonville, launched an attack against Seneca villages in what is now western New York. His objective was to disrupt trade between the English at Albany and the Iroquois confederation, to which the Seneca belonged, and to break the Covenant Chain, a peace Andros had negotiated in 1677 while he was governor of New York. New York Governor Thomas Dongan appealed for help, and King James ordered Andros to render assistance. James also entered into negotiations with Louis XIV of France, which resulted in an easing of tensions on the northwestern frontier. On New England's northeastern frontier, however, the Abenaki harbored grievances against New England settlers, and began an offensive in early 1688. Andros made an expedition into Maine early in the year, in which he raided a number of Indian settlements. He also raided the trading outpost and home of Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin on Penobscot Bay. His careful preservation of the Catholic Castin's chapel would be a source of later accusations of "popery" against Andros. When Andros took over the administration of New York in August 1688, he met with the Iroquois at Albany to renew to covenant. In this meeting he annoyed the Iroquois by referring to them as "children" (implying subservience to the English), rather than "brethren" (implying equality). He returned to Boston amid further attacks on the New England frontier by Abenaki parties, who admitted that they were doing so in part because of French encouragement. During Andros's presence in New York, the situation in Maine had deteriorated again, as well, with groups of colonists raiding Indian villages and taking prisoners. These actions were taken in accordance with a directive issued by dominion councillors remaining in Boston, who ordered that frontier militia commanders were to take into custody any Abenaki suspected of participating in the raids. This directive sparked a problem in Maine, when twenty Abenaki, including women and children, were taken into custody by colonial militia. The local authorities were faced with the dilemma of housing the captives, shipping them first to Falmouth and then to Boston, angering other natives in the area, who seized English hostages to ensure the safe return of the captives. Andros castigated the Mainers for their unwarranted acts and ordered the Indians released and returned to Maine. A brief skirmish during the process of exchanging captives resulted in the deaths of four English hostages, and sparked discontent in Maine. Faced with this discord, Andros returned to Maine with a significant force, and began the construction of additional fortifications to protect the settlers. Andros spent the winter in Maine, and returned to Boston in March upon hearing rumors of revolution in England and discontent in Boston. Revolt On 18 April 1689, soon after news reached Boston of the overthrow of James II of England, the colonists of Boston rose up against his rule. A well-organized "mob" descended on the city, arresting dominion officials and Anglicans. Andros had his quarters in Fort Mary, a garrison house on the south side of the city, where a number of officials took refuge. The old Massachusetts colonial leadership, restored due to the rebellion and headed by ex-governor Simon Bradstreet, then summoned Governor Andros to surrender, for his own safety because of the mob which they claimed "whereof we were wholly ignorant". He refused, and instead tried to escape to the Rose, the only Royal Navy ship near Boston at the time. However, the boat sent from the Rose was intercepted by militia, and Andros was forced back into Fort Mary. Negotiations ensued, and Andros agreed to leave the fort to meet with the rebel council. Promised safe conduct, he was marched under guard to the townhouse where the council had assembled. There he was told that "they must & would have the Government in their own hands", and that he was under arrest. Daniel Fisher grabbed him by the collar and took him to the home of dominion official John Usher and held under close watch. After Fort Mary fell into rebel hands on the 19th, Andros was moved there from Usher's house. He was confined there with Joseph Dudley and other dominion officials until 7 June, when he was transferred to Castle Island. It is during this period of captivity that he is said to have attempted an escape dressed in women's clothing. The story, although it circulated widely, was disputed by the Anglican minister Robert Ratcliff, who claimed that story and others had "not the least foundation of Truth", and that they were "falsehoods, and lies" propagated to "render the Governour odious to his people." He did make a successful escape from Castle Island on 2 August, after his servant plied the sentries with drink. He managed to flee to Rhode Island, but was quickly recaptured and thereafter kept in virtual solitary confinement. He and others were held for 10 months before being sent to England for trial. The Massachusetts agents in London refused to sign the charges made against him, so the court summarily dismissed them, and freed him. When Andros was questioned about the various accusations that had been levelled against him, he pointed out that all of his actions had been taken to bring colonial laws into conformance with English law, or they were specifically taken in pursuit of his commission and instructions. While Andros was in captivity, the New York government of Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson was simultaneously deposed by a military faction led by Jacob Leisler, in an event that came to be known as Leisler's Rebellion. Leisler would govern New York until 1691, when he was captured and executed by a force led by newly appointed provincial governor Henry Sloughter. Andros was eventually allowed to depart for England; by that point, the Dominion of New England had effectively ceased to exist, with the colonies in the dominion having reverted to their previous forms of governance. Massachusetts and its surrounding territories were reorganized into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691. Governor of Virginia Andros was well received at court upon his return to England. The new king, William III, recalled that Andros had visited his court in the Netherlands, and expressed approval of Andros' service. In search of employment, Andros offered his services as a spy, offering the idea of going to Paris, ostensibly to meet with the exiled James, but to actually attempt to acquire French military plans. This plan was rejected. While in England he married for the second time, to Elizabeth Crisp Clapham, in July 1691. She was the widow of Christopher Clapham, who was connected by that marriage to his first wife's family. Andros' next opportunity for employment came with the resignation in February 1692 of Lord Effingham as governor of the Province of Virginia. Although Francis Nicholson, formerly dominion lieutenant governor, was then serving as lieutenant governor or Virginia and sought the superior position, William awarded the governorship to Andros, and awarded Nicholson yet another lieutenant governorship, this time that of Maryland. This was destined to make Andros' tenure more difficult, because his relationship with Nicholson had deteriorated for other reasons. The exact reasons for this enmity are unclear: one contemporary wrote that Nicholson "especially [resented] Sir Edmund Andros, against whom he has a particular pique on account of some earlier dealings". Andros arrived in Virginia on 13 September 1692, and began his duties a week later. Nicholson graciously received him, and not long after sailed for England. Andros settled at Middle Plantation (the future site of Williamsburg), where he would live until 1695. He worked to organize the provincial records, the maintenance of which had suffered since Bacon's Rebellion, and promoted the enforcement of laws designed to prevent slave rebellions. He encouraged the diversification of Virginia's economy, which was then almost entirely dependent on tobacco. The export-oriented economy was also being badly hurt by the ongoing Nine Years' War, because of which merchant ships were required to travel in convoys. For several years Virginia did not receive any military escorts, so their products were not going to market in Europe. Andros encouraged the introduction of new crops like cotton and flax, and the manufacture of fabric. Virginia was the first colonial posting in which Andros had to work with a local assembly. His relationship with the House of Burgesses was generally cordial, but he encountered some resistance, especially to measures related to the war and colonial defenses. He hired armed vessels to patrol the colony's waters and contributed financially to New York's colonial defenses, which formed a bulwark against the possibility of French and Indian incursions into Virginia. In 1696 Andros was ordered by the king to send troops to New York, for which the burgesses reluctantly appropriated £1,000. Andros' management of colonial defense and Indian relations were successful: Virginia, unlike New York and New England, was not attacked during the war. During his tenure, Andros made an enemy of James Blair, a prominent Anglican minister. Blair was working to establish a new college for educating Anglican ministers, and he believed that Andros was not supportive of the idea. However, Blair and Nicholson worked closely together on this idea, with Nicholson often coming from Maryland for meetings on the subject. The two men were united in their dislike of Andros, and their activities helped to cause Andros' resignation. The College of William and Mary was founded in 1693. Despite Blair's claims that Andros was unsupportive, Andros donated the cost of the bricks to construct the college's chapel from his own funds, and convinced the House of Burgesses to approve funding of £100 per year for the college. Blair's complaints, many of them vague and inaccurate, made their way to London, where proceedings into Andros' conduct began at the Board of Trade and the ecclesiastical courts of the Church of England in 1697. Andros had lost most of his support on the Board of Trade when a Whig faction came to power, and his advocates were unable to sway the board in favor of him. Anglican bishops staunchly supported Blair and Nicholson. In March 1698 Andros, complaining of fatigue and illness, asked to be recalled. Later years Andros' recall was announced in London in May 1698; he was replaced by Nicholson. He returned to England, and resumed his post as bailiff of Guernsey. He divided his time between Guernsey and London, where he had a house in Denmark Hill. His second wife died in 1703, and he married for the third time in 1707, to Elizabeth Fitzherbert. In 1704 Queen Anne named him Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey, a post he held until 1708. He died in London on 24 February 1714 and was buried at St Anne's Church, Soho. His wife died in 1717 and was buried nearby. The church was destroyed during the Second World War, and there is no longer any trace of their graves. He had no issue by any of his wives. Legacy The historian Michael Kammen states that Andros failed in all of his roles in the colonies: Andros remains a notorious figure in New England, especially in Connecticut, which officially excludes him from its list of colonial governors, but his portrait hangs in the Hall of Governors in the State Museum across from the State Capitol in Hartford. Although he was disliked in the colonies, he was recognized in England as an effective administrator by implementing the policies that he had been ordered to carry out and advancing the crown's agenda. The biographer Mary Lou Lustig notes that he was "an accomplished statesman, a brave soldier, a polished courtier, and a devoted servant," but his style was often "autocratic, arbitrary, and dictatorial", he lacked tact, and he had difficulty reaching compromises. Similarly, Andros was featured as an antagonist in the 1879 novel Captain Nelson, described as a "romance of colonial days." Andros appears in several episodes of The Witch of Blackbird Pond in which his conflict with the Connecticut colonists forms the background to the protagonist's more personal problems. It is believed that Andros Island in the Bahamas was named for him. Early proprietors of the Bahamas included members of his first wife's family, the Cravens. Notes References Primary sources Hall, Michael G. et al. eds. The Glorious Revolution in America: Documents on the Colonial Crisis of 1689 (1964) excerpt External links 1637 births 1714 deaths 17th-century English people 18th-century English people Bailiffs of Guernsey Colonial governors of New Hampshire Colonial governors of New Jersey Colonial governors of New York (state) Colonial governors of Connecticut Colonial Governors of Maryland Colonial governors of Rhode Island Colonial governors of Massachusetts Governors of the Dominion of New England Colonial governors of Virginia Military personnel from London English expatriates in the United States Burials at St Anne's Church, Soho	[ -0.49364176392555237, 0.49301451444625854, -0.6957083940505981, 0.04687194153666496, -0.011530561372637749, 0.6556352972984314, 0.9982076287269592, 0.0499696284532547, -0.3840574622154236, -0.26957806944847107, -0.24011561274528503, -0.07853097468614578, -0.26209887862205505, 0.14623770117759705, -0.03841916471719742, -0.10932319611310959, 0.18527573347091675, 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250832	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Holland%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Exeter	Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter	Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter, 3rd Earl of Huntington (27 June 1430 – September 1475) was a Lancastrian leader during the English Wars of the Roses. He was the only son of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter, and his first wife, Anne Stafford. His maternal grandparents were Edmund Stafford, 5th Earl of Stafford, and Anne of Gloucester. Career He inherited the Dukedom of Exeter and Earl of Huntington when his father died in 1447. However, he was cruel, savagely temperamental and unpredictable, and so had little support. P.M. Kendall describes him as "dangerous", and was seen as "cruel and fierce" by contemporary Italian observers. Constable of the Tower Exeter was for a time Constable of the Tower of London, and afterwards the rack there came to be called "the Duke of Exeter's daughter". Wars of the Roses In 1447 he married Anne, the eight-year-old daughter of Richard of York. However, in the Wars of the Roses, he remained loyal to Henry VI against the Yorkists. He was imprisoned at Wallingford Castle when York briefly seized power after the First Battle of St Albans in 1455. In 1458 he participated in The Love Day, an attempt at reconciliation between the rival factions. He was a commander at the Lancastrian victories at the Battle of Wakefield in 1460 and the Second Battle of St Albans in 1461, and in the decisive defeat at Towton in 1461. He fled to Scotland after the battle, and then joined Queen Margaret in her exile in France. He was attainted in 1461, and his estates were given to his wife, who separated from him in 1464. During the brief period of Henry VI's restoration he was able to regain many of his estates and posts. At the Battle of Barnet, Exeter commanded the Lancastrian left flank. He was badly wounded and left for dead, but survived. Afterwards he was imprisoned, and Anne divorced him in 1472. He "volunteered" to serve on Edward IV's 1475 expedition to France. On the return voyage he fell overboard and drowned, his body being found in the sea between Dover and Calais, Fabyan saying "but how he drowned, the certainty is not known". However, Giovanni Panicharolla, the Milanese envoy to the Burgundian court, was told by Duke Charles that the King of England had given specific orders for the sailors to throw his former brother-in-law overboard. Family Before 30 July 1447, he married Anne of York, the eldest child of Richard, Duke of York, and Cecily Neville. She was an older sister of Edward IV and Richard III. He had one legitimate child: Anne Holland (1461 – between 26 August 1467 and 6 June 1474), who married Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset. Since Henry had no legitimate male issue the disposition of his estates became a complex matter for his widow, the dowager Duchess of Exeter. Ancestry References 1430 births 1475 deaths 15th-century English Navy personnel 103 Earls of Huntingdon Heirs to the English throne Henry Henry Lord High Admirals of England People lost at sea People of the Wars of the Roses	[ -0.8077853322029114, -0.4524206817150116, -0.33983734250068665, -0.09806902706623077, 0.010200870223343372, 0.8083764314651489, 0.5466892719268799, -0.2583809792995453, -0.1599879115819931, -0.1582605391740799, -0.12883147597312927, 0.4367310404777527, -0.148840993642807, 0.0744694173336029, -0.04523675888776779, 0.39453810453414917, 0.13599856197834015, -0.6019726395606995, -0.04655517637729645, -0.19241105020046234, 0.24517472088336945, -0.17099209129810333, 0.5558590292930603, -0.007478686049580574, 0.12112263590097427, -0.19585807621479034, 0.7767007946968079, -0.2989366948604584, -0.11669652163982391, -0.2024015337228775, -0.29319798946380615, 0.4513377845287323, 0.22324047982692719, -0.540551483631134, -0.5138899087905884, 0.11302252113819122, 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250833	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Brainerd	David Brainerd	David Brainerd (April 20, 1718October 9, 1747) was an American Presbyterian minister and missionary to the Native Americans who had a particularly fruitful ministry among the Delaware Indians of New Jersey. During his short life he was beset by many difficulties. As a result, his biography has become a source of inspiration and encouragement to many Christians. Missionaries such as William Carey and Jim Elliot, and Brainerd's cousin, the Second Great Awakening evangelist James Brainerd Taylor (1801–1829) have been motivated by the ministry of David Brainerd. Biography Early life David Brainerd was born on April 20, 1718 in Haddam, Connecticut, the son of Hezekiah, a Connecticut legislator, and Dorothy. He had nine siblings, one of whom was Dorothy's from a previous marriage. He was orphaned at the age of nine, as his father died in 1727 at the age of 46 and his mother died five years later. After his mother's death, Brainerd moved to East Haddam to live with one of his older sisters, Jerusha. At the age of nineteen, he inherited a farm near Durham, but did not enjoy the experience of farming and so returned to East Haddam a year later to prepare to enter Yale. On July 12, 1739, he recorded having an experience of 'unspeakable glory' that prompted in him a 'hearty desire to exalt [God], to set him on the throne and to "seek first his Kingdom"'. This has been interpreted by evangelical scholars as a conversion experience. Preparing for ministry Two months later, he enrolled at Yale. In his second year at Yale, he was sent home because he was suffering from a serious illness that caused him to spit blood. It is now believed that he was suffering from tuberculosis, the disease which would lead to his death seven years later. When he returned in November 1740, tensions were beginning to emerge at Yale between the faculty staff and the students as the staff considered the spiritual enthusiasm of the students, which had been prompted by visiting preachers such as George Whitefield, Gilbert Tennent, Ebenezer Pemberton and James Davenport, to be excessive. This led to the college trustees passing a decree in 1741 that 'if any student of this College shall directly or indirectly say, that the Rector, either of the Trustees or tutors are hypocrites, carnal or unconverted men, he shall for the first offense make a public confession in the hall, and for the second offense be expelled'. On the afternoon of the same day, the faculty had invited Jonathan Edwards to preach the commencement address, hoping that he would support their position, but instead he sided with the students. In the next term, Brainerd was expelled because it was said that he commented that one of his tutors, Chauncey Whittelsey, 'has no more grace than a chair' and that he wondered why the Rector 'did not drop down dead' for fining students perceived as over-zealous. He later apologized for the first comment, but denied making the second. This episode grieved Brainerd, especially as a recent law forbade the appointment of ministers in Connecticut unless they had graduated from Harvard, Yale or a European institution, meaning that he had to reconsider his plans. In 1742, Brainerd was licensed to preach by a group of evangelicals known as 'New Lights'. As a result, he gained the attention of Jonathan Dickinson, the leading Presbyterian in New Jersey, who unsuccessfully attempted to reinstate Brainerd at Yale. Instead, it was therefore suggested that Brainerd devote himself to missionary work among the Native Americans, supported by the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge. He was approved for this missionary work on November 25, 1742. Entering mission On April 1, 1743, after a brief period serving a church on Long Island, Brainerd began working as a missionary to Native Americans, which he would continue until late 1746 when worsening illness prevented him from working. In his final years, he also suffered from a form of depression that was sometimes immobilizing and which, on at least twenty-two occasions, led him to wish for death. He was also affected by difficulties faced by other missionaries of the period, such as loneliness and lack of food. His first missionary task was working at Kaunameek, a Mohican settlement near present-day Nassau, New York, twenty or thirty miles from missionary John Sergeant who was working in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Brainerd remained there for one year. During this period he started a school for Native American children and began a translation of the Psalms. In 1743, he was reassigned to work among the Delaware Indians along the Delaware River northeast of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, where he remained for another year, during which he was ordained by the Newark Presbytery. After this, he moved to Crossweeksung in New Jersey, where he had his most fruitful ministry. Within a year, the Native American church at Crossweeksung had 130 members, who moved in 1746 to Cranbury where they established a Christian community. In these years, he refused several offers of leaving the mission field to become a church minister, including one from the church at East Hampton on Long Island. He remained determined, however, to continue the work among Native Americans despite the difficulties, writing in his diary: '[I] could have no freedom in the thought of any other circumstances or business in life: All my desire was the conversion of the heathen, and all my hope was in God: God does not suffer me to please or comfort myself with hopes of seeing friends, returning to my dear acquaintance, and enjoying worldly comforts'. Death In November 1746, he became too ill to continue ministering, and so moved to Jonathan Dickinson's house in Elizabethtown. After a few months of rest, he travelled to Northampton, Massachusetts, where he stayed at the house of Jonathan Edwards. Apart from a trip to Boston in the summer of that year, he remained at Edwards's house until his death the following year. In May 1747, he was diagnosed with incurable consumption; in these final months, he suffered greatly. In his diary entry for September 24, Brainerd wrote: 'In the greatest distress that ever I endured having an uncommon kind of hiccough; which either strangled me or threw me into a straining to vomit'. During this time, he was nursed by Jerusha Edwards, Jonathan's seventeen-year-old daughter. The friendship grew between them and eventually they were engaged. He died from tuberculosis on October 9, 1747, at the age of 29. He is buried at Bridge Street Cemetery in Northampton, next to Jerusha, who died in February 1748 as a result of contracting tuberculosis from nursing Brainerd. His gravestone reads: Sacred to the memory of the Rev. David Brainerd. A faithful and laborious missionary to the Stockbridge, Delaware and Sasquehanna TRIBES OF INDIANS WHO died in this town. October 10, 1747 AE 32. Legacy Impact on the church and mission He made a handful of converts, but became widely known in the 1800s due to books about him. His Journal was published in two parts in 1746 by the Scottish Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Much of Brainerd's influence on future generations can be attributed to the biography compiled by Jonathan Edwards and first published in 1749 under the title of An Account of the Life of the Late Reverend Mr. David Brainerd. Edwards believed that a biography about Brainerd would have great value and set aside the anti-Arminian treatise he was writing (later published as Freedom of the Will) in order to create one. The result was an edited version of Brainerd's diary, with some passages documenting Brainerd's despair removed. It gained immediate recognition, with eighteenth-century theologian John Wesley urging: 'Let every preacher read carefully over the Life of David Brainerd. The most reprinted of Edwards's books, it has never been out of print and has thus influenced subsequent generations, mainly because of Brainerd's single-minded perseverance in his work in the face of significant suffering. Clyde Kilby summarised Brainerd's influence as being based on the fact that, 'in our timidity and our shoddy opportunism we are always stirred when a man appears on the horizon willing to stake his all on a conviction'. From the eighteenth century, missionaries also found inspiration and encouragement from the biography. Gideon Hawley wrote in the midst of struggles: 'I need, greatly need, something more than humane [human or natural] to support me. I read my Bible and Mr. Brainerd's Life, the only books I brought with me, and from them have a little support'. Other missionaries who have asserted the influence of Jonathan Edwards's biography of Brainerd on their lives include Henry Martyn, William Carey, Jim Elliot, and Adoniram Judson. A new edition, with the Journal and Brainerd's letters embodied, was published by Sereno E. Dwight at New Haven in 1822; and in 1884 was published what is substantially another edition, The Memoirs of David Brainerd, edited by James M Sherwood. Brainerd's writings contain substantial meditation on the nature of the illness that eventually led to his death and its relation to his ties with God. David Belden Lyman (1803–1868), missionary to Hawaii, was one of many in nineteenth-century America that named their son after David Brainerd (David Brainerd Lyman, 1833–36, and another David Brainerd Lyman, 1840–1914). Impact on higher education Brainerd's life also played a role in the establishment of Princeton College and Dartmouth College. The 'College of New Jersey' (later Princeton) was founded due to the dissatisfaction of the New York and New Jersey Presbyterian Synods with Yale; their expulsion of Brainerd and subsequent refusal to readmit him was an important factor in driving individuals such as Jonathan Dickinson and Aaron Burr to act on this dissatisfaction. Indeed, classes began in Dickinson's house in May 1747, while Brainerd was recovering there. Dartmouth College originated from a school founded by Eleazar Wheelock for Native Americans and colonists in 1748, and Wheelock had been inspired by Brainerd's example of Native American education. Despite Brainerd's expulsion from Yale, the University later named a building after him (Brainerd Hall at Yale Divinity School), the only building on the campus to be named after a student who was expelled. David Brainerd Christian School was also named after him. Students at Lafayette College founded the Brainerd Evangelical Society based on Brainerd's teachings in order to "promote Christian Missions and the Evangelization of the World". In 1902, they constructed a building known as Brainerd Hall (now Hogg Hall) to house their religious meetings, and serve as a recreational facility on campus. Archival collections The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has papers for David Brainerd that consist of a letter by Brainerd (c. 1743) to Rev. Joseph Bellamy and notes concerning Brainerd’s published works by Rev. Arthur Bennett, an Anglican clergyman. See also Moses Tunda Tatamy (ca. 1690–1760), the first Native American baptized by Brainerd. Brainerd Mission to the Cherokee Indians (1817–1838) David Brainerd Christian School (2002–2009), former middle and high school in Chattanooga, Tennessee. References Sources Grigg, John A., The Lives of David Brainerd: The Making of an American Evangelical Icon (Oxford, OUP, 2009). Kilby, Clyde, 'David Brainerd: Knight of the Grail', in Russell T. Hitt (ed.), Heroic Colonial Christians (Philadelphia, 1966) Nichols, Heidi L., 'Those exceptional Edwards women', Christian History & Biography, 77 (2003) Noll, Mark, 'Jonathan Edwards: Christian history timeline – Passing the torch', Christian History & Biography, 77 (2003) Pettit, Norman, 'Prelude to mission: Brainerd's expulsion from Yale', The New England Quarterly, 59 (1986), pp. 28–50 Piper, John, Tested By Fire: The Fruit of Suffering in the Lives of John Bunyan, William Cowper and David Brainerd (Inter-Varsity Press, 2001) Further reading David Brainerd biographies 1718 births 1747 deaths People from Haddam, Connecticut American Protestant missionaries American evangelicals People of colonial Connecticut 18th-century deaths from tuberculosis Protestant missionaries in the United States Tuberculosis deaths in Massachusetts	[ -0.7558931112289429, 0.7212896347045898, -0.6244427561759949, -0.46751874685287476, 0.35078269243240356, 0.615519642829895, 0.8900014758110046, 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250834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore%20Christianson	Theodore Christianson	Theodore Christianson (September 12, 1883December 9, 1948) was an American politician who served as the 21st Governor of Minnesota from January 6, 1925, until January 6, 1931. Early life Christianson was born in Lac qui Parle Township, Minnesota. He was of Norwegian descent. He attended Dawson High School. He graduated from the University of Minnesota, Arts College in 1906. Christianson graduated from the University of Minnesota Law School in 1909. He was admitted to the Minnesota State Bar in 1909. Before entering politics, Christianson had pursued dual careers in western Minnesota, where he both practiced law and was editor and publisher of the Dawson Sentinel for fifteen years. Five consecutive terms as a Republican state legislator convinced him that government reorganization was in order. Career "More Ted, Less Taxes" was the campaign promise of Theodore Christianson when he ran for governor in 1924. "Tightwad Ted," as he was affectionately dubbed, kept his word. During his administration, he limited taxes and cut expenditures at every level of state government. Voters—in a conservative mood after the turmoil of World War I—expressed their approval of his cautious fiscal policy and his disdain for socialism by re-electing him twice. Efficiency was as crucial as thrift to Minnesota's twenty-first governor and he incorporated both priorities in his 1925 Reorganization Act. To firm up a flabby bureaucracy, he appointed a three-man Commission of Administration and Finance. This so-called "Big Three" unleashed the veto power of the chief executive, who slashed budget appropriations he considered extravagant. Christianson's bid for nomination to the U.S. Senate in 1930 failed as he lost the Republican nomination to incumbent Thomas Schall, and he left politics temporarily. During a three-year hiatus, the former newspaperman continued to serve his native state by writing its history, a five-volume work The Land of Sky-Tinted Waters: A History of the State and its People (Minnesota: 1935). He rounded out his public career with two terms in Congress. In 1936, he did not run for re-election to the House; instead he ran for the Senate again. Receiving the Republican nomination, he ran against former congressman Ernest Lundeen of the Farmer Labor Party and was defeated, receiving 37% of the vote. Later life After leaving politics, Christianson moved to Chicago and served as secretary-manager of the National Association of Retail Grocers from 1937 to 1939. He was public relations counsel for the National Association of Retail Druggists from 1938 to 1945, and editor of the National Association of Retail Druggists Journal from 1945 to 1948. Family His son was Theodore Christianson who served on the Minnesota Supreme Court. Death Christianson had recently retired to Dawson, Minnesota, when he died of a heart attack at 65. He is interred at Sunset Memorial Park Cemetery in Minneapolis, Minnesota. References Other sources Biographical information Gubernatorial records Minnesota Historical Society Minnesota Legislators Past and Present 1883 births 1948 deaths People from Lac qui Parle County, Minnesota Governors of Minnesota Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota 20th-century American newspaper publishers (people) American Presbyterians Historians of Minnesota Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives Minnesota Republicans University of Minnesota Law School alumni American people of Norwegian descent Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives Republican Party state governors of the United States 20th-century American politicians Historians from Minnesota	[ -0.5335038304328918, 0.15620698034763336, -0.07401616126298904, 0.24802044034004211, -0.13137690722942352, 0.31958723068237305, 0.8053619265556335, 0.026706377044320107, -1.1252176761627197, -0.4412410855293274, 0.10925846546888351, 0.02127751335501671, 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250835	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Martyn	Henry Martyn	Henry Martyn (18 February 1781 – 16 October 1812) was an Anglican priest and missionary to the peoples of India and Persia. Born in Truro, Cornwall, he was educated at Truro Grammar School and St John's College, Cambridge. A chance encounter with Charles Simeon led him to become a missionary. He was ordained a priest in the Church of England and became a chaplain for the British East India Company. Martyn arrived in India in April 1806, where he preached and occupied himself in the study of linguistics. He translated the whole of the New Testament into Urdu, Persian and Judaeo-Persic. He also translated the Psalms into Persian and the Book of Common Prayer into Urdu. From India, he set out for Bushire, Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz. Martyn was seized with fever, and, though the plague was raging at Tokat, he was forced to stop there, unable to continue. On 16 October 1812, he died. He was remembered for his courage, selflessness and his religious devotion. In parts of the Anglican Communion he is celebrated with a Lesser Festival on 19 October. Martyn's papers and private letters are held at the Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide at Westminster College in Cambridge, England. Early life Martyn was born in Truro, Cornwall, on 18 February 1781. His father, John Martyn, was a "captain" or mine-agent at Gwennap. As a boy, he was educated at Truro grammar school under Dr. Cardew and he entered St John's College, Cambridge, in the autumn of 1797, and was senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman in 1801. In 1802, he was chosen as a fellow of his college. He had intended to go to the bar, but in the October term of 1802 he chanced to hear Charles Simeon speaking of the good done in India by a single missionary, William Carey, and some time afterwards he read the life of David Brainerd, a missionary to the Native Americans. He resolved, accordingly, to become a missionary himself. On 22 October 1803, he was ordained deacon at Ely, and afterwards priest, and served as Simeon's curate at Holy Trinity Church, Cambridge, taking charge of the Cambridgeshire parish of Lolworth. Missionary work Martyn wanted to offer his services to the Church Missionary Society, when a financial disaster in Cornwall deprived him and his unmarried sister of the income their father had left for them. It was necessary for Martyn to earn an income that would support his sister as well as himself. He accordingly obtained a chaplaincy under the British East India Company and left for India on 5 July 1805. On his voyage to the East, Martyn happened to be present at the British conquest of the Cape Colony on 8 January 1806. He spent that day tending to the dying soldiers and was distressed by seeing the horrors of war. He would come away feeling that it was Britain's destiny to convert, not colonize, the world. He wrote in his diary: India Martyn arrived in India in April 1806, and for some months he was stationed at Aldeen, near Serampur. In October 1806, he proceeded to Dinapur, where he was soon able to conduct worship among the locals in the vernacular, and established schools. In April 1809, he was transferred to Cawnpore, where he preached to British and Indians in his own compound, in spite of interruptions and threats from local non-Christians. He occupied himself in linguistic study, and had already, during his residence at Dinapur, been engaged in revising the sheets of his Hindustani version of the New Testament. He now translated the whole of the New Testament into Urdu also, and into Persian twice. His work for the Persian Bible included translating the Psalms into Persian, the Gospels into Judaeo-Persic, and the Book of Common Prayer into Urdu, in spite of ill-health and "the pride, pedantry and fury of his chief munshi Sabat." Ordered by the doctors to take a sea voyage, he obtained leave to go to Persia and correct his Persian New Testament. From there, he wanted to go to Arabia, and there compose an Arabic version. On 1 October 1810, having seen his work at Cawnpore rewarded on the previous day by the opening of a church, he left for Calcutta, from where he sailed on 7 January 1811 for Bombay. The ship reached port on his thirtieth birthday. Final voyage and death From Bombay he set out for Bushire, bearing letters from Sir John Malcolm to men of position there, as also at Shiraz and Isfahan. After an exhausting journey from the coast he reached Shiraz, and was soon plunged into discussion with the disputants of all classes, "Sufi, Muslim, Jew, and Jewish Muslim, even Armenian, all anxious to test their powers of argument with the first English priest who had visited them." He next traveled to Tabriz to attempt to present the Shah with his translation of the New Testament, which proved unsuccessful. Sir Gore Ouseley, the British ambassador to the Shah, was unable to bring about a meeting, but did deliver the manuscript. Although Martyn could not present the Bible in person, the Shah later wrote him a letter: At this time, he was seized with fever, and after a temporary recovery, had to seek a change of climate. He set off for Constantinople, where he intended to return on furlough to England to regain his strength and recruit help for the missions in India. On 12 September 1812, he started with two Armenian servants and crossed the Aras River. Urged on from place to place by their Tatar guide, they rode from Tabriz to Erivan, from Erivan to Kars, and from Kars to Erzurum. They departed Erzurum and though the plague was raging at Tokat, he was forced to stop there, unable to continue. He wrote his final journal entry on 6 October. It read, in part: On 16 October 1812 he died and was given a Christian burial by Armenian clergy. He was heard to say, "Let me burn out for God". An indication of his zeal for the things of God. Legacy His devotion to his tasks won him much admiration in Great Britain and he was the hero of a number of literary publications. Thomas Babington Macaulay's Epitaph, composed early in 1813, testified to the impression made by his career: An institution was established in his name in India, called the Henry Martyn Institute: An Interfaith Centre for Reconciliation and Research, Hyderabad, India. John McManners wrote in his Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity that Martyn was a man remembered for his courage, selflessness and his religious devotion. Henry Martyn is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 19 October. In 1881, on the centennial of Martyn's birth, a trust was created in his name for the purpose of constructing a hall for a library and a place for public lecture on missions. The Henry Martyn Library opened in the Hall in 1898, and there it remained as a small collection of missionary biographies and other books until 1995. The evolution of the Henry Martyn Library into the present Henry Martyn Centre began in 1992, when Canon Graham Kings was appointed as the first Henry Martyn Lecturer in Missiology in the Cambridge Theological Federation. In 2014 the Henry Martyn Centre was renamed the Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide. See also Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide Henry Martyn Hall, Cambridge, built 1887 Saints in Anglicanism Church Missionary Society in India List of Protestant missionaries in India John Gilchrist (linguist) James Hawkes (missionary) References Citations Sources Further reading Bentley-Taylor, David. My Love Must Wait: the Story of Henry Martyn, Downers Grove: IVP (1975). Henry, B. V. Forsaking All for Christ: A Biography of Henry Martyn London: Chapter Two, 2003. Sargent, John. Memoir of the Rev. Henry Martyn B. D., London: Hatchard (1816). Links to editions from 1820 and 1844 Kellsye M. Finnie, Beyond the Minarets: A Biography of Henry Martyn Bromley: STL Books, 1988 Smith, George. Henry Martyn, Saint and Scholar, London: Religious Tract Society (1892). Isaac, Peter. A history of Evangelical Christianity in Cornwall, Privately published; Polperro, Cornwall (1999) – contains a chapter about Martyn, who was born in Cornwall. Ayler, Scott D. (editor) "The Letters of Henry Martyn, East India Company Chaplain", Boydell Press: Woodbridge (2019) External links Henry Martyn Institute of India Henry Martyn Centre Martyn, Henry in the Christian Cyclopedia The missionaries - Martyn, Huc, Livingstone, Selwyn - Once a Week. 1781 births 1812 deaths 19th-century Christian saints 19th-century English Anglican priests Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Anglican missionaries in India Anglican missionaries in Iran Anglican saints British expatriates in Iran Cornish Christian missionaries English Anglican missionaries Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge People educated at Truro Cathedral School People from Truro Senior Wranglers Translators of the Bible into Persian Translators of the Bible into Urdu English evangelicals Evangelical Anglicans Missionary linguists	[ -0.2554454803466797, 0.6003825068473816, -0.5417560338973999, -0.5516425371170044, 0.2620140314102173, 0.9951174259185791, 1.4707670211791992, 0.4688672721385956, 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250836	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boniface%20I%2C%20Marquis%20of%20Montferrat	Boniface I, Marquis of Montferrat	Boniface I, usually known as Boniface of Montferrat (; , Vonifatios Momferratikos) (c. 1150 – 4 September 1207), was the ninth Marquis of Montferrat (from 1192), the leader of the Fourth Crusade (1201–04) and king of Thessalonica (from 1205). Early life Boniface was the third son of William V of Montferrat and Judith of Babenberg, born after his father's return from the Second Crusade. He was a younger brother of William "Longsword", Count of Jaffa and Ascalon, and of Conrad I of Jerusalem. His youthful exploits in the late 1170s are recalled in the famous "epic letter", Valen marques, senher de Monferrat, by his good friend and court troubadour, Raimbaut de Vaqueiras. These included the rescue of the heiress Jacopina of Ventimiglia from her uncle Count Otto, who was intending to deprive her of her inheritance and send her to Sardinia. Boniface arranged a marriage for her. When Albert of Malaspina (husband of one of Boniface's sisters) abducted Saldina de Mar, a daughter of a prominent Genoese family, Boniface rescued her and restored her to her lover, Ponset d'Aguilar. Like the rest of the family, he also supported his cousin Frederick I Barbarossa in their wars against the independent city communes of the Lombard League. Boniface's eldest brother, William, had died in 1177, soon after marrying Sibylla, the heiress presumptive to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1179, the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos offered his daughter Maria Porphyrogenita as a bride to one of the sons of William V. Since Boniface, like his older brother Conrad, was already married, and Frederick was a priest, the youngest brother, Renier, married her instead, only to be murdered along with her during the usurpation of Andronikos. In 1183, Boniface's nephew Baldwin V was crowned co-king of Jerusalem. William V went out to the kingdom to support his grandson, leaving Conrad and Boniface in charge of Montferrat. However, in 1187, Conrad also left for the East: Isaac II Angelos had offered his sister Theodora to Boniface as a wife, to renew the family's Byzantine alliance, but Boniface had just married for the second time, while Conrad was a recent widower. In 1189, Boniface joined the council of regency for Thomas I of Savoy, son of his cousin Humbert III, until the boy came of age about two years later. In 1191, after the new Emperor Henry VI granted him the county of Incisa, a fifteen-year war broke out against the neighbouring communes of Asti and Alessandria. Boniface joined the Cremona League, while the two cities joined the League of Milan. Boniface defeated the cities at Montiglio in June that year, but the war as a whole went badly for the dynasty's interests. At Quarto, he and Vaqueiras saved his brother-in-law Alberto of Malaspina when he was unhorsed. The first phase of the war ended with a truce in April 1193. By now, Boniface was Marquis of Montferrat, following the deaths of his father in 1191 and of Conrad, the newly elected king of Jerusalem, in 1192. No claim to Montferrat ever seems to have been made on behalf of Conrad's posthumous daughter, Maria of Montferrat. In June 1194, Boniface was appointed one of the leaders of Henry VI's expedition to Sicily. At Messina, amid the fighting between the Genoese and Pisan fleets, Vaqueiras protected his lord with his own shield – an act which helped the troubador win a knighthood from Boniface that year, after the campaign's successful conclusion: Henry's coronation in Palermo. In October 1197, the truce with Asti ended. Boniface made an alliance with Acqui in June 1198. There were numerous skirmishes and raids, including at Ricaldone and Caranzano, but by 1199 it was clear the war was lost, and Boniface entered into negotiations. Throughout the 1180s and 1190s, despite the wars, Boniface had nevertheless presided over one of the most prestigious courts of chivalric culture and troubador song. In the 12th century, the Piedmontese language (which in the present day reflects more French and Italian influences) was virtually indistinguishable from the Occitan of Southern France and Catalonia. Besides Vaqueiras, visitors included Peire Vidal, Gaucelm Faidit, and Arnaut de Mareuil. Boniface's patronage was celebrated widely. To Gaucelm, he was Mon Thesaur (My Treasure). Curiously, Vaqueiras sometimes addressed him as N'Engles (Lord Englishman), but the in-joke is never explained. His sister Azalaïs, Marchioness of Saluzzo, also shared this interest and was mentioned by Vidal. Fourth Crusade When the original leader of the Fourth Crusade, Count Theobald III of Champagne, died in 1201, Boniface was chosen as its new leader. He was an experienced soldier, and it was an opportunity to reassert his dynasty's reputation after defeat at home. Boniface's family was well known in the east: his nephew Baldwin and brother Conrad had been kings of Jerusalem, and his niece Maria was the heir presumptive to the kingdom. Boniface's cousin Philip of Swabia was married to Irene Angelina, a daughter of the deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos and niece of Conrad's second wife Theodora. In the winter of 1201 Boniface spent Christmas with Phillip in Hagenau, and while there also met with Alexios IV Angelos, Isaac II's son, who had escaped from the custody of his uncle Alexios III Angelos. At this time the three discussed the possibility of using the crusading army to restore Alexios' right to the throne. Both Boniface and Alexios travelled separately to Rome to ask for Pope Innocent III's blessing for the endeavour. Boniface was specifically told by Innocent not to attack any Christians, including the Byzantines. The Crusader army was in debt to Enrico Dandolo, the doge of Venice, who had provided their fleet. He instructed them to attack the rebellious cities of Trieste, Muggia, and Zara and beat them into submission before sailing for Cairo. The Pope was angered by these Christian cities being attacked by a Crusader army. Dandolo, was now the true war leader of this Crusade, with Boniface as only a figurehead. Alexios IV Angelus made many promises to the Crusaders and their principal financier, the doge of Venice, for riches and honors if they would help him reclaim his empire. Dandolo placated the Pope by having Alexius Angelus promise to submit the Orthodox Church to Rome when he was restored to his throne in Constantinople. This being done, the fleet set sail for Constantinople in 1203. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1204, Boniface was assumed to be the new emperor, both by the western knights and the conquered Byzantine citizens. However, the Venetians vetoed him, believing that he already had too many connections in the Empire and, likely, felt that they would not have as much influence in the empire if Boniface was in control. Instead, they chose Baldwin of Flanders. Boniface founded the Kingdom of Thessalonica and also held all the territories that lay east of Bosphorus and territories in Crete, though he later conceded Crete to Baldwin. Late 13th and 14th century sources suggest that Boniface based his claim to Thessalonica on the statement that his younger brother Renier had been granted Thessalonica on his marriage to Maria Komnene in 1180. Boniface was killed in an ambush by the Bulgarians on 4 September 1207, and his head was sent to Bulgarian Tsar Kaloyan. The loyal Raimbaut de Vaqueiras, who had followed him to the East, probably died with him: it is significant that he composed no planh (lament) in his memory. Family Boniface was first married c. 1170 to Helena del Bosco. They had three children: William VI, (c. 1173-17 September 1226). Marquis of Montferrat. Beatrice, m. Enrico del Carretto, Marquis of Savona, as the second of his three wives; she is the Bel Cavalher (Fair Knight) of Vaqueiras's songs, composed in the 1190s. Agnes of Montferrat (d. 1207), m. Henry of Flanders, Latin emperor of Constantinople, in 1207 In 1205 in Constantinople he married Margaret of Hungary, daughter of King Béla III of Hungary and widow of Emperor Isaac II Angelos. They had one child: Demetrius, born c. 1205, who was King of Thessalonica. References Sources Further reading Vaqueiras, Raimbaut de. The Epic Letter (external link to bilingual text) 1150s births 1207 deaths Christians of the Fourth Crusade Aleramici Marquesses of Montferrat Kings of Thessalonica 12th-century Italian nobility 13th-century Italian nobility 12th century in the Byzantine Empire 13th century in the Byzantine Empire Founding monarchs 13th-century Roman Catholics 12th-century Italian people 12th-century Roman Catholics 13th-century Italian people	[ -1.0332938432693481, 0.1603531390428543, 0.04864273592829704, 0.2582593262195587, -0.712246835231781, 0.8095735907554626, 0.4005463421344757, -0.2675052881240845, -0.9420341849327087, -0.5526474714279175, -0.25920841097831726, 0.031049540266394615, -0.6956882476806641, -0.5359543561935425, -0.08885718137025833, 0.5265176296234131, 0.5499236583709717, 0.3807584047317505, -0.31361401081085205, -1.0473235845565796, 0.47469064593315125, -0.022147778421640396, -0.11328781396150589, 0.3425135910511017, 0.5135719180107117, 0.7312989830970764, 0.7671090364456177, 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250837	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revengers%20Tragedy	Revengers Tragedy	Revengers Tragedy is a 2002 film adaptation of the 1606 play The Revenger's Tragedy (attributed to Thomas Middleton in the credits, following the scholarly consensus). It was directed by Alex Cox and adapted for the screen by Cox's fellow Liverpudlian, Frank Cottrell Boyce. The film stars Christopher Eccleston as the revenge-obsessed Vindice, with Derek Jacobi as the evil Duke, Eddie Izzard as his lecherous son Lussurioso, Diana Quick as the Duchess, Andrew Schofield as Vindice's brother Carlo (a version of the play's Hippolito), Carla Henry as his virtuous sister Castiza, and Marc Warren and Justin Salinger as the Duchess's sons Supervacuo and Ambitioso. Synopsis The original play is set in a depraved Italian court, but Cottrell Boyce's screenplay relocates it to a futuristic version of Liverpool in the year 2011, following the aftermath of a natural disaster which has destroyed the southern half of Great Britain. The city is a dystopia in which society is collapsing and where vendettas and the crude exercise of power are the norm. Jacobi's Duke is the most powerful crime lord in the city. Cottrell Boyce's script rearranges the play heavily and mixes the original Jacobean language with modern language. Production Revengers Tragedy was shot and edited in Liverpool with an almost entirely local crew, including cinematographer Len Gowing, costumer Monica Aslanian, makeup designer Lesley Brennan and assistant director Kim Ryan. Cox's usual production designer, Cecilia Montiel prepared a visual strategy which was executed by her co-designer Remi Vaughan-Richards. The producers were Margaret Matheson (who executive produced Cox's Sid and Nancy for Zenith) and Tod Davies (Cox's wife, who also wrote and produced Cox's Three Businessmen). The soundtrack of the same name was written and performed by Chumbawamba. In 2003, it was released by the band on their independent record label, MUTT. Reception The BBC's Jamie Russell gave the film 3/5 stars, stating "It exaggerates the play's confused identities, deliberate miscommunications, and sarcastic asides into an overblown exercise in outright camp." The review further states that the film's messages are "ultimately let down by the film's rough edges", and contains "moments that are painfully amateurish, "Revengers Tragedy" ultimately annoys as much as it exhilarates." Varietys Deborah Young described the film as "ambitious, sometimes exhilarating but ultimately not very new attempt to unleash the power of great literature past by punking it up." The Time Out Film Guide commented: "The stylistic intention, presumably, was old meets new with a Luhrmann-like flourish, but the modest resources on display result in a look somewhere between threadbare Jarman and school play. One struggles to be impressed." References External links Revengers Tragedy page on Alex Cox website Films directed by Alex Cox 2002 films 2000s science fiction comedy-drama films British science fiction comedy-drama films Dystopian films English-language films British films based on plays British films Films set in 2011 Films set in Liverpool Films set in the future British post-apocalyptic films Films with screenplays by Frank Cottrell-Boyce 2002 comedy films 2002 drama films	[ -0.34606486558914185, 0.2670104503631592, -0.23565377295017242, -0.2698245942592621, 0.0635126531124115, 0.4658057689666748, 0.6212997436523438, -0.4020098149776459, -0.23137106001377106, 0.203142449259758, -0.3399442136287689, 0.45883533358573914, 0.012780515477061272, 0.543653130531311, -0.01628980226814747, 0.2532477378845215, -0.04827243834733963, 0.036725129932165146, -0.1994583010673523, -0.4279590845108032, -0.3169037699699402, 0.016457216814160347, 0.7381423711776733, 0.18742944300174713, -0.4305259883403778, 0.4795936644077301, 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250838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20A.%20O.%20Preus	J. A. O. Preus	Jacob Aall Ottesen Preus (; August 28, 1883May 24, 1961) was an American politician. He served as the 8th state auditor of Minnesota from January 5, 1915, to January 5, 1921, and as the 20th Governor of Minnesota from January 5, 1921, to January 6, 1925. He was a Republican. Background He was born in Columbia County, Wisconsin, on August 28, 1883, of Norwegian descent. The grandson, son, father, grandfather, and great-grandfather of Lutheran pastors, he chose to serve the state rather than the church. He was a 1903 graduate of Luther College in Decorah, Iowa, where his extended family has had a key role in the development, governance, and academic life of the college-community since its founding in 1862. As a recent graduate of the University of Minnesota Law School he cut his political teeth in Washington as executive clerk to Senator Knute Nelson. Back home after three years, he continued his climb up the Republican ladder of state service toward the governor's office. Career When Preus first ran for governor in 1920, he adamantly opposed the Farmer-Labor Party, a coalition of discontented farmers and laborers who had formed a new political organization. The party, he declaimed, represented "socialism – a political cult that would destroy the principles of private property, our religion, and our homes." Despite his reservations about the Farmer-Labor philosophy, Governor Preus nonetheless encouraged the legislature to meet some of the farmers' demands by broadening the legal powers of cooperatives, making low-interest loans available through the Rural Credit Bureau, and creating the Department of Agriculture. Preus also demanded higher taxes from the owners of ore-rich mines on the Iron Range, expanded highway construction, and improved equal rights and election procedures. His political savvy, combined with an apparent desire to correct inequities, made Minnesota's twentieth governor a surprisingly prolific reformer. After completing his second term, Preus became an insurance executive in Chicago. He returned to Minneapolis in 1958 and served until his death as board chairman of Lutheran Brotherhood, a fraternal insurance society he had co-founded in 1917. He also founded the Aid Association for Lutherans, which consolidated in the 1990s to become Thrivent Financial for Lutherans. Personal life Preus was married during 1909 to Idella Louise Haugen. Their son, Jacob Aall Ottesen Preus II, was a theologian, professor, author, and president of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. Their other son, Robert Preus, was a Lutheran pastor, professor, author, theologian, and president of Concordia Theological Seminary. He died on May 24, 1961. See also Herman Amberg Preus (1825–1894) Christian Keyser Preus (1852–1921) Ove J. H. Preus (1880–1951) J. A. O. Preus III (born 1953) David W. Preus (1922–2021) References Biographical information and his gubernatorial records are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society. External links Photos J. A. O. Preus with Eleonora and Ethel Olson 1883 births 1961 deaths People from Columbia County, Wisconsin American Lutherans American people of Norwegian descent Minnesota Republicans Governors of Minnesota State Auditors of Minnesota University of Minnesota alumni University of Minnesota Law School alumni Luther College (Iowa) alumni Republican Party state governors of the United States 20th-century American politicians 20th-century Lutherans	[ -0.3443472683429718, 0.5354655981063843, -0.5604867339134216, 0.059213075786828995, 0.3338581621646881, 0.7961172461509705, 0.4597640037536621, 0.09071418642997742, -0.07939846813678741, -0.4296274483203888, 0.40003281831741333, 0.2841266691684723, -0.44479578733444214, 0.5054725408554077, -0.18318112194538116, -0.3275759518146515, -0.32221150398254395, 0.19315461814403534, -0.4546669125556946, -0.027441123500466347, -0.23629029095172882, -0.5112302303314209, 0.3143348693847656, 0.4092469811439514, 0.24033765494823456, 0.3100852072238922, 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250839	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Chandler%20Haliburton	Thomas Chandler Haliburton	Thomas Chandler Haliburton (17 December 1796 – 27 August 1865) was a Nova Scotian politician, judge, and author. He made an important political contribution to the state of Nova Scotia before its entry into Confederation of Canada. He was the first international best-selling author of fiction from what is now Canada. In 1856, he emigrated to England, where he served as a Conservative Member of Parliament. He was the father of the British civil servant Lord Haliburton and of the anthropologist Robert Grant Haliburton. Life On 17 December 1796, Thomas Chandler Haliburton was born in Windsor, Nova Scotia, to William Hersey Otis Haliburton, a lawyer, judge and political figure, and Lucy Chandler Grant. His mother died when he was a small child. When Thomas was seven, his father married Susanna Davis, the daughter of Michael Francklin, who had been Nova Scotia's Lieutenant Governor. He attended University of King's College in Windsor. Later he became a lawyer and opened a practice in Annapolis Royal, the former capital of the colony. Haliburton attained distinction as a local businessman and as a judge, but his greatest fame came from his published writings. He wrote a number of books on history, politics, and farm improvement. He first rose to international fame with his Clockmaker serial, which first appeared in the Novascotian and was later published as a book throughout the British Empire, as popular light reading. The work recounted the humorous adventures of the main character, Sam Slick. In 1816, Haliburton married Lousia Nevill, daughter of Captain Laurence Neville, of the Eighth Light Dragoons. Between 1826 and 1829, Haliburton represented Annapolis County in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly. Relations with English Burton family Thomas Chandler Haliburton resided in England from 1837, where he was hosted and entertained in London by his cousins Decimus Burton, Jane Burton, James Burton, the Egyptologist, Septimus Burton, the solicitor, Octavia Burton, and Jessy Burton. Thomas asked James Burton, the Egyptologist, to check the proofs of his work Letter Bag of the Great Western, with which Burton was unimpressed, in 1839, and those of the third series of The Clockmaker in 1840. The pair travelled together to Scotland to investigate their common ancestry, and intended to tour Canada and the United States of America together. Thomas Chandler Haliburton's daughter, Susannah, was impressed by James Burton, the Egyptologist: she wrote, in 1839, "Mr James I admire very much. He is one of the most well-bred persons I saw &... decidedly the flower of the flock". Retirement and subsequent life In 1856, Thomas Chandler Haliburton retired from law and moved to England. In the same year, he married Sarah Harriet Owen Williams. In 1859, Haliburton was elected the Member of Parliament for Launceston, Cornwall as a member of the Conservative minority. He did not stand for re-election in 1865. Haliburton received an honorary degree from Oxford for his services to literature. He continued writing until his death on August 27, 1865 at his home in Isleworth, near London and is buried in All Saints' churchyard. Family While in England, Thomas Chandler Haliburton met Louisa Neville, daughter of Captain Laurence Neville, of the Eighth Light Dragoons. In 1816, he married her, soon thereafter returning to Nova Scotia with her. Louisa's story before marriage is related in the "Haliburton Chaplet," edited by their son, Robert Grant Haliburton (Toronto: 1899). The couple had two sons and five daughters: Susannah Lucy Anne, later Weldon, 1817–1899, ceramic collector Mrs. A. F. Haliburton Mrs. Bainbridge Smith Amelia (25 Jul 1829 – 14 Jan 1902), landscape artist, married the Rev. Edwin Gilpin, Dean of Nova Scotia, in 1849; the couple had four sons and one daughter, including Edwin Gilpin (1850–1907), a mining engineer and author Robert Grant Haliburton, Q.C., D.C.L., 1831–1901, lawyer, author, and anthropologist Arthur (1832–1907), later 1st Baron Haliburton, G.C.B., British civil servant Laura Charlotte, artist, married William Cunard, son of the shipping magnate Sir Samuel Cunard at Windsor, Nova Scotia, 30 December 1851; three sons, one daughter. Exhibited her pictures at the Royal Academy, the Gallery of British Artists, and at other institutions in London. In 1840, Louisa died and was buried at Windsor. Legacy Haliburton was eager to promote immigration to the colonies of British North America. One of his first written works was an emigrant's guide to Nova Scotia published in 1823, A General Description of Nova Scotia; Illustrated by a New and Correct Map The community of Haliburton, Nova Scotia was named after him. In Ontario, Haliburton County is named after Haliburton in recognition of his work as the first chair of the Canadian Land and Emigration Company. In 1884, faculty and students at his alma mater founded a literary society in honour of the College's most celebrated man of letters. The Haliburton Society, still active at the University of King's College, Halifax, is the longest-standing collegial literary society throughout the Commonwealth of Nations and North America. The mention "hurly on the long pond on the ice", which appears in the second volume of The Attaché, or Sam Slick in England, a work of fiction published in 1844, has been interpreted by some as a reference to an ice-hockey-like game he may have played during his years at King's College. It is the basis of Windsor's disputed claim to being the town that fathered hockey. In 1902, a memorial to Haliburton and his first wife was erected in Christ Church, Windsor, Nova Scotia, by four of their children: Laura Cunard, Lord Haliburton, and two surviving sisters. Nova Scotian artist William Valentine painted Haliburton's portrait. His former home in Windsor is preserved as a museum. Works A General Description of Nova Scotia - 1823 An Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia - 1829]The Clockmaker - 1836The Clockmaker, 2nd Series - 1838The Bubbles of Canada - 1839[https://archive.org/details/cihm_36503 A Reply to the Report of the Earl of Durham - 1839 The Letter-Bag of the Great Western - 1840 The Clockmaker, 3rd Series - 1840 The Attaché; or Sam Slick in England - 1843 The Attaché; or Sam Slick in England, 2nd Series - 1844 The Old Judge, Or Life in a Colony - 1849 The English in America - 1851 Rule and Misrule in English America - 1851 vol 1 vol 2 Sam Slick's Wise Saws and Modern Instances - 1853 The Americans at Home; or, Byways, Backwoods, and Prairies - 1855 Nature and Human Nature - 1855 The Season-Ticket* - 1860 Maxims of an Old Stager Not by Haliburton, but pseudonym may be "Sam Slick" References Further reading External links The Haliburton Club (archived 27 September 2007) Photos of 1937 plaque by Historic Sites and Monuments Board (archived 24 April 2011) Haliburton House Museum (archived 19 November 2011) Electronic editions 1796 births 1865 deaths 19th-century Canadian novelists Canadian historians Canadian humorists Canadian male novelists Canadian people of Scottish descent Colony of Nova Scotia people Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Historians of Atlantic Canada Judges in Nova Scotia Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Launceston Nova Scotia pre-Confederation MLAs People from Windsor, Nova Scotia People of United Empire Loyalist descent Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) People from Hants County, Nova Scotia UK MPs 1859–1865 University of King's College alumni Writers from Nova Scotia	[ -0.44429585337638855, 0.7184253931045532, -1.177164077758789, -0.23644989728927612, 0.4633970260620117, 0.7639963626861572, 1.3032851219177246, 0.06982692331075668, -0.13808764517307281, -0.44219064712524414, 0.14873678982257843, 0.4090813398361206, -0.1876736879348755, 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250841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Wilberforce	Samuel Wilberforce	Samuel Wilberforce, FRS (7 September 1805 – 19 July 1873) was an English bishop in the Church of England, and the third son of William Wilberforce. Known as "Soapy Sam", Wilberforce was one of the greatest public speakers of his day. He is now best remembered for his opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution at a debate in 1860. Early life He was born at Clapham Common, London, the fifth child of William Wilberforce, a major campaigner against the slave trade and slavery, and Barbara Spooner; he was the younger brother of Robert Isaac Wilberforce. He had an Anglican education, outside the English public schools. This was the "private and domestic" pattern of instruction chosen for his sons by William Wilberforce. It concentrated on a traditional teaching of the classics, but in a clerical home environment. Samuel Wilberforce was from 1812 under Stephen Langston, and then Edward Garrard Marsh. With Henry Hoare of Staplehurst and others, he was a pupil in 1819 at Stanstead Park, near Racton in Sussex, of George Hodson, at that time chaplain to Lewis Way. Hodson was tutoring Albert Way, but gathered a small class of six boys, who included also James Thomason. In 1820 Hodson moved to Maisemore near Gloucester as a curate, taking pupils with him. Wilberforce was schooled under Hodson in Gloucestershire until 1822, when he required coaching for university entrance. For that he went, with his younger brother Henry, to Francis Roach Spragge at Bidborough. In 1823 Wilberforce entered Oriel College, Oxford. In the United Debating Society, the forerunner of the Oxford Union, he demonstrated some Whig views. His friends included William Ewart Gladstone and Henry Edward Manning, and were nicknamed the "Bethel Union" for their religiosity. Wilberforce's student recreations included riding and hunting. He graduated in 1826, taking a first-class degree in mathematics and a second in classics. Wilberforce in late 1826 tried and failed for a fellowship at Balliol College. He spent the summer and autumn of 1827 touring the continent. He married Emily Sargent, daughter of the rector of East Lavington, West Sussex in 1828. After his marriage a college fellowship was no longer possible. He was ordained deacon in the Church of England. In 1829 he was ordained priest and appointed curate at Checkendon, near Henley-on-Thames. Career In 1830, Wilberforce was presented by Charles Sumner, Bishop of Winchester, to the rectory of St Mary's Church, Brighstone, in the Isle of Wight. In November 1839 he was installed archdeacon of Surrey, in August 1840 he was collated canon of Winchester, and in October he accepted the rectory of Alverstoke. In January 1841, Wilberforce was made chaplain to Prince Albert, an appointment he owed to an anti-slavery speech he had made some months previously. He was chosen as that year's Bampton lecturer, but his wife Emily died on 10 March, and he withdrew. In October 1843, he was appointed by the Archbishop of York to be sub-almoner to the Queen. Later, his part in the revival of the powers of Convocation lessened his influence at court. In March 1845 Wilberforce accepted the position of Dean of Westminster and, in October the same year, was appointed as the Bishop of Oxford by Sir Robert Peel. This year, also, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He set up a Diocesan Church Building Fund. This gave small grants intended to act as a lever for more substantial funding from other sources, a successful fundraising approach. In 1850 Wilberforce appointed George Edmund Street as architect to the diocese of Oxford. Street built or improved 113 churches there during his tenure. In 1854, Wilberforce opened a theological college at Cuddesdon, now known as Ripon College Cuddesdon, which later was the subject of some controversy over its alleged Romanist tendencies. After twenty-four years in the diocese of Oxford, Wilberforce was translated by Gladstone to the bishopric of Winchester in 1869. Views and controversies From an evangelical background and upbringing in line with Clapham Sect orthodoxy, Wilberforce began to develop into a High Churchman and High Tory in the early days of his priesthood. His ideas developed with broader contacts, and the politics of Catholic Emancipation. High Churchman Although a High Churchman, Wilberforce held aloof from the Oxford Movement. In 1838 his divergence from the Tractarian writers became so evident that John Henry Newman declined further contributions from him to the British Critic. In 1847 Wilberforce, at Newman's suggestion, became involved in the Hampden controversy. He signed the remonstrance of 13 bishops to Lord John Russell against the appointment of Hampden, accused of heretical views, to the bishopric of Hereford. He wished to obtain some assurances from Hampden; unsuccessful in this, he withdrew from the suit against him. His handling of process and change of mind marred his intervention, and although he made a public statement of error, Charles Greville expressed a widely-held view that "Sly Sam" had made himself look ridiculous. In 1850 Charles Blomfield, the Bishop of London, proposed the upper house of a revived Convocation as a court of last resort for the ecclesiastical courts of the Church of England. Wilberforce took up the suggestion, and campaigned with Henry Hoare of Staplehurst that the dormant assemblies of Convocation should be put to use. They won the argument, over a few years. In 1867 Wilberforce framed the first Report of the Ritualistic Commission, in which coercive measures against ritualism were undermined by the use of the word "restrain" instead of "abolish" or "prohibit." He also tried to soften some resolutions of the second Ritualistic Commission in 1868, and was one of the four who signed the Report with qualifications. He was strongly opposed to the disestablishment of the Irish Church, but when the constituencies decided for it, he advised that no opposition should be made to it by the House of Lords. Contra Darwin Wilberforce took part in the famous 1860 debate concerning evolution at a meeting of the British Association on 30 June. Richard Owen and Thomas Henry Huxley had already clashed on man's position in nature two days previously; on the Saturday, at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Wilberforce got his chance to criticise Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, especially the implication that humans and various species of apes share common ancestors. Lucas argues that "Wilberforce, contrary to the central tenet of the legend, did not prejudge the issue". He criticised Darwin's theory on scientific grounds, arguing that it was not supported by the facts, and he noted that the greatest names in science were opposed to the theory. Nonetheless, Wilberforce's speech is generally only remembered today for his inquiry as to whether it was through his grandmother or his grandfather that Huxley considered himself descended from a monkey. Huxley is said to have replied that he would not be ashamed to have a monkey for his ancestor, but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man who used his great gifts to obscure the truth. Darwin was not present, but several of his friends replied, with Huxley perhaps the most effective. The popular view may be that Huxley had the better of the exchange; but there is a consensus view of historians that this account of the debate involves later fabrication, and that the outcome was moot. "Reports from the time suggest that everybody enjoyed themselves immensely, and all went cheerfully off to dinner together afterwards". Wilberforce wrote a review of On the Origin of Species for the Quarterly Review. In it, he disagreed with Darwin's reasoning. Essays and Reviews His attitude towards Essays and Reviews in 1861, against which he wrote an article in the Quarterly Review, won Wilberforce the gratitude of the Low Churchmen. Colenso controversy On the publication of John William Colenso's Commentary on the Romans in 1861, Wilberforce endeavoured to induce the author to hold a private conference with him; but after the publication of the first two parts of the Pentateuch Critically Examined he drew up the address of the bishops which called on Colenso to resign his bishopric. Reputation The publication of Universalis Ecclesiae, the papal bull in 1850 re-establishing a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, brought the High Church party, of whom Wilberforce had become a prominent member, into temporary disrepute. The secession to Catholicism of his brother-in-law Manning, and then of his brothers, as well as his only daughter and his son-in-law, brought him under suspicion. "Soapy Sam" may have been a reference to Wilberforce's characteristic hand-washing gesture, captured in the Vanity Fair cartoon by "Ape" (illustration, right). The nickname may also derive from a comment by Benjamin Disraeli that the bishop's manner was "unctuous, oleaginous, saponaceous". Wilberforce has been called the "bishop of society"; but society occupied only a fraction of his time. In the House of Lords he took a prominent part in the discussion of social and ecclesiastical questions. Death Wilberforce died from a riding accident on 19 July 1873, near Abinger. He had been on the way to visit Gladstone at Holmbury St Mary, with Lord Granville. He was buried at East Lavington with his wife and her sister, the wife of Manning. Works Wilberforce published: A tract on tithes (1831), "to correct the prejudices of the lower order of farmers". A collection of hymns for use in his parish (1832), which had a more general circulation Note Book of a Country Clergyman, stories The Apostolical Ministry, sermon. Letters and Journals (1837) of Henry Martyn, the Anglican missionary. Life (1838) of his father William Wilberforce published, with his elder brother Robert Wilberforce. Eucharistica (1839, editor) from the old English divines. Agathos and other Sunday Stories (1839) University Sermons (1839) Correspondence (1840) of William Wilberforce Rocky Island and other Parables (1840) A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America (1844) Heroes of Hebrew History (1870), originally contributed to Good Words. There were several volumes of his sermons. He left a diary, and its content is considered influenced in parts by the editorial work he did on his father's papers, while also revealing of his own emotional life. The anonymous Britannica 1911 author wrote of it that His diary reveals a tender and devout private life which has been overlooked by those who have only considered the versatile facility and persuasive expediency that marked the successful public career of the bishop, and perhaps earned him the sobriquet of "Soapy Sam". Legacy Wilberforce was the patron of Philip Reginald Egerton, who founded Bloxham School in Oxfordshire. A boarding house at the school is named after Wilberforce. Together with his brother Robert, he joined the Canterbury Association on 27 March 1848. He resigned from the Canterbury Association on 14 March 1849. The Wilberforce River in New Zealand was named for them. Family Wilberforce married on 11 June 1828 Emily Sargent (1807–1841), daughter of John Sargent, and his wife Mary Smith, daughter of Abel Smith. They had five children who survived early childhood, one daughter and four sons. The sons were: Herbert William Wilberforce (1833–1856), a lieutenant in the Royal Navy. He died at Torquay after duties in the Baltic Sea. Reginald Wilberforce (1838–1914), army officer. He was author of An Unrecorded Chapter of the Indian Mutiny (1894), a work criticised by fellow officers of the 52nd Foot for inaccuracy. Reginald was grandfather (through his fourth son, Samuel (Samuel Wilberforce (judge)) to Richard Lord Wilberforce, a Lord of Appeal. Ernest Wilberforce (1840–1908), Bishop of Newcastle-upon-Tyne from 1882 to 1895, and Bishop of Chichester from 1895 till his death. Basil Wilberforce (1841–1916), appointed canon residentiary of Westminster in 1894, chaplain of the House of Commons in 1896 and Archdeacon of Westminster in 1900; he published volumes of sermons. Emily Charlotte (1830–1917), the daughter, married J. Henry Pye. Pye was an Anglican priest: the couple converted to Catholicism in 1868. In literature Wilberforce appears, caricatured, in Anthony Trollope's novel The Warden (1855), where he is portrayed as the third child of the Archdeacon, Dr Grantly, who is named Samuel and nicknamed Soapy, and is engaging and ingratiating but not to be trusted. References Bibliography Life of Samuel Wilberforce, with Selections from his Diary and Correspondence (1879–1882), vol. i., ed. by Arthur Rawson Ashwell, and vols. ii. and iii., ed. by his son Reginald Garton Wilberforce, who also wrote a one-volume Life (1888). One of the volumes of the "English Leaders of Religion" is devoted to him, and he is included in John William Burgon's Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888). Woodward, Horace B. 1907. History of the Geological Society of London. Geological Society, London, 336p John Hedley Brooke, "Samuel Wilberforce, Thomas Huxley, and Genesis," in Michael Lieb, Emma Mason and Jonathan Roberts (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Reception History of the Bible (Oxford, OUP, 2011), 397–412. Burgon, John William: Lives of Twelve Good Men, Murray, London 1891, pp. 242–278. External links A list of the works of Samuel Wilberforce Attribution 1805 births 1873 deaths People from Clapham Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford English Anglicans Bishops of Oxford Bishops of Winchester Fellows of the Royal Society Charles Darwin Deans of Westminster Archdeacons of Surrey Deaths by horse-riding accident in England Chancellors of the Order of the Garter Members of the Canterbury Association Samuel Chaplains of the House of Commons (UK) Burials at Winchester Cathedral Presidents of the Oxford Union	[ -0.14098291099071503, 0.5171591639518738, -0.6244866847991943, -0.3482897877693176, -0.5062437653541565, 0.9036413431167603, 1.1062262058258057, -0.39918380975723267, 0.19988974928855896, -0.46827059984207153, -0.14402367174625397, 0.3007740378379822, -0.35754305124282837, 0.3623669147491455, 0.13130731880664825, 0.2628837525844574, -0.1666577309370041, 0.2951458990573883, -0.36673077940940857, -0.4299052655696869, -0.10234905779361725, -0.0663454681634903, 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250842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flin%20Flon	Flin Flon	Flin Flon (pop. 5,185 in 2016 census; 4,982 in Manitoba and 203 in Saskatchewan) is a mining city, located on a correction line on the border of the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, with the majority of the city located within Manitoba. Residents thus travel southwest into Saskatchewan, and northeast into Manitoba. The city is incorporated in and is jointly administered by both provinces. History Flin Flon was founded in 1927 by Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting (now Hudbay) to exploit the large local copper and zinc ore resources. In the late 1920s, HBM&S invested in a railway, mine, smelter, and a hydroelectric power plant at Island Falls, Saskatchewan. By 1928, the rail line reached the mine. The town grew considerably during the 1930s as those impoverished by the Great Depression came to work at the mines. A significant number of farmers abandoned their farms and were amongst those looking for work. The municipality was incorporated on January 1, 1933, and reached city status in 1970. The city has continued to be a mining centre with the development of several mines adding to its industrial base, although its population has been in decline since the 1960s. With a scenic setting and a number of nearby lakes, Flin Flon has also become a popular tourist destination. Origin of the name The town's name is taken from the lead character in a 1905 paperback novel, The Sunless City by J. E. Preston Muddock. Josiah Flintabbatey Flonatin piloted a submarine into a bottomless lake where he sailed through a hole lined with gold to enter a strange underground world. A copy of the book was allegedly found and read by prospector Tom Creighton. When Tom Creighton discovered a high-grade exposure of copper, he thought of the book and called it Flin Flon's mine, and the town that developed around the mine adopted the name. Flin Flon shares the distinction of being named after a character in an adventure novel with Tarzana, California and Le Plessis-Robinson, France. The character of "Flinty", as he is locally known, is of such importance to the identity of the city that in 2003, the local Chamber of Commerce commissioned the minting of a $3.00 coin which was considered legal tender amongst locally participating retailers until September 2004 and a $5.00 coin which was in circulation until December 31, 2008. A statue representing Flinty was designed by cartoonist Al Capp and is one of the points of interest of the city. In 1978, the National Film Board of Canada produced the short documentary Canada Vignettes: Flin Flon about the origin of the city's name. Geography Flin Flon straddles the provincial boundary of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, with the majority of the city located in Manitoba. The 2016 census reported 4,982 residents in the Manitoba portion and 203 in the Saskatchewan section; the Manitoba portion has a land area of 13.88 km2 (5.4 sq mi), while the Saskatchewan portion has a land area of 2.37 km2 (0.91 sq mi). Due to the zig-zag nature of the Saskatchewan-Manitoba boundary correction lines, the Saskatchewan section of town lies south of the Manitoba section, not west. The city's Main Street crosses the provincial boundary just south of its intersection with Church Street; Hudson Street crosses the provincial boundary between its intersections with 5 Ave E. and Harrison Street, adopting the new name South Hudson Street at the point of crossing; an undeveloped stretch of Channing Drive briefly crosses into Saskatchewan before reentering Manitoba just west of the city's rural Channing neighbourhood. For Canada Post purposes, residents in the Saskatchewan portion of the city retain the local Manitoba R8A postal code, and often use a Flin Flon, MB address. For telephone service, however, they are located in Saskatchewan's area code 306 as part of the Creighton telephone exchange, rather than Manitoba's area code 204. For example, a resident in the Saskatchewan section of the city who calls 911 in an emergency will have services dispatched from Creighton rather than Flin Flon, and must instead call a regular phone number to receive immediate city-based service. However, residents in Saskatchewan may use either Saskatchewan's SaskTel or Manitoba's Bell MTS systems for cellular services. Electrical service is received from Manitoba Hydro for both the Manitoba and Saskatchewan parts of the city. The majority of Flin Flon's surface topology is exposed Canadian Shield bedrock, hence the nickname "the city built on rock". Due to this and climatic factors, agriculture is generally not possible, although grain farming is found southeast in The Pas, Manitoba, which is south of the Canadian Shield. The extensive bedrock exposure led to some interesting adaptations. In the northwestern areas of the city, there is often not enough overburden to bury water and sewer lines, so "sewer boxes" exist above surface to house the infrastructure. Many of these are used as ad-hoc sidewalks. Climate Flin Flon experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb). There is a wide range in seasonal temperatures, with warm summers and bitterly cold winters. Temperatures in January have an average low of and an average high of . Temperatures in July have an average high of and an average low of . The highest (reliable) temperature ever recorded in Flin Flon was on 19 July 1941. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 15 January 1930. Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Manitoba portion of Flin Flon recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. Transportation Road Flin Flon is accessed by Manitoba Provincial Trunk Highway 10, Saskatchewan Highway 106 and Saskatchewan Highway 167. The city also runs a small public bus system. Air The city operates Flin Flon Airport, which is located southeast of the city, immediately west of the Bakers Narrows Provincial Park. The airport has a single asphalt runway, and has regular flights to and from Winnipeg through Calm Air. There is also an airport in nearby Channing, MB for small aircraft use. Rail The Hudson Bay Railway operates railway freight service on its railway line between The Pas and Flin Flon. The rail line to Churchill was washed out in June 2017 and remained out of service for over a year when then-owner Omnitrax refused to repair it. The City of Flin Flon purchased shares in One North, one of the partners of purchasing consortium Arctic Gateway Group Limited Partnership. The rail line was subsequently repaired by Cando Rail Services and Paradox Access Solutions. Economy Main employers Mining The economy of Flin Flon is and has always been primarily reliant on base metal production (primarily copper and zinc with lesser gold and silver). Since the late 1910s, approximately 17 mines have operated in the Flin Flon vicinity, with the only remaining mine in operation being the 777 Mine, with a projected closure of 2022. Sphalerite concentrate is produced and processed on-site to produce zinc, while chalcopyrite concentrate is produced and sold for external copper production, a result of the closure of the Hudbay smelter in July 2010. Although processing of any sulphide material usually emits large amounts of sulfur dioxide, the Hudbay plant uses a zinc pressure leaching (ZPL) process which greatly reduces emissions. Marijuana production Flin Flon gained international notoriety in 2002 when the Government of Canada awarded a four-year contract to Saskatoon-based Prairie Plant Systems for the production of medicinal marijuana. The company set up operations in a mined-out area of the then-active Trout Lake Mine, an underground copper/zinc mine located just over 5 km northeast of Flin Flon city limits and owned by the Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Company (later Hudbay) to produce approximately 400 kilograms (882 lbs) of medicinal marijuana annually. The entire operation was situated approximately 120 metres underground for security and climate control reasons. In 2009, Prairie Plant Systems discontinued operation at the mine due to the expiry of their lease and the uncertainty regarding the pending closure of the mine, which occurred in 2011. Culture Arts Flin Flon has an active local arts & culture scene. The Flin Flon Arts Council has been instrumental in building the local arts scene of late, and has also brought high-quality performers, such as the Royal Winnipeg Ballet, into the community for special events. The R.H. Channing Auditorium in the Flin Flon Community Hall often hosts concerts and theatrical performances, including those produced by the local theatre troupe "Ham Sandwich". In 2010, the Northern Visual Arts Centre (or NorVA) was established as a studio and gallery space for local visual artists. NorVA frequently hosts workshops, concerts and other community arts-based events. Every two years, the Flin Flon Community Choir performs a largely extravagant musical production for the community. In 2013, the Flin Flon Community Choir presented Chicago: The Musical, to great acclaim. In 2015, they presented Les Miserables, Grease in 2017, and Mama Mia in 2019. Past performances have included Beauty and the Beast, Fiddler on the Roof, and Bombertown, among many others. Culture Days, a national festival celebrating arts and culture, is a popular event in Flin Flon. Culture Days is held on the last weekend of September each year. In 2018, Flin Flon ranked second in the country, only following Winnipeg, for the number of free events (including concerts, workshops, artist talks and kids' activities) offered to community members and visitors. Toronto followed Flin Flon with the number of events, ranking third, down from second in 2017. Flin Flon is the fictional home of the comic book superhero Captain Canuck. Petting zoo The City operates the Joe Brain Petting Zoo. It is open from June through August, weather permitting. It features a picnic area, playground, basketball hoops, and a wading pool. Sports Flin Flon is the home of the Flin Flon Bombers of the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League and the birthplace of NHL great and Hall of Fame member Bobby Clarke. As captain of the team, he led the Philadelphia Flyers to two NHL Stanley Cup championships in the 1970s, and was a star on the 1972 Team Canada Summit Series roster. Other NHLers hailing from Flin Flon include Ken Baird, Ken Baumgartner, Matt Davidson, Kim Davis, Dean Evason, Al Hamilton, Ted Hampson (who was the second player to ever receive the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy), Gerry Hart, Ron Hutchinson, George Konik, Ray Maluta, Tom Gilmore, Dunc McCallum, Eric Nesterenko, Mel Pearson, Reid Simpson, David Struch, and Ernie Wakely. Media Newspapers & magazines The Reminder – published every Wednesday – Flin Flon's only newspaper. Northroots Magazine – a bi-monthly glossy, regional publication, northroots.ca published February, April, June, August, October and December. In-flight reading on Calm Air. Cottage North Magazine – local interest, local stories, and local people – ceased publication in September 2015 Books Tales From a Town With a Funny Name – by Doug Evans. Radio CFAR 590 (AM), 102.9 (FM) CBWF-FM 90.9, (CBC Radio One) CKSB-4-FM 99.9, (Première Chaîne) CIFF-FM 101.1, (NCI) Television CKYF-TV channel 13 (CTV, analogue repeater of CKY-DT Winnipeg) Shaw Communications operates a community programming channel; CATV Channel 11: Shaw TV Television in Flin Flon began in June 1962 with the opening of CBC Television station CBWBT channel 10. The station broadcast kine recordings, sent to the transmitter from CBWT Winnipeg. On March 1, 1969, the province-wide microwave system replaced the kine recordings originating at CBWT, giving citizens of Flin Flon access to live television. The repeater (along with Radio-Canada repeater CBWFT-2 channel 3) closed down July 31, 2012, due to the CBC's closure of its rebroadcasters. Law and government Municipal The operations of the City of Flin Flon are administered by the city council, whose members set the policies. The city council consists of a mayor and six councillors who are elected and serve a term of four years. The current council was elected on October 24, 2018, and consists of the following members: Provincial Flin Flon is in the southwest corner of the Manitoba provincial electoral district of the same name, and is the only urban centre within the district. The current Member of the Legislative Assembly is NDP Tom Lindsey, who was re-elected in the 2019 election. The Saskatchewan portion of Flin Flon is in the electoral district of Cumberland. It is represented by Doyle Vermette of the NDP. Federal Flin Flon, Manitoba, is in the federal riding of Churchill-Keewatinook Aski. The current Member of Parliament (MP) is NDP member Niki Ashton. The Saskatchewan portion of Flin Flon is in the electoral district of Desnethé—Missinippi—Churchill River, whose current MP is Conservative Gary Vidal. Notable people from Flin Flon Jared Abrahamson, actor Ken Baumgartner (born 1966), ice hockey player Bobby Clarke (born 1949), hockey player Dean Evason (born 1964), hockey coach Tom Gilmore (born 1948), hockey player Al Hamilton (born 1946), hockey player Marshall Lawrence (born 1956), blues musician and psychologist Ray Martynuik (19502013), hockey player Andrea Menard (born 1971), actress and singer Eric Nesterenko (born 1933), hockey player Mel Pearson (19381999), hockey player Dennis Schneider (born 1942), politician Birk Sproxton (19432007), poet and novelist See also Flin Flon greenstone belt Lloydminster References Notes External links 1927 establishments in Manitoba Borders of Manitoba Borders of Saskatchewan Cities in Manitoba Cities in Saskatchewan Company towns in Canada Divided cities Division No. 18, Saskatchewan Populated places established in 1927 Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits	[ -0.09160696715116501, 0.0025748051702976227, 0.14956626296043396, 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250843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking%20to%20Americans	Talking to Americans	Talking to Americans was a regular feature presented by Rick Mercer on the Canadian political satire show This Hour Has 22 Minutes, which was later spun off into a one-hour special that aired on April 1, 2001 on CBC Television. The purpose of the skit was to satirize American lack of awareness about Canada, by interviewing Americans on the street and convincing them to agree with ridiculous statements about their northern neighbor. Mercer freely acknowledged that he did not think Americans were collectively stupid; in an interview on Nightline, Mercer explained that "I'm just looking for the short answer. Some people hem and haw and they seem to be on to me, and of course we don't include them... About 80 per cent of the people give me the right answer, by which of course, I mean the wrong answer." He also acknowledged that it would be entirely possible to put together a similar feature getting Canadians to agree on camera to strange statements on topics they knew little about, with the primary difference being that Mercer couldn't do it himself as Canadians would recognize him. In his 2021 memoir Talking to Canadians, Mercer described the segment as having had its genesis in 1998, when he was in Washington, DC to film an unrelated segment for 22 Minutes. While waiting to begin filming, he met a Capitol Hill staffer whose apparent willingness to talk freely about subjects he didn't actually know anything about led to an impromptu filmed interview in which the staffer was asked questions about a fictional presidential summit between Bill Clinton and Ralph Benmergui, and was successfully convinced by Mercer that Canadians were unfamiliar with the concept of alphabetical order. Content The intent was to satirize perceived American ignorance of Canada and the rest of the world. persuading Americans to congratulate Canada on legalizing VCRs or adopting the 24-hour day (then-Governor of Iowa Tom Vilsack was fooled by this one). various political controversies involving one or more Canadian provinces. discussion of then-Prime Minister of Canada Jean Chrétien, such as claiming that he was Canada's first Asian Prime Minister or that he just achieved a rare political feat called a "Double Double" (a nickname for a cup of coffee with two scoops of sugar and two creams) in which he received support from both sides of the Canadian parliament. Mercer fooled American TV personalities David Hasselhoff and Jerry Springer into believing that Chrétien was a small-town mayor who just issued a proclamation to them, while Mercer introduced himself as a journalist named "Jean Chrétien" to game show host Louie Anderson, who failed to note the identity of the then-Prime Minister. In one of the feature's most famous moments, future President George W. Bush failed to correct Mercer when he falsely referred to Chrétien as "Jean Poutine" (see below). congratulating the Canadian government on building a dome over its "national igloo" (apparently a downsized version of the United States Capitol made out of ice) to protect it from global warming (one of the interview subjects so fooled was then-Governor of Arkansas Mike Huckabee, whom Mercer later stated had asked off-camera if this was a "controversial igloo"). changing the words in the Canadian Anthem and asking Americans to sing it. congratulating Canada for officially joining North America. congratulating Canada for moving the capital city from Kingston, Ontario to Toronto (the actual capital is Ottawa, and then-Vice President Al Gore failed to correct Mercer regarding Toronto being the capital). asking Americans for their opinions on the US bombing/invading Saskatchewan. asking university students and professors to sign a petition against the Saskatchewan seal hunt and the Toronto polar bear hunt. asking Americans to condemn Canada's practice of euthanizing senior citizens by setting them adrift on Northern ice floes. asking Americans how many states Canada has (Canada has provinces and territories, not states). Saying that global warming is causing Canada's polar ice caps to melt and break in two, resulting in a bipolar Canada, and that the two polar caps can be joined back together with the use of tugboats. He further asks if America would assist in curing bipolar Canada with the use of tugboats, and that Canada will be using a big tugboat named Theodore. Convincing tourists at Mount Rushmore that the mineral rights to the mountain had been sold to a Canadian firm, and that this firm was getting ready to drill for oil in Lincoln's forehead. Alternatively, he would ask their opinion on a plan to expand the monument to include sculptures of Richard Nixon and Brian Mulroney; interviewees all failed to note that the latter was a Canadian Prime Minister, not a US President. Convincing Americans that the new wooden textured Canadian 5 dollar coin will be named the "woody" (a satirical spin on the "Toonie" two-dollar coin and the "Loonie" one-dollar coin), a play on the common slang term for an erection. Professors at Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, Berkeley, New York University and Stanford University were consistently fooled by absurdities such as the "Saskatchewan seal hunt". The only Americans who were shown outsmarting Mercer were: a university student who spent her time laughing at him (before finally answering), and a small child who pointed out to his mother, who was also tricked, that Canada had provinces, not states. George W. Bush The most famous segment, aired in 2000, featured Mercer asking then-presidential candidate George W. Bush – who had previously stated that "you can't stump me on world leaders" – for his reaction to an endorsement by Canadian Prime Minister "Jean Poutine", which was a play on the name of then-Prime Minister Jean Chrétien (poutine is an order of French fries topped with cheese curds and gravy). Bush said he looked forward to working together with his future counterpart to the north, praising free trade and Canada. That said, Bush never actually used the name of Poutine and only failed to correct Mercer on the name. A few years later, when Bush made his first official visit to Canada, he joked during a speech, "There's a prominent citizen who endorsed me in the 2000 election, and I wanted a chance to finally thank him for that endorsement. I was hoping to meet Jean Poutine." 2001 special The special was a co-production between Island Edge (Rick Mercer's production company) and Salter Street Films (at the time the producer of 22 Minutes). It was produced and directed by Geoff D'Eon, who also produced and directed the segments for 22 Minutes. It used both previously broadcast clips from 22 Minutes, and new material shot exclusively for the special. Talking to Americans attracted 2.7 million Canadian viewers, making it the highest-rated special on Canadian television that year. The show received two Gemini Award nominations at the 16th Gemini Awards in 2001, for Best Music or Variety Program or Series and Best Host in a Variety Program or Series. However, Mercer thought it was inappropriate to make fun of American-Canadian relations so soon after the September 11 attacks, and requested that the Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television pull the nominations. 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250844	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest%20Lavisse	Ernest Lavisse	Ernest Lavisse (; 17 December 184218 August 1922) was a French historian. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature five times. Biography He was born at Le Nouvion-en-Thiérache, Aisne. In 1865 he obtained a fellowship in history, and in 1875 became a doctor of letters; he was appointed maître de conférence (1876) at the École Normale Supérieure, succeeding Fustel de Coulanges, and then professor of modern history at the Sorbonne (1888), in the place of Henri Wallon. He was an eloquent professor and very fond of young people, and played an important part in the revival of higher studies in France after 1871. His learning was displayed in his public lectures and his addresses, in his private lessons, where he taught a small number of pupils the, historical method, and in his books, where he wrote ad probandum at least as much as ad narrandum: class-books, collections of articles, intermingled with personal reminiscences (Questions d'enseignement national, 1885; Etudes et étudiants, 1890; A propos de nos écoles, 1895), rough historical sketches (Vue générale de l'histoire politique de l'Europe, 1890), etc. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, his works of learning are lucid and vivid. After the Franco-Prussian War Lavisse studied the development of Prussia and wrote Etude sur l'une des origines de la monarchie prussienne, ou la Marche de Brandebourg sous la dynastie ascanienne, which was his thesis for his doctor's degree, and Études sur l'histoire de la Prusse (1879). In connection with his study of the Holy Roman Empire, and the cause of its decline, he wrote a number of articles which were published in the Revue des Deux Mondes, and he wrote Trois empereurs d'Allemagne (1888), La Jeunesse du grand Frédéric (1891) and Frédéric II. avant son avènement (1893) when studying the modern German empire and the grounds for its strength. With his friend Alfred Rambaud he conceived the plan of L'Histoire générale du IVe siècle à nos jours, to which, however, he contributed nothing. He edited the Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu'à la Révolution (1900–1912), in which he carefully revised the work of his numerous assistants, reserving the greatest part of the reign of Louis XIV for himself. This section occupies the whole of volume VII. Lavisse was admitted to the Académie française on the death of Admiral Jurien de la Gravière in 1892, and after the death of James Darmesteter became editor of the Revue de Paris. He is, however, chiefly a master of pedagogy. When the école normale was joined to the university of Paris, Lavisse was appointed director of the new organization, which he had helped more than any one to bring about. After World War I, he edited the Histoire contemporaine de la France (1920–1922). References Attribution: Further reading DiVanna, Isabel. Writing History in the Third Republic (2010) excerpt and text search External links 1842 births 1922 deaths People from Aisne University of Paris faculty École Normale Supérieure faculty École Normale Supérieure alumni Members of the Académie Française French historians French male non-fiction writers Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy	[ -0.2761213481426239, 0.5676056742668152, -0.8419932126998901, -0.2931433618068695, -0.20701704919338226, 0.7669698596000671, 0.6468620300292969, 0.027730826288461685, -0.38165366649627686, -0.6767112016677856, -0.2662453353404999, 0.16312500834465027, 0.05107511579990387, 0.5477304458618164, 0.25391656160354614, 0.04680907353758812, -0.6355040669441223, -0.4645096957683563, -0.3169419467449188, -0.22472473978996277, -0.4456648528575897, -0.14425784349441528, 0.47256073355674744, 0.009549572132527828, -0.7544605135917664, 0.1315879374742508, 0.2631295323371887, 0.33601105213165283, 0.1747400015592575, -0.05481884256005287, 0.12920624017715454, 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250845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%207	Symphony No. 7	Symphony No. 7 may refer to: Symphonies Symphony No. 7 (Arnold) (Op. 113) by Malcolm Arnold, 1973 Symphony No. 7 (Bax) by Arnold Bax, 1939 Symphony No. 7 (Beethoven) in A major (Op. 92) by Ludwig van Beethoven, 1811–12 Symphony No. 7 (Bruckner) in E major (WAB 107) by Anton Bruckner, 1881–83 Symphony No. 7 (Davies) by Peter Maxwell Davies, 2000 Symphony No. 7 (Diamond) by David Diamond, 1957 Symphony No. 7 (Dvořák) in D minor (Op. 70, B. 141) by Antonín Dvořák, 1885 Symphony No. 7 (Ficher) (Op. 92, Epopeya de mayo) by Jacobo Ficher, 1958–59 Symphony No. 7 (Glass) (Toltec) by Philip Glass, 2005 Symphony No. 7 (Glazunov) in F major (Op. 77, Pastoral) by Alexander Glazunov, 1902 Symphony No. 7 (Hanson) (A Sea Symphony) by Howard Hanson, 1974 Symphony No. 7 (Haydn) in C major (Hoboken I/7, Le Midi) by Joseph Haydn, 1761 Symphony No. 7 (Michael Haydn) in E major (Perger 5, Sherman 7, MH 65) by Michael Haydn, 1764 Symphony No. 7 (Henze) by Hans Werner Henze, 1983–84 Symphony No. 7 (Hovhaness) (Op. 178, Nanga Parvat) by Alan Hovhaness, 1959 Symphony No. 7 (Mahler) (Song of the Night) by Gustav Mahler, 1904–05 Symphony No. 7 (Melartin) (Op. 149, Sinfonia Gaia), by Erkki Melartin, 1935–36 (unfinished) Symphony No. 7 (Milhaud) (Op. 344) by Darius Milhaud, 1955 Symphony No. 7 (Mozart) in D major (K. 45) by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1768 Symphony No. 7 (Penderecki) (Seven Gates of Jerusalem) by Krzysztof Penderecki, 1996 Symphony No. 7 (Piston) by Walter Piston, 1960 Symphony No. 7 (Prokofiev) in C-sharp minor (Op. 131) by Sergei Prokofiev, 1952 Symphony No. 7 (Rautavaara) (Angel of Light) by Einojuhani Rautavaara, 1994 Symphony No. 7 (Ries) in A minor (Op. 181) by Ferdinand Ries, 1835 Symphony No. 7 (Rubbra) in C (Op. 88) by Edmund Rubbra Symphony No. 7 (Schnittke) by Alfred Schnittke, 1993 Symphony No. 7 (Schubert) in E major (D 729) by Franz Schubert, 1821 Symphony No. 7 (Schuman) by William Schuman, 1960 Symphony No. 7 (Sessions) by Roger Sessions, 1967 Symphony No. 7 (Shostakovich) in C major (Op. 60, Leningrad) by Dmitri Shostakovich, c. 1939–40 Symphony No. 7 (Sibelius) in C major (Op. 105) by Jean Sibelius, 1924 Symphony No. 7 (Simpson) by Robert Simpson, 1977 Symphony No. 7 (Tchaikovsky) in E-flat sketched by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, c. 1892, reconstructed 1951–55 Symphony No. 7 (Vaughan Williams) (Sinfonia antartica) by Ralph Vaughan Williams, 1949–52 Symphony No. 7 (Villa-Lobos) (Odysséia da paz) by Heitor Villa-Lobos, 1945 Symphony No. 7 (Williamson) by Malcolm Williamson, 1984 Other uses 7th Symphony (album) by Apocalyptica, 2010 See also Symphony No. 7a (Mozart) in G major (K. Anh. 221/45a Old Lambach) probably by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1766–67 007	[ -0.7824495434761047, -0.21010546386241913, 0.7082915902137756, -0.2456449419260025, -0.5567455291748047, 0.03162826970219612, 0.42266833782196045, 0.1439163237810135, -0.3321216106414795, -0.30367138981819153, -0.3281881511211395, 0.2714715898036957, -0.062355753034353256, 0.9729264378547668, 0.2444305270910263, 0.20747068524360657, 0.9503395557403564, 0.00011089596227975562, -0.1755477339029312, -0.5870797038078308, 0.2429228574037552, 0.4233565032482147, 0.6946355700492859, -0.34285518527030945, -0.2397676557302475, -0.49164313077926636, 0.3300899863243103, 0.7757128477096558, 0.17912137508392334, 0.01724865287542343, -0.6508350968360901, 0.5026534795761108, 0.5000438690185547, -0.33847174048423767, 0.14960019290447235, -0.02513851597905159, 0.23695896565914154, -0.2573353946208954, -0.7244806885719299, -0.3553905189037323, -0.3524704575538635, -0.37141153216362, 0.09783774614334106, -0.11664914339780807, 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250846	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Hastings%20Sibley	Henry Hastings Sibley	Henry Hastings Sibley (February 20, 1811 – February 18, 1891) was a fur trader with the American Fur Company, the first U.S. Congressional representative for Minnesota Territory, the first governor of the state of Minnesota, and a U.S. military leader in the Dakota War of 1862 and a subsequent expedition into Dakota Territory in 1863. Numerous places are named after him, including Sibley County, Minnesota; Sibley, North Dakota; Sibley, Iowa; Hastings, Minnesota; Sibley Memorial Highway; and Sibley State Park. Early life and education Henry Hastings Sibley was born in Detroit, Michigan Territory. His father, Solomon Sibley (1769–1846), was a native of Sutton, Massachusetts, and a direct descendant of John Sibley, who had immigrated from England to America in 1629. Solomon had moved to Detroit from Marietta, Ohio, in 1798. Solomon Sibley was a prominent politician as well as a respected jurist. He served as the first mayor of Detroit and as a territorial delegate to the United States Congress. He was also appointed the first United States Attorney for the Michigan Territory by President James Madison, and later served as Chief Justice of the Michigan Territorial Supreme Court. Judge Sibley was a close associate of Governor Lewis Cass, and served as territorial auditor and treaty commissioner, co-signing the Treaty of Chicago with representatives of the Odawa, Ojibwe and Potawatomi tribes in 1821. Henry's mother, born Sarah Whipple Sproat, was the only daughter of Colonel Ebenezer Sproat, a distinguished officer in the Continental Army, and the granddaughter of Commodore Abraham Whipple of the Continental Navy. Both Sproat and Whipple had received land grants after they lost their fortunes in the American Revolutionary War and were early pioneers in Marietta, Ohio. Sarah was born in Providence, Rhode Island, and attended boarding schools in Bethlehem and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She married Solomon Sibley in Marietta in 1802 at the age of twenty, after which she moved to Detroit. Henry was the fourth of eight children and second son of Solomon and Sarah Sibley. During the War of 1812, when Henry was just 18 months old, Fort Detroit was surrounded by forces led by British Major General Isaac Brock and Shawnee chief Tecumseh. According to the Daughters of the American Revolution, Sarah Sibley and her children had been placed inside the fort for safety with other families, while Solomon was out in the field commanding a company of militia. Mrs. Sibley was found holding baby Henry in her arms "while with her busy hands she was making cartridges for the soldiers," and four officers, including her cousin, were killed by a cannonball in the adjoining room. After American General William Hull surrendered and Detroit was occupied by the British, Solomon Sibley secured permission to leave. The family then left their home with only a few belongings, traveling "by a dim trail through the forests from Detroit to Marietta, camping out most of the way." They returned to Detroit one year later after its recapture by U.S. General William Henry Harrison and his defeat of the British in the Battle of the Thames. As a boy, Henry Sibley was educated at the Academy of Detroit, after which he was tutored privately in Latin and Greek for two years by Reverend Richard Fish Cadle, an Episcopal clergyman and classics scholar. Around the age of sixteen, Henry started studying law, because Judge Sibley had hoped that his son would follow in his footsteps. After two years, Henry confessed to his father that he found the study of law "irksome" and that he "longed for a more active and stirring life." His parents finally agreed to allow Henry to pursue a career of his own choosing. Entry into fur trade On June 20, 1828, at the age of seventeen, Henry H. Sibley left Detroit for Sault Ste. Marie, a prominent fur trading center on both the United States and Canadian sides. His first job was as a clerk working for John Hulbert, whose sutler's store supplied four companies of the U.S. 5th Infantry Regiment, which were garrisoned there. After a few months, he agreed to work as an agent for Susan Johnston, the widow of John Johnston, a Scots-Irish fur trader who had died that year. Mrs. Johnston, also known as Ozhaguscodaywayquay (Woman of the Green Glade), was the daughter of Ojibwe warrior and chief Waubojeeg; mother of three daughters including Native American literary writer Jane Johnston Schoolcraft; and mother-in-law of Henry Schoolcraft, a U.S. Indian agent who later became a well-known ethnologist of Native American tribes in the United States. In the spring of 1829, Sibley entered into an apprenticeship as a clerk and storekeeper for the American Fur Company in Mackinac (then known as Michilimackinac). He returned to Detroit to work at the Bank of Michigan during the winter, and then signed a five-year contract with American Fur Company after working there again in the summer of 1830. In 1832, AFC manager Robert Stuart selected Sibley to transact important business for the company, and sent him on a perilous journey back to Detroit in a bark canoe paddled by nine voyageurs. Despite a severe storm, damage to the canoe, and news of a cholera outbreak in Detroit which killed his grandmother, Sibley successfully completed the journey and secured several licenses for the American Fur Company from Michigan Territorial Governor George Bryan Porter. From 1832 to 1833 and again from 1833 to 1834, Sibley was charged with the responsibility of buying supplies for the company via its offices in Cleveland, which required him to canvass rural Ohio and Pennsylvania on horseback in winter. In 1834, as American Fur Company founder John Jacob Astor prepared to retire, the company was in the midst of reorganization as a partnership, with Astor's chief lieutenant Ramsay Crooks as president and senior partner. Sibley approached Crooks directly and asked to be released from his employment contract with Astor, which ran until 1835, one year early. He explained that his parents "were strongly opposed to [his] longer sojourn in what was little better than a wild Indian country," and that he had been offered much better paying positions as a cashier at two banks, including one in Detroit. However, Crooks rejected Sibley's offer to pay US$1,000 to be released from his contract. Instead, his counteroffer was to include Sibley as a junior partner in the American Fur Company's newly constituted Western Outfit, together with Jean Joseph Rolette and Hercules L. Dousman, who had been running the company's Upper Mississippi Outfit. Sibley would be the regional manager for fur trade with the Dakota north and west of Lake Pepin, based at the mouth of the Minnesota River (then called St. Peter's). Sibley later wrote that he was finally persuaded by Dousman's glowing description of the Minnesota Valley as a hunter's paradise where "woods abounded with bear, deer and other game animals, and the numerous lakes with aquatic fowl of every variety." Fur trade in Minnesota country In October 1834, 23-year-old Henry Sibley left Mackinac, traveling to Green Bay and up the Fox River, then to the Wisconsin River via a two-mile portage trail. On the Wisconsin River, he found a tiny stern-wheel steamboat which took him to Prairie du Chien. After spending several days at the American Fur Company's Western Outfit headquarters at Prairie du Chien, Sibley traveled the remaining 300 miles of wilderness by horseback. According to his letter to company president Ramsay Crooks dated November 1, Sibley finally arrived in St. Peters (now known as Mendota, Minnesota) on October 28, 1834. During his journey to St. Peters, Sibley was accompanied by Alexis Bailly, whose four trading posts Sibley would take over as head of the company's "Sioux Outfit" the following year. They spent six months together, during which Bailly warned Sibley that "the American Fur Company squeezed its small traders dry then dropped them like useless rinds." American Fur Company "Sioux Outfit" Henry Sibley officially took over as head of the American Fur Company's Sioux Outfit in 1835 at the age of 24. The Sioux Outfit was headquartered at St. Peters (now Mendota). The main store in St. Peters served five nearby Mdewakanton Dakota villages, the "mixed-blood" community around Fort Snelling, and groups of Dakota coming from the Cannon and Cedar River valleys to the southwest. Sibley also managed three distant posts at Traverse des Sioux, Lake Traverse, and a third location serving the Sisseton Dakota between the headwaters of the Des Moines and Big Sioux Rivers; these posts were staffed by hired clerks. In addition, the Sioux Outfit had two independent subsidiary traders, including Jean-Baptiste Faribault, Alexis Bailly's father-in-law, who ran a post at Little Rapids (near present-day Chaska), and Joseph Renville, who ran a trading post at Lac qui Parle on the Upper Minnesota River. Sibley had arrived in the fur traders' "frontier" with a sense of adventure, hoping to earn a quick fortune before triumphantly returning to "civilization." Unfortunately for Sibley, as Bailly had warned, it had already become difficult for traders to turn a profit through the traditional fur trade. Nevertheless, Sibley worked diligently to try to maximize profits, and according to American Fur Company records, the fur trade in Minnesota "was in its most flourishing condition" in the years leading up to 1837. Whereas fur traders such as Joseph Renville and Hazen Mooers had traditionally rewarded loyal Dakota hunters with generous gift-giving and access to credit, Sibley "sought to transform the fur trade into a completely modern business." He instructed the traders and clerks in his territory to limit credits to powder, lead and shot. Many Dakota hunters complained to Indian agent Lawrence Taliaferro about these changes. Hunters from Shakopee's band reported that ever since Sibley had taken over, "they could get 'nothing' from their traders, 'not even a flint much less traps & ammunition.'" Sibley removed Hazen Mooers, a fur trader who was popular with Sisseton, Wahpeton and Yankton hunters, from his trading post at Lake Traverse which he had run for over 20 years. By the fall of 1835, Sibley and Jean Joseph Rolette had replaced Mooers with Joseph R. Brown, a fur trader who had previously quarreled with Agent Taliaferro for hauling whiskey and owed money to Rolette and the Western Outfit. Sibley was also reportedly concerned about the power and influence of mixed-blood trader Joseph Renville, who had his own stockade and soldiers' lodge at Lac qui Parle, and asked Brown to keep an eye on him. The steady decline in the wild animal population in the region meant that more and more hunters were competing for scarcer game, and driving herds further north. By 1836, the Sisseton and Wahpeton Dakota had become more protective of their hunting zones, even refusing access to the Mdewakanton Dakota, who had been hardest hit and now depended entirely on the western hunting grounds. Sibley, whose business relied heavily on collecting furs from the Mdewakantons, made an emergency trip to Traverse des Sioux to broker a solution. He threatened to withdraw all American Fur Company men if the Sissetons and Wahpetons did not allow the Mdewakantons to hunt there. Government contracts Sibley worked to secure government contracts for the American Fur Company, in part to eliminate potential competition. From 1836 to 1839, Sibley was in charge of operating the army sutler's store at Fort Snelling, in partnership with Pennsylvania newspaper editor and former Indian agent Samuel C. Stambaugh, who had been appointed to the post but had no interest in moving there. By controlling the army sutler's store, the fur traders were confident that they could maintain their local monopoly; otherwise, there would be nothing to stop the Dakota from patronizing the sutler's store at Fort Snelling and using fur pelts to pay for goods. Any losses incurred by the traders would be more than offset by the higher prices they could charge the Dakota. However, the sutler's store proved to be a headache for Henry Sibley, who did not get along with Stambaugh. Business was also highly dependent on the number of troops garrisoned at Fort Snelling. By 1837, the garrison was drastically reduced due to the Second Seminole War in Florida Territory, and many soldiers in the First Infantry Regiment left the fort with unpaid credits. In 1835, Sibley started lobbying for the establishment of a post office at Fort Snelling with regular service from Prairie du Chien, contacting his political connections in Michigan Territory for support. He succeeded, and the American Fur Company's Western Outfit secured the contract for mail delivery from 1837 to 1839. Mail was carried by steamboats during the summer, but during the long winter, Sibley and his partners had to hire runners, and found it difficult to deliver the mail on time. Land cession treaties of 1837 The financial panic of 1837 nearly resulted in a collapse of the U.S. banking and monetary system, triggering an economic depression which lasted until the mid-1840s. Fur prices fell sharply and muskrat pelts, which made up the bulk of the fur trade in Sibley's region, were no longer in demand. By February 1838, Crooks reported to Sibley that the previous year's pelts were still sitting in a New York warehouse, and had become essentially worthless. The partners of the American Fur Company were on the brink of financial ruin. However, in the summer and fall of 1837, the United States government signed three major treaties with the Ojibwe, Dakota and Winnebago tribes, in which they agreed to give up all their lands east of the Mississippi River in return for compensation. Sibley and the American Fur Company partners aimed to collect payment from the government to cover a substantial portion of their business losses, which appeared on their books as "Indian debts." In December 1836, Sibley had written to American Fur Company president Ramsay Crooks urging him to lobby his Washington connections to prevent Indian agent Lawrence Taliaferro, a long-time political enemy of the traders, from being appointed as treaty commissioner the following year. Taliaferro nevertheless prevailed. On July 29, 1837, Henry Sibley was a signatory to the U.S. treaty with the Ojibwe, also known as the Treaty of St. Peters, the Treaty with the Chippewa, or the "White Pine Treaty". The Ojibwe treaty named his business partner Hercules L. Dousman as one of three fur traders to receive debt payments. Agent Taliaferro, infuriated by what he viewed as trader meddling when the Ojibwe treaty was signed at Fort Snelling, moved the Mdewakanton Dakota treaty negotiations to Washington, D.C. On August 18, Taliaferro managed to leave the St. Peter's Indian Agency with twenty-six Mdewakanton chiefs and headmen on a steamboat without tipping off the traders and without telling the chiefs the real reason for the trip. Soon after their departure, however, Taliaferro's covert operation was discovered, and nearly a dozen traders, including Henry Sibley and Joseph R. Brown, arrived in Washington close behind them. It was Sibley's first time in Washington. In early September, Hercules Dousman wrote to Sibley, instructing him "leave no stone unturned to get something handsome for us" when the U.S. government was negotiating with the Dakota. However, Taliaferro prevented most of the American Fur Company traders from entering the room where discussions took place between Secretary of War Joel Roberts Poinsett, Commissioner Carey A. Harris, and the Mdewakanton chiefs, starting September 21. Only "mixed-blood" American Fur employee Alexander Faribault and former AFC trader Alexis Bailly were allowed in the meetings as staff assistants who could also serve as interpreters. On September 29, 1837, twenty-one Mdewakanton leaders and representatives of the U.S. government signed the "Treaty with the Sioux." The Mdewakanton gave up "all their land, east of the Mississippi river, and all their islands in the said river" to the United States for $16,000 in cash and goods up front, plus an annual distribution worth up to $40,000 per year. Meanwhile, mixed-blood "relatives and friends" would receive $110,000 up front (because they were ineligible for annuities), and $90,000 would be paid to the traders to settle Mdewakanton debts – a little more than one-third of the debts they had claimed. Sibley wrote to Ramsay Crooks that the whole treaty was "but one series of iniquity and wrong," which had left Faribault and Bailly "so exasperated, that they seriously considered traveling home without the delegation... This is the boasted paternal regard for the poor Indian. 'O Shame where is thy blush!" Historian Gary Clayton Anderson writes that "Self-interest on their part underlay this opposition: the traders wanted the government to spend more money." Sibley was also irritated that the treaty named Taliaferro's interpreter, Scott Campbell, as an annuity recipient with title to part of the land then occupied by Sibley's trading establishment — a personal concession which was later struck out by the United States Congress. On November 1, 1837, Henry Sibley was a signatory to the Treaty with the Winnebago, also negotiated in Washington. The treaty was potentially the most lucrative for the American Fur Company, with $200,000 set aside for individual compensation and settlement of "debts of the nation" to traders. The traders were "jubilant" over the terms of the treaty, and Sibley wrote to his father saying that once his debts were paid, he hoped to end his relationship with American Fur and return to Detroit the following year. Aftermath of 1837 treaties It took many months for the treaties to be ratified by the U.S. Congress, which was reluctant to approve the treaty expenditures in the midst of an economic depression. Special commissioners were appointed to examine the books of each claimant and allocate funds. Disputes also arose among American Fur Company traders, complicated by the fact that some debts had been incurred before the company reorganized in 1834. Even before the treaties were ratified, however, the area around the Upper Mississippi and St. Croix Rivers changed quickly. Hundreds of timber speculators and squatters began moving into the area, also on land that still belonged to the Dakota, causing Chief Big Thunder Little Crow to complain to Agent Taliaferro that the influx of squatters seemed "hasty" and premature. Meanwhile, many Mdewakanton, convinced that the promised payments and provisions would soon arrive, refused to join the winter hunt and insisted that all past debts to traders had been settled by the treaty. In December 1837, Hercules Dousman complained to Henry Sibley that the Mdewakanton "say it is not necessary to work for the traders anymore as they will now have plenty to live on independent of the traders' goods." Tensions in the region grew to unprecedented levels as the funds and supplies failed to arrive, and many eastern Ojibwe and Dakota faced near starvation. In April 1838, couriers from Lake Traverse informed Sibley that angry Sisseton and Wahpeton had assaulted several American Fur Company traders, killing Louis Provencalle, Jr., wounding Joseph R. Brown, and killing and stealing horses and oxen. Sibley retaliated immediately by closing all trading posts west of Lac qui Parle. The treaties were finally ratified in June 1838, but it would take many more months before payments reached the traders and the Native American tribes. Hearings on the Winnebago claims in particular dragged on through 1839, mired in public scandal and charges of corruption. In November 1839, the Western Outfit partners including Henry Sibley agreed with Ramsay Crooks to extend their original contract with American Fur Company for another year, until August 1, 1841. On August 1, 1842, the American Fur Company sold its interest in the Western Outfit to Pierre Chouteau Jr. and Company. The American Fur Company declared bankruptcy on September 10, 1842. Independent of American Fur, Sibley was subject to fewer restrictions and was able to trade freely with both the Ojibwe and the Dakota. Marriage and family When Henry Sibley first arrived in St. Peters (in present-day Mendota, Minnesota) on October 28, 1834, he was "struck with the picturesque beauty of the scene" looking out at Fort Snelling perched high above the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers. However, as he descended the hill, he was "disappointed to find only a group of log huts" occupied by the fur traders and staff, and included an urgent request for new buildings in his first letter to Ramsay Crooks on November 1. Sibley stayed at the largest log house, which belonged to Alexis Bailly, whose business Sibley took over the following year. Home in Saint Peters (Mendota) In 1836, Sibley hired John Mueller to start building work in St. Peters at what is now known as the Sibley House Historic Site. The Sibley House has historically been referred to as "the oldest stone house in Minnesota." The first new building built by Sibley was actually a stone warehouse, completed in 1836. Work on his actual residence most likely started in 1837 or 1838 and may not have been fully completed until 1839. Immediately following his marriage to Sarah Jane Steele and well into the 1850s, Henry Sibley began a series of alterations to his house to accommodate his growing family and transform it from a hunting lodge into a Victorian family home. During his bachelor years, Sibley hosted many famous travelers in his home, including French geographer Joseph Nicollet, who spent the winter of 1836–37 with Sibley. Over the years, questions have been raised as to whether Sibley's cook, Joe Robinson, was a slave or a free man. Evidence suggests that if Robinson was in fact a slave at this time, he belonged to Hercules L. Dousman and may have been "on loan" to Sibley. Sibley famously wrote, "It may seem paradoxical, but it is nevertheless true, that I was successively a citizen of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota Territories, without changing my residence at Mendota." Until 1857, the site of Sibley's home and the community around it were technically part of the Fort Snelling military reservation. Henry Sibley lived with his family in Mendota until 1862, when he sold his home to St. Peters Catholic Parish and moved to St. Paul. Relationship with Red Blanket Woman During the winter of 1840–41, Sibley entered a relationship with Red Blanket Woman (Tahshinahohindoway), daughter of Bad Hail (Wasuwicaxtaxni), a Mdewakanton sub-chief, and of partly French descent. They were part of a hunting expedition to the Red Cedar, which included 150 Dakota men and their families, as well as mixed-blood fur trader Alexander Faribault. While the details of their relationship are obscure, most accounts suggest that Sibley and Red Blanket Woman were married "in the Dakota manner" before or during the hunting trip. There has also been considerable speculation that Bad Hail had actively sought to establish kinship ties with Sibley for some time. In the final page of his unfinished autobiography, Sibley recounted that "an Indian sub-chief" had brought his daughter to his log house in the middle of the night for protection during the winter of 1835–36. Sibley wrote that he had declined to take her in as his wife, and that the two visitors had left his house "disappointed, and mortified, at the ill success of their mission." Although Sibley did not specify whether that man was Bad Hail, researcher Bruce A. Kohn states that it may well have been. On August 28, 1841, Red Blanket Woman gave birth to their daughter Helen Hastings Sibley, also known as Wakiye (Bird). Monsignor Augustin Ravoux, a Catholic missionary, baptized "Hélène," daughter of Tahshinahohindoway and an unnamed father, with fur trader William Henry Forbes named as her godfather. In February 1842, Forbes sent a cryptic update to Sibley, who was in Washington, apparently about Red Blanket Woman and the baby. The evidence is unclear as to how long Red Blanket Woman lived in the area. Some sources suggest that Tahshinahohindoway remarried a Dakota man, perhaps in 1842, and died in early 1843. However, trading post records show that Tahshinahohindoway had made purchases of blankets, clothing and other items as late as 1846. Marriage to Sarah Jane Steele On May 2, 1843, Henry Sibley married Sarah Jane Steele, the 20-year-old sister of Franklin Steele, an entrepreneur from Pennsylvania who had staked the first claim to the east bank of the Mississippi River at Saint Anthony Falls and had operated the sutler's store at Fort Snelling since 1839. Sarah Jane was the eldest daughter of James Steele, who had served as Inspector General of Pennsylvania Troops during the War of 1812 and as a legislator in the Pennsylvania General Assembly, and built a paper- and cotton-milling business with one of his brothers. Her three sisters eventually moved west with their mother following the death of their father in 1845. In 1847, her sister Abbian Steele married Dr. Thomas R. Potts of Galena, Illinois, and moved with him to Saint Paul, Minnesota, where Potts became one of the town's first physicians, its first mayor, and a close friend of Henry Sibley. From 1856 until her death in 1869, Sarah Jane Sibley served on the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association as Vice Regent in charge of fundraising in Minnesota. She appointed roughly two dozen "lady managers" to assist fundraising efforts for the historical preservation of Mount Vernon, including Mary LeDuc and Rebecca Flandreau, who would succeed her. In an effort to transcend political divisions, Sarah Jane established a male advisory board including Henry Sibley's bitter enemy within the Democratic Party, Daniel A. Robertson, along with future Republican state legislator John B. Sanborn and future governor Henry A. Swift. The advisory board also included many of Henry Sibley's business contacts such as Richard Chute, Alexis Bailly and Martin McLeod, and family friends such as John S. Prince and William Gates LeDuc. In her later years, Sarah Jane suffered from recurring pleurisy and pregnancies, which kept her confined to bed for much of the time. In July 1859, she sent MVLA Regent Ann Pamela Cunningham a letter of resignation which was declined. In 1860, Henry also wrote to Cunningham on Sarah's behalf, but his plea to allow her to resign due to ill health was ignored. In 1862, the Sibley family moved to their new home at 417 Woodward Street in St. Paul – a move that Sarah had longed for during many years but reportedly was unable to enjoy due to depression and illness. Sarah Jane Sibley died of complications from pneumonia on May 21, 1869 at the age of 46. Relationship with daughter Helen When Helen was about six years old, Henry Sibley arranged to have Helen adopted by William Reynolds Brown, an Anglo-American farmer, and his wife Martha. They had both worked at the Methodist mission in Kaposia — William as a carpenter and Martha as a teacher. Martha Brown reported that Helen spoke French when she came to live with them, suggesting that she learned the language from her Mdewakanton family and relatives. Sibley provided for his daughter financially, paying the Browns to support Helen, and financed her education, including boarding school in the eastern U.S. As a young woman living in St. Paul, she was said to be fully acculturated and accepted by white society, with a considerable income as a result of Sibley's investment of her treaty annuities. Henry Sibley maintained a congenial and public relationship with Helen, although this reportedly upset his wife Sarah Jane; Henry's past relationship with Helen's mother fueled criticism in Republican newspapers, which questioned his character and called him a "Moccasin Democrat." Henry and Helen were often seen chatting at his picket-fence gate. On September 1, 1858, they were both very prominent in a St. Paul parade celebrating the laying of the transatlantic cable in September 1858, where Helen was one of 33 young women selected to represent the states of the Union. The Daily Minnesotian identified Miss Delaware as "Helen Sibley" with no further comment. In 1859, Helen married Sylvester Sawyer, an Anglo-American doctor, and was given away by Governor Sibley at her wedding in the front parlor of the Browns' house in St. Paul. They agreed that Helen would not use Sibley as her surname on the couple's marriage certificate, but Henry signed the certificate "H.H. Sibley" as a witness. Tragically, Helen died less than a year later of scarlet fever after giving birth to a baby girl who also died. In 1860, Sawyer wrote that Governor Sibley mourned the loss of his first-born child Helen "sincerely and truly." Other children Henry and Sarah Jane Sibley had at least nine children, four of whom survived until adulthood, including Augusta Ann, born in 1844; Sarah Jane, born in 1851; Charles Frederic, born in 1860; and Alfred Brush, born in 1866. Five died as young children: Henry Hastings (1846), Henry Hastings (1847–51), Franklin Steele (1853–63), Mary Steele (1855–63), and Alexander Hastings (1864). In 1868, their eldest daughter Augusta married Captain Douglas Pope, Sibley's former aide-de-camp who had been based at Fort Snelling. When his wife Sarah died in 1869, Henry was left with two young sons, including Freddie who was eight years old and Allie who was not yet three, as well as 18-year-old Sallie (Sarah Jane). Sallie married Elbert A. Young, a Saint Paul wholesale merchant, in 1875. Henry Sibley did not remarry, but his sister-in-law Abbie Potts helped to take care of the boys and served as his housekeeper and hostess, and in later years as his nurse. After Douglas Pope died suddenly in 1880, Sibley's daughter Augusta (Gussie) moved into his house in St. Paul with her three daughters. Other business ventures In the years after the 1837 treaties were signed, the fur trade itself changed significantly. In local parlance, it became known as the "Indian trade," reflecting the industry's increasing reliance on U.S. government annuities paid to, or on behalf of, the Native American tribes in the region. The growing white population in the Upper Mississippi — including lumbermen, speculators and farmers — also spurred the growth of the general mercantile trade. Henry Sibley sought to diversify his own business activities into other areas, even as he worked for American Fur Company and later for Pierre Chouteau Jr. and Company. However, Sibley never achieved great commercial success as an entrepreneur, and would later lament his "want of success in business." Timber and sawmill business As early as 1837, Sibley, together with traders William Aitken and Lyman Warren, had entered into an exclusive contract with the Ojibwe of St. Croix valley to cut timber along the Upper St. Croix and Snake Rivers. Under the terms of the contract, the 47 Ojibwe signatories agreed not to harass any lumbermen working for the three traders. In return, the traders would provide specified goods to the Ojibwe, including gunpowder, lead, scalping knives and tobacco, every year for ten years. After the contract was superseded by the White Pine Treaty of 1837, Sibley and Warren joined with Hercules L. Dousman in building a sawmill at Chippewa Falls. The Chippewa Mills went into operation in 1840 but was sold in 1845, much to the relief of Dousman. Steamboat investments In the 1840s, Hercules Dousman became interested in the steamboat industry and often bought shares in boats on behalf of Henry Sibley as well as himself. In 1844, Sibley acquired one-eighth of a steamboat called the "Lynx," which was half-owned by Dousman. Although the Lynx netted only $161.04 during the 1844 season after deducting losses due to damage to the boat, in 1845, the Lynx netted $11,194.73. However, there were delays in collecting payment from shippers, leading Captain John Atchison to delay paying dividends to investors. Frustrated, Dousman put considerable pressure on Sibley over several months to make a "final settlement" with Atchison. In 1847, Dousman and Sibley, together with Henry Mower Rice, Bernard Brisbois and others, purchased shares in a packet company with steamboats running on a regular schedule between Galena, Illinois and ports in Minnesota. The first boat of the Galena Packet Company, the "Argo," sank in October 1847, but its new boat, the "Dr. Franklin," launched successfully in 1848. General merchandise store In 1844, Sibley contracted with David Faribault to open a general merchandise store in Saint Paul, which was initially independent of Pierre Chouteau Jr. and Company. Because cash was scarce, many customers including white settlers paid for goods with fur pelts and deerskins. From 1847, the store was managed by William Henry Forbes. Business grew as the population of lumbermen and metal prospectors increased steadily east of the Mississippi River. Sibley also opened the first general store in Mendota together with his clerk and business partner Hypolite Dupuis. Trade with the Métis and Ojibwe In 1842, the American Fur Company's Western Outfit was sold to Pierre Choteau Jr. and Company, forming their new Upper Mississippi Outfit. In the original contract, the Upper Mississippi Outfits's trade was described as "trade with whites and Indians," reflecting the changing demographics of the region. As part of Choteau Company, Henry Sibley was no longer bound by the American Fur Company's agreement with the British Hudson's Bay Company to refrain from trading along the border with Canada. In response to market demand, Sibley also shifted his focus to trading for buffalo robes. In 1842, Sibley briefly entered into a secret arrangement with Franklin Steele and Norman Kittson allowing them to conduct trade on a cash basis at Coldwater and up the Minnesota River at Little Rapids, Traverse des Sioux, and Lac qui Parle, even though this brought them into direct competition with Sibley's own traders including Jean-Baptiste Faribault and Joseph Renville. In the spring of 1843, Sibley entered into an agreement with Norman Kittson, in which Kittson would run all of the Upper Mississippi Outfit's western business. Kittson was tasked with supervising Renville at Lac qui Parle, building a new post at Big Stone Lake, and sending traders out along the Sheyenne River and the upper James River. In 1844, Kittson started building a trading post at Pembina, which would allow Sibley's Upper Mississippi Outfit to trade with the Ojibwe and the Métis. Many Métis and Ojibwe hunters from the north were willing to make illegal trips across the international border to get higher prices for their fur pelts than what the British would pay. From Pembina, Kittson sent large trains of carts along the "Plains Trail" west of the Red River and down the Minnesota valley, well-defended against possible attacks by Dakota hunters who were resentful of the whole slaughter of buffalo by the Métis and had threatened to stop any goods from going across their country to the north. After the death of Joseph Renville in 1846, young Canadian fur trader Martin McLeod took responsibility for trade at Lac qui Parle, Big Stone Lake, and further west on the Dakota plains, freeing Kittson from having to collect furs there. Kittson then started trying out a shorter route from the Upper Red River to Lake Minnewaska, then along the Crow and Sauk Rivers to the Mississippi, and Sibley himself visited the area in 1847. Provisions for British troops Both the Hudson's Bay Company, and Ramsay Crooks, who still controlled what remained of the American Fur Company, were angered by increasing competition from Sibley and Kittson. In August 1846, 350 British troops arrived in the Red River settlement, in response to the Hudson's Bay Company's call for help to put an end to further smuggling. Ironically, the Hudson's Bay Company quickly found that they lacked enough provisions to supply the British forces and had to send buyers overland to the Mississippi to purchase supplies. As they ran into further problems in shipping their provisions up the Red River, Henry Sibley graciously offered his assistance. From this time onward, Sibley and Kittson proceeded to build a thriving business in supplying the British troops with everything from champagne to sheet iron stoves, transporting goods up the Red River Trail. Trade with the Dakota Sibley's trade with the western Dakota bands declined sharply in the 1840s. In 1844, a measles epidemic led to a decline in the number of Dakota hunters, and the dwindling population of elk, buffalo and other game forced the remaining hunters to push westward. In 1844 and 1845, bad weather and prairie fires temporarily drove the buffalo into the James River valley, but in the years that followed, the herds virtually disappeared. In 1846, drought and the failure of the corn crop made things worse, particularly among the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands, and traders including Martin McLeod and Norman Kittson had to extend credit to the Dakota in the form of food. The Mdewakantons, on the other hand, were somewhat cushioned by the annuities they received from the 1837 treaty. In addition, some Mdewakantons such as Taoyateduta Little Crow, who succeeded his father as chief of the Kaposia band in 1846, found ways to trade which effectively competed with Sibley's business. By 1848, a ring of Dakota including Little Crow had become so successful in trading whiskey for fur skins that Sibley and McLeod were compelled to set up river patrols to stop any canoes carrying contraband to the west. From 1842 to 1846, Sibley also bought buffalo hides from Joseph R. Brown on his personal account, even though Brown was a competitor of Choteau Company's Upper Mississippi Outfit. When Brown finally exited the fur trade, Sibley bought out his interests and assets on generous terms. Formation of the Northern Outfit In the summer of 1848, Henry Mower Rice, who had taken over trade with the Winnebago when Hercules Dousman exited the business, proposed the creation of a new Northern Outfit. The Northern Outfit combined the Dakota, Winnebago and Ojibwe trade under a single business unit. The Choteau Company held half of the firm, while Sibley, Rice and a new partner, Sylvanus Lowry, each held one-sixth. Sibley would later come to regret this move. Early experience in public office Henry Sibley was initiated into public life as a young man in Michigan Territory when he received his first commission as justice of the peace of Mackinac County from Governor George Bryan Porter. Magistrate in Iowa Territory After moving to Mendota, Sibley received a similar commission as a justice of the peace of Clayton County, which he called "an empire of itself" in size, extending from a line twenty miles below Prairie du Chien on the west of the Mississippi River to Pembina, and across to the Missouri River. He had been appointed by Governor John Chambers of the newly organized Iowa Territory in 1838, and received extensions to his commission through 1842. Sibley later stated that it was his "fortune to be the first to introduce the machinery of law...into what was a benighted region" and that he had felt free of oversight:"As I was the only magistrate in this region and the county seat was some three hundred miles distant, I had matters pretty much under my own control, there being little chance of an appeal from my decisions. In fact some of the simple-minded people around me, firmly believed that I had the power of life and death."As justice of the peace, Sibley heard a wide range of cases. In 1838, he was called to investigate the death of John Hays, a former sergeant at Fort Snelling, which has been billed as the "oldest murder mystery in Minnesota." The investigation resulted in the arrest of Edward Phalen, Hays's business partner, a few weeks later. For jurisdictional reasons, however, Sibley passed on the case to Joseph R. Brown, who was appointed as justice of the peace for Crawford County in 1839, and Phalen was found not guilty of murder despite his self-incriminatory testimony. In 1840, Sibley was called upon to hear a criminal case involving the brutal rape of a ten-year-old girl which took place in Wisconsin Territory, because justice of the peace Joseph Brown was away at the legislature in Madison. Lobbying in Washington Lobbyist for the Doty Treaty Following the defeat of Jacksonian Democrat Martin Van Buren in the 1840 United States presidential election, the new Secretary of War John Bell moved quickly to try to purchase land from the Dakota. Bell had long been a proponent of a plan commissioned by John C. Calhoun and written by Reverend Jedidiah Morse which had called for the creation of an "all-Indian territory" that would eventually become a state. Bell's stated intention was to remove all Indians from the northeastern United States to the Minnesota valley. Much to the surprise of Henry Sibley and the partners of the American Fur Company's Western Outfit, John Bell appointed Governor James Duane Doty of Wisconsin Territory to negotiate a treaty with the Dakota to acquire 30 million acres of land on behalf of the U.S. and require their settlement in farming communities as part of a plan to grant citizenship. On July 31, 1841, Governor Doty concluded a treaty with the Sisseton, Wahpeton and Wahpekute in Traverse des Sioux, with assistance from Alexis Bailly as secretary, although several major chiefs including Sleepy Eyes and Burning Earth did not participate. Doty testified that Sibley and several of his subsidiary traders and employees had provided "indispensable aid" in securing agreement from the Dakota. Specifically, Sibley had promised the Dakota bands that he would supply the goods worth $10,000 which Doty had agreed to as gifts. On August 4, 1841, Doty concluded a similar treaty with Mdewakanton in Mendota, and then left, tasking Sibley and Hercules L. Dousman with securing signatures from chiefs Wacouta and Wabasha III, who had refused to attend the signing. Dousman was pleased with the Doty Treaty, which included up to $150,000 to compensate traders for debts held by the Dakota, despite the fact that Bell had specifically forbidden such a clause. The treaty also called for paying off the "mixed-bloods" who had had land set aside for them by the Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1830, many of whom owed sizable debts to the Western Outfit. Furthermore, Doty had recommended twelve individuals for positions in the new territory, including Henry H. Sibley for the post of superintendent or governor, plus eight other traders associated with the Sioux Outfit. Sibley wrote to Ramsay Crooks on August 26, 1841:"The provisions of this treaty, I consider to be better calculated for securing the interests of the Indians and of the people in the country than those of any treaty which has been made with the north-western Indians."However, any hope that the treaty would be ratified quickly disappeared as animosity grew between President John Tyler, who had succeeded President William Henry Harrison after he died only a month after inauguration, and Tyler's inherited cabinet, as well as the national Whig Party. By the end of the summer, most of the cabinet including John Bell had resigned. As one of his final acts as Secretary of War, Bell sent the Doty treaty to the Senate and recommended it for urgent approval, but further consideration of the treaty was tabled until the spring. Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri voiced his vehement opposition to President Tyler, writing: "The whole scheme of the treaty, & the terms of it is in my own opinion the most unjustifiable & reprehensible thing of the kind that has come before the Senate." He opposed the policy of government-assisted "civilization" underpinning the treaty, as well as the fact that it was trying to circumvent longstanding laws governing the formation of new territories. In January 1842, Ramsay Crooks sent Henry Sibley to Washington to serve as the chief manager of the lobbying effort for the Doty Treaty, reminding him that the future of the Western Outfit "depend[ed] very much" on its ratification. The new Secretary of War, John Canfield Spencer, was a steadfast supporter of the treaty and came to rely heavily on Sibley for information about relations with Native American tribes in the region. The two senators from Michigan, William Woodbridge and Augustus Seymour Porter, favored the treaty, but the main obstacle to ratification was the opposition of Senator Thomas Benton, who also chaired the Committee on Indian Affairs. Sibley enlisted help from influencers including Pierre Chouteau Jr. and Joseph Nicollet, both of whom were highly respected by Senator Benton, to convince him to change his mind. Nevertheless, Benton remained staunchly opposed, and major modifications to the treaty failed to produce any breakthrough. Sibley left Washington in April, leaving all further lobbying to Robert Stuart, his former manager at American Fur Company in Mackinac, who had by then had become superintendent of Indian affairs for Michigan. On August 29, 1842, the Senate voted against ratification of the Doty treaty with the Dakota by a vote of 26 to 2. With the defeat of the treaty, Sibley's prospects as governor of a new all-Indian territory in the northwest faded completely. Helen Sibley's biographer, Bruce A. Kohn, adds, "The lands of the Dakota would not become a homeland for indigenous peoples where Helen might have lived with her mother." Lobbyist against Winnebago relocation In October 1846, a few Winnebago leaders signed a treaty with the U.S. in which they agreed to move their people north to an unspecified tract of land between the Dakota and Ojibwe. Both Hercules L. Dousman and Henry Mower Rice were active in engineering the agreement. The treaty was contingent on land being secured from either the Dakota or the Ojibwe tribes. Dousman probably expected Sibley to persuade the Dakota to cede land for this purpose, but Sibley was firmly opposed to relocating the Winnebago as a "buffer" between the Dakota and Ojibwe. In December 1846, Sibley went to Washington to lobby against the relocation of the Winnebago, hoping to persuade Michigan Senator Lewis Cass to oppose the treaty. Dousman suspected Sibley's intentions, and the relationship between the two men cooled significantly. Despite Sibley's efforts, Congress ratified the treaty in January 1847. The Dakota remained opposed to any sale of land, but Rice convinced the Ojibwe to give up a tract west of the Mississippi between the Watab and Crow Wing Rivers. In the fall of 1847, Sibley wrote to his friend Charles Christopher Trowbridge regarding the Winnebago:"These poor fellows will be thrust between the powerful contending tribes of Sioux and Chippewas, and I fear they will fare badly... The whole policy pursued by the Govt. toward the Western Indians generally, has a tendency to destroy them, and that speedily. They dare now avow this as their object,...but by persisting in a course which they have been repeatedly warned must end in the extinction of the tribes, they show how little real regard they have for their welfare."In the summer of 1848, the Winnebago reluctantly began to move, with assistance from Colonel Seth Eastman and a company of infantry from Fort Snelling. Dousman and Rice received payment for "tribal debts." Dousman, who had chosen not to renew his contract with Choteau and Company after the original contract expired in 1846, had exited the fur trade and focused on his other business ventures. Political career Boundary with Wisconsin and governmental vacuum In December 1847, Wisconsin's second constitutional convention voted to place the northwestern border of Wisconsin at the Rum and Mississippi Rivers. In January 1848, St. Paul citizens petitioned Congress to oppose the proposed Rum River boundary. Rather than being relegated to a minor role at the far western edge of the new state, they envisioned St. Paul at the center of a new territorial government. Henry Sibley vigorously supported their efforts to keep St. Paul and the St. Croix valley out of the borders of Wisconsin, bringing him into direct conflict with his old business partner Hercules L. Dousman. Dousman once again had his eye on further opportunities to obtain treaty money, and wrote to Sibley that a Wisconsin border on the Rum River line would create pressure for a major Dakota land cession to the west of the Mississippi River.Wisconsin became a state on May 29, 1848, with Wisconsin's northwestern border finally pushed back to the St. Croix River. The residents of St. Paul, the lumbermen along the St. Croix, and the sawmill workers of St. Anthony Falls suddenly found themselves in a peculiar legal and governmental vacuum. Although most of them had protested against inclusion in the new state of Wisconsin, they were shocked and disappointed to find themselves left behind in "a no-man's land without law or government...its people without corporate existence." Appointment as delegate by Stillwater convention On August 26, 1848, Sibley attended a "convention" held in Stillwater which had been called by several concerned citizens of the St. Croix valley, as well as Joseph R. Brown, Franklin Steele and himself. During the convention, Joseph Brown was appointed chair of a committee which drafted "memorials" to Congress and to the president, requesting the formation of a territory of Minnesota as soon as possible.The main resolution of the convention was to then appoint "a delegate to visit Washington to represent the interests of the proposed territory, with full power to act." Sibley let it be known that he was willing to go to Washington to present the memorials and lobby for the new territory on his own expense. He received the majority of votes and was declared unanimously elected by the convention. Upon a motion introduced by Morton S. Wilkinson, Henry H. Sibley was issued with a certificate signed by the officers of the convention that he had been duly elected as their representative in Washington. The memorials were then signed by the 61 delegates of the convention and adjourned. Election for Congressional delegate from "Wisconsin Territory" In parallel with these developments, John Catlin, who had been secretary of the former Wisconsin Territory, started to promote the idea that the territory of Wisconsin continued to exist in the area that had been excluded from the state of Wisconsin, since the original act creating the territory had not been repealed by Congress. By that logic, Catlin himself was now acting governor by law. Once John Hubbard Tweedy, who had been the delegate to Congress from Wisconsin Territory, formally resigned his position, the acting governor could then lawfully call an election to fill the vacancy. On September 18, John H. Tweedy resigned, and on October 9, 1848, acting Governor Catlin issued a proclamation for an election to be held on October 30. At first, the general expectation was that Henry H. Sibley would be the obvious choice for the role. His election campaign took an unexpected turn when his new business partner in the Northern Outfit, Henry Mower Rice, declared his candidacy for the role. Technically, neither Sibley nor Rice were residents of "Wisconsin Territory," but this was not required by law and the question was never raised. After a brief campaign, Sibley won the election with 236 votes to Rice's 122 votes. Sibley had stronger support in St. Paul and the St. Croix valley, while Rice found his strongest support from his own employees and business associates at Crow Wing, as well as the majority of mill workers at St. Anthony Falls, where Rice was said to have bought votes outright on election day. Speech before House Committee and recognition by Congress In early November 1848, Sibley made the long journey to Washington with his wife Sarah and their two children. On December 22, 1848, Henry H, Sibley delivered his famous speech before the House Committee on Elections. Henry Sibley's biographer, Rhoda R. Gilman, writes: That winter in Washington was not only the beginning, but also in one sense the high point of Sibley's political career. Certainly it was the most satisfying part, for he became at once an agent of history and a symbol of the new territory. The tale of how he rose, polished and urbane, before a Congress that had expected a figure in buckskin and eloquently defended the right of pioneers to the protection of government and law became — almost immediately — Minnesota's most cherished founding legend. Congressional delegate for Minnesota Territory The Wisconsin Territory's At-large congressional district was eliminated with the creation of the Territory of Minnesota on March 3, 1849. He was subsequently elected as the first representative of the Minnesota Territory's At-large congressional district, serving in the 31st and 32nd congresses from July 7, 1849 – March 3, 1853. Legislator in Minnesota Territorial House of Representatives Sibley was elected to the Minnesota Territorial House of Representatives, convened from January to March 1855, as the representative of Dakota County. President of Minnesota Constitutional Convention He was a member of the Democratic Party wing of the first Minnesota Constitutional Convention, of which he eventually became president. Assembled July 13, 1857, the convention resulted in adoption of the constitution as framed on October 13, 1857. First governor of state of Minnesota In 1858 Sibley was elected as the first governor of the state, and is one of just four Minnesota Democrats to win a gubernatorial election with a Democrat in the White House. He served from May 24, 1858, until January 2, 1860. After narrowly defeating Republican Alexander Ramsey in the first state gubernatorial contest, Sibley declared in his inaugural address, "I have no object and no interests which are not inseparably bound up with the welfare of the state." He did not seek reelection. Railroad bond issue When the legislature voted for the state to issue bonds to the railroads to provide for construction of the transcontinental route, Sibley refused. He said the railroads did not give priority of lien to the state on their property. The state supreme court ordered the governor to issue the legislatively authorized state bonds to railroads. The legislature asked him to market the bonds in New York. Although he made an effort to do, the capitalists refused to buy the bonds. The state subsequently repudiated the issuance. Role in Dakota War of 1862 In the wake of treaties negotiated with them by Sibley, Native American tribes that had until recently roamed freely across the territory were severely diminished in land and resource rights. By 1858, the Dakota, Ojibwe and Winnebago were relegated to reservations. The changes were particularly harsh for the Dakota, who were forced to live on a reservation located on narrow slice of land by the Minnesota River. By 1862, the pressure had become too much. They were coerced and manipulated to relinquish their own culture and religion. And routinely misled and cheated by Sibley and others. Faced with starvation and missed annuity payments due them from the federal government, many Dakota people came to feel that their only choice was to take back their honor, freedom and survival. On August 19, 1862, Governor Alexander Ramsey appointed former Governor Sibley as colonel of volunteers. He was directed to the upper Minnesota River to lead a relief party to Fort Ridgely, which had been under attack from Dakota warriors led by Little Crow. On August 29, Sibley's forces rescued the 250 settlers left after the Dakota abandoned the fort four days earlier, after their failed attempt to capture it. After that, he was involved in the following engagements: The Battle of Birch Coulee The Battle of Wood Lake The last engagement was a decisive battle. It resulted in the Dakota releasing 269 captives – 107 whites and 162 "mixed bloods". Military commission and trials Between September 28 and November 5, 1862, a military commission created by Sibley conducted 392 trials for murder, participation in murder, participation in combat, and rape. It was a kangaroo court with no lawyers for the defendants. Some of the "trials" lasted only a few minutes. By November 5, the commission had sentenced 307 men to death and given 16 prison terms. Sibley approved all death sentences except for one and passed the results on to General John Pope; by November 7, they had cut the total number of death sentences to 303. On December 6, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln approved only 39 of the 303 death sentences after having two advisors review them. Thirty-eight men were hanged at Mankato, December 26, 1862, including at least one whose sentence had been commuted by President Lincoln. The remaining 300 Dakota warriors were imprisoned and more than 1,600 non-combatants: women, children and elderly were held in a crowded encampment on Pike Island below Fort Snelling until river transportation resumed in the spring . A palisade was erected to protect the interned from the soldiers and settlers after one of the women was assaulted. Many died as a result of a measles epidemic that swept the camp in December. For his efforts, Sibley was promoted to brigadier-general of volunteers, September 29, 1862 after the hostilities had ended. Sibley turned over his command to Colonel Stephen A. Miller of the 7th Minnesota Infantry Regiment. On November 25, he became commander of the newly created Military District of Minnesota, with headquarters in St. Paul. Expedition of 1863 Meanwhile, treaties with the Dakota were nullified and Sibley proceeded with leading the banishment of all tribal members from the state to reservations in the Dakotas and Nebraska. The state offered a reward for the scalp of any Dakota man killed in Minnesota. For the next two years Sibley and General Alfred Sully led enormous and brutal campaigns to pursue Dakota escapees as far west as the Yellowstone River. In 1863, Sibley led what was then-considered a successful expedition against the Sioux in Dakota Territory. This campaign included the battles of Big Mound (July 24), Dead Buffalo Lake (July 26), and Stony Lake (July 28). This period would become the start of bloody wars between the U.S. government and Dakota that lasted until nearly twenty years. On November 29, 1865, he was brevetted as major-general of the volunteers for "efficient and meritorious services." He was honorably mustered out on April 30, 1866. He was relieved from the command of the district of Minnesota in August 1866 after the end of the American Civil War. Involvement in Indian affairs After his military service, Sibley was active in settling several Indian treaties. Ongoing business interests Sibley served as the president of several railroads, banks, and other large corporations. Railroad bond issue Sibley dedicated considerable energy to trying to resolve the railroad bond issue. Civic responsibilities Minnesota Historical Society and Old Settler's Association He also served a variety of civic organizations. He became a member of the Minnesota Historical Society in 1849 and eventually served as president. He joined the Old Settlers' association of that state in 1858. St. Paul Chamber of Commerce In December 1866, Henry Sibley took the lead in reestablishing the St. Paul Chamber of Commerce. He served numerous terms as its president, and focused its efforts on public and charitable projects. In July 1872, Sibley shared his concerns for the welfare of Old Bets, who was living on his property in Mendota but was too ill to provide for herself. Betsey, an elderly Mdewakanton woman, had been a well known figure in St. Paul, and was widely respected for her kindness toward the white captives during the Dakota War of 1862. Sibley passed a hat and raised $63.60 from the board members which was contributed to Saint Peter's Church, specifically for her care. In 1873, a massive grasshopper infestation ruined crops across southwestern Minnesota, and spread even further the following summer. In December 1873, Sibley worked with the St. Paul Chamber of Commerce to raise $6,000 to aid families in Cottonwood County. They formed an executive committee to approach members of the business community for contributions; Sibley himself contacted the directors and out-of-state shareholders of the railroads which ran through the affected area. In 1874, Governor Cushman Kellogg Davis asked Sibley to administer the distribution of $19,000 in funds raised for the relief of settlers worst affected by the grasshopper invasion, working with John S. Pillsbury of Minneapolis. Board appointments In 1867 he was appointed to the board of visitors to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. He was also president of the board of regents of the University of Minnesota, and president of the Board of Indian Commissioners from 1875 to 1876. He was awarded an honorary LL.D. from the College of New Jersey (later known as Princeton University), in 1888. Death and legacy Henry Hastings Sibley died in St. Paul, Minnesota on February 18, 1891, two days before his 80th birthday, and is buried in Oakland Cemetery in St. Paul. Historian Wilson P. Shortridge wrote, "When Sibley, in 1834, made his way into the region which became Minnesota, it was a typical fur-traders' frontier; when he died, Minnesota was a state with a population of almost one and one-half millions." Written works Henry Hastings Sibley contributed to the collections of the Minnesota Historical Society, to Spirit of the Times, and to The Turf, Field and Farm. Among his work for the Minnesota Historical Society were memoirs of Joseph Nicolas Nicollet, Hercules L. Dousman and Jean Baptiste Faribault. See also List of American Civil War generals (Union) Notes Further reading Anderson, Gary Clayton (2019). Massacre in Minnesota: The Dakota War of 1862, the Most Violent Ethnic Conflict in American History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Blegen, Theodore C. (1934). "Henry H. Sibley, Pioneer of Culture and Frontier Author". Minnesota History 15(4): 382–394. Carley, Kenneth (1976). The Dakota War of 1862: Minnesota's Other Civil War. Minnesota Historical Society. (First published under the title of The Sioux Uprising of 1862 (1961).) Gilman, Rhoda R (2004). Henry Hastings Sibley: Divided Heart. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society. Kohn, Bruce A. (2012). Dakota Child, Governor's Daughter: The Life of Helen Hastings Sibley. Mendota: Greenhaven Printing. West, Nathaniel (1889). The Ancestry, Life and Times of the Hon. Henry Hastings Sibley. St. Paul: Pioneer Press. Retrieved June 9, 2021. External links Gilman, Rhoda R. "Sibley, Henry H. (1811-1891)". MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia. First published July 16, 2014. Retrieved June 16, 2021. "Governor: Sibley, Henry H.: An Inventory of Its Records of Governor Henry H. Sibley at the Minnesota Historical Society - Government Records". Minnesota Historical Society. Retrieved June 16, 2021. "Governors of Minnesota: Henry H. (Hastings) Sibley". Minnesota Historical Society. Archived June 6, 2009. "Henry H. Sibley: An Inventory of His Papers at the Minnesota Historical Society - Manuscript Collection". Retrieved June 16, 2021. Retrieved December 1, 2008. \|- \|- \|- 1811 births 1891 deaths 19th-century American politicians American Fur Company people American fur traders Dakota War of 1862 Democratic Party state governors of the United States Delegates to the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota Territory Delegates to the United States House of Representatives from Wisconsin Territory Governors of Minnesota Members of the Minnesota Territorial Legislature Minnesota Democrats People from Mendota, Minnesota People of Minnesota in the American Civil War People of North Dakota in the American Civil War Politicians from Detroit Sibley County, Minnesota Union Army generals Wisconsin Democrats	[ -0.23160669207572937, 0.5699573159217834, -0.2907055914402008, 0.310116708278656, 0.5101947784423828, 0.6286605596542358, 0.8777840733528137, 0.32191792130470276, -0.5406798124313354, -0.48663800954818726, 0.02936280332505703, -0.4332019090652466, -0.21917575597763062, 1.050055742263794, 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250850	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Adoniram%20Swift	Henry Adoniram Swift	Henry Adoniram Swift (March 23, 1823February 25, 1869) was an American politician who was the third Governor of Minnesota. He served as governor from July 10, 1863 to January 11, 1864 after serving as the third Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota when Governor Alexander Ramsey resigned to enter the United States Congress. Prior to that he had served in the Minnesota Senate. Swift was a Republican. Described by peers as gentle, self-effacing, and ambivalent toward politics, Henry Swift was Minnesota's third governor for less than a year, completing the second term of Alexander Ramsey, who had been elected United States Senator. With little time or apparent inclination to effect major change, this un-elected governor concentrated on assuring the welfare of Civil War veterans. After graduation with honors from Western Reserve College in his native Ohio, Swift tutored the children of a slave owner in Mississippi, an experience that reinforced his commitment to abolition. He returned to Ohio, earned a law degree, and began a career in business and government service. He and his family journeyed to Minnesota in 1853, settling first in St. Paul then St. Peter. With his partners in the St. Peter Land Company, he campaigned, unsuccessfully, to relocate the state capital in their burgeoning Minnesota River town. Swift left his commercial enterprises in 1861 for the state senate seat that propelled him into the governorship. Later he served two more terms in the senate and was a reluctant candidate for the U.S. Senate. "I shall be ten times happier with my family in St. Peter than as Senator at Washington," he declared characteristically upon learning he had lost the Republican senatorial nomination in 1865. Four years later, he succumbed to typhoid fever at age 45. Swift County, Minnesota was named after him in 1870. References Biographical information and his gubernatorial records are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society. Minnesota Legislators Past and Present 1823 births 1869 deaths People from Ravenna, Ohio Governors of Minnesota Lieutenant Governors of Minnesota People of Minnesota in the American Civil War Minnesota state senators Minnesota Republicans Union state governors Republican Party state governors of the United States 19th-century American politicians People from St. Peter, Minnesota	[ -0.47158828377723694, 0.049800872802734375, -0.33604463934898376, 0.1315963864326477, -0.14446978271007538, 0.8155685067176819, 1.1339713335037231, 0.36195501685142517, -0.8080312609672546, -0.7880951166152954, 0.6604639291763306, -0.08348535746335983, -0.8458970189094543, 0.8917648792266846, -0.19323299825191498, 0.13501575589179993, -0.23409438133239746, 0.34002685546875, -0.2773562967777252, 0.2844460904598236, -0.4595840275287628, -0.13665959239006042, 0.6407530307769775, -0.11612845957279205, -0.2639397978782654, 0.1504804491996765, 0.21143217384815216, -0.5321156978607178, -0.24697348475456238, 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250851	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable%20computer	Portable computer	A portable computer is a computer designed to be easily moved from one place to another and included a display and keyboard together, with a single plug, much like later desktop computers called all-in-ones (AIO), that integrate the system's internal components into the same case as the display. The first commercially sold portable was the IBM 5100, introduced 1975. The next major portables were Osborne's CP/M-based Osborne 1 (1981) and Compaq's , advertised as 100% IBM PC compatible Compaq Portable (1983). These "luggable" computers still required a continuous connection to an external power source; this limitation was later overcome by the laptop. Laptops were followed by lighter models, so that in the 2000s mobile devices and by 2007 smartphones made the term almost meaningless. The 2010s introduced wearable computers such as smartwatches. Portable computers, by their nature, are generally microcomputers. Larger portable computers were commonly known as 'Lunchbox' or 'Luggable' computers. They are also called 'Portable Workstations' or 'Portable PCs'. In Japan they were often called from "bento". Portable computers, more narrowly defined, are distinct from desktop replacement computers in that they usually were constructed from full-specification desktop components, and often do not incorporate features associated with laptops or mobile devices. A portable computer in this usage, versus a laptop or other mobile computing device, have a standard motherboard or backplane providing plug-in slots for add-in cards. This allows mission specific cards such as test, A/D, or communication protocol (IEEE-488, 1553) to be installed. Portable computers also provide for more disk storage by using standard disk drives and provide for multiple drives. Early history SCAMP In 1973, the IBM Palo Alto Scientific Center developed a portable computer prototype called SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) based on the IBM PALM processor with a Philips compact cassette drive, small CRT and full function keyboard. SCAMP emulated an IBM 1130 minicomputer in order to run APL\1130. In 1973, APL was generally available only on mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the Wang 2200 or HP 9800 offered only BASIC. Because SCAMP was the first to emulate APL\1130 performance on a portable, single user computer, PC Magazine in 1983 designated SCAMP a "revolutionary concept" and "the world's first personal computer". The engineering prototype is in the Smithsonian Institution. Xerox NoteTaker Xerox NoteTaker, developed in 1976 at Xerox PARC, was a precursor to later portable computers from Osborne Computer Corporation and Compaq, though it remained a prototype and did not enter production. IBM 5100 Successful demonstrations of the 1973 SCAMP prototype led to the first commercial IBM 5100 portable microcomputer launched in 1975. The product incorporated an IBM PALM processor, CRT, full function keyboard and the ability to be programmed in both APL and BASIC for engineers, analysts, statisticians and other business problem-solvers. (IBM provided different models of the 5100 supporting only BASIC, only APL, or both selectable by a physical switch on the front panel.) IBM referred to its PALM processor as a microprocessor, though they used that term to mean a processor that executes microcode to implement a higher-level instruction set, rather than its conventional definition of a complete processor on a single silicon integrated circuit; the PALM processor was a large circuit board populated with over a dozen chips. In the late 1960s, such a machine would have been nearly as large as two desks and would have weighed about half a ton (). In comparison, the IBM 5100 weighed about 53 pounds (24 kg and very portable for that time). MIT Suitcase Computer The MIT Suitcase Computer, constructed in 1975, was the first known microprocessor-based portable computer. It was based on the Motorola 6800. Constructed in a Samsonite suitcase approximately and weighing approximately , it had 4K of SRAM, a serial port to accept downloaded software and connect to a modem, a keyboard and a 40-column thermal printer taken from a cash register. Built by student David Emberson in the MIT Digital Systems Laboratory as a thesis project, it never entered production. It is currently in the collection of Dr. Hoo-Min D. Toong. Micro Star or Small One An early portable computer was manufactured in 1979 by GM Research, a small company in Santa Monica, California. The machine which was designed and patented by James Murez. It was called the Micro Star and later the name was changed to The Small One. Although Xerox claims to have designed the first such system, the machine by Murez predated anything on the market or that had been documented in any publication at the time hence the patent was issued. As early as 1979, the U.S. Government was contracting to purchase these machines. Other major customers included Sandia Labs, General Dynamics, BBN (featured on the cover of their annual report in 1980 as the C.A.T. system) and several dozen private individuals and companies around the world. In 1979, Adam Osborne viewed the machine along with several hundred other visitors at the first computer show that was sponsored by the IEEE Westec in Los Angeles. Later that year the machine was also shown at the first COMDEX show. Portal R2E CCMC The portable micro computer; the "Portal" of the French company R2E Micral CCMC officially appeared in September 1980 at the Sicob show in Paris. The Portal was a portable microcomputer designed and marketed by the studies and developments department of the French firm R2E Micral in 1980 at the request of the company CCMC specializing in payroll and accounting. The Portal was based on an intel 8085 processor, 8-bit, clocked at 2 MHz. It was equipped with a central 64 KB RAM, a keyboard with 58 alpha numeric keys and 11 numeric keys (separate blocks), a 32-character screen, a floppy disk: capacity = 140 000 characters, of a thermal printer: speed = 28 characters / sec, an asynchronous channel, a synchronous channel, a 220 V power supply. Designed for an operating temperature of , it weighed and its dimensions were . It provided total mobility. Its operating system was Prolog. A few hundred were sold between 1980 and 1983. Osborne 1 The first mass-produced microprocessor-based portable computer released in 1981 was the Osborne 1, developed by Osborne, which owed much to the NoteTaker's design. The company had early success with the design and went public but later due to small screen sizes and other devices being released found trouble selling the Osborne. The Osborne 1 is about the size and weight of a sewing machine, and was advertised as the only computer that would fit underneath an airline seat. Kaypro Another early portable computer released in 1982 was named the Kaypro II, although it was the company's first commercially available product. Some of the press mocked its design—one magazine described Kaypro Corporation as "producing computers packaged in tin cans". Others raved about its value, as the company advertised the Kaypro II as "the $1595 computer that sells for $1595", some noting that the included software bundle had a retail value over $1000 by itself, and by mid-1983 the company was selling more than 10,000 units a month, briefly making it the fifth-largest computer maker in the world. It managed to correct most of the Osborne 1's deficiencies: the screen was larger and showed more characters at once, the floppy drives stored over twice as much data, the case was more attractive-looking, and it was also much better-built and more reliable. Grid Compass The Grid Compass ran its own operating system, GRiD-OS. Its specialized software and high price (US$8,000–10,000) meant that it was limited to specialized applications. The main buyer was the U.S. government. NASA used it on the Space Shuttle during the early 1980s, as it was powerful, lightweight, and compact. The military Special Forces also purchased the machine, as it could be used by paratroopers in combat. Post-IBM PC portables Compaq Portable and competitors Although Columbia Data Product's MPC 1600, "Multi Personal Computer" came out in June 1983, one of the first extensively IBM PC compatible computers was the Compaq Portable. Eagle Computer then came out with their offering. and Corona Data Systems's PPC-400., the "portable" Hyperion Computer System. Both Eagle Computer and Columbia were sued by IBM for copyright infringement of its BIOS. They settled and were forced to halt production. Neither the Columbia nor the Eagle were nearly as IBM PC DOS compatible as Compaq's offerings. Commodore SX-64 The first full-color portable computer was the Commodore SX-64 in January 1984. Atari STacy Originally announced in 1987, the Atari STacy was released to the public in December 1989 and was one of the first laptop-like portables. Apple Macintosh Apple Inc. introduced and released the Macintosh Portable in 1989, though this device came with a battery, which added to its substantial weight. The Portable has features similar to the Atari STacy, include integrated trackball and clamshell case. IBM PS/2 Portable After release of IBM PC Convertible in 1986, IBM still produced classic portable computers, include released in 1989 PS/2 P70 (with upgrade in 1990 to P75), and IBM produce portables for up to release of PS/2 Note and PS/55note notebook lines. Modern portables See also Bobst Graphic Scrib Portable DYSEAC, 1954, housed in a truck Handheld PC (palmtop) Laptop Mobile computing Mobile device Netbook Personal computer Personal digital assistant (PDA) Portal laptop computer Timeline of portable computers References External links Classes of computers History of computing hardware	[ -0.16446806490421295, 0.059852443635463715, 0.14666107296943665, 0.572396457195282, 0.2540877163410187, 0.2738175392150879, -0.4326629638671875, -0.04341693967580795, -0.3450642228126526, -0.7307177186012268, -0.5126067996025085, 0.30149388313293457, -0.20068305730819702, 0.25218069553375244, -0.3072977364063263, 0.12638185918331146, 0.2967706322669983, 0.24499273300170898, -0.49601319432258606, 0.07337812334299088, -0.473062664270401, -0.0827745869755745, -0.21266067028045654, -0.23173023760318756, -0.14496032893657684, -0.39065682888031006, 0.36406785249710083, -0.07967472076416016, 0.040656063705682755, -0.21448424458503723, 0.4078405797481537, 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250853	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushman%20Kellogg%20Davis	Cushman Kellogg Davis	Cushman Kellogg Davis (June 16, 1838November 27, 1900) was an American Republican politician who served as the seventh Governor of Minnesota and as a U.S. Senator from Minnesota. Early life and American Civil War Davis was born in Henderson, New York to Horatio N. Davis and Clarissa Cushman. His family moved to Wisconsin Territory before he was a year old (his father went on to serve as a member of the Wisconsin State Senate several different times). Cushman went to school at Carroll College and then the University of Michigan, graduating in 1857. Admitted to the bar in 1860, he soon after found himself serving in the American Civil War in the 28th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment, serving first as a lieutenant in charge of Company B of this volunteer regiment. He was in action in the western campaigns, then in 1864 as an aide to General Willis A. Gorman. Political career Davis returned home in 1864 due to poor health. He relocated to St. Paul, Minnesota due to its reputation as a health resort and began to pursue a legal and political career. He was elected to the Minnesota State House of Representatives from 1867 to 1868 and was appointed as the United States District Attorney from 1868 to 1873. He resigned his position to run as the Republican candidate for Minnesota governor and won. During his term, he established a state board of railway commissioners, revised the state constitution to allow women to vote on school matters and hold elected office, and also provided assistance to farmers affected by a locust plague. He served one term from 1874 to 1876 and declined to be re-nominated for a second. Return to legal career and second political career Returning to his legal career, Davis successfully defended Judge Sherman Page in his 1878 impeachment trial. He also formed a partnership with Frank B. Kellogg and Cordenio Severance. In 1887, he was elected to the United States Senate. He would serve in the 50th, 51st, 52nd, 53rd, 54th, 55th, and 56th United States Congresses, from 1887 to 1900. He was involved with legislation related to pensions and the construction of the Soo Locks. Beginning in 1897 he was the chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and was closely involved with the sequence of events leading to the Spanish–American War. He was also present at the talks for the Treaty of Paris which ended the war. Personal life Davis married Laura Bowman in 1862. He remarried Anna Malcom Agnew Fox at some point in the 1880s. Honors Davis was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1894. Death Davis died while still in office in 1900. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. See also List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49) References Attribution Further reading External links Memorial addresses on the life and character of Cushman Kellogg Davis, late a representative from Minnesota delivered in the House of Representatives and Senate frontispiece 1901 1838 births 1900 deaths People from Henderson, New York Governors of Minnesota United States senators from Minnesota Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives Minnesota Republicans People of Wisconsin in the American Civil War University of Michigan alumni 19th-century American Episcopalians Carroll University alumni Republican Party United States senators Republican Party state governors of the United States 19th-century American politicians Members of the American Antiquarian Society Chairmen of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations	[ -0.5271885991096497, 0.21507251262664795, -0.3862721621990204, 0.10033400356769562, -0.08529369533061981, 0.519127368927002, 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250856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine%20command%20theory	Divine command theory	Divine command theory (also known as theological voluntarism) is a meta-ethical theory which proposes that an action's status as morally good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by God. The theory asserts that what is moral is determined by God's commands and that for a person to be moral he is to follow God's commands. Followers of both monotheistic and polytheistic religions in ancient and modern times have often accepted the importance of God's commands in establishing morality. Numerous variants of the theory have been presented: historically, figures including Saint Augustine, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham and Søren Kierkegaard have presented various versions of divine command theory; more recently, Robert Merrihew Adams has proposed a "modified divine command theory" based on the omnibenevolence of God in which morality is linked to human conceptions of right and wrong. Paul Copan has argued in favour of the theory from a Christian viewpoint, and Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski's divine motivation theory proposes that God's motivations, rather than commands, are the source of morality. Semantic challenges to divine command theory have been proposed; the philosopher William Wainwright argued that to be commanded by God and to be morally obligatory do not have an identical meaning, which he believed would make defining obligation difficult. He also contended that, as knowledge of God is required for morality by divine command theory, atheists and agnostics could not be moral; he saw this as a weakness of the theory. Others have challenged the theory on modal grounds by arguing that, even if God's command and morality correlate in this world, they may not do so in other possible worlds. In addition, the Euthyphro dilemma, first proposed by Plato (in the context of polytheistic Greek religion), presented a dilemma which threatened either to result in the moral arbitrariness of morality itself, or to result in the irrelevance of God to morality. Divine command theory has also been criticised for its apparent incompatibility with the omnibenevolence of God, moral autonomy and religious pluralism, although some scholars have attempted to defend the theory from these challenges. General form Philosophers including William of Ockham ( 1287 – 1347), St Augustine (354-430), Duns Scotus ( 1265 - 1308), and John Calvin (1509-1564) have presented various forms of divine command theory. The theory generally teaches that moral truth does not exist independently of God and that divine commands determine morality. Stronger versions of the theory assert that God's command is the only reason that a good action is moral, while weaker variations cast divine command as a vital component within a greater reason. The theory asserts that good actions are morally good as a result of divine command, and many religious believers subscribe to some form of divine command theory. Because of these premises, adherents believe that moral obligation is obedience to God's commands; what is morally right is what God desires. Divine command theory features in the ethics of many contemporary religions - including Judaism, Islam, the Baháʼí Faith, and Christianity - as well as featuring in numerous polytheistic religions. In ancient Athens, citizens commonly held that moral truth was tied directly to divine commands, and religious piety was almost equivalent to morality. Although Christianity does not entail divine command theory, people commonly associate the two. DCT can be a plausible theory to Christians because the traditional conception of God as the creator of the universe parallels the idea that he created moral truths. The theory is supported by the Christian view that God is all-powerful because this implies that God creates moral truths, rather than moral truths existing independently of him, which seems inconsistent with his omnipotence. Augustine Saint Augustine offered a version of divine command theory that began by casting ethics as the pursuit of the supreme good, which delivers human happiness. He argued that to achieve this happiness, humans must love objects that are worthy of human love in the correct manner; this requires humans to love God, which then allows them to correctly love that which is worthy of being loved. Augustine's ethics proposed that the act of loving God enables humans to properly orient their loves, leading to human happiness and fulfilment. Augustine supported Plato's view that a well-ordered soul is a desirable consequence of morality. However, unlike Plato, he believed that achieving a well-ordered soul had a higher purpose: living in accordance with God's commands. His view of morality was thus heteronomous, as he believed in deference to a higher authority (God), rather than acting autonomously. John Duns Scotus Scholastic philosopher John Duns Scotus argued that the only moral obligations that God could not take away from humans involve loving God, as God is, definitionally, the most loveable thing. Scotus argued that the natural law, in the strictest sense, contains only what is self-evidently analytically true and that God could not make these statements false. This means that the commands of natural law do not depend on God's will, and thus form the first three commandments of the Ten Commandments. The last seven of the Ten Commandments do not belong to the natural law in the strictest sense. Whilst our duties to God are self-evident, true by definition, and unchangeable even by God, our duties to others (found on the second tablet) were arbitrarily willed by God and are within his power to revoke and replace (although, the third commandment, to honour the Sabbath and keep it holy, has a little of both, as we are absolutely obliged to render worship to God, but there is no obligation in natural law to do it on this day or that). Scotus does note, however that the last seven commandments "are highly consonant with [the natural law], though they do not follow necessarily from first practical principles that are known in virtue of their terms and are necessarily known by any intellect [that understands their terms. And it is certain that all the precepts of the second table belong to the natural law in this second way, since their rectitude is highly consonant with first practical principles that are known necessarily". Scotus justifies this position with the example of a peaceful society, noting that the possession of private property is not necessary to have a peaceful society, but that "those of weak character" would be more easily made peaceful with private property than without. Hence, the last seven commandments do belong to the natural law, but not in the strictest sense, as they belong to the natural law by rectitude rather than by definition. Thomas Aquinas Whilst Aquinas, as a natural law theorist, is generally seen as holding that morality is not willed by God, Kelly James Clark and Anne Poortenga have presented a defence of divine command theory based on Aquinas' moral theory. Aquinas proposed a theory of natural law which asserted that something is moral if it works towards the purpose of human existence, and so human nature can determine what is moral. Clark and Poortenga argued that God created human nature and thus commanded a certain morality; hence he cannot arbitrarily change what is right or wrong for humans. Immanuel Kant The deontological ethics of Immanuel Kant has been cast as rejecting divine command theory by several figures, among whom is ethicist R. M. Hare. Kant's view that morality should be determined by the categorical imperative – duty to the moral law, rather than acting for a specific end – has been viewed as incompatible with divine command theory. Philosopher and theologian John E. Hare has noted that some philosophers see divine command theory as an example of Kant's heteronomous will – motives besides the moral law, which Kant regarded as non-moral. American philosopher Lewis White Beck takes Kant's argument to be a refutation of the theory that morality depends on divine authority. John E. Hare challenges this view, arguing that Kantian ethics should be seen as compatible with divine command theory. Robert Adams American philosopher Robert Merrihew Adams proposes what he calls a "modified divine command theory". Adams presents the basic form of his theory by asserting that two statements are equivalent: It is wrong to do X. It is contrary to God's commands to do X. He proposes that God's commands precede moral truths and must be explained in terms of moral truths, not the other way around. Adams writes that his theory is an attempt to define what being ethically 'wrong' consists of and accepts that it is only useful to those within a Judeo-Christian context. In dealing with the criticism that a seemingly immoral act would be obligatory if God commanded it, he proposes that God does not command cruelty for its own sake. Adams does not propose that it would be logically impossible for God to command cruelty, rather that it would be unthinkable for him to do so because of his nature. Adams emphasises the importance of faith in God, specifically faith in God's goodness, as well as his existence. Adams proposes that an action is morally wrong if and only if it defies the commands of a loving God. If cruelty was commanded, he would not be loving; Adams argued that, in this instance, God's commands would not have to be obeyed and also that his theory of ethical wrongness would break down. He proposed that divine command morality assumes that human concepts of right and wrong are met by God's commands and that the theory can only be applied if this is the case. Adams' theory attempts to counter the challenge that morality might be arbitrary, as moral commands are not based solely on the commands of God, but are founded on his omnibenevolence. It attempts to challenge the claim that an external standard of morality prevents God from being sovereign by making him the source of morality and his character the moral law. Adams proposes that in many Judeo-Christian contexts, the term 'wrong' is used to mean being contrary to God's commands. In ethical contexts, he believes that 'wrong' entails an emotional attitude against an action and that these two uses of wrongness usually correlate. Adams suggests that a believer's concept of morality is founded in their religious belief and that right and wrong are tied to their belief in God; this works because God always commands what believers accept to be right. If God commanded what a believer perceived as wrong, the believer would not say it is right or wrong to disobey him; rather their concept of morality would break down. Michael Austin writes that an implication of this modified divine command theory is that God cannot command cruelty for its own sake; this could be argued to be inconsistent with God's omnipotence. Thomas Aquinas argued that God's omnipotence should be understood as the ability to do all things that are possible: he attempted to refute the idea that God's inability to perform illogical actions challenges his omnipotence. Austin contends that commanding cruelty for its own sake is not illogical, so is not covered by Aquinas' defence, although Aquinas had argued that sin is the falling short of a perfect action and thus not compatible with omnipotence. Alternative theories Paul Copan argues from a Christian viewpoint that man, made in God's image, conforms to God's sense of morality. The description of actions as right or wrong are therefore relevant to God; a person's sense of what is right or wrong corresponds to God's. As an alternative to divine command theory, Linda Zagzebski has proposed divine motivation theory, which still fits into a monotheistic framework. According to this theory, goodness is determined by God's motives, rather than by what he commands. Divine motivation theory is similar to virtue ethics because it considers the character of an agent, and whether they are in accordance with God's, as the standard for moral value. Zagzebski argues that things in the world have objective moral properties, such as being lovable, which are given to them through God's perception of them. God's attitude towards something is cast as a morally good attitude. The theory casts God as a good example for morality, and humans should imitate his virtues as much as is possible for finite, imperfect beings. Objections Semantic objections Philosopher William Wainwright considered a challenge to the theory on semantic grounds, arguing that "being commanded by God" and "being obligatory" do not mean the same thing, contrary to what the theory suggests. He used the example of water not having an identical meaning to H2O to propose that "being commanded by God" does not have an identical meaning to "being obligatory". This was not an objection to the truth of divine command theory, but Wainwright believed it demonstrated that the theory should not be used to formulate assertions about the meaning of obligation. Wainwright also noted that divine command theory might imply that one can only have moral knowledge if one has knowledge of God; Edward Wierenga argued that, if this is the case, the theory seems to deny atheists and agnostics moral knowledge. Hugh Storer Chandler has challenged the theory based on modal ideas of what might exist in different worlds. He suggested that, even if one accepts that being commanded by God and being morally right are the same, they may not be synonyms because they might be different in other possible worlds. Moral motivation Michael Austin has noted that divine command theory could be criticised for prompting people to be moral with impure motivations. He writes of the objection that a moral life should be sought because morality is valued, rather than to avoid punishment or receive a reward. This punishment and reward system of motivation could be seen as inadequate. Euthyphro dilemma The Euthyphro dilemma was proposed in Plato's dialogue between Socrates and Euthyphro. In the scene, Socrates and Euthyphro are discussing the nature of piety when Socrates presents the dilemma, which can be presented as the question 'Is X good because God commands it, or does God command X because it is good?' The Euthyphro dilemma can elicit the response that an action is good because God commands the action, or that God commands an action because it is good. If the first is chosen, it would imply that whatever God commands must be good: even if he commanded someone to inflict suffering, then inflicting suffering must be moral. If the latter is chosen, then morality is no longer dependent on God, defeating the divine command theory. Additionally, if God is subject to an external law, he is not sovereign or omnipotent, which would challenge the orthodox conception of God. Proponents of the Euthyphro dilemma might claim that divine command theory is obviously wrong because either answer challenges the ability of God to give moral laws. William of Ockham responded to the Euthyphro Dilemma by 'biting the bullet'. He argued that, if God did command people to be cruel, then that would be morally obligatory, proposing that the only limitation to what God can make obligatory is the principle of non-contradiction. Robert Adams defended Ockham's view, noting that it is only a logical possibility that God would command what we consider to be immoral, not an actuality. Even if God could logically command these actions, he would not because that is not his character. Eleonore Stump and Norman Kretzmann have responded to the Euthyphro dilemma by appealing to the doctrine of divine simplicity, a concept associated with Aquinas and Aristotle which suggests that the substance and attributes of God are identical. They propose that God and goodness are identical and that this is what makes his commands good. American philosopher William Alston responded to the Euthyphro dilemma by considering what it means for God to be morally good. If divine command theory is accepted, it implies that God is good because he obeys his own commands; Alston argued that this is not the case and that God's goodness is distinct from abiding by moral obligations. He suggested that a moral obligation implies that there is some possibility that the agent may not honour their obligation; Alston argued that this possibility does not exist for God, so his morality must be distinct from simply obeying his own commands. Alston contended that God is the supreme standard of morality and acts according to his character, which is necessarily good. There is no more arbitrariness in this view than accepting another moral standard. Omnibenevolence Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, and some more recent philosophers, challenged the theory because it seems to entail that God's goodness consists of his following his own commands. It is argued that, if divine command theory is accepted, God's obligations would be what he commanded himself to do; the concept of God commanding himself is seen as incoherent. Neither could God hold any virtues, as a virtue would be the disposition to follow his own commands – if he cannot logically command himself, then he cannot logically have any virtues. Edward Wierenga counters this by claiming that whatever God chooses to do is good, but that his nature means that his actions would always be praiseworthy. William Wainwright argues that, although God does not act because of his commands, it is still logical to say that God has reasons for his actions. He proposes that God is motivated by what is morally good and, when he commands what is morally good, it becomes morally obligatory. Autonomy Michael Austin draws attention to an objection from autonomy, which argues that morality requires an agent to freely choose which principles they live by. This challenges the view of divine command theory that God's will determines what is good because humans are no longer autonomous, but followers of an imposed moral law, making autonomy incompatible with divine command theory. Robert Adams challenges this criticism, arguing that humans must still choose to accept or reject God's commands and rely on their independent judgement about whether or not to follow them. Pluralism Austin considers the view that, in a world of religious pluralism, it is impossible to know which god's or religion's commands should be followed, especially because some religions contradict others, leaving it impossible to accept all of them. Within religions there are also various interpretations of what is commanded. Austin notes that some of the responses to the autonomy objection may be relevant, as an agent must choose whichever religion and morality they judge to be correct. He argues that divine command theory is also consistent with the view that moral truths can be found in all religions and that moral revelation can be found apart from religion. Heimir Geirsson and Margaret Holmgren argue against the view that different religions can lead to the same God because some religions are incompatible with each other (monotheistic and polytheistic religions have contrasting views of divinity, for example, and some Greek or Norse gods magnified human weaknesses). They argue that determining which god should be listened to remains a problem and that, even within a religion, contrasting views of God exist – the commands of God in the Old and New Testaments could seem to contradict each other. See also Divine judgment Ethical subjectivism Theocracy Fideism References Bibliography External links Divine Command Theory — Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy God and Morality — a defence of the Divine Command theory. 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250858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tramadol	Tramadol	Tramadol, sold under the brand name Ultram among others, is an opioid pain medication used to treat moderate to moderately severe pain. When taken by mouth in an immediate-release formulation, the onset of pain relief usually begins within an hour. It is also available by injection. It may be sold in combination with paracetamol (acetaminophen) or as longer-acting formulations. As is typical of opioids, common side effects include constipation, itchiness, and nausea. Serious side effects may include hallucinations, seizures, increased risk of serotonin syndrome, decreased alertness, and drug addiction. A change in dosage may be recommended in those with kidney or liver problems. It is not recommended in those who are at risk of suicide or in those who are pregnant. While not recommended in women who are breastfeeding, those who take a single dose should not generally stop breastfeeding. Tramadol is converted in the liver to O-desmethyltramadol (desmetramadol), an opioid with a stronger affinity to the μ-opioid receptor. Tramadol is also a serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI). Tramadol was patented in 1963 and launched under the name "Tramal" in 1977 by the West German pharmaceutical company Grünenthal GmbH. In the mid-1990s, it was approved in the United Kingdom and the United States. It is available as a generic medication and marketed under many brand names worldwide. In 2019, it was the 35th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 19million prescriptions. Medical uses Tramadol (a schedule IV drug in the US) is used primarily to treat mild to severe pain, both acute and chronic. There is moderate evidence for use as a second-line treatment for fibromyalgia but is not FDA approved for this use; however, its use is approved for treatment of fibromyalgia as a secondary painkiller by the NHS. Its analgesic effects take about one hour to come into effect and 2 to 4 h to peak after oral administration with an immediate-release formulation. On a dose-by-dose basis, tramadol has about one-tenth the potency of morphine (thus 100 mg is commensurate with 10 mg morphine but may vary) and is practically equally potent when compared with pethidine and codeine. For pain moderate in severity, its effectiveness is equivalent to that of codeine at low doses, and hydrocodone at very high doses; for severe pain it is less effective than morphine. These painkilling effects last about 6 h. The potency of analgesia varies considerably as it depends on an individual's genetics. People with specific variants of CYP2D6 enzymes may not produce adequate amounts of the active metabolite (desmetramadol) for effective pain control. Sleep medicine physicians sometimes prescribe tramadol (or other opiate medications) for refractory restless legs syndrome (RLS); that is, RLS that does not respond adequately to treatment with first-line medications such as dopamine agonists (like pramipexole) or alpha-2-delta (α2δ) ligands (gabapentinoids), often due to augmentation. Contraindications Tramadol may not provide adequate pain control for individuals with certain genetic variants of CYP2D6 enzymes as they metabolize tramadol to the inactive molecule. These genetic polymorphisms are not currently routinely tested for in clinical practice. Pregnancy and lactation Tramadol's use in pregnancy is generally avoided, as it may cause some reversible withdrawal effects in the newborn. A small prospective study in France found, while an increased risk of miscarriages existed, no major malformations were reported in the newborn. Its use during lactation is also generally advised against, but a small trial found that infants breastfed by mothers taking tramadol were exposed to about 2.88% of the dose the mothers were taking. No evidence of this dose harming the newborn was seen. Labor and delivery Its use as an analgesic during labor is not advised due to its long onset of action (1 hour). The ratio of the mean concentration of the drug in the fetus compared to that of the mother when it is given intramuscularly for labor pains has been estimated to be 1:94. Children Its use in children is generally advised against, although it may be done under the supervision of a specialist. On 21 September 2015, the FDA started investigating the safety of tramadol in use in persons under the age of 17. The investigation was initiated because some of these people have experienced slowed or difficult breathing. The FDA lists age under 12 years old as a contraindication. Elderly The risk of opioid-related adverse effects such as respiratory depression, falls, cognitive impairment and sedation is increased. Tramadol may interact with other medications and increase the risk for adverse events. Liver and kidney failure The drug should be used with caution in those with liver or kidney failure, due to metabolism in the liver (to the active molecule desmetramadol) and elimination by the kidneys. Side effects The most common adverse effects of tramadol include nausea, dizziness, dry mouth, indigestion, abdominal pain, vertigo, vomiting, constipation, drowsiness, and headache. Other side effects may result from interactions with other medications. Tramadol has the same dose-dependent adverse effects as morphine including respiratory depression. Dependence and withdrawal Long-term use of high doses of tramadol causes physical dependence and withdrawal syndrome. These include both symptoms typical of opioid withdrawal and those associated with serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) withdrawal; symptoms include numbness, tingling, paresthesia, and tinnitus. Psychiatric symptoms may include hallucinations, paranoia, extreme anxiety, panic attacks, and confusion. In most cases, tramadol withdrawal will set in 12–20 hours after the last dose, but this can vary. Tramadol withdrawal typically lasts longer than that of other opioids. Seven days or more of acute withdrawal symptoms can occur as opposed to typically 3 or 4 days for other codeine analogues. Overdose Recognised risk factors for tramadol overdose include respiratory depression, addiction, and seizures. Naloxone only partially reverses the toxic effects of tramadol overdose and may increase the risk of seizures. Deaths with tramadol overdose have been reported and are increasing in frequency in Northern Ireland; the majority of these overdoses involve other drugs including alcohol. There were 254 tramadol-related deaths in England and Wales in 2013, and 379 in Florida in 2011. In 2011, 21,649 emergency room visits in the United States were related to tramadol. Interactions Tramadol can interact with other medications with similar mechanisms of action. Tramadol acts as a serotonin-norephinephrine reuptake inhibitor and thus can interact with other serotonergic medications (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, triptans, cough and cold medications containing dextromethorphan, herbal products containing St. John’s wort, and medications that inhibit the metabolism of serotonin, such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors) and, in combination, may lead to serotonin syndrome. It may also make some serotonergic antagonist anti-emetic medications (ondansetron) less effective. Tramadol also acts as an opioid agonist and thus can increase the risk for side effects when used with other opioid analgesics (such as morphine, pethidine, tapentadol, oxycodone, and fentanyl). Tramadol is metabolized by CYP2D6 enzymes which contribute to the metabolism of approximately 25% of all medications. Any medications with the ability to inhibit or induce these enzymes may interact with tramadol. Tramadol increases the risk for seizures by lowering the seizure threshold. Using other medications that lower seizure threshold (such as antipsychotic medications or amphetamines), further increases this risk. Pharmacology Mechanism of action Tramadol induces analgesic effects through a variety of different targets on the noradrenergic system, serotoninergic system and opioid receptors system. Tramadol exists as a racemic mixture, the positive enantiomer inhibits serotonin reuptake while the negative enantiomer inhibits noradrenaline re-uptake, by binding to and blocking the transporters. Tramadol has also been shown to act as a serotonin releasing agent. Both enantiomers of tramadol are agonists of the μ-opioid receptor and its M1 metabolite, O-desmetramadol, is also a μ-opioid receptor agonist but is 6 times more potent than tramadol itself. All these effects work synergistically to induce analgesia. Tramadol has been found to possess these actions: Agonist of the μ-opioid receptor (MOR) and to a far lesser extent of the δ-opioid receptor (DOR) and κ-opioid receptor (KOR) Serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor; hence, an SNRI Serotonin 5-HT2C receptor antagonist M1 and M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist NMDA receptor antagonist (very weak) TRPA1 inhibitor Tramadol acts on the opioid receptors through its major active metabolite desmetramadol, which has as much as 700-fold higher affinity for the MOR relative to tramadol. Moreover, tramadol itself has been found to possess no efficacy in activating the MOR in functional activity assays, whereas desmetramadol activates the receptor with high intrinsic activity (Emax equal to that of morphine). As such, desmetramadol is exclusively responsible for the opioid effects of tramadol. Both tramadol and desmetramadol have pronounced selectivity for the MOR over the DOR and KOR in terms of binding affinity. Tramadol is well-established as an SRI. In addition, a few studies have found that it also acts as a serotonin releasing agent (1–10 μM), similar in effect to fenfluramine. The serotonin releasing effects of tramadol could be blocked by sufficiently high concentrations of the serotonin reuptake inhibitor 6-nitroquipazine, which is in accordance with other serotonin releasing agents such as fenfluramine and MDMA. However, two more recent studies failed to find a releasing effect of tramadol at respective concentrations up to 10 and 30 μM. In addition to serotonergic activity, tramadol is also a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is not a norepinephrine releasing agent. Tramadol does not inhibit the reuptake or induce the release of dopamine. A positron emission tomography imaging study found that single oral 50-mg and 100-mg doses of tramadol to human volunteers resulted in 34.7% and 50.2% respective mean occupation of the serotonin transporter (SERT) in the thalamus. The estimated median effective dose (ED50) for SERT occupancy hence was 98.1 mg, which was associated with a plasma tramadol level of about 330 ng/ml (1,300 nM). The estimated maximum daily dosage of tramadol of 400 mg (100 mg ) would result in as much as 78.7% occupancy of the SERT (in association with a plasma concentration of 1,220 ng/ml or 4,632 nM). This is close to that of SSRIs, which occupy the SERT by 80% or more. Peak plasma concentrations during treatment with clinical dosages of tramadol have generally been found to be in the range of 70 to 592 ng/ml (266–2,250 nM) for tramadol and 55 to 143 ng/ml (221–573 nM) for desmetramadol. The highest levels of tramadol were observed with the maximum oral daily dosage of 400 mg per day divided into one 100-mg dose every 6 hours (i.e., four 100-mg doses evenly spaced out per day). Some accumulation of tramadol occurs with chronic administration; peak plasma levels with the maximum oral daily dosage (100 mg ) are about 16% higher and the area-under-the-curve levels 36% higher than following a single oral 100-mg dose. Positron emission tomography imaging studies have reportedly found that tramadol levels are at least four-fold higher in the brain than in plasma. Conversely, brain levels of desmetramadol "only slowly approach those in plasma". The plasma protein binding of tramadol is only 4 to 20%; hence, almost all tramadol in circulation is free, thus bioactive. Correspondence to effects Co-administration of quinidine, a potent CYP2D6 enzyme inhibitor, with tramadol, a combination which results in markedly reduced levels of desmetramadol, was found not to significantly affect the analgesic effects of tramadol in human volunteers. However, other studies have found that the analgesic effects of tramadol are significantly decreased or even absent in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers. The analgesic effects of tramadol are only partially reversed by naloxone in human volunteers, hence indicating that its opioid action is unlikely the sole factor; tramadol's analgesic effects are also partially reversed by α2-adrenergic receptor antagonists such as yohimbine, the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron, and the 5-HT7 receptor antagonists SB-269970 and SB-258719. Pharmacologically, tramadol is similar to tapentadol and methadone in that it not only binds to the MOR, but also inhibits the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine due to its action on the noradrenergic and serotonergic systems, such as its "atypical" opioid activity. Tramadol has inhibitory actions on the 5-HT2C receptor. Antagonism of 5-HT2C could be partially responsible for tramadol's reducing effect on depressive and obsessive–compulsive symptoms in patients with pain and co-morbid neurological illnesses. 5-HT2C blockade may also account for its lowering of the seizure threshold, as 5-HT2C knockout mice display significantly increased vulnerability to epileptic seizures, sometimes resulting in spontaneous death. However, the reduction of seizure threshold could be attributed to tramadol's putative inhibition of GABAA receptors at high doses (significant inhibition at 100 μM). In addition, desmetramadol is a high-affinity ligand of the DOR, and activation of this receptor could be involved in tramadol's ability to provoke seizures in some individuals, as DOR agonists are well known for inducing seizures. Nausea and vomiting caused by tramadol are thought to be due to activation of the 5-HT3 receptor via increased serotonin levels. In accordance, the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron can be used to treat tramadol-associated nausea and vomiting. Tramadol and desmetramadol themselves do not bind to the 5-HT3 receptor. Pharmacokinetics Tramadol undergoes hepatic metabolism via the cytochrome P450 isozyme CYP2B6, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4, being O- and N-demethylated to five different metabolites. Of these, desmetramadol (O-desmethyltramadol) is the most significant, since it has 200 times the μ-affinity of (+)-tramadol, and furthermore has an elimination half-life of 9 hours, compared with 6 hours for tramadol itself. As with codeine, in the 6% of the population who have reduced CYP2D6 activity (hence reducing metabolism), a reduced analgesic effect is seen. Those with decreased CYP2D6 activity require a dose increase of 30% to achieve the same degree of pain relief as those with a normal level of CYP2D6 activity. Phase II hepatic metabolism renders the metabolites water-soluble, which are excreted by the kidneys. Thus, reduced doses may be used in renal and hepatic impairment. Its volume of distribution is around 306 l after oral administration and 203 l after parenteral administration. Chemistry Tramadol is marketed as a racemic mixture of both R- and S-stereoisomers, because the two isomers complement each other's analgesic activities. The (+)-isomer is predominantly active as an opiate with a higher affinity for the µ-opiate receptor (20 times higher affinity than the (-)-isomer). Synthesis and stereoisomerism The chemical synthesis of tramadol is described in the literature. Tramadol has two stereogenic centers at the cyclohexane ring. Thus, may exist in four different configurational forms: (1R,2R)-isomer (1S,2S)-isomer (1R,2S)-isomer (1S,2R)-isomer The synthetic pathway leads to the racemate (1:1 mixture) of (1R,2R)-isomer and the (1S,2S)-isomer as the main products. Minor amounts of the racemic mixture of the (1R,2S)-isomer and the (1S,2R)-isomer are formed as well. The isolation of the (1R,2R)-isomer and the (1S,2S)-isomer from the diastereomeric minor racemate [(1R,2S)-isomer and (1S,2R)-isomer] is realized by the recrystallization of the hydrochlorides. The drug tramadol is a racemate of the hydrochlorides of the (1R,2R)-(+)- and the (1S,2S)-(−)-enantiomers. The resolution of the racemate [(1R,2R)-(+)-isomer / (1S,2S)-(−)-isomer] was described employing (R)-(−)- or (S)-(+)-mandelic acid. This process does not find industrial application, since tramadol is used as a racemate, despite known different physiological effects of the (1R,2R)- and (1S,2S)-isomers, because the racemate showed higher analgesic activity than either enantiomer in animals and in humans. Detection in biological fluids Tramadol and desmetramadol may be quantified in blood, plasma or serum to monitor for abuse, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning or assist in the forensic investigation of a sudden death. Most commercial opiate immunoassay screening tests do not cross-react significantly with tramadol or its major metabolites, so chromatographic techniques must be used to detect and quantitate these substances. The concentration of desmetramadol in the blood or plasma of a person who has taken tramadol is generally 10–20% those of the parent drug. Society and culture Formulations Available dosage forms include liquids, syrups, drops, elixirs, effervescent tablets and powders for mixing with water, capsules, tablets including extended-release formulations, suppositories, compounding powder, and injections. Patent history The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved tramadol in March 1995, and an extended-release (ER) formulation in September 2005. ER Tramadol was protected by US patents nos. 6,254,887 and 7,074,430. The FDA listed the patents' expiration as 10 May 2014. However, in August 2009, US District Court for the District of Delaware ruled the patents invalid, a decision upheld the following year by the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Manufacture and distribution of generic equivalents of Ultram ER in the United States was therefore permitted prior to the expiration of the patents. Legal status Effective 18 August 2014, tramadol has been placed into Schedule IV of the federal Controlled Substances Act in the United States. Before that, some US states had already classified tramadol as a Schedule IV controlled substance under their respective state laws. Tramadol is classified in Schedule 4 (prescription only) in Australia, rather than as a Schedule 8 Controlled Drug (Possession without authority illegal) like most other opioids. Effective May 2008, Sweden classified tramadol as a controlled substance in the same category as codeine and dextropropoxyphene, but allows a normal prescription to be used. The UK classified tramadol as a Class C, Schedule 3 controlled drug on 10 June 2014, but exempted it from the safe custody requirement. Misuse Illicit use of the drug is thought to be a major factor in the success of the Boko Haram terrorist organization. When used at higher doses, the drug "can produce similar effects to heroin." Said one former member, "whenever we took tramadol, nothing mattered to us anymore except what we were sent to do because it made us very high and very bold, it was impossible to go on a mission without taking it." Tramadol is also used as a coping mechanism in the Gaza Strip. It is also abused in the United Kingdom, inspiring the title of the TV show Frankie Boyle's Tramadol Nights (2010). Research Investigational uses Diabetic neuropathy Antidepressant Postherpetic neuralgia Premature ejaculation Adjunct to local anaesthesia False findings about sources in nature In 2013, researchers reported that tramadol was found in relatively high concentrations (1%+) in the roots of the African pin cushion tree (Nauclea latifolia). In 2014, however, it was reported that the presence of tramadol in the tree roots was the result of tramadol having been administered to cattle by farmers in the region: tramadol and its metabolites were present in the animals' excreta, which contaminated the soil around the trees. Therefore, tramadol and its mammalian metabolites were found in tree roots in the far north of Cameroon, but not in the south where it is not administered to farm animals. A 2014 editorial in Lab Times online contested the notion that tramadol in tree roots was the result of anthropogenic contamination, stating that samples were taken from trees that grew in national parks, where livestock were forbidden; it also quoted researcher Michel de Waard, who stated that "thousands and thousands of tramadol-treated cattle sitting around a single tree and urinating there" would be required to produce the concentrations discovered. In 2015, radiocarbon analysis confirmed that the tramadol found in N.latifolia roots could not be plant-derived and was of synthetic origin. Veterinary medicine Tramadol may be used to treat post-operative, injury-related, and chronic (e.g., cancer-related) pain in dogs and cats as well as rabbits, coatis, many small mammals including rats and flying squirrels, guinea pigs, ferrets, and raccoons. References Further reading External links 5-HT2C antagonists Analgesics Cyclohexanols Dimethylamino compounds Euphoriants Mu-opioid receptor agonists Muscarinic antagonists Nicotinic antagonists NMDA receptor antagonists Phenol ethers Racemic mixtures Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate German inventions	[ -0.0994943380355835, -0.6548291444778442, -0.10100769996643066, 0.005088753532618284, -0.24756430089473724, 0.03025929629802704, 0.37473493814468384, 0.08979292213916779, -0.15604625642299652, 0.054173436015844345, -0.16416512429714203, 0.8398402333259583, -0.37561509013175964, -0.12031669914722443, 0.2651691734790802, 0.8286536335945129, 0.2924107313156128, 0.5180927515029907, -0.4887485206127167, -0.7006761431694031, 0.28228047490119934, -0.25545868277549744, 0.5660430788993835, -0.45427757501602173, -0.11622216552495956, 0.09874062240123749, 0.1987282931804657, 0.6110767722129822, -0.1910305768251419, -0.006252607796341181, 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250863	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picander	Picander	Christian Friedrich Henrici (January 14, 1700 – May 10, 1764), writing under the pen name Picander, was a German poet and librettist for many of the cantatas which Johann Sebastian Bach composed in Leipzig. Henrici was born in Stolpen. He studied law at Wittenberg and Leipzig. He wrote to supplement his income from tutoring and continued even after obtaining regular employment as a civil servant. Librettist for Johann Sebastian Bach Bach moved to Leipzig in 1723. There is uncertainty as to who was writing the libretti he set during his first years in the city. The libretti for the Chorale cantata cycle of 1724/25 are anonymous. By 1725, Henrici and Bach were working together. Some of Bach's most important works used Henrici's libretti. Most notably their collaboration was on religious works in a Lutheran tradition such as the St Matthew Passion (BWV 244). However, they also produced secular works such as the Shepherds' Cantata of 1725 and the later Coffee Cantata and Peasant Cantata. Sammlung Erbaulicher Gedanken For a year from the start of Advent 1724 Picander had published spiritual poetry in weekly editions, which he collected in 1725 as Sammlung Erbaulicher Gedanken. This caught Bach's eye who started using Picander's poetry for his cantatas from 1725, and used poems from Picander's first collection in his St Matthew Passion. Ernst-Schertzhaffte und Satyrische Gedichte All volumes of Picander's (Leipzig, 1727–51) contain texts set to music by J. S. Bach, including those for the St Matthew Passion and its associated funeral music for Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cöthen (Klagt, Kinder, klagt es aller Welt, BWV 244a). Volumes and editions: Vol. I: 1727, reprinted in 1732 and 1736. Vol. II: 1729, reprinted in 1734. Vol. III: 1732, reprinted in 1737. This volume contained texts published in 1728 as Cantaten auf die Sonn- und Fest-Tage durch das gantze Jahr. Vol. IV: 1737. Reworked fourth edition, containing a selection of previous editions, in two volumes: 1748. Vol. V: 1751. Lost scores and reconstructions In some cases, Henrici's texts have survived and Bach's settings have not. The lost scores include cases where the music has vanished without trace and others where there are clues as to what music Bach used to set the words, allowing the possibility of reconstruction. Lost scores In the preface to the third volume (1732) Picander claimed that J. S. Bach set a whole cycle of his cantata texts in 1729. Only nine of J. S. Bach's settings are known to have survived (they include the cantatas for Christmas Ehre sei Gott in der Höhe, BWV 197a, New Year Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171, Whit Monday Ich liebe den Höchsten von ganzem Gemüte, BWV 174, and the feast of St Michael Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg, BWV 149) the statement made in the preface has been debated. Reconstructed scores Examples of reconstructions include the funeral music for Prince Leopold and the St Mark Passion (BWV 247) where Bach's music can be reconstructed because it is known to have been used in surviving pieces. Bach sometimes returned to compositions commissioned for one-off occasions and recycled the music. Picander was able to help the composer in this process by providing metrically similar new texts, effectively setting words to Bach's music. References Sources Paul Flossman. Picander (Christian Friedrich Henrici). Leipzig: Liebertwolkwitz (1899) External links "Henrici, Christian Friedrich (Pseudonym: Picander)", Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon 1700 births 1764 deaths German poets German cantata librettists German oratorio and passion librettists 18th-century pseudonymous writers Leipzig University alumni German male poets	[ -0.3147445321083069, 0.2881567180156708, -0.3974534869194031, 0.20788666605949402, -0.18562346696853638, 0.8515716791152954, 0.7660620212554932, -0.11350259184837341, 0.00020561774726957083, -0.766460120677948, -0.27122369408607483, -0.3101752996444702, -0.015982044860720634, 0.158281147480011, 0.026352331042289734, 0.1483355313539505, 0.2635384500026703, -0.7846556901931763, -0.3839997947216034, -0.5691094994544983, -0.24610289931297302, -0.13838090002536774, 0.4531753957271576, -0.3496113121509552, 0.22745062410831451, 0.3836979269981384, -0.25273481011390686, -0.199220672249794, 0.116797536611557, 0.0865895226597786, -0.2051645666360855, 0.7249948382377625, 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250867	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis%20A.%20Gorman	Willis A. Gorman	Willis Arnold Gorman (January 12, 1816 – May 20, 1876) was an American lawyer, soldier, politician, and a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Biography Gorman was born near Flemingsburg, Kentucky. He was the only child of David and Elizabeth Gorman, both of Irish descent. In 1835, the family moved to Bloomington, Indiana, where Gorman attended Indiana University and then established a law practice. In January 1836, he married Martha Stone in Bloomington. By 1837 he began his move into politics, becoming a clerk in the Indiana State Senate. From 1841 to 1844, he was elected to the Indiana House of Representatives. In 1845 he returned to Indiana University and completed his law degree. In 1846 he volunteered for the army, enlisted as a private, and went to fight in the Mexican–American War. He was appointed as a major in the 3rd Indiana Volunteer Infantry, and led an independent rifle battalion at the Battle of Buena Vista, where he was severely wounded. When his term of service expired, he re-enlisted and was appointed colonel of the 4th Indiana. He served in the capture of Huamantla and in several other campaigns and battles under General Joseph Lane. In 1848 he was civil and military governor of Puebla, but soon after he returned to Indiana. He served in the United States House of Representatives from March 4, 1849, to March 3, 1853, as a representative of that state. Gorman, politically a Democrat, served as the second Territorial Governor of Minnesota from May 15, 1853, to April 23, 1857, at the appointment of President Franklin Pierce. During his time as Governor of Minnesota, he masterminded an unsuccessful plan to move the capital of the territory from St. Paul to St. Peter, where he owned land that would have been eminently suitable for use as the new capitol grounds. The plan was sidetracked when legislator Joe Rolette disappeared with the bill until the last seconds of the legislative session. He spent a number of years practicing law in St. Paul, Minnesota, and served in the Minnesota House of Representatives from May 11, 1858, to January 1859. With the secession of several Southern slave states, Gorman offered his services to the army. He was appointed Colonel of the 1st Minnesota Infantry, serving in the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21, 1861. On September 7, 1861, he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and assigned to command a brigade in the II Corps in Army of the Potomac during the Peninsular Campaign. His troops suffered high casualties during the Battle of Antietam in an ill-fated attack on Confederate positions in the West Woods. Later in the year, he was assigned to command the District of Eastern Arkansas. Postbellum In 1864 he left the service and resumed his law practice in St. Paul. He was elected City attorney in 1869, and continued in that position until his death. He is buried in Oakland Cemetery in St. Paul. See also List of American Civil War generals (Union) References Retrieved on 2008-02-14 The personal papers of Willis A. Gorman are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society. External links 1816 births 1876 deaths People from Flemingsburg, Kentucky Indiana lawyers Indiana Democrats Minnesota lawyers Minnesota Democrats American military personnel of the Mexican–American War Members of the United States House of Representatives from Indiana Governors of Minnesota Territory Members of the Indiana House of Representatives Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives Union Army generals United States Army officers People of Minnesota in the American Civil War American people of Irish descent Indiana University Maurer School of Law alumni Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives 19th-century American politicians 19th-century American lawyers	[ -0.2595674693584442, 0.3340482711791992, -0.7214259505271912, 0.2809039056301117, 0.5402194261550903, 0.27395328879356384, 0.8731327056884766, 0.07637879252433777, -0.17457833886146545, -0.18127742409706116, 0.005327973980456591, 0.4357866048812866, -0.5139254927635193, 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250870	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Medary	Samuel Medary	Samuel Medary (February 25, 1801 – November 7, 1864) was an American newspaper owner and politician. Biography Born and raised in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, he settled in Bethel, Ohio, in 1825. After a term in the Ohio House of Representatives (1834) and the Ohio State Senate (1836–38) as a Jackson Democrat, he purchased a newspaper in Columbus that became the Ohio Statesman, which he edited until 1857. He was active at the National Democratic Conventions at Baltimore in 1844, where he was instrumental in the nomination of James K. Polk; and at Cincinnati in 1856, where he was the President pro tem. President James Buchanan appointed him as the third Territorial Governor of Minnesota from April 23, 1857, to May 24, 1858. Minnesota became a state on May 11, 1858, and elected Henry Hastings Sibley as the state's first governor. Samuel Medary was also Governor of Kansas Territory from December 1858 to December 1860. William F. Wheeler was territory Librarian and the Governor's Secretary while in office. Returning to Columbus, Ohio, he established a newspaper he named The Crisis. While living in Columbus, Medary resided at his estate, Northwood Place, located along the Worthington Pike, now North High Street, near Northwood Avenue. Medary was indicted by a federal grand jury in 1864 for conspiracy against the government and was arrested. He was released on bond, but died in Columbus, Ohio before he could be tried. Legacy One of the first townsites in Dakota Territory is named after Medary. The town of Medaryville, Indiana was also named after him. In North Columbus, Ohio (annexed to the city of Columbus in the late 1800s) a street dating back to the early 1900s Medary Avenue was named for him. Because Columbus Public Schools names its schools for the street on which they are located, Medary Elementary School also carried his surname. Medary was buried at Green Lawn Cemetery, Columbus, Ohio. Notes 1801 births 1864 deaths 19th-century American newspaper editors Burials at Green Lawn Cemetery (Columbus, Ohio) Governors of Kansas Territory Governors of Minnesota Territory Minnesota Democrats Members of the Ohio House of Representatives Ohio state senators Politicians from Columbus, Ohio Kansas Democrats American male journalists 19th-century American male writers 19th-century American politicians Journalists from Ohio People from Montgomery County, Pennsylvania People from Bethel, Ohio	[ -0.3051731586456299, 0.21427544951438904, -0.8030526638031006, 0.17362365126609802, 0.5137202739715576, 0.8051695823669434, 1.0145219564437866, 0.10785698890686035, -0.15102256834506989, -0.4395632743835449, -0.0989929586648941, 0.41282281279563904, -0.45920300483703613, 0.8584657907485962, -0.6200515031814575, 0.38029545545578003, -0.22573333978652954, 0.022422676905989647, -0.23305091261863708, 0.05514322966337204, -0.23688620328903198, 0.009621430188417435, 0.7143005132675171, 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250877	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20604	NGC 604	NGC 604 is an H II region inside the Triangulum Galaxy. It was discovered by William Herschel on September 11, 1784. It is among the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies; at the galaxy's estimated distance of 2.7 million light-years, its longest diameter is roughly 1,520 light years (~460 parsecs), over 40 times the size of the visible portion of the Orion Nebula. It is over 6,300 times more luminous than the Orion Nebula, and if it were at the same distance it would outshine Venus. Its gas is ionized by a cluster of massive stars at its center with 200 stars of spectral type O and WR, a mass of 105 solar masses, and an age of 3.5 million years; however, unlike the Large Magellanic Cloud's Tarantula Nebula central cluster (R136), NGC 604's one is much less compact and more similar to a large stellar association. See also Tarantula Nebula List of largest nebulae References Some data in the table was updated from Sue French's column "Deep-sky Wonders", in the January 2006 issue of Sky & Telescope, p. 83. External links Nebula NGC 604 @ SEDS Messier pages H II regions Triangulum (constellation) 0604 Triangulum Galaxy 17840911 Star-forming regions	[ -0.06833218038082123, 0.24044956266880035, 0.3367208242416382, -0.47679781913757324, -0.45782271027565, 0.27207857370376587, 0.4900127351284027, 0.43091681599617004, -0.5742455720901489, -0.3927985727787018, -0.7899530529975891, -0.32029563188552856, -0.5305471420288086, 0.6464752554893494, 0.11486013233661652, 0.37153127789497375, 0.15287010371685028, 0.6658031344413757, -0.07459625601768494, -0.7025144100189209, 0.4658769965171814, -0.2754422128200531, 0.08641237020492554, -0.44649767875671387, -0.1873663067817688, -0.11755171418190002, 0.13746143877506256, -0.2559964954853058, 1.360929012298584, -0.3243896961212158, -0.05417567491531372, 0.7652583718299866, 0.33364227414131165, -0.09821536391973495, 0.6750421524047852, 0.06319424510002136, -0.08220841735601425, -0.420297771692276, 0.002640523249283433, -0.23594993352890015, 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250879	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract%20killing	Contract killing	Contract killing is a form of murder or assassination in which one party hires another party to kill a targeted person or persons. It involves an illegal agreement which includes some form of payment, monetary or otherwise. Either party may be a person, group, or organization. Contract killing has been associated with organized crime, government conspiracies, dictatorships, and vendettas. For example, in the United States, the gang Murder, Inc. committed hundreds of murders on behalf of the National Crime Syndicate during the 1930s and 1940s. Contract killing provides the hiring party with the advantage of not having to carry out the actual killing, making it more difficult for law enforcement to connect them with the murder. The likelihood that authorities will establish that party's guilt for the committed crime, especially due to lack of forensic evidence linked to the contracting party, makes the case more difficult to attribute to the hiring party. Contract killers may exhibit serial killer traits, but are generally not classified as such because of third-party killing objectives and detached financial and emotional incentives. Nevertheless, there are occasionally individuals that are labeled as both hitmen and serial killers. A contract killer is colloquially known as a hitman. Contract killers who work for criminal organizations are often known as enforcers. Statistics A study by the Australian Institute of Criminology of 162 contract murders and attempted contract murders in Australia between 1989 and 2002 indicated that the most common reason for murder-for-hire was insurance policy payouts. The study also found that payments varied from $5,000 to $30,000 per killing, with an average of $15,000, and that the most commonly used weapons were firearms. Contract killings accounted for 2% of murders in Australia during that time period. Contract killings generally make up a small percentage of murders. For example, they accounted for about 5% of all murders in Scotland from 1993 to 2002. Notable persons Perpetrators Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll, an Irish-American hitman who worked for Dutch Schultz and Owney Madden. Abe Reles, hitman and initial leader of Murder, Inc. along with Martin Goldstein. Harry Strauss, hitman for Murder, Inc. he is possibly the most prolific hitman to have ever lived, committing 100 (possibly 500) murders during his career. Elmer "Trigger" Burke, notorious hitman and supporting player in the Great Brink's Robbery Glennon Engleman, American dentist who moonlighted as a hitman. Ray Ferritto, Italian-American hitman and soldier for the Cleveland and Los Angeles crime families, best known for killing Danny Greene; later he became a government witness and testified against the mob. Christopher Dale Flannery, reputed Australian hitman. Giuseppe Greco, a Sicilian hitman who killed at least 58 people during the Second Mafia War. Charles Harrelson, American hitman, father of actor Woody Harrelson. Marinko Magda, Serbian hitman convicted for 11 murders. Tommy "Karate" Pitera, an Italian-American hitman and soldier in the Bonanno crime family. He was known for having serial killer-like characteristics, and was a skilled martial artist. Jhon Jairo "Popeye" Velásquez, Colombian hitman who was part of the Medellín Cartel. Frank "the Irishman" Sheeran, a union official and mob hitman, who was associated with Russell Bufalino. Sheeran claimed to have murdered former Teamsters president Jimmy Hoffa. Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel, a Jewish hitman who headed the Bugs and Meyer Mob and was a hitman for Murder, Inc.; Siegel was also the Italian mob's main hitman during Prohibition. Alexander Solonik, Russian hitman, known for carrying a firearm in each hand. Alexander Solonik was a main killer in the Kurganskaya criminal group. Alexander "Sasha-soldier" Pustovalov, Russian hitman and Orekhovskaya gang soldier. Pustovalov has 22 confirmed kills. Robert Young, Willie Sanchez, an escaped convict and contract killer employed by an organized crime outfit headed by Nicky Barnes. Z, a 15-year-old minor who was convicted of murdering an insurance agent under the orders of her husband in Singapore in 2001. He was detained at the President's Pleasure for 17 years. Victims Griselda Blanco, the subject of the film Cocaine Godmother (2018), a former drug lord gunned down on September 3, 2012. Li Fuguo, a Tang Dynasty eunuch killed by a hitman hired by Emperor Tang Daizong. Harry Greenberg, a Mafia associate of Charles "Lucky" Luciano, Meyer Lansky, and Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel. He was killed by Siegel, Whitey Krakower, Albert Tannenbaum, and Frankie Carbo in 1939. Harry Millman, gang leader and former Purple Gang member, killed by Harry Strauss and Harry Maione Shiori Ino, a 21-year-old university student, who was stabbed to death in 1999. Hitman had been hired by Ino's abusive ex-boyfriend (who committed suicide before he could be apprehended) and the ex-boyfriend's brother, who was sentenced to life imprisonment. Salvatore Maranzano, a Castellammarese Mafia boss and rival to Masseria in the Castellammarese War who was killed by Siegel and several other men in 1931. Dan Markel, an attorney and legal academic murdered in Tallahassee, Florida, in 2014. Joe Masseria, a Mafia boss murdered by Siegel, Vito Genovese, Albert Anastasia, and Joe Adonis in 1931. Alexander Solonik, was strangled to death by Russian hitman and ex-Marine Alexander Pustovalov in his villa in 1997. Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel, Las Vegas mob boss killed by unknown assailants in 1947. Barry Seal, American airline pilot and undercover CIA informer, who became a major drug smuggler for the Medellin Cartel. Grady Stiles, a freak show performer whose family hired a hitman to kill due to his abusiveness. John H. Wood Jr., an American judge known as "Maximum John" for giving severe prison sentences for drug offenses, killed by Charles Harrelson at the behest of organized crime. Annie Leong, an insurance agent in Singapore who was murdered by a minor hired by her husband, who was subsequently sentenced to death and later executed. Employers Dana Ewell, convicted of hiring his college roommate to murder Ewell’s mother, father, and sister for the US$8,000,000 estate. John Gotti, Italian-American crime boss, hired hitmen to murder Paul Castellano outside of Sparks Steak House in December 1985. Robert Fratta, ex-police officer, hired two men to kill his wife. Lawrence Horn, record producer whose hiring of a hitman led to the case Rice v. Paladin Press Ruthann Aron, convicted of hiring a hitman to kill her husband and a lawyer who had won a fraud case against her. Mike Danton, former NHL player, hired an undercover federal agent to kill his sports agent. Wanda Holloway hired a hitman to kill the mother of her daughter's cheerleading rival, inspiring a film. Silas Jayne, Chicago-area stable owner, was convicted in 1973 of hiring hitmen to murder his half-brother George. Tim Lambesis, heavy metal vocalist who attempted to hire an undercover police officer to murder his wife. Charlotte Karin Lindström, Swedish waitress/model who attempted to hire a hitman to kill persons testifying against her boyfriend in a drug trial in Australia. Charles "Lucky" Luciano, American Mafia and Luciano crime family boss. Ordered Siegel, Tannenbaum, Genovese, Buchalter, Carbo, and Krakower to murder Mustache Petes Joe Masseria and Sal Maranzano in 1931, and stool pigeon Harry Greenberg in 1939. Joseph Maldonado-Passage (better known by his stage name Joe Exotic), an American zoo owner who attempted to hire an undercover FBI agent to murder a rival, the CEO of Big Cat Rescue (with whom he had a long-running and public feud). Diana Lovejoy, a technical writer, and her gun instructor Weldon McDavid were convicted of conspiracy to commit murder of Lovejoy's husband in 2016. Jennifer Pan, a Canadian woman who hired three men to stage a home invasion in order to eliminate her parents in 2010. Nicole Doucet Ryan attempted to hire an undercover Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer to kill her husband. After ruling that she could not use the defense of duress, the Supreme Court of Canada ordered she could not be retried. Pamela Smart hired teenage lover Billy Flynn and his friends to murder her husband. Thomas Bartlett Whitaker, an American man who hired people to attack his parents and brother in a home invasion in 2003. Anthony Ler, a Singaporean who hired a 15-year-old student in 2001 to murder his wife with promises of money and sex, as well as manipulation and death threats. He was sentenced to death and subsequently executed the following year. In popular culture Fictional cases of contract killing or "hitmen" are depicted in a range of popular fiction genres in the 20th and 21st century, including comic books, films, and video games. Contract killing is a core aspect of the video game franchise Hitman, wherein the player controls a hired hitman simply known as Agent 47. In the game Hotline Miami, the player controls a man who receives mysterious calls telling him to kill members of the Russian Mafia. The website RentAHitman.com is a satirical homepage for a fake contract killing agency. Its owner passes on details of those who try to use his services to law enforcement agencies. Nothing Personal is a television documentary series that presents stories of contract killings. See also Assassination Assassination market Cleaner (crime) List of contract killers and hitmen Mercenary Murder, Inc. Private military company Wetwork References External links Murder-for-Hire: Web Hits of a Deadly Kind (FBI) Satire Site Rent-A-Hitman—Has gun, will Gavel News story behind site and most-recent of several convicted Point-and-clickers (CNN-12-12-2021) Gangland warfare tactics Organized crime activity Temporary employment Killings by type Illegal occupations Speech crimes	[ 0.49043652415275574, -0.1427723616361618, -0.5539098978042603, -0.08736469596624374, 0.0996447205543518, 0.5198784470558167, 0.296819269657135, 0.016375897452235222, -0.18235613405704498, -0.19253097474575043, 0.06439851224422455, 0.5825414061546326, -0.5602545738220215, -0.061302896589040756, -0.6117352247238159, 0.3530037999153137, -0.1907012164592743, 0.1528647243976593, 0.20218178629875183, 0.03820598125457764, -0.2289903312921524, 0.09708349406719208, 0.25270894169807434, -0.22393420338630676, -0.24123704433441162, -0.11538636684417725, 0.48050352931022644, 0.0858452245593071, -0.5706599354743958, 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250880	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Spider%20Nebula	Red Spider Nebula	The Red Spider Nebula (also catalogued as NGC 6537) is a planetary nebula located near the heart of the Milky Way, in the northwest of the constellation Sagittarius. The nebula has a prominent two-lobed shape, possibly due to a binary companion or magnetic fields and has an S-shaped symmetry of the lobes – the lobes opposite each other appear similar. This is believed to be due to the presence of a companion to the central white dwarf. However, the gas walls of the two lobed structures are not at all smooth, but rather are rippled in a complex way. The central white dwarf, the remaining compact core of the original star, produces a powerful and hot (≈10,000 K) wind blowing with a speed of 300 kilometers per second, which has generated waves 100 billion kilometres high. The waves are generated by supersonic shocks formed when the local gas is compressed and heated in front of the rapidly expanding lobes. Atoms caught in the shocks radiate a visible light. These winds are what give this nebula its unique 'spider' shape and also contribute to the expansion of the nebula. The star at the center of the Red Spider Nebula is surrounded by a dust shell making its exact properties hard to determine. Its surface temperature is probably 150,000–250,000 K, although a temperature of 340,000 K or even 500,000 K is not ruled out, making it among the hottest white dwarf stars known. The Red Spider Nebula lies near the constellation of Sagittarius. Its distance has been variously estimated as 1,900 light-years or, more likely, 3,000–8,000 light-years. References External links Red Spider Nebula at ESA/Hubble White dwarf sends ripples through Red Spider Nebula at Space.com NGC objects Sagittarius (constellation) Planetary nebulae	[ -0.1816319078207016, -0.07675398141145706, 0.10449175536632538, -0.32958129048347473, -0.37298569083213806, 0.30744844675064087, 0.31472375988960266, 0.6029028296470642, -0.5838512778282166, -1.0720120668411255, -0.2275998741388321, -0.0155786769464612, -0.7269477844238281, 0.6008695363998413, 0.19381359219551086, 0.5574307441711426, 0.18669268488883972, 0.6320967078208923, -0.1546524614095688, -0.1251438409090042, 0.044707074761390686, 0.15500643849372864, -0.4773309528827667, -0.27503523230552673, 0.25418606400489807, 0.055763956159353256, -0.5941792726516724, 0.1839444637298584, 0.7408061027526855, 0.15018515288829803, 0.1317194551229477, 0.5496904850006104, -0.028796257451176643, -0.04944533482193947, 0.281651109457016, -0.055596835911273956, -0.5265033841133118, -0.40721121430397034, 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250882	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat%27s%20Eye%20Nebula	Cat's Eye Nebula	The Cat's Eye Nebula (also known as NGC 6543 and Caldwell 6) is a planetary nebula in the northern constellation of Draco, discovered by William Herschel on February 15, 1786. It was the first planetary nebula whose spectrum was investigated by the English amateur astronomer William Huggins, demonstrating that planetary nebulae were gaseous and not stellar in nature. Structurally, the object has had high-resolution images by the Hubble Space Telescope revealing knots, jets, bubbles and complex arcs, being illuminated by the central hot planetary nebula nucleus (PNN). It is a well-studied object that has been observed from radio to X-ray wavelengths. General information NGC 6543 is a high northern declination deep-sky object. It has the combined magnitude of 8.1, with high surface brightness. Its small bright inner nebula subtends an average of 16.1 arcsec, with the outer prominent condensations about 25 arcsec. Deep images reveal an extended halo about 300 arcsec or 5 arcminutes across, that was once ejected by the central progenitor star during its red giant phase. NGC 6543 is 4.4 minutes of arc from the current position of the north ecliptic pole, less than of the 45 arcminutes between Polaris and the current location of the Earth's northern axis of rotation. It is a convenient and accurate marker for the axis of rotation of the Earth's ecliptic, around which the celestial North Pole rotates. It is also a good marker for the nearby "invariable" axis of the solar system, which is the center of the circles which every planet's north pole, and the north pole of every planet's orbit, make in the sky. Since motion in the sky of the ecliptic pole is very slow compared to the motion of the Earth's north pole, its position as an ecliptic pole station marker is essentially permanent on the time-scale of human history, as opposed to the pole star, which changes every few thousand years. Observations show the bright nebulosity has temperatures between and , whose densities average of about particles per cubic centimetre. Its outer halo has the higher temperature around , but is of much lower density. Velocity of the fast stellar wind is about , where spectroscopic analysis shows the current rate of mass loss averages solar masses per year, equivalent to twenty trillion tons per second (20 Eg/s). Surface temperature for the central PNN is about , being times as luminous as the sun. Stellar classification is O7 + [WR]-type star. Calculations suggest the PNN is over one solar mass, from a theoretical initial 5 solar masses. The central Wolf–Rayet star has a radius of (452,000 km). The Cat's Eye Nebula, given in some sources, lies about three thousand light-years from Earth. Observations The Cat's Eye was the first planetary nebula to be observed with a spectroscope by William Huggins on August 29, 1864. Huggins' observations revealed that the nebula's spectrum was non-continuous and made of a few bright emission lines, first indication that planetary nebulae consist of tenuous ionised gas. Spectroscopic observations at these wavelengths are used in abundance determinations, while images at these wavelengths have been used to reveal the intricate structure of the nebula. Infrared observations Observations of NGC 6543 at far-infrared wavelengths (about 60 μm) reveal the presence of stellar dust at low temperatures. The dust is believed to have formed during the last phases of the progenitor star's life. It absorbs light from the central star and re-radiates it at infrared wavelengths. The spectrum of the infrared dust emission implies that the dust temperature is about 85 K, while the mass of the dust is estimated at solar masses. Infrared emission also reveals the presence of un-ionised material such as molecular hydrogen (H2) and argon. In many planetary nebulae, molecular emission is greatest at larger distances from the star, where more material is un-ionised, but molecular hydrogen emission in NGC 6543 seems to be bright at the inner edge of its outer halo. This may be due to shock waves exciting the H2 as ejecta moving at different speeds collide. The overall appearance of the Cat's Eye Nebula in infrared (wavelengths 2–8 μm) is similar in visible light. Optical and ultraviolet observations The Hubble Space Telescope image produced here is in false colour, designed to highlight regions of high and low ionisation. Three images were taken, in filters isolating the light emitted by singly ionised hydrogen at 656.3 nm, singly ionised nitrogen at 658.4 nm and doubly ionised oxygen at 500.7 nm. The images were combined as red, green and blue channels respectively, although their true colours are red, red and green. The image reveals two "caps" of less ionised material at the edge of the nebula. X-ray observations In 2001, observations at X-ray wavelengths by the Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed the presence of extremely hot gas within NGC 6543 with the temperature of . It is thought that the very hot gas results from the violent interaction of a fast stellar wind with material previously ejected. This interaction has hollowed out the inner bubble of the nebula. Chandra observations have also revealed a point source at the position of the central star. The spectrum of this source extends to the hard part of the X-ray spectrum, to 0.5–. A star with the photospheric temperature of about would not be expected to emit strongly in hard X-rays, and so their presence is something of a mystery. It may suggest the presence of a high temperature accretion disk within a binary star system. The hard X-ray data remain intriguing more than ten years later: the Cat's Eye was included in a 2012 Chandra survey of 21 central stars of planetary nebulae (CSPNe) in the solar neighborhood, which found: "All but one of the X-ray point sources detected at CSPNe display X-ray spectra that are harder than expected from hot (~) central star photospheres, possibly indicating a high frequency of binary companions to CSPNe. Other potential explanations include self-shocking winds or PN mass fallback." Distance Planetary nebulae distances like NGC 6543 are generally very inaccurate and not well known. Some recent Hubble Space Telescope observations of NGC 6543 taken several years apart determine its distance from the angular expansion rate of 3.457 milliarcseconds per year. Assuming a line of sight expansion velocity of 16.4 km·s−1, this implies that NGC 6543's distance is parsecs ( or light-years) away from Earth. Several other distance references, like what is quoted in SIMBAD in 2014 based on Stanghellini, L., et al. (2008) suggest the distance is parsecs ( light-years). Age The angular expansion of the nebula can also be used to estimate its age. If it has been expanding at a constant rate of 10 milliarcseconds a year, then it would take to reach a diameter of 20 arcseconds. This may be an upper limit to the age, because ejected material will be slowed when it encounters material ejected from the star at earlier stages of its evolution, and the interstellar medium. Composition Like most astronomical objects, NGC 6543 consists mostly of hydrogen and helium, with heavier elements present in small quantities. The exact composition may be determined by spectroscopic studies. Abundances are generally expressed relative to hydrogen, the most abundant element. Different studies generally find varying values for elemental abundances. This is often because spectrographs attached to telescopes do not collect all the light from objects being observed, instead gathering light from a slit or small aperture. Therefore, different observations may sample different parts of the nebula. However, results for NGC 6543 broadly agree that, relative to hydrogen, the helium abundance is about 0.12, carbon and nitrogen abundances are both about , and the oxygen abundance is about . These are fairly typical abundances for planetary nebulae, with the carbon, nitrogen and oxygen abundances all larger than the values found for the sun, due to the effects of nucleosynthesis enriching the star's atmosphere in heavy elements before it is ejected as a planetary nebula. Deep spectroscopic analysis of NGC 6543 may indicate that the nebula contains a small amount of material which is highly enriched in heavy elements; this is discussed below. Kinematics and morphology The Cat's Eye Nebula is structurally a very complex nebula, and the mechanism or mechanisms that have given rise to its complicated morphology are not well understood. The central bright part of the nebula consists of the inner elongated bubble (inner ellipse) filled with hot gas. It, in turn, is nested into a pair of larger spherical bubbles conjoined together along their waist. The waist is observed as the second larger ellipse lying perpendicular to the bubble with hot gas. The structure of the bright portion of the nebula is primarily caused by the interaction of a fast stellar wind being emitted by the central PNN with the visible material ejected during the formation of the nebula. This interaction causes the emission of X-rays discussed above. The stellar wind, blowing with the velocity as high as , has 'hollowed out' the inner bubble of the nebula, and appears to have burst the bubble at both ends. It is also suspected that the central WR:+O7 spectral class PNN star, HD 164963 / BD +66 1066 / PPM 20679 of the nebula may be generated by a binary star. The existence of an accretion disk caused by mass transfer between the two components of the system may give rise to polar jets, which would interact with previously ejected material. Over time, the direction of the polar jets would vary due to precession. Outside the bright inner portion of the nebula, there are a series of concentric rings, thought to have been ejected before the formation of the planetary nebula, while the star was on the asymptotic giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. These rings are very evenly spaced, suggesting that the mechanism responsible for their formation ejected them at very regular intervals and at very similar speeds. The total mass of the rings is about 0.1 solar masses. The pulsations that formed the rings probably started 15,000 years ago and ceased about years ago, when the formation of the bright central part began (see above). Further, a large faint halo extends to large distances from the star. The halo again predates the formation of the main nebula. The mass of the halo is estimated as 0.26–0.92 solar masses. See also List of largest nebulae Notes References Cited sources External links Cat's Eye Nebula Release at ESA/Hubble Cat's Eye Nebula images at ESA/Hubble Chandra X-Ray Observatory Photo Album: NGC 6543 Astronomy Picture of the Day The Cat's Eye Nebula October 31, 1999 Halo of the Cat's Eye 2010 May 9 The Cat's Eye Nebula 2016 July 3 Hubble Probes the Complex History of a Dying Star—HubbleSite article about the Cat's Eye Nebula. NGC6543 The Cats Eye Nebula Hubble's Color Toolbox: Cat's Eye Nebula—article showing image composite process used to produce an image of the nebula Cat's Eye Nebula at Constellation Guide Cat's Eye Nebula in the Staracle NGC catalog 006b Draco (constellation) NGC objects Planetary nebulae Astronomical objects discovered in 1786 Discoveries by William Herschel	[ -0.17918425798416138, -0.04625038057565689, 0.4407515525817871, -0.542256236076355, -0.12054619193077087, 0.36705365777015686, 0.23217804729938507, 0.48331359028816223, -0.42594990134239197, -0.6706755757331848, -0.2682303786277771, 0.05403970181941986, -0.7401317954063416, 0.7800079584121704, -0.06466440111398697, 0.05801953747868538, 0.866165280342102, 0.4168974459171295, -0.542481005191803, -0.2584860920906067, 0.18379898369312286, 0.07206235826015472, -0.36504337191581726, -0.1492381989955902, 0.09418761730194092, 0.3158726692199707, -0.3793295919895172, 0.2699239253997803, 1.069483995437622, 0.16897447407245636, 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250884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%202346	NGC 2346	NGC 2346 is a planetary nebula near the celestial equator in the constellation of Monoceros, less than a degree to the ESE of Delta Monocerotis. It is informally known as the Butterfly Nebula. The nebula is bright and conspicuous with a visual magnitude of 9.6, and has been extensively studied. Among its most remarkable characteristics is its unusually cool central star, which is a spectroscopic binary, and its unusual shape. The nebular is bipolar in form, with modest outflow velocities in the range of 8–11 km/s, while the center is girded by an expanding belt of molecular gas. The electron density of the nebula is on the order of 400 per cubic centimeter. The ionization of the nebula is the result of ultraviolet emission from the binary companion. The stronger infrared emission from molecular emission is coming from the belt, which is expanding at the rate of . The mass of the molecular gas in the nebula is estimated to be in the range of 0.34–, and is much greater than the mass of the ionized gas. The central star is a binary star consisting of an A-type subgiant and a subdwarf O star. The system, which has an orbital period of days, is also variable, probably due to dust in orbit around it. The dust itself is heated by the central star and so NGC 2346 is unusually bright in the infrared part of the spectrum. When one of the two stars evolved into a red giant, it engulfed its companion, which stripped away a ring of material from the larger star's atmosphere. When the red giant's core was exposed, a fast stellar wind inflated two ‘bubbles’ from either side of the ring. Gallery References External links Planetary nebulae Spectroscopic binaries Monoceros (constellation) 2346	[ 0.16898535192012787, 0.17613032460212708, 0.4779193103313446, -0.08880048990249634, -0.24719907343387604, 0.1862250119447708, 0.4011499285697937, 0.3432309329509735, -0.3700614869594574, -0.46429261565208435, -0.25622081756591797, -0.4204753041267395, -0.6029943227767944, 0.7249438166618347, 0.5816701054573059, 0.4239419400691986, 0.4853590428829193, 0.5841135382652283, -0.6477582454681396, -0.7168801426887512, 0.3464432656764984, -0.1351833939552307, 0.2850126326084137, -0.47018253803253174, -0.13777804374694824, 0.28012654185295105, 0.4592399299144745, 0.3085520565509796, 0.9942731261253357, 0.04263106733560562, 0.007925223559141159, 0.2976185381412506, 0.21993334591388702, 0.15077809989452362, 0.5703151226043701, 0.14479143917560577, -0.32276883721351624, -0.1701098084449768, -0.00997120887041092, -0.32931506633758545, 0.266215443611145, 0.2257552146911621, 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250887	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanishka	Kanishka	Kanishka I (Sanskrit: devanagari: कनिष्क, ; Greco-Bactrian: ΚΑΝΗϷΚΕ Kanēške; Kharosthi: 𐨐𐨞𐨁𐨮𐨿𐨐 ; Brahmi: ), or Kanishka the Great, was an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, under whose reign(c. 127-150 CE) the empire reached its zenith. He is famous for his military, political, and spiritual achievements. A descendant of Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan empire, Kanishka came to rule an empire, extending from Central Asia and Gandhara to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain. The main capital of his empire was located at Puruṣapura (Peshawar) in Gandhara, with another major capital at Mathura. Coins of Kanishka were found in Tripuri (present-day Jabalpur). His conquests and patronage of Buddhism played an important role in the development of the Silk Road, and in the transmission of Mahayana Buddhism from Gandhara across the Karakoram range to China. Around 127 CE, he replaced Greek with Bactrian as the official language of administration in the empire. Earlier scholars believed that Kanishka ascended the Kushan throne in 78 CE, and that this date was used as the beginning of the Saka calendar era. However, historians no longer regard this date as that of Kanishka's accession. Falk estimates that Kanishka came to the throne in 127 CE. Genealogy Kanishka was a Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity. His native language was probably Tocharian A. The Rabatak inscription uses a Greek script, to write a language described as Arya (αρια) – most likely a form of Bactrian native to Ariana, which was an Eastern Iranian language of the Middle Iranian period. However, this was likely adopted by the Kushans to facilitate communication with local subjects. It is not certain, what language the Kushan elite spoke among themselves. Kanishka was the successor of Vima Kadphises, as demonstrated by an impressive genealogy of the Kushan kings, known as the Rabatak inscription. The connection of Kanishka with other Kushan rulers is described in the Rabatak inscription as Kanishka makes the list of the kings who ruled up to his time: Kujula Kadphises as his great-grandfather, Vima Taktu as his grandfather, Vima Kadphises as his father, and himself Kanishka: "for King Kujula Kadphises (his) great grandfather, and for King Vima Taktu (his) grandfather, and for King Vima Kadphises (his) father, and also for himself, King Kanishka". Conquests in South and Central Asia Kanishka's empire was certainly vast. It extended from southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, north of the Amu Darya (Oxus) in the north west to Northern India, as far as Mathura in the south east (the Rabatak inscription even claims he held Pataliputra and Sri Champa), and his territory also included Kashmir, where there was a town Kanishkapur (modern day Kanispora), named after him not far from the Baramula Pass and which still contains the base of a large stupa. Knowledge of his hold over Central Asia is less well established. The Book of the Later Han, Hou Hanshu, states that general Ban Chao fought battles near Khotan with a Kushan army of 70,000 men led by an otherwise unknown Kushan viceroy named Xie () in 90 AD. Ban Chao claimed to be victorious, forcing the Kushans to retreat by use of a scorched-earth policy. The territories of Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand were Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. Several coins of Kanishka have been found in the Tarim Basin. Controlling both the land (the Silk Road) and sea trade routes between South Asia and Rome seems to have been one of Kanishka's chief imperial goals. Kanishka's coins Kanishka's coins portray images of Indian, Greek, Iranian and even Sumero-Elamite divinities, demonstrating the religious syncretism in his beliefs. Kanishka's coins from the beginning of his reign bear legends in Greek language and script and depict Greek divinities. Later coins bear legends in Bactrian, the Iranian language that the Kushans evidently spoke, and Greek divinities were replaced by corresponding Iranian ones. All of Kanishka's coins – even ones with a legend in the Bactrian language – were written in a modified Greek script that had one additional glyph (Ϸ) to represent /š/ (sh), as in the word 'Kushan' and 'Kanishka'. On his coins, the king is typically depicted as a bearded man in a long coat and trousers gathered at the ankle, with flames emanating from his shoulders. He wears large rounded boots, and is armed with a long sword as well as a lance. He is frequently seen to be making a sacrifice on a small altar. The lower halfIranian and Indic of a lifesize limestone relief of Kanishka similarly attired, with a stiff embroidered surplice beneath his coat and spurs attached to his boots under the light gathered folds of his trousers, survived in the Kabul Museum until it was destroyed by the Taliban. Hellenistic phase A few coins at the beginning of his reign have a legend in the Greek language and script: , "[coin] of Kanishka, king of kings." Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on these early coins: (, Hēlios), (, Hephaistos), (, Selene), (, Anemos) The inscriptions in Greek are full of spelling and syntactical errors. Iranian / Indic phase Following the transition to the Bactrian language on coins, Iranian and Indic divinities replace the Greek ones: ΑΡΔΟΧϷΟ (ardoxsho, Ashi Vanghuhi) ΛΡΟΟΑΣΠΟ (lrooaspo, Drvaspa) ΑΘϷΟ (adsho, Atar) ΦΑΡΡΟ (pharro, personified khwarenah) ΜΑΟ (mao, Mah) ΜΙΘΡΟ, ΜΙΙΡΟ, ΜΙΟΡΟ, ΜΙΥΡΟ (mithro, miiro, mioro, miuro, variants of Mithra) ΜΟΖΔΟΟΑΝΟ (mozdaooano, "Mazda the victorious?") ΝΑΝΑ, ΝΑΝΑΙΑ, ΝΑΝΑϷΑΟ (variants of pan-Asiatic Nana, Sogdian nny, in a Zoroastrian context Aredvi Sura Anahita) ΜΑΝΑΟΒΑΓΟ (manaobago, Vohu Manah ) ΟΑΔΟ (oado, Vata) ΟΡΑΛΑΓΝΟ (orlagno, Verethragna) Only a few Buddhist divinities were used as well: ΒΟΔΔΟ (boddo, Buddha), ϷΑΚΑΜΑΝΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ (shakamano boddho, Shakyamuni Buddha) ΜΕΤΡΑΓΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ (metrago boddo, the bodhisattava Maitreya) Only a few Hindu divinities were used as well: ΟΗϷΟ (oesho, Shiva). A recent study indicate that oesho may be Avestan Vayu conflated with Shiva. Kanishka and Buddhism Kanishka's reputation in Buddhist tradition regarded with utmost importance as he not only believed in Buddhism but also encouraged its teachings as well. As a proof of it, he administered the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir as the head of the council. It was presided by Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha. Images of the Buddha based on 32 physical signs were made during his time. He encouraged both Gandhara school of Greco-Buddhist Art and the Mathura school of art (an inescapable religious syncretism pervades Kushana rule). Kanishka personally seems to have embraced both Buddhism and the Persian attributes but he favored Buddhism more as it can be proven by his devotion to the Buddhist teachings and prayer styles depicted in various books related to kushan empire. His greatest contribution to Buddhist architecture was the Kanishka stupa at Purushapura, modern day Peshawar. Archaeologists who rediscovered the base of it in 1908–1909 estimated that this stupa had a diameter of 286 feet (87 metres). Reports of Chinese pilgrims such as Xuanzang indicate that its height was 600 to 700 (Chinese) "feet" (= roughly 180–210 metres or 591–689 ft.) and was covered with jewels. Certainly this immense multi-storied building ranks among the wonders of the ancient world. Kanishka is said to have been particularly close to the Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosha, who became his religious advisor in his later years. Buddhist coinage The Buddhist coins of Kanishka are comparatively rare (well under one percent of all known coins of Kanishka). Several show Kanishka on the obverse and the Buddha standing on the reverse. A few also show the Shakyamuni Buddha and Maitreya. Like all coins of Kanishka, the design is rather rough and proportions tend to be imprecise; the image of the Buddha is often slightly overdone, with oversize ears and feet spread apart in the same fashion as the Kushan king. Three types of Kanishka's Buddhist coins are known: Standing Buddha Only six Kushan coins of the Buddha are known in gold (the sixth one is the centerpiece of an ancient piece of jewellery, consisting of a Kanishka Buddha coin decorated with a ring of heart-shaped ruby stones). All these coins were minted in gold under Kanishka I, and are in two different denominations: a dinar of about 8 gm, roughly similar to a Roman aureus, and a quarter dinar of about 2 gm. (about the size of an obol). The Buddha is represented wearing the monastic robe, the antaravasaka, the uttarasanga, and the overcoat sanghati. The ears are extremely large and long, a symbolic exaggeration possibly rendered necessary by the small size of the coins, but otherwise visible in some later Gandharan statues of the Buddha typically dated to the 3rd–4th century CE (illustration, left). He has an abundant topknot covering the usnisha, often highly stylised in a curly or often globular manner, also visible on later Buddha statues of Gandhara. In general, the representation of the Buddha on these coins is already highly symbolic, and quite distinct from the more naturalistic and Hellenistic images seen in early Gandhara sculptures. On several designs a mustache is apparent. The palm of his right hand bears the Chakra mark, and his brow bear the urna. An aureola, formed by one, two or three lines, surrounds him. The full gown worn by the Buddha on the coins, covering both shoulders, suggests a Gandharan model rather than a Mathuran one. "Shakyamuni Buddha" The Shakyamuni Buddha (with the legend "Sakamano Boudo", i.e. Shakamuni Buddha, another name for the historic Buddha Siddharta Gautama), standing to front, with left hand on hip and forming the abhaya mudra with the right hand. All these coins are in copper only, and usually rather worn. The gown of the Shakyamuni Buddha is quite light compared to that on the coins in the name of Buddha, clearly showing the outline of the body, in a nearly transparent way. These are probably the first two layers of monastic clothing the antaravasaka and the uttarasanga. Also, his gown is folded over the left arm (rather than being held in the left hand as above), a feature only otherwise known in the Bimaran casket and suggestive of a scarf-like uttariya. He has an abundant topknot covering the ushnisha, and a simple or double halo, sometimes radiating, surrounds his head. "Maitreya Buddha" The Bodhisattva Maitreya (with the legend "Metrago Boudo") cross-legged on a throne, holding a water pot, and also forming the Abhaya mudra. These coins are only known in copper and are quite worn out . On the clearest coins, Maitreya seems to be wearing the armbands of an Indian prince, a feature often seen on the statuary of Maitreya. The throne is decorated with small columns, suggesting that the coin representation of Maitreya was directly copied from pre-existing statuary with such well-known features. The qualification of "Buddha" for Maitreya is inaccurate, as he is instead a Bodhisattva (he is the Buddha of the future). The iconography of these three types is very different from that of the other deities depicted in Kanishka's coinage. Whether Kanishka's deities are all shown from the side, the Buddhas only are shown frontally, indicating that they were copied from contemporary frontal representations of the standing and seated Buddhas in statuary. Both representations of the Buddha and Shakyamuni have both shoulders covered by their monastic gown, indicating that the statues used as models were from the Gandhara school of art, rather than Mathura. Buddhist statuary under Kanishka Several Buddhist statues are directly connected to the reign of Kanishka, such as several Bodhisattva statues from the Art of Mathura, while a few other from Gandhara are inscribed with a date in an era which is now thought to be the Yavana era, starting in 186 to 175 BCE. Kanishka stupa The "Kanishka casket" or "Kanishka reliquary", dated to the first year of Kanishka's reign in 127 CE, was discovered in a deposit chamber under Kanishka stupa, during the archaeological excavations in 1908–1909 in Shah-Ji-Ki-Dheri, just outside the present-day Ganj Gate of the old city of Peshawar. It is today at the Peshawar Museum, and a copy is in the British Museum. It is said to have contained three bone fragments of the Buddha, which are now housed in Mandalay, Burma. The casket is dedicated in Kharoshthi. The inscription reads: "(mahara)jasa kanishkasa kanishka-pure nagare aya gadha-karae deya-dharme sarva-satvana hita-suhartha bhavatu mahasenasa sagharaki dasa agisala nava-karmi anakanishkasa vihare mahasenasa sangharame" The text is signed by the maker, a Greek artist named Agesilas, who oversaw work at Kanishka's stupas (caitya), confirming the direct involvement of Greeks with Buddhist realisations at such a late date: "The servant Agisalaos, the superintendent of works at the vihara of Kanishka in the monastery of Mahasena" ("dasa agisala nava-karmi anakaniskasa vihara mahasenasa sangharame"). The lid of the casket shows the Buddha on a lotus pedestal, and worshipped by Brahma and Indra. The edge of the lid is decorated by a frieze of flying geese. The body of the casket represents a Kushan monarch, probably Kanishka in person, with the Iranian sun and moon gods on his side. On the sides are two images of a seated Buddha, worshiped by royal figures, can be assumed as Kanishka. A garland, supported by cherubs goes around the scene in typical Hellenistic style. The attribution of the casket to Kanishka has been recently disputed, essentially on stylistic ground (for example the ruler shown on the casket is not bearded, to the contrary of Kanishka). Instead, the casket is often attributed to Kanishka's successor Huvishka. Kanishka in Buddhist tradition In Buddhist tradition, Kanishka is often described as an aggressive, hot tempered, rigid, strict, and a bit harsh kind of King before he got converted to Buddhism of which he was very fond, and after his conversion to Buddhism, he became an openhearted, benevolent, and faithful ruler. As in the Sri-dharma-pitaka-nidana sutra: "At this time the King of Ngan-si (Pahlava) was very aggressive and of a violent nature....There was a bhikshu (monk) arhat who seeing the harsh deeds done by the king wished to make him repent. So by his supernatural force he caused the king to see the torments of hell. The king was terrified and repented and cried terribly and hence dissolved all his negatives within him and got self realised for the first time in life ." Additionally, the arrival of Kanishka was reportedly foretold or was predicted by the Buddha, as well as the construction of his stupa: ". . . the Buddha, pointing to a small boy making a mud tope....[said] that on that spot would erect a tope by his name." Vinaya sutra The same story is repeated in a Khotanese scroll found at Dunhuang, which first described how Kanishka would arrive 400 years after the death of the Buddha. The account also describes how Kanishka came to raise his stupa: "A desire thus arose in [Kanishka to build a vast stupa]....at that time the four world-regents learnt the mind of the king. So for his sake they took the form of young boys....[and] began a stūpa of mud....the boys said to [Kanishka] 'We are making the .'....At that time the boys changed their form....[and] said to him, 'Great king, by you according to the Buddha's prophecy is a to be built wholly (?) with a large stūpa and hither relics must be invited which the meritorious good beings...will bring." Chinese pilgrims to India, such as Xuanzang, who travelled there around 630 CE also relays the story: " became sovereign of all Jambudvīpa (Indian subcontinent) but he did not believe in Karma, but he treated Buddhism with honor and respect as he himself converted to Buddhism intrigued by the teachings and scriptures of it. When he was hunting in the wild country a white hare appeared; the king gave a chase and the hare suddenly disappeared at [the site of the future stupa]....[when the construction of the stūpa was not going as planned] the king lost his patience and took the matter in his own hands and started resurrecting the plans precisely, thus completing the stupas with utmost perfection and perseverance. These two stupas are still in existence and were resorted to for cures by people afflicted with diseases." King Kanishka because of his deeds was highly respected, regarded, honored by all the people he ruled and governed and was regarded the greatest king who ever lived because of his kindness, humbleness and sense of equality and self-righteousness among all aspects. Thus such great deeds and character of the king Kanishka made his name immortal and thus he was regarded "THE KING OF KINGS" Transmission of Buddhism to China Buddhist monks from the region of Gandhara played a key role in the development and the transmission of Buddhist ideas in the direction of northern Asia from the middle of the 2nd century CE. The Kushan monk, Lokaksema (c. 178 CE), became the first translator of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and established a translation bureau at the Chinese capital Loyang. Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges for the following centuries. Kanishka was probably succeeded by Huvishka. How and when this came about is still uncertain. It is a fact that there was only one king named Kanishka in the whole Kushan legacy. The inscription on The Sacred Rock of Hunza also shows the signs of Kanishka. See also Menander I Greco-Buddhism Footnotes References Chavannes, Édouard. (1906) "Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch'ao (32–102 p. C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K'in (112 p. C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou." T'oung pao 7, (1906) p. 232 and note 3. Dobbins, K. Walton. (1971). The Stūpa and Vihāra of Kanishka I. The Asiatic Society of Bengal Monograph Series, Vol. XVIII. Calcutta. Falk, Harry (2001): "The yuga of Sphujiddhvaja and the era of the Kuṣâṇas." In: Silk Road Art and Archaeology VII, pp. 121–136. Falk, Harry (2004): "The Kaniṣka era in Gupta records." In: Silk Road Art and Archaeology X (2004), pp. 167–176. Foucher, M. A. 1901. "Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhâra (commentaire à un chapitre de Hiuen-Tsang)." BEFEO No. 4, Oct. 1901, pp. 322–369. Gnoli, Gherardo (2002). "The "Aryan" Language." JSAI 26 (2002). Hargreaves, H. (1910–11): "Excavations at Shāh-jī-kī Dhērī"; Archaeological Survey of India, 1910–11. Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. . Kumar, Baldev. 1973. The Early . New Delhi, Sterling Publishers. Sims-Williams, Nicholas and Joe Cribb (1995/6): "A New Bactrian Inscription of Kanishka the Great." Silk Road Art and Archaeology 4 (1996), pp. 75–142. Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1998): "Further notes on the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak, with an Appendix on the names of Kujula Kadphises and Vima Taktu in Chinese." Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies Part 1: Old and Middle Iranian Studies. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden. 1998, pp. 79–93. Sims-Williams, Nicholas. Accessed: 20/12/2010 Spooner, D. B. (1908–9): "Excavations at Shāh-jī-kī Dhērī."; Archaeological Survey of India, 1908-9. Wood, Frances (2003). The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. University of California Press. Hbk (2003), ; pbk. (2004) External links A rough guide to Kushana history. Online Catalogue of Kanishka's Coins Coins of Kanishka Controversy regarding the beginning of the Kanishka Era. 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250896	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit%20function	Implicit function	In mathematics, an implicit equation is a relation of the form , where is a function of several variables (often a polynomial). For example, the implicit equation of the unit circle is . An implicit function is a function that is defined by an implicit equation, that relates one of the variables, considered as the value of the function, with the others considered as the arguments. For example, the equation of the unit circle defines as an implicit function of if , and one restricts to nonnegative values. The implicit function theorem provides conditions under which some kinds of relations define an implicit function, namely relations defined as the indicator function of the zero set of some continuously differentiable multivariate function. Examples Inverse functions A common type of implicit function is an inverse function. Not all functions have a unique inverse function. If is a function of that has a unique inverse, then the inverse function of , called , is the unique function giving a solution of the equation for in terms of . This solution can then be written as Defining as the inverse of is an implicit definition. For some functions , can be written out explicitly as a closed-form expression — for instance, if , then . However, this is often not possible, or only by introducing a new notation (as in the product log example below). Intuitively, an inverse function is obtained from by interchanging the roles of the dependent and independent variables. Example: The product log is an implicit function giving the solution for of the equation . Algebraic functions An algebraic function is a function that satisfies a polynomial equation whose coefficients are themselves polynomials. For example, an algebraic function in one variable gives a solution for of an equation where the coefficients are polynomial functions of . This algebraic function can be written as the right side of the solution equation . Written like this, is a multi-valued implicit function. Algebraic functions play an important role in mathematical analysis and algebraic geometry. A simple example of an algebraic function is given by the left side of the unit circle equation: Solving for gives an explicit solution: But even without specifying this explicit solution, it is possible to refer to the implicit solution of the unit circle equation as , where is the multi-valued implicit function. While explicit solutions can be found for equations that are quadratic, cubic, and quartic in , the same is not in general true for quintic and higher degree equations, such as Nevertheless, one can still refer to the implicit solution involving the multi-valued implicit function . Caveats Not every equation implies a graph of a single-valued function, the circle equation being one prominent example. Another example is an implicit function given by where is a cubic polynomial having a "hump" in its graph. Thus, for an implicit function to be a true (single-valued) function it might be necessary to use just part of the graph. An implicit function can sometimes be successfully defined as a true function only after "zooming in" on some part of the -axis and "cutting away" some unwanted function branches. Then an equation expressing as an implicit function of the other variables can be written. The defining equation can also have other pathologies. For example, the equation does not imply a function giving solutions for at all; it is a vertical line. In order to avoid a problem like this, various constraints are frequently imposed on the allowable sorts of equations or on the domain. The implicit function theorem provides a uniform way of handling these sorts of pathologies. Implicit differentiation In calculus, a method called implicit differentiation makes use of the chain rule to differentiate implicitly defined functions. To differentiate an implicit function , defined by an equation , it is not generally possible to solve it explicitly for and then differentiate. Instead, one can totally differentiate with respect to and and then solve the resulting linear equation for to explicitly get the derivative in terms of and . Even when it is possible to explicitly solve the original equation, the formula resulting from total differentiation is, in general, much simpler and easier to use. Examples Example 1 Consider This equation is easy to solve for , giving where the right side is the explicit form of the function . Differentiation then gives . Alternatively, one can totally differentiate the original equation: Solving for gives the same answer as obtained previously. Example 2 An example of an implicit function for which implicit differentiation is easier than using explicit differentiation is the function defined by the equation To differentiate this explicitly with respect to , one has first to get and then differentiate this function. This creates two derivatives: one for and another for . It is substantially easier to implicitly differentiate the original equation: giving Example 3 Often, it is difficult or impossible to solve explicitly for , and implicit differentiation is the only feasible method of differentiation. An example is the equation It is impossible to algebraically express explicitly as a function of , and therefore one cannot find by explicit differentiation. Using the implicit method, can be obtained by differentiating the equation to obtain where . Factoring out shows that which yields the result which is defined for General formula for derivative of implicit function If , the derivative of the implicit function is given by where and indicate the partial derivatives of with respect to and . The above formula comes from using the generalized chain rule to obtain the total derivative — with respect to — of both sides of : hence which, when solved for , gives the expression above. Implicit function theorem Let be a differentiable function of two variables, and be a pair of real numbers such that . If , then defines an implicit function that is differentiable in some small enough neighbourhood of ; in other words, there is a differentiable function that is defined and differentiable in some neighbourhood of , such that for in this neighbourhood. The condition means that is a regular point of the implicit curve of implicit equation where the tangent is not vertical. In a less technical language, implicit functions exist and can be differentiated, if the curve has a non-vertical tangent. In algebraic geometry Consider a relation of the form , where is a multivariable polynomial. The set of the values of the variables that satisfy this relation is called an implicit curve if and an implicit surface if . The implicit equations are the basis of algebraic geometry, whose basic subjects of study are the simultaneous solutions of several implicit equations whose left-hand sides are polynomials. These sets of simultaneous solutions are called affine algebraic sets. In differential equations The solutions of differential equations generally appear expressed by an implicit function. Applications in economics Marginal rate of substitution In economics, when the level set is an indifference curve for the quantities and consumed of two goods, the absolute value of the implicit derivative is interpreted as the marginal rate of substitution of the two goods: how much more of one must receive in order to be indifferent to a loss of one unit of . Marginal rate of technical substitution Similarly, sometimes the level set is an isoquant showing various combinations of utilized quantities of labor and of physical capital each of which would result in the production of the same given quantity of output of some good. In this case the absolute value of the implicit derivative is interpreted as the marginal rate of technical substitution between the two factors of production: how much more capital the firm must use to produce the same amount of output with one less unit of labor. Optimization Often in economic theory, some function such as a utility function or a profit function is to be maximized with respect to a choice vector even though the objective function has not been restricted to any specific functional form. The implicit function theorem guarantees that the first-order conditions of the optimization define an implicit function for each element of the optimal vector of the choice vector . When profit is being maximized, typically the resulting implicit functions are the labor demand function and the supply functions of various goods. When utility is being maximized, typically the resulting implicit functions are the labor supply function and the demand functions for various goods. Moreover, the influence of the problem's parameters on — the partial derivatives of the implicit function — can be expressed as total derivatives of the system of first-order conditions found using total differentiation. See also Implicit curve Functional equation Level set Contour line Isosurface Marginal rate of substitution Implicit function theorem Logarithmic differentiation Polygonizer Related rates References Further reading External links Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Differential calculus Theorems in analysis Multivariable calculus Differential topology Algebraic geometry	[ -0.37304484844207764, -0.053758829832077026, -0.11069578677415848, 0.09215927124023438, -0.32559114694595337, 0.37310224771499634, 0.26024582982063293, -0.20547795295715332, 0.20725412666797638, -0.4346262514591217, 0.09706887602806091, 0.664345920085907, -0.45836547017097473, -0.06690473854541779, 0.06167316064238548, 0.213271364569664, 0.31018689274787903, 0.18553806841373444, 0.04018106684088707, -0.027781527489423752, -0.003350580111145973, 0.5318601727485657, 0.16133935749530792, -0.49391454458236694, 0.06043027713894844, -0.26487720012664795, 0.0894145593047142, -0.16011887788772583, 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250897	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Lundy%27s%20Lane	Battle of Lundy's Lane	The Battle of Lundy's Lane, also known as the Battle of Niagara Falls, was a battle fought on 25 July 1814, during the War of 1812, between an invading American army and a British and Canadian army near present-day Niagara Falls, Ontario. It was one of the bloodiest battles of the war, and one of the deadliest battles ever fought in Canada, with over 1,731 casualties including 258 killed. The two armies fought each other to a stalemate; neither side held firm control of the field following the engagement. However, the casualties suffered by the Americans precipitated their withdrawal, and the British held the strategic initiative. Background On 3 July 1814 an American army under Major General Jacob Brown launched an attack across the Niagara River near its source on Lake Erie. His force quickly captured the British position at Fort Erie and then advanced north. Two days later one of his two brigades of regular U.S. Infantry under Brigadier General Winfield Scott defeated a British force commanded by Major General Phineas Riall at the Battle of Chippawa. A few days after the battle, Brown outflanked the British defences along the Chippawa River and the British fell back to Fort George near the mouth of the Niagara on Lake Ontario. Brown lacked the necessary troops and heavy artillery to attack this position and a British naval squadron controlled the lake. Commodore Isaac Chauncey, commander of the American ships based at Sackett's Harbor, New York, was waiting for new frigates and armed brigs to be completed before he challenged the British squadron. The American squadron was further delayed in port when Chauncey fell ill. As a result, no reinforcements or heavy guns were sent to Brown, and the British were able to move several units across the lake from York to reinforce Fort George. For most of July, Brown's army occupied Queenston, a few miles south of Fort George. In this forward position they were harassed by Canadian militia and First Nation warriors. On 24 July Brown fell back to the Chippawa River, intending to secure his supplies before advancing west to Burlington. As soon as Brown retired, British light infantry and militia under Major General Riall advanced to Lundy's Lane north of the Chippawa to allow light troops to maintain contact with the American main force. Battle Preliminary movements Early on 25 July, the British Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, Lieutenant General Gordon Drummond, arrived in Fort George to take personal command on the Niagara peninsula. He immediately ordered a force under Lieutenant Colonel John Tucker to advance south from Fort Niagara (which the British had captured in December 1813) along the east side of the Niagara River, hoping this would force Brown to evacuate the west bank. Instead, Brown ordered an advance north, intending in turn to force the British to recall Tucker's column to protect Fort George. The Americans apparently did not know that the British held Lundy's Lane in strength. As soon as Riall knew the Americans were advancing, he ordered his troops to fall back to Fort George and ordered another column under Colonel Hercules Scott to move from St. Davids to Queenston to cover his withdrawal, rather than advance to his support. These orders were countermanded by Drummond, who had force-marched a detachment of reinforcements to Lundy's Lane from Fort George. The British were still reoccupying their positions when the first American units came into view, at about 6:00 pm. Scott's attack Lundy's Lane was a spur from the main Portage Road alongside the Niagara River. It ran along the summit of some rising ground (about 25 feet higher than the surrounding area) and therefore commanded good views of the area. The British artillery (two 24-pounder and two 6-pounder guns, one 5.5-inch howitzer and a Congreve rocket detachment) were massed in a cemetery at the highest point of the battlefield. The American 1st Brigade of regulars under Winfield Scott emerged in the late afternoon from a forest into an open field and was badly mauled by the British artillery. Scott sent the 25th U.S. Infantry, commanded by Major Thomas Jesup, to outflank the British left. The 25th found a disused track leading to a landing stage on the river and used it to pass round the British flank. They caught the British and Canadian units there (the light company of the 1st Battalion of the 8th (King's) Regiment and the Upper Canada Incorporated Militia Battalion) while they were redeploying and unaware of the American presence, and drove them back in confusion. The British and Canadians rallied, but had been driven off the Portage Road. Jesup sent Captain Ketchum's light infantry company to secure the junction of Lundy's Lane and the Portage Road. Ketchum's company captured large numbers of wounded and messengers, including Major General Riall, who had been wounded in one arm and was riding to the rear. Most of the prisoners escaped when Ketchum, having briefly rejoined Jesup, ran into an enemy unit while trying to return to the main body of the American army, although Riall and militia cavalry leader Captain William Hamilton Merritt remained prisoners. Jesup's action and the steadiness of Scott's brigade persuaded Drummond to withdraw his centre to maintain alignment with his left flank, and also pull back the Glengarry Light Infantry, who had been harassing Scott's own left flank. The withdrawal of Drummond's center left the artillery exposed in front of the infantry. Brown's attack By nightfall, Scott's brigade had suffered heavy casualties. Brown had arrived late in the day with the American main body (the 2nd Brigade of regulars under Brigadier General Eleazer Wheelock Ripley and a brigade of volunteers from the militia under Brigadier General Peter B. Porter). As Ripley and Porter relieved Scott's brigade, Brown ordered the 21st U.S. Infantry under Lieutenant Colonel James Miller to capture the British guns. Miller famously responded, "I'll try, Sir". While the British were distracted by another attack by the 1st U.S. Infantry on their right, Miller's troops deployed within a few yards of the British artillery. They fired a volley of musketry that killed most of the gunners and followed up with a bayonet charge; this captured the guns and drove the British centre from the hill. The British infantry immediately behind the guns (the 2nd Battalion of the 89th Foot) tried to counter-attack, but were driven back by Miller and Ripley. Meanwhile, the British column under Colonel Hercules Scott was arriving on the field, already tired from its unnecessary diversion via Queenston. Unaware of the changed situation, they blundered into Ripley's brigade and were also driven back in disorder, losing their own three 6-pounder guns. These were recovered by a charge by the light company of the 41st Foot, but were either abandoned again or remained in British hands but could not be brought into action as the drivers and gunners had been scattered. Drummond's counter-attack While the Americans tried to deploy their own artillery among the captured British guns, Drummond (who had been wounded in the neck) reorganized his troops and mounted a determined attempt to retake his own cannon. There was no subtlety; Drummond launched an attack in line, without attempting to use his many light infantry to harass or disorder the American line, or to locate any weak points in it. The Americans beat back the attack after a short-range musketry duel over the abandoned British guns, in which both sides suffered heavy casualties. The Glengarry Light Infantry, who had once again begun to harass the American left flank, were mistaken for Americans by other British units and forced to withdraw after suffering casualties from British fire. Undeterred by his first failure, Drummond launched a second attack, using the same methods and formation as in the first. Although some American units wavered, they were rallied by Ripley and stood their ground. While the combat was taking place, Winfield Scott led his depleted brigade (which had been reorganized into a single ad hoc battalion under Major Henry Leavenworth) in an unauthorized attack against Drummond's centre. Scott's brigade was engaged both by the British and by units of Ripley's brigade, who were not aware of the identity of the troops at which they were shooting. Drummond's line was driven back but Scott's men broke in disorder and retreated, before rallying on the American left. Scott rode to join Jesup's regiment, still out on the right flank, but was severely wounded shortly afterwards. Shortly before midnight, Drummond launched a third counter-attack, using every man he could find, although by this time the British line consisted of mixed-up detachments and companies, rather than organised regiments and battalions. The fighting over the artillery was closer than before, with bayonets being used at one point, but again the exhausted British fell back. End of the battle By midnight both sides were spent. On the American side only 700 men were still standing in the line. Winfield Scott and Jacob Brown were both severely wounded. Brown would soon recover but Scott's injury removed him from the campaign. With supplies and water short, Brown ordered a retreat. Porter and Lieutenant Colonel Jacob Hindman (Brown's artillery commander) protested but complied. Ripley apparently did not learn of Brown's order until he realised that Hindman's artillery had been withdrawn. Although urged by Porter to maintain his position, he also withdrew. The British still had 1,400 men on the field but they were in no condition to interfere with the American withdrawal. Drummond had ordered some units to hold the Portage Road and left some light infantry outposts near the Americans, but had withdrawn the remainder a short distance west along Lundy's Lane. The American artillerymen had suffered severely during the fighting, and Hindman had difficulty finding sufficient draught horses to get all his guns away. One American 6-pounder gun had been lost earlier during the close-range fighting, when its drivers had been hit by musket fire and the horses drawing it had bolted into the British lines. Hindman also had to abandon a howitzer with a broken carriage. The Americans were able to drag away one captured 6-pounder gun that had earlier been pushed to the bottom of the high ground in the centre of the former British position. Hindman later found more horses and sent a team back to recover one of the prized British 24-pounder guns. The team was captured by British parties who were wandering around the battlefield. Aftermath In the early hours of the morning of 26 July, Brown ordered Ripley to recover the abandoned British guns the next day. Reinforcing his exhausted men with detachments that had been left at Chippawa, Ripley moved out at daybreak with 1,200 soldiers but found that Drummond had reoccupied the battlefield with 2,200 men. Ripley withdrew, unmolested. The American army fell back to Fort Erie, first deliberately destroying the old British fortifications along the Chippawa River and burning the bridges behind them. Because they were short of transport, they had to abandon or destroy much equipment and supplies to make room for the wounded on the available wagons. Drummond was later to claim that the Americans had retreated in disorder. After burying some of the British and Canadian dead on the battlefield and burning many American corpses in large funeral pyres, the British withdrew to Queenston until Drummond received reinforcements. In respect to the effect of the battle on the War, the British won a strategic victory, as the Americans on the Niagara had suffered so many casualties that they were now badly outnumbered, and were forced to retire to Fort Erie. Richard V. Barbuto says, "On 26 July, Brown's plan to advance on Burlington Heights was irretrievably shattered... Drummond had secured the forts at the northern end of the Niagara, and he had blunted an American advance. Although there was still a lot of fight in both forces, the balance of combat power on the Niagara Peninsula had swung from the invaders to the defenders". Casualties The British official casualty return had 84 killed, 559 wounded, 42 captured, and 193 missing. The Americans captured 19 British officers and 150 other ranks, giving a revised British casualty total of 84 killed, 559 wounded, 169 captured, and 55 missing. The original American official casualty return, dated 30 July 1814, gave 171 dead, 572 wounded, and 117 missing. A slightly later version gave the same number of killed and wounded but 110 missing. Donald Graves says, "British records state that four officers and 75 Americans of other ranks captured at Lundy's Lane were imprisoned at Quebec in the autumn of 1814. The remainder of the missing were probably the wounded or dead left on the field after Ripley withdrew". Three officers of the 22nd U.S. Regiment of Infantry; Lieutenants William Sturgis, John D. Kehr and Robert M. Davidson, who appear on the casualty list as "missing" and "supposed to be killed" were later confirmed as having been killed on 25 July. This gives a revised American loss of 174 killed, 572 wounded, 79 captured, and 28 missing. Graves speculates that the discrepancies in the proportions of killed and wounded men between British and American casualties may be accounted for by the Americans not collating their casualty returns until five days after the battle, when some of those originally listed as missing were confirmed to have been killed, and some severely wounded men had died of their wounds. Analysis There had been much fighting at close quarters. Veteran British officers, who had fought against French armies in the Peninsular War, were horrified at the carnage they had witnessed at Lundy's Lane. Drummond reported, "Of so determined a Character were [the American] attacks directed against our guns that our Artillery Men were bayonetted by the enemy in the Act of loading, and the muzzles of the Enemy's Guns were advanced within a few Yards of ours". The battle confirmed that the American regular forces had developed into a highly professional army. Scott is widely credited for this progress, having modelled and trained his troops using French Revolutionary Army drills and exercises, although not all the American units present at Lundy's Lane had benefitted from this training. Evidence compiled by Donald Graves, a Canadian historian employed at the Directorate of History, Department of National Defence Canada, argues that General Drummond failed to use skirmish pickets to protect his guns, which were consequently captured by the Americans. Drummond also showed little tactical finesse during his counter-attacks, not using his light infantry to their best advantage and mounting only straightforward frontal attacks. American historian John R. Elting suggests that if Drummond had instead concentrated on the vulnerable American left flank, he might have won a decisive victory. (Drummond had much administrative experience, but had previously seen action only in the abortive Flanders Campaign in 1794 as a comparatively junior officer, and in the Egyptian campaign in 1801 as commander of a battalion.) Battlefield and memorials The site was designated as a National Historic Site of Canada in 1937. The site of the battle is now a residential and commercial area of Niagara Falls, Ontario. Part of the battlefield site was preserved next to the Drummond Hill Cemetery on Lundy's Lane east of Drummond Road. Other memorials added to the site include: Soldier's Monument – created by the Canadian Parliament and unveiled by Lundy's Lane Historical Society in 1895 Commemorative Wall – added 2004 – Laura Secord is buried at the Drummond Hill Cemetery Legacy James Miller's response, "I'll try, Sir", to Brown's order to capture the British guns is now the motto of the 5th U.S. Infantry. The 21st were merged into this regiment in 1815 when Congress reduced the United States Army to a smaller peacetime establishment. Ten active regular infantry battalions of the United States Army (1–2 Inf, 2-2 Inf, 1–3 Inf, 2–3 Inf, 4-3 Inf, 1–5 Inf, 2–5 Inf, 1–6 Inf, 2–6 Inf and 4–6 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of a number of American infantry units (the old 1st, 9th, 19th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd and 25th Infantry Regiments) that took part in the battle. Four Regiments of the British Army, the 1st (Royal Scots), 8th (Kings), 41st and the 89th Regiments of Foot were awarded the "Niagara" Battle Honour for their service during the battle of Lundy's Lane. Their. respective modern successor units are: The Royal Regiment of Scotland, the Duke of Lancaster's Regiment, the Royal Welsh Regiment and the Royal Irish Regiment. As the result of a decision taken in 2012, four Ontario-based regiments of the Canadian Army perpetuate the history and heritage of the Battalion of Incorporated Militia and thus carry the NIAGARA battle honour earned by that battalion. These regiments are: The Lincoln and Welland Regiment, the Queen's York Rangers, the Brockville Rifles and the Princess of Wales' Own Regiment. Seven other Canadian Army regiments carry the same Battle Honour in commemoration of other Canadian Fencible and Militia units that took part in the battle. They are: the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders, the North Shore (New Brunswick) Regiment, the 56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA, the Essex and Kent Scottish Regiment, the Royal Canadian Regiment, the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry, and The Lorne Scots. In 1818, American poet John Neal published the poem "Battle of Niagara," which is considered the best poetic description of Niagara Falls up to that time. In 1908, Canadian poet Duncan Campbell Scott wrote a poem, "The Battle of Lundy's Lane," which won a contest sponsored by the Toronto Globe. The poem was reprinted in his 1916 collection, Lundy's Lane and Other Poems. Lundy's Lane is mentioned in the unofficial Canadian patriotic anthem, "The Maple Leaf Forever" : At Queenston Heights and Lundy's Lane our brave fathers, side by side for freedom, homes, and loved ones dear, firmly stood and nobly died. And those dear rights which they maintained, we swear to yield them never. Our watchword evermore shall be, the Maple Leaf forever! In Martin Scorsese's blockbuster film Gangs of New York, lead character William "Bill the Butcher" Cutting states that his late father was "[m]urdered by the British with all of his men on the twenty-fifth of July, anno domini, 1814", a presumed reference to the Battle of Lundy's Lane. Catherine Lundy Catherine Lundy was born in the late 1700s to Elizabeth Garvey and Lieutenant Daniel Shannon of the British army. As a teen, she married Thomas Lundy, who she would eventually have eight children with. They settled at Lundy Lane, just one mile west of Niagara Falls. On July 25, 1814, British soldiers passed her house on their way to meet the Americans. Rather than fleeing with everyone else, she provided them with water after their 14-mile march. Furthermore, as a battle broke out just one mile east of her property, she opened her home to tend to the wounded. The British army was so appreciative of her help that one officer gave her his sword as a thanks. Catherine Lundy died in the middle of the 19th century, going down in history as a "saint". Orders of battle Notes References External links History of the Incorporated Militia Battalion of Upper Canada Images from the Historic Niagara Digital Collections at Niagara Falls Public Library Art works in the collection of the Niagara Falls Public Library Poems of the Battle of Lundy's Lane from the Niagara Falls Poetry Project PBS Documentary Includes a chapter on Lundy's Lane. An Account of the battle of Lundy's Lane, fought in 1814, between the British & American armies, from the best and most authentic sources. Drummondville: printed at the Office of the Welland Reporter, 1853. Accessed 18 July 2012, in PDF format. 1814 in Upper Canada Battles involving Canada Battles of the War of 1812 in Ontario Battles on the Niagara Frontier Niagara Falls, Ontario National Historic Sites in Ontario War of 1812 National Historic Sites of Canada History of the Regional Municipality of Niagara July 1814 events Orders of battle	[ -0.655438244342804, 0.01931769587099552, 0.17392900586128235, 0.4416765868663788, 0.4306139647960663, 0.2601984143257141, 0.3661300539970398, 0.40546390414237976, -0.3456117808818817, -0.6159965991973877, 0.3430250585079193, 0.356204628944397, 0.10201248526573181, 0.5279210805892944, -0.27387937903404236, 0.6628988981246948, -0.08399320393800735, -0.5405040979385376, 0.8159229755401611, -0.807814359664917, -0.10582441836595535, -0.46801480650901794, 0.23684068024158478, 0.6465948224067688, 0.35487082600593567, 0.23072656989097595, 0.21137522161006927, 0.15290232002735138, 0.3389260470867157, 0.04459591582417488, 0.2829826772212982, 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250899	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous%20efficiency%20function	Luminous efficiency function	A luminous efficiency function or luminosity function represents the average spectral sensitivity of human visual perception of light. It is based on subjective judgements of which of a pair of different-colored lights is brighter, to describe relative sensitivity to light of different wavelengths. It is not an absolute reference to any particular individual, but is a standard observer representation of visual sensitivity of theoretical human eye. It is valuable as a baseline for experimental purposes, and in colorimetry. Different luminous efficiency functions apply under different lighting conditions, varying from photopic in brightly lit conditions through mesotopic to scotopic under low lighting conditions. When not specified, the luminous efficiency function generally refers to the photopic luminous efficiency function. The CIE photopic luminous efficiency function or is a standard function established by the Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage (CIE) and may be used to convert radiant energy into luminous (i.e., visible) energy. It also forms the central color matching function in the CIE 1931 color space. Details There are two luminous efficiency functions in common use. For everyday light levels, the photopic luminosity function best approximates the response of the human eye. For low light levels, the response of the human eye changes, and the scotopic curve applies. The photopic curve is the CIE standard curve used in the CIE 1931 color space. The luminous flux (or visible power) in a light source is defined by the photopic luminosity function. The following equation calculates the total luminous flux in a source of light: where Φv is the luminous flux, in lumens; Φe,λ is the spectral radiant flux, in watts per nanometre; (λ), also known as V(λ), is the luminosity function, dimensionless; λ is the wavelength, in nanometres. Formally, the integral is the inner product of the luminosity function with the spectral power distribution. In practice, the integral is replaced by a sum over discrete wavelengths for which tabulated values of the luminous efficiency function are available. The CIE distributes standard tables with luminosity function values at intervals from to . The standard luminous efficiency function is normalized to a peak value of unity at (see luminous coefficient). The value of the constant in front of the integral is usually rounded off to . The small excess fractional value comes from the slight mismatch between the definition of the lumen and the peak of the luminosity function. The lumen is defined to be unity for a radiant energy of at a frequency of , which corresponds to a standard air wavelength of rather than , which is the peak of the luminosity curve. The value of (λ) is at , so that a value of 683/ = 683.002 is the multiplicative constant. The number 683 is connected to the modern (1979) definition of the candela, the unit of luminous intensity. This arbitrary number made the new definition give numbers equivalent to those from the old definition of the candela. Improvements to the standard The CIE 1924 photopic V(λ) luminosity function, which is included in the CIE 1931 color-matching functions as the (λ) function, has long been acknowledged to underestimate the contribution of the blue end of the spectrum to perceived luminance. There have been numerous attempts to improve the standard function, to make it more representative of human vision. Judd in 1951, improved by Vos in 1978, resulted in a function known as CIE VM(λ). More recently, Sharpe, Stockman, Jagla & Jägle (2005) developed a function consistent with the Stockman & Sharpe cone fundamentals; their curves are plotted in the figure above. ISO standard The ISO standard is ISO 11664-1:2007, soon to be replaced by ISO/CIE FDIS 11664-1. The standard provides an incremental table by nm of each value in the visible range. Scotopic luminosity For very low levels of intensity (scotopic vision), the sensitivity of the eye is mediated by rods, not cones, and shifts toward the violet, peaking around for young eyes; the sensitivity is equivalent to or at this peak. The standard scotopic luminous efficiency function or V(λ) was adopted by the CIE in 1951, based on measurements by Wald (1945) and by Crawford (1949). Color blindness Color blindness changes the sensitivity of the eye as a function of wavelength. For people with protanopia, the peak of the eye's response is shifted toward the short-wave part of the spectrum (approximately 540 nm), while for people suffering deuteranopia, there is a slight shift in the peak of the spectrum, to about 560 nm. People with protanopia have essentially no sensitivity to light of wavelengths more than 670 nm. Most non-primate mammals have the same luminous efficiency function as people with protanopia. Their insensitivity to long-wavelength red light makes it possible to use such illumination while studying the nocturnal life of animals. For older people with normal color vision, the crystalline lens may become slightly yellow due to cataracts, which moves the maximum of sensitivity to the red part of the spectrum and narrows the range of perceived wavelengths. See also Apparent magnitude Color vision Quantum efficiency, the image sensor equivalent A-weighting and equal-loudness contour, related sound concepts References CIE documents Curve data External links Color and Research Vision Laboratory - luminous efficiency data tables Physical quantities Photometry	[ 0.20452384650707245, -0.10417500138282776, 0.12089258432388306, -0.09802119433879852, -0.5709799528121948, -0.04924127832055092, 0.21840530633926392, -0.07366114854812622, -0.0477847121655941, -1.1154589653015137, -0.30098676681518555, 0.9058209657669067, -0.07361604273319244, 0.3416959345340729, -0.07296095788478851, 0.23959791660308838, 0.4772188067436218, 1.0087348222732544, -0.11471792310476303, -0.3966215252876282, 0.05035223066806793, 0.36600783467292786, 0.008598783984780312, -0.7354640364646912, -0.4785254895687103, -0.3014400601387024, -0.2524714767932892, 0.029186632484197617, 0.43368759751319885, -0.11869380623102188, -0.17858922481536865, 0.8775272965431213, 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250900	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borda	Borda	Borda may refer to: Qaṣīda al-Burda, a famous Sufi poem. Borda (building) or borde, traditional cattle farmers' buildings in the Pyrenees, a barn, sheepfold, or stable Places in India Borda, Goa, a town and suburb of the city of Margao in the state of Goa, India Borda, Maharashtra, a village in Osmanabad district of Maharashtra State, India Borda, Bhopal, a village in Madhya Pradesh, India Borda da Mata, a municipality in Minas Gerais, Brazil Borda, the Hungarian name for Burda village, Budureasa Commune, Bihor County, Romania Borda (crater), a lunar crater Borda (legendary creature), in the culture of the Emilia-Romagna of the Po Valley, Italy Borda count, a single-winner election method Borda–Carnot equation in fluid dynamics BORDA, Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association House of Borda, family name of a French-Spanish noble house People Aritz Borda, a Spanish footballer Deborah Borda, an American orchestra executive Jean-Charles de Borda (1733–1799), a French mathematician, physicist, political scientist, and sailor Lidia Borda, an Argentinian tango singer Soleil Borda, an American teen actress Arturo Borda (1883–1953), a Bolivian surrealist painter Ships French ship Borda, six different French naval ships named Borda See also Bourda, a cricket ground in Georgetown, Guyana	[ -0.2947039008140564, 0.08045530319213867, -0.2540343999862671, -0.5106276273727417, -0.40969786047935486, 0.19216322898864746, 0.46811163425445557, 0.12612061202526093, -0.42577025294303894, 0.09926654398441315, -0.8052055239677429, 0.1362975835800171, -0.2433338165283203, 0.12841293215751648, -0.33897873759269714, 0.25518226623535156, 0.289554238319397, 0.33185335993766785, 0.11440978944301605, -0.6565086245536804, -0.008113185875117779, -0.23507042229175568, -0.06878867000341415, -0.1063670739531517, 0.6483023166656494, -0.1440853625535965, 0.23448754847049713, 0.2225331813097, -0.08864922821521759, 0.28050294518470764, -0.092753566801548, 0.5387799739837646, -0.023696038872003555, -0.16678741574287415, 0.10663098841905594, 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250906	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic%20number%20identification	Automatic number identification	Automatic number identification (ANI) is a feature of a telecommunications network for automatically determining the origination telephone number on toll calls for billing purposes. Automatic number identification was originally created by AT&T Corporation for internal long distance charging purposes, eliminating the need for telephone operators to manually request the number of the calling party for a toll call. Modern ANI has two components: information digits, which identify the class of service, and the calling party billing telephone number. ANI is not related to newer caller ID services such as call display. Automatic number identification is also used to describe the functions of two-way radio selective calling that identify the transmitting user. Toll-free numbers Modern toll-free telephone numbers, which generate itemized billing of all calls received instead of relying on the special fixed-rate trunks of the Bell System's original Inward WATS service, depend on ANI to track inbound calls to numbers in special area codes such as +1-800, 888, 877, 866, 855, 844 with 833 and 822 reserved for future toll free use (United States and Canada), 1800 (Australia) or 0800 and 0808 (United Kingdom). Privacy ANI is different, conceptually and technically, from caller ID service. A caller's telephone number and line type are captured by ANI service even if caller ID blocking is activated. The destination telephone company switching office can relay the originating telephone number to ANI delivery services subscribers. Toll-free subscribers and large companies normally have access to ANI, either instantly via installed equipment, or from a monthly billing statement. Residential subscribers can obtain access to ANI information through third party companies that charge for the service. ANI is generally not transmitted when a call is operator assisted; only the area code of the last switch to route the call is sent. Placing a call through an outbound-only VoIP service or some calling cards will cause a non-working number to be sent as the ANI. ANI is also not supported properly for calls originated from four-party lines. Spoofing For quite some time it was thought not possible for someone to spoof ANI. While it is not an easy task it is doable. Automatic number announcement ANI is used to provide automatic number announcement, an internal test facility for telephone maintenance workers. The service, which is not advertised to the public, allows an installer to identify an individual line by using it to dial a special unpublished number in a range reserved for testing purposes (such as 958-xxxx in much of North America). DNIS A related service feature available to private branch exchange subscribers is the Dialed Number Identification Service (DNIS), a code indicating the number requested by the caller. With the information, a service provider can have several toll-free numbers directed to the same call center and provide unique service based on the number dialed. DNIS can also be used to identify other call routing information. For example, toll-free service can be configured to send a specific DNIS number that is assigned to callers from geographic regions based on city, area code, state, or country. Similar services Europe: Calling Line Identification (CLI) United Kingdom: Caller Line Identification (CLID) Australia: Automatic number identification (ANI) 1800801920 or 12722123 (Telstra line only, local call cost) References Anonymity Telephony signals	[ 0.11731008440256119, 0.39040133357048035, -0.04571356996893883, 0.10279012471437454, 0.1223876103758812, 0.3611750900745392, 0.34387093782424927, -0.17565062642097473, -0.3214207589626312, -0.15355756878852844, -0.1765156239271164, 0.4698943495750427, -0.23255375027656555, -0.008211491629481316, -0.12233276665210724, 0.33913230895996094, 0.3528689742088318, 0.4962238669395447, -0.4179152548313141, -0.21759240329265594, -0.30845749378204346, -0.29899516701698303, 0.09793879836797714, -0.44509291648864746, 0.0781014934182167, 0.3091941177845001, -0.12378450483083725, -0.39378929138183594, -0.8414493203163147, -0.16629843413829803, 0.684516429901123, 0.2749805152416229, 0.14955392479896545, -0.017743535339832306, -0.20994070172309875, 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250908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemniscate%20of%20Bernoulli	Lemniscate of Bernoulli	In geometry, the lemniscate of Bernoulli is a plane curve defined from two given points and , known as foci, at distance from each other as the locus of points so that . The curve has a shape similar to the numeral 8 and to the ∞ symbol. Its name is from , which is Latin for "decorated with hanging ribbons". It is a special case of the Cassini oval and is a rational algebraic curve of degree 4. This lemniscate was first described in 1694 by Jakob Bernoulli as a modification of an ellipse, which is the locus of points for which the sum of the distances to each of two fixed focal points is a constant. A Cassini oval, by contrast, is the locus of points for which the product of these distances is constant. In the case where the curve passes through the point midway between the foci, the oval is a lemniscate of Bernoulli. This curve can be obtained as the inverse transform of a hyperbola, with the inversion circle centered at the center of the hyperbola (bisector of its two foci). It may also be drawn by a mechanical linkage in the form of Watt's linkage, with the lengths of the three bars of the linkage and the distance between its endpoints chosen to form a crossed parallelogram. Equations The equations can be stated in terms of the focal distance or the half-width of a lemniscate. These parameters are related as . Its Cartesian equation is (up to translation and rotation): As a parametric equation: A rational parametrization: In polar coordinates: Its equation in the complex plane is: In two-center bipolar coordinates: In rational polar coordinates: Arc length and elliptic functions The determination of the arc length of arcs of the lemniscate leads to elliptic integrals, as was discovered in the eighteenth century. Around 1800, the elliptic functions inverting those integrals were studied by C. F. Gauss (largely unpublished at the time, but allusions in the notes to his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae). The period lattices are of a very special form, being proportional to the Gaussian integers. For this reason the case of elliptic functions with complex multiplication by is called the lemniscatic case in some sources. Using the elliptic integral the formula of the arc length can be given as where is the gamma function and is the arithmetic–geometric mean. Angles The following theorem about angles occurring in the lemniscate is due to German mathematician Gerhard Christoph Hermann Vechtmann, who described it 1843 in his dissertation on lemniscates. and are the foci of the lemniscate, is the midpoint of the line segment and is any point on the lemniscate outside the line connecting and . The normal of the lemniscate in intersects the line connecting and in . Now the interior angle of the triangle at is one third of the triangle's exterior angle at (see also angle trisection). In addition the interior angle at is twice the interior angle at . Further properties The lemniscate is symmetric to the line connecting its foci and and as well to the perpendicular bisector of the line segment . The lemniscate is symmetric to the midpoint of the line segment . The area enclosed by the lemniscate is . The lemniscate is the circle inversion of a hyperbola and vice versa. The two tangents at the midpoint are perpendicular, and each of them forms an angle of with the line connecting and . The planar cross-section of a standard torus tangent to its inner equator is a lemniscate. Applications Dynamics on this curve and its more generalized versions are studied in quasi-one-dimensional models. See also Lemniscate of Booth Lemniscate of Gerono Gauss's constant Lemniscatic elliptic function Cassini oval Notes References External links "Lemniscate of Bernoulli" at The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive "Lemniscate of Bernoulli" at MathCurve. 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250910	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouija	Ouija	The ouija ( , ), also known as a spirit board or talking board, is a flat board marked with the letters of the alphabet, the numbers 0–9, the words "yes", "no", occasionally "hello" and "goodbye", along with various symbols and graphics. It uses a planchette (small heart-shaped piece of wood or plastic) as a movable indicator to spell out messages during a séance. Participants place their fingers on the planchette, and it is moved about the board to spell out words. "Ouija" is a trademark of Hasbro, but is often used generically to refer to any talking board. Spiritualists in the United States believed that the dead were able to contact the living and reportedly used a talking board very similar to a modern Ouija board at their camps in the U.S. state of Ohio in 1886 to ostensibly enable faster communication with spirits. Following its commercial introduction by businessman Elijah Bond on 1 July 1890, the Ouija board was regarded as an innocent parlor game unrelated to the occult until American spiritualist Pearl Curran popularized its use as a divining tool during World War I. Paranormal and supernatural beliefs associated with Ouija have been criticized by the scientific community and are characterized as pseudoscience. The action of the board can be most easily explained by unconscious movements of those controlling the pointer, a psychophysiological phenomenon known as the ideomotor effect. Mainstream Christian denominations, including Catholicism, have "warned against using Ouija boards", holding that they can lead to demonic possession. Occultists, on the other hand, are divided on the issue, with some saying that it can be a tool for positive transformation; others reiterated the warnings of many Christians and caution "inexperienced users" against it. Etymology The popular belief that the word Ouija comes from the French and German words for yes is a misconception. The name is taken from a word spelled out on the board when its inventor asked a supposed ghost to name it. History Precursors One of the first mentions of the automatic writing method used in the ouija board is found in China around 1100 AD, in historical documents of the Song Dynasty. The method was known as fuji "planchette writing". The use of planchette writing as an ostensible means of necromancy and communion with the spirit-world continued, and, albeit under special rituals and supervisions, was a central practice of the Quanzhen School, until it was forbidden by the Qing Dynasty. Talking boards As a part of the spiritualist movement, mediums began to employ various means for communication with the dead. Following the American Civil War in the United States, mediums did significant business in allegedly allowing survivors to contact lost relatives. The ouija itself was created and named in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1890, but the use of talking boards was so common by 1886 that news reported the phenomenon taking over the spiritualists' camps in Ohio. Commercial parlor game Businessman Elijah Bond had the idea to patent a planchette sold with a board on which the alphabet was printed, much like the previously existing talking boards. Bond filed on 28 May 1890 for patent protection and thus is credited with the invention of the Ouija board. Issue date on the patent was 10 February 1891. He received . Bond was an attorney and was an inventor of other objects in addition to this device. An employee of Elijah Bond, William Fuld, took over the talking board production. In 1901, Fuld started production of his own boards under the name "Ouija". Charles Kennard, founder of Kennard Novelty Company which manufactured Fuld's talking boards and where Fuld had worked as a varnisher, claimed he learned the name "Ouija" from using the board and that it was an ancient Egyptian word meaning "good luck". When Fuld took over production of the boards, he popularized the more widely accepted etymology: that the name came from a combination of the French and German words for "yes". The Fuld name became synonymous with the Ouija board, as Fuld reinvented its history, claiming that he himself had invented it. The strange talk about the boards from Fuld's competitors flooded the market, and all these boards enjoyed a heyday from the 1920s. Scientific investigation The ouija phenomenon is considered by the scientific community to be the result of the ideomotor response. Michael Faraday first described this effect in 1853, while investigating table-turning. Various studies have been conducted, recreating the effects of the ouija board in the lab and showing that, under laboratory conditions, the subjects were moving the planchette involuntarily. A 2012 study found that when answering yes or no questions, ouija use was significantly more accurate than guesswork, suggesting that it might draw on the unconscious mind. Skeptics have described ouija board users as 'operators'. Some critics have noted that the messages ostensibly spelled out by spirits were similar to whatever was going through the minds of the subjects. According to professor of neurology Terence Hines in his book Pseudoscience and the Paranormal (2003): The planchette is guided by unconscious muscular exertions like those responsible for table movement. Nonetheless, in both cases, the illusion that the object (table or planchette) is moving under its own control is often extremely powerful and sufficient to convince many people that spirits are truly at work ... The unconscious muscle movements responsible for the moving tables and Ouija board phenomena seen at seances are examples of a class of phenomena due to what psychologists call a dissociative state. A dissociative state is one in which consciousness is somehow divided or cut off from some aspects of the individual's normal cognitive, motor, or sensory functions. Ouija boards were already criticized by scholars early on, being described in a 1927 journal as vestigial remains' of primitive belief-systems" and a con to part fools from their money. Another 1921 journal described reports of ouija board findings as 'half truths' and suggested that their inclusion in national newspapers at the time lowered the national discourse overall. In the 1970s ouija board users were also described as "cult members" by sociologists, though this was severely scrutinised in the field. Religious responses Since early in the Ouija board's history, it has been criticized by several Christian denominations. The Catholic Church in the Catechism of the Catholic Church in paragraph 2116 explicitly forbids any practice of divination which includes the usage of Ouija boards. Also, Catholic Answers, a Roman Catholic Christian apologetics organization, states that "The Ouija board is far from harmless, as it is a form of divination (seeking information from supernatural sources)." Moreover, Catholic bishops in Micronesia called for the boards to be banned and warned congregations that they were talking to demons when using Ouija boards. In a pastoral letter, The Dutch Reformed Churches encouraged its communicants to avoid Ouija boards, as it is a practice "related to the occult". The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod also forbids its faithful from using Ouija boards as it teaches that such would be a violation of the Ten Commandments. In 2001, Ouija boards were burned in Alamogordo, New Mexico, by fundamentalist groups alongside Harry Potter books as "symbols of witchcraft". Religious criticism has also expressed beliefs that the Ouija board reveals information which should only be in God's hands, and thus it is a tool of Satan. A spokesperson for Human Life International described the boards as a portal to talk to spirits and called for Hasbro to be prohibited from marketing them. These religious objections to use of the Ouija board have in turn given rise to ostension type folklore in the communities where they circulate. Cautionary tales that the board opens a door to evil spirits turn the game into the subject of a supernatural dare, especially for young people. Notable users Literature Ouija boards have been the source of inspiration for literary works, used as guidance in writing or as a form of channeling literary works. As a result of Ouija boards' becoming popular in the early 20th century, by the 1920s many "psychic" books were written of varying quality often initiated by ouija board use. Emily Grant Hutchings claimed that her novel Jap Herron: A Novel Written from the Ouija Board (1917) was dictated by Mark Twain's spirit through the use of a Ouija board after his death. Pearl Lenore Curran (1883–1937), alleged that for over 20 years she was in contact with a spirit named Patience Worth. This symbiotic relationship produced several novels, and works of poetry and prose, which Pearl Curran claimed were delivered to her through channelling Worth's spirit during sessions with a ouija board, and which works Curran then transcribed. Much of William Butler Yeats's later poetry was inspired, among other facets of occultism, by the Ouija board. Yeats himself did not use it, but his wife did. In late 1963, Jane Roberts and her husband Robert Butts started experimenting with a ouija board as part of Roberts' research for a book on extra-sensory perception. According to Roberts and Butts, on 2 December 1963, they began to receive coherent messages from a male personality (an "energy personality essence no longer focused in the physical world") who eventually identified himself as "Seth", culminating in a series of books dictated by "Seth". In 1982, poet James Merrill released an apocalyptic 560-page epic poem titled The Changing Light at Sandover, which documented two decades of messages dictated from the Ouija board during séances hosted by Merrill and his partner David Noyes Jackson. Sandover, which received the National Book Critics Circle Award in 1983, was published in three volumes beginning in 1976. The first contained a poem for each of the letters A through Z, and was called The Book of Ephraim. It appeared in the collection Divine Comedies, which won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1977. According to Merrill, the spirits ordered him to write and publish the next two installments, Mirabell: Books of Number in 1978 (which won the National Book Award for Poetry) and Scripts for the Pageant in 1980. Aleister Crowley Aleister Crowley had great admiration for the use of the ouija board and it played a passing role in his magical workings. Jane Wolfe, who lived with Crowley at Abbey of Thelema, also used the Ouija board. She credits some of her greatest spiritual communications to use of this implement. Crowley also discussed the Ouija board with another of his students, and the most ardent of them, Frater Achad (Charles Stansfeld Jones): it is frequently mentioned in their unpublished letters. In 1917 Achad experimented with the board as a means of summoning Angels, as opposed to Elementals. In one letter Crowley told Jones: Your Ouija board experiment is rather fun. You see how very satisfactory it is, but I believe things improve greatly with practice. I think you should keep to one angel, and make the magical preparations more elaborate. Over the years, both became so fascinated by the board that they discussed marketing their own design. Their discourse culminated in a letter, dated 21 February 1919, in which Crowley tells Jones, Re: Ouija Board. I offer you the basis of ten percent of my net profit. You are, if you accept this, responsible for the legal protection of the ideas, and the marketing of the copyright designs. I trust that this may be satisfactory to you. I hope to let you have the material in the course of a week. In March, Crowley wrote to Achad to inform him, "I'll think up another name for Ouija." But their business venture never came to fruition and Crowley's new design, along with his name for the board, has not survived. Crowley has stated, of the Ouija Board that, There is, however, a good way of using this instrument to get what you want, and that is to perform the whole operation in a consecrated circle, so that undesirable aliens cannot interfere with it. You should then employ the proper magical invocation in order to get into your circle just the one spirit you want. It is comparatively easy to do this. A few simple instructions are all that is necessary, and I shall be pleased to give these, free of charge, to any one who cares to apply. Others Roland Doe used a Ouija board, which the Catholic Church stated led to his possession by a demon. Dick Brooks, of the Houdini Museum in Scranton, Pennsylvania, uses a Ouija board as part of a paranormal and seance presentation. G. K. Chesterton used a Ouija board in his teenage years. Around 1893, he had gone through a crisis of scepticism and depression, and during this period Chesterton experimented with the Ouija board and grew fascinated with the occult. Bill Wilson, the co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, used a Ouija board and conducted seances in attempts to contact the dead. Early press releases stated that Vincent Furnier's stage and band name "Alice Cooper" was agreed upon after a session with a Ouija board, during which it was revealed that Furnier was the reincarnation of a 17th-century witch with that name. Alice Cooper later revealed that he just thought of the first name that came to his head while discussing a new band name with his band. Former Italian Prime Minister Romano Prodi claimed under oath that, in a séance held in 1978 with other professors at the University of Bologna, the "ghost" of Giorgio La Pira used a Ouija to spell the name of the street where Aldo Moro was being held by the Red Brigades. According to Peter Popham of The Independent: "Everybody here has long believed that Prodi's Ouija board tale was no more than an ill-advised and bizarre way to conceal the identity of his true source, probably a person from Bologna's seething far-left underground whom he was pledged to protect." The Mars Volta wrote their album Bedlam in Goliath (2008) based on their alleged experiences with a Ouija board. According to their story (written for them by a fiction author, Jeremy Robert Johnson), Omar Rodriguez Lopez purchased one while traveling in Jerusalem. At first the board provided a story which became the theme for the album. Strange events allegedly related to this activity occurred during the recording of the album: the studio flooded, one of the album's main engineers had a nervous breakdown, equipment began to malfunction, and Cedric Bixler-Zavala's foot was injured. Following these bad experiences the band buried the Ouija board. In the murder trial of Joshua Tucker, his mother insisted that he had carried out the murders while possessed by the Devil, who found him when he was using a Ouija board. In London in 1994, convicted murderer Stephen Young was granted a retrial after it was learned that four of the jurors had conducted a Ouija board séance and had "contacted" the murdered man, who had named Young as his killer. Young was convicted for a second time at his retrial and jailed for life. E. H. Jones and C. W. Hill, whilst prisoners of the Turks during the First World War, used a Ouija board to convince their captors that they were mediums as part of an escape plan. In popular culture Ouija boards have figured prominently in horror tales in various media as devices enabling malevolent spirits to spook their users. Most often, they make brief appearances, relying heavily on the atmosphere of mystery the board already holds in the mind of the viewer, in order to add credence to the paranormal presence in the story being told. A Ouija board is an early part of the plot of the 1973 horror film The Exorcist. Using a Ouija board the young girl Regan makes what first appears to be harmless contact with an entity named "Captain Howdy". She later becomes possessed by a demon. Based on Ouija Board, a song and album of the name, Ojah Awake, by Osibisa, was released in 1976. The 1986 film Witchboard and its sequels center on the use of Ouija. What Lies Beneath (2000) includes a séance scene with a board. Paranormal Activity (2007) involves a violent entity haunting a couple that becomes more powerful when the Ouija board is used. Another 2007 film, Ouija, depicted a group of adolescents whose use of the board causes a murderous spirit to follow them, while four years later, The Ouija Experiment portrayed a group of friends whose use of the board opens, and fails to close, a portal between the worlds of the living and the dead. The 2012 film I Am Zozo follows a group of people that run afoul of a demon (based on Pazuzu) after using a Ouija board. The 2014 film Ouija featured a group of friends whose use of the board prompted a series of deaths. That film was followed by a 2016 prequel, Ouija: Origin of Evil, which also features the device. The British singer Morrissey released a controversial single titled "Ouija Board Ouija Board" in 1989. The lyrics and the video of the song mockingly play with the idea of supernaturally contacting dead persons. The National Geographic show Brain Games Season 5 episode "Paranormal" clearly showed the board did not work when all participants were blindfolded. Trademarks and patents Trade-Mark Registration: "Ouija" (Trademark no. 18,919; 3 February 1891: Kennard Novelty Company) "Ouija or Egyptian Luck Board" (patent no. 446,054; 10 February 1891: Elijah J. Bond – assigned to Charles W. Kennard and William H. A. Maupin) "Talking-Board" (patent no. 462,819; 10 November 1891: Charles W. Kennard) "Game Apparatus" (patent no. 479,266: 19 July 1892: William Fuld) "Game Apparatus" (patent no. 619,236: 7 February 1899: Justin F. Simonds) "Ouija or Talking Board" (patent no. 1,125,833; 19 January 1915: William Fuld) "Design for the Movable Member of a Talking-Board" (patent no. D56,001; 10 August 1920: William Fuld) "Design of Finger-Rest and Pointer for a Game" (patent no. D56,085; 10 August 1920: John Vanderkamp – assigned to Goldsmith Publishing Company) "Message Interpreting Device" or "Psychic Messenger" (patent no. 1,352,046; 7 September 1920: Frederick H. Black) "Design for the Movable Member of a Talking-Board" (patent no. D56,001; 10 August 1920: William Fuld) "Ouija Board" (patent no. D56,449; 26 October 1920: Clifford H. McGlasson) "Psychic Game" (patent no. 1,370,249; 1 March 1921: Theodore H. White) "Ouija Board" (patent no. 1,400,791; 20 December 1921: Harry M. Bigelow) "Game Board" (patent no. 1,422,042; 4 July 1922: John R. Donnelly) "(Magnetic) Toy" (patent no. 1,422,775; 11 July 1922: Leon Martocci-Pisculli) "Psychic Instrument" (patent no. 1,476,158; 4 December 1923: Grover C. Haffner) "Game" (patent no. 1,514,260; 4 November 1924: Alfred A. Rees) "Amusement Device" (patent no. 1,870,677; 9 August 1932: William A. Fuld) "Amusement Device" (patent no. 2,220,455; 5 November 1940: John P. McCarthy) "Finger Pressure Actuated Message Interpreting Amusement Device" (patent no. 2,511,377; 13 June 1950: Raymond S. Richmond) "Message Device With Freely Swingable Pointer" (patent no. 3,306,617; 28 February 1967: Thomas W. Gillespie) See also List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Dowsing Divided consciousness Dual consciousness Gope boards Left brain interpreter Bicameral mentality Alien hand syndrome Charlie Charlie challenge Kokkuri Bunshinsaba Notes References Cain, D. Lynn, "OUIJA – For the Record" 2009 Carpenter, W.B., "On the Influence of Suggestion in Modifying and directing Muscular Movement, independently of Volition", Royal Institution of Great Britain, (Proceedings), 1852, (12 March 1852), pp. 147–153. Cornelius, J. Edward, Aleister Crowley and the Ouija Board. Feral House, 2005. Gruss, Edmond C., The Ouija Board: A Doorway to the Occult 1994 Hunt, Stoker, Ouija: The Most Dangerous Game. 1992 Hill, Joe, Heart-Shaped Box Murch, R., "A Brief History of the Ouija Board", Fortean Times, No.249, (June 2009), pp. 32–33. Schneck, R.D., "Ouija Madness", Fortean Times, No.249, (June 2009), pp. 30–37. External links Information on talking boards Museum Of Talking Boards The Official Website of William Fuld and home of the Ouija board Skeptics The Skeptics' Dictionary: Ouija An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural How does a Ouija board work? from The Straight Dope Do Ouija Boards Work - The Fact and Fiction Other "'Ouija board' appeal (against second guilty verdict) dismissed" – R. v. 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250913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parker%20Brothers	Parker Brothers	Parker Brothers (known by Parker outside of North America) was an American toy and game manufacturer which in 1991 became a brand of Hasbro. More than 1,800 games were published under the Parker Brothers name since 1883. Among its products were Monopoly, Clue (licensed from the British publisher and known as Cluedo outside of North America), Sorry!, Risk, Trivial Pursuit, Ouija, Aggravation, Bop It, and Probe. The trade name became defunct with former products being marketed under the "Hasbro Gaming" label with the logo shown on Monopoly games. History Parker Brothers was founded by George S. Parker. Parker's philosophy deviated from the prevalent theme of board game design; he believed that games should be played for enjoyment and did not need to emphasize morals and values. He created his first game, called Banking, in 1883 when he was 16. Banking is a game in which players borrow money from the bank and try to generate wealth by guessing how well they could do. The game includes 160 cards which foretell their failure or success. The game was so popular among family and friends that his brother, Charles Parker, urged him to publish it. George approached two Boston publishers with the idea, but was unsuccessful. Not discouraged, he spent $40 to publish 500 sets of Banking. He eventually sold all but twelve copies, making a profit of $100. Parker founded his game company, initially called the George S. Parker Company, in his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts in 1883. When George's brother Charles joined the business in 1888, the company's name was changed to its more familiar form. In 1898 a third brother, Edward H. Parker, joined the company. For many years, George designed most of the games himself, and wrote all the rules. Many games were based on important events of the day: Klondike was based on the Klondike Gold Rush, and War in Cuba was based on the impending Spanish–American War. The game industry was growing, and the company was becoming very profitable. In 1906, Parker Brothers published the game Rook and it became the bestselling game in the country. During the Great Depression, a time when many companies went out of business, Parker Brothers released a new board game called Monopoly. Although the company had originally rejected the game in 1934, they decided to publish it the next year. It was a success, and the company had difficulty keeping up with demand. The company continued to grow throughout the next several decades, producing games including Cluedo (released as Clue in North America), Risk, and Sorry! Parker Brothers marketed its first jigsaw puzzle in 1887. Parker also produced children's puzzles, as well as the Climax, Jig-A-Jig, Jig Wood, and Paramount lines. According to Jigsaw Puzzles: An Illustrated History and Price Guide, by Anne D. Williams, Parker Bros. closed the Pastime line in the 1950s and their die-cut puzzles were phased out in the late 1970s. Even after George Parker's death, the company remained family-owned until 1968 when General Mills purchased the company. After this, Parker Brothers produced the first Nerf ball. In the UK during the 1970s, Parker Brothers was the games division of Palitoy (also a General Mills company), and produced a variety of releases such as Escape from Colditz. In 1977, the company built its headquarters in Beverly, Massachusetts. The company began to produce electronic versions of their popular board games in the late 1970s and early 1980s. At this time, the company ventured into the toy market with the electronic action figure, Rom the Spaceknight, in 1979. Although the toy proved a failure, the licensed comic book published by Marvel Comics ran for years after the toy was discontinued. They also produced video games for various systems during the early 1980s, with home ports of many popular arcade games such as Konami's Frogger, Nintendo's Popeye, Gottlieb games such as Q*bert and Reactor, the first video games based on the Star Wars films such as The Empire Strikes Back, Jedi Arena, and Death Star Battle, and more. In early 1983, Parker Brothers spent US$15 million establishing a book publishing branch; their first titles featured the American Greetings franchises, Care Bears and Strawberry Shortcake. The branch published twelve titles by February 1984; sales of these books totaled 3.5 million units. Parker Brothers also operated a record label around the same time; one of its releases, based on Coleco's Cabbage Patch Kids and involving Tom and Stephen Chapin titled Cabbage Patch Dreams, was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in July 1984. In 1985, General Mills merged the company with their subsidiary Kenner; this new company, Kenner Parker Toys Inc., was acquired by Tonka in 1987. In 1988, Parker Brothers struck a deal with Martindale/Gilden Productions to develop television game shows, such as Boggle. Tonka, including Parker Brothers, was bought in 1991 for about $516 million by Hasbro which also owned the Milton Bradley Company. Following the acquisition, Parker Brothers continued to have its corporate offices in Beverly, but production of the games were moved to Milton Bradley's headquarters in East Longmeadow. In 1998, Parker Brothers and Milton Bradley were consolidated at the new Hasbro Games campus (based in Parker Brother's former headquarters) to form Hasbro Games. Milton Bradley and Parker Bros subsequently turned into two separate brands of Hasbro before being retired in 2009 in favor of the Hasbro brand. See also Cluedo Monopoly My Monopoly Probe Risk Scrabble Waddingtons References Further reading From Hostility to Reverence: 100 Years of African-American Imagery in Games Don Kader, "Collecting Black Memorabilia", Collectors' Showcase (September/October 1982), 16. External links The Game Makers, a book by Philip Orbanes, chronicles the history of Parker Brothers Parker Brothers on the History Channel The story of Parker's early games New York Historical Society owns many examples of Parker Bros. games, such as: The Good Old Game of Corner Grocery, 1887 Chivalry: The Greatest Modern Board Game of Skill Round the World Joe Young People's Geographical Game. Salem, MA: Parker Bros., ca. 1890 Parker Brothers game listings and information in the Association for Games & Puzzles International's Game Catalog Parker Brothers game listings and information at BoardGameGeek 1883 establishments in Massachusetts American companies established in 1883 Board game publishing companies Companies based in Essex County, Massachusetts Manufacturing companies established in 1883 Game manufacturers Toy companies of the United States Former Hasbro subsidiaries History of Salem, Massachusetts 1968 mergers and acquisitions 1985 mergers and acquisitions 1987 mergers and acquisitions	[ -0.0038731838576495647, 0.24798451364040375, -0.5439479947090149, 0.3177908658981323, 0.1962669938802719, 0.37669429183006287, -0.3172086775302887, 0.09066929668188095, -0.3887134790420532, 0.16502965986728668, -0.11235442012548447, 0.03829926252365112, -0.01931491121649742, 0.7421655654907227, -0.7332838177680969, -0.09049347788095474, 0.40306487679481506, -0.09326332062482834, 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250915	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly%20game	Monopoly game	Monopoly game may refer to: Games Monopoly (game), a popular board game created in the early 20th century Monopoly (game show), a 1990 American television game show based on the board game Monopoly (video game), any one of more than a dozen video game adaptations of the board game The Monopoly Game 2, a Japanese video game from 1995 for the Super Famicom Monopoly: The Card Game, a card game loosely based on the board game Music Monopoly Game, a 1998 recording by the Toshiko Akiyoshi Jazz Orchestra featuring Lew Tabackin See also Canadian Monopoly Hong Kong Monopoly McDonald's Monopoly, a sweepstakes advertising promotion of McDonald's restaurants and Hasbro using the theme of the board game Monopoly Party, a board-game-styled video game Monopoly Junior, a simplified version of the board game Monopoly Monopoly Tycoon, a construction and management simulation computer game that uses a city derived from the Monopoly board 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250917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20Corps%20Air%20Station%20El%20Toro	Marine Corps Air Station El Toro	Marine Corps Air Station El Toro was a United States Marine Corps Air Station located next to the community of El Toro, near Irvine, California. Before it was decommissioned in 1999, it was the home of Marine Corps aviation on the West Coast. Designated as a Master Jet Station, its four runways (two of and two of ) could handle the largest aircraft in the U.S. military inventory. While it was active, all U.S. Presidents in the post-World War II era landed in Air Force One at this airfield. The El Toro "Flying Bull" patch was designed by Walt Disney Studios in 1944. It survived virtually unchanged until the close of the Air Station. Following its decommissioning the site was used as a filming location, including the test track for the United States version of the BBC's Top Gear franchise. About of land originally taken by the air station was converted into a large recreational center, the Orange County Great Park, while the rest was re-zoned for residential and commercial development. History In May 1942, Lieutenant Colonel William Fox was directed to select the sites for all of the Marine Corps' West Coast air stations. Fox sought the most expeditious and low cost option and thus chose the already existing airports of El Centro, Mojave and Santa Barbara. For the fourth station, he chose land that had previously been looked at by the Navy for a blimp base. The Marine Corps gave the owner of the land, a farmer named James Irvine Sr., $100,000 for including designated for a blimp base. Construction of MCAS El Toro began on August 3, 1942 on land previously owned by the Irvine Company. The company greatly resisted the station's construction at this site, which at the time contained the largest lima bean field in North America, which was the company's prime source of revenue. The name "El Toro" came from the nearby small community which in 1940 only had a population of 130 people. The base headquarters was established on November 4, 1942 and the first landing occurred in late November when a Major Michael Carmichael, flying from Camp Kearny, was forced to make an emergency landing among the construction equipment. The runways and taxiways were completed by 1 December 1942 and all squadron hangars were complete by 15 January 1943. Barracks and officer's quarters were ready by 20 January. January 1943 also saw the first operational units arriving at MCAS El Toro. First aboard were Marine Aircraft Group 41 and VMF-113. They were followed later in the month by VMSB-142, VMF-224, VMSB-231 and VMSB-232, who were returning from fighting during the Battle of Guadalcanal in order to re-organize, re-equip and train. The station was formally commissioned on 17 March 1943, with Colonel Theodore B. Millard as the first commanding officer. Soon after its opening, MCAS El Toro was handling the largest tactical aerodrome traffic on the Pacific Coast. Already the largest Marine air station on the West Coast, in 1944, funds were approved to double its size and operations. By the end of 1944, the base was home to 1,248 officers and 6,831 enlisted personnel. In 1950, El Toro was selected as a permanent Master Jet Station for the Fleet Marine Forces, Pacific. To support this new role, the aviation infrastructure at El Toro was expanded significantly. For most of the ensuing years, El Toro served as the primary base for Marine Corps west coast fighter squadrons. During the 1960s, many US Marines left for and returned from Vietnam at El Toro MCAS. In 1958, Marine Corps Air Station Miami was closed which brought the 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing to El Toro. During the presidency of Richard Nixon, MCAS El Toro was used for flights to and from his "Western White House" at San Clemente, California. The land originally surrounding the base was mostly used for agricultural purposes when it first opened, but in the late 1980s and early 1990s, residential development began in the area; most of it was directly in the path of the base's runways, which proved to be a major problem as the constant loud noise produced by jets and helicopters passing overhead was very irritating to those living in the area. Few desired to move there because of this, causing the new neighborhoods to struggle. In 1993, MCAS El Toro was designated for closing by the Base Realignment and Closure Commission and all of its activities were to be transferred to Marine Corps Air Station Miramar. The station officially closed on July 2, 1999. Base conversion controversy The closing of MCAS El Toro ignited a political firestorm over the eventual fate of the facility. With the existing infrastructure, some favored converting the base into an international airport. Those favoring the new airport tended to come from northern Orange County (desiring the convenience of a closer airport), and from areas in Newport Beach that are within the arrival and departure noise zones surrounding John Wayne Airport (hoping to close that airport in favor of the new one at El Toro). Those against the airport proposal were largely residents of the cities in the immediate vicinity of El Toro, such as Irvine, Lake Forest, Laguna Niguel, Laguna Woods, Dana Point, and Mission Viejo, where residents were alarmed at the idea of the aircraft noise. The cities opposed to the airport created a joint powers authority, the El Toro Reuse Planning Authority (ETRPA), to oppose the project. They were joined in the effort by grass-roots organizations that collected record numbers of signatures on petitions to place anti-airport initiatives on the ballot and raised funds for the election campaigns. The volunteer-run El Toro info site eltoroairport.org was the Internet voice of the movement and one of the first political blogs. This faction lobbied strongly in favor of other uses for the property. The city of Irvine sought to annex the property for park and related uses. The battle between pro-airport and anti-airport groups dominated Orange County politics for much of the late 1990s and early 2000s. Airport proposals were defeated in two hotly contested ballot initiatives, and further challenges took place in the courts. A series of demonstration commercial flights from the airport in June 1999 generated less noise than the former military flights, but resulted in much public outcry due to the use of different flight paths from the military, and incessant circling over nearby cities to line up for another approach. Eventually the airport opponents prevailed, and in March 2002, the Department of Defense announced that it would sell the land to private interests to be developed into Orange County Great Park. This decision came right after the military stated that it wanted to return to the base. Environmental remediation Before the site could be developed for civilian use, the Department of the Navy (which oversees both the Navy and the Marine Corps) was required to perform environmental remediation to clean up contaminated soil on the site. The contamination was caused by volatile organic compounds (VOCs), primarily industrial solvents that had been used over the years for purposes such as degreasing, paint stripping, and the cleaning of aircraft. Over the years, the VOCs had seeped into the groundwater, resulting in a plume of contaminated groundwater extending for three miles (5 km) to the west of the station. In July 2005, the Department of the Navy's Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Program Management Office (PMO) issued a public notice stating that the cleanup of the contaminated soil was complete. The cleanup of the groundwater is being handled by the Irvine Desalter Project, a project of two local water authorities that has financial backing from the Navy and the State of California. Sale of El Toro The Department of the Navy hired the General Services Administration and Los Angeles-based Colliers International to assist in the sale of MCAS El Toro. Colliers branded the project as Heritage Fields combining the long-standing history of the base and what the future of the base will be to the community and the generations to come. An online auction was conducted and in February 2005, the final bid of $650 million was accepted for the four parcels of land comprising the former MCAS El Toro. The auction winner was Heritage Fields LLC, a joint venture between developer Lennar Corporation and several other firms. Development plans for the site include residential, golf, commercial, R&D, and schools. of the site will be dedicated to the Great Park. A ceremony to formally transfer ownership of the property to Heritage Fields LLC was held on August 29, 2005. Accidents and incidents On June 25, 1965, a U.S. Air Force Boeing C-135A bound for Okinawa crashed just after takeoff at MCAS El Toro, killing all eighty-four on board. On Jan 23, 1967, two Skyhawk Jets were wing-tipping on approach. Pilot Frank Gambelli had lost his radio in a rainstorm, and he was wing-tipping with Pilot James Powell over Leisure World on approach. Visibility was practically zero. The two jets collided and both pilots ejected. Pilot Powell ejected safely, but was thrown into the side of a building when his parachute caught on the top of the building and was slammed into it and died. Pilot Gambelli landed next to St. Nicholas Catholic Church just at the end of service. GSgt H.W. Oviatt raced out of the church and took Pilot Gambelli back to the base. On July 30, 1970, a KC-130F of VMGR-352 crashed and burned during a maximum effort landing, killing 4 of 5 crewmen on board. On June 6, 1971, a midair collision occurred between Hughes Airwest Flight 706 Douglas DC-9 jetliner and a Marine Corps F-4B Phantom being flown to MCAS El Toro, claiming 50 lives. The DC-9, with 44 passengers and 5 crew members aboard, impacted into a remote canyon approximately three miles north of Duarte, California along with one of the crew members of the fighter whose wreckage was found in another canyon approximately .75 miles southeast of the DC-9's crash site. One of the Marines in the fighter survived the accident. On July 4, 1986, 21-year-old Marine Lance Corporal, Howard Foote Jr., an aviation mechanic at El Toro, took an A-4 Skyhawk on an unauthorized 90-minute joyride over southern California. Foote, an accomplished glider pilot, was despondent after learning that due to a medical condition, he would never be able to fly in the Marines. He landed the aircraft safely and was subsequently discharged under less than honorable conditions after serving months in confinement. On Feb 12, 1987, a CH-46E helicopter from HMM-764, MAG-46 crashed, shortly after takeoff, into a steep, brush-covered ridge between Bell and Trabuco canyons. All three crewmembers on board, Major Dudley Urban, Major William Anderson, and Staff Sergeant Bradley Baird, died in the crash. On April 24, 1988, Marine Corps Colonel Jerry Cadick, then commanding officer of MAG-11, was performing a tactical aerial demonstration at the MCAS El Toro Air Show before a crowd of 300,000 when he crashed his F/A-18 Hornet at the bottom of a loop that was too close to the ground. The aircraft was in a nose-high attitude, but still carrying too much energy toward the ground when it impacted at more than . Col. Cadick was subjected to extremely high G forces that resulted in his face making contact with the control stick and sustaining serious injury. He broke his arm, elbow and ribs, exploded a vertebra and collapsed a lung. Col. Cadick survived and retired from the Marine Corps. The crashed F/A-18 remained largely intact but was beyond repair. On January 22, 1991, Marine Corps Colonel James Sabow apparently committed suicide amid allegations of base corruption, specifically using military aircraft for personal use. His family and friends denied he committed suicide and pointed out that Col. Sabow had pledged to fight the charges against him just minutes before his death in phone conversations with other officers. According to a 1996 lawsuit, Sabow was murdered because he threatened to expose an authorized covert operation at El Toro involving some of his fellow officers, CIA-sponsored airlifts to Central and South America, running arms and drugs. A forensic analysis conducted appeared to indicate the death was homicide and that evidence had been altered. On 2 May 1993, during the 1993 MCAS El Toro airshow, an F-86 Sabre crashed on the runway after failing to pull out of a vertical loop. The F-86 pilot, James A. Gregory, died on impact. No one was hurt on the ground. The airshow continued. Normally the F-86 performed with a MiG-15, but the pilot of the MiG-15 was ill that day and the F-86 was doing a solo run. Notable events The MCAS El Toro Air Show took place annually from the 1950s until 1997. It featured the U.S. Navy Blue Angels, as well as the USAF Thunderbirds. The Air Show also featured new aircraft that were coming into active service, such as the B-2 stealth bomber. Other displays featured military vehicles. The show also had a large gathering of vendors of military items and memorabilia. The final Air Show in 1997 drew an estimated two million visitors. MCAS El Toro was regularly used for flight operations by Special Air Missions during President Richard Nixon's term in office, in support of the "Western White House," Nixon's home at San Clemente. The final Nixon flights were, first, when he landed there upon resigning the White House in 1974, and again, after his death in 1994, when his body was flown to California for burial. He flew both times in his Air Force One, SAM 27000. In 2006, an abandoned F-18 hangar in Irvine California was sealed to create, in effect, a giant pinhole camera, and a panoramic print of the El Toro Air Station was formed on a light-sensitive muslin cloth measuring 111 feet wide, 32 feet high. Under the direction of Laguna Beach photographer Jacques Garnier, the image, known as “The Great Picture,” was originally produced as part of the Legacy Project - a photographic and historical record of the base before being transformed into what is now the Orange County Great Park. This is believed to be the largest photographic image ever taken by a camera. From 2005 to 2012, depending on the year, there were small air shows, fireworks, family New Year's Eve (the balloon dropped at 9 pm) and other events related to Growing the Park, at the Great Park, the new name for the site. See also List of United States Marine Corps air stations Naval Air Station Los Alamitos Naval Outlying Landing Fields also used by Marine Corps Air Station El Toro in World War 2 Notes References Books External links Official Department of the Navy - Base Realignment and Closure Program Management Office Other Info on the air station from Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields HD commercial footage filmed on location Airports in Orange County, California Defunct airports in California El Toro Military installations closed in 1999 Formerly Used Defense Sites in California Military facilities in Greater Los Angeles History of Irvine, California Military Superfund sites Buildings and structures in Orange County, California History of Orange County, California World War II airfields in the United States Superfund sites in California	[ -0.34635815024375916, -0.20546606183052063, 0.03467781841754913, 0.12311474233865738, -0.0066419742070138454, -0.25740480422973633, 0.06391892582178116, 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250925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound%20system	Sound system	Sound system may refer to: Technology Sound reinforcement system, a system for amplifying audio for an audience High fidelity, a sound system intended for accurate reproduction of music in the home Public address system, an institutional speech-reinforcement or public safety announcement system Shelf stereo, a compact sound system for personal use Arts and entertainment Sound system (DJ), a group of disc jockeys performing together Sound system (Jamaican), a group of disc jockeys, engineers and MCs playing ska, rocksteady or reggae music Sound System Records, an Australian record label LCD Soundsystem, an American rock band Sound System (album), by The Clash Sound System: The Final Releases, a 2021 EP by Bad Gyal Sound-System (album), by Herbie Hancock Soundsystem (311 album), 1999 "Sound System", a song by Operation Ivy See also Phonology, the study of sound systems of languages	[ 0.629017174243927, 0.12975282967090607, 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250927	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20John%20Passion%20%28disambiguation%29	St John Passion (disambiguation)	St John Passion or, in Latin, Passio Domini Nostri Iesu Christi secundum Ioannem (The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ according to John), refers to the Passion of Christ as told in chapters 18 and 19 of the Gospel of John. It also may refer to compositions based on that text: Passio Secundum Johannem by Johann Walter (), published in Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch, p. 227ff Passio Domini Nostri Jesu Christi secundum Johannem (1557) by Cipriano de Rore Passio Secundum Johannem (1580) by Orlande de Lassus Historia der Passion und des Leidens unseres einigen Erlösers und Seligmachers Jesu Christi (1593) by Leonhard Lechner Passio Secundum Johannem by Teodoro Clinio (1595) St. John Passion (1605) by William Byrd Johannes Passion (1643) by Thomas Selle Johannes-Passion (1666) by Heinrich Schütz Passio Secundum Johannem by Alessandro Scarlatti St John Passion (1724) by Johann Sebastian Bach Johannes Passion, 11 settings among Georg Philipp Telemann's Passions (1725–1765) Johannes-Passion, attributed to Georg Friedrich Händel Johannes-Passion by Georg Gebel 1748 Johannes Passion, several settings among Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach's Passions (1772–1788) Passio (Passio Domini Nostri Jesu Christi secundum Joannem, 1982) by Arvo Pärt Johannes-Passion (2000) by Sofia Gubaidulina St John Passion (2008) by James MacMillan	[ 0.09947457164525986, 0.19876351952552795, -0.0710006058216095, -0.6349461674690247, -0.020388100296258926, 0.4274866282939911, 0.4853002429008484, 0.27549856901168823, -0.48383021354675293, -0.5316581726074219, -0.432229220867157, 0.6199122071266174, -0.13766689598560333, -0.007781357038766146, -0.11580606549978256, 0.5504963397979736, 0.6161416172981262, -0.09439954161643982, 0.10563476383686066, -0.698818564414978, -0.18316812813282013, -0.30784979462623596, 0.31055256724357605, 0.19403797388076782, 0.3754494786262512, -0.17605839669704437, -0.30229854583740234, -0.539128303527832, -0.06216664984822273, 0.11408764868974686, 0.010654976591467857, 0.617953360080719, 0.6011294722557068, -0.4847431480884552, -0.1948976367712021, -0.5167228579521179, 0.0759623646736145, -0.643150806427002, -0.08848709613084793, -0.15680934488773346, 0.2751566171646118, -0.28885895013809204, 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250936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Neilson	Roger Neilson	Roger Paul Neilson, (June 16, 1934 – June 21, 2003) was a Canadian professional ice hockey coach, most notably in the NHL, and was responsible for many innovations in the game. He is a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame in the builder category. Born in Toronto, he attended a public high school, North Toronto Collegiate Institute. Neilson's coaching career began as a student at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario where he continued to coach until graduation with a degree in Physical Education in both hockey and baseball. Coaching career Neilson's coaching career began in 1966 as head coach of the Ontario Hockey League's Peterborough Petes, then the junior farm team of the Montreal Canadiens, and he remained for 10 years in Peterborough, Ontario, where he maintained a home until his death. He also worked at the University of Windsor with a summer hockey camp program, which led to camps from Port Hope, Ontario to Israel. Neilson moved into professional hockey coaching with the Dallas Black Hawks in the Central Hockey League in 1976–77. Neilson's entry into the NHL came in 1977 with the Toronto Maple Leafs, when he was hired to replace Red Kelly as the head coach of the team. Neilson coached the Toronto Maple Leafs (1977-78), the Buffalo Sabres (1979-81), Vancouver Canucks (1982-83), Los Angeles Kings (1983-84), Chicago Blackhawks (1984-87), New York Rangers (1989-93), Florida Panthers (1993-1995), Philadelphia Flyers (1997-2000) and for two games with the Ottawa Senators in April 2002. Neilson's tenure with Toronto lasted until 1979, when Neilson was fired as head coach of the Maple Leafs by owner Harold Ballard. There was outrage throughout the players, media, and general public. Ballard then relented, but wanted Neilson to enter the next game with a paper bag over his head as "the mystery coach", but Neilson refused and coached the next game as if nothing had happened. Neilson was initially an assistant coach with Vancouver, but he took over as head coach after Harry Neale was suspended for taking part in an altercation with fans during a brawl against the Quebec Nordiques. When the team went unbeaten in the next seven games, he was given the job permanently. It was in his new capacity that Neilson led the team on its run to the 1982 Stanley Cup Finals. Neilson's tenure with the New York Rangers was also successful; the highlight was coaching the team to the Presidents' Trophy as the first place team in the league in 1992. With Philadelphia, Neilson led the team to first place in the Eastern Conference in 2000, a position that the team retained for the rest of the regular season. With the Flyers leading in the conference standings by the midseason All-Star Game, Neilson earned the honour of being head coach of the Eastern Conference All-Stars. Previously, based on his performance with the Canucks, he had coached the Campbell Conference All-Stars at the 1983 All-Star Game. In addition, Neilson also worked for the Edmonton Oilers as a video analyst during the 1984 Stanley Cup Playoffs, culminating in the Oilers' first Stanley Cup championship, and the Chicago Blackhawks as an assistant coach under Bob Pulford from 1984 to 1987. From 1995 to 1997 he was an assistant coach for the St. Louis Blues. Non-coaching career During the 1987–88 and 1988–89 seasons, Neilson did not coach but worked as a color commentator for hockey coverage on TSN along with Jim Hughson and Gary Green. Retirement from hockey Neilson had gone on medical leave from the Flyers just before the 2000 playoffs for cancer treatment but was later informed that he had been permanently replaced by Craig Ramsay. Neilson's unceremonious dismissal by Flyers General Manager Bobby Clarke was widely lamented by fans and media as lacking class and respect. Neilson's doctors advised the Flyers that he lacked the strength to perform his duties as head coach. Neilson insisted on trying to return at the end of the first round of the playoffs. At the end of the season, Neilson was fired as head coach. He later conceded Clarke did the right thing. Neilson was then hired as an assistant coach of the Senators. For the last two games of the 2001–02 season, which were inconsequential to the standings, Head Coach Jacques Martin stepped away from the bench, allowing Neilson to take the reins and become the ninth man to coach 1,000 games. The following season, the Senators won the Presidents' Trophy as the first place team in the league and made it all the way to the Eastern Conference Finals. As it was well known that Neilson's cancer was terminal when the Senators were eliminated in a tough seven-game series, several players expressed their sadness at not being able to win the Stanley Cup for Neilson before he died. Neilson's overall regular season record was 460 wins, 378 losses, 159 ties, and 3 overtime losses. Coaching legacy Neilson dedicated his entire life to coaching and to hockey and affected the careers of thousands. He had no family and would stay up late into the night watching video and analysing games. Among his most well-known innovations was the use of videotape to analyze other teams, leading to the nickname "Captain Video". He was also the first to use microphone headsets to communicate with his assistant coaches. In situations where the face off was in the opposition's end and there were perhaps three or less seconds to go in the first and/or second period, Neilson would pull his goaltender for an extra attacker for a potential shot on net off the ensuing face-off. His reasoning was that if the other team gained possession of the puck, it would be virtually impossible for the opposition to score from their end in the mere seconds that were left. No other coach would consider this radical move, and it was indicative of his innovative thinking. Neilson was well known for closely reading the rule book looking to exploit loopholes. During one particular game in his first season coaching the Petes, he was down two men in a 5-on-3 situation for the last minute of the game. Realizing that more penalties could not be served under the existing rules, Neilson put too many men on the ice every ten seconds. The referees stopped the play and a faceoff was held relieving pressure on the defence. In addition, Neilson also took advantage of fans throwing objects onto the ice to deliberately cause stoppages of play late in a game. After these displays, the rules were changed so that a call for too many men on the ice in a 5-on-3 situation, or a delay-of-game penalty in a 5-on-3 situation, or any deliberate act to stop play (i.e., objects thrown on the ice, or the net being intentionally dislodged), in the last two minutes of regulation or in overtime now results in a penalty shot. Neilson also discovered that if he put a defenceman in net instead of a goaltender during a penalty shot, the defenceman could rush the attacker and cut down the latter's angle of shot, greatly reducing the chances of a goal. In 1968, he used this information in an OHL game between Neilson's Peterborough Petes and the opposing Toronto Marlboros. Neilson replaced Petes goaltender Pete Kostek with defenseman Ron Stackhouse. Stackhouse successfully blocked Frank Hamill's penalty shot attempt by charging out as soon as Hamill crossed the blue line. Today the rules states that a team must use a goaltender in net for a penalty shot and that the goaltender cannot leave the crease until the skater has touched the puck. One game during a time-out, Neilson told his goaltender, “...when we pull you, just leave your goal stick lying in the crease.” When the other team gained possession, they sent the puck the length of the ice toward the open net, only to deflect wide when it hit the goal stick lying in the crease. The rule was changed the next season so that a goal would be awarded in such a situation. Neilson also broke the rules, in a sense, when he did not like what was happening on the ice. As the Canucks coach during Game 2 of the 1982 Campbell Conference final playoff game against the Chicago Blackhawks, he felt his team was unfairly penalized on several occasions during the third period. He took a trainer's white towel and held it on a hockey stick, as if to wave a white flag. Three other Canucks players did the same thing, and all were ejected from the game. By doing this, Neilson inadvertently started an NHL tradition. Canucks fans waved white towels by the thousands at the next game, a playoff tradition that continues to this day and is widely copied by other hockey teams. Life after hockey Neilson was awarded a Doctor of Laws by McMaster University in 2001 (see below). He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as a builder in November 2002. He was also appointed as a Member of the Order of Canada {CM} in 2002. The City of Peterborough renamed George Street South Roger Neilson Way opposite the Memorial Centre Arena in 2003; the address of the Arena was supposed to be changed to 1 Roger Neilson Way. The Ottawa Senators have named their coaches office at Scotiabank Place The Roger Neilson Room. The City of Ottawa renamed their Minor Peewee AAA Hockey Division after Neilson in 2005. Also in 2005, the Ontario Hockey League created an award for the top academic player attending college or university and named it the Roger Neilson Memorial Award. In 1999, Neilson was diagnosed with bone cancer, which spread to become skin cancer in 2001. He died on June 21, 2003, only five days after his 69th birthday, and the funeral was held in Northview Pentecostal Church in Peterborough. Shortly after his death, the Ottawa Senators Foundation announced plans to build "Roger's House" (French: "La maison de Roger"), later renamed Roger Neilson House, a paediatric palliative care facility built in his memory on the grounds of the Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario in Ottawa. The building was opened on April 21, 2006, by the Premier of Ontario, Dalton McGuinty. In September 2004, Roger Neilson Public School, a new elementary school in Peterborough, opened. The name was chosen because of Neilson's commitment to teaching, which exemplified the qualities of the Character Education program of the Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board. On April 7, 2011, Rogers Arena in Vancouver commemorated Roger Neilson's contribution to the NHL and Vancouver Canucks, in particular to the tradition he created during the 1982 playoff series with the Chicago Blackhawks, later named "Towel Power", by erecting a large statue of him in the courtyard of Rogers Arena. The Florida Panthers dedicated the press box to Roger Neilson, their first coach, in 2013. Coaching record References External links McMaster Alumni Gallery Order of Canada Citation Roger's House Website Roger Neilson's Hockey Camp and Coaches' Clinic Site 1934 births 2003 deaths Buffalo Sabres coaches Canadian ice hockey coaches Canadian people of Swedish descent Canadian television sportscasters Deaths from cancer in Ontario Chicago Blackhawks coaches Chicago Blackhawks scouts Deaths from bone cancer Edmonton Oilers personnel Florida Panthers coaches Hockey Hall of Fame inductees Ice hockey people from Ontario Los Angeles Kings coaches McMaster University alumni Members of the Order of Canada National Hockey League broadcasters New York Rangers coaches Ottawa Senators coaches Peterborough Petes coaches Philadelphia Flyers coaches St. Louis Blues coaches Sportspeople from Toronto Toronto Maple Leafs coaches Vancouver Canucks coaches	[ -0.2656789720058441, 0.05394822359085083, -0.5523130893707275, -0.08709406852722168, -0.11743826419115067, 0.22283267974853516, 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250937	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandia%20Vodka	Finlandia Vodka	Finlandia is a brand of vodka produced in Finland. It is made from barley distilled into a neutral spirit in the village of Koskenkorva in Ilmajoki, operated by Finland's Altia Corporation. The distilled alcohol is then transported to a production facility in the village of Rajamäki in Nurmijärvi, about 45 kilometers (28 miles) north of Helsinki. In Rajamäki, the spirit is blended with glacial water, flavored (except for the classic non-flavored edition, 101 and Platinum), and bottled. The Finlandia brand was established in 1970 by Alko, Finland's state-owned alcoholic beverage company. It is now owned by the Brown–Forman Corporation. Finlandia vodka is distributed in 135 countries and is widely associated with Finland on the international market. Flavors include cranberry (since 1994), lime (1999), mango (2004), red berry (2004), wild berries (2005), grapefruit (2006), tangerine (2009), and blackcurrant (2009). History The distillery that produces Finlandia vodka was founded in 1888 by Dr. Wilhelm Juslin next to the glacial spring in the small Finnish village of Rajamäki in the Nurmijärvi parish. Today, a facility at that same historic location still manufactures and packages Finlandia. In 1920, after the passage of the alcohol Prohibition Act in Finland, the Rajamäki distillery was bought by the Finnish state to secure an alcohol supply for pharmacies and for other non-beverage purposes. When the Prohibition Act was lifted in 1932, the state took over exclusive control of vodka production. In 1970, Alko, the state-owned alcoholic beverage company, established the Finlandia vodka brand name. A year later the Finlandia brand became the first Nordic vodka sold in the United States, as well as the first imported vodka brand there classified in a premium category. In 1975, a new alcoholic beverage plant was constructed at the Rajamäki location in Finland, and the distilling operation was centralized at the Koskenkorva facility in 1987. In 2000, the private U.S.-based Brown-Forman Corporation acquired 45% of Finlandia Vodka Worldwide, with the state-owned Altia Group, a successor of Alko's production division, retaining 55% ownership. Two years later Brown-Forman acquired an additional 35% stake in Finlandia Vodka. In 2004, Brown-Forman acquired the remaining 20% of Finlandia Vodka and assumed 100% ownership in the brand. In 2016, Bloomberg reported Brown-Forman was considering a sale of Finlandia Vodka which was not commented on by the company, and the brand was not sold. Production Finlandia vodka is produced from Finnish-grown six-row barley and pure glacial spring water. At the Koskenkorva facility in western Finland, initial distillation of the fermented six-row barley takes place in seven columns with an average height of 25 meters using Altia's multi-pressure distilling system. Any remaining impurities, including lethal methanol as well as fusel alcohols and oils, are removed as the grain spirit is moved in a continuous process through more than 200 distillation steps. The entire production process, from grain mashing until the final neutral spirit flows out of the column, takes approximately 50 hours. The final product, a grain spirit 96.5% by volume, is then transported about 315 kilometers (196 miles) south to the historic alcoholic beverage plant in the village of Rajamäki near Helsinki. The barley distillate is diluted with glacial water from the Rajamäki spring. Because the water is naturally filtered through sand and moraine formed by retreating glaciers during the Ice Age, no deionization, osmosis treatment or other artificial purification is used – unlike with some other vodkas. The cooling and heating water used throughout the process is recirculated in a closed system to efficiently control temperature and keep water use to a minimum. Varieties Finlandia is available in pure form (distilled alcohol + water) and in several flavored versions. Finlandia promotion During the past several decades, the marketing of Finlandia vodka has involved a number of global promotional campaigns. 1976–1985 Several advertising campaigns in which taste is the primary focus: "There are vodkas for orange juice lovers and tomato juice lovers. Now a vodka for vodka lovers" (1976). "The vodka for vodka purists" (1977). "Vodka for vodka drinkers" (1982). "Finlandia Vodka for vodka lovers" (1983). "The world's finest vodka. Over ice" (1984–85). 1990 The campaign "Finlandia. Vodka From the Top of the World" stresses the properties appreciated by vodka drinkers: coldness, clarity, and purity. The campaign was reintroduced in 2006. 1998 The campaign "In a past life I was pure, glacial spring water" is launched under the umbrella theme "Past Lives" in which Finlandia vodka recalls its glacial origins. The ad series evokes a sense of the past through grainy photos and personalities speaking about their past lives. 1999 The campaign "Refresh" captures Finlandia vodka as "purely refreshing". 2002 Finlandia appears as "The Official Vodka of James Bond" for "007 Die Another Day", the James Bond film series. 2005 The campaign "Vodka from a Purer Place" declares Finlandia to be "naked vodka" by playing up its Finnish heritage and the "pure glacial spring water" from which it is made. Transparent bottles are posed against snowy landscapes under headlines like "Here you see exactly what you're made of" and "When you have nothing to hide behind, you tend not to hide anything". 2013 The campaign "To the life less ordinary" is designed to illustrate that, due to its blend of 6-row barley, glacial water, and the midnight sun process, Finlandia is a "less ordinary vodka" produced in a less ordinary fashion. The campaign is meant to inspire viewers to never settle for the routine but instead always embrace a less ordinary life. Bottle design Frozen Ice (1970) Tapio Wirkkala designed the original "Frozen Ice" bottle, which conveyed the impression of an ice-cold drink from Lapland in the Arctic North. The textured glass glittered like the surface of an icicle. The label featured two white reindeers sparring against the Midnight Sun low on the horizon. Hammered Ice (1998) Hansen Design of Design Philadelphia introduced "Hammered Ice" bottle design. The paper label was dropped and replaced with lacquered text. Glacial Ice (2003) Harri Koskinen, Finnish tabletop glass and industrial designer, along with New York's Wallace Church & Co. graphic designers and the Finlandia Global package design team, designed and launched the "Glacial Ice" bottle. The texture mimicked the sensation of melting ice, capturing the origins of the brand's glacial spring water. Melting Ice (2011) Finlandia introduced a new bottle called "Melting Ice". The bottle was developed through the collective effort of designers including Harri Koskinen, the Finnish designer who was instrumental in the development of the prior Finlandia bottle, and Kenneth Hirst, an industrial designer based in New York, who sculpted the new form. References External links Altia Corporation - Finlandia Vodka contract producer Brown–Forman brands Finnish brands Finnish vodkas	[ 0.02657872438430786, 0.3122314512729645, 0.28043994307518005, -0.08383442461490631, -0.44942235946655273, 0.6771141886711121, 0.6201570630073547, 0.16683869063854218, -0.3912738561630249, 0.3543859124183655, -0.04178614169359207, -0.21359992027282715, -0.05118456855416298, 0.6780130863189697, -0.07794366776943207, 0.10646890103816986, 0.3873582184314728, 0.9706397652626038, -0.1586851328611374, -0.3792980909347534, 0.1265275627374649, -0.16268330812454224, 1.2004945278167725, -0.046836260706186295, -0.20384401082992554, -0.3452626168727875, 0.6281340718269348, 0.6583809852600098, 0.16788586974143982, 0.323336660861969, -0.4440601170063019, 0.6880320906639099, 0.21198493242263794, 0.001676682266406715, 0.34995755553245544, 0.36239662766456604, 0.1366993933916092, -0.11904307454824448, -0.3920285701751709, -0.0492297001183033, -0.053543731570243835, 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250941	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Play	Tony Award for Best Play	The Tony Award for Best Play (formally, the Antoinette Perry Award for Excellence in Theatre) is an annual award given to the best new (non-musical) play on Broadway, as determined by Tony Award voters. There was no award in the Tonys' first year. All My Sons has been incorrectly categorized as the Best Play of 1947, but it won the Best Author award for Arthur Miller. The following year Mister Roberts received the first Tony Award as Best Play. The award goes to the authors and the producers of the play. Plays that have appeared in previous Broadway productions are instead eligible for Best Revival of a Play. Award winners Legend: 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Award records Multiple awards and nominations Superlatives British writer Tom Stoppard has won this award four times, more than any other playwright. Only seven other writers (Arthur Miller, Terrence McNally, Tony Kushner, Edward Albee, Neil Simon, Yasmina Reza and Peter Shaffer) have won the award more than once, each winning twice. With ten nominations, Neil Simon has been nominated for the award more than any other playwright. August Wilson, with nine nominations, comes in second, followed by Tom Stoppard (seven nominations), Edward Albee (six nominations), and Arthur Miller (five nominations). In 1994, Tony Kushner became the first playwright to win consecutive Tony Awards for his two-part Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes. Terrence McNally repeated this feat the following two years with his plays Love! Valour! Compassion! and Master Class. See also Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play List of Tony Award and Olivier Award winning plays References External links The American Theatre Wing's Tony Awards official website Tony Awards Awards established in 1948 1948 establishments in the United States	[ -0.8433104157447815, -0.3963371217250824, 0.05119937285780907, -0.11636072397232056, -0.18762126564979553, 0.06095941364765167, 0.45486587285995483, 0.4866924285888672, -0.47339388728141785, -0.23682036995887756, -0.21724864840507507, 0.5340006351470947, 0.30893343687057495, 0.358132541179657, -0.26606255769729614, 0.4250631034374237, 1.0152673721313477, -0.14696148037910461, -0.10280387848615646, -0.29421985149383545, -0.5990762710571289, 0.09003017842769623, 0.8047407865524292, -0.20315490663051605, 0.10748858004808426, -0.03348318114876747, 0.03554873540997505, -0.07628846913576126, -0.2625722885131836, 0.37686750292778015, -0.4099423587322235, 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250942	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OHL	OHL	OHL or Ohl may refer to: Initialisms Oberste Heeresleitung, the Supreme Army Command of Germany in World War I Obrascón Huarte Lain, a Spanish construction company Old Hill railway station's National Rail station code Ontario Hockey League, one of the three Major Junior ice hockey leagues which constitute the Canadian Hockey League Open Hardware License (disambiguation) Oral hairy leukoplakia, a type of oral pathology Oud-Heverlee Leuven, a Belgian football club Overhead line, such as an overhead electric line used for railway and tram electric power supply Ozburn-Hessey Logistics Overhung Load, in regard to an electric motor it is the allowable radial load on the shaft of a motor, at a certain distance from the base of the shaft. People Don Ohl, an American former NBA professional basketball player Maude Andrews Ohl (1862–1943), American journalist, poet, novelist Russell Ohl, an American crystal engineer recognized for patenting the modern solar cell Places Ohl, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community	[ 0.352176696062088, 0.5359398126602173, 0.08685393631458282, -0.07984056323766708, -0.0641300231218338, 0.16905874013900757, 0.3117814064025879, 0.29034075140953064, -0.0002216415450675413, -0.36487868428230286, -0.3738510310649872, 0.12248767912387848, 0.2461668699979782, 0.35832640528678894, 0.010866778902709484, 0.6324924230575562, 0.3812427520751953, 0.9353507161140442, -0.8101810812950134, -0.2749788761138916, 0.0221701730042696, -0.5986879467964172, 0.538572371006012, 0.07801754027605057, 0.3001970052719116, -0.00009303753904532641, 0.058433301746845245, -0.2766931354999542, -0.6121112108230591, 0.15471909940242767, 0.16685321927070618, 0.1658998429775238, 0.35085153579711914, -0.45126160979270935, 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250943	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricki%20Lake	Ricki Lake	Ricki Pamela Lake (born September 21, 1968) is an American actress, television presenter and producer. She is known for her lead role as Tracy Turnblad in the 1988 film Hairspray, for which she received a nomination for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead. She is also known for her talk show, Ricki Lake, which was broadcast internationally from September 1993 until May 2004. When the show debuted, Lake was 24 and credited as being the youngest person to host a syndicated talk show at the time. In autumn 2012, Lake began hosting a second syndicated talk show, The Ricki Lake Show. The series was canceled in 2013 after a single season, but Lake won her first Daytime Emmy Award for the project. Early life Lake was born in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, to a secular Jewish family. Her parents are Jill (a homemaker) and Barry Lake (a pharmacist), though Lake was largely brought up by her paternal grandmother, Sylvia Lake, until Sylvia's death in 1978. Lake attended Ithaca College for one year. Career Acting Lake made her film debut as Tracy Turnblad, the lead character in John Waters's 1988 cult classic Hairspray. Lake also starred in other Waters films including Cry-Baby (with Johnny Depp and Susan Tyrrell), Cecil B. Demented (with Melanie Griffith and Stephen Dorff), and Serial Mom (with Kathleen Turner and Sam Waterston). She starred in Mrs. Winterbourne with Shirley MacLaine and Brendan Fraser, Cabin Boy, Last Exit to Brooklyn, Cookie, and Inside Monkey Zetterland. She joined the cast of the Vietnam War drama series China Beach as a Red Cross volunteer, Holly "the Donut Dolly" Pelegrino, for the show's third season. She also had a recurring role on the CBS sitcom The King of Queens as Doug's sister Stephanie. She guest-starred on television series including Drop Dead Diva and a voice role on King of the Hill, and starred in the television movie Baby Cakes. She had a cameo appearance in the 2007 remake of the original cult-classic Hairspray as a William Morris talent agent, and teamed up with star Nikki Blonsky (who played Tracy Turnblad in the 2007 movie musical remake) and Marissa Jaret Winokur (who played Tracy Turnblad in the Broadway musical based on the original 1988 film) to record "Mama I'm a Big Girl Now" for the soundtrack. The song is played during the film's end credits. She later reunited with original Hairspray co-star Deborah Harry for the film Hotel Gramercy Park, which was released in 2008. Talk shows Ricki Lake was Lake's first daytime talk show and at 24, she was the youngest person at the time to host one. The show specialized in topics involving invited guests and incorporated questions and comments from a studio audience. The show debuted in syndication on September 13, 1993, and ended first-run episodes on May 25, 2004. In 2000, Lake told Rosie O'Donnell in an interview that she had signed on for four additional years. Although Sony Pictures Television had many stations contracted through the 2004–2005 season, Lake decided to end the show in August 2004, citing (among other things) a desire to spend time with her family. She moved from Los Angeles to New York to tape the 11th season of the show, then returned to California when taping was complete. Lake returned to the talk show platform when she hosted a revived version of her original talk show which premiered in September 2012 and was cancelled after one season. 2006–2010: Other projects After her talk show had wrapped production on its final season, Lake went on to host the 2006 CBS limited series Gameshow Marathon, which re-created classic game shows with celebrity contestants. She also signed a development deal with Gameshow Marathon production company FremantleMedia for other ventures, including creating and producing future programs and projects. In October 2007, Lake appeared in the Lifetime TV movie Matters of Life and Dating. Lake also had a cameo in the 2007 film Hairspray as a talent agent and also sang "Mama I'm A Big Girl Now" with Nikki Blonsky and Marissa Jaret Winokur for the film's end credits. The Business of Being Born, Lake's documentary about home birth and midwifery, was released in limited markets on January 18, 2008. The film premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival and Red Envelope released the film in New York, L.A. and San Francisco in October; it also screened in Australia. The Business of Being Born included footage and details of Lake's own "life-changing" home-birthing experience and followed a midwife going about her work. Tribeca called it "The Inconvenient Truth of Childbirth". Lake described it as her life's work for the last three years and expressed hopes that the film educated and empowered people to really know their choices in childbirth. She performed in the CBS television special Loving Leah in January of that year. Lake also jointly wrote a book on the world of natural childbirth and birthing options, along with Abby Epstein and Jacques Moritz, Your Best Birth, which was published by Wellness Central on May 1, 2009. Lake and Epstein also launched MyBestBirth.com, an online social network, powered by Ning, intended to allow parents and medical professionals to dialogue about varying birthing options and resources. Lake returned to television on May 11, 2009, succeeding Sharon Osbourne as host for the third season of VH1's Charm School. On November 10, 2010, Lake joined fellow talkers Phil Donahue, Sally Jessy Raphael, Geraldo Rivera, and Montel Williams as guests of Oprah Winfrey on The Oprah Winfrey Show, marking the first time those hosts appeared together on one show since their respective programs left the air. 2011–present In March 2011, reports said that three television studios, Twentieth Television, Universal Media Studios and CBS Television Distribution, were interested in bringing Lake back to the talk-show realm in 2012. This after Lake began appearing on various programs in which she expressed a desire to return to the genre. Lake competed on the 13th season of Dancing with the Stars. She was partnered with three-time champion Derek Hough and cited Kirstie Alley's appearance as an inspiration to do the show. Lake achieved tremendous success, consistently achieving high scores. After making the finals, Lake was announced as the contestant in third place, losing to television personality Rob Kardashian and actor and Army veteran J. R. Martinez, despite having higher scores than either. On April 20, 2011, Lake signed with Twentieth Television to develop The Ricki Lake Show, which premiered in September 2012. The new program had a more Oprah-like format as compared to her earlier talk show. It was cancelled after one season. Lake won the Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Talk Show Host in 2013. On December 7, 2016, Lake made a cameo in the television musical Hairspray Live! On February 11, 2017, Lake appeared as a guest judge on the British talent show Let It Shine with Gary Barlow, Dannii Minogue, and Martin Kemp on the BBC. On February 17, 2018, Lake appeared on the British television show Through the Keyhole hosted by Keith Lemon. In March 2018, at SXSW, Lake and Epstein premiered their documentary film Weed the People, examining the use of cannabis as medicine and its status as a Schedule I prohibited drug in the United States. The film focused in particular on the use of cannabis in the treatment of pediatric cancer. On February 6, 2019, she was revealed to be "Raven" in the Fox series The Masked Singer. She performed "Rainbow" by Kesha, "Bad Romance" by Lady Gaga and "Brave" by Sara Bareilles. In October 2019, she began competing in The X Factor: Celebrity. On October 28, Ricki made a guest appearance on the ITV Daytime program Loose Women. Ricki was said to be a last minute addition to the panel with one of the original panellist off sick at short notice. Dancing with the Stars performances Personal life Lake has discussed drastic weight changes in interviews, including swings of up to 100 pounds and extreme diets that left her "fainting on, like, the spot. I'd be standing up and then, black out, and not remember anything." Lake met illustrator Rob Sussman in October 1993, on Halloween. The couple married in Las Vegas on March 26, 1994. They have two sons: Milo Sebastian Sussman (b. March 22, 1997), and Owen Tyler Sussman (b. June 18, 2001), whose actual water birth was shown in The Business of Being Born, which Lake also produced. The couple filed for divorce in August 2003; it was finalized on February 25, 2004. Lake began dating jewelry designer Christian Evans in mid-2009. They became engaged in August 2011, and married on April 8, 2012. On October 29, 2014, Lake filed for divorce from Evans, citing "irreconcilable differences". In December 2014, however, they announced they had put their divorce on hold; it was finalized in 2015. Christian Evans died by suicide on February 11, 2017. On September 18, 2010, Lake's rented Malibu home was destroyed by a fire. She and her sons escaped without injury. On January 15, 2011, Lake finished in sixth place in the PokerStars Caribbean Adventure Luxury Ladies Poker Event, collecting $5,587 of the prize pool. On January 1, 2020, Lake posted a picture on her social media accounts, in which she revealed that she had been dealing with hair loss that had resulted from years of depression, weight loss, pregnancy and the use of chemicals in her hair dating back to her work in Hairspray (Lake confirmed that it was her actual hair that was used during the filming: "I went from Hairspray to ‘Hairless’"), which caused her to finally cut her receding hair and then reveal her new buzz-cut (she also noted that her first talk show, in which they did outrageous hairstyle episodes, was another factor in her decision). Lake said the struggle had been "debilitating, embarrassing, painful, scary, depressing, lonely”, noting that "there have been a few times where I have even felt suicidal over it. Almost no one in my life knew the level of deep pain and trauma I was experiencing". Lake assured everyone that she had not been diagnosed with other medical conditions related to the hair loss, and wanted to embrace her new look, saying that "I am liberated. I am free. I am releasing and letting go. I am brave. I am beautiful. I am love". In February 2021 she announced that she was engaged to Ross Burningham. They married in January 2022. Filmography Film Television In popular culture Lake is mentioned by name in the following songs: "The Neden Game" by Insane Clown Posse (1997) "Who Would've Thought" by Rancid (1998) "Pretty Fly (For a White Guy)" by The Offspring (1998) "Strong" by Robbie Williams (1998) "Lovesick" by TLC (1999) "Hole in the Head" by Sugababes (2003) "Till the World Ends (Femme Fatale Remix)" by Britney Spears featuring Nicki Minaj and Kesha (2011) "How That Taste" by Kehlani (2015) “Money Good” by Megan Thee Stallion (2019) "Shoulderblades" by Girl Band (2019) "Ricki Lake" by Netta (2020) Ricki Lake is mentioned in an episode of American Dad! during the song “Breakin” that Roger and Stan evolve into during their struggle to see which one is the better actor in S6E11 A Piñata Named Desire. References External links 1968 births Jewish American actresses American cannabis activists Actresses from New York (state) American film actresses Film producers from New York (state) American game show hosts American television actresses Television producers from New York (state) American women television producers American television talk show hosts Ithaca College alumni Living people Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host winners Participants in American reality television series People from Hastings-on-Hudson, New York 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses American women film producers 21st-century American Jews	[ -0.19412438571453094, -0.2149852067232132, -0.32818174362182617, -0.05797753110527992, 0.17019185423851013, 0.528520941734314, 0.5134907364845276, 0.09915138781070709, -0.2691585123538971, 0.3775591254234314, 0.03130139410495758, 0.49276310205459595, 0.23362460732460022, 0.2459772229194641, -0.4330434501171112, 0.8106780052185059, 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250945	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20circus	Media circus	Media circus is a colloquial metaphor, or idiom, describing a news event for which the level of media coverage—measured by such factors as the number of reporters at the scene and the amount of material broadcast or published—is perceived to be excessive or out of proportion to the event being covered. Coverage that is sensationalistic can add to the perception the event is the subject of a media circus. The term is meant to critique the coverage of the event by comparing it to the spectacle and pageantry of a circus. Usage of the term in this sense became common in the 1970s. It can also be called a media feeding frenzy or just media frenzy, especially when they cover the media coverage. History Although the idea is older, the term media circus began to appear around the mid-1970s. An early example is from the 1976 book by author Lynn Haney, in which she writes about a romance in which the athlete Chris Evert was involved: "Their courtship, after all, had been a 'media circus.'" A few years later The Washington Post had a similar courtship example in which it reported, "Princess Grace herself is still traumatized by the memory of her own media-circus wedding to Prince Rainier in 1956." The term has become increasingly popular with time since the 1970s. Reasons for being critical of the media are varied; at the core of most criticism is that there may be a significant opportunity cost when other more important news issues get less public attention as a result of coverage of the hyped issue. Media circuses make up the central plot device in the 1951 movie Ace in the Hole about a self-interested reporter who, covering a mine disaster, allows a man to die trapped underground. It cynically examines the relationship between the media and the news they report. The movie was subsequently re-issued as The Big Carnival, with "carnival" referring to what we now call a "circus". In the film, the disaster attracts campers including a real circus. The movie was based on real-life Floyd Collins who in 1925 was trapped in a Kentucky cave drawing so much media attention that it became the third largest media event between the two World Wars (the other two being Lindbergh's solo flight and the Lindbergh kidnapping). Examples Events described as a media circus include: Aruba The disappearance, and assumed death, of Natalee Holloway (2005–). Australia The Azaria Chamberlain disappearance of 2-month-old baby in outback Australia (1980). The Beaconsfield Mine collapse (2006). 2009 Violence against Indians in Australia controversy. Schapelle Corby Drug smuggler (2014). Brazil The murder of Isabella Nardoni (2008). Canada Conrad Black, business magnate of newspapers, convicted of fraud, embezzlement and corporate destruction, imprisoned in Florida. Toronto mayor Rob Ford's life, including his usage of drugs, alcohol and involvement with organized crime (2013). Paul Bernardo and Karla Homolka (serial killers). Omar Khadr (detained as a minor at Guantanamo Bay in 2001, transferred to Canada in 2012, released in May 2015). Luka Rocco Magnotta Chile 2010 Copiapó mining accident. Colombia The Death of Luis Andres Colmenares (2010). Germany The Gladbeck hostage crisis. Italy Amanda Knox (convicted of the murder of Meredith Kercher; her conviction was subsequently overturned). Malaysia The missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (2014). Peru Hostage situation in the Japanese ambassador's residence (1997). Joran van der Sloot and the death of Stephany Flores Ramirez (2010). Poland The assumed discovery of the Nazi gold train in Wałbrzych (Waldenburg), 2015 Romania Disappearance and alleged murder of Elodia Ghinescu, especially on OTV, which aired a couple hundred episodes on the matter. South Africa Oscar Pistorius on trial for death of his girlfriend Reeva Steenkamp (2013–14). South Korea Suicide and funeral of K-pop star and Shinee member Kim Jong-hyun Thailand Tham Luang cave rescue Ukraine Mykola Melnychenko's involvement in the Cassette Scandal (1999–2000). United Kingdom The Charlie Gard case. The life, career, death and funeral of Jade Goody (2009). The News International phone hacking scandal (2011). Often overshadowed stories on the Libyan/Syrian Civil Wars, East African famine, and economic crisis. The disappearance of Madeleine McCann (2008). The McLibel case. United States The 1924 murder trials of Beulah Annan, Belva Gærtner, and several other female suspects in Chicago, adapted into the Chicago franchise by a newspaper reporter The early 1930s string of public enemies, ranging from mafia leaders such as Al Capone to smaller-time gangsters, most enduringly famously Bonnie and Clyde. The 1954 trial of Sam Sheppard. The U.S. Supreme Court held "massive, pervasive, and prejudicial publicity" prevented him from receiving a fair trial. The 1965 littering trial against singer Arlo Guthrie and Richard Robbins, deliberately turned into a local media circus by arresting officer William Obanhein to deter others from repeating their actions. Coverage of the investigation and trial of the 1969 murders of Sharon Tate and four others by the Manson family. David Gelman, Peter Greenberg, et al. in Newsweek on January 31, 1977: "Brooklyn born photographer and film producer Lawrence Schiller managed to make himself the sole journalist to witness the execution of Gary Gilmore in Utah....In the Gilmore affair, he was like a ringmaster in what became a media circus, with sophisticated newsmen scrambling for what he had to offer." The rescue of baby Jessica McClure (1987) The Central Park jogger case of 1989. The O. J. Simpson murder case of 1994–1995. The Blizzard of '96 (1996). "...this storm ...so hyped by the media in the same way that the O. J. Simpson murder case became hyped as the "Trial of the century". The Elián González custody conflict (2000). The Summer of the Shark in 2001. The trial of Scott Peterson (2004). "The circus became even more raucous when Peterson went on trial for murder in 2004." The trial of Martha Stewart (2004). "The stone-faced Stewart never broke stride as she cut a path through the media circus." The disappearance of Stacy Peterson (2007). The alleged teenage "pregnancy pact" at Glocuester High School (2008). The Casey Anthony murder trial (2011). "Once again, it was relentless media coverage that in large part fed the fascination with the case", Ford observed. The killing of Trayvon Martin (2012). "Here is where the media circus takes a decidedly ugly turn", Eric Deggans wrote. The murder of Travis Alexander (2013), where Jodi Arias was found guilty of first-degree murder. The sexual harassment allegations against film producer Harvey Weinstein and the Weinstein effect (2017). The murder of George Floyd and the protests that followed (2020). The Killing of Gabby Petito (2021). See also 24-hour news cycle Cause célèbre CNN effect Deviancy amplification spiral "Dirty Laundry" (Don Henley song) Feiler faster thesis It's Not News, It's FARK Richard Jewell Media scrum Missing white woman syndrome Paparazzi Perp walk Sensationalism Silly season Trial by media Yellow journalism References Criticism of journalism Circus Mass media events	[ 0.5569002032279968, -0.06521307677030563, -0.06081310659646988, 0.18184217810630798, -0.5416494011878967, -0.26797711849212646, 0.010103076696395874, 0.5658227205276489, -0.38941359519958496, -0.08715175092220306, -0.6951715350151062, 0.501096785068512, -0.3287060558795929, 0.48685047030448914, -0.1333715170621872, 0.6755820512771606, -0.30022671818733215, 0.18676327168941498, -0.09318745881319046, -0.28282657265663147, -0.4504428207874298, -0.25504252314567566, -0.32409924268722534, -0.4981573224067688, 0.3600161075592041, -0.14138798415660858, 0.17638123035430908, 0.43198466300964355, 0.1509787142276764, -0.13199542462825775, 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250947	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20United%20States%20presidential%20election%20recount%20in%20Florida	2000 United States presidential election recount in Florida	The Florida election recount of 2000 was a period of vote recounting in Florida that occurred during the weeks after Election Day in the 2000 United States presidential election between George W. Bush and Al Gore. The Florida vote was ultimately settled in Bush's favor by a margin of 537 votes when the U.S. Supreme Court, in Bush v. Gore, stopped a recount that had been initiated upon a ruling by the Florida Supreme Court. Bush's win in Florida gave him a majority of votes in the Electoral College and victory in the presidential election. Background The controversy began on election night, November 7, 2000, when the national television networks, using information provided to them by the Voter News Service, an organization formed by the Associated Press to help determine the outcome of the election through early result tallies and exit polling, first called Florida for Gore in the hour after polls closed in the peninsula (in the Eastern time zone) but about ten minutes before they closed in the heavily Republican counties of the panhandle (in the Central time zone). Later in the evening, the networks reversed their call, moving to "too close to call", then later giving it to Bush; then they retracted that call as well, finally indicating the state was "too close to call". Gore phoned Bush the night of the election to concede, then retracted his concession after learning how close the Florida count was. Bush led the election-night vote count in Florida by 1,784 votes. The small margin produced an automatic recount under Florida state law, which began the day after the election. That first day's results reduced the margin to just over 900 votes. Once it became clear that Florida would decide the presidential election, the nation's attention focused on the manual recount. Recount The Florida election was closely scrutinized after Election Day. Due to the narrow margin of the original vote count, Florida Election Code 102.141 mandated a statewide machine recount, which began the day after the election. It was ostensibly completed on November 10 in the 66 Florida counties that used vote-counting machines and reduced Bush's lead to 327 votes. According to legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin, later analysis showed that a total of 18 counties—accounting for a quarter of all votes cast in Florida—did not carry out the legally mandated machine recount, but "No one from the Gore campaign ever challenged this view" that the machine recount had been completed. Once the closeness of the election in Florida was clear, both the Bush and Gore campaigns organized themselves for the ensuing legal process. On November 9, the Bush campaign announced they had hired George H. W. Bush's former Secretary of State James Baker and Republican political consultant Roger Stone to oversee their legal team, and the Gore campaign hired Bill Clinton's former Secretary of State Warren Christopher. Following the machine recount, the Gore campaign requested a manual recount in four counties. Florida state law at the time allowed a candidate to request a manual recount by protesting the results of at least three precincts. The county canvassing board was then to decide whether to do a recount, as well as the method of the recount, in those three precincts. If the board discovered an error that in its judgment could affect the outcome of the election, they were then authorized to do a full recount of the ballots. This statutory process primarily accommodated recounts for local elections. The Gore campaign requested that disputed ballots in Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach and Volusia Counties be counted by hand. Volusia County started its recount on November 12. Florida statutes also required that all counties certify and report their returns, including any recounts, by 5:00 p.m. on November 14. The manual recounts were time-consuming, and it soon became clear that some counties would not complete their recounts before the deadline. On November 13 the Gore campaign and Volusia and Palm Beach Counties sued to have the deadlines extended. Meanwhile, the Bush campaign worked to stop the recount. On November 11, it joined a group of Florida voters in suing in federal district court for a preemptive injunction to stop all manual recounting of votes in Florida. Bush's lawyers argued that recounting votes in just four counties violated the 14th Amendment and also that similarly punched ballots could be tabulated differently since Florida had no detailed statutory standards for hand-counting votes. On November 13, the federal court ruled against an injunction. On November 14, the original deadline for reporting results, with the Volusia County recount complete, Bush held a 300-vote lead. The same day, a state judge upheld that deadline but ruled that further recounts could be considered later. Florida's secretary of state, Katherine Harris, a Republican, then gave counties until 2:00 p.m. on November 15 to provide reasons for recounting their ballots. The next day, the Florida Supreme Court allowed manual recounts in Palm Beach and Broward Counties to continue but left it to a state judge to decide whether Harris must include those votes in the final tally. Miami-Dade County decided on November 17 to conduct a recount but suspended it on November 22. The Gore campaign sued to force Miami-Dade County to continue its recount, but the Florida Supreme Court refused to consider the request. As the manual recounts continued, the battle to certify the results intensified. On November 17, Judge Terry Lewis of Leon County Circuit Court permitted Harris to certify the election results without the manual recounts, but on the same day the Florida Supreme Court stayed that decision until it could consider an appeal by Gore. On November 21, the Florida Supreme Court ruled unanimously that manual counts in Broward, Palm Beach and Miami-Dade Counties must be included and set 5:00 p.m. on November 26 as the earliest time for certification. After that decision, the Bush campaign appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, arguing that the state court effectively rewrote state election statutes after the vote. As the manual recounts progressed, most of Florida's counties were considering overseas absentee ballots. That part of the vote count was completed on November 18, increasing Bush's lead to 930 votes. The Palm Beach County recount and the Miami-Dade County recount (having been suspended) were still incomplete at 5:00 p.m. on November 26, when Harris certified the statewide vote count with Bush ahead by 537 votes. The next day, Gore sued under Florida's statutory construct of the "contest phase". On November 28, Judge N. Sanders Sauls of Leon County Circuit Court rejected Gore's request to include the recount results from Miami-Dade and Palm Beach Counties. Gore appealed that decision to the Florida Supreme Court. Sauls also rejected Gore's contest of the election result on December 4, and Gore appealed that decision too. On December 8, the Florida justices, by a 4–3 vote, rejected the selective use of manual recounts in just four counties and ordered immediate manual recounts of all ballots in the state where no vote for president had been machine-recorded, also known as undervotes. The U.S. Supreme Court convened on December 1 to consider Bush's appeal. On December 4, the Court ordered the Florida Supreme Court to clarify its ruling that had extended the certification date. On December 9, the Court suspended the manual recount, in progress for only several hours, on the grounds that irreparable harm could befall Bush, according to a concurring opinion by Justice Antonin Scalia. Meanwhile, on December 6 the Republican-controlled Florida legislature convened a special session to appoint a slate of electors pledged to Bush, as the U.S. Constitution bestows upon state legislatures the duty to determine how its state's electors are appointed. On December 12, the same day as the U.S. Supreme Court ruling, the Florida House approved awarding the state's electoral votes to Bush, but the matter was moot after the Court's ruling. Some have argued that awarding the electors in this manner would be illegal. On December 13, Gore conceded the election to Bush in a nationally televised address. During the recount, controversy ensued with the discovery of various irregularities that had occurred in the voting process in several counties. Among these was the Palm Beach "butterfly ballot", which resulted in an unusually high number of votes for Reform Party candidate Pat Buchanan. Conservatives claimed that the same ballot had been successfully used in the 1996 election; in fact, it had never been used in a Palm Beach County election among rival candidates for office. Also, before the election, the Secretary of State's office had expunged tens of thousands of citizens identified as felons from the Florida voting rolls, with African-Americans identified on some counties' lists at up to five times their share of the population. Democrats claimed that many of these were not felons and should have been eligible to vote under Florida law. It was expected that had they been able to vote, most would have chosen the Democratic candidate. Additionally, this Florida election produced many more "overvotes" than usual, especially in predominantly African-American precincts in Duval County (Jacksonville), where some 21,000 ballots had multiple markings, such as two or more choices for president. Unlike the much-discussed Palm Beach County butterfly ballot, the Duval County ballot spread choices for president over two non-facing pages. At the same time that the Bush campaign was contesting hand recounts in Democratic counties, it accepted hand recounts in Republican counties that gained them 185 votes, including where Republican Party workers had been permitted to correct errors on thousands of applications for absentee ballots for Republicans. Political commentator and author Jeff Greenfield observed that the Republican operatives in Florida talked and acted like combat platoon sergeants in what one called "switchblade time", the biggest political fight of the century. On the other hand, he said, Democrats talked like referees with a fear of pushing too hard, not wanting to be seen as sore losers. Controversial issues Various flaws and improprieties in Florida's electoral processes were immediately apparent, while others were reported after later investigation. Controversies included: All five major U.S. TV news networks (CBS, NBC, ABC, Fox and CNN) assumed that they could confidently call a winner in any state "where the vast majority of polls had closed", based on history. No call in a state with two different poll-closing times had ever turned out wrong. While most of Florida is in the Eastern time zone, polls in the westernmost counties in Florida were open for another hour, until 8:00 p.m. EST, as they are in the Central time zone. The network calls were made about ten minutes before the polls in the Central time zone closed, based on the Voter News Service calling the state of Florida for Gore at 7:48 p.m. EST. This region of the state traditionally voted mostly Republican. A survey estimate by John McLaughlin & Associates put the number of voters who might not have voted due to the networks' call as high as 15,000, which could have reduced Bush's margin of victory by an estimated 5,000 votes; a study by conservative researcher John Lott found that Bush's margin of victory was reduced by 7,500 votes. This survey assumed that the turnout in the Panhandle counties, which was 65%, would have equaled the statewide average of 68% if the state had not been called for Gore while the polls were still open. But the relatively smaller turnout percentage in the Panhandle has been attributed to the surge in the black vote elsewhere in Florida to 16% of the total, from 10% of the total in 1996. Research conducted by Henry Brady and David Collier strongly disputed Lott and McLaughlin's findings. Brady and Collier were sharply critical of Lott's methodology and claimed when all relevant factors are accounted for, Bush was likely cost only between 28 and 56 votes. In a 2010 television special by the TV Guide Network, the "2000 Election Flip Flop Coverage" ranked #3 on a list of the 25 biggest TV blunders, having caused news outlets to change the way they report on election night. Democratic State Senator Daryl Jones said that there had to have been an order to set up roadblocks in heavily Democratic regions of the state on the day of the election. The Voting Section of the U. S. Department of Justice later investigated reports from the Tallahassee and Tampa areas and concluded that there was no evidence that roadblocks were related to the election or had occurred in close proximity to voting places. On November 8, Florida Division of Elections staff prepared a press release for Secretary of State Katherine Harris that said overseas ballots must be "postmarked or signed and dated" by Election Day. It was never released. Harris did send out a letter saying that absentee ballots without postmarks must be discarded, but Florida's Attorney General subsequently said they should not be. On November 13, Harris issued her first statement on overseas ballots, saying that they had to be "executed" on or before Election Day, not "postmarked on or prior to" Election Day. Over Thanksgiving, 14 county boards decided to include 288 overseas ballots that had been rejected days earlier, an act that was dubbed the Thanksgiving stuffing. On November 14, Democratic lawyer Mark Herron authored a memo on how to challenge flawed ballots, including overseas ballots cast by members of the military. The Herron memo gave postmark and "point of origin" criteria that Herron maintained could be used to challenge overseas ballots. It was in line with a letter sent out by Harris stating that if a postmark was not present on an overseas ballot, it had to be thrown out. Meanwhile, Republicans relied on their own 52-page manual for the same purpose. But on November 19, Democratic vice-presidential candidate Senator Joseph I. Lieberman appeared on Meet the Press and said that election officials should give the "benefit of the doubt" to military voters rather than disqualifying any overseas ballots that lacked required postmarks or witness signatures. Florida Attorney General Bob Butterworth, a Gore supporter, later told the counties to reconsider those ballots without a postmark. Before that, the Democrats had pursued a strategy of persuading counties to strictly enforce postmark requirements by disqualifying illegal ballots from overseas, which were predominantly for Bush. In contrast, Republicans pursued a strategy of disqualifying overseas ballots in counties that favored Gore and pressuring elections officials to include flawed overseas ballots in Bush counties. A suit by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP v. Harris) argued that Florida was in violation of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the United States Constitution's Equal Protection Amendment. A settlement agreement was reached in this suit with ChoicePoint, the owner of DBT Online, a contractor involved in preparing Florida's voter roll purge list. Four counties distributed sample ballots to voters that differed from the actual ballot used on election day, including Duval County, which used a caterpillar ballot, so called because the list of presidential candidates stretched over two pages. The instructions on the sample ballots said "Vote every page". More than 20% of ballots in black precincts of Duval County were rejected because of votes for president on each page. Further, counties and precincts with large black populations disproportionately had technologies where ballots would predictably go uncounted. In punchcard counties, 1 in 25 ballots had uncountable presidential votes. In comparison, counties that used paper ballots scanned by computers at voting places (in order to give voters a chance to correct their ballot if it had an error) had just 1 in 200 uncountable ballots. A systematic investigation by the United States Commission on Civil Rights concluded that although blacks made up 11% of Florida's voting population, they cast 54% of the uncounted ballots. Between May 1999 and Election Day 2000, two Florida secretaries of state, Sandra Mortham and Katherine Harris, contracted with DBT Online Inc., at a cost of $4.294 million, to have the "scrub lists" reworked. In a May 2000 list, over 57,000 voters were identified as felons, with all counties being ordered to remove all listed names from their voting rolls. Democrats claimed that many simply had names similar to actual felons, some listed "felonies" were dated years in the future, and some were random. Some counties refused to use the list, finding it error-ridden. In other counties, supervisors of elections notified those at risk of being scrubbed, giving them a chance to prove they were not felons, which a small number chose to do. In most cases, those on the scrub list were not told that they weren't allowed to vote until they were turned away at the polls. An estimated 15% of the names on the county lists were in error. Florida was the only state in the nation to contract the first stage of removal of voting rights to a private company and did so with directions not to use cross-checks or the company's sophisticated verification plan. See Florida Central Voter File. Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris was ultimately responsible for oversight of the state's elections and certification of the results, even though she had served as a co-chair of the Bush campaign in Florida. Furthermore, George W. Bush's brother Jeb Bush was serving his first of two terms as the governor of Florida at the time. Although Jeb Bush recused himself from involvement in the recount, Democrats alleged there was still an appearance of possible impropriety. Some observers, such as Washington County Elections Chief Carol Griffen, have argued that Florida was in violation of the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 by requiring those convicted of felonies in other states (and subsequently restored their rights by said states) to request clemency and a restoration of their rights from Governor Jeb Bush, a process that could take two years and ultimately was left to the governor's discretion. In 1998 Schlenther v. Florida Department of State held that Florida could not prevent a man convicted of a felony in Connecticut, where his civil rights had not been lost, from exercising his right to vote. The Brooks Brothers riot: A raucous demonstration by several dozen paid activists, mostly Republican House aides from Washington, flown in at Republican Party expense to oppose the manual recount in Miami-Dade County. The recount was shut down a couple hours after the screaming protesters arrived at the county offices, where they began pounding on the doors, chanting and threatening to bring in a thousand Republicans from the vociferous Cuban-American community. Some Republicans contend that their demonstration was peaceful and was in response to the Miami-Dade election board's decision to move the ballot counting to a smaller room closer to the ballot-scanning machines to speed up the process. The election board consisted of three appointees, Myriam Lehr and David Leahy, who were Independents, and Lawrence King, a Democrat. The demonstration, which took place in view of multiple national network television cameras, resulted in the election board reversing their earlier decision to recount ballots, after determining that it could not be completed by the court-issued deadline. The Republican representatives involved in the recount effort credit this demonstration, dubbed the "Brooks Brothers Riot" because of the suits and Hermès ties worn by the Republican operatives, as a key factor in "preventing the stealing of the 2000 presidential election". The suppression of vote pairing. Several websites sprang up to match Nader supporters in swing states like Florida with Gore supporters in non-swing states like Texas. For example, the Nader supporters in Florida would vote for Gore, and the Gore supporters in Texas would vote for Nader. This would have allowed Nader to get his fair share of the vote and perhaps to cross the nationwide total vote threshold to allow the Green Party to participate in the presidential debates in the 2004 election, while helping Gore to carry swing states. Six Republican state secretaries of state, led by Bill Jones of California, threatened the websites with criminal prosecution and caused some of them to reluctantly shut down. The ACLU got involved in a legal (not political) effort to protect the sites, and the Federal Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Jones seven years later. The vote-pairing sites allegedly tallied 1,412 Nader supporters in Florida who voted for Gore. The actions of the Florida Supreme Court. At the time, 6 of the Court's 7 justices were Democrats. It was argued, particularly by Republicans, that the court was exceeding its authority and issuing partisan rulings biased in Gore's favor. On November 17, the court acted "on its own motion" to stay the official certification of the election until it could hear Gore's appeal of Harris's decision to reject late-filed hand recounts, while specifically allowing counting of absentee and other ballots to continue, an action the Gore legal team did not request. Similarly, in 4–3 split decision, on December 8, the court ordered a statewide counting of undervotes, which the Gore team had also not requested. James Baker, among other Republicans, in speaking of this ruling, accused the court of being "inconsistent with Florida law", on which basis Bush appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. Democrats argued that the Florida Supreme Court was simply trying to ensure a fair and accurate count. While the Bush campaign opposed the Gore campaign's requests for manual recounts in four heavily Democratic counties, they quietly accepted manual recounts from four Republican-leaning counties. Polk, Hamilton, Seminole, and Taylor Counties, which used the more reliable optical scanners, decided to manually examine unreadable ballots (both undervotes and overvotes) during the counties' electronic recounts, in accordance with those counties' existing policies (see County-by-county standards below). These manual counts garnered Bush a net gain of 185 votes. Palm Beach County's butterfly ballots Many voters in Palm Beach County who intended to vote for Gore actually marked their ballots for Pat Buchanan or spoiled their ballots because they found the ballot's layout to be confusing. The ballot displayed the list of presidential running-mate pairs alternately across two adjacent pages, with a column of punch spaces down the middle. Bush's name appeared at the top of the ballot, sparing most Bush voters from error. About 19,000 ballots were spoiled because of overvotes (two votes in the same race), compared to 3000 in 1996. According to a 2001 study in the American Political Science Review, the voting errors caused by the butterfly ballot cost Gore the election: "Had PBC used a ballot format in the presidential race that did not lead to systematic biased voting errors, our findings suggest that, other things equal, Al Gore would have won a majority of the officially certified votes in Florida." On The Today Show of November 9, 2000, Buchanan said, "When I took one look at that ballot on Election Night ... it's very easy for me to see how someone could have voted for me in the belief they voted for Al Gore." Although Bush spokesman Ari Fleischer said on November 9 that "Palm Beach County is a Pat Buchanan stronghold and that's why Pat Buchanan received 3,407 votes there", Buchanan's Florida coordinator, Jim McConnell, responded by calling that "nonsense", and Jim Cunningham, chairman of the executive committee of Palm Beach County's Reform Party, responded, "I don't think so. Not from where I'm sitting and what I'm looking at." Cunningham estimated the number of Buchanan supporters in Palm Beach County to be between 400 and 500. Asked how many votes he would guess Buchanan legitimately received in Palm Beach County, he said, "I think 1,000 would be generous. Do I believe that these people inadvertently cast their votes for Pat Buchanan? Yes, I do. We have to believe that based on the vote totals elsewhere." The ballot had been redesigned earlier that year by Theresa LePore (Supervisor of Elections and member of the Democratic Party). She said that she used both sides of the ballot in order to make the candidate names larger so the county's elderly residents could more easily see the names. Influential decisions Florida Supreme Court appeals The case of Palm Beach Canvassing Board v. Katherine Harris (also known as Harris I) was a lawsuit about whether county canvassing boards had authority to extend manual recounts in order to inspect ballots for which the machine counter did not register a vote. The court ruled that counties had that authority and to allow time for these efforts, extended the statutory deadline for the manual recounts. It also stayed the state certification to November 26. There were two main issues: Whether the county canvassing boards' authority to conduct manual recounts to correct "errors in the vote tabulation" extended to efforts to remedy situations where machines, though perhaps correctly functioning to detect properly marked ballots, did not count votes on certain ballots on which votes might be found under a manual inspection with an "intent of the voter" standard (Harris had ruled that it did not); and How such recounts in the case at hand could be made to fit into the statutory scheme, which, as Harris interpreted it, contemplated a quick certification followed, if necessary, by an election contest during which a court (rather than the canvassing boards) would be empowered to correct errors. Regarding the first issue, the court ruled that, while Harris was generally entitled to deference in her interpretation of state laws, in this case the interpretation "contravene[d] the plain meaning" of the phrase "error in the vote tabulation" and so must be overturned. Regarding the second issue, the court ruled that the statutory scheme must be interpreted in light of the Florida state constitution's declaration that "all political power is inherent in the people," with any ambiguities therefore construed "liberally." Preventing the canvassing boards from continuing to conduct recounts beyond the seven-day timeframe (specified in the law, but with ambiguity as to how firm it was intended to be), would "summarily disenfranchise innocent electors [voters]" and could not be allowed unless the recounts continued for so long as to "compromise the integrity of the electoral process." The court ordered counties to submit returns by November 26, until which time the stay of certification would stand. Aside from this case, also in dispute were the criteria that each county's canvassing board would use in examining the overvotes and/or undervotes. Numerous local court rulings went both ways, some ordering recounts because the vote was so close and others declaring that a selective manual recount in a few heavily Democratic counties would be unfair. Eventually, the Gore campaign appealed to the Florida Supreme Court, which ordered the recount to proceed. The Bush campaign subsequently appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, which took up the case Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board on December 1. On December 4, the U.S. Supreme Court returned this matter to the Florida Supreme Court with an order vacating its earlier decision. In its opinion, the Supreme Court cited several areas where the Florida Supreme Court had violated both the federal and Florida constitutions. The Court further held that it had "considerable uncertainty" as to the reasons given by the Florida Supreme Court for its decision. The Florida Supreme Court clarified its ruling on this matter while the United States Supreme Court was deliberating Bush v. Gore. At 4:00 p.m. EST on December 8, the Florida Supreme Court, by a 4 to 3 vote, rejected Gore's original four-county approach and ordered a manual recount, under the supervision of the Leon County Circuit Court and Leon County Elections Supervisor Ion Sancho, of all undervoted ballots in all Florida counties (except Broward, Palm Beach and Volusia) and the portion of Miami-Dade county in which such a recount was not already complete. That decision was announced on live worldwide television by the Florida Supreme Court's spokesman Craig Waters, the Court's public information officer. The results of this tally were to be added to the November 26 tally. U.S. Supreme Court proceedings The recount was in progress on December 9 when the United States Supreme Court, by a 5 to 4 vote (Justices Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg and Breyer dissenting), granted Bush's emergency plea for a stay of the Florida Supreme Court recount ruling, stopping the incomplete recount. About 10 p.m. EST on December 12, the United States Supreme Court handed down its ruling. Seven of the nine justices saw constitutional problems with the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution in the Florida Supreme Court's plan for recounting ballots, citing differing vote-counting standards from county to county and the lack of a single judicial officer to oversee the recount. By a 5–4 vote the justices reversed and remanded the case to the Florida Supreme Court "for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion", prior to the optional "safe harbor" deadline which the Florida court had said the state intended to meet. With only two hours remaining until the December 12 deadline, the Supreme Court's order effectively ended the recount. The decision was extremely controversial due to its partisan split and the majority's unusual instruction that its judgment in Bush v. Gore should not set precedent but should be "limited to the present circumstances". Gore said he disagreed with the Court's decision, but conceded the election. Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris's certification of the election results was thus upheld, allowing Florida's electoral votes to be cast for Bush, making him president-elect. Florida counties' recount decisions Florida Attorney General Robert Butterworth in his advisory opinion to county canvassing boards wrote: Conservative writer Andrew Sullivan in a contemporaneous article: Florida Code Section 101.5614[5] states that no vote "shall be declared invalid or void if there is a clear indication of the intent of the voter." A physical mark on a ballot, at or near a designated target, is such an indication. Post-election studies Florida Ballot Project recounts The National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago, sponsored by a consortium of major United States news organizations, conducted the Florida Ballot Project, a comprehensive review of 175,010 ballots that were collected from the entire state, not just the disputed counties that were recounted. These ballots contained undervotes (votes with no choice made for president) and overvotes (votes made with more than one choice marked). The organization analyzed 61,190 undervotes and 113,820 overvotes. Of those overvotes, 68,476 chose Gore and a minor candidate; 23,591 chose Bush and a minor candidate. Because there was no clear indication of what the voters intended, those numbers were not included in the consortium's final tabulations. The project's goal was to determine the reliability and accuracy of the systems used in the voting process, including how different systems correlated with voter mistakes. The total number of undervotes and overvotes in Florida amounted to 3% of all votes cast in the state. The review's findings were reported in the media during the week after November 12, 2001, by the organizations that funded the recount: Associated Press, CNN, The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, The Washington Post, St. Petersburg Times, The Palm Beach Post and Tribune Publishing, which included the Los Angeles Times, South Florida Sun-Sentinel, Orlando Sentinel and Chicago Tribune. Based on the NORC review, the media group concluded that if the disputes over the validity of all the ballots in question had been consistently resolved and any uniform standard applied, the electoral result would have been reversed and Gore would have won by 60 to 171 votes (with, for each punch ballot, at least two of the three ballot reviewers' codes being in agreement). The standards that were chosen for the NORC study ranged from a "most restrictive" standard (accepts only so-called perfect ballots that machines somehow missed and did not count, or ballots with unambiguous expressions of voter intent) to a "most inclusive" standard (applies a uniform standard of "dimple or better" on punch marks and "all affirmative marks" on optical scan ballots). An analysis of the NORC data by University of Pennsylvania researcher Steven F. Freeman and journalist Joel Bleifuss concluded that, no matter what standard is used, after a recount of all uncounted votes, Gore would have been the victor. Such a statewide review including all uncounted votes was a tangible possibility, as Leon County Circuit Court Judge Terry Lewis, whom the Florida Supreme Court had assigned to oversee the statewide recount, had scheduled a hearing for December 13 (mooted by the U.S. Supreme Court's final ruling on the 12th) to consider the question of including overvotes. Subsequent statements by Lewis and internal court documents support the likelihood that overvotes would have been included in the recount. Florida State University professor of public policy Lance deHaven-Smith observed that, even considering only undervotes, "under any of the five most reasonable interpretations of the Florida Supreme Court ruling, Gore does, in fact, more than make up the deficit". Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting's analysis of the NORC study and media coverage of it supported these interpretations and criticized the coverage of the study by media outlets such as The New York Times and the other media consortium members for focusing on how events might have played out rather than on the statewide vote count. The NORC was expecting 176,446 uncounted ballots to be available from Florida's counties, based on county precinct reports that produced the final, state-certified vote totals. Orange County presented fewer rejected ballots to the NORC than expected. When the county segregated all ballots by machine for the NORC review, 512 previously rejected ballots were determined to be completely valid. Orange County then performed a hand segregation and determined that these votes numbered 184 for Bush, 249 for Gore and 79 for other candidates. The NORC adjusted its analysis for the Orange County results and a few minor differences by increasing the starting baseline vote total by 535 votes. In addition, some counties had provided an extra 432 total ballots, while others produced 1333 fewer ballots than expected. As adjusted, 176,343 ballots were expected, compared to 175,010 ballots actually provided to the NORC for review. The county-level variance from the total number of ballots was 0.76%. Thus, the project included a sample within less than 1% of the expected total of votes. Only a fourth of the variance consisted of optical ballots. Most of the variation occurred in Votomatic overvotes, the least likely ballots to yield votes in a recount. Among the nearly 85,000 Votomatic overvotes in the sample, there were only 721 reclaimable votes confirmed in the NORC study. Media recounts From the beginning of the controversy, politicians, litigants and the press focused exclusively on the undervotes, in particular incompletely punched chads. Undervotes (ballots that did not register any vote when counted by machine) were the subject of much media coverage, most of the lawsuits and the Florida Supreme Court ruling. After the election, recounts conducted by various United States news media organizations continued to focus on undervotes. Based on the review of these ballots, their results indicated that Bush would have won if certain recounting methods had been used (including the one favored by Gore at the time of the Supreme Court decision), but that Gore might have won under other standards and scenarios. The post-controversy recounts revealed that, "if a manual recount had been limited to undervotes, it would have produced an inaccurate picture of the electorate's position." USA Today, The Miami Herald, and Knight Ridder commissioned accounting firm BDO Seidman to count undervotes. BDO Seidman's results, reported in USA Today, show that under the strictest standard, where only a cleanly punched ballot with a fully removed chad was counted, Gore's margin was three votes. Under the other standards used in the study, Bush's margin of victory increased as looser standards were used. The standards considered by BDO Seidman were: Lenient standard. Any alteration in a chad, ranging from a dimple to a full punch, counts as a vote. By this standard, Bush margin: 1,665 votes. Palm Beach standard. A dimple is counted as a vote if other races on the same ballot show dimples as well. By this standard, Bush margin: 884 votes. Two-corner standard. A chad with two or more corners removed is counted as a vote. This is the most common standard in use. By this standard, Bush margin: 363 votes. Strict standard. Only a fully removed chad counts as a vote. By this standard, Gore margin: 3 votes. The study notes that because of the possibility of mistakes, it is difficult to conclude that Gore would have won under the strict standard or that a high degree of certainty obtained in the study's results. It also remarks that there were variations between examiners and that election officials often did not provide the same number of undervotes as were counted on Election Day. Furthermore, the study did not consider overvotes, ballots that registered more than one vote when counted by machine. The study also found that undervotes originating in optical-scan counties differ from those from punchcard counties in a particular characteristic. Undervotes from punch-card counties give new votes to candidates in roughly the same proportion as the county's official vote. Furthermore, the number of undervotes correlates with how well the punch-card machines are maintained, and not with factors such as race or socioeconomic status. Undervotes from optical-scan counties, however, correlate with Democratic votes more than Republican votes, and in particular to counties that scanned ballots at a central location rather than at precinct locations. Optical-scan counties were the only places in the study where Gore gained more votes than Bush, 1,036 to 775. Some media reports focused on undervotes (chad blocked hole, wrong ink or pencil used, partial oval mark not detected, humidity affected scanner, ballot feeder misalignment), while others also included overvotes (hole punched or oval filled plus a write-in name, other multi-marked ballots). A larger consortium of news organizations, including USA Today, The Miami Herald, Knight Ridder, The Tampa Tribune, and five other newspapers next conducted a full recount of all machine-rejected ballots, including both undervotes and overvotes. The organization analyzed 171,908 ballots (60,647 undervotes and 111,261 overvotes), 3102 less than the later NORC study. According to their results, Bush won under stricter standards and Gore won under looser standards. A Gore win was impossible without a recount of overvotes, which he did not request; however, faxes between Judge Terry Lewis and the canvassing boards throughout the state indicated that Lewis, who oversaw the recount effort, intended to have overvotes counted. According to the study, 3146 (3%) of the 111,261 examined overvotes "contained clear and therefore legally valid votes not counted in any of the manual recounts during the dispute." According to Anthony Salvado, a political scientist at the University of California, Irvine, who acted as a consultant on the media recount, most of the errors were caused by ballot design, ballot wording, and efforts by voters to choose both a president and a vice president. For example, 21,188 of the Florida overvotes, or nearly one-fifth of the total, originated from Duval County, where the presidential ballot was split across two pages and voters were instructed to "vote every page". Half of the overvotes in Duval County had one presidential candidate marked on each page, making their vote illegal under Florida law. Salvado says that this alone cost Gore the election. Including overvotes in the above totals for undervotes gives different margins of victory: Lenient standard. Gore margin: 332 votes. Palm Beach standard. Gore margin: 242 votes. Two-corner standard. Bush margin: 407 votes. Strict standard. Bush margin: 152 votes. The overvotes with write-in names were also noted by Florida State University public policy professor and elections observer, Lance deHaven-Smith, in his interview with Research in Review at Florida State University: ...Everybody had thought that the chads were where all the bad ballots were, but it turned out that the ones that were the most decisive were write-in ballots where people would check Gore and write Gore in, and the machine kicked those out. There were 175,000 votes overall that were so-called "spoiled ballots." About two-thirds of the spoiled ballots were over-votes; many or most of them would have been write-in over-votes, where people had punched and written in a candidate's name. And nobody looked at this, not even the Florida Supreme Court in the last decision it made requiring a statewide recount. Nobody had thought about it except Judge Terry Lewis, who was overseeing the statewide recount when it was halted by the U.S. Supreme Court. The write-in over-votes have really not gotten much attention. Those votes are not ambiguous. When you see Gore picked and then Gore written in, there's not a question in your mind who this person was voting for. When you go through those, they're unambiguous: Bush got some of those votes, but they were overwhelmingly for Gore. For example, in an analysis of the 2.7 million votes that had been cast in Florida's eight largest counties, The Washington Post found that Gore's name was punched on 46,000 of the over-vote ballots it, [sic] while Bush's name was marked on only 17,000... Furthermore, the Florida Administrative Code: 1S-2.0031, "Write-in Procedures Governing Electronic Voting Systems", (7) at the time specified, "An overvote shall occur when an elector casts a vote on the ballot card and also casts a write-in vote for a qualified write-in candidate for that same office. Upon such an overvote, the entire vote for that office shall be void and shall not be counted. However, an overvote shall not occur when the elector casts a vote on the ballot card but then enters a sham or unqualified name in the write-in space for that same office. In such case, only the write-in vote is void." There were two write-in candidates for president who had been qualified by the state of Florida. Under the FAC, a ballot with any other name written in (including Bush and Gore, who were not qualified as write-in candidates) was not an overvote, but rather a valid vote for the candidate whose name was marked by the voter. County-by-county standards for write-in overvotes in 2000 Opinion polling on recount A nationwide December 14–21, 2000 Harris poll asked, "If everyone who tried to vote in Florida had their votes counted for the candidate who they thought they were voting for — with no misleading ballots and infallible voting machines — who do you think would have won the election, George W. Bush or Al Gore?". The results were 49% for Gore and 40% for Bush, with 11% uncertain or not wishing to respond. Television film The Florida recount was the subject of the 2008 television film Recount, which aired on HBO. Directed by Jay Roach, it starred Kevin Spacey as Ron Klain, Bob Balaban as Benjamin Ginsberg, Ed Begley Jr. as David Boies, Laura Dern as Katherine Harris, John Hurt as Warren Christopher, Denis Leary as Michael Whouley, Bruce McGill as Mac Stipanovich, and Tom Wilkinson as James Baker. It won Outstanding Television Movie at the Primetime Emmy Awards, with Roach winning Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special, and Dern a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film. See also 2016 United States presidential election recounts United States House of Representatives elections in Florida, 2006#District 13 References External links How we got here: A timeline of the Florida recount Election 2000 - NPR Bush V. Gore Video highlight of Florida Supreme Court Chief Justice Wells opening Gore v. Harris argument on November 20, 2000 Video highlights of November 20, 2000 and December 7, 2000 oral arguments in Gore v. 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250948	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawn-on-film%20animation	Drawn-on-film animation	Drawn-on-film animation, also known as direct animation or animation without camera, is an animation technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on film stock, as opposed to any other form of animation where the images or objects are photographed frame by frame with an animation camera. Techniques There are two basic methods to produce animation directly on film. One starts with blank film stock, the other one with black (already developed) film. On blank film the artist can draw, paint, stamp, or even glue or tape objects. Black film (or any footage) can be scratched, etched, sanded, or punched. Any tool the artist finds useful may be used for this, and all techniques can be combined endlessly. The frame borders may be observed or completely ignored, found footage may be included, any existing image might be distorted by mechanical or chemical means. A third method takes place in a darkroom, using unexposed film that is exposed frame by frame. The artists places objects onto the fresh stock and then uses a small light beam to create the images. This third category of work has to be sent to a lab and processed, just like films created with a camera. Large formats such as 70 or 35mm film may be preferred for their relatively larger working area, but direct animation is done on 16 mm or even Super 8 mm film as well. Since the sound strip on 35 mm film is optical, it is possible to create synthetic sound as well as images by drawing or otherwise reproducing forms in the soundtrack area. The first and best known practitioners of drawn-on-film animation include Len Lye, Norman McLaren, Stan Brakhage, then later artists including Steven Woloshen, Richard R. Reeves and Baerbel Neubauer, who produced numerous animated films using these methods. Their work covers the whole span between narrative and totally abstract animation. Other filmmakers in the 1960s expanded the idea and subjected the film stock to increasingly radical methods, up to the point where the film was destroyed in the process projection. Some artists made this destruction a statement, others went back one step and copied the original work film strip to get a projection copy. Direct animation can be an inexpensive way to produce a film; it can even be done on outtakes, or discarded film strips from other projects. It is a form of animation that is inviting to beginners and accomplished artists alike. Norman McLaren wrote a short illustrated introduction "How to make animated movies without a camera" which was originally published by UNESCO in 1949. Helen Hill published a collection called Recipes for Disaster that includes a wide range of approaches to creating images directly on film. Today, cameraless animation is being produced worldwide. Animators and films In 1912, Italian futurists Arnaldo Ginna and Bruno Corra discuss their nine abstract films (eight of which are now lost) in their text Abstract Cinema – Chromatic Music. In 1916, American concert pianist Mary Hallock-Greenewalt produced hand-painted film strips, possibly intended for projection in her color organ, Sarabet. In 1926 Man Ray created Emak Bakia, which includes sequences made by exposing film directly to light. In 1935 Len Lye created the first direct film screened to a general audience, a promotion for the British General Post Office entitled A Colour Box as well as his movie Kaleidoscope. Lye and Norman McLaren produced hand-painted films for John Grierson in the GPO Film Unit. Lye went on to create direct films in New York. Beginning in 1941, McLaren continued this work at the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), founding the NFB's animation unit. NFB direct films created or co-created by McLaren include Boogie-Doodle (1941), Hen Hop (1942), Begone Dull Care (1949) and Blinkity Blank (1955). In 1946, Harry Smith produced hand-painted films in San Francisco which screened at the Art in Cinema series at the San Francisco Museum of Art. 1961 – "O Átomo Brincalhão" by Brazilian animator Roberto Miller. He worked at the National Film Board of Canada and later hosted a TV show about animation. In 1970, José Antonio Sistiaga exhibited the first feature-length hand-painted film, the silent epic , in Madrid. Stan Brakhage, Mothlight (1963) Harry Everett Smith Rose Bond Pierre Hébert, Memories of War (1982) Chel White, Metal Dogs of India (1985) 1991 Caroline Leaf – The Two Sisters Steven Woloshen produced and directed Ditty Dot Comma (2001, 3 min). Richard Reeves (animator) References Bibliography Robert Russett, Cecile Starr: Experimental Animation: Origins of a New Art (1988), Malcolm LeGrice, Abstract Film and Beyond. [MIT Press, 1979] The Dream of Color Music, And Machines That Made it Possible Michael Betancourt, Mary Hallock-Greenewalt: The Complete Patents. [Wildside Press, 2005] Tess Takahashi. “‘Meticulously, Recklessly Worked-Upon’: Materiality in Contemporary Experimental Animation,” The Sharpest Point: Animation at the End of Cinema. Edited by Chris Gehman & Steve Reinke. Toronto: YYZ Press, 2006. 66–178. George Griffin. "Concrete Animation." animation: an interdisciplinary journal Vol 2(3)[2007]:259–274 External links Drawing on film explained at the National Film Board of Canada An article about contemporary american filmmakers in this field Article about several experimental filmmakers and their techniques Watch Caroline Leaf's Two Sisters, an award-winning animated short film which uses the technique Watch "Animando", which teaches how to use the technique (along with 9 others) Watch Heide StrangeSky's short, Revolver an experimental Direct Animation; taking the technique a step further. 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250952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Sargent	Martin Sargent	Martin Paul Sargent (born August 18, 1975) is an American television personality and was co-host of the This WEEK in FUN podcast with Sarah Lane. He is most well known from his time as a Segment Producer on TechTV's The Screen Savers and later as the host of his own late night talk show Unscrewed with Martin Sargent. Early life Sargent studied History and English at the University of London, Cornell University and Syracuse University. Career Sargent's first job after school was as an editor at PC/Computing magazine. In 1998, Sargent joined the ZDTV (later TechTV) TV show Call For Help as the show's "Resident Craft Professional" and substitute co-host. In 2001, he moved from Call For Help to another TechTV show, The Screen Savers, and became known first as "The Twisted Lister", for producing and presenting odd, "twisted" top-five lists on the show, and later for another segment, "Site of the Night", in which he presented strange websites. Sargent left The Screen Savers in April 2003, to host his own show, Unscrewed with Martin Sargent, anchoring a newly introduced late-night programming block. On March 25, 2004, Comcast's G4 gaming channel announced a merger with TechTV. This move became hugely controversial among loyal fans of TechTV. Around May 6, G4 announced the termination of 250 employees from the San Francisco office by July 10, 2004, allowing approximately 80 to 100 employees to transition to G4's main office in Los Angeles, California if they agreed to relocate there. Sargent chose to stay with G4 and moved to Los Angeles. Six months later, on November 11, 2004, G4TechTV canceled Unscrewed and terminated Sargent, along with many other former co-workers from TechTV. Exactly one year after his termination, Sargent launched Infected, a comedy podcast distributed by the internet production company Revision3. Infected was hosted by Sargent and "The Gator" (portrayed by co-writer Jay Speiden, who died in December 2016), produced by Joey Rabier, and was structured as a conversation between co-hosts and producer, with fake "commercials" for various real and fictional products as well as occasional guest callers. Recurring callers included inventor Alex Chiu as well as the fictional characters Johnny O'Banion (portrayed by co-writer/producer Stewart Engesser), a Hollywood reporter and former Loni Anderson paramour, and karate master Rickey Kang (also played by Spieden). O'Banion and Kang were recurring characters on Infected, and Rabier acted as a production assistant on the show and also appeared as his "intern" character for selected skits. The podcast was originally available in audio-only format, then offered an alternative video version consisting of a montage of still photographs relating to the topic discussed and taken at the recording session. The video version has since been offered in full-motion video. Infected was canceled in December 2007, after 50 episodes. Sargent hosted Web Drifter and Internet Superstar on Revision3 and Why Today Sucked, on GoTV Network's "Laugh Riot" channel, available for video-enabled cell phones on the Sprint network. Web Drifter began as a pilot originally pitched to Comedy Central, but it was picked up by Revision3 after the cable network passed on the show. On January 30, 2008, the Revision3 website released the first episode of Martin Sargent's new show, Internet Superstar. As of October 27, 2008 he was made redundant as part of Revision3 layoffs. He has reappeared on Revision3 show 'The Digg Reel' twice since he was laid off, once as acting co-host alongside Kevin Rose while regular host Andrew Bancroft was on vacation. In this appearance he expressed mock-anger that, as part of promotions within the show, other cancelled show 'Pixel Perfect' has been revived, unlike his own shows. He appeared once more on The Digg Reel's 100th episode, in which he jokingly stated that he secretly lived within the walls of the Revision3 building, resulting from his supposed inability to get another job. Starting February 12, 2009, he and Sarah Lane appeared together in a Podcast on Leo Laporte's TWiT.tv network called This Week in Fun. The show aired for just shy of a year before going on hiatus in January 2010, following Martin's employment at Goodby, Silverstein & Partners in San Francisco. The show was left on good terms with the TWiT network, though they have made no solid plans of returning to production. In November 2009, Martin and long-time associate Molly McDonald became engaged. Credits Television Call for Help – Contributor (1998–2001) The Screen Savers – Contributor (1999–2003) Unscrewed with Martin Sargent – Host (2003–2004) VH1 40 Greatest Internet Superstars – Contributor (2007) Podcasts and vidcasts Infected – Host (2005–2007) DL.TV – Segment Host, CES Special (2006) Web Drifter – Host (2007–2008) Internet Superstar – Host (2008) This WEEK in FUN – Host (2009–2010) The New Screen Savers – Guest Host (2015, 2016) The New Screen Savers – Appearance (2018) Other Wilson Harold – Editor (1992–1993) College Pro – Crew Chief (1996) PC Computing Magazine – Editor (1998) TechTV's Digital Video for the Desktop – Author (2002) .net Magazine – Columnist (2007) References External links This Week In Fun – Martin's former podcast with Sarah Lane Web Drifter – Revision3 Internet Superstar – Revision3 Martin Sargent on Myspace SargeWorld- Martin Sargent's blog The New Screen Savers appearance 1975 births Living people People from Spencerport, New York American television personalities American bloggers TechTV people Cornell University alumni Revision3 TWiT.tv people	[ -0.4025628864765167, -0.23835253715515137, 0.1579168736934662, 0.2979912757873535, 0.24622824788093567, -0.002967061009258032, -0.021117452532052994, 0.5845372676849365, -0.6536895036697388, 0.23421242833137512, -0.33398836851119995, 0.11535720527172089, 0.07570327073335648, -0.2549644112586975, -0.4117521345615387, 0.5685061812400818, -0.008975091390311718, -0.4245052635669708, -0.5474212765693665, -0.23562119901180267, -0.2114025056362152, -0.53738933801651, 0.024818072095513344, -0.05809549614787102, -0.7387164831161499, 0.15325649082660675, -0.6379857063293457, -0.26605886220932007, -0.04496532306075096, -0.29999735951423645, -0.11057651042938232, -0.06188708543777466, 0.9093447923660278, -0.4900101125240326, -0.03866562247276306, 0.08322102576494217, 0.005413692910224199, -0.5480308532714844, -0.00029051833553239703, 0.6956533193588257, -0.017989646643400192, 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250955	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern%20California%20Intercollegiate%20Athletic%20Conference	Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference	The Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC) is a college athletic conference that operates in the NCAA's Division III. The conference was founded in 1915 and it consists of twelve small private schools that are located in southern California and organized into nine athletic programs. Claremont-Mudd-Scripps and Pomona-Pitzer are combined teams for sports purposes. The SCIAC currently sponsors men's baseball, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's cross country, football, men's and women's golf, women's lacrosse, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's swimming and diving, men's and women's tennis, men's and women's track and field, women's volleyball and men's and women's water polo. History A forerunner conference to the SCIAC was the Intercollegiate Football Association of Southern California, which existed in the 1890s. It included Occidental, Caltech (then called Throop Polytechnic), USC, Chaffey College and Los Angeles High School. The SCIAC was founded in 1915 with five member schools with the goals to promote amateurism in athletics. The five founding members, all of whom are still members, are Throop College of Technology (now California Institute of Technology), Occidental College, Pomona College, the University of Redlands, and Whittier College. Although all five original charter members are still affiliated with the SCIAC, only two, Occidental and Redlands, have had uninterrupted membership. The acronym SCIAC (standing for Southern California Interscholastic Athletic Council) was in use during 1913 and 1914 until that organization became the CIF Southern Section. On May 12, 2011, the SCIAC announced that Chapman University would become the ninth member, beginning with the 2011–12 academic year. The addition of Chapman marks the first expansion of the conference since California Lutheran University joined in 1991. At one time, most of the colleges were the southern California affiliates of various Christian sects such as the Quakers and the Presbyterians. Today, only California Lutheran University maintains an affiliation with a church. There are three former members of the SCIAC: University of California, Los Angeles, San Diego State University and University of California, Santa Barbara. All former members now compete in NCAA Division I athletics. Chronological timeline 1915 - The Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC) was founded. Charter members included Occidental College, Pomona College, the University of Redlands, Throop College of Technology (now California Institute of Technology) and Whittier College, effective the 1915-16 academic year. 1920 - The Southern Branch of the University of California (now the University of California at Los Angeles, or UCLA) joined the SCIAC, effective the 1920-21 academic year. 1926 - La Verne College (now the University of La Verne) and San Diego State Teachers College (now San Diego State University) joined the SCIAC, effective the 1926-27 academic year. 1927 - UCLA left the SCIAC, effective the 1926-27 academic year. 1931 - Santa Barbara State College (now the University of California at Santa Barbara) the SCIAC, effective the 1931-32 academic year. 1934 - CalTech and Pomona left the SCIAC, effective the 1933-34 academic year. 1938 - La Verne and UC Santa Barbara left the SCIAC, effective the 1937-38 academic year 1938 - CalTech and Pomona re-joined back to the SCIAC, effective the 1938-39 academic year. 1939 - San Diego State left the SCIAC, effective the 1938-39 academic year. 1943 - Whittier left the SCIAC, effective the 1942-43 academic year. 1946 - Whittier re-joined back to the SCIAC, effective the 1946-47 academic year. 1947 - Claremont Men's College (now Claremont McKenna College) joined the SCIAC, effective the 1947-48 academic year. 1950 - Chapman College (now Chapman University) joined the SCIAC, effective the 1950-51 academic year. 1952 - Chapman left the SCIAC, effective the 1951-52 academic year. 1958 - Claremont combined with Harvey Mudd College for athletics to become Claremont–Mudd, effective the 1958-59 academic year. 1971 - Pomona combined with Pitzer College for athletics to become Pomona–Pitzer, while La Verne re-joined back to the SCIAC, both effective the 1971-72 academic year. 1976 - Claremont–Mudd combined with Scripps College for athletics to become Claremont–Mudd–Scripps, effective the 1976-77 academic year. 1991 - California Lutheran University joined the SCIAC, effective the 1991-92 academic year. 2011 - Chapman re-joined back to the SCIAC, effective the 2011-12 academic year. Member schools Current member schools The member schools are: Notes Former member schools There are three schools that once participated in SCIAC athletics and no longer do so: Membership timeline All-sports champions See also List of Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference football standings References External links	[ -0.014037050306797028, -0.29004016518592834, -0.10394594073295593, 0.25004228949546814, 0.5761916637420654, -0.13354426622390747, 0.07943073660135269, 1.1631823778152466, -0.5474216341972351, -0.2138480842113495, 0.12067200988531113, 0.5502346158027649, -0.17002896964550018, 0.19208551943302155, -0.09719707071781158, 0.1485503911972046, 0.42136478424072266, 0.5627560019493103, 0.237113356590271, -0.08723141252994537, -0.5838235020637512, 0.08289086073637009, 0.7330102324485779, -0.1858365535736084, -0.4284152686595917, 0.04943683743476868, 0.22238142788410187, 0.09935580939054489, 0.5985143184661865, 0.11915742605924606, 0.05376139283180237, 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250956	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy%20Gold	Judy Gold	Judy Gold (born November 15, 1962) is an American stand-up comedian, actress, podcaster, television writer and producer. She won two Daytime Emmy Awards for her work as a writer and producer on The Rosie O'Donnell Show. She has also been involved in many projects in various roles, including the television series All-American Girl and HBO at the Multiplex segments where she asks humorous questions of unexpecting moviegoers. Biography She was born on November 15, 1962, in Newark, New Jersey. She first did stand-up on a dare when she was a music student at Rutgers University. She is a lesbian who shared a relationship with Sharon Callahan, her former partner, for almost 20 years. She has two children (Henry, 1996, and Ben, 2001), facts she frequently referenced on the show Tough Crowd with Colin Quinn. Gold is very active in both LGBT and Jewish communities. She was active in support of the 2004 and 2008 Democratic presidential campaign. In an interview with Marc Maron, Gold revealed her comedic influences to be Joan Rivers, Phyllis Diller, and Totie Fields. Her one-woman show 25 Questions for a Jewish Mother, co-written with Kate Moira Ryan, is based on a series of interviews with more than 50 Jewish mothers in the United States. Their stories are interspersed with anecdotes about her own mother and her life as a lesbian mother of two sons. It ran at the Ars Nova Theater in New York City in early 2006 and reopened on October 12, 2006, at St. Luke's Theater. Judy Gold also appears as a commentator on truTV's TruTV Presents: World's Dumbest. In 2007, she was featured in the film Making Trouble, a tribute to female Jewish comedians, produced by the Jewish Women's Archive. In 2011, Gold was named a Givenik Ambassador. In 2015, she appeared off-Broadway as Eleanor Roosevelt in the satiric musical Clinton: The Musical at New World Stages. The Judy Show: My Life as a Sitcom On June 30, 2011, The Judy Gold Show: My Life as a Sitcom, began previews at Off-Broadway's DR2 Theatre in New York City. This one-woman show is an homage to the classic sitcoms of Gold's youth. The show is written by Gold and Kate Moira Ryan and directed by Amanda Charlton. The show officially opened on July 6, 2011, to positive reviews. The New York Times called the show "highly entertaining." The New York Post called the show "gleefully self-deprecating". The show subsequently opened in Los Angeles June 18, 2013, and had a one-month run at the Geffen Playhouse. Kill Me Now podcast Judy Gold began the Kill Me Now podcast with co-host Lauren Hennessy in May 2015. Guests have included Frank Conniff, Ted Alexandro and Mara Wilson. Filmography Film Television Web References External links 25 Questions for a Jewish Mother Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Judy Gold from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum All That Glitters 1962 births 20th-century American Jews 20th-century American actresses 20th-century American comedians 21st-century American Jews 21st-century American actresses 21st-century American comedians Actresses from Newark, New Jersey American lesbian actresses American lesbian writers American stand-up comedians American women comedians American women podcasters Jewish American female comedians Jewish activists LGBT Jews LGBT people from New Jersey LGBT rights activists from the United States Lesbian comedians Living people New Jersey Democrats	[ -0.20848821103572845, 0.3676323890686035, -0.026626545935869217, -0.23234544694423676, -0.12812785804271698, 0.6372600793838501, 0.18493962287902832, 0.03077697940170765, -0.4481898844242096, 0.6555514335632324, -0.0738842561841011, 0.4975316524505615, 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250957	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-American%20Girl%20%28TV%20series%29	All-American Girl (TV series)	All-American Girl is a 1994 American sitcom starring Margaret Cho. The series aired on ABC from September 14, 1994, to March 15, 1995. Cho starred as Margaret Kim, the rebellious daughter of Korean American bookstore owners in San Francisco, whose American attitude often comes into conflict with her more traditional parents (Jodi Long and Clyde Kusatsu). Among her co-stars were BD Wong as Cho's brother, and Amy Hill as her eccentric grandmother. The series is notable for being both groundbreaking and infamous. The series was the first prime time sitcom to feature an Asian American family as its focus; however, it received criticism for its stereotypical characters. ABC's attempts to reform the show resulted in the show having a lack of direction and led viewers away from the series. After the first season, ABC wished to revamp All-American Girl into an ensemble series, but these plans were unrealized. Creation and summary All-American Girl was created by ABC to capitalize on the trend of female comediennes headlining their own sitcoms. Cho was included in a Wednesday night lineup that included other women in lead roles — Brett Butler (Grace Under Fire), Ellen DeGeneres (Ellen), and most successfully, Roseanne Barr (Roseanne). However, Cho was the only minority of this group and the only one who had no creative control over the process. The show's creators suggested other titles for the series such as East Meets West and Wok on the Wild Side, before deciding on All-American Girl. All-American Girl was marketed as being based on Cho's stand-up comedy routines, though Cho said that it "was mostly just a gloss" and used to attract fans of her stand-up. All-American Girl takes place in San Francisco, where Margaret Kim tries to navigate life with her family, friends, and romantic partners. In the Kim family household, Margaret has many squabbles with her very traditional mother, Katherine (Jodi Long), who wants nothing more than for her to settle down with a Korean boy and be successful. Her passive father plays more of the middle-man in these touchy debates, and prefers to spend time working in their family-owned bookstore. Also in the house are Margaret's brothers — her successful older brother, Dr. Stuart Kim (BD Wong), and her admiring younger brother, Eric (J.B. Quon) — as well as her eccentric grandmother "Grandma" Kim (Amy Hill). Outside of home, Margaret — who goes to college, though frequently bounces between majors — works at the cosmetics counter of a department store with her friends, pathetic Ruthie (Maddie Corman) and promiscuous Gloria (Judy Gold). In the pilot episode of All-American Girl, "Mom, Dad, This is Kyle", Margaret's mother, Katherine Kim, strongly disapproves of Margaret's boyfriend Kyle, and constantly tries to set her up with successful, intelligent Korean men, a recurring conflict between Margaret and her mother. Margaret, tired of her mother's constant matchmaking, convinces her to have Kyle over for dinner. At the dinner, Katherine makes no effort to accept Kyle, and a frustrated Margaret makes the rash decision to announce to everyone that she and Kyle are moving in together, simply to irritate her mother. Margaret realizes that she does not want to move out of the house and decides to stay in the end. The pilot episode already exhibited problems with the series that would continue with subsequent episodes. Margaret's mother is portrayed as a typical "tiger mom" who only approves of her daughter dating Korean men from prestigious universities and who is unwilling to see things from her daughter's perspective. Even by the end of the episode, Katherine continues to be set in her own ways. Margaret's brother Stuart appears throughout the episode as a contrasting, nerdy, perfectly obedient, model son. After negative reviews and controversy, producers attempted to change the series. Later episodes became less focused on the Kim family as a whole, and more towards Margaret and Grandma Kim. In "Notes From the Underground", Margaret moves into the basement of her parents' home, then moving out altogether in "Young Americans". The latter episode, which was also the final episode, served as somewhat of a "backdoor pilot" for a revamped version of the series, which would have focused on Margaret and her roommates — Spencer (Diedrich Bader), Phil (Sam Seder), and Jimmy (Andrew Lowery) — plus Grandma Kim and Jane (Mariska Hargitay), a bartender at the roommates' hangout. Ultimately, though, that option did not come to pass, and the show suffered from its inconsistency and lack of direction. Cast Main Margaret Cho as Margaret Kim, the main character of the series and the daughter in the Kim family. She is much more Americanized than the other members of her family, which is often a source of misunderstandings between her and her family. Amy Hill as Yung-hee "Grandma" Kim, Margaret's eccentric grandmother who is unassimilated and often refers to the "Old Country". She is addicted to watching television. Jodi Long as Katherine Kim, Margaret's mother. She is portrayed as a "tiger mom", imposing strict rules on Margaret and her siblings and setting extremely high expectations for them, especially for Margaret's older brother, Stuart. She runs a bookstore with her husband, Benny Kim. Clyde Kusatsu as Benny Kim, Margaret's father. While also a strict parent, he is also more understanding of Margaret, mostly the straight man and sometimes assists in mediating disagreements between Margaret and her mother. Maddie Corman plays Ruthie Latham, one of Margaret's best friends, who works with Margaret in a department store. Judy Gold as Gloria Schechter, another one of Margaret's friends who works at the department store. J.B. Quon as Eric Kim, Margaret's younger brother who looks up to Margaret, much to his parents' dismay. BD Wong as Dr. Stuart Kim, Margaret's older brother who is a successful doctor, and constantly under extreme pressure from himself and his parents to achieve more. He is considered the obedient and well-behaved son. Ashley Johnson as Casey Emerson, one of Eric Kim's friends who spend a lot of time at the Kims' house. After "Malpractice Makes Perfect", Casey is never seen or mentioned again. Notable guest stars Ming-Na Wen as Amy, Stuart's fiancé. ("Redesigning Women") Tsai Chin as Auntie June ("Take My Family, Please") Daniel Dae Kim as Stan ("Ratting on Ruthie") Eric Lutes as Grant ("Loveless in San Francisco") Oprah Winfrey as herself ("A Night at the Oprah") Jack Black as Tommy, a band member managed by Margaret's friend. ("A Night at the Oprah") Quentin Tarantino as Desmond, Margaret's boyfriend who she discovers sells bootlegged videotapes. At the time of All-American Girl, Tarantino was dating Cho, and coming off the success of his film Pulp Fiction. ("Pulp Sitcom") Robert Clohessy as Average Tony ("Pulp Sitcom") Vicki Lawrence as Phone Lady ("Young Americans") John Terlesky as Tim ("Young Americans") Episodes Production and reception All-American Girl first aired on September 14, 1994, on the ABC network. Anticipation was high, because it was the first prime time sitcom featuring an Asian American cast. However, critics and audiences alike were disappointed in the results. While reviews and critics were positive about Cho — and later Hill — they found the show to be bland, unfunny, and full of stereotypes. The show particularly disappointed Asian American viewers, who were particularly unhappy about the stereotypes. This included the "tiger mother", the expectation for Korean women to be proper and demure, the overachieving nerdy Asian, and the obedient Asian child. This lack of character development allowed no chance for the characters to have depth beyond their original identities, aside from Margaret. In addition, the casting was also criticized; Cho was the only Korean American cast, while all other actors portraying the Kim family were of Chinese or Japanese ancestry. Critics said this perpetuated the idea that all Asians are the same, and they did not appreciate the assumption that they "should identify with the Kims simply because they were Asian". Similarly, non-Asian audiences were equally unable to identify with "yet another example of Hollywood's ignorance and indifference when it comes to depicting an ethnic group about which it knows so little". As Cho stated later, "When you're the first person to cross over this racial barrier, you're scrutinized for all these other things that have nothing to do with race, but they have everything to do with race — it's a very strange thing". Furthermore, the show's use of "butchered Korean language" was also criticized; with the majority of the cast not being Korean American, their ability to speak Korean was limited, and none of All-American Girl's directors, writers, or producers were Korean American. Korean American viewers found the briefly spoken Korean phrases were so flawed they were essentially unintelligible. Before production began, ABC executives began criticizing Cho about her weight, although Cho claims there had been no issue about her weight before filming began. ABC executives and producers encouraged her to go on a crash diet; in two weeks, she lost 30 lbs (14 kg). This resulted in her having to be hospitalized for kidney failure, and leading to major health issues that continued for years after the show. In a later interview, Cho said she believes that because she was not White, executives and the producers felt they had to "make up for it in other ways", which was the reasoning behind this. As a result of the negative reviews and controversy, the series struggled in the ratings from the beginning. ABC and producers constantly tried to change the format in an attempt to gain better viewership ratings. This resulted in the series — in its short run — looking like it lacked direction and grounding. After the thirteenth episode, Ashley Johnson — who was added after the pilot — was written out of the series completely, while Ruthie, Gloria, and the rest of the Kims — besides Margaret and Grandma — seemed to be slowly phased out. Amy Hill was retained through this, because Grandma Kim had become popular with audiences. By the end of the first season, ABC had decided to revamp the series into a new series titled Young Americans. The only ones retained would have been Cho and Hill, with Sam Seder, Diedrich Bader (who would be cast on The Drew Carey Show shortly after the series' cancellation), Andrew Lowery, and Mariska Hargitay all joining the series as new characters. The series was meant to emulate Friends, which had become a hit on rival network NBC that same season. Despite this retooling, ABC decided against ordering the revamped series. Since the series' end, Cho has become outspoken about her time on the series, particularly the difficulties she faced with the network and the effects the series' failure had on her. Another attempt at bringing an Asian American family would not come until 2015, when ABC launched the much more successful Fresh Off The Boat. Footage from All-American Girl made a brief appearance in the ABC comedy series, where the characters poke fun at its faults. Cho later returned to ABC to guest star for another sitcom featuring an Asian American lead, Dr. Ken. Themes Femininity In All-American Girl, Margaret Kim comes across as a typical college-age girl with somewhat of a rebellious streak, much to the chagrin of her very no-nonsense mother. She has an edgy sense of style, wearing short dresses, leather outfits, and following the trends of the average American girl from the 1990s. She wears different clothes, speaks in a higher register, laughs daintily behind her hand, and comes across as very polite—a significant contrast from her typically brash character. She manipulates her femininity to get what she wants, but this inevitably backfires when she is rejected for not maintaining this desired trait. This issue of desirable female traits unfortunately played a part in the production decisions behind the show. Producers told Cho to lose weight, resulting in her drastic weight loss of 30 pounds in two weeks, which had major health implications that still follow her today. Furthermore, because of the environment of the network, Cho states: "I didn't have these attributes that they think of when they think of like a female star of a show. You know, I wasn't thin [and] I wasn't white" (the producers had, however, already likely noticed this). Romantic relationships Throughout All-American Girl, Margaret Kim flutters around multiple male characters and maintains about 7 short-lived relationships, all of which last for only one episode. The first episode "Mom, Dad, This is Kyle", centers on Margaret Kim and her American boyfriend Kyle, whom her mother constantly claims is a "loser" and that he is not right for her. Margaret then counters that her mother only disapproves of Kyle because he's not Korean, and a fight ensues. Margaret does not in fact have strong feelings for Kyle, she simply refuses to back down to her mother, who appears to be equally stubborn. In this sense, Margaret's romantic relationship is downplayed in favor of highlighting the conflicting, but loving, relationship between Margaret and her mother. In the second episode, the opposite situation occurs and Margaret finds herself dating a Korean boy that her mother has set her up with. Margaret's mother is ecstatic, but Margaret finds herself slowly altering her behavior to suit the desires of her Korean suitor—by the end of the episode, she ends the charade by coming clean about her true personality and their relationship ends. Unfortunately, because Margaret was honest and true to herself, she ends up losing a relationship due to the discrepancy between her "American" self and her "Korean" self. In following episodes, Margaret finds herself dating a variety of male characters, including a Professor, a repairman, and a criminal. Margaret's love life through the show appears to be whimsical, inconsistent, and insubstantial. Her suitors come across as short-term vehicles used to push the show along. These romantic encounters do not aid in developing Margaret's character, nor do they serve a larger purpose within the scope and plot of the show. Most notably, famous actor and director Quentin Tarantino guest stars as one of Margaret's love interests in "Pulp Sitcom". Asian American family The Kim family is intended to be portrayed as a typical Asian American family. Some values they exhibit that the show classifies as Asian American include waiting for everyone to be seated at meals before beginning to eat, placing high value on education and success, children being obedient to their parents, and placing the most importance on the eldest son. Home media The complete series was released on DVD in a four-disc set from Shout! Factory/Sony BMG Music Entertainment on January 31, 2006, featuring commentary by Cho, joined twice by Hill, on one episode per disc and a new retrospective featurette featuring new interviews with Cho and Hill. See also Mr. T and Tina Fresh Off the Boat The Family Law Citizen Khan Kim's Convenience References External links Quentin Tarantino on All-American Girl 1994 American television series debuts 1995 American television series endings 1990s American sitcoms American Broadcasting Company original programming Asian-American television English-language television shows Television series about families Television series by ABC Studios Television shows set in San Francisco	[ -0.4905247688293457, -0.6631417870521545, -0.1378694772720337, 0.06369898468255997, -0.15061858296394348, -0.23474833369255066, 0.3804815411567688, 0.3556974530220032, -0.3162452280521393, 0.6176860332489014, -0.19730983674526215, 0.3834446370601654, -0.27667537331581116, -0.12858226895332336, -0.5058891177177429, 0.10012520104646683, 0.6595349311828613, 0.6534140706062317, -0.2703157365322113, -0.692327082157135, -0.24003438651561737, -0.11954814940690994, 0.6648304462432861, -0.16240540146827698, -0.09113683551549911, 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250959	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laramide%20orogeny	Laramide orogeny	The Laramide orogeny was a time period of mountain building in western North America, which started in the Late Cretaceous, 70 to 80 million years ago, and ended 35 to 55 million years ago. The exact duration and ages of beginning and end of the orogeny are in dispute. The Laramide orogeny occurred in a series of pulses, with quiescent phases intervening. The major feature that was created by this orogeny was deep-seated, thick-skinned deformation, with evidence of this orogeny found from Canada to northern Mexico, with the easternmost extent of the mountain-building represented by the Black Hills of South Dakota. The phenomenon is named for the Laramie Mountains of eastern Wyoming. The Laramide orogeny is sometimes confused with the Sevier orogeny, which partially overlapped in time and space. The orogeny is commonly attributed to events off the west coast of North America, where the Kula and Farallon Plates were sliding under the North American plate. Most hypotheses propose that oceanic crust was undergoing flat-slab subduction, i.e., with a shallow subduction angle, and as a consequence, no magmatism occurred in the central west of the continent, and the underlying oceanic lithosphere actually caused drag on the root of the overlying continental lithosphere. One cause for shallow subduction may have been an increased rate of plate convergence. Another proposed cause was subduction of thickened oceanic crust. Magmatism associated with subduction occurred not near the plate edges (as in the volcanic arc of the Andes, for example), but far to the east, called the Coast Range Arc. Geologists call such a lack of volcanic activity near a subduction zone a magmatic gap. This particular gap may have occurred because the subducted slab was in contact with relatively cool continental lithosphere, not hotter asthenosphere. One result of shallow angle of subduction and the drag that it caused was a broad belt of mountains, some of which were the progenitors of the Rocky Mountains. Part of the proto-Rocky Mountains would be later modified by extension to become the Basin and Range Province. Basins and mountains The Laramide orogeny produced intermontane structural basins and adjacent mountain blocks by means of deformation. This style of deformation is typical of continental plates adjacent to convergent margins of long duration that have not sustained continent/continent collisions. This tectonic setting produces a pattern of compressive uplifts and basins, with most of the deformation confined to block edges. Twelve kilometers of structural relief between basins and adjacent uplifts is not uncommon. The basins contain several thousand meters of Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks that predate the Laramide orogeny. As much as of Cretaceous and Cenozoic sediments filled these orogenically-defined basins. Deformed Paleocene and Eocene deposits record continuing orogenic activity. During the Laramide orogeny, basin floors and mountain summits were much closer to sea level than today. After the seas retreated from the Rocky Mountain region, floodplains, swamps, and vast lakes developed in the basins. Drainage systems imposed at that time persist today. Since the Oligocene, episodic epeirogenic uplift gradually raised the entire region, including the Great Plains, to present elevations. Most of the modern topography is the result of Pliocene and Pleistocene events, including additional uplift, glaciation of the high country, and denudation and dissection of older Cenozoic surfaces in the basin by fluvial processes. In the United States, these distinctive intermontane basins occur principally in the central Rocky Mountains from Colorado and Utah (Uinta Basin) to Montana and are best developed in Wyoming, with the Bighorn, Powder River, and Wind River being the largest. Topographically, the basin floors resemble the surface of the western Great Plains, except for vistas of surrounding mountains. At most boundaries, Paleozoic through Paleogene units dip steeply into the basins off uplifted blocks cored by Precambrian rocks. The eroded steeply dipping units form hogbacks and flatirons. Many of the boundaries are thrust or reverse faults. Although other boundaries appear to be monoclinal flexures, faulting is suspected at depth. Most bounding faults show evidence of at least two episodes of Laramide (Late Cretaceous and Eocene) movement, suggesting both thrust and strike-slip types of displacement. Ecological consequences According to paleontologist Thomas M. Lehman, the Laramide orogeny triggered "the most dramatic event that affected Late Cretaceous dinosaur communities in North America prior to their extinction." This turnover event saw the replacement of specialized and highly ornamented centrosaurine and lambeosaurines by more basal upland dinosaurs in the south, while northern biomes became dominated by Triceratops with a greatly reduced hadrosaur community. See also Laramide Belt Sevier orogeny, earlier than the Laramide orogeny, in the Cretaceous era Nevadan orogeny, still earlier, in the late Jurassic—early Cretaceous era Geology of the Rocky Mountains Geology of the Pacific Northwest Footnotes References External links Maps, animation, detailed information (UCLA) U. Wisconsin article Orogenies of North America Cretaceous orogenies Paleogene orogenies Paleocene geology Eocene geology Cretaceous Canada Cretaceous Mexico Cretaceous United States Paleogene Canada Paleogene Mexico Paleogene United States Geology of the Rocky Mountains Black Hills	[ -0.3035967946052551, 0.10437940061092377, -0.19398003816604614, 0.12227141857147217, -0.27611207962036133, -0.15943898260593414, 0.7290120124816895, 0.9617603421211243, 0.08292101323604584, -0.1703820377588272, -0.06745751947164536, 0.4450601041316986, -0.393982470035553, 0.7599487900733948, -0.437819242477417, 0.16481466591358185, -0.14351265132427216, -0.4543423056602478, 0.12443739920854568, 0.04159855842590332, 0.059394728392362595, -0.5309949517250061, 0.5768749117851257, -0.049050308763980865, 0.5291223526000977, -0.37846100330352783, 0.00034092224086634815, 0.06811484694480896, 0.445731520652771, -0.060409847646951675, -0.37743350863456726, 0.8188362717628479, -0.36717915534973145, 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250961	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenny%20Clarke	Lenny Clarke	Lenny Clarke (born September 16, 1953) is an American comedian and actor. He is known for his thick Boston accent and as the role of Uncle Teddy on the series Rescue Me. Early life Clarke was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts in September 16, 1953. In his early life, Lenny Clarke tried to campaign for mayor in Cambridge Career He was the most famous "saloon comic" in Boston during the 1980s, the heyday of the Boston comedy scene. The DVD release When Standup Stood Out (2006) details Clarke's early career and affiliations with other famous Boston comics, such as Steven Wright and Denis Leary, his good friends. In 1980, Clarke wrote and starred in a local television show Lenny Clarke's Late Show featuring Wright and Leary, in collaboration with Boston comedy writer Martin Olson. Clarke and Olson were roommates, and their apartment, known by comedians as "The Barracks", was a notorious "crash pad" for comics visiting Boston, per the film. Clarke starred in his own short-lived network sitcom Lenny (1990), and in such TV shows as Contest Searchlight, The Job, The John Larroquette Show and It's All Relative and movies like Monument Ave., Fever Pitch and Southie. From 2004 to 2011, Clarke appeared in the recurring role of Uncle Teddy on the FX comedy-drama Rescue Me. In 2006, Clarke and Leary appeared on television during a Red Sox telecast and, upon realizing that Red Sox 1st baseman Kevin Youkilis is Jewish, delivered a criticism of Mel Gibson's anti-semitic comments. In 2007, Clarke played the role of Ron Abbot on the short lived Fox comedy series The Winner. On May 16, 2007, the show was cancelled after six episodes due to low ratings. Clarke is also an occasional guest on the WEEI radio shows in Boston. It was on this show that he announced he would be a regular on the 2009 Fox Sitcom Brothers as the racist neighbor who is married to a black woman. He wound up appearing in three episodes before the series was cancelled. In the 2011-12 TV season, he landed a role as the main character's father on the NBC mid-season replacement sitcom Are You There, Chelsea?. On the evening of January 19, 2010, Clarke appeared on stage at the victory speech of Republican Senator elect from Massachusetts, Scott Brown, who was elected to the U.S. Senate seat formerly held by Ted Kennedy. He had appeared on ESPN's 30 for 30 - 4 Days in October alongside ESPN sports and pop culture columnist Bill Simmons as a narrator giving insight on the 2004 ALCS comeback by the Red Sox against the New York Yankees. Filmography Films TV series Producer/executive producer Writer References External links 1953 births American male film actors American stand-up comedians American male television actors Living people Male actors from Cambridge, Massachusetts Comedians from Massachusetts	[ -0.296159029006958, 0.2817021608352661, -0.3960548937320709, -0.39027008414268494, 0.9128432869911194, 0.5935328602790833, 0.491325706243515, 0.6622722744941711, -0.477926105260849, 0.06177688390016556, -0.25804346799850464, 0.9790002703666687, 0.08846374601125717, 0.07563561201095581, -0.2996778190135956, 0.42512232065200806, -0.12969568371772766, 0.23415327072143555, 0.07500685006380081, -0.50826495885849, -0.49029818177223206, 0.09582546353340149, 0.014036072418093681, 0.25296351313591003, -0.8288385272026062, 0.8511993885040283, -0.5069684982299805, 0.037864867597818375, 0.0937567874789238, -0.15655489265918732, 0.013267884030938148, 0.006356668658554554, 0.7330007553100586, -0.5045500993728638, 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250962	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%27s%20All%20Relative	It's All Relative	It's All Relative is an American sitcom that aired on ABC from October 1, 2003, until April 20, 2004. The series is about two families in Boston – one lower-class Irish Catholic and the other an upper-class WASP household headed by a gay couple – who are reluctantly joined together when their kids get engaged. Overview The story revolved around two polar opposite families, who lived in Boston, Massachusetts, that are forced to come together with their kids' engagement. In one corner, there was the working-class O'Neill family, led by Mace (Lenny Clarke), the rather stereotypical Boston Irish bar owner of Paddy's, with his wife, traditional middle-aged housewife Audrey (Harriet Sansom Harris), and two kids, Bobby (Reid Scott) and Maddy (Paige Moss). On the other side, there was the upper-class Stoddard-Banks family, with Simon (Christopher Sieber) and Philip (John Benjamin Hickey), a same-sex couple who takes pride in how well they were able to raise their adoptive daughter, Liz (Maggie Lawson). These two polar opposite families collide when it is revealed Bobby and Liz have been secretly dating each other, and are now engaged. Both sides are against any relationship their child has with the other, let alone a marriage. Homophobic Mace and Stuck-up Philip especially drive the arguments between both of the families, with their very vocal disapproval of not only the engagement, but each other. Bobby and Liz move into Simon and Philip's guest house, and the families are now forced to come together – whether they like it or not. The series follows the relationship between two people from two completely different worlds, and how they make their relationship work. During this process, the two families strove to come to terms with the inevitability of being "joined" by their children's union, which would force both sides to revisit their preconceptions and prejudices. Production The show was created by Chuck Ranberg and Anne Flett-Giordano. In January 2003, the project received a pilot order at ABC, albeit untitled. Reid Scott was the first cast on March 5, 2003. The next day, Maggie Lawson was cast, shortly following her leading role on the ABC pilot Nancy Drew. John Benjamin Hickey was cast on March 21, 2003. On March 31, 2003, Christopher Sieber was cast; Sieber had previously starred in another ABC sitcom Two of a Kind. Lenny Clarke was cast on April 9, 2003. The pilot was picked up by ABC on May 12, 2003, now with the title It's All Relative. The series premiered on ABC on October 1, 2003. The pilot earned a total of 10.2 million viewers. The series was picked up for a full 22-episode season on October 31, 2003. Despite initial high ratings, and airing between My Wife and Kids and The Bachelor, the series' ratings soon slid, especially as it had to compete against 60 Minutes Wednesday and American Idol on Wednesdays. In February 2004, ABC put the series on hiatus, before a move to Tuesdays in March 2004. The rescheduling worsened ratings, now competing against more established and popular series: established Top 50 series 24, The Guardian and Scrubs, and critical favorites America's Next Top Model and One Tree Hill. After two episodes in the new timeslot, the series was abruptly pulled from ABC's schedule on April 8, 2004, with the final two scheduled episodes left unaired. On May 17, 2004, ABC announced at their annual upfronts that it had cancelled It's All Relative. For the 2003–04 television season, the series placed #57 overall, with an average of 8.6 million viewers. Cast and characters Main Reid Scott as Bobby O'Neill: The son of Mace and Audrey, and Liz's fiancée. Bobby may not be the brightest or the most hard-working, but he still loves Liz, and is willing to overlook their vast differences to be with her. Bobby works at his family's bar. He and Liz met at a Vermont ski resort, after she sprained her ankle on a "bunny slope", and he took her back to the lodge. When he and Liz announce their engagement, they move into Philip and Simon's guest house. Maggie Lawson as Liz Stoddard-Banks: The adoptive daughter of Philip and Simon, and Bobby's fiancée. Liz is a smart, outgoing, somewhat-spoiled but well-meaning, Harvard student. Her mother died when Liz was still a baby, and Philip and Simon – her best friends – adopted and raised Liz. Despite being adopted, Liz has much in common with both her dads- she has Philip's need for organization and order, but Simon's need to relax and have fun (although it usually involves things most would not find fun). Liz met Bobby when she sprained her ankle on a bunny slope at a Vermont skiing lodge. She was raised Episcopalian. Lenny Clarke as Mason "Mace" O'Neill: Bobby's Irish Catholic father and Audrey's husband, as well as the owner of the family bar. Mace is a typical Irish Catholic patriarch: he frequently drinks beer, won't change his viewpoint or choices for others, and wants his son to marry a Catholic girl. Mace and Philip both disapprove of Bobby and Liz's relationship, and hate each other as well. Mace will frequently call Philip and Simon various demeaning names, such as "Pixie Sticks" or "The Notorious G.A.Y.". In the first part of the series, Mace is extremely homophobic; however, these tendencies were suppressed as the show went on (although he does still continue to call them names). When Mace does not get his way, he usually yells "Fine!" and walks away. Harriet Sansom Harris as Audrey O'Neill (née Corrigan): Bobby's mother and Mace's wife, who helps him run the bar. Audrey only wants the best for Bobby and Maddy, and her desires and decisions usually conflict with Mace's. Although Audrey is at first on the same page with Mace regarding the Stoddard-Banks family, she eventually warms up to Simon. Later episodes also show Audrey gaining more confidence in herself and her beliefs and desires. John Benjamin Hickey as Philip Stoddard: Liz's adoptive father, who serves as the patriarch of the Stoddard-Banks family. Philip is portrayed as an effeminate, OCD-ridden art gallery owner. Philip has several phobias and ticks that usually annoy the others (especially Mace and Simon), such as: having different napkins for spills and eating, not allowing Liz and Simon to get dogs due to their "filthiness" (even going as far as lying to both of them for many years about having a terrible allergy), etc. Like Mace disapproves of the relationship between Bobby and Liz, Philip is also the more vocal one of the couple of his disapproval; he is usually saying insults (and sometimes trying) to get Bobby and Liz broken-up. A running gag on the series is Philip's three-times divorced mother, Lillian, an overbearing woman who causes both Philip and Simon grief, and is on her fourth marriage to a millionaire in Florida. Christopher Sieber as Simon Banks: Liz's adoptive father, who serves as the matriarch of the Stoddard-Banks family. Simon is a third-grade teacher, who is portrayed as more masculine than Philip, although he usually takes care of more of the household chores, such as cooking. However, Philip is also very much more laid-back than Philip. Like Audrey, Simon is also on the same page as Philip when Bobby and Liz reveal their engagement; however, he eventually warms up to Audrey. Simon was born and raised in Minnesota, and was in a one-hit 1980's boy band called "Cross My Heart" (as "Simon Sez"). A running gag in the series are mentions to Simon's "wild" past and string of exes. Paige Moss as Maddy O'Neill: Bobby's younger sister, who is a waitress at the bar. Maddy is a sassy, ditsy, promiscuous gold-digger, who is the most open-minded about Liz and her family (although she does find Liz too boring). Maddy frequently says ignorant comments, such as "Man, daddy, if you would've been gay, my life would have been so much better." Her dimness is usually made fun of by the other characters, especially Bobby and Mace. Maddy has hooked up with many guys, but is usually only interested in pursuing a relationship with rich men (but only for their money). She was held back in the third grade. Notable guest stars Victor Garber as Joffrey (episode: "The Doctor Is Out") James Patrick Stuart as Charlie Carson (episode: "Swangate") Olympia Dukakis as Colleen O'Neill, Mace's mother (episode: "Thanks, But No Thanks") Ed McMahon as himself (episode: "And Our Sauce, It Is a Beauty") Ed Quinn as Brad, Simon's bandmate and ex-boyfriend (episode: "Cross My Heart") Kevin Chamberlin as Wayne, Simon's bandmate (episode: "Cross My Heart") Brooke Burke-Charvet as Park Ranger (episode: "Who's Camping Now") Darby Stanchfield as Jordan F., one of Liz's friends who Maddy fights with (episode: "Who's Camping Now") Andy Richter as Dr. Bob, a TV psychologist who Audrey likes (episode: "Philip in a China Shop") Stephen Tobolowsky as Roy, a fellow fan of Dr. Bob (episode: "Philip in a China Shop") Marisa Miller as herself (episode: "Philip in a China Shop") Tom Bosley as Father Joseph, the priest at the O'Neill's parish (episode: "Fight for Your Invite to Party") Episodes Reception Critical The series received negative reviews from critics. Ratings References External links 2000s American sitcoms 2003 American television series debuts 2004 American television series endings 2000s American LGBT-related comedy television series American Broadcasting Company original programming American LGBT-related sitcoms English-language television shows Gay-related television shows Television series about families Television series about marriage Television series by CBS Studios Television series by ABC Studios Television shows set in Boston	[ -0.626896321773529, -0.46258923411369324, 1.0566452741622925, 0.09217842668294907, -0.3044566214084625, -0.005446308758109808, 0.36396971344947815, 0.2885228395462036, -0.027616864070296288, -0.14591051638126373, 0.15655288100242615, 0.7397253513336182, -0.22537729144096375, 0.40700623393058777, -0.33237797021865845, 0.08882255107164383, 0.0950167253613472, 0.43294665217399597, -0.24332472681999207, -0.059137675911188126, -0.3800369203090668, -0.26966309547424316, 0.334638386964798, 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250963	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slab%20gap%20hypothesis	Slab gap hypothesis	In geology, the slab gap hypothesis is one of the explanations put forward to explain several instances of crustal extension that occur inland near former subduction zones. Standard plate tectonic theory holds that once a trench is closed by an overriding plate reaching a rift/spreading center, the plate that has just been fully consumed continues to descend beneath the overriding plate for some time, transmitting compressive pressures to the overriding plate above as well as occasional volcanism. Meanwhile, the descending plate leaves behind it a "window" of inactivity. In this view, there is no mantle upwelling, so once the crustal rift is overridden, the only residual effects are from the remnant descending plate slab. However, actual observations of the crust in western North America where the Farallon Plate's trench and rift was snuffed out millions of years ago by the westward movement of the North American Plate, and replaced by the San Andreas Fault, show not compression inland, but extension. This is most evident in the Great Basin where the continental crust and lithosphere as a whole is becoming increasingly thin. The crust here is also warming from below. The slab gap hypothesis proposes that instead of a "window", the descending slab leaves behind a "gap" through which the asthenospheric mantle of the former spreading zone continues to act beneath the overriding plate. This hypothesis then assumes that a crustal spreading zone is also underpinned by a corresponding asthenospheric mantle spreading zone or upwelling of warmer material. The gap is created because instead of the old subducted plate continuing to sink, it quickly melts, allowing the asthenospheric upwelling zone to act directly on the underside of the overriding plate, heating it and causing it to spread apart. The fast melt is because the portion of the subducted plate nearest the spreading zone is thin and still warm from its recent creation. The slab gap hypothesis goes on to state that the upwelling can form very deep cracks, which in turn lets very fluid basalt lava quickly spread over the land surface forming shield volcanoes and vast volcanic plains called "flood basalts". If, however, the extension is spread over a very large area then these flood basalt events may not occur. This idea has been used to explain the extension and very large flood basalts that occurred in what is now southern Washington, Oregon and northern California about 17 million years ago (see Columbia River Plateau). Slab gap has also been used to help explain the earlier creation of the Basin and Range Province. See also External links Slab Gap web page at University of Colorado Plate tectonics Subduction	[ 0.2793385684490204, 0.37326568365097046, -0.25122103095054626, -0.25216391682624817, 0.24685904383659363, 0.648653507232666, 0.2452385574579239, 0.6244056224822998, -0.315642386674881, -0.48885491490364075, -0.41587284207344055, 0.28468674421310425, 0.0023096895311027765, 0.6456905603408813, -0.23337844014167786, 0.5174030661582947, 0.022310122847557068, 0.14206308126449585, -0.05126681551337242, -0.18269124627113342, 0.2464645802974701, 0.08419552445411682, 0.26647984981536865, -0.2649620771408081, -0.3521482050418854, -0.523400068283081, 0.07604963332414627, -0.16710366308689117, 0.18250559270381927, 0.10216870903968811, -0.2153424620628357, 0.9882359504699707, -0.4260558784008026, -0.37025684118270874, -0.056084729731082916, -0.045213837176561356, 0.07200845330953598, -0.4221682548522949, -0.1399824172258377, 0.09866794943809509, 0.5865895748138428, 0.15218178927898407, 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250966	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maggie%20Lawson	Maggie Lawson	Margaret Cassidy Lawson (born August 12, 1980) is an American actress who is best known for her role as Detective Juliet "Jules" O'Hara in the TV show Psych. From 2018 to 2019, she held the recurring role of Nathalie Flynn on Fox's Lethal Weapons third and final season. Career Lawson started her career at the age of 8 in local community and dinner theater productions. She later became a youth TV host on WDRB Fox 41 Kid's Club in Louisville, and moved to Los Angeles for her first pilot at 15. In 2011, Lawson briefly returned to her roots in theater to star in the play Greedy, directed by James Roday, which played for a few weekends in Los Angeles. Lawson starred in various sitcoms like Cybill, Boy Meets World and Home Improvement throughout her early career in both guest starring and supporting roles. She also made guest appearances on television series such as Smallville and Fear Itself, and co-starred in It's All Relative and Crumbs. For Disney Channel, Lawson starred in a double role in Model Behavior featuring Justin Timberlake, and in the 2002 installment of Nancy Drew in the title role. Other film credits include Pleasantville, Nice Guys Sleep Alone and Cleaner. From 2006 to 2014, Lawson co-starred in the USA Network original series, Psych, as Detective Juliet O'Hara. She reprised her role in 2017 in Psych: The Movie, in Psych 2: Lassie Come Home in 2020 and Psych 3: This is Gus, in 2021. Following Psych, she scored leading roles in ABC's 2013 sitcom Back in the Game, CBS's 2014 sitcom pilot Save the Date and CBS's 2016 fantasy sitcom Angel from Hell. She also had short arcs on Two and a Half Men, The Great Indoors, and Netflix's The Ranch. Also for Netflix, Lawson starred in the recurring role of Christa on the second and third seasons of horror-comedy series Santa Clarita Diet as well as the movie Spivak in 2018. For Hallmark Channel, Lawson has starred in My Favorite Wedding and Christmas Encore in 2017, The Story of Us and Christmas in Evergreen: Tidings of Joy in 2019. Most recently, Lawson starred in a recurring role as Dr. Natalie Flynn on the 3rd season of Lethal Weapon and was featured in Treehouse, the 6th episode of Hulu's monthly horror movie anthology Into The Dark. In 2020 she played Kay, the female lead opposite Jason Biggs, in the FOX comedy series Outmatched, "about a blue-collar couple [...] in South Jersey trying to get by and raise four kids, three of whom just happen to be certified geniuses." Personal life Throughout the series run of Psych (2006–2014), Lawson was in a relationship with series lead James Roday Rodriguez. On November 14, 2014, Lawson became engaged to Back in the Game co-star Ben Koldyke and married him on August 8, 2015, on his family's ranch in New Mexico. In early 2017, Lawson filed for divorce from Koldyke. Filmography References External links USA Network's web site about Maggie Lawson 1980 births 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses Actresses from Louisville, Kentucky American child actresses American film actresses American television actresses Living people	[ 0.39918017387390137, -0.03839501738548279, -0.36268502473831177, -0.18979419767856598, 0.3092244863510132, 0.306382954120636, 0.7467645406723022, -0.046405524015426636, -0.15214793384075165, -0.08576751500368118, -0.024142306298017502, 0.589434027671814, -0.22766396403312683, -0.039929602295160294, 0.2488783448934555, 0.6310409307479858, 0.7263447642326355, -0.0812632292509079, -0.2723701596260071, -0.7124685049057007, 0.005556989926844835, -0.617845892906189, 0.4499552249908447, -0.1731504648923874, -0.6188402771949768, 0.9019713401794434, 0.21205197274684906, 0.1201254278421402, -0.01218100544065237, -0.09822095185518265, 0.26667872071266174, -0.4748758375644684, 0.47733721137046814, 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250970	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardena%20%28company%29	Gardena (company)	Gardena GmbH, based in Ulm, Germany, is a manufacturer of gardening tools and has been a subsidiary of the Swedish Husqvarna Group since 2007. With an annual sales of 8,343 million Swedish krona (approximately 790 million euros) in 2019, Gardena is the European market leader. Company history In 1961 the company Kress + Kastner GmbH was founded by the merchants Werner Kress and Eberhard Kastner (1928-2004). Five years later the brand name Gardena was created; the company was renamed Gardena Kress + Kastner GmbH. In 1968 the water hose plug-in system (Original GARDENA System) was introduced. The new, patented plug-in coupling became the basis of a whole system of gardening tools. The advantage of the system is that only the rubber O-rings have to be replaced in the event of leaks. The interchangeable handle connection (GARDENA combisystem) followed eight years later. Both were designed by Dieter Raffler, today Professor Emeritus of Industrial Design. Raffler was responsible for the design of Gardena products for 20 years[4]. The IPO as Gardena Holding AG took place in 1996, and Wolfgang Jahrreiss was the chairman of the board from 1999 to 2004. Three years later, Gardena was sold by the founding families to the Swedish private equity company Industri Kapital. In 2003, the Gardena shares were delisted and the company was renamed Gardena AG. One year later, the US subsidiary "Melnor Inc." was sold and a new chairman of the board, Martin Bertinchamp, was appointed. In 2007 Industri Kapital sold Gardena to Husqvarna for 730 million euros. The AG was converted back into a GmbH. As part of a restructuring of the group, the various functional areas were further integrated into the global organization of the Husqvarna Group. Since 2015, the Gardena Division has been managed as a largely independent division of the Group. Subsidiaries worldwide Subsidiaries include Gardena Manufacturing GmbH in Ulm (with three manufacturing sites in Germany), Advanced Plastics s.r.o., Vrbno pod Pradědem (with plants in the Czech Republic), Husqvarna Logistics GmbH (formerly hortus GmbH) and Gardena Deutschland GmbH in Ulm (responsible for sales in Germany). In many other countries Gardena is represented by the respective sales companies of the Husqvarna Group. See also Hozelock References External links Gardena company website Companies based in Ulm Manufacturing companies established in 1961 German brands Tool manufacturing companies of Germany 1961 establishments in West Germany Irrigation	[ 0.5302995443344116, 0.14897562563419342, 0.2809918224811554, -0.3956119418144226, 0.22264081239700317, 0.5641413927078247, 0.1956750601530075, -0.1702846884727478, -0.28874409198760986, 0.13280686736106873, -0.40917888283729553, 0.0014202675083652139, 0.06957300007343292, 0.5274220108985901, -0.26236918568611145, 0.32230016589164734, 0.060903336852788925, 0.5118362903594971, -0.13057467341423035, -0.1393391638994217, -0.16067101061344147, -0.4574210047721863, 1.2042654752731323, -0.08680933713912964, 0.20122583210468292, -0.6073097586631775, 0.3730325400829315, 0.5958378314971924, -0.13387241959571838, 0.10677027702331543, 0.31652408838272095, 0.382565438747406, 0.18637095391750336, -0.7410598993301392, 0.2055913358926773, -0.2701926827430725, 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250972	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy%20Olsen	Jimmy Olsen	James Bartholomew Olsen is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Olsen is most often portrayed as a young photojournalist working for the Daily Planet. He is close friends with Lois Lane and Superman, and has a good working relationship with his boss Perry White. Olsen looks up to his coworkers as role models and parent figures. From 1954-1982, Olsen appeared in 222 issues of the comic series Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen and Superman Family, in addition to the main Superman titles. The character has appeared in most other media adaptations of Superman. He was portrayed by Tommy Bond in the two Superman film serials, Superman (1948) and Atom Man vs. Superman (1950). Jack Larson played the character on the Adventures of Superman television show; Marc McClure in the Superman films of the 1970s and 1980s, as well as the 1984 film Supergirl; Michael Landes in the first season of Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman and Justin Whalin in the subsequent three seasons; Sam Huntington in the 2006 film Superman Returns; Aaron Ashmore in The CW's Smallville; and Michael Cassidy in the 2016 DC Extended Universe film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. In the Arrowverse series Supergirl, he was portrayed by Mehcad Brooks. Publication history Creation An unnamed "office boy" with a bow tie appeared in the story "Superman's Phony Manager," published in Action Comics No. 6 (November 1938); it was retroactively considered to be Jimmy Olsen's first appearance. The character was first introduced as Jimmy Olsen by producer Bob Maxwell on The Adventures of Superman radio show on April 15, 1940. After eight early unnamed appearances in comics, Olsen first appeared as a named character in a story by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster titled "Superman versus The Archer" in Superman No. 13 (November–December 1941). He occasionally appeared as an office boy in Action Comics, Superman, and World's Finest Comics throughout the next decade, and he made a notable appearance as the manager of a community baseball team in the 1946 radio serial Clan of the Fiery Cross. Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen (1954-74) Following Jack Larson's portrayal on The Adventures of Superman TV series, Olsen was promoted from office boy to "cub reporter" beginning in Superman #86. Later in 1954, Olsen received his own series, Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen. The first issue introduced the Signal Watch, a high-frequency supersonic device that allowed Jimmy to contact Superman in case of emergency. Lucy Lane debuted as Jimmy's off-again, on-again love interest in issue #36. Jimmy and Lucy were occasionally married in "imaginary stories" such as "The Wedding of Jimmy Olsen" (issue #38) and The Amazing Story of Superman Red and Superman Blue! The Weisinger Era Early adventures saw Olsen in a variety of slapstick adventures and strange transformations, such as Jimmy transforming into the giant "Turtle Boy" in issue #53. The stories in the title often featured particularly outlandish situations, ranging from Jimmy being hurled back in time to Krypton before its destruction in issue No. 36 to dealing frequently with gorillas of all sorts. During this period, Jimmy Olsen lived a glamorous life as "Superman's Pal" and even had his own (in-story) fan club. Beginning in 1958, Olsen gained the ability to temporarily transform into the superhero Elastic Lad by drinking a serum. As Elastic Lad, he was an honorary member of the Legion of Super-Heroes. When traveling to the Bottle City of Kandor, Superman and Jimmy donned the secret identities of Nightwing and Flamebird, respectively. He was promoted by editor Perry White to the status of "full-fledged reporter" in issue #124 (October 1969.) Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen was a best-seller throughout the 1960s; at its peak it was the #4 best-selling comic book with an estimated 520,000 copies sold each month. Reprints from the magazine were also featured in 80-Page Giant #2 and #13 (1964–65). Jack Kirby's Fourth World Jack Kirby's Fourth World storyline began in Jimmy Olsen comics in 1970, with issue No. 134. Kirby began by introducing a secret "D.N.A. Project" to create Mutated Humans for Good, adding "the Hairies" (a group of technology-equipped hippies), superbeings from other planets (proto-New Gods), Intergang, Darkseid, and the WGBS media executive Morgan Edge. Kirby also used the series as a vehicle to reintroduce Golden Age characters that he previously created at DC Comics, such as Guardian and the Newsboy Legion. Before the end of his run, Kirby wrote stories involving vampires, the Loch Ness Monster, and Victor Volcanum, a fire-eating archcriminal. A two-part story featured the comedian Don Rickles. Kirby left the series following issue #148. Superman Family (1974-1982) With issue No. 164 (April–May 1974) the series was renamed The Superman Family. An anthology title that incorporated the recently cancelled series Supergirl (Volume 1) and Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane, Superman Family initially featured one new story about Jimmy Olsen, Lois Lane, or Supergirl, with the featured character in each issue narrating reprints of the other characters' stories. By the second series, Jimmy Olsen became an investigative reporter for WGBS-TV nicknamed "Mr. Action," featuring in urban crime stories that less frequently involved Superman. Olsen appeared in new stories in The Superman Family No. 164, 167, 170, 173, 176, 179, and 182–222. A number of Superman writers including Leo Dorfman and Cary Bates contributed scripts for the stories, and they were most often pencilled by Kurt Schaffenberger. The series ended with issue #222 (September 1982). Afterwards, Jimmy Olsen continued to appear in issues of Superman, Action Comics, World's Finest Comics, and DC Comics Presents, where a 29th-century descendant of Olsen became Superwoman. Post-Crisis on Infinite Earths (1987-) Following Crisis on Infinite Earths, Jimmy's prior history as a character was erased. Despite recent modernization efforts on Superman and his supporting characters, Jimmy Olsen has not been significantly changed in the Modern Age. He is still a cub reporter working for The Daily Planet, and is still friends with Superman. His look was made over as he stopped wearing bowties, and started wearing casual clothing (though this trend started in 1970s comics). An interesting alteration to the relationship was that Jimmy designed the signal watch himself, leading to his first meeting with Superman. Superman briefly considered confiscating the watch, but decided to trust Jimmy to use it responsibly. While Jimmy's transformations no longer occur as regularly as they did in the Silver Age, Jimmy once became a type of "Elastic Lad" on contact with the Eradicator; this transformation, however, was extremely painful for Jimmy and has not appeared since. He also took the identity of "Turtle Boy" in a series of pizza commercials, made when he was temporarily laid off from the Planet. In the 1990s, Jimmy quit the Planet in a dispute over a story and went to Metropolis broadcaster Galaxy Broadcasting, where he worked as an on-air investigative reporter. This change matured Jimmy somewhat, but he became more ambitious, as well as more brash and arrogant. He still stayed on good terms with both Clark and Lois, to the point where Jimmy was best man at their wedding. This period ended when he believed (wrongly) that he had discovered Superman's secret identity and said he would announce it live on air. He reconsidered his actions, but lost his job for wasting the timeslot. He was again rehired by the Planet. Jimmy later came under the angry hand of the Alpha Centurion, an alternate universe dictator with a deep-seated hatred for Superman and eyes for Lois Lane. It was Jimmy who first uncovered his secret plot to control the world's finances through his company Aelius Industries, Inc. Superman: Metropolis Olsen is a central character in the twelve-part miniseries Superman: Metropolis (beginning June 2003). Written by Chuck Austen and illustrated by Danijel Zezelj, the series focuses on the futuristic technology unleashed in Metropolis by Brainiac in a previous storyline and how it affects the everyday lives of Metropolis citizens. Jimmy takes a position as a regular star reporter for The Daily Planet, replacing the recently demoted Clark Kent. This caused a strain at the Planet. Countdown Jimmy's story in the 2007–08 weekly series Countdown to Final Crisis begins with an investigation into the death of Duela Dent. Tying into the Death of the New Gods storyline, Jimmy starts to develop many superpowers, which he first discovers when he is attacked by Killer Croc while gathering information on Duela's death. As the story progresses he tries to uncover the origin of these powers and starts to discover their potential limitlessness in stories which mimic the Silver Age Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen adventures. Briefly operating as the superhero Mr. Action, Jimmy is unable to command the respect of established superheroes in the Justice League and Teen Titans. He gives up on this particular avenue. One of these powers allows Jimmy to realize the identities of some superheroes, such as Robin and Superman, who requests that he take care of Krypto. Jimmy is eventually tracked down by the New God Forager, with whom he begins a romantic relationship. Forager informs him that Jimmy has become a soulcatcher for the spirits of dying New Gods. The Monitor known as Solomon later tells him that his new powers are the consequence of Darkseid using Jimmy as a host for powers he wishes to use to recreate the universe in his image, knowing that "Superman's pal" is one of the world's most well-protected citizens. Later, as the events of Countdown begin to come to their close, Jimmy becomes a more confidently powerful character and is reunited with the series' other cast members on a mission to stop Karate Kid's disease from becoming a pandemic of apocalyptic proportions. Unfortunately, they fail, and the Morticoccus virus devastates an alternate Earth. Upon return to their Earth, Jimmy is captured by Mary Marvel, who had been manipulated towards evil by Darkseid. When Superman comes to save Jimmy, Darkseid takes control of the powers within him, causing Jimmy to radiate Kryptonite radiation, until Ray Palmer manages to rewire Darkseid's control from inside of Jimmy. Jimmy then transforms into a giant turtle-like creature, and prepares to take on Darkseid himself. Darkseid overcomes Jimmy, and prepares to kill him. Ray Palmer then comes out of Jimmy with the New God soul battery, and destroys it, returning Jimmy to normal. Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen Special During Superman's fight with Atlas, Jimmy witnesses a mysterious figure hovering over the fight. After some encouraging words from Clark Kent, he decides to take two weeks off to investigate. He tracks down a figure connected with the past of Jonathan Drew and is told the story of how Jonathan became Codename: Assassin. His informant is quickly executed by Codename: Assassin who then tries to kill Jimmy. Jimmy is able to avoid being killed and is apparently shielded from Codename: Assassin's telepathy due to his own many physical transformations over the years. Jimmy goes to Project Cadmus and speaks to Dubbilex, who tells him the story about the death of the original Guardian at the hands of Codename: Assassin and how cloning is such an imperfect science that the only viable clone alive went into hiding in the desert. Dubbilex then dies from injuries sustained in an earlier conflict with Codename: Assassin. Jimmy heads south to the town of Warpath, AZ, managing to avoid conflict with Codename: Assassin on the way. Upon arriving in Warpath, Jimmy interviews the sheriff, Greg Saunders, who evades his questions. Jimmy follows him after dark and sees Saunders working with the last Guardian clone. He then confronts the clone at his home and the two speak. With his two weeks up, Jimmy returns to Metropolis horrified from learning that a faction within the U.S. military is actively plotting to kill Superman. Willing to do anything to uncover the conspiracy behind Project 7734, Jimmy uses an anonymous chat server and gets in contact with Erik/Amazing Woman from Infinity Inc., who claims to have informations useful to help Jimmy. Despite being actively pursued by Codename: Assassin, who goes so far to place bugs in his house, Jimmy goes to the appointment, only to find Erik's house burned to the ground. Jimmy pulls Erik out, who with his dying breath, shifts to his more reliable and powerful Erika form. Erik gives him Natasha Irons' number. Natasha contacts then Jimmy, telling him about the plans of General Sam Lane, his outworldly fortress and his capture, and use of a Planet Breaker weapon of Captain Atom, now codenamed Project Breach (due to his similarity to Tim Zanetti's fate). Finally ready to uncover the truth, Jimmy is openly confronted by Codename: Assassin, who until that point had merely followed him closely. Jimmy uses his signal watch to call Mon-El. Jimmy is shot twice in the chest by Codename: Assassin, and sinks into the ocean. Despite surviving his assassination attempt, Jimmy decides to fake his death, having his documents planted on a heavily disfigured corpse. With no one knowing about his survival, Jimmy moves into the old Pemberton Camera Factory, sharing the results of his now-unhindered investigations with Perry and Mon-El. Action Comics backup and Jimmy Olsen DC Comics has reported in solicits that Nick Spencer and R.B. Silva will be producing a monthly 10-page backup feature in Action Comics chronicling the adventures of Jimmy Olsen in Metropolis. Reported story topics include an alien civilization choosing Metropolis as the base of a major cultural celebration, and the introduction of Chloe Sullivan (from the Smallville television series) to the DCU proper. In the latest arc, he goes on a charity date with a girl named Maggie, only to discover that she somehow has ties to Mr. Mxyzptlk, and that she wants to marry him. The last three chapters of the story are told in the self-titled one-shot, Jimmy Olsen. Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen, Vol. 2 (2019-2020) Beginning with a cover date of September 2019, DC Comics published a 12-part comedic miniseries that restored some elements of the 1954 series to the main DC Comics timeline. Jimmy was once again shown as Turtle Boy and Elastic Lad, and his antics, glamorous lifestyle as Superman's pal, and strange transformations were depicted as a source of streaming-media ad revenue that was keeping the Daily Planet afloat. The series explored Jimmy's siblings Janie and Julian, his family's historic relations with the Luthor family, a plot involving the attempted murder and faked death of Olsen, and a marriage in Gorilla City that Jimmy subsequently forgot to annul. The series poked fun at DC Comics' own history, including a sequence in which Jimmy angered Batman by suggesting a phone-in campaign to decide whether Robin lived or died. By the end of the series, Jimmy received a new Signal Watch and became the publisher of the Daily Planet. The series was written by Matt Fraction, drawn by Steve Lieber, colored by Nathan Fairbairn, and lettered by Clayton Cowles. A collected edition titled Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen: Who Killed Jimmy Olsen? was published in September 2020, and it received an "honorable mention" in Publishers Weekly's year-end critics poll. Powers, abilities, and equipment Jimmy possesses a watch which emits a high-pitched signal only Superman can hear. In a 2010 story, he claimed it stopped working some time in the past, never worked particularly well in the first place, and contacted Superman through Morse code now, anyway, but still wore it for show. Mostly during the Silver Age of Comic Books, Jimmy would find himself temporarily transformed, for better or worse, or undergo a disguise for various purposes. The variety of transformations Jimmy received during the Silver Age is often homaged or parodied in later comics and adaptations featuring the character – for instance, in JLA: The Nail, Jimmy cites three of these transformations as his motivations behind backing Luthor's bill to outlaw metahumans and in Countdown, Jimmy is used as a spirit container for the deceased New Gods, causing him to exhibit strange powers, albeit uncontrollably, with other stories simply making passing references. Speed Demon – In 1956, a month before the debut of Barry Allen as the new Flash, Jimmy drank a potion produced by a Professor Claude and briefly gained super-speed. Radioactive – After being exposed to a radioactive substance, Jimmy began to irradiate everything in his presence. Super-Brain – Jimmy briefly evolved into a "man of the future" with superhuman mental powers. Monstrous beard growth — The machinations of the sinister Beard Band cause Jimmy to grow an immense beard. Gorilla – When Jimmy switched minds with a gorilla, he went about his reporting duties as a gorilla in Jimmy's clothes. Elastic Lad – As Elastic Lad, Jimmy by serum or by alien virus could sometimes stretch himself, akin to the Elongated Man or Plastic Man. As Elastic Lad, Jimmy was inducted as an Honorary Member of the Legion of Super-Heroes. In the Post-Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity, Jimmy was afflicted with uncontrollable and painful elasticity by the Eradicator. It had to be genetically edited out. Alien-form – Aliens transformed Jimmy into a telepathic Jovian for a week. Fortunately, this turned out to be a Jovian week, which is much shorter than an Earth week, about 70 hours. Fire-Breather – An accident involving an experiment gives Jimmy fire-breath. Human Octopus – After eating an extraterrestrial fruit, Jimmy grew four extra arms. According to Superman, this was actually a hallucination, but Jimmy suspected that Superman said this to teach him a lesson since Jimmy had foolishly ignored advice from the Man of Steel that would have saved him a lot of trouble. Genie – Jimmy found a genie's lamp and was tricked into replacing its villainous occupant. Wolf-Man – In the vein of the 1957 Michael Landon film I Was a Teenage Werewolf, Jimmy found himself transformed into a werewolf. Woman – Jimmy would occasionally go undercover dressed as a woman in No. 44, No. 67, No. 84, and No. 159. Grant Morrison paid a brief homage to this in the JLA: Earth 2 graphic novel and in All-Star Superman. Morbidly Obese – Jimmy tried to get fat in an attempt to stop a jewel smuggling and to impress a circus fat lady. Giant Turtle Man – One of Jimmy's most frequently cited transformations was that of his turning into a giant turtle man. Human Porcupine – After rejecting the romantic advances of an imp from the Fifth Dimension. Flamebird – This is the name he took as a costumed superhero, with Superman disguised as Nightwing, in the shrunken Kryptonian city of Kandor. These names were inspired by two native Kryptonian birds, the nightwing and the flamebird, but the relationship between Nightwing and Flamebird intentionally paralleled the crime-fighting team Batman (a night-winged creature) and Robin (a flame-colored bird). Bizarro Jimmy – Although Jimmy has a counterpart on Bizarro World, he was briefly turned into a Bizarro himself. Hippie – Investigating a colony of hippies at "Guru Kama's Dream Pad", Jimmy grew a beard and participated in a mock "hate-in". On the cover of this story's issue, Jimmy is wielding a sign that says "Superman is a freak-out!" Viking – Jimmy put on Viking armor and mistakenly thought he had been transported 1,000 years backward in time. Steelman – after a volcanic eruption hurls Jimmy and an experimental inter-dimensional travel device into an alternate universe, Jimmy develops his own superpowers as a result of the transit to the (unnamed) "Earth-X" but is vulnerable to fragments of Mount Tipton from his own universe ("Tiptonite"). He adopts a fusion Superman/Batman outfit and launches his own superhero career as Steelman, facing a Joker-masked Clark Kent, secretly the leader of the LUTHAR League before his return to his own universe of origin. Ultra Olsen – Jimmy gained from Professor Lang and his father 2 halves of to the Magic Medallion of the Mayans that, when fused back together, granted him "the Powers of the Mayan Gods". While he wore it, he possessed super strength, invulnerability, anti-gravity power, and lightning vision. It was revealed the amulet had a limited charge and required recharge from absorbed kinetic energy. Jimmy destroyed the amulet with his lightning vision after the second time he used it. Super Jimmy - A Superman version of Jimmy . Colossal Olsen - is a version of Colossal Boy. Red Headed Beatle - is a old version of Jimmy from 1,000BC. Taxi Jimmy - is a taxi driver. Astro Jimmy - An astronaut version of Jimmy Olsen. Old Olsen - is a old gramps vision of Jimmy. Mummy Jimmy - Jimmy Olsen was turned into a mummy. Jock Olsen - is a high school Jimmy Olsen. Double Olsen is a captive double of Jimmy but Jimmy wanted to kill him with the doubles weakness kriptonite . Detective Olsen - is a detective Jimmy wanted to solve a case. Batman Olsen - is Jimmy wearing Batman's suit. Imp Jimmy - Jimmy finally found a way to take Mr. Mxyzptlk's powers. Even if he said his name backwards he still had his powers; he turned Mr. Mxyzptlk into a tiger. Other versions JLA: The Nail JLA: The Nail is set in an alternate reality in which a nail punctures a tire on the Kents' car, preventing them from finding the spaceship containing a baby Kal-El; subsequently, Kal-El never becomes Superman. Jimmy Olsen, an aide to Metropolis Mayor Lex Luthor, is revealed to be the primary villain. Having discovered Superman's spaceship and using DNA samples to create numerous Bizarro clones, Luthor grafts Kryptonian DNA onto subjects who either die instantly or mutate before death, except Olsen. The graft gives Olsen superpowers, but also drives him insane, mentally transforming him into a Kryptonian determined to replace human life with Kryptonian life. Olsen plays up the public's fear of superheroes via propaganda, encouraging the popular view of them as alien invaders rather than the enhanced humans of the Justice Society, hoping to have them imprisoned so he can use their DNA as well in an attempt to create a stable template to create other new Kryptonians. When his secret identity is revealed, he engages in a fight with the Justice League that spills into the local countryside. An Amish farmer attempts to stop Olsen but is blasted by his heat vision—which reveals that the farmer is the (now adult) Kal-El. In this reality, an Amish couple had raised Kal-El as a pacifist encouraged to ignore worldly affairs so that he could walk in righteousness. Olsen asks Kal-El to join him, claiming that they are virtually brothers with the same DNA. When Kal-El refuses, Olsen kills Kal-El's foster parents. During the subsequent battle, Jimmy's body rejects the Kryptonian DNA, causing him to disintegrate. His last words to Kal-El are: "We should have been friends". The Justice League asks Kal-El to join them, recognising that his DNA had just been a contributing factor to a chain of events that had driven Jimmy insane rather than bringing out something that was not there before. Frank Miller's Batman titles In Frank Miller's 1986 graphic novel The Dark Knight Returns, an older Jimmy Olsen (James, as he is now called) is featured as the writer of "Truth to Power", a Daily Planet article that recalls the age of heroes. In the 2001 sequel Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, Olsen appears on various TV shows, where he attempts to reveal that the current President is a holographic projection. His attempts to publicize the truth are halted by Lex Luthor as Metropolis is destroyed (killing hundreds, including Jimmy, Lois, and Perry) by BrainIAC. A young Jimmy Olsen makes an appearance in All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder No. 6. He helps Vicki Vale, whom he appears to be attracted to, escape from a hospital and giving her files on Batman and the Flying Graysons. This incarnation is described as a cub reporter for the Gotham Gazette as opposed to his regular position at the Daily Planet and as 'Superman's pal'. Superman: Red Son In Superman: Red Son, written by Mark Millar, Jimmy is depicted as an agent of the CIA, eventually becoming the director. He joins Dr. Lex Luthor in his Presidential bid and becomes Vice President. Superman: Kal In Superman: Kal, Jamie Olsen of the Middle Ages is an early alchemist, working with blacksmith's apprentice Kal to forge a suit of armor for Baron Luthor using metal acquired from a 'silver egg' that fell from the sky years ago. Kal is killed in his final effort to slay Luthor. In the epilogue, Olsen tells his apprentice Merlin of his friendship with Kal, noting that Kal's last action was to hide away his indestructible sword until it would be needed. Superman: Emperor Joker In the alternate timeline created by Joker, Jimmy serves in Joker's imperial court as "Gravedigger Lad", a cheerful and happy-go-lucky young man of clearly limited intelligence, armed with an overlarge shovel (to dig graves). He humorously says, at one point, "I'm happy to be here ... I'm happy to be anywhere." He also attempts to invoke the powers of Shazam at one point, but this fails. All-Star Superman In Grant Morrison and Frank Quitely's All-Star Superman series, Jimmy is a successful reporter for the Daily Planet. He has a regular column in which he takes on unusual jobs for a day. Issue No. 4 of the series focuses on Jimmy and his adventures as the one-day director of the DNA P.R.O.J.E.C.T., a reference to the Jack Kirby-era Jimmy Olsen series. After Superman is temporarily turned evil by black kryptonite, Jimmy saves him by injecting himself with a drug that briefly turns him into a version of Doomsday. In the final issue, Jimmy manages to stop Lex Luthor's deranged niece from destroying Metropolis by giving her the one thing she really wants: free publicity. Flashpoint In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Jimmy Olsen is an agent of Cyborg sent to spy on the Amazons. He is with Lois Lane reporting on a fashion show in Montmartre when the Atlanteans flooded Europe. Jimmy is one of the thousands to perish in Western Europe. He tries to save an old man; Lois survives by getting into a church steeple. Jimmy's place at the Resistance was then taken by Lois, after she got his camera, revealed to be a communications device that can transform into different forms for concealment. DC Universe Online: Legends In the limited series DC Universe Online: Legends, Jimmy Olsen is captured (alongside Lois Lane and Perry White) at the Daily Planet by Brainiac but is saved by Superman, with Lex Luthor in possession of the canister containing them. Later, Jimmy becomes one of the people who have gained metahuman abilities from Braniac's Exobytes, transforming his body into a large being with reptile-like skin. Superman Beyond Taking place decades after Jimmy's final appearance in Justice League Unlimited, the Superman Beyond one-shot features an elderly version of the character. It is revealed that Jimmy purchased the Daily Planet after Perry White's death, and he runs a successful media empire. Injustice: Gods Among Us Jimmy appears in the comic book prequel to Injustice: Gods Among Us. He is killed by the Joker while on a stakeout with Lois Lane, who is subsequently kidnapped by the Joker. Earth 2 Jimmy Olsen is a hyper-intelligent knowledge-assimilator known as Accountable in the Earth 2 series. He would later take on the alias of Doctor Impossible. In other media Radio On the Superman radio series, Jack Kelk and Jack Grimes portrayed Jimmy Olsen. Television Adventures of Superman On the Adventures of Superman television series (starring George Reeves), Jimmy Olsen was portrayed by Jack Larson, who appeared as the cub reporter from 1952 to 1958. Largely because of the popularity of Larson and his portrayal of the character, National Comics Publications (DC Comics) decided in 1954 to create Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen, a regular title featuring Jimmy as the leading character. Decades later in 1996, Larson portrayed an unnaturally aged Jimmy Olsen in an episode of Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman. Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman On the television series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, Jimmy Olsen was portrayed by Michael Landes in the first season and Justin Whalin for the rest of the series' run. The reason cited behind the change is that Landes looked too much like Dean Cain as well as to emphasize Jimmy's youth. Landes played Olsen as a cocksure, sarcastic Generation X character, who often seemed like he was very sure of himself although usually, the opposite was true. Whalin gave a portrayal closer to previous incarnations of the character, playing Jimmy as a lovably naive rookie. When Whalin took over the role, more emphasis was placed on Jimmy's love-life and he would frequently seek out Lois, Clark and Perry's advice on these matters. Whalin's Olsen was described as being a computer whiz and these talents often came in useful to Lois and Clark/Superman, particularly in the episode 'Virtually Destroyed' where Jimmy's computing abilities come in handy as Lois and Superman battle a villain inside of a virtual reality simulator. Jimmy's home life and background is described in some detail throughout the course of the show. Although we never see her, some references are made to Jimmy's mother who is described as being overweight and having allergies. Jimmy's father Jack Olsen is a James Bond-like secret agent for the fictional National Intelligence Agency (N.I.A.) and the episode 'The Dad who Came in from the Cold' is entirely devoted to this character. Smallville In Smallville, the series incarnation of Jimmy Olsen is first referenced in season 2 by Chloe Sullivan (Allison Mack), when she refers to a "cute boy" whose "name is Jimmy", whom she met in Metropolis that made her forget all about Smallville for the summer. His name is first given in season 4 when Chloe confides to Lana Lang that he was her "first time". In season 6's premiere "Zod", Jimmy appears in person (portrayed by Aaron Ashmore) on the staff of the Daily Planet and prefers to be called "James", and frequently addresses Clark Kent as "CK". As season 6 progresses, Jimmy and Chloe rekindle their old romance again. At first, Jimmy is jealous of Clark but their relationship becomes friendly after Clark reunites him with Chloe in the season 6 episode "Trespass". In season 7, Jimmy is still at the Daily Planet working as a budding news photographer, his relationship with Chloe is going through a rough phase due to Chloe's secret new-found ability caused by an amount of Kryptonite meteor in her bloodstream. They broke up in a very emotional scene in the episode "Cure" since Chloe was unable to share her secret with him. Meanwhile, Kara Zor-El (Laura Vandervoort), daughter of Zor-El and Clark's cousin, has developed a crush on Jimmy and they become friends. Jimmy is smitten by her and teams up with her in episodes such as "Cure" and "Lara". They are in a relationship briefly, but they break up and Jimmy is shown to be in a relationship again with Chloe in the episode "Sleeper". In the season finale, he proposed to her, but she was arrested before she had the time to answer. In season 8's premiere "Odyssey", Jimmy is seen waiting for Chloe at the Talon. Chloe arrives and Jimmy tells her that he is taking his proposal back because it might risk what they have between them. But Chloe disagrees and reveals that she does love Jimmy and she will gladly be his wife. She kisses Jimmy passionately afterward. In "Committed", Jimmy admits to Chloe that he lied about his father being a Manhattan investment banker — his father is "a part-time mechanic and full-time alcoholic in Oklahoma City", and he has never even met his mother. He apologizes to Chloe for lying, feeling unworthy of her, but she easily forgives him and they kiss. In "Bride", Jimmy marries Chloe in the Kent barn, but the wedding reception is interrupted by Doomsday, who nearly kills Jimmy and kidnaps Chloe. Jimmy's injury is so critical that he must be taken to a hospital in Star City. In "Turbulence", Jimmy sees Davis Bloome (Doomsday's human form) murder a drunk driver and becomes almost violently obsessed with proving it. Davis convinces Chloe that Jimmy is hallucinating from high doses of painkillers, ultimately destroying Chloe and Jimmy's marriage and leaving Jimmy addicted to his pain medication. In season 8's finale "Doomsday", Jimmy finally reconciles with Chloe after learning Clark's secret and understanding that Chloe only stayed with Davis to calm the beast within and protect Clark. As Chloe gives Jimmy a passionate kiss, Jimmy is mortally wounded by a jealous Davis, who overhears their conversation and flies into a murderous rage despite being already stripped of the Doomsday persona. Jimmy manages to pushes Davis into a spike and kills him, and reaffirms love to Chloe before succumbing to injury. At his funeral, his full name is revealed to be Henry James Olsen. Chloe entrusts his camera to his underage younger brother (portrayed by Ryan Harder). While the younger Olsen's name is not mentioned, the boy is wearing a bow tie, leading to the possibility that this is the actual comic book Jimmy Olsen (James Bartholomew Olsen), who will befriend Superman. In season 9 finale, Clark has a premonition about the future in 2013 where Lois Lane calls out to an "Olsen", likely calling the younger brother Olsen. In the season 10 episode "Homecoming", Clark accidentally time-travels to the future in 2017 (thanks to Brainiac 5) and reads a Daily Planet article that listed "Jimmy Olsen". In the ending scene of the series finale set seven years into the future, the adult version of the younger Olsen (also portrayed by Aaron Ashmore) makes an appearance as a fresh news photographer working with Lois and Clark at the Daily Planet, wearing a flat cap, sweater vest, and bow tie. The 2008 DVD box set for the seventh season of Smallville includes a 22-minute featurette, entitled Jimmy on Jimmy, which is a round-table discussion featuring four of the six surviving actors at the time who had portrayed Jimmy Olsen in live action: Jack Larson (Adventures of Superman), Marc McClure (Superman film series, Supergirl film), Sam Huntington (Superman Returns), and Aaron Ashmore (Smallville). Michael Landes and Justin Whalin (both from Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman) did not participate. Arrowverse Jimmy Olsen appears in the TV series set in the Arrowverse portrayed by Mehcad Brooks. Olsen appears in the series Supergirl as a former Daily Planet photographer who becomes the new art director at CatCo in the first episode. This depiction of the character is African-American and calls himself "James" rather than "Jimmy". Also unlike most versions of him, he is shown to be more confident, independent, and take-charge. In the pilot, Olsen reveals that he knows Kara's secret, and knows that she is Superman's cousin. Superman actually suggested that Olsen move to National City to keep an eye on her. Unlike his comic-book counterpart for most of his history, Olsen also knows Clark's secret. Olsen also revealed to have a tragic past; he lost his father to criminals when he was a child. Due to Olsen's repressed anger towards crimes because of his father's death and because his father was a war hero, he becomes the vigilante called Guardian. James is appointed head of CatCo in National City when Cat Grant moves to Metropolis. In the fifth season, CatCo is bought by Andrea Rojas's company Obsidian North. Exerting pressure as the new CEO, Andrea forces Olsen to report on stories based on profitability as opposed to truth. Olsen resigns and becomes editor of his hometown paper, The Calvintown Gazette. Animation Jack Grimes reprised his role as Jimmy Olsen in The New Adventures of Superman. In the Super Friends animated series, he "appears" in the second episode of The World's Greatest Super Friends season, 'Lex Luthor Strikes Back', with Lois Lane. It was not Jimmy at all, but Lex Luthor's henchman Orville Gump in disguise. Mark L. Taylor voiced Jimmy Olsen in the 1988 animated adaptation of Superman. In Superman: The Animated Series, part of the DC Animated Universe, Jimmy was voiced by David Kaufman. One episode was called "Superman's Pal" as an homage to the classic comic series, and Superman gave Jimmy the signal watch by the end of the episode. Another allusion to the comics made in the show was seen in the second-season episode "Mxyzpixilated", where Mr. Mxyzptlk turns all the employees of the Daily Planet into animals. Jimmy is turned into a turtle, possibly as a homage. Jimmy returns in the Justice League animated series. He makes a brief appearance in Superman's nightmare in which Superman (uncontrollably strong) hugs him so hard, killing his friend in "Only a Dream", with David Kaufman reprising the role. He makes a cameo at Superman's funeral in "Hereafter". A photographer with orange hair appears beside Clark at the beginning of "Starcrossed". Though his face is not shown, it is likely Jimmy. Jimmy appeared again in several cameo appearances in Justice League Unlimited. In the episode "Question Authority", Huntress used sleeping gas on him, tied him up, taped his mouth shut, and used the signal watch to attract Superman. In the episode "Chaos at the Earth's Core", several heroes battle a giant turtle that has a thatch of red hair; Bruce Timm has confirmed this is a reference to Jimmy's Giant Turtle Boy persona "but it was more economical time-wise to have him revert to cute little turtle than naked, confused photographer.". Jimmy appears in The Batman animated series, voiced by Jack DeSena. In season five's premiere, he and Dick Grayson have a back and forth discussion about Batman and Superman from their sides of view. While Jimmy favors Superman to Batman, he is still impressed by Batman's Batmobile. Jimmy Olsen appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by Alexander Polinsky. The episode "Battle of the Super Heroes" references him with his misadventures of him being transformed into a giant turtle, and having quills thanks to Mxyzptlk. In the episode's beginning, Jimmy receives a new signal watch, supposedly from Superman. When a red kryptonite-infected Superman starts causing terror, Jimmy becomes angry and almost smashes his signal watch, until Batman stops him and reveals that the signal watch has red kryptonite in it and was sent by Lex Luthor. Jimmy next appears in the teaser of the episode "Triumvirate of Terror", where he acts as a sports commentator in the baseball match between the Justice League International and the Legion of Doom. Jimmy appears in the Young Justice animated series. He appears in the episode "Depths". Jimmy appears in the "Tales of Metropolis" segment of DC Nation Shorts, voiced by Elisha Yaffe. Jimmy appears in Justice League Action, voiced by Max Mittelman. Jimmy appears in DC Super Hero Girls television series. Jimmy will appear in the upcoming HBO Max and Cartoon Network animated series My Adventures with Superman. Film Christopher Reeve/Brandon Routh series In the four motion pictures starring Christopher Reeve, beginning with Superman, Jimmy Olsen was portrayed by Marc McClure. McClure reprised his role as Jimmy Olsen in the 1984 spin-off movie Supergirl, making McClure the only actor and Olsen the only character to appear in all five Superman films of the 1978–1987 era. McClure also appears as his character in the toy commercial for the Super Powers Collection. In Bryan Singer's 2006 film Superman Returns, a spiritual-sequel to the original Superman films, Jimmy Olsen is portrayed by Sam Huntington, an older and more confident, yet goofier portrayal of the character who finds it difficult to get a good shot or get any photos published. In a deleted scene included in the DVD release, a slightly inebriated Olsen is seen to complain to Clark about the fact he has not had a photo printed in several months. In the film, Jack Larson, who portrayed Jimmy in the Adventures of Superman television series, plays Bo, a bartender who talks to Clark and Jimmy. Singer originally offered Shawn Ashmore the role, but the actor declined due to his commitments to X-Men: The Last Stand. Ashmore's twin brother Aaron Ashmore played Jimmy in Smallville. DC Extended Universe Jimmy Olsen is portrayed by Michael Cassidy in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Similar to the Superman: Red Son version, he appears as a CIA operative, but poses as a photographer during Lois Lane's journey to Africa. During an interview, he is exposed as an agent and killed after terrorists find a tracking device hidden within his camera. Other appearances Jimmy Olsen, as an unnamed, rather Neumanesque-looking office boy, appeared in the Superman animated short film "Showdown", where he is voiced by actor Jack Mercer. The first actor to portray Jimmy Olsen in a live-action format was Tommy Bond, who co-starred with Kirk Alyn (Superman / Clark Kent) and Noel Neill (Lois Lane) in the film serials Superman (1948) and Atom Man vs. Superman (1950). Jimmy is played again by David Kaufman in the movie Superman: Brainiac Attacks. Jimmy appeared in Superman: Doomsday, played by voice actor Adam Wylie. He is with Lois reporting the battle between Superman and Doomsday and is one of the characters followed through their grieving process; his being quitting the Daily Planet and becoming a paparazzi photographer. Lois tries to get him to come back and help her investigate Superman's supposed return, which he refuses due to him foolishly liking his new life. He does eventually help Lois after seeing Toyman dead by "Superman's" hand and they discover that this Superman is a clone made by Lex Luthor and later runs alongside Lois during "Superman's" fight with, who Jimmy calls, Rocker Superman, the real Superman. After their fight, Jimmy is happy to see the real Superman alive when Superman confirms it is him through a kiss with Lois. He appeared in Justice League: The New Frontier. He has no dialogue, therefore no voice actor. He is always shown with Lois, and is almost killed during the final battle. He tries to take dangerous pictures during the battle. Jimmy appeared in Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths. He is in the antimatter Earth as Ultraman's "Pal" and was used to bait him out. He tries to take on Luthor and Superman with super powers in battle. This Jimmy Olsen has the powers of flight, superhuman strength and durability, but despite them, he was easily overpowered by Superman. He was arrested and taken to jail along with Ultraman. In promotional materials for the film, this version of Jimmy is referred to as Mr. Action. He was voiced by Richard Green. Jimmy appears in the movie All-Star Superman voiced by Matthew Gray Gubler. Jimmy appears in Justice League: Doom, with David Kaufman reprising his role from the Superman animated series. He has a brief speaking role as he and Lois Lane are outside the Daily Planet reporting a possible suicide jump. Jimmy is the one who identifies the jumper as a former reporter from the Daily Planet. It is really Metallo in disguise, who proceeds to shoot Superman with a kryptonite bullet. He appears in Superman vs. The Elite voiced again by David Kaufman. In Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, Jimmy is mentioned in a news segment where he announces that the fourth year of the TV writers' strike won't interfere with this year's television season. Jimmy appears in Superman: Unbound voiced by Alexander Gould. He doesn't have a major role in the film and is present mainly as one of the cameo characters in the film. He does serve a brief purpose as Lois asks him to use his signal watch to call Supergirl, who he immediately has an attraction to. He appears in Justice League: Throne of Atlantis, although it was a non-speaking role, his voice was credited by Patrick Cavanaugh. An alternate universe version of Jimmy Olsen appeared in Justice League: Gods and Monsters, voiced by Yuri Lowenthal. He was part of Lois Lane's reporter team and snuck into the morgue of the deceased scientists to get some pictures before getting arrested. Jimmy Olsen appears in the film Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash, voiced by Eric Bauza. Jimmy Olsen appears in the 2018 film The Death of Superman, with Max Mittelman reprising his role. Jimmy Olsen appears in the 2020 film Superman: Red Son, voiced by Phil Morris as Luthor's faithful aide and Vice President before Luthor resigns and appoints him President of the USA. Jimmy Olsen appears in the 2021 film Injustice, voice by Zach Callison. Jimmy Olsen appears in the 2021 film Space Jam: A New Legacy. He was seen at the train station in the DC part of the Warner Bros. 3000 "server-verse" when a runaway train that Daffy Duck caused sped by him and Clark Kent. Video games In Superman 64, he is trapped, along with Lois Lane and Professor Emil Hamilton, by Lex Luthor. Superman has to save him and his friends in this game. In Superman: Shadow of Apokolips for the Nintendo Gamecube and the PlayStation 2, Jimmy (again voiced by David Kaufman) makes some minor appearances and only seen in the story between game-play. He is seen in the bibliography section of the game. In DC Universe Online, Jimmy appears as a supporting character for the heroes, voiced by Brandon Young. Jimmy Olsen appears as a NPC in Lego DC Super Villains with Max Mittelman reprising his role. Cultural references The Spin Doctors had a minor hit with their song "Jimmy Olsen's Blues" on their 1991 album Pocket Full of Kryptonite, in which they portrayed Jimmy Olsen as infatuated with Lois Lane and jealous of Superman, a problem which he hoped to solve with the aforementioned "pocket full of Kryptonite". In the period after the song became popular, artist Jon Bogdanove, who at the time was the regular penciler on the Superman: The Man of Steel comic book series, would occasionally depict Jimmy wearing a Spin Doctors T-shirt. 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250974	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm%20Friedemann%20Bach	Wilhelm Friedemann Bach	Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (22 November 17101 July 1784), the second child and eldest son of Johann Sebastian Bach and Maria Barbara Bach, was a German composer and performer. Despite his acknowledged genius as an organist, improviser and composer, his income and employment were unstable and he died in poverty. Life Wilhelm Friedemann (hereafter Friedemann) was born in Weimar, where his father was employed as organist and chamber musician to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar. In July 1720, when Friedemann was nine, his mother Maria Barbara Bach died suddenly; Johann Sebastian Bach remarried in December 1721. J. S. Bach supervised Friedemann's musical education and career with great attention. The graded course of keyboard studies and composition that J. S. Bach provided is documented in the Clavier-Büchlein vor Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (modern spelling: Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach), with entries by both father and son. This education also included (parts of) the French Suites, (Two-Part) Inventions, (Three-Part) Sinfonias (popularly known as "Inventions"), the first volume of The Well-Tempered Clavier, and the six Trio Sonatas for organ. At the age of 16 he went to Merseburg to learn the violin with his teacher Johann Gottlieb Graun. In addition to his musical training, Friedemann received formal schooling beginning in Weimar. When J.S. Bach took the post of Cantor of the St. Thomas Church in Leipzig (in 1723), he enrolled Friedemann in the associated Thomasschule. (J.S. Bach—who had himself been orphaned at the age of 10—said that he took the position in Leipzig partly because of the educational opportunities it afforded his children). On graduating in 1729, Friedemann enrolled as a law student in Leipzig University, a renowned institution at the time, but later moved on to study law and mathematics at the University of Halle. He maintained a lifelong interest in mathematics, and continued to study it privately during his first job in Dresden. Friedemann was appointed in 1733 to the position of organist of the St. Sophia's Church at Dresden. In competing for the post he played a new version of his father's Prelude and Fugue in G Major, BWV 541. The judge described Friedemann as clearly superior to the other two candidates. He remained a renowned organist throughout his life. Among his many pupils in Dresden was Johann Gottlieb Goldberg, the keyboardist whose name is erroneously enshrined in the popular nickname given to J. S. Bach's 1742 publication, "Aria with Diverse Variations"—that is, "The Goldberg Variations." The scholar Peter Williams has discredited the story which links the work to Goldberg stating that J. S. Bach wrote the work for the Russian Ambassador Count Hermann Carl von Keyserlingk, who would ask his employee, Goldberg, to play variations for him to ward off insomnia. Williams instead has argued that J.S. Bach wrote the variations to provide a display piece for Friedemann. In 1746 Friedemann became organist of the Liebfrauenkirche at Halle. In 1751, Friedemann married Dorothea Elisabeth Georgi (1721–1791), who was 11 years his junior and who outlived him by seven years. Dorothea was the daughter of a tax collector. The landed estates she inherited caused the family to be placed in a high tax bracket by Halle authorities, who were raising taxes to meet the revenue demands of the Seven Years' War. To raise cash for these payments, she sold part of her property in 1770. The couple produced two sons and a daughter, Friederica Sophia (born in 1757), who was the only one of their offspring to live past infancy. The descendants of Friederica Sophia eventually migrated to Oklahoma. Friedemann was deeply unhappy in Halle almost from the beginning of his tenure. In 1749 he was involved in a conflict with the Cantor of the Liebfrauenkirche, Gottfried Mittag, who had misappropriated funds that were due to Friedemann. In 1750 the church authorities reprimanded Friedemann for overstaying a leave of absence (he was in Leipzig settling his father's estate). In 1753 he made his first documented attempt to find another post, and thereafter made several others. All these attempts failed. Bach had at least two pupils, Friedrich Wilhelm Rust and Johann Samuel Petri. In 1762, he negotiated for the post of Kapellmeister to the court of Darmstadt; although he protracted the negotiations for reasons that are opaque to historians and did not actively take the post, he nevertheless was appointed Hofkapellmeister of Hessen-Darmstadt, a title he used in the dedication of his Harpsichord Concerto in E minor. In June 1764, Friedemann left the job in Halle without any employment secured elsewhere. His financial situation deteriorated so much that in 1768 he re-applied for his old job in Halle, without success. He thereafter supported himself by teaching. After leaving Halle in 1770, he lived for several years (1771–1774) in Braunschweig where he applied in vain for the post of an organist at the St. Catherine's church. Then he moved to Berlin, where he initially was welcomed by the princess Anna Amalia (the sister of Frederick the Great). Later, no longer in favor at court, he gave harpsichord lessons to Sarah Itzig Levy, the daughter of a prominent Jewish family in Berlin and an avid collector of Bach and other early 18th century music, who was also a "patron" of Friedemann's brother CPE Bach. Friedemann died in Berlin. Earlier biographers have concluded that his "wayward" and difficult personality reduced his ability to gain and hold secure employment, but the scholar David Schulenberg writes (in the Oxford Composer Companion: J.S. Bach, ed. Malcolm Boyd, 1999) that "he may also have been affected by changing social conditions that made it difficult for a self-possessed virtuoso to succeed in a church- or court-related position" (p. 39). Schulenberg adds, "he was evidently less willing than most younger contemporaries to compose fashionable, readily accessible music". Friedemann Bach was renowned for his improvisatory skills. It is speculated that when in Leipzig his father's accomplishments set so high a bar that he focused on improvisation rather than composition. Evidence adduced for this speculation includes the fact that his compositional output increased in Dresden and Halle. Friedemann's compositions include many church cantatas and instrumental works, of which the most notable are the fugues, polonaises and fantasias for clavier, and the duets for two flutes. He incorporated more elements of the contrapuntal style learned from his father than any of his three composer brothers, but his use of the style has an individualistic and improvisatory edge which endeared his work to musicians of the late 19th century, when there was something of a revival of his reputation. Friedemann's students included Johann Nikolaus Forkel, who in 1802 published the first biography of Johann Sebastian Bach; Friedemann, as well as his younger brother Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, were major informants for Forkel. Friedemann has in earlier biographies been called a poor custodian of his father's musical manuscripts, many of which he inherited; however, more recent scholars are uncertain how many were lost. It is known that Friedemann sold some of his father's collection to raise cash to pay debts (including a large sale in 1759 to Johann Georg Nacke). Also, his daughter took some of the Sebastian Bach manuscripts with her when she moved to America, and these were passed on to her descendants, who inadvertently destroyed many of them. Others were passed on through his only known Berlin pupil, Sarah Itzig Levy, great-aunt of Felix Mendelssohn. Some of his scores were collected by Carl Friedrich Christian Fasch and his pupil Carl Friedrich Zelter, the teacher of Felix Mendelssohn and through them these materials were placed in the library of the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin, which Fasch founded in 1791 and of which Zelter took charge in 1800. Friedemann is known occasionally to have claimed credit for music written by his father, but this was in keeping with common musical practices in the era. Works "BR-WFB" denotes "Bach-Repertorium Wilhelm Friedemann Bach". "Fk." denotes "Falck catalogue". Bach Digital Work (BDW) pages contain information about individual compositions. More lost, doubtful and spurious works Fk. 34 – Fugue in B-flat major: not by any Bach family member Fk. 66 – Sinfonia in D minor: spurious Fk. 101–105 – lost cantatas Orchestral Suite in G Minor, BWV 1070 (possibly spurious) Scherzo in D minor, BWV 844, attributed to both W. F. and J. S. Bach. Reception Use by later composers Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's set of six Preludes and Fugues for string trio, K. 404a, contains five fugues transcribed from The Well-Tempered Clavier by Johann Sebastian Bach while the sixth fugue in F minor, is a transcription of one of the Eight Fugues (Falck 31) of Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. The preludes in K. 404a are Mozart's own, except for 4 (from BWV 527) and 5 (second movement from BWV 526). Film Friedemann Bach is a 1941 German historical drama film directed by Traugott Müller and starring Gustaf Gründgens, Leny Marenbach and Johannes Riemann. The film depicts the life of Johann Sebastian Bach's son Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. It is based on Albert Emil Brachvogel's novel Friedemann Bach. Wilhelm Friedemann Bach is shown as a gifted son trying to escape his father's shadow. Notes References Sources Applegate, Celia, Bach in Berlin: Nation and Culture in Mendelssohn's Revival of the St. Mathew Passion, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, 2005, The New Grove Dictionary served as a source for revision. Schulenberg, David: entry on Wilhelm Friedemann Bach in The Oxford Composer Companion: J.S.Bach (ed. Malcolm Boyd, 1999: ) The harpsichord concertos of Wilhelm Friedemann Bach Further reading Borysenko, Elena. The Cantatas of Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. Thesis (Ph.D.) Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester, 1981. In 2 volumes. ("Vol. II ... consists primarily of selected movements from the cantatas of W.F. Bach, followed by translations of the texts of these movements and a critical commentary.") Falck, Martin. Wilhelm Friedemann Bach; Sein Leben und seine Werke, mit thematischem Verzeichnis seiner Kompositionen und zwei Bildern. Leipzig: C. F. Kahnt, 1919. Helm, Eugene. "Wilhelm Friedemann Bach", in Christoph Wolff et al., The New Grove Bach Family. NY: Norton, 1983 (), pp. 238–50. Kahmann, Ulrich. Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. Der unterschätzte Sohn. Bielefeld: Aisthesis, 2010. WF Bach - the neglected son Biography, major works and recommended recordings. Gramophone, April 2010 Schulenberg, David. The Music of Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2010. Daniel Hensel: Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. Epigone oder Originalgenie, verquere Erscheinung oder großer Komponist?; Stuttgart: ibidem, April 2011, External links Concertos, harpsichords (2), orchestra, F. 46, E major, arranged for two pianos (from the Sibley Music Library Digital Score Collection) 1710 births 1784 deaths Wilhelm Friedemann German male classical composers German Baroque composers German Lutherans Musicians from Weimar People educated at the St. Thomas School, Leipzig Leipzig University alumni 18th-century classical composers 18th-century German male musicians Pupils of Johann Sebastian Bach	[ -0.8213404417037964, 0.644879937171936, 0.21691946685314178, 0.005107171833515167, -0.11061476916074753, 0.4626791477203369, 0.6755763292312622, -0.019227460026741028, -0.36948972940444946, -0.652198851108551, -0.12385131418704987, -0.4118445813655853, 0.04511013999581337, 0.5833293199539185, -0.41609567403793335, 0.3444746732711792, 0.25584590435028076, -0.5197994709014893, -0.8301106691360474, -0.41216593980789185, 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250976	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Gottfried%20Bernhard%20Bach	Johann Gottfried Bernhard Bach	Johann Gottfried Bernhard Bach (11 May 1715 – 27 May 1739) was a German musician. It is not known whether he composed, and his career as an organist is not in itself notable, but his life throws light on his famous father, the composer Johann Sebastian Bach. Johann Gottfried was the fourth child of Johann Sebastian Bach and Maria Barbara Bach to reach adulthood. Early life He was born in Weimar, where his father was employed until 1717 when the family moved to Köthen. His mother died in Köthen in 1720. His father remarried the following year. Education In 1723 his father was appointed Thomaskantor in Leipzig. J.S. Bach is believed to have moved to Leipzig partly because of the educational opportunities there for his sons. J.G.B. Bach attended the Thomasschule, where his father was responsible for the musical education which formed an important part of the curriculum. He also studied privately with his father. Musical career In contrast to his elder brothers Wilhelm Friedemann and Carl Philipp Emanuel he did not get the opportunity to study at Leipzig University after finishing school. Like his father before him, Johann Gottfried Bernhard auditioned for posts as a musician. He first served as organist at the Marienkirche, the largest church in Mühlhausen in 1735. Johann Sebastian Bach had been employed at Divi Blasii, Mühlhausen's other main church. Johann Sebastian was there in 1707–1708, and despite the briefness of his stay he was well regarded by the town council, carrying out commissions for them after moving to Weimar. He was succeeded as organist by one of his cousins. Johann Gottfried also only spent a short time in the Mühlhausen, moving in 1737 to find a new engagement as organist at the Jakobikirche in Sangerhausen. It was a post for which his father had applied as a young man. However, a new organ by Zacharias Hildebrandt had since been installed. In 1738, he was burdened with debt and abandoned a career in music in order to study law in Jena. There he died prematurely at age 24. 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250977	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Christoph%20Friedrich%20Bach	Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach	Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach (21 June 1732 – 26 January 1795) was a harpsichordist and composer, the fifth son of Johann Sebastian Bach, sometimes referred to as the "Bückeburg Bach". Born in Leipzig in the Electorate of Saxony, he was taught music by his father, and also tutored by his distant cousin . He studied at the St. Thomas School, and some believe he studied law at the university there, but there is no record of this. In 1750, William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe appointed Johann Christoph harpsichordist at Bückeburg, and in 1759, he became concertmaster. While there, Bach collaborated with Johann Gottfried Herder, who provided the texts for six vocal works; the music survives for only four of these. Bach wrote keyboard sonatas, symphonies, oratorios, liturgical choir pieces and motets, operas and songs. Because of Count Wilhelm's predilection for Italian music, Bach had to adapt his style accordingly, but he retained stylistic traits of the music of his father and of his brother, C. P. E. Bach. He married the singer Lucia Elisabeth Münchhausen (1728–1803) in 1755 and the Count stood as godfather to his son Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst Bach. J.C.F. educated his son in music as his own father had, and Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst went on to become music director to Frederick William II of Prussia. In April 1778 he and Wilhelm travelled to England to visit Johann Christian Bach. J. C. F. Bach died 1795 in Bückeburg, aged 62. Assessment The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica says of him "He was an industrious composer, ... whose work reflects no discredit on the family name." He was an outstanding virtuoso of the keyboard, with a reasonably wide repertory of surviving works, including twenty symphonies, the later ones influenced by Haydn and Mozart; hardly a genre of vocal music was neglected by him. A significant portion of J. C. F. Bach's output was lost in the WWII destruction of the Staatliches Institut für Musikforschung in Berlin, where the scores had been on deposit since 1917. Musicologists Hansdieter Wohlfahrth, who catalogued his works, and Ulrich Leisinger consider Bach a transitional figure in the mold of his half-brother C. P. E., his brother Johann Christian, the Grauns (Carl and Johann), and Georg Philipp Telemann, with some works in the style of the high Baroque, some in a galant idiom, and still others which combine elements of the two, along with traits of the nascent classical style. Works "BR-JCFB" denotes "Bach-Repertorium Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach". "Wf" denotes "wohlfahrt verzeichnis". Bach Digital Work (BDW) pages contain information about individual compositions. Keyboard works Two Sonatas from "Musikalisches Vielerley" collection of works made by CPE Bach - not after 1770. BR-JCFB A 1 \ Keyboard Sonata in F major (Wf XI/1) BR-JCFB A 2 \ Keyboard Sonata in C major (Wf XI/2) "Six easy Sonatas for Clavier or Pianoforte" - composed before December 26, 1783. BR-JCFB A 3 \ No. 1 - Keyboard Sonata in C major (Wf XI/3.1) BR-JCFB A 4 \ No. 2 - Keyboard Sonata in F major (Wf XI/3.2) BR-JCFB A 5 \ No. 3 - Keyboard Sonata in E major (Wf XI/3.3) BR-JCFB A 6 \ No. 4 - Keyboard Sonata in D major (Wf XI/3.4) BR-JCFB A 7 \ No. 5 - Keyboard Sonata in A major (Wf XI/3.5) BR A 8 \ Keyboard Sonata in E-flat major (Wf XI/3.6) Three Sonatas and Sonatina from "Musikalische Nebenstunden" Collection of works made by JCF Bach - Not after 1787/88 BR-JCFB A 9 \ Keyboard Sonata in C major (Wf XI/4) BR-JCFB A 10 \ Keyboard Sonata in G major (Wf XI/5) BR-JCFB A 11 \ Keyboard Sonata in F major (Wf XI/6) BR-JCFB A 12 \ Keyboard Sonatina in A minor (Wf XI/7) "Three easy Sonatas for Clavier of Pianoforte" - composed before October 1788, published in 1789 BR-JCFB A 13 \ No. 1 - Keyboard Sonata in D major (Wf XI/8.1) BR-JCFB A 14 \ No. 2 -Keyboard Sonata in A major (Wf XI/8.2) BR-JCFB A 15 \ No. 3 -Keyboard Sonata in E major (Wf XI/8.3) Six easy Sonatas - composed around 1785 - perhaps composed for Christoph Ernst Abraham Albrecht von Boineburg, at that time the judiciary in Rinteln. BR-JCFB A 16 \ No. 1 - Keyboard Sonata in D major BR-JCFB A 17 \ No. 2 - Keyboard Sonata in A major BR-JCFB A 18 \ No. 3 - Keyboard Sonata in F major (Wf XI/9) BR-JCFB A 19 \ No. 4 - Keyboard Sonata in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 20 \ No. 5 - Keyboard Sonata in G major BR-JCFB A 21 \ No. 6 - Keyboard Sonata in E-flat major Six Sonatas - composed around 1785 - probably like A 16 - 21 for C.E.A.A von Boineburg. BR-JCFB A 22 - 25 \ 4 Keyboard Sonatas (lost) BR-JCFB A 26 \ No. 5 - Keyboard Sonata in E-flat major BR-JCFB A 27 \ No. 6 - Keyboard Sonata in F major Seven Sonatas - Composed before around and not after March 1789, only one Sonata survived. BR-JCFB A 28–30, A 32-34 \ 6 Keyboard Sonatas (lost) BR-JCFB A 31 \ Keyboard Sonata in D major BR-JCFB A 35 - 37 \ 3 Keyboard Sonatas (lost) BR-JCFB A 38 - 39 \ 2 Keyboard Sonatas (lost) BR-JCFB A 40 \ keyboard Sonata for 4 hands in A major (Wf XIII/1) - around 1786 BR-JCFB A 41 \ keyboard Sonata for 4 hands in C major (Wf XIII/2) - perhaps around 1791 BR-JCFB A 42 - 43 \ 2 Sonatas for 2 keyboards (lost) BR-JCFB A 44 \ Variations in A major (Wf XII/1) (lost) BR-JCFB A 45 \ Allegretto in G major with 18 Variations on "Ah vous dirais-je Maman" (Wf XII/2) - Composed around 1785/90 - originally comprised only 13 variations and was later expanded by 5 variations. Five Pieces from "Musikalisches Vielerley" - not after 1770 BR-JCFB A 46 \ Minuet for dance and Trio in D major (Wf XII/3) BR-JCFB A 47 \ Alla polacca in G major (Wf XII/7) BR-JCFB A 48 \ Minuet and Trio in F major (Wf XII/4) BR-JCFB A 49 \ Two minuets for dance in D major (Wf XII/5) BR-JCFB A 50 \ Alla polacca in F major (Wf XII/6) Seventy pieces from "Musikalische Nebenstunden" - The keyboard pieces belong to different genre traditions and are likely to come from different creative periods. (Wf XII/13) BR-JCFB A 51 \ Allegro in C major BR-JCFB A 52 \ Minuet in C major (BWV deest) BR-JCFB A 53 \ Andante in G major BR-JCFB A 54 \ March in G major BR-JCFB A 55 \ Allegretto in F major BR-JCFB A 56 \ Minuet alternating between F major and B-flat major BR-JCFB A 57 \ Polonaise in F major BR-JCFB A 58 \ Allegretto in D major BR-JCFB A 59 \ March in D major BR-JCFB A 60 \ Schwäbisch (Swabian) in D major (kind of folk dance) BR-JCFB A 61 \ Minuet in D major and Trio in G major BR-JCFB A 62 \ Angloise in G major BR-JCFB A 63 \ Villanella in C major BR-JCFB A 64 \ Scherzo in C major BR-JCFB A 65 \ Allegro moderato in G major BR-JCFB A 66 \ Minuet in G major and Trio in C major BR-JCFB A 67 \ Polonaise in G major BR-JCFB A 68 \ March in G major BR-JCFB A 69 \ Angloise and trio in G major BR-JCFB A 70 \ Allegro F major BR-JCFB A 71 \ Schwäbisch F major BR-JCFB A 72 \ Minuet in F major and Trio in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 73 \ Allegro in D minor BR-JCFB A 74 \ Angloise in F major BR-JCFB A 75 \ Minuet in C major BR-JCFB A 76 \ March in G major BR-JCFB A 77 \ March in D major and Trio in G major BR-JCFB A 78 \ Allegro in G major BR-JCFB A 79 \ Minuet and Trio in G major BR-JCFB A 80 \ Allegro in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 81 \ Villanella in D major BR-JCFB A 82 \ Angloise in D major and Trio in G major BR-JCFB A 83 \ March in G major BR-JCFB A 84 \ Villanella in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 85 \ Angloise in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 86 \ Presto in G minor BR-JCFB A 87 \ Allegro in E-flat major BR-JCFB A 88 \ Adagio in C minor BR-JCFB A 89 \ March in E-flat major BR-JCFB A 90 \ Minuet in E-flat major and Trio in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 91 \ Polonaise in E-flat major BR-JCFB A 92 \ Angloise in E-flat major and Trio in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 93 \ March in E-flat major BR-JCFB A 94 \ Minuet alternating between E-flat major and C minor BR-JCFB A 95 \ Allegro in E minor BR-JCFB A 96 \ Minuet alternating between A major and E major BR-JCFB A 97 \ Angloise in D major BR-JCFB A 98 \ Angloise in D major BR-JCFB A 99 \ Minuet in D major and Trio in A major BR-JCFB A 100 \ Musette in G major BR-JCFB A 101 \ Solfeggio in G major BR-JCFB A 102 \ Angloise in D major BR-JCFB A 103 \ Minuet in G major and Trio in D major BR-JCFB A 104 \ Polonaise in D major BR-JCFB A 105 \ March in D major BR-JCFB A 106 \ Andante in E major BR-JCFB A 107 \ Angloise in A major BR-JCFB A 108 \ Solfeggio in D major BR-JCFB A 109 \ Angloise in G major BR-JCFB A 110 \ March in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 111 \ Schwäbisch in F major BR-JCFB A 112 \ Angloise in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 113 \ Schwäbisch in D major BR-JCFB A 114 \ Polonaise in E-flat major BR-JCFB A 115 \ Minuet in E-flat major and Trio in B-flat major BR-JCFB A 116 \ Schwäbisch in C major BR-JCFB A 117 \ Minuet and Trio in C major BR-JCFB A 118 \ Angloise in F major BR-JCFB A 119 \ Alla Polacca in C major BR-JCFB A 120 \ Minuet in F major and Trio in F minor Five Pieces - composed around 1745/49, at least before taking up service in Bückeburg. BR-JCFB A 121 \ Polonaise in G major (Wf XII/8) BR-JCFB A 122 \ Minuet in F major (Wf XII/9) BR-JCFB A 123 \ Polonaise in F major (Wf XII/10) BR-JCFB A 124 \ Minuet in G major (Wf XII/11) BR-JCFB A 125 \ Minuet in A major (Wf XII/12) BR-JCFB A Inc1 \ Partia (Allegro) in C major - around 1745 (BWV deest) Six fugues - published under Telemann name - not after 1758 BR-JCFB A Inc2 \ Fugue for keyboard in G minor (lost) - based on G minor fugue from WTC I by JS Bach BR-JCFB A Inc3 \ Fugue for keyboard in E minor (lost) BR-JCFB A Inc4 \ Fugue for keyboard in C major (lost) BR-JCFB A Inc5 \ Fugue for keyboard in F major (TWV 30:27) - based on fugue - Wq 119.3 by CPEB BR-JCFB A Inc6 \ Fugue for keyboard in D major (lost) BR-JCFB A Inc7 \ Fugue for keyboard in C major (lost) BR-JCFB A Inc8 \ Galanterie-Stücke for keyboard Chamber music The "Sonatas" denotes the Trio Sonata form. BR-JCFB B 1 \ Cello Sola in A major (Wf X/3)(1770) BR-JCFB B 2 \ Cello Solo in G major (Wf X/1) BR-JCFB B 3a \ Trio for traverso flute, violin & bc in A major (Wf VII/1) BR-JCFB B 3b \ Trio for traverso flute and keyboard in A major (Wf VII/1) BR-JCFB B 4 \ Trio for flute, viola & bc in E minor BR-JCFB B 5 - 10 \ Six Trios for two Flutes and Basso continuo - composed by May 1, 1770 - lost. Two trios for two Violins and Basso Continuo - Composed before December 23, 1768. BR-JCFB B 11 \ Trio for 2 violins & b.c. in A major (Wf VII/2) BR-JCFB B 12 \ Trio for 2 violins & b.c. in F major (Wf VII/3) BR-JCFB B 13 \ Trio for 2 violins & b.c. (lost) BR-JCFB B 14 \ Trio for keyboard and violin/flute in E-flat major (Wf VIII/2) Six Sonatas for Keyboard and flute (violin) - one of the most widely performed work by composer - published 1777 BR-JCFB B 15 \ Flute Sonata No. 1 in D minor (Wf VIII/3.1) BR-JCFB B 16 \ Flute Sonata No. 2 in D major (Wf VIII/3.2) - two versions 16a and 16b. BR-JCFB B 17 \ Flute Sonata No. 3 in C major (Wf VIII/3.3) BR-JCFB B 18 \ Flute Sonata No. 4 in C major (Wf VIII/3.4) - two versions 18a and 18b. BR-JCFB B 19 \ Flute Sonata No. 5 in A major (Wf VIII/3.5) BR-JCFB B 20 \ Flute Sonata No. 6 in C major (Wf VIII/3.6) versions 16b and 18b were versions made after the published collection, meaning that 16a and 18a are those found in the collection Two Sonatas for keyboard and violin from Musikalische Nebenstunden BR-JCFB B 21 \ Sonata in G major (Wf IX/2) BR-JCFB B 22 \ Sonata in D major (Wf IX/3) BR-JCFB B 23 - 24 \ 2 Flute Sonatas (lost) Three Sonatas for keyboard and flute (violin) - composed around 1770/80 BR-JCFB B 25 \ Sonata in F major (Wf VIII/1) BR-JCFB B 26 \ Violin Sonata in F major (incomplete) BR-JCFB B 27 \ Violin Sonata in D major (incomplete) BR-JCFB B 28 \ Sonata for Keyboard and Violin in G major (Wf IX/1) (lost) BR-JCFB B 29a \ Sonata for keyboard and flute/violin in D major (Wf VII/4) BR-JCFB B 29b \ Sonata for Harpsichord concertato and flute/violin and Violoncello in D major (Wf VII/4) - later version Six Sonatas with keyboard - composed around 1780 not before 1777 - for Keyboard, Flute, Violin and Viola BR-JCFB B 30 \ Sonata No. 1 (lost) BR-JCFB B 31 \ Sonata No. 2 in G major (Wf VII/5) BR-JCFB B 32 \ Sonata No. 3 in A major (Wf VII/6) BR-JCFB B 33 \ Sonata No. 4 (lost) BR-JCFB B 34 \ Sonata No. 5 in C major (Wf VII/7) BR-JCFB B 35 \ Sonata No. 6 (lost) BR-JCFB B 36 \ Sonata in A major (Keyboard, Cello) (Wf X/4) (lost) Six Quartet for Flute, Violin, Viola and Basso Continuo - composed around 1768/69 and not before 1766 BR-JCFB B 37 \ Quartet No. 1 in D major (Wf VI/1) BR-JCFB B 38 \ Quartet No. 2 in G major (Wf VI/2) BR-JCFB B 39 \ Quartet No. 3 in C major (Wf VI/3) BR-JCFB B 40 \ Quartet No. 4 in D major (Wf VI/4) BR-JCFB B 41 \ Quartet No. 5 in F major (Wf VI/5) BR-JCFB B 42 \ Quartet No. 6 in B-flat major (Wf VI/6) Six Quartet for 2 Violins, viola and Basso Continuo - composed in England around 1778 BR-JCFB B 43 \ String Quartet No. 1 in E-flat major BR-JCFB B 44 \ String Quartet No. 2 in B-flat major BR-JCFB B 45 \ String Quartet No. 3 in A major BR-JCFB B 46 \ String Quartet No. 4 in D major BR-JCFB B 47 \ String Quartet No. 5 in G major BR-JCFB B 48 \ String Quartet No. 6 in F major BR-JCFB B 49 \ (Wind) Septet for Oboe, 2 Clarinets, 2 Bassoons and 2 Horns in E-flat major (Wf IV/1) (lost) BR-JCFB B 50 - 53 \ 4 Marches for wind band (lost) BR-JCFB B Inc1 \ Trio Sonata for 2 violins & b.c. in B-flat major (Wf XX/3) BR-JCFB B Inc2 \ Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & b.c. in C major (lost) BR-JCFB B Inc3 \ Cello Sonata in D major (Wf X/2) (lost) BR-JCFB B Inc4 \ Violin Sonata (lost) Orchestral works Seven Symphonies - composed before December 23, 1768 BR-JCFB C 1 \ Symphony in D major (Wf I/5) (lost) BR-JCFB C 1b \ Symphony in D major - keyboard reduction (Wf I/5) BR-JCFB C 2 - 3 \ 2 Symphonies (lost) BR-JCFB C 4 \ Symphony in D minor (Wf I/3) BR-JCFB C 5 \ Symphony in F major (Wf I/1) BR-JCFB C 6 \ Symphony in B-flat major (Wf I/2) BR-JCFB C 7 \ Symphony in E major (Wf I/4) Three Symphonies - composed by 1770 BR-JCFB C 8 - 9 \ 2 Symphonies(lost) BR-JCFB C 10 \ Symphony in C major (Wf I/6) Three Symphonies à 6- composed until 1770 BR-JCFB C 11 \ Symphony in D major (Wf I/8) (lost) BR-JCFB C 12 \ Symphony in G major (Wf I/7) (lost) BR-JCFB C 13 \ Symphony in D major (Wf I/9) (lost) BR-JCFB C 14 \ Symphony in E-flat major (Wf I/10) BR-JCFB C 15 - 17 \ 3 Symphonies (lost) Six Symphonies à 8 or à 10 - composed by 1792 BR-JCFB C 18 \ Symphony (lost) BR-JCFB C 19 \ Symphony no. 2 in D major (Wf I/11) (lost) BR-JCFB C 20 \ Symphony no. 3 in F major (Wf I/12) (lost) BR-JCFB C 21 \ Symphony no. 4 in D major (Wf I/13) (lost) BR-JCFB C 22 \ Symphony no. 5 in C major (Wf I/14) (lost) BR-JCFB C 23 \ Symphony no. 6 in G major (Wf I/15) BR-JCFB C 24 \ Symphony in E-flat major (Wf I/18) (lost) BR-JCFB C 25 \ Symphony in E-flat major (Wf I/19) (lost) BR-JCFB C 26 \ "Grand Symphony" in D major (Wf I/16) (lost) BR-JCFB C 27 \ Symphony in C major (Wf I/17) (lost) BR-JCFB C 28 \ Symphony in B-flat major (Wf I/20) - composed until August 1794 BR-JCFB C 29 \ Keyboard Concerto no. 1 in E-flat major (incorrectly attributed to JCB (Warb YC 90) BR-JCFB C 30a \ Keyboard Concerto no. 2(Orchestral version) in A major - until mid-May 1768 (Incorrectly attributed to CPE Bach and JC Bach) H383 and H490, Warb YC 91 BR-JCFB C 30b \ Keyboard Concerto no 2. (Keyboard solo) in A major - until mid-May 1768 (Incorrectly attributed to CPE Bach and JC Bach) H383,H384 Six Keyboard Concerto - Composed in England around 1778 or immediately after his return. BR-JCFB C 31 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 1" in G major BR-JCFB C 32 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 2" in F major BR-JCFB C 33 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 3" in D major BR-JCFB C 34 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 4" in E-flat major BR-JCFB C 35 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 5" in B-flat major BR-JCFB C 36 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 6" in C major BR-JCFB C 37 \ Harpsichord Concerto in E major - 1782 (Wf II/1) BR-JCFB C 38 \ Keyboard Concerto (1766) (lost) BR-JCFB C 39 \ Keyboard Concerto (1788) (lost) BR-JCFB C 40 \ Harpsichord Concerto in F major - 1782 (Wf II/4) BR-JCFB C 41 \ Harpsichord Concerto in D major - around 1780/85 (Wf II/2) BR-JCFB C 42 \ Keyboard Concerto in A major (Wf II/3) (lost) BR-JCFB C 43 \ "Concerto Grosso" in E-flat major - before September 1792 (Wf II/5) (1792) BR-JCFB C 44 \ Concerto for Keyboard and Viola in E-flat major - around 1790 (wf S. 152) BR-JCFB C 45 \ Concerto for Keyboard and Oboe in E-flat major (Wf III) (lost) BR-JCFB C 46 \ Keyboard Concerto in C major - identity of composer is uncertain - before 1749 Vocal works Liturgical Works Oratorios BR-JCFB D 1 \ Die Pillgrimme auf Golgatha - incorrectly attributed to CPE Bach H 862 BR-JCFB D 2a \ Original version Der Tod Jesu (Wf XIV/1) - (BWV 244/3, 244/62) - Performed April 13, 1770 BR-JCFB D 2b \ Later version Der Tod Jesu (Wf XIV/1) - erformed April 8, 1784 BR-JCFB D 3a \ Original version Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu (Wf XIV/10) - Performed April 19, 1772 BR-JCFB D 3b \ Later version Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu (Wf XIV/10) - around 1785 BR-JCFB D 4 \ Die Hirten bey der Krippe Jesu (Wf XIV/9) (lost) BR-JCFB D 5a \ Early version Die Kindheit Jesu (Wf XIV/2) - performed February 11, 1773 BR-JCFB D 5b \ Revised version Die Kindheit Jesu (Wf XIV/2) - around 1784/85 BR-JCFB D 6a \ Original version Die Auferweckung Lazarus (Wf XIV/3) - performed April 23, 1773 BR-JCFB D 6b \ Later version Die Auferweckung Lazarus (Wf XIV/3) - around 1785/90 BR-JCFB D 7 \ Der Fremdling auf Golgotha (Wf XIV/7) (lost) Cantata BR-JCFB D 8a \ Mosis Mutter und ihre Tochter (Wf XVII/3) (incomplete) - before February 1788 BR-JCFB D 8b \ Keyboard reduction Mosis Mutter und ihre Tochter (Wf XVII/3) (incomplete) - before February 1788 Mass/ Mass set/ Magnificat BR-JCFB E 1a \ Miserere BR-JCFB E 1b \ Miserere Cantatas BR-JCFB F 1 \ Pfingstkantate (Wf XIV/4) (lost) BR-JCFB F 2 \ Sieh, Bückeburg, was Gott an Dir getan (lost) BR-JCFB F 3 \ Himmelfahrts-Musik (Wf XIV/8) BR-JCFB F 4 \ Michaels Sieg (Wf XIV/5) BR-JCFB F 5 \ Nun, teures Land, der Herr hat dich erhört (lost) BR-JCFB F 6 \ Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied (Wf XIV/11) (lost) BR-JCFB F 7 \ Gott wird deinen Fuß nicht gleiten lassen (Wf XIV/12) BR-JCFB F Inc1 \ Funeral Music for Count Philipp Ernst (lost) BR-JCFB F Inc2 \ Heut ist der Tag des Dankens, ihr Völker (lost) Arias, cantatas and incidental music BR-JCFB G 1 \ Luci amate ah non piangete (Wf XVIII/8) BR-JCFB G 2 - 11 \ 10 Italian Arias (lost) BR-JCFB G 12 - 26 \ 15 Italian Cantatas (lost) BR-JCFB G 27 \ L'Inciampo (Wf XVIII/2) BR-JCFB G 28 - 44 \ 18 Italian Cantatas (lost) BR-JCFB G 45 \ Scenes for Il pastor fido (lost) BR-JCFB G 46 \ Cassandra (Wf XVIII/1) BR-JCFB G 47 \ Die Amerikanerin (Wf XVIII/3) BR-JCFB G 48 \ Ino (Wf XVIII/4) BR-JCFB G 49 \ Prokris und Cephalus (Wf XVIII/6) BR-JCFB G 50 \ Pygmalion (Wf XVIII/5) BR-JCFB G 51 \ Ariadne auf Naxos (lost) BR-JCFB G 52 \ Brutus (Wf XVII/1) (lost) BR-JCFB G 53 \ Philoktetes (Wf XVII/2) (lost) BR-JCFB G Inc1 \ Stimmt an, greift rasch in eure Saiten (lost) BR-JCFB G Inc2 \ Va crescendo il mio tormento Songs BR-JCFB H 1 \ Lied: Ein dunkler Feind (Wf XIX/1.1) BR-JCFB H 2 \ Lied: Die Gespenster (Wf XIX/1.2) BR-JCFB H 3 \ Lied: Die Zeit (Wf XIX:/1.3) BR-JCFB H 4 \ Lied: Der Sieg über sich selbst (Wf XIX/1.4) BR-JCFB H 5 \ Lied: Der Nachbarin Climene (Wf XIX/1.5) Other works in Wohlfarth's catalogue Wf V \ Sextet for piano, winds & strings in C major (see Johann Christian Bach WarB B 78) Wf XV/1 \ Ich lieg und schlafe ganz mit Frieden Wf XV/2 \ Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, chorale motet on the hymn by Philipp Nicolai Wf XV/3 \ Dem Erlöser Wf XV/4 \ Unsere Auferstehung durch die Auferstehung Jesu Wf XVI/1 \ 5 Geistliche Lieder Wf XVI/2 \ 50 Geistliche Lieder Wf XVIII/7 \ O, wir bringen gerne dir Wf XVIIII/2 \ 24 Lieder Wf XX/1 \ Keyboard Concerto in C minor Wf XX/2 \ Keyboard Concerto in G major Wf XX/4 \ Fugue for keyboard in C minor Wf XXI/1 \ Arrangement of CPE Bach's "Weynachtslied" Wf XXI/2 \ Arrangement of CPE Bach's "Dancklied" Wf XXI/3 \ Arrangement of CPE Bach's "Der thätige Glaube" Works not referenced in any catalogue Cello Sonata in G major References Notes Sources Ulrich Leisinger, "Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach," Grove Music Online Eugene Helm, "Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach" The New Grove Bach Family, Macmillan 1985 External links 1732 births 1795 deaths People from Bückeburg Classical-period composers German male classical composers 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250979	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Christian%20Bach	Johann Christian Bach	Johann Christian Bach (September 5, 1735 – January 1, 1782) was a German composer of the Classical era, the eighteenth child of Johann Sebastian Bach, and the youngest of his eleven sons. After living in Italy for several years, Bach moved to London in 1762, where he became known as "the London Bach". He is also sometimes known as "the English Bach", and during his time spent living in the British capital, he came to be known as John Bach. He is noted for playing a role in influencing the concerto styles of Haydn and Mozart. He contributed significantly to the development of the new sonata principle. Life Johann Christian Bach was born to Johann Sebastian and Anna Magdalena Bach in Leipzig, Germany. His distinguished father was already 50 at the time of his birth—an age gap exemplified by the sharp differences in the musical styles of father and son. Even so, father Bach instructed Johann Christian in music until his death in 1750. After his father's death, he worked (and lived) with his second-oldest half brother Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, who was twenty-one years his senior and considered at the time to be the most musically gifted of Bach's sons. He enjoyed a promising career, first as a composer then as a performer playing alongside Carl Friedrich Abel, the notable player of the viola da gamba. He composed cantatas, chamber music, keyboard and orchestral works, operas and symphonies. Bach lived in Italy for many years starting in 1750, studying with Padre Martini in Bologna. He became organist at the Milan cathedral in 1760. During his time in Italy, he converted from Lutheranism to Catholicism and devoted much time to the composition of church music, including music for a Requiem Mass and a Te Deum. His first major work was a Mass, which received an excellent performance and acclaim in 1757. In 1762, Bach travelled to London to première three operas at the King's Theatre, including Orione on 19 February 1763. In 1764 or 1765, the castrato Giusto Fernando Tenducci, who became a close friend, created the title role in his opera Adriano in Siria at King's. That established his reputation in England, and he became music master to Queen Charlotte. In 1766, Bach met soprano Cecilia Grassi, who was eleven years his junior, and married her shortly thereafter. They had no children. J. C. Bach performed symphonies and concertos at the Hanover Square Rooms. This was London's premier concert venue in the heart of fashionable Mayfair. The surrounding Georgian homes offered well-to-do clientele for his performances. One of London's primary literary circles, which included Jane Timbury, Robert Gunnell Esq., Lord Beauchamp, and the Duchess of Buccleuch, was acquainted with Bach, and members were regular attendees at his events. In 1777, he won a landmark case, Bach v Longman, which established that (in English law) copyright law applied to musical scores. By the late 1770s, both his popularity and finances were in decline. By the time of Bach's death on New Year's Day 1782, he had become so indebted (in part due to his steward embezzling his money), that Queen Charlotte stepped in to cover the expenses of the estate and provided a life pension for Bach's widow. He was buried in the graveyard of St. Pancras Old Church, London. Legacy A full account of J. C. Bach's career is given in the fourth volume of Charles Burney's History of Music. There are two others named Johann Christian Bach in the Bach family tree, but neither was a composer. In 1764, Bach met with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who was aged eight at the time and had been brought to London by his father. Bach then spent five months teaching Mozart in composition. Bach is widely regarded as having a strong influence on the young Mozart, with scholars such as Téodor de Wyzewa and Georges de Saint-Foix describing him as "The only true teacher of Mozart". Mozart arranged three sonatas from Bach's Op. 5 into keyboard concertos, and in later life Mozart "often acknowledged the artistic debt he owed" to Johann Christian. Upon hearing of Bach's death in 1782, Mozart commented, "What a loss to the musical world!" Haydn became familiar with his works as well and preformed his works while visiting London. Works The works of J. C. Bach are given 'W' numbers, from Ernest Warburton's Thematic catalog of his works (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1999). Bach's compositions include eleven operas, as well as chamber music, orchestral music and compositions for keyboard. References Notes Further reading Hans T. David, A. Mendel, C. Wolff. The New Bach Reader: A Life of Johann Sebastian Bach in Letters and Documents (New York: Norton, 1998). Heinz Gärtner (trans. by Reinhard Pauly). John Christian Bach: Mozart's Friend and Mentor. (Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1994). Philipp Spitta (trans. by Clara Bell & J. A. Fuller-Maitland). Johann Sebastian Bach, his work and influence on the music of Germany, 1685–1750, 3 vols. (London: Novello & Co., 1899): Vol I, Vol II, Vol III Charles Sanford Terry. John Christian Bach (London: Oxford University Press, 1967). Christoph Wolff et al. The New Grove Bach Family. (New York: Norton, 1983) pp. 315ff. . Percy M. Young. The Bachs: 1500–1850 (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1970). External links J. C. Bach (classical.net) J. C. 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250981	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Andreas%20Barclay%20de%20Tolly	Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly	Prince Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly (; – ) was an Imperial Russian soldier of Baltic German and Scottish origin, who was commander-in-chief and Minister of War of the Russian Empire during Napoleon's invasion in 1812 and the War of the Sixth Coalition. Barclay implemented a number of reforms during this time that improved supply system in the army, doubled the number of army troops, and implemented new combat training principles. He was also the Governor-General of Finland. He was born into a German-speaking noble family from Livonia, who were of Scottish descent. His father was the first of his family to be accepted into the Russian nobility. Barclay joined the Imperial Russian Army at a young age in 1776. He served with distinction in the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92), the Russo-Swedish War (1788–90), and the Kościuszko Uprising (1794). In 1806, Barclay began commanding in the Napoleonic Wars, distinguishing himself at the Battle of Pułtusk that same year. He was wounded at the Battle of Eylau in 1807 while his troops were covering the retreat of the Russian army. Because of his wounds, he was forced to leave command. The following year, he carried out successful operations in the Finnish War against Sweden. Barclay led a large number of Russian troops approximately 100 km across the frozen Gulf of Bothnia in winter during a snowstorm. For his accomplishments, Barclay de Tolly was appointed Governor-General of the Grand Duchy of Finland. From 20 January 1810 to September 1812 he was the Minister of War of the Russian Empire. When the French invasion of Russia began in 1812, Barclay de Tolly was commander of the 1st Army of the West, the largest Army to face Napoleon. Barclay initiated a scorched earth policy from the beginning of the campaign, though this made him unpopular among Russians. After the Battle of Smolensk failed to halt the French and discontent among Russians continued to grow, Alexander I appointed Mikhail Kutuzov as Commander-in-Chief, though Barclay remained in charge of the 1st Army. However, Kutuzov continued the same scorched earth retreat up to Moscow where the Battle of Borodino took place nearby. Barclay commanded the right wing and center of the Russian army for the battle. After Napoleon's retreat, the eventual success of Barclay's tactics made him a hero among Russians. He became Commander-in-Chief in 1813 after the battle of Bautzen, replacing Wittgenstein (Who had been appointed after Kutuzov's death early in 1813) and led the taking of Paris, for which he was made a Field Marshal. His health later declined and he died on a visit to Germany in 1818. Early life and family Michael Andreas was born as a son of Gotthard Barclay de Tolly (1734–1781) and his wife Margarethe Elisabeth von Smitten (1733-1771). The Barclay de Tolly family were German-speaking descendants of the Scottish Clan Barclay. Their ancestor Peter Barclay emigrated from Towie, Aberdeenshire (Towy or Tolly; ) and settled in Livonia in the 17th century. He was born in , Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (present-day Pamūšis, Šiauliai County, Lithuania) and raised in Beckhof, Livonia, Russian Empire (now Jõgeveste, Estonia), which was his mother's family estate. The commonly accepted birth date of 27 December 1761 is actually the day of his baptism in the Lutheran church of the town of Zaumel. His grandfather Wilhelm Barclay de Tolly served as the mayor of Riga, while his father served in the Russian army before being admitted into the ranks of the Russian nobility by the Tsar. From 1765, the young Barclay de Tolly grew up in St. Petersburg and was raised by his aunt. This was a common occurrence amongst the German Protestants, and it gave the young man an exposure to higher society unavailable in the Baltic provinces. The future field marshal started his active service in the Imperial Russian Army in 1776, and he would spend the rest of his life with the military. He had two brothers who also served in the Russian army: Axel Heinrich Barclay de Tolly, a Major General of Engineers, and Erich Johann Barclay de Tolly, a Major of Artillery. Service history Barclay was enlisted in the Pskov Carabineer Regiment on 13 May 1776, and he achieved the rank of a cornet by May 1778. In the same year, he joined the Imperial jaeger regiments, and with his unit was assigned to the army of Prince Potemkin. In 1788–1789, during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92), Barclay served under the command of Victor Amadeus of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym. During this campaign, he distinguished himself in the taking of Ochakov and Akkerman. For his role in the capture of Ochakov, he was personally decorated by Prince Potemkin. In 1789, during the Russo-Swedish War (1788–90), he was transferred to the Finnish front,. Four years later, he fought in the Polish Campaign of 1794, and was decorated for his role in the capture of Vilnius. He was a lieutenant colonel by 1794 after serving as aide-de-camp to various senior officers in several campaigns. In that year, he was appointed commander of the Estland Jaeger Corps, and three years later commander of the 4th Jaeger Regiment, becoming its chief in 1799, soon after being promoted to general major for his service in Poland. In the war of 1806 against Napoleon, Barclay took a distinguished part in the Battle of Pultusk (December 1806) and was wounded at the Battle of Eylau (7 February 1807), where his conduct won him promotion to the rank of lieutenant general. After a period of convalescence, Barclay returned to the army and in 1808 commanded operations against the Swedes during the Finnish War. In 1809, he successfully marched over the frozen Gulf of Bothnia, which allowed him to surprise the enemy and seize Umeå in Sweden. For this exploit, immortalized by the Russian poet Baratynsky, he was made full general and Governor-General of Finland. A year later, he became Minister of War, retaining the post until 1813. Napoleon's invasion During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, Barclay assumed the supreme command of the 1st Army of the West, the largest of the Russian armies facing Napoleon. He used a strategy of retreat leaving behind scorched earth from the beginning of the campaign in order to draw the French supply lines deep into Russian territory and retreated to the village of Tsaryovo-Zaimishche between Moscow and Smolensk, although some consider the strategy merely an confluence of diverse circumstances and not attributable to the will of one man. Nevertheless, the Russians keenly opposed the appointment of a non-Russian as commander-in-chief. His rivals spread rumors of his being Napoleon's agent, and the populace condemned him as a coward. Barclay was forced by his subordinates and the Tsar to engage Napoleon at Smolensk (17–18 August 1812). Napoleon forced Barclay to retreat when he threatened Barclay's only escape route. After the loss of the "Holy City" of Smolensk, the outcry of officers and civilians grew to a point where the Tsar could no longer ignore it. He appointed Kutuzov, previously a general at the battle of Austerlitz, as the over-all commander of the Russian forces. Barclay remained General of the 1st Army of the West. Barclay commanded the right flank at the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) with great valour and presence of mind, and during the celebrated council at Fili advised Kutuzov to surrender unfortified Moscow to the enemy. His illness made itself known at that time and he was forced to leave the army soon afterwards. After Napoleon was driven from Russia, the eventual success of Barclay's tactics made him a romantic hero, misunderstood by his contemporaries and rejected by the court. His popularity soared, and his honour was restored by the tsar. Foreign campaigns Barclay was re-employed in the field and took part in the German Campaign of 1813 and the French Campaign of 1814, which ended the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814). After Kutuzov's death, he once again became commander-in-chief of the Russian forces at the Battle of Bautzen (21 May 1813), and in this capacity he served at Dresden (26–27 August 1813), Kulm (29–30 August 1813) and Leipzig (16–19 October 1813). In the latter battle, he commanded a central part of the Allied forces so effectively that the tsar bestowed upon him the title of count. Barclay took part in the invasion of France in 1814 and commanded the taking of Paris, receiving the baton of a Field Marshal in reward. In 1815 he again served as commander-in-chief of the Russian army, which after the Hundred Days occupied France, and he was made a prince at the close of the war. As his health grew worse, he left the military and settled down in his Jõgeveste manor (German exonym: Beckhof, Polish: Tepelshof) (in what is now southern Estonia). Barclay de Tolly died at Insterburg (Chernyakhovsk), East Prussia, on 26 May 1818 (14 May, Old Style) on his way from his Livonian manor to Germany, where he wanted to renew his health. His and his wife Helene Auguste Eleonore von Smitten's remains were embalmed and put into the mausoleum built to a design by Apollon Shchedrin and Vasily Demut-Malinovsky in 1832 in Jõgeveste. A grand statue of him was erected in front of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg at the behest of Emperor Nicholas I. He is also commemorated by a modern statue in Riga, a full-size bronze-mounted statue by Vladimir Surovtsev in Chernyakhovsk, a bust monument in Tartu, and the so-called "Barclay's leaning house" in Tartu (which was acquired by his widow after his death). Personal life and family In 1791, Michael married his cousin, Auguste Helena Eleonora von Smitten (1770-1828), daughter of Hinrich Johann von Smitten (1731-1782) and Renata Helena von Stackelberg (1749-1786). After the extinction of the Barclay de Tolly princely line with his son Magnus on 29 October 1871 (17 October, Old Style), Alexander II allowed the field marshal's sister's grandson through female lineage, Alexander von Weymarn, to assume the title of Prince Barclay de Tolly-Weymarn on 12 June 1872 (31 May, Old Style). Awards and decorations Order of St. Andrew (7 September 1813) Order of St. George - Barclay de Tolly was the second of four full Knights of St. George in the history of the Order. This includes his contemporary, Kutuzov; 1st class (19 August 1813, № 11) - "For the defeat of the French at the Battle of Kulm 18 August 1813"; 2nd class bol.kr. (21 October 1812, № 44) - "For his part in the Battle of Borodino on 26 August 1812"; 3rd class (8 January 1807, № 139) - "In the great reward of bravery and courage, rendered in the battle against the French troops on December 14th at Pultusk, where he commanded the vanguard ahead pravago flank, with a special skill and prudence kept the enemy at all times of battle and overturned Nadezhda"; 4th class (16 September 1794, № 547) - "For outstanding courage, rendered against the Polish insurgents in the capture of fortifications and by the mountains. Villeneuve"; Gold Sword for Bravery with diamonds and laurels with the inscription" for 20 January 1814" (1814); Order of St. Vladimir, 1st class (15 September 1811), 2nd class (7 March 1807), 4th class (12 July 1788); Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (9 September 1809); diamonds added (9 May 1813); Order of St. Anna, 1st class (7 March 1807); Golden Cross for taking Ochakov (7 December 1788); Cross "For the victory of Eylau" (1807); Order of the Red Eagle (Prussia, 1807); Order of the Black Eagle (Prussia, 1813); Commander of the Military Order of Maria Theresa (Austria, 1813); Order of the Sword, 1st class (Sweden, 1814); Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, (France, 1815); Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, (UK, 1815); Sword with diamonds (UK, 1816); Military William Order, 1st class (Netherlands, 1815); Military Order of St. Henry, 1st class (Saxony, 1815); Order of Saint Louis, 1st class (France, 1816). Commemoratives and legacy The Nesvizhskiy 4th Grenadier regiment (the General-Field Marshal Prince Barklay-de-Tolli, Mikhail Bogdanovich's) was named for the Prince in 1880s. He was also the namesake of a short-lived Russian fortress in the Hawaiian Islands. A statue of Barclay de Tolly was erected in 2001 in the Esplanade gardens in Riga, evoking an earlier 1913 monument that was melted down for military use during World War I. Whereas his lineage as a Baltic-Scottish Baron (and as such: Non-Russian) had caused him to be derided by Russian historians in the late 19th and throughout the 20th century in favor of Kutuzov, his image as a leader has undergone a positive reassessment in recent years. The main-belt asteroid 4524 Barklajdetolli, discovered by Lyudmila Zhuravleva in 1981, was named in his honor. In the West Siberian river shipping company MRF RSFSR (Barnaul) operated steam tug Barclay. In 2013, JSC Aeroflot - Russian Airlines received the Boeing 777-300ER aircraft manufactured by the Boeing Corporation, named in honor of the outstanding Russian military leader - M. Barclay de Tolly. Notes References Sources Further reading At Runivers.ru External links Barclay de Tolly Genealogisches Handbuch der Oeselschen Ritterschaft, de Tolly family tree in the Oesel Noble Corporation Pictures of the de Tolly statue in Riga at sites-of-memory.de \|- 1761 births 1818 deaths People from Pakruojis District Municipality People from the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia Baltic-German people Russian people of Scottish descent Russian princes Field marshals of Russia Russian commanders of the Napoleonic Wars Russian people of the Napoleonic Wars Russian military personnel of the Finnish War Governors of the Grand Duchy of Finland Members of the State Council (Russian Empire) Cavalry commanders Russian people of the Kościuszko Uprising Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword Recipients of the Gold Sword for Bravery 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250982	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Canadian%20federal%20election	2000 Canadian federal election	The 2000 Canadian federal election was held on November 27, 2000, to elect members to the House of Commons of Canada of the 37th Parliament of Canada. Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's Liberal Party won a third majority government. Since the previous election of 1997, small-c conservatives had begun attempts to merge the Reform Party of Canada and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada as part of the United Alternative agenda. During that time, Jean Charest stepped down as leader of the Progressive Conservatives and former Prime Minister Joe Clark took over the party and opposed any union with the Reform Party. In the spring of 2000, the Reform Party became the Canadian Alliance, a political party dedicated to uniting conservatives together into one party. Former Reform Party leader Preston Manning lost in a leadership race to Stockwell Day who became leader of the new Canadian Alliance party. The federal government called an early election after being in office for just over three years (with a maximum allowed mandate of five years). The governing Liberal Party of Canada won a third consecutive majority government, winning more seats than in 1997. The Canadian Alliance only made minor gains, and an Eastern breakthrough did not happen. The Bloc Québécois, New Democratic Party and the Progressive Conservatives all suffered slight losses. This was the last election until 2011 that resulted in a majority government. This was the only election contested by the Canadian Alliance and the last by the Progressive Conservatives (as they both merged into the Conservative Party of Canada in 2003). This was also the first election in which Nunavut was its own separate territory (before, it was part of the Northwest Territories). Campaign On October 22, 2000, Prime Minister and Liberal Party leader Jean Chrétien advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to dissolve parliament and call an election scheduled for November 27, 2000. This move has been viewed by commentators as an attempt to stem a possible rise of support to the newly formed Canadian Alliance, to stop the leadership ambitions of Paul Martin, and to capitalize on the nostalgia created by the recent death of Pierre Elliot Trudeau. At the time of the election, the Canadian economy was strong and there were few immediate negative issues, as the opposition parties were not prepared for the campaign. The major issue in the election was health care which had risen in public opinion polls to be the most important issue for Canadians. The public was largely uninterested in the election, with commentators stating that voters expected a repeat of previous regionally divided elections that offered little chance of a change of government. The Liberals' final television advertisement, according to Stephen Clarkson's The Big Red Machine, "emphasized the contrast between [the Liberals and the Canadian Alliance] while warning voters about [PC leader] Joe Clark's claim that he would form a coalition with the Bloc Québécois in a minority government. The ad told Canadians not to take risks with other parties but to choose a strong, proven team". Political parties Liberal Party The Liberal Party entered the election with a record of ending the budgetary deficit, making major reductions in federal spending (such as by cuts to the civil service, privatization of crown corporations), creating new environmental regulations, and increasing spending beginning on social programs beginning in 1998 after the budget deficit had ended and a surplus had been achieved. The Liberal Party came under attack by opposition parties for irregularities in the Department of Human Resources' Transition Job Fund program, but Chrétien managed to capably defend the government's actions. Chrétien was directly attacked by the opposition parties for alleged corrupt involvement from the Prime Minister's Office (PMO) in providing funding to local projects in Chrétien's riding of Saint-Maurice. The Liberal Party focused its attacks on the Canadian Alliance, accusing it of being a dangerous right-wing movement that was dangerous to national unity. The Liberal Party's most tense problem was the ongoing leadership feud within the Liberal Party between Chrétien and Finance Minister Paul Martin who wanted to replace Chrétien as Liberal leader and Prime Minister. Strategy Due to the regionalized nature of previous elections, the Liberal Party designed its election strategy along regional lines, aiming to take every seat in Ontario, winning seats in Quebec from the Bloc Québécois, and winning seats in Atlantic Canada, while attempting to minimize losses in Western Canada to the Canadian Alliance. Chrétien only spent parts of nine days campaigning in the West, including only two stops in the province of Alberta, both in the city of Edmonton while visiting the province of British Columbia only three times, and only in the cities of Victoria and Vancouver. The Liberal Party focused its effort in regaining support in Atlantic Canada, where the party had suffered serious losses in the 1997 election to the New Democratic Party and Progressive Conservative Party due to the Liberal government's imposition of quotas on Atlantic Canadian cod fisheries and the government's cuts to unemployment insurance benefits. Chrétien gained support during the campaign from former New Brunswick Premier Frank McKenna and former Chrétien government minister and then the current Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador, Brian Tobin resigned as Premier and ran as a Liberal Party candidate in his province. During the campaign, Chrétien apologized to Atlantic Canadians for the negative impact of employment insurance reforms which had caused hardship in Atlantic Canada. In Quebec, the Liberal Party benefited from the collapse of support for the Progressive Conservative Party, after the PCs' popular Québécois leader Jean Charest had resigned in 1998 and was replaced by former Prime Minister Joe Clark who was unpopular in Quebec which resulted in three PC members from Quebec defecting to join the Liberal Party prior to the election. In Quebec the recently passed Clarity Act by the federal government was controversial in that it demanded a clear and concise question on a new referendum on sovereignty. Chrétien defended the Clarity Act and attacked sovereigntist Quebec premier and former Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard, challenging him to hold another referendum on sovereignty under the new laws, as Chrétien expected that the sovereigntists would lose such a referendum. The Liberal Party promised a number of government projects in Quebec to woo Quebec voters to the Liberal Party. The Liberal Party appealed to Canada's most populous province of Ontario by acting to restore funding that its government had cut in the 1990s in order to cut the deficit of the 1990s. The Liberal government established a health accord with all premiers in September 2000 that involved major projected increases to public health care spending. Overall, the Liberals increased their number of seats in the House of Commons from 155 seats to 172 seats. They also won the popular vote in their former stronghold of Quebec for the first time since 1980, though they narrowly fell short of winning the most seats in the province, winning 36 seats to the Bloc's 38. Canadian Alliance The Canadian Alliance (the common short form name of Canadian Reform Conservative Alliance) was a new political party in the election, having been created only months earlier as the successor to the Reform Party of Canada, a party founded as a Western Canada protest party which sought to become a national party in the 1990s. Reform Party leader Preston Manning was deeply disappointed with the Reform Party's failure to spread eastward in the 1997 election, as the Reform Party lost its only seat in Ontario in that election. Reform identified vote-splitting with its rival conservative movement, the Progressive Conservative Party as the cause for the Liberals' 1997 election victory, and Manning proposed the solution of a merger of the Reform and Progressive Conservative parties. This agenda by the Reform Party to unite the two parties was called the United Alternative which began in 1998, and ultimately resulted in the Alliance. The new party subsequently elected Stockwell Day as leader over Manning. The Alliance had hoped to use the 2000 election to eclipse the PC party in Ontario and Eastern Canada. The Alliance dedicated its campaign to demonstrating that the party was a national party and not as western-based as its predecessor had been perceived as. Day's more media friendly and "easy going" persona was expected to appeal to more Ontario voters than Manning's reputation as a policy wonk, and after the United Alternative project had integrated the successful Provincial PCs in the party, the Canadian Alliance was hoping for major improvements. The Alliance campaigned on: cutting taxes by reducing the Federal taxation rate to two lower tax brackets, an end to the federal gun registration program, and importance of family values. The campaign was dogged by accusations: introducing a two-tier health care—the party would allow private health care to exist alongside the public medicare system; and for threatening the protection of gay rights and abortion rights. The latter accusations tended to focus on the party's residual direct democracy provisions in their platform. The accusations against his party platform, along with Day's relative inexperience compared to decades-experienced fixtures like Clark and Chrétien, led to the party fading from contention. While they did not force the Liberals into minority government or finally eclipse the PC party, they did retain their official opposition status, and increased their numbers in the House of Commons by six seats, from 60 to 66. The Alliance ended up winning only two Ontario ridings. On election night, controversy arose when a CBC producer's gratuitously sexist comment about Stockwell Day's daughter-in-law, Juliana Thiessen-Day, was accidentally broadcast on the Canadian networks' pooled election feed from Day's riding. Bloc Québécois The Bloc Québécois suffered from the unpopular decision of its provincial counterpart, the ruling Parti Québécois government's agenda to merge the communities surrounding Quebec City into one community. Many Québécois were angered by this decision and voted in protest against the Bloc or chose to not vote at all to demonstrate their frustration. Bloc leader Gilles Duceppe received negative media attention after he decided to personally appoint candidate Noël Tremblay to run in the riding of Chicoutimi—Le Fjord in spite of the Bloc's riding association's selection of Sylvain Gaudreault to run in the riding. The Bloc's 177 page platform was criticized as being far too large and few copies were distributed and few internet users accessed the platform because of is length and was rarely discussed during the campaign. Instead, the Bloc produced large numbers of copies of small booklets that outlined the policies within the large platform. The Bloc campaigned to try to win over previous supporters of the PC Party. This campaign strategy failed, as the Bloc lost seats to the Liberal Party due to the collapse of Quebec support for the Progressive Conservative Party, whose voters shifted to the Liberal Party. The Bloc won in 38 ridings, six ridings fewer than in the 1997 election. New Democratic Party The New Democratic Party suffered badly in the campaign due to the drop in support for the provincial New Democratic parties over the preceding decade and amid a scandal in 2000 facing British Columbia's NDP Premier Glen Clark who was forced to resign as Premier. Matters were made worse for the federal NDP after Saskatchewan's NDP Premier Roy Romanow resigned in 2000 after the party lost seats in the 1999 Saskatchewan provincial election, and afterwards suggested that the federal NDP should merge with the Liberal Party. In Nova Scotia, the provincial NDP lost seats in its 1999 election while the NDP government of the Yukon had been recently defeated. As Canada's major social democratic political party, it relied on support from the labour movement, but recent strains between the NDP and the Canadian Auto Workers union and the Canadian Labour Congress had weakened the party's base of support. The party had received little media attention during the election and 2000 as a whole, due to the media's focus on Canada's newest political party, the Canadian Alliance, the political comeback of former Prime Minister Joe Clark to the leadership of the Progressive Conservative Party, and the leadership feud within the Liberal Party between Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin. The NDP did not expect to do well in the election and aimed to win thirty-two "must-win" seats. The NDP's platform and campaign focused on protecting medicare while attacking the Liberal Party for its tax cuts to wealthy Canadians and corporations. The NDP's focus on attacking the Liberals failed to recognize the surging support for the Canadian Alliance in the province of Saskatchewan, which the NDP had hoped to gain seats in. The NDP failed to galvanize support, as it remained low in support in polling results throughout most of the election campaign. NDP leader Alexa McDonough performed badly in the French-language debate due to her not being fluent in French. In the English-language debate, McDonough attacked Alliance leader Stockwell Day for favouring two-tier health care and attacked Liberal leader Jean Chrétien for giving out tax cuts to the wealthy rather than funding Canada's public health care system. Progressive Conservative Party The Progressive Conservative Party aimed to regain its former place in Canadian politics under the leadership of former Prime Minister Joe Clark. The PC Party had a very disappointing election, falling from 20 to 12 seats, and being almost exclusively confined to the Maritime provinces and Newfoundland. It won the 12 seats needed for Official party status in the House of Commons, however. Failure to win 12 seats might have marginalized the party in the House of Commons, and likely led to a more rapid decline. Governing parties have the option of extending party status to caucuses of less than twelve members at their discretion. Had the Progressive Conservatives been just a few seats short of the requisite twelve and the NDP had stayed at least twelve seats, the Liberal government would likely have exercised this option as they had done for Social Credit in 1974. Results Vote and seat summaries Results by province Source: Elections Canada Gains and losses The following seats changed allegiance from the 1997 election: Liberal to Alliance Lanark—Carleton Provencher Renfrew—Nipissing—Pembroke Richmond Liberal to NDP Windsor—St. Clair Alliance to PC Calgary Centre Bloc to Liberal Beauharnois—Salaberry Bonaventure—Gaspé—Îles-de-la-Madeleine—Pabok Frontenac—Mégantic Laval East Louis-Hébert Portneuf Quebec East NDP to Liberal Beauséjour—Petitcodiac Bras d'Or—Cape Breton Churchill River Halifax West Sydney—Victoria Yukon NDP to Alliance Kamloops, Thompson and Highland Valleys Regina—Lumsden—Lake Centre Saskatoon—Rosetown—Biggar PC to Liberal Burin—St. George's Chicoutimi Compton—Stanstead Madawaska—Restigouche Markham Shefford Tobique—Mactaquac West Nova PC to Bloc Sherbrooke Independent to Liberal York South—Weston Notes Number of parties: 11 First appearance: Marijuana Party of Canada Reappearance after hiatus: Communist Party of Canada Final appearance: Natural Law Party of Canada, Progressive Conservative Party of Canada First-and-only appearance: Canadian Alliance 10 closest ridings 1.Champlain, QC: Marcel Gagnon (BQ) def. Julie Boulet (Lib) by 15 votes 2.Laval Centre, QC: Madeleine Dalphond-Guiral (BQ) def. Pierre Lafleur (Lib) by 42 votes 3.Leeds—Grenville, ON: Joe Jordan (Lib) def. Gord Brown (CA) by 55 votes 4.Saskatoon—Rosetown—Biggar, SK: Carol Skelton (CA) def. Dennis Gruending (NDP) by 68 votes 5.Yukon, YT: Larry Bagnell (Lib) def. Louise Hardy (NDP) by 70 votes 6.Tobique—Mactaquac, NB: Andy Savoy (Lib) def. Gilles Bernier (PC) by 150 votes 7.Regina—Lumsden—Lake Centre, SK: Larry Spencer (CA) def. John Solomon (NDP) by 161 votes 8.Regina—Qu'Appelle, SK: Lorne Nystrom (NDP) def. Don Leier (CA) by 164 votes 9.Palliser, SK: Dick Proctor (NDP) def. Don Findlay (CA) by 209 votes 10.Matapédia—Matane, QC: Jean-Yves Roy (BQ) def. Marc Bélanger (Lib) by 276 votes 11.Cardigan, PE: Lawrence MacAulay (Lib) def. Kevin MacAdam (PC) by 276 votes See also List of Canadian federal general elections List of political parties in Canada Articles on parties' candidates in this election: References Bibliography External links Elections Canada: 2000 election Predicting the 2000 Canadian Election	[ 0.031635381281375885, 0.1293979436159134, -0.8205667734146118, 0.3281664550304413, -0.8889743089675903, 0.21735835075378418, 0.4082588255405426, 0.0331004299223423, -0.3410555124282837, -0.2373819202184677, 0.5716147422790527, 0.12171655148267746, -0.03933798894286156, -0.4498339593410492, -0.2438967078924179, 0.7030690312385559, -0.035416219383478165, -0.021295342594385147, 0.14188499748706818, -0.824832558631897, 0.3028014898300171, 0.16185946762561798, 0.04323975369334221, 0.36414384841918945, 0.2269115000963211, 0.5849117636680603, 0.6496318578720093, -0.3215232193470001, -0.3521501123905182, -0.29622942209243774, -0.14124943315982819, 0.318805456161499, 0.09857559949159622, 0.5840215086936951, 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250984	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergent%20boundary	Divergent boundary	In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary (also known as a constructive boundary or an extensional boundary) is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts, which eventually become rift valleys. Most active divergent plate boundaries occur between oceanic plates and exist as mid-oceanic ridges. Divergent boundaries also form volcanic islands, which occur when the plates move apart to produce gaps that magma rises to fill. Current research indicates that complex convection within the Earth's mantle allows material to rise to the base of the lithosphere beneath each divergent plate boundary. This supplies the area with huge amounts of heat and a reduction in pressure that melts rock from the asthenosphere (or upper mantle) beneath the rift area, forming large flood basalt or lava flows. Each eruption occurs in only a part of the plate boundary at any one time, but when it does occur, it fills in the opening gap as the two opposing plates move away from each other. Over millions of years, tectonic plates may move many hundreds of kilometers away from both sides of a divergent plate boundary. Because of this, rocks closest to a boundary are younger than rocks further away on the same plate. Description At divergent boundaries, two plates move away from each other and the space that this creates is filled with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below. The origin of new divergent boundaries at triple junctions is sometimes thought to be associated with the phenomenon known as hotspots. Here, exceedingly large convective cells bring very large quantities of hot asthenospheric material near the surface, and the kinetic energy is thought to be sufficient to break apart the lithosphere. The hot spot which may have initiated the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system currently underlies Iceland which is widening at a rate of a few centimeters per year. Divergent boundaries are typified in the oceanic lithosphere by the rifts of the oceanic ridge system, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise, and in the continental lithosphere by rift valleys such as the famous East African Great Rift Valley. Divergent boundaries can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system. Spreading is generally not uniform, so where spreading rates of adjacent ridge blocks are different, massive transform faults occur. These are the fracture zones, many bearing names, that are a major source of submarine earthquakes. A seafloor map will show a rather strange pattern of blocky structures that are separated by linear features perpendicular to the ridge axis. If one views the seafloor between the fracture zones as conveyor belts carrying the ridge on each side of the rift away from the spreading center the action becomes clear. Crest depths of the old ridges, parallel to the current spreading center, will be older and deeper... (from thermal contraction and subsidence). It is at mid-ocean ridges that one of the key pieces of evidence forcing acceptance of the seafloor spreading hypothesis was found. Airborne geomagnetic surveys showed a strange pattern of symmetrical magnetic reversals on opposite sides of ridge centers. The pattern was far too regular to be coincidental as the widths of the opposing bands were too closely matched. Scientists had been studying polar reversals and the link was made by Lawrence W. Morley, Frederick John Vine and Drummond Hoyle Matthews in the Morley–Vine–Matthews hypothesis. The magnetic banding directly corresponds with the Earth's polar reversals. This was confirmed by measuring the ages of the rocks within each band. The banding furnishes a map in time and space of both spreading rate and polar reversals. Examples Mid-Atlantic Ridge Red Sea Rift Baikal Rift Zone East African Rift East Pacific Rise Gakkel Ridge Galapagos Rise Explorer Ridge Juan de Fuca Ridge Pacific-Antarctic Ridge West Antarctic Rift System Great Rift Valley Other plate boundary types Convergent boundary Transform boundary See also References Plate tectonics	[ -0.004903103690594435, -0.33562788367271423, 0.27280861139297485, 0.049701642245054245, -0.19235047698020935, -0.017896505072712898, -0.03658342733979225, 0.15289495885372162, 0.05179384723305702, -0.7268141508102417, -0.5982769131660461, 0.45941808819770813, -0.008151818998157978, 0.56219083070755, -0.07173821330070496, 0.6565709710121155, 0.2606067657470703, 0.06568212062120438, -0.3363913893699646, 0.23424234986305237, -0.018753711134195328, -0.14659665524959564, 0.05464167892932892, -0.238750621676445, 0.3686721920967102, -0.41181617975234985, 0.0166337750852108, 0.09188557416200638, 0.2671128809452057, 0.1586499661207199, 0.3751116991043091, 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250989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilin	Lilin	In ancient Mesopotamian religion, lilin were hostile night spirits that attacked men. In Jewish mythology, Lilin (Hebrew: ) is a term for night spirits. In the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch, lilin come from the desert and they are similar to shedim. See also Lilu (mythology), Akkadian and Sumerian demons Lilith, Jewish female demon Nocnitsa References Mesopotamian legendary creatures Demons in Judaism	[ 0.4432196021080017, 0.2829006016254425, -0.578266441822052, -0.1846352517604828, -0.9010937809944153, 0.5656716227531433, 0.9381145238876343, 0.4692608416080475, -0.01621216908097267, -0.10762442648410797, -0.4620420038700104, 0.316490113735199, -0.5328530073165894, 0.6815624833106995, -0.1363299936056137, 0.587657630443573, -0.14862526953220367, 0.43004676699638367, 0.1496841311454773, -0.3174516260623932, -0.026650769636034966, -0.5689980387687683, 0.38635358214378357, -0.13959036767482758, 0.3533240258693695, 0.06726419180631638, 0.3710669279098511, 0.7978420257568359, -0.22558701038360596, -0.166637122631073, 0.06742439419031143, 0.6619360446929932, -0.0870167687535286, -0.7942439317703247, 0.17840257287025452, 0.5118047595024109, -0.2318560928106308, -0.449466347694397, -0.4242827594280243, 0.18755848705768585, 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250992	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix%20File%20System	Unix File System	The Unix file system (UFS) is a file system supported by many Unix and Unix-like operating systems. It is a distant descendant of the original filesystem used by Version 7 Unix. Later Berkeley Fast File System (also called BSD Fast File System — FFS) was used in Unixes which is not the same as UFS. Design A UFS volume is composed of the following parts: A few blocks at the beginning of the partition reserved for boot blocks (which must be initialized separately from the filesystem) A superblock, containing a magic number identifying this as a UFS filesystem, and some other vital numbers describing this filesystem's geometry and statistics and behavioral tuning parameters A collection of cylinder groups. Each cylinder group has the following components: A backup copy of the superblock A cylinder group header, with statistics, free lists, etc., about this cylinder group, similar to those in the superblock A number of inodes, each containing file attributes A number of data blocks Inodes are numbered sequentially, starting at 0. Inode 0 is reserved for unallocated directory entries, inode 1 was the inode of the bad block file in historical UNIX versions, followed by the inode for the root directory, which is always inode 2 and the inode for the lost+found directory which is inode 3. Directory files contain only the list of filenames in the directory and the inode associated with each file. All file metadata are kept in the inode. History and evolution Early versions of Unix filesystems were referred to simply as FS. FS only included the boot block, superblock, a clump of inodes, and the data blocks. This worked well for the small disks early Unixes were designed for, but as technology advanced and disks grew larger, moving the head back and forth between the clump of inodes and the data blocks they referred to caused thrashing. Marshall Kirk McKusick, then a Berkeley graduate student, optimized the BSD 4.2's FFS (Fast File System) by inventing cylinder groups, which break the disk up into smaller chunks, with each group having its own inodes and data blocks. The intent of BSD FFS is to try to localize associated data blocks and metadata in the same cylinder group and, ideally, all of the contents of a directory (both data and metadata for all the files) in the same or nearby cylinder group, thus reducing fragmentation caused by scattering a directory's contents over a whole disk. Some of the performance parameters in the superblock included number of tracks and sectors, disk rotation speed, head speed, and alignment of the sectors between tracks. In a fully optimized system, the head could be moved between close tracks to read scattered sectors from alternating tracks while waiting for the platter to spin around. As disks grew larger and larger, sector-level optimization became obsolete (especially with disks that used linear sector numbering and variable sectors per track). With larger disks and larger files, fragmented reads became more of a problem. To combat this, BSD originally increased the filesystem block size from one sector to 1 K in 4.0 BSD; and, in FFS, increased the filesystem block size from 1 K to 8 K. This has several effects. The chance of a file's sectors being contiguous is much greater. The amount of overhead to list the file's blocks is reduced, while the number of bytes representable by any given number of blocks is increased. Larger disk sizes are also possible, since the maximum number of blocks is limited by a fixed bit-width block number. However, with larger block sizes, disks with many small files will waste space, since each file must occupy at least one block. Because of this, BSD added block-level fragmentation, also called block suballocation, tail merging, or tail packing, where the last partial block of data from several files may be stored in a single "fragment" block instead of multiple mostly empty blocks . Implementations Vendors of some proprietary Unix systems, such as SunOS / Solaris, System V Release 4, HP-UX, and Tru64 UNIX, and open Unix derived systems like illumos, have adopted UFS. Most of them adapted UFS to their own uses, adding proprietary extensions that may not be recognized by other vendors' versions of Unix. Many have continued to use the original block size and data field widths as the original UFS, so some degree of read compatibility remains across platforms. Compatibility between implementations as a whole is spotty at best. As of Solaris 7, Sun Microsystems included UFS Logging, which brought filesystem journaling to UFS, which is still available in current versions of Solaris and illumos. Solaris UFS also has extensions for large files and large disks and other features. In 4.4BSD and BSD Unix systems derived from it, such as FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and DragonFlyBSD, the implementation of UFS1 and UFS2 is split into two layers: an upper layer that provides the directory structure and supports metadata (permissions, ownership, etc.) in the inode structure, and lower layers that provide data containers implemented as inodes. This was done to support both the traditional FFS and the LFS log-structured file system with shared code for common functions. The upper layer is called "UFS", and the lower layers are called "FFS" and "LFS". In some of those systems, the term "FFS" is used for the combination of the FFS lower layer and the UFS upper layer, and the term "LFS" is used for the combination of the LFS lower layer and the UFS upper layer. Kirk McKusick implemented block reallocation, a technique that reorders the blocks in the file system just before the writes are done to reduce fragmentation and control file system aging. He also implemented soft updates, a mechanism that maintains the file system consistency without limiting the performance in the way the traditional sync mode did. This has the side effect of reducing the requirement of file system checking after a crash or power failure. To overcome the remaining issues after a failure, a background fsck utility was introduced. In UFS2, Kirk McKusick and Poul-Henning Kamp extended the FreeBSD FFS and UFS layers to add 64-bit block pointers (allowing volumes to grow up to 8 zebibytes), variable-sized blocks (similar to extents), extended flag fields, additional 'birthtime' stamps, extended attribute support and POSIX1.e ACLs. UFS2 became the default UFS version starting with FreeBSD 5.0. FreeBSD also introduced soft updates and the ability to make file system snapshots for both UFS1 and UFS2. These have since been ported to NetBSD, but eventually soft updates (called soft dependencies in NetBSD) was removed from NetBSD 6.0 in favor of the less complex file system journaling mechanism called WAPBL (also referred as logging), which was added to FFS in NetBSD 5.0. OpenBSD has supported soft updates since version 2.9 and has had UFS2 (FFS2) support (no ACLs) since version 4.2. OpenBSD has now made UFS2 the default UFS version and will be included with the 6.7 release. Since FreeBSD 7.0, UFS also supports filesystem journaling using the gjournal GEOM provider. FreeBSD 9.0 adds support for lightweight journaling on top of soft updates (SU+J), which greatly reduces the need for background fsck, and NFSv4 ACLs. FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and DragonFly BSD also include the Dirhash system, developed by Ian Dowse. This system maintains an in-memory hash table to speed up directory lookups. Dirhash alleviates a number of performance problems associated with large directories in UFS. Linux includes a UFS implementation for binary compatibility at the read level with other Unixes, but since there is no standard implementation for the vendor extensions to UFS, Linux does not have full support for writing to UFS. The native Linux ext2 filesystem was inspired by UFS1 but does not support fragments and there are no plans to implement soft updates. (In some 4.4BSD-derived systems, the UFS layer can use an ext2 layer as a container layer, just as it can use FFS and LFS.) NeXTStep, which was BSD-derived, also used a version of UFS. In Apple's Mac OS X, it was available as an alternative to HFS+, their proprietary filesystem. However, as of Mac OS X Leopard, it was no longer possible to install Mac OS X on a UFS-formatted volume. In addition, one cannot upgrade older versions of Mac OS X installed on UFS-formatted volumes to Leopard; upgrading requires reformatting the startup volume. There was a 4 GB file limit for disks formatted as UFS in Mac OS X. As of Mac OS X Lion, UFS support was completely dropped. See also Comparison of file systems References Citations Bibliography External links The Solaris UFS File System, see also USF(sic)/UFS2 format Locality and The Fast File System Berkeley Software Distribution Disk file systems Unix file system technology	[ -0.18083152174949646, 0.05421813577413559, 0.20079229772090912, 0.09714510291814804, 0.0401715524494648, -0.20580607652664185, -0.4352865517139435, 0.5521939396858215, -0.3462224006652832, -0.6422459483146667, -0.40038925409317017, 0.6200127005577087, -0.2671728730201721, 0.1521180421113968, 0.24641087651252747, -0.2272508591413498, 0.5385226607322693, 0.5248170495033264, -0.13592861592769623, -0.373186856508255, -0.375127375125885, -0.1097215786576271, -0.2416173815727234, -0.4760027825832367, -0.6741878986358643, 0.10313746333122253, -0.21989253163337708, -0.35976240038871765, 0.025899874046444893, 0.2621888518333435, 0.3183137774467468, 0.6059554815292358, 0.3565894663333893, 0.2907744348049164, -0.46391600370407104, 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250993	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk%20in%20Drublic	Punk in Drublic	Punk in Drublic is the fifth studio album by the American punk rock band NOFX. It was released on July 19, 1994, through Epitaph Records. The title is a spoonerism of "Drunk in Public". Punk in Drublic is NOFX's most successful album to date, peaking at number 12 on Billboard'''s Heatseekers chart. The album has received positive reviews and is now considered a classic punk album by fans and critics alike. Six years after its release, it became the band's only gold record for sales of over 500,000 copies in the United States, all without any radio play or aired music videos (although a video was made for the song "Leave It Alone"). Worldwide, the record has sold over 1 million copies. Reception and legacy The AllMusic review by Stephen Thomas Erlewine awards the album 4.5 stars and states: "The quartet didn't change their approach at all — at their core, they remain a heavy, speed-addled, hook-conscious post-hardcore punk group — but their songwriting has improved, as has their attack." Accolades * denotes an unordered list The album was a big influence on Blink-182's Cheshire Cat (1995), Unwritten Law's Oz Factor (1996), Lagwagon's Let's Talk About Feelings (1998), Sum 41's All Killer No Filler (2001) and Anti-Flag's The General Strike (2012). Track listing Personnel Fat Mike - vocals, bass Eric Melvin - guitar El Hefe - guitar Herb Reath Stinks - drums Mark Curry - additional vocals in "Perfect Government" Kim Shattuck - additional vocals in "Lori Meyers" Chris Dowd - trombone in "Dig" Kenny Lyon - additional guitars Mr. Rojers - steel drums in "My Heart Is Yearning" New Jew Revue - gang vocals in "The Brews" Ryan Greene; Fat Mike - producers Ryan Greene - mixing, engineer Steve Kravac - assistant engineer Album notes The song "Jeff Wears Birkenstocks" was written about Jeff Abarta an Epitaph Records employee. In 2017, the Birkenstock company produced a short-form documentary about how the song came together that includes new interviews on the subject with Jeff and Fat Mike. Jeff later founded a band called Punk Is Dead that performs punk rock covers of Grateful Dead songs, and currently plays bass in Total Massacre as "Jeff Massacre." "Linoleum" is referenced in the Pilot episode of One Tree Hill, when protagonist Lucas Scott notices a NOFX sticker on one of Peyton Sawyer's folders, he sings the line "that's me inside your head." Track 17 contains a hidden track starting at 5:29, after 3 minutes of silence; guitarist El Hefe performs impressions of cartoon characters, such as Yosemite Sam and Popeye. The song "Jeff Wears Birkenstocks?" is included in the EA Sports video game NCAA Football 06. The song "Linoleum" was released as DLC for the music video game Guitar Hero World Tour. The song "Linoleum" was also featured in the soundtrack for the game Grind Session. "Linoleum" is also covered by hardcore-punk band Shai Hulud, Russell and the Wolf Choir, post-third wave ska band Streetlight Manifesto on their 2010 album 99 Songs of Revolution, Bad Astronaut, August Burns Red and Frank Turner The song "Lori Meyers" was covered by Aiden as a hidden track on their album Knives. The song "Dying Degree" was covered by Evergreen Terrace on their cover album Writer's Block. The song "Leave It Alone" references another song, "Bringing In the Sheaves", written in 1874 by Knowles Shaw. It is a popular American gospel song strongly associated with Protestant Christians. Despite this fact, both credited songwriters, Fat Mike and Eric Melvin are Jewish. The song "Leave It Alone" was also featured in the soundtrack for the game Watch Dogs 2''. References Citations Sources External links NOFX official website Epitaph Records Fat Wreck Chords Punk in Drublic at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed) NOFX albums 1994 albums Epitaph Records albums Albums produced by Ryan Greene	[ 0.2192772626876831, 0.2509874999523163, -0.08748863637447357, 0.12638211250305176, -0.5290915369987488, -0.08801689743995667, 0.3581545352935791, 0.22233368456363678, 0.015531395561993122, -0.054243460297584534, 0.1759088933467865, 0.4442627727985382, -0.6009888648986816, 0.33225807547569275, 0.18308134377002716, 0.4513009786605835, -0.025789529085159302, 0.308888703584671, 0.5821669101715088, -0.6660142540931702, 0.35857251286506653, -0.6626887321472168, -0.10143250226974487, -0.07783572375774384, -0.4091593325138092, 0.30639907717704773, 0.027203228324651718, 0.23000706732273102, -0.31943279504776, 0.02850358746945858, -0.37748855352401733, 0.571901798248291, 0.1092853918671608, -0.51521897315979, 0.29016998410224915, 0.5183681845664978, 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250994	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorama	Folklorama	Folklorama is an event that runs for two weeks each August in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Visitors to the festival are invited to sample cuisine and celebrate the cultural and ethnic heritage of people from dozens of cultures who have made Winnipeg their home. Folklorama is the world's largest and longest-running multicultural festival. Each culture has an assigned venue, known as a pavilion. Typically there are over 40 pavilions presented throughout the city, with half operating in week one and half in week two of the festival. Each pavilion presents a show featuring the song and dance of their culture, along with trademark ethnic cuisine and a cultural display. Some pavilions also incorporate additional services such as henna tattoo application, steel pan drum workshops, and some have late night parties. Most pavilions provide imported cultural beverage. Folklorama provides exposure to cultural groups and brings in thousands of tourists each year, adding to the city's economy. It is the largest and longest-running festival of its kind in the world (determined by the International Council of Organizations for Folklore Festivals and Folk Art, also known as CIOFF). The Folk Arts Council of Winnipeg is the organizing body of Folklorama. History Folklorama was first held in August 1970, as a Centennial Folk Festival sponsored jointly by the City of Winnipeg and the Folk Arts Council of Manitoba. It was originally intended to be a one-time occurrence in celebration of Manitoba's centennial. It was deemed such a success that it became an annual event. The first festival was only a week long, featuring 21 different cultures. The Indian, Greek, Portuguese, Ukraine, and the Africa/Caribbean Pavilions were one of the festival's original six pavilions; it drew approximately 50,000 people across 75,000 separate pavilion visits. The festival adopted its current two-week format in 1988, with half of the pavilions open in each week. The Folklorama logo was designed by Andy Stout who won the provincial logo contest in 1980. The 4 figures in the logo represent people from the four corners of the globe, who are intertwined, with arms raised in celebration. The festival's mascot, the Folklorama Llama, was created in 1986. Until 1989, pavilions would have a mayor and a queen. The queen would be in the running for the Miss Folklorama pageant at the closing ceremony of the Festival. The Miss Folklorama pageant was not a beauty pageant but a "contest of ethnic preservation and presentation", as the pavilion queens were scored based on 40% knowledge of culture and country, 40% on participation and 20% on poise and personality. Since 1990, pavilions now feature two adult ambassadors and two youth ambassadors, neither of whom must be of a specific gender. The 50th edition of the Folklorama festival was in 2019. There were 22 pavilions in the first week including: African, Argentina “Tango”, Budapest-Hungaria, Caribbean, Celtic Ireland, Chile, Egyptian, El Salvador, Ethiopian, First Nations, German, Greek, India, Israel “Shalom Square”, Korean, España-Spain, Portugal, Scandinavian, Serbian/Beograd, Slovenija, Ukraine “Spirt of the Ukraine”, and the United Kingdom. There were 23 pavilions in the second week, including: Africa/Caribbean, Brazilian, Canadien-Français, Chilean, Chinese, Croatian ”Zagreb”, Hungary-Pannonia, Irish, Italian, Japanese, Métis, Mexican, Scotland, Philippines ”Pearl of the Orient”, Portuguese ”Casa do Minho”, Polish, Punjab, Romanian, Russian, Serbian ”Kolo”, South Sudanese, Tamil, and Ukraine-Kyiv. Program areas Throughout the year, Folklorama is sustained by its Ethno-Cultural Arts Divison and programs: Folklorama at Home, Folklorama at School, Folklorama at Work, and Folklorama at Play. Statistics On average, Folklorama receives over 400,000 pavilion visits each year. The 2019 Festival received approximately 455,000 pavilion visits to 45 pavilions. The majority of those who attend the Festival visit more than one pavilion. About 21% of pavilion visitors come from outside of Winnipeg. Typically, more than 3,000 entertainers perform at more than 1,500 shows throughout the two-week Festival. On average, 600,000 meals are served and 1,000,000 beverages are poured before the conclusion of the Festival. Approximately 20,000 volunteers participate to make Folklorama possible. Folklorama has an economic impact of about $14.7 million on the Manitoba economy. References Cultural festivals in Canada Festivals in Winnipeg Festivals of multiculturalism Multiculturalism in Canada 1970 establishments in Manitoba Recurring events established in 1970 Tourist attractions in Winnipeg Annual events in Winnipeg Folk festivals in Canada	[ 0.5752121806144714, -0.04038151353597641, 0.6497208476066589, 0.398383766412735, -0.08267950266599655, -0.4152836501598358, 1.0843490362167358, 0.5671989321708679, -0.7694581151008606, -0.20890259742736816, -0.4096003472805023, -0.2087474912405014, -0.13637004792690277, 0.46425601840019226, -0.6475111842155457, 0.6833233833312988, 0.41989490389823914, -0.059307463467121124, 0.1046069860458374, -0.49742260575294495, -0.10248836874961853, -0.9919901490211487, 0.8574100136756897, 0.5616576671600342, -0.06673114001750946, 0.4030008614063263, 0.7600222826004028, 0.7817437052726746, -0.3308902978897095, 0.17439043521881104, -0.2623039782047272, 0.7787377834320068, 0.3442603647708893, -0.5833039283752441, 0.6650675535202026, 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251000	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail%20Kutuzov	Mikhail Kutuzov	Prince Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov (; ; – ) was a Field Marshal of the Russian Empire. He served as a military officer and a diplomat under the reign of three Romanov monarchs: Empress Catherine II, and Emperors Paul I and Alexander I. Kutuzov was shot in the head twice while fighting the Turks (1774 and 1788) and survived the serious injuries seemingly against all odds. He defeated Napoleon as commander-in-chief using attrition warfare in the Patriotic war of 1812. Alexander I wrote that Europe will remember him as one of the famous commanders and that Russia will never forget his worthiness. Early career Mikhail Kutuzov was born in Saint Petersburg on 16 September 1745. His father, Lieutenant-General Illarion Matveevich Kutuzov, had served for 30 years with the Corps of Engineers, had seen action against the Turks and served under Peter the Great. Mikhail Kutuzov's mother came from the noble family of Beklemishev. Given his father's distinguished service and his mother's high birth, Kutuzov had contact with the imperial Romanov family from an early age. In 1757, at the age of 12, Kutuzov entered an elite military-engineering school as a cadet private. He quickly became popular with his peers and teachers alike, proving himself to be highly intelligent, and showed bravery in his school's numerous horse-races. Kutuzov studied military and civil subjects there, learned to speak French, German and English fluently, and later studied Polish, Swedish, and Turkish; his linguistic skills served him well throughout his career. In October 1759, he became a corporal. In 1760, he became a mathematics instructor at the school. In 1762, Kutuzov, by then a captain, became part of the Astrakhan Infantry Regiment, which was commanded by Colonel Alexander Suvorov. Kutuzov studied Suvorov's style of command and learned how to be a good commander in battle. Suvorov believed that an effective order should be simple, direct, and concise, and that a commander should care deeply about the health and training of his soldiers. Kutuzov also adopted Suvorov's conviction that a commander should lead his troops from the front (instead of from the rear) to provide an example of bravery for the troops to follow. Suvorov also taught Kutuzov the importance of developing close relationships with those under his command. Kutuzov followed this advice to the benefit of his career. This advice contributed to Kutuzov's appointment as Commander-in-Chief in 1812. Late in 1762, Kutuzov became aide-de-camp to the military governor of Reval, the Prince of Holstein-Beck, in which role he showed himself to be a capable politician. In 1768 Kutuzov fought in Poland, after the Polish szlachta—the Polish noble class—rebelled against Russian influence. In this conflict, Kutuzov captured several strong defensive positions, thereby proving his skill on the battlefield. In October 1768, the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Russian Empress Catherine the Great. Two years later, Kutuzov, now a major, joined the army of the soon-to-be-famous Count Pyotr Rumyantsev in the south to fight against the Turks. Though Kutuzov served valiantly in this campaign, he did not receive any medals, as another officer reported to Rumyantsev that Kutuzov mocked Rumyantsev behind his back. Rumyantsev had Lieutenant-Colonel Kutuzov transferred into Prince Vasily Dolgorukov-Krymsky's Russian Second Army fighting the Turks and the Tatars in the Crimea. During this campaign Kutuzov learned how to use the deadly Cossack light cavalry, another skill which would prove useful in the defence of Russia against Napoleon's invading armies in 1812. In 1774 he was ordered to storm the well-defended town of Alushta on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula. When his troops' advance faltered, Kutuzov grabbed the fallen regimental standard and led the attack. While charging forward, he was shot in the left temple—an almost certainly fatal wound at the time. The bullet went right through his head and exited near the right eye. However, Kutuzov slowly recovered, though frequently overcome by sharp pains and dizziness, and his right eye remained permanently twisted. He left the army later that year due to his wound. Kutuzov's pain did not subside, and so he decided to travel to Western Europe for better medical care. He arrived in Berlin in 1774, where he spent much time with King Frederick the Great of Prussia, who took great interest in Kutuzov. They spent long periods of time discussing tactics, weaponry, and uniforms. Kutuzov then travelled to Leyden, Holland and to London in England for further treatment. In London Kutuzov first learned of the American Revolutionary War. He would later study the evolution of American general George Washington's attrition campaign against the British. The American experience reinforced the lesson that Rumyantsev had already taught Kutuzov; that one does not need to win battles in order to win a war. Kutuzov returned to the Russian Army in 1776 and again served under Suvorov—in the Crimea—for the next six years. He learned that letting the common soldier use his natural intellect and initiative made for a more effective army. Suvorov also taught him how to use mobility in order to exploit the constantly changing situation on the battlefield. By 1782 Kutuzov had been promoted to brigadier general as Suvorov recognised Kutuzov's potential as a shrewd and intelligent leader. Indeed, Suvorov wrote that he would not even have to tell Kutuzov what needed to be done in order for him to carry out his objective. In 1787 Kutuzov was again wounded in the left temple, in almost exactly the same place as before, and again doctors feared for his life. However, Kutuzov recovered, though his right eye was even more twisted than before and he had even worse head-pains. In 1784 he became a major general, in 1787 governor-general of the Crimea; and under Suvorov, whose disciple he became, he won considerable distinction in the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792), at the taking of Ochakov, Odessa, Bender, and Izmail, and in the battles of Rymnik (1789) and Mashin (July 1791). He became a lieutenant-general (March 1791) and successively occupied the positions of ambassador at Istanbul, commander of Russian forces in Finland, commandant of the corps of cadets at Saint Petersburg, ambassador at Berlin, and governor-general of Saint Petersburg (1801–1802). Kutuzov was a favourite of Tsar Paul I (reigned 1796–1801), and after that emperor's murder he was temporarily out of favour with the new monarch Alexander I, though he remained loyal. Napoleonic Wars In 1805, Kutuzov commanded the Russian corps to oppose Napoleon's advance on Vienna, but the Austrians were quickly defeated at Ulm in mid-October before they could meet up with their Russian allies. Kutuzov was present at the battle of Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. On the eve of battle, Kutuzov tried to convince the Allied generals of the necessity of waiting for reinforcements before facing Napoleon. Alexander believed that waiting to engage Napoleon's forces would be seen as cowardly. Kutuzov quickly realised that he no longer had any power with Alexander and the Austrian chief of staff General-Major Franz von Weyrother. When he asked Alexander where he planned to move a unit of troops, he was told "That's none of your business." Though Alexander's orders made it clear that the Russians should move off the strategic Pratzen Plateau, Kutuzov stalled for as long as possible as he recognised the advantage that Napoleon would gain from this high ground. Finally, Alexander forced Kutuzov to abandon the Plateau. Napoleon quickly seized the ridge and broke the Allied lines with his artillery which now commanded the battlefield from the Pratzen Plateau. The battle was lost, and over 25,000 Russians were killed. Kutuzov was put in charge of organising the army's retreat across Hungary and back into Russia as Alexander was overcome by grief. Kutuzov was then put in charge of the Russian army operating against the Turks in the Russo-Turkish War, 1806–1812. Understanding that his armies would be badly needed in the upcoming war with the French, he hastily brought the prolonged war to a victorious end and concluded the propitious Treaty of Bucharest, which stipulated the incorporation of Bessarabia into the Russian Empire. The Patriotic War (1812) When Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly (then Minister of War), with his army being outnumbered 2:1, chose to follow the scorched earth principle and retreat rather than to risk a major battle. His strategy aroused grudges among most of the generals and soldiers. As Alexander after the Battle of Smolensk had to choose a new general, there was only one choice: Kutuzov. He was popular among the troops mainly because he was Russian (most of the generals commanding Russian troops at that time were foreign), he was brave, had proven himself in battle, strongly believed in the Russian Orthodox Church, and he looked out for the troops' well-being. The nobles and clergy also regarded Kutuzov highly. Therefore, when Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief on the 17th and joined the army on 29 August 1812 at Tsaryovo-Zaymishche, Russians supported his appointment. Only Alexander, repulsed by Kutuzov's physique and irrationally holding him responsible for the defeat at Austerlitz, did not celebrate Kutuzov's commission. The day before he left he met with Madame de Stael a strong opponent of Napoleon. Within a week Kutuzov decided to give major battle on the approaches to Moscow. He withdrew the troops still further to the east, deploying them for the upcoming battle. Two huge armies clashed near Borodino on 7 September 1812, involving nearly a quarter of a million soldiers, ratio about 1.1 French to 1 Russian soldier. The result of the battle of Borodino was a kind of Pyrrhic victory for Napoleon, with near a third of the French army killed or wounded. Although the Russian losses were nearly 50% higher, the Russian army had not been destroyed. On 10 September was the main quarter of the Russian army situated at Bolshiye Vyazyomy. Kutuzov settled in a manor on the high road to Moscow. The owner was Dmitry Golitsyn, who entered military service again. The next day Tsar Alexander signed a document that Kutuzov was promoted General Field Marshall, the highest military rank. Russian sources suggest Kutuzov wrote a number of orders and letters to Rostopchin, the Moscow military governor, about saving the city or the army. On , the main forces of Kutuzov departed from the village, now Golitsyno and camped near Odintsovo, 20 km to the west, followed by Mortier and Joachim Murat's vanguard. On Sunday afternoon the Russian military council at Fili discussed the risks and agreed to abandon Moscow without fighting. Leo Tolstoy wrote Fyodor Rostopchin was invited also and explained the difficult decision in quite a few remarkable chapters in his book War and Peace. This came at the price of losing Moscow, whose population was evacuated. After a council at the village of Fili, Kutuzov withdrew to the rich southeast of Moscow. On 19 September Murat lost sight of Kutuzov who changed direction and turned west to Podolsk and Tarutino where he would be more protected by the surrounding hills and the Nara river. On 3 October Kutuzov and his entire staff arrived at Tarutino. He wanted to go even further in order to control the three-pronged roads from Obninsk to Kaluga and Medyn, so that Napoleon could not turn south or southwest. Kutuzov avoided frontal battles involving large masses of troops in order to reinforce his Russian army and to wait there for Napoleon's retreat. This tactic was sharply criticised by Chief of Staff Bennigsen and others, but also by the Autocrat and Emperor Alexander. (Barclay de Tolly interrupted his service for five months and settled in Nizhny Novgorod.) Each side avoided the other and seemed no longer to wish to get into a fight. On 5 October, on order of Napoleon, the French ambassador Jacques Lauriston left Moscow to meet Kutuzov at his headquarters near Tarutino. Kutuzov agreed to meet, despite the orders of the Tsar. On 18 October, at dawn during breakfast, Murat's camp in a forest was surprised by an attack by forces led by Bennigsen, known as Battle of Winkovo. Bennigsen was supported by Kutuzov from his headquarters at distance. Bennigsen asked Kutuzov to provide troops for the pursuit. However, the General Field Marshal refused. Napoleon's goal was to get around Kutuzov, but on the 24th he was stopped at Maloyaroslavets on his way to Medyn and forced to go north on the 26th. After the Battle of Maloyaroslavets, ratio 1:1, Napoleon decided to avoid a decisive battle and marched north via Mozhaisk to Smolensk into a higher probability of starvation, as it was the devastated route of his advance. The old general "escorted" Napoleon on the more southern roads but attacked him at the Battle of Vyazma, at the Battle of Krasnoi, ratio 1 French soldier to 1.4 Russian, and at the Battle of Berezina, ratio 1:1.75. In parallel Cossack bands and peasants assaulted isolated French units during their whole retreat. With Kutusov's strategy of attrition warfare, on 14 December the remainder of the French main army left Russia. The only remaining troops were the flanking forces (43,000 under Schwarzenberg, 23,000 under Macdonald), about 1,000 men of the Guard and about 40,000 stragglers, about 110,000, all that were left of the 612,000 (including reinforcements)that had entered Russia. Alexander I awarded Kutuzov the victory title of His Serene Highness Knyaz Golenischev-Kutuzov-Smolensky (Светлейший князь Голенищев-Кутузов-Смоленский) on , for his victory at the Battle of Krasnoi at Smolensk in November 1812. Death and legacy Early in 1813, Kutuzov fell ill, and he died on 28 April 1813 at Bunzlau, Silesia, then in the Kingdom of Prussia, now Bolesławiec, Poland. Memorials have been erected to him there, at the Poklonnaya Hill in Moscow and in front of the Kazan Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, where he is buried, by Boris Orlovsky. He had five daughters; his only son died of smallpox as an infant. As he had no male heir, his estates passed to the Tolstoy family, as his eldest daughter, Praskovia, had married Count Matvei Fyodorovich Tolstoy. Today, Kutuzov is still held in high regard, alongside Barclay and his mentor Suvorov. Alexander Pushkin addressed the Field Marshal in the famous elegy on Kutuzov's sepulchre. The novelist Leo Tolstoy clearly idolised Kutuzov. In his influential 1869 novel War and Peace, the elderly, sick Kutuzov plays a major role in the war sections. He is portrayed as a gentle spiritual man, far removed from the cold arrogance of Napoleon, but with a much clearer vision of the true nature of warfare. Tolstoy wrote of Kutuzov's insight and the national sentiment, "... this sentiment elevated Kutuzov to the high pinnacle of humanity from which he, the general-in-chief, employed all his efforts, not to kill and exterminate men, but to save and have pity on them." During World War II (known as "The Great Patriotic War" in Russia), the Soviet government established the Order of Kutuzov which, among several other decorations, was preserved in Russia upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union, thus remaining among the highest military awards in Russia, only second to the Order of Zhukov. Also, during World War II, one of the key strategic operations of the Red Army, the Orel Strategic Offensive Operation "Kutuzov" was named after the Field Marshal () (12 July – 18 August 1943). No less than ten Russian towns have been named "Kutuzovo" in honour of the general. Notable among them is the former German town of Schirwindt (now Kutuzovo in the Krasnoznamensky District of the Kaliningrad Oblast) – the first town in Germany proper that was reached by Soviet infantry. A Sverdlov-class cruiser named for Kutuzov was commissioned in the Soviet Navy in 1954. It is now preserved, thanks to the efforts of Evgeny Primakov, as a museum ship in Novorossiysk. From May 1813 to 2020, at least 24 ships were identified in United Kingdom, USA, Russian Empire, Soviet Union and Russia, named after Kutuzov. The monument to Kutuzov in the city of Brody in Western Ukraine was demolished in February 2014 as part of the Euromaidan demonstrations. Due to decommunization policies the street named after Kutuzov in (Ukraine's capital) Kyiv was renamed after and a lane dedicated to his legacy was renamed after Yevhen Hutsalo (both) in 2016. Aeroflot named one of its planes after Kutuzov. Praise and criticism Napoleon: ...the sly old fox from the north... Leo Tolstoy: ...a simple, modest and therefore truly great figure... Suvorov: ...he is crafty. And shrewd. No one will fool him... Jean Colin: ...Napoleon's audacity succeeded at Austerlitz, but only because Kutuzov was ignored... Alexander I: ...a hatcher of intrigues and an immoral and thoroughly dangerous character... Barclay de Tolly: ...get the answer in writing. One has to be careful with Kutuzov... Clausewitz: ...a true Russian, a slightly reduced Suvorov... General Bennigsen: ...he, Bennigsen, would be a far better leader for the army... Alexander's sister: ... the inaction of his army is the result of his laziness... Wilson: ...Kutuzov was utterly lazy, incompetent and perhaps even a friend of the French... Richard K. Riehn: ..Napoleon was the master of the short run, Kutuzov understood the long... Personality All citations taken from "The Fox of the North" unless otherwise stated. He was handsome, strong, an excellent horseman and highly intelligent. He became proficient in mathematics, fortifications and engineering. He was well-informed in theology, philosophy, law, and social sciences. He spoke Russian, French, German, Polish, Swedish, English and Turkish. He was popular, entertaining, brave, quick-witted and efficient. He displayed courage and decisiveness in the attack. Kutuzov owned more than 3,000 serfs. He visited Berlin and discussed tactics with Frederick the Great. He studied in London the attrition warfare of the American colonies against the United Kingdom. He became ambassador in Constantinople and survived his visit of the sultan's harem. He was a happy grandfather. After his appointment in 1812 he went into a cathedral, bent his knees grunting from his rheumatism, and prayed. He was a member of the Moscow Freemason lodges "Sphinx" and "Three Banners." He was described to Napoleon as a cool and selfish calculator, dilatory, vindictive, artful, pliable, patient, preparing an implacable war with caressing attention. Kutuzov reported to Alexander I that he had won the Battle of Borodino. The partisan leader Denis Davydov reported to him in filthy peasant clothing. He supported Aleksandr Figner despite his barbarism and even increased the guerilla warfare. He appreciated the value of armed peasant groups. He sobbed "Russia is saved" when he was informed that Napoleon had left Moscow. Kutuzow said to Robert Wilson, here simplified: "I am by no means sure that the total destruction of the Emperor Napoleon and his army would be such a benefit to Russia; his succession would fall to the United Kingdom whose domination would then be intolerable." Philippe Paul, comte de Ségur, reported: ...emerging from the white ice-bound wilderness only 1,000 infantrymen under arms, 20,000 stragglers, dressed in rags, with bowed heads, dull eyes, ashen, cadaverous faces and long ice-stiffened beards. This was the Grande Armee... Notes References External links Short biography and painting from the Hermitage Museum History of the memorial at Kutuzov's place of death The Russian Army during the Napoleonic Wars See also Kutuzov (film) War and Peace (film series) 1745 births 1813 deaths People from Saint Petersburg People from Sankt-Peterburgsky Uyezd Characters in War and Peace Commanders-in-chief of the Russian Army Field marshals of Russia French invasion of Russia Members of the State Council (Russian Empire) Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Second Degree Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Third Degree Russian commanders of the Napoleonic Wars Russian people of the Napoleonic Wars Russian people of the Polish–Russian War of 1792 University of Strasbourg alumni Governors-General of Kiev Governors-General of Lithuania Russian Freemasons People of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) Ambassadors of the Russian Empire to the Ottoman 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251001	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Moon	Elizabeth Moon	Elizabeth Moon (born March 7, 1945) is an American science fiction and fantasy writer. Her other writing includes newspaper columns and opinion pieces. Her novel The Speed of Dark won the 2003 Nebula Award. Prior to her writing career, she served in the United States Marine Corps. Early life Moon was born Susan Elizabeth Norris and grew up in McAllen, Texas. She started writing when she was a child and first tried a book, which was about her dog, at age six. She was inspired to write creatively, and says that she began writing science fiction in her teens, considering it a sideline. She earned a Bachelor's degree in History from Rice University in Houston, Texas in 1968 and later earned a second B.A. in Biology. In 1968, she joined the United States Marine Corps as a computer specialist, attaining the rank of 1st Lieutenant while on active duty. She married Richard Sloan Moon in 1969 and they have a son, Michael, born in 1983. Writing career Moon began writing professionally in her mid-thirties and had a newspaper column in a county weekly newspaper. In 1986, she published her first science fiction in the monthly magazine Analog and the anthology series Sword and Sorceress. Her stories appeared regularly in Analog the next few years. Her first novel The Sheepfarmer's Daughter (1988) won the Compton Crook Award and inaugurated the Paksenarrion series. Most of her work has military science fiction themes, although biology, politics, and personal relationships also feature strongly. The Serrano Legacy is a space opera. Her Nebula-winning novel The Speed of Dark (2003) is a near-future story told from the viewpoint of an autistic computer programmer, inspired by her own autistic son Michael. Other interests Elizabeth Moon has many interests besides writing. She has a musical background, having played the accordion during her university days and sung in choirs. She is an accomplished fencer, and captain of the SFWA Musketeers, a group of published speculative fiction authors who also fence. Moon is also an experienced paramedic and has served in various capacities in local government. Awards and nominations 1989: Compton Crook Award winner for Sheepfarmer's Daughter 1997: Hugo Award for Best Novel (nomination) for Remnant Population 2003: Nebula Award for Best Novel winner for The Speed of Dark 2003: Arthur C. Clarke Award (nomination) for The Speed of Dark 2007: Robert A. Heinlein Award for "outstanding published works in hard science fiction or technical writings that inspire the human exploration of space" Works Paksenarrion The Deed of Paksenarrion novels Sheepfarmer's Daughter (June 1988) Divided Allegiance (October 1988) Oath of Gold (January 1989) “Those Who Walk in Darkness” (March 1990)—short story set during Oath of Gold, included in the collections Lunar Activity and Phases The Deed of Paksenarrion (February 1992)—paperback omnibus The Deed of Paksenarrion (October 2003)—hardcover omnibus The Deed of Paksenarrion (January 2010)—paperback omnibus The Legacy of Gird novels Surrender None (June 1990)—prequel to The Deed of Paksenarrion Liar's Oath (May 1992)—sequel to Surrender None The Legacy of Gird (September 1996)—paperback omnibus available as A Legacy of Honour (paperback omnibus) (November 2010) Paladin's Legacy or Legend of Paksenarrion novels Oath of Fealty (March 2010)—sequel to Oath of Gold Kings of the North (March 2011) Echoes of Betrayal (February 2012) Limits of Power (June 2013) Crown of Renewal (May 2014) Familias Regnant universe Heris Serrano trilogy Hunting Party (July 1993) Sporting Chance (September 1994) Winning Colors (August 1995) Heris Serrano (July 2002)—Baen omnibus edition of Hunting Party, Sporting Chance and Winning Colors The Serrano Legacy: Omnibus One (December 2006)—Orbit GB omnibus Esmay Suiza continuation Once a Hero (Hardcover , March 1997) Rules of Engagement (Hardcover , December 1998) The Serrano Connection: Omnibus Two (September 2007)—Orbit GB omnibus The Serrano Connection (October 2008)—Baen omnibus edition Suiza and Serrano Change of Command (Hardcover , December 1999) Against the Odds (Hardcover , December 2000) The Serrano Succession: Omnibus Three (February 2008)—Orbit GB omnibus Vatta's War Trading in Danger (Hardcover , October 2003) Marque and Reprisal (Hardcover , October 2004)—Moving Target in the UK, New Zealand and Australia Engaging the Enemy (Hardcover , March 2006) Command Decision (Hardcover , February 2007) Victory Conditions (Hardcover , February 2008) Vatta's Peace Cold Welcome (Hardcover , April 2017) Into the Fire (Hardcover , February 2018) Planet Pirates The Planet Pirates trilogy is based on two books by Anne McCaffrey, Dinosaur Planet and Dinosaur Planet Survivors (1978 and 1984, jointly reissued as The Ireta Adventure in 1985 and The Mystery of Ireta in 2004), which also form the core of The Death of Sleep. ISFDB catalogs all five novels as the Ireta series. Sassinak (Baen Books, March 1990), Anne McCaffrey and Moon The Death of Sleep (Baen, June 1990), McCaffrey and Jody Lynn Nye Generation Warriors (Baen, February 1991), McCaffrey and Moon Omnibus edition: The Planet Pirates (Baen, October 1993), McCaffrey, Moon, and Nye Other novels Remnant Population (Hardcover , May 1996) Speed of Dark (Orbit UK October 2002)—as The Speed of Dark (Ballantine 2003) in the USA Short stories "And Ladies of the Club" (1995; collected in Esther Friesner's anthology Chicks in Chainmail) "Tradition" (1998; collected in Harry Turtledove's anthology Alternate Generals) Collections Lunar Activity (, March 1990)—Ten short stories Phases (, December 1997)—Eight stories from Lunar Activity, and others previously uncollected. Both include "Those Who Walk in Darkness"—a Paksenarrion short story Moon Flights (hardcover , paperback , August 2008)—Fifteen stories, including an original "Vatta's War" story, with an introduction by Anne McCaffrey The limited edition hardcover (, September 2007) contains an additional rare bonus story entitled "Fencing In". Deeds of Honor: Paksenarrion World Chronicles (, June 2015)—Eight stories set in the world of Paksenarrion. See also Women in speculative fiction References External links Paksworld blog (official) MoonScape—personal blog at LiveJournal Elizabeth Moon’s list of her own short fiction Elizabeth Moon. The Locus Index to SF Awards: Index of Literary Nominees. Free copies of Sheepfarmer's Daughter from the Baen Free Library Elizabeth Moon novels produced at Graphic Audio (GraphicAudio.net) Moon Flights at Night Shade Books Interviews Christopher Dow, Elizabeth Moon's Path to the Stars, Rice University's alumni magazine, The Sallyport. Retrieved 2007-09-15. Lotesse, The OF Blog, Interview with Elizabeth Moon (August 18, 2006). Retrieved 2012-02-03. Kurt Weller, Interview (March 30, 2007), The Plaza of the Mind, Blogspot. Retrieved 2007-09-15. Lou Antonelli, Texas author un-invited as convention Guest of Honor over remarks on Islam (October 23, 2010), NewsOK. 1945 births 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American women writers 21st-century American novelists 21st-century American women writers American Episcopalians American fantasy writers American science fiction writers American women novelists Living people Military science fiction writers Nebula Award winners People from McAllen, Texas Rice University alumni United States Marine Corps officers Female United States Marine Corps personnel Women science fiction and fantasy writers Military personnel from Texas	[ -0.16036079823970795, 0.182308629155159, -0.5474579930305481, -0.17170687019824982, -0.013876276090741158, 0.5545461177825928, -0.0745130106806755, 0.3348937928676605, -0.2288278043270111, -0.3354886770248413, -0.47355619072914124, 0.3685801029205322, 0.32073965668678284, 0.5095914602279663, -0.41269055008888245, 0.05286618322134018, 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251002	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20River%20Floodway	Red River Floodway	The Red River Floodway () is an artificial flood control waterway in Western Canada. It is a long channel which, during flood periods, takes part of the Red River's flow around the city of Winnipeg, Manitoba to the east and discharges it back into the Red River below the dam at Lockport. It can carry floodwater at a rate of up to , expanded in the 2000s from its original channel capacity of . The Floodway was pejoratively nicknamed "Duff's Ditch" by opponents of its construction, after Premier Duff Roblin, whose Progressive Conservative government initiated the project, partly in response to the disastrous 1950 Red River flood. It was completed in time and under budget. Subsequent events have vindicated the plan. Since its completion in 1968, the Floodway is estimated to have prevented over $40 billion (CAD) in cumulative flood damage. It was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 2000, as the floodway is an outstanding engineering achievement both in terms of function and impact. From south to north, the Floodway passes through the extreme southeastern part of Winnipeg and the rural municipalities of Ritchot, Springfield, East St. Paul, and St. Clements. History Construction of the Floodway started on November 27, 1962, and finished in March 1968. The construction was a major undertaking with 76.5 million cubic metres (2.75 billion cubic feet) of earth excavated—more than what was moved for the Suez Canal. At the time, the project was the second largest earth-moving project in the world – next only to the construction of the Panama Canal. The total cost at the time was $63 million (CAD), equivalent to approximately $505 million today. Design The Floodway protection system includes more than just the channel to the east of the city, but also the dikes along the river through Winnipeg and the West Dike extending to the southwest from the floodway inlet. Primarily as a result of the Floodway, the city suffered little flood damage. After the 1997 flood, a 2004 re-assessment of the floodway and its channel capacity indicated that 2,550 m3/s (90,000 cfs) could be passed through the floodway during a major flood, but this is considered above the design capacity as it would submerge bridges, and the decision was made to further expand the floodway. The West Dike is the limiting factor on the volume of water that can be diverted around the city, as a result of the extremely low grades in the area. In 2003, the province announced plans to expand the Floodway, increasing its flow capacity from to . It was decided to widen the Floodway as opposed to deepening it because of the soil and ground conditions in the area. Many underground aquifers in the area are used for drinking water for rural residents and the aquifers could potentially be contaminated if the floodway were deeper. There is also potential for pressures to increase in the aquifers, causing a "blowout" to occur, where water would flow from the aquifers in the ground to the surface and reduce the capacity of the Floodway. Officials decided widening the floodway would be the best option despite the lower hydraulic capacity that would result. Flow rates Below are the peak flow rates recorded on the Red River Floodway since it was completed in 1968. Expansion Since the 1997 Red River flood resulted in water levels that took the existing floodway to the limits of its capacity, various levels of government commissioned engineering studies for a major increase in flood protection for the City of Winnipeg. Work began in late 2005 under a provincial collective bargaining agreement and has included modifications to rail and road crossings as well as transmission line spans, upgrades to inlet control structures and fire protection, increased elevation of existing dikes (including the Brunkild dike), and the widening of the entire floodway channel. The NDP government set aside a portion of the construction budget for aboriginal construction firms. The Red River Floodway Expansion was completed in late 2010 at a final cost of more than $665,000,000 CAD. Since the completion of the expansion, the capacity of the floodway has increased to 4,000 cubic metres (140,000 cubic feet) per second, the estimated level of a 1-in-700 year flood event. (Using the flow rates of Niagara Falls as a standard of comparison, this is more than double its average of 1,833 cubic metres and about a third over its maximum.) The expanded floodway now protects over 140,000 homes, over 8,000 businesses, and will prevent more than $12 billion (CAD) in damage to the provincial economy in the event of a 1-in-700 year flood. Criticism Following the submission of the Royal Commission report Manitobans were strongly divided as to whether the province could afford the capital costs of a mammoth engineering project that would benefit primarily Winnipeg. The project was championed by Dufferin (Duff) Roblin, the Leader of the Opposition and head of the Manitoba Progressive Conservative Party, but it was vehemently denounced by opponents as a monumental, and potentially ruinous, waste of money. Indeed, the projected Red River Floodway was derisively referred to as “Duff”s Folly” and “Duff’s Ditch”, and decried as “approximating the building of the pyramids of Egypt in terms of usefulness.” The construction of the floodway and Assiniboine River works, would entail a capital cost of over $72 million, amortized over fifty years at 4% interest, at a time when the province had a population of only 900,000 and an annual net provincial revenue of about $74 million. Following the formation of a new provincial government in June 1958, Duff Roblin, the newly-elected Premier of Manitoba, continued to promote the floodway, and managed to secure a commitment from the federal government of Prime Minister John Diefenbaker to pay up to 60% of the construction costs. The NDP government was criticized by Conservative Brian Pallister, then the Member of Parliament, for requiring workers in construction companies working on the floodway to unionize. Pallister, MP for the Portage—Lisgar constituency and future Manitoba premier, told parliament, "the Manitoba NDP government is planning to proceed with a plan to force every worker on the Red River floodway expansion to unionize, despite the fact that 95% of Manitoba's construction companies are not unionized." The diversion of flood water has been criticized for shifting the impact of flooding from urban Winnipeg to rural communities such as Emerson, Morris, St Adolphe. In 1997 these towns and the surrounding farm buildings and lands ended up with the bulk of the flood water in order to save Winnipeg from flood damage. In 2011, the Manitoba government intentionally diverted water from the Assiniboine River to save Winnipeg which ended up flooding communities around Lake Manitoba - The communities of Pinaymootang, Lake St. Martin, Little Saskatchewan and Dauphin River were severely impacted, as well as the surrounding farmland and cottages. Considerations in the United States In 2009, the North Dakota city of Fargo has been contemplating building their own floodway, or diversion channel, similar to the Red River Floodway. This is in response to the disastrous floods of 1997 (nicknamed "The Flood of the Century"), and in early 2009. See also Portage Diversion (Assiniboine River Floodway) Shellmouth Reservoir Notes External links Manitoba Floodway Authority A Review of the Red River Floodway Operating Rules - Manitoba Conservation Flood control works CBC Video Archives: Duff's Ditch is completed Manitoba Historical Society: “Duff’s Ditch”: The Origins, Construction, and Impact of the Red River Floodway Red River of the North Buildings and structures in Manitoba Geography of Winnipeg Flood control projects Flood control in Canada Macro-engineering National Historic Sites in Manitoba	[ 0.09524660557508469, 0.24595190584659576, -0.35794639587402344, 0.3287239968776703, 0.3457086980342865, 0.40955647826194763, 0.6926448345184326, 0.725469708442688, 0.10600028932094574, -0.8737576603889465, -0.2924632132053375, 0.6629181504249573, -0.6016830801963806, 0.31344127655029297, -0.24330191314220428, 0.6611547470092773, -0.23853662610054016, 0.3565101623535156, 0.9459965229034424, -0.1734035462141037, -0.08236458897590637, 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251003	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoid%20bone	Hyoid bone	The hyoid bone (lingual bone or tongue-bone) () is a horseshoe-shaped bone situated in the anterior midline of the neck between the chin and the thyroid cartilage. At rest, it lies between the base of the mandible and the third cervical vertebra. Unlike other bones, the hyoid is only distantly articulated to other bones by muscles or ligaments. It is the only bone in the human body that is not connected to any other bones nearby. The hyoid is anchored by muscles from the anterior, posterior and inferior directions, and aids in tongue movement and swallowing. The hyoid bone provides attachment to the muscles of the floor of the mouth and the tongue above, the larynx below, and the epiglottis and pharynx behind. Its name is derived . Structure The hyoid bone is classed as an irregular bone and consists of a central part called the body, and two pairs of horns, the greater and lesser horns. Body The body of the hyoid bone is the central part of the hyoid bone. At the front, the body is convex and directed forward and upward. It is crossed in its upper half by a well-marked transverse ridge with a slight downward convexity, and in many cases a vertical median ridge divides it into two lateral halves. The portion of the vertical ridge above the transverse line is present in a majority of specimens, but the lower portion is evident only in rare cases. The anterior surface gives insertion to the geniohyoid muscle in the greater part of its extent both above and below the transverse ridge; a portion of the origin of the hyoglossus notches the lateral margin of the geniohyoid attachment. Below the transverse ridge the mylohyoid, sternohyoid, and omohyoid are inserted. At the back, the smooth, concave, directed backward and downward, and separated from the epiglottis by the hyothyroid membrane and a quantity of loose areolar tissue; a bursa intervenes between it and the hyothyroid membrane. Above, the body is rounded, and gives attachment to the hyothyroid membrane and some aponeurotic fibers of the genioglossus. Below, the body affords insertion medially to the sternohyoid and laterally to the omohyoid and occasionally a portion of the thyrohyoid. It also gives attachment to the Levator glandulae thyreoideae, when this muscle is present. Horns The greater and lesser horns () are two sections of bone that project from each side of the hyoid. The greater horns project backward from the outer borders of the body; they are flattened from above downward and taper to their end, which is a bony tubercle connecting to the lateral thyrohyoid ligament. The upper surface of the greater horns are rough and close to its lateral border, and facilitates muscular attachment. The largest of muscles that attach to the upper surface of the greater horns are the hyoglossus and the middle pharyngeal constrictor, which extend along the whole length of the horns; the digastric muscle and stylohyoid muscle have small insertions in front of these near the junction of the body with the horns. To the medial border the thyrohyoid membrane is attached, while the anterior half of the lateral border gives insertion to the thyrohyoid muscle. The lesser horns are two small, conical eminences, attached by their bases to the angles of junction between the body and greater horns of the hyoid bone. They are connected to the body of the bone by fibrous tissue, and occasionally to the greater horns by distinct diarthrodial joints, which usually persist throughout life, but occasionally become ankylosed. The lesser horns are situated in the line of the transverse ridge on the body and appear to be continuations of it. The apex of each horn gives attachment to the stylohyoid ligament; the chondroglossus rises from the medial side of the base. Development The second pharyngeal arch, also called the hyoid arch, gives rise to the lesser cornu of the hyoid and the upper part of the body of the hyoid. The cartilage of the third pharyngeal arch forms the greater cornu of the hyoid and the lower portion of the body of the hyoid. The greater horns derive from the third pharyngeal arch. The lesser horns are derived from the second pharyngeal arch also called the hyoid arch. The hyoid is ossified from six centers: two for the body, and one for each cornu. Ossification commences in the greater cornua toward the end of fetal development, in the hyoid body shortly afterward, and in the lesser cornua during the first or second year after birth. Until middle age the connection between the body and greater cornu is fibrous. In early life the outer borders of the body are connected to the greater horns by synchondroses; after middle life usually by bony union. Blood supply Blood is supplied to the hyoid bone via the lingual artery, which runs down from the tongue to the greater horns of the bone. The suprahyoid branch of the lingual artery runs along the upper border of the hyoid bone and supplies blood to the attached muscles. Function The hyoid bone is present in many mammals. It allows a wider range of tongue, pharyngeal and laryngeal movements by bracing these structures alongside each other in order to produce variation. Its descent in living creatures is not unique to Homo sapiens, and does not allow the production of a wide range of sounds: with a lower larynx, men do not produce a wider range of sounds than women and 2-year-old babies. Moreover, the larynx position of Neanderthals was not a handicap to producing speech sounds. The discovery of a modern-looking hyoid bone of a Neanderthal man in the Kebara Cave in Israel led its discoverers to argue that the Neanderthals had a descended larynx, and thus human-like speech capabilities. However, other researchers have claimed that the morphology of the hyoid is not indicative of the larynx's position. Recent research has indicated that the hyoid bone may have significant involvement in the ability to swallow. It has been hypothesized that the mammalian hyoid bone evolved in conjunction with the development of lactation, thus allowing babies to suckle milk. It is necessary to take into consideration the skull base, the mandible and the cervical vertebrae and a cranial reference plane. Muscle attachments A large number of muscles attach to the hyoid: Superior Middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle Hyoglossus muscle Genioglossus Intrinsic muscles of the tongue Suprahyoid muscles Digastric muscle Stylohyoid muscle Geniohyoid muscle Mylohyoid muscle Inferior Thyrohyoid muscle Omohyoid muscle Sternohyoid muscle Sternothyroid muscle Clinical significance The hyoid bone is important to a number of physiological functions, including breathing, swallowing and speech. It is also thought to play a key role in keeping the upper airway open during sleep, and as such, the development and treatment of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA; characterized by repetitive collapse of the upper airway during sleep). A mechanistic involvement of the hyoid bone in OSA is supported by numerous studies demonstrating that a more inferiorly positioned hyoid bone is strongly associated with the presence and severity of the disorder. Movement of the hyoid bone is also thought to be important in modifying upper airway properties, which was recently demonstrated in computer model simulations. A surgical procedure that aims to potentially increase and improve the airway is called hyoid suspension. Due to its position, the hyoid bone is not easily susceptible to fracture. In a suspected case of murder or physical abuse of an adult, a fractured hyoid strongly indicates throttling or strangulation. In children and adolescents (in whom the hyoid bone is still flexible because ossification is yet to be completed) fracture may not occur even after serious trauma. Other animals The hyoid bone is derived from the lower half of the second gill arch in fish, which separates the first gill slit from the spiracle, and is often called the hyoid arch. In many animals, it also incorporates elements of other gill arches, and has a correspondingly greater number of cornua. Amphibians and reptiles may have many cornua, while mammals (including humans) have two pairs, and birds only one. In birds, and some reptiles, the body of the hyoid is greatly extended forward, creating a solid bony support for the tongue. The howler monkey Alouatta has a pneumatized hyoid bone, one of the few cases of postcranial pneumatization of bones outside Saurischia. In veterinary anatomy, the term hyoid apparatus is the collective term used to refer to the bones of the tongue — a pair of stylohyoidea, a pair of thyrohyoidea, and unpaired basihyoideum — and associated, upper-gular connective tissues. In humans, the single hyoid bone is an equivalent of the hyoid apparatus. 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251006	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squaliformes	Squaliformes	The Squaliformes are an order of sharks that includes about 126 species in seven families. Members of the order have two dorsal fins, which usually possess spines, they usually have a sharp head, no anal fin or nictitating membrane, and five to seven gill slits. In most other respects, however, they are quite variable in form and size. Most species of the squaliform order live in saltwater or brackish water. They are found worldwide, from northern to tropical waters, and from shallow coastal seas to the open ocean. All members of the family Eptomeridae and Dalatiidae and Zameus squamulosus possess photophores, luminous organs, and exhibit intrinsic bioluminescence. Bioluminescence evolved once in Squaliformes, approximately 111-153 million years ago, and helped the Squaliformes radiate and adapt to the deep sea. The common ancestor of Dalatiidae, Etmopteridae, Somniosidae, and Oxynotidae possessed a luminous organ and used bioluminescence for camouflage by counterillumination. Counterillumination is an active form of camouflage in which an organism emits light to match the intensity of downwelling light to hide from predators below. Currently, bioluminescence provides different functions for Squaliformes based on the family. Dalatiidae and Zameus squamulosus possess simple photophores and use bioluminescence for ventral counter-illumination. Etmopteridae possess more complex photophores and utilize bioluminescence for ventral counter illumination as well as species recognition. Classification Family Centrophoridae Bleeker, 1859 (gulper sharks) Genus Centrophorus Genus Deania Family Dalatiidae (J. E. Gray, 1851) (kitefin sharks) Genus Euprotomicroides Genus Heteroscymnoides Genus Mollisquama Genus Dalatias Genus Isistius Genus Euprotomicrus Genus Squaliolus Family Echinorhinidae Theodore Gill, 1862 (bramble sharks) Genus Echinorhinus Family Etmopteridae Fowler, 1934 (lantern sharks) Genus Aculeola Genus Centroscyllium Genus Etmopterus Genus Trigonognathus Family Oxynotidae Gill, 1872 (rough sharks) Genus Oxynotus Family Somniosidae D. S. Jordan, 1888 (sleeper sharks) Genus Centroscymnus Genus Centroselachus Genus Scymnodalatias Genus Scymnodon Genus Somniosus Genus Zameus Family Squalidae Blainville, 1816 (dogfish sharks) Genus Cirrhigaleus Genus Squalus References Further reading FAO Species catalogue Volume 4 Parts 1 and 2 Extant Late Jurassic first appearances Taxa named by Edwin Stephen Goodrich Cartilaginous fish orders	[ -0.11199044436216354, -0.005717250518500805, -0.48365750908851624, -0.04085921496152878, -0.11715253442525864, 0.9042852520942688, 0.6297781467437744, 0.667057454586029, -0.3568306863307953, -0.3715764582157135, 0.14853082597255707, 0.4556070864200592, -0.17485542595386505, 0.34569573402404785, 0.14834144711494446, 0.5607938766479492, 0.21784280240535736, 0.32378795742988586, 0.3467119336128235, -0.21496063470840454, -0.3002750873565674, -1.06437087059021, 0.3146427273750305, -0.7620355486869812, 0.2989179491996765, 0.2010398805141449, 0.03710620850324631, 1.0774613618850708, 0.8471497893333435, 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251007	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue%20splitting	Tongue splitting	Tongue bifurcation, splitting or forking, is a type of body modification in which the tongue is cut centrally from its tip to as far back as the underside base, forking the end. Bifid tongue in humans may also be an unintended complication of tongue piercings or a rare congenital malformation associated with maternal diabetes, orofaciodigital syndrome 1, Ellis–Van Creveld syndrome, Goldenhar syndrome, and Klippel–Feil syndrome. Practice Deliberate tongue splitting is a cosmetic body modification procedure that results in a ‘lizard-like’ bifid tongue. Tongue bifurcation has also been reported as an unintended complication of tongue piercing. According to Google Trends, search interest in tongue splitting peaked in 2004, and has the highest search interest in South America followed by the Post-Soviet States, then the Anglosphere. Process Tongue bifurcation may be done surgically using a scalpel, or cauterised with a laser. It is performed by oral surgeons, plastic surgeons, or body modification practitioners, or done oneself, but only oral and plastic surgeons are licensed. Before splitting with any method, some choose to have a well-healed tongue piercing where the back end of the split is intended to be. This effectively prevents the tongue from healing forward from the back of the cut, which would result in a split that is not as deep as desired. When using the scalpel method, the tongue is cut down the middle with a scalpel and each half is stitched or sutured along the cut edge. This helps prevent the sides from healing back to each other and also achieves a more rounded and natural look. In some cases the scalpel is heated to provide a cauterizing effect, limiting bleeding. Cauterizing can be done with a cautery unit or an argon laser. Both burn the tongue in half which closes off blood vessels, preventing much bleeding. If an established tongue piercing is not used as the back end of the split with this method, the tongue has a higher tendency to heal and the procedure must be done again to achieve the depth desired. The tongue generally heals in 1–2 weeks, during which time the person may have difficulty with speech or their normal dietary habits. Splitting may be reversed surgically by removal of sutures, excision of healed tissue on edges, and re-suturing the tongue together. Once healed, muscle control of the individual sides can be gained with practice if the split is sufficiently deep. The two halves can be raised up and down opposite each other, spread apart from the other half which makes the split quite apparent and some objects can be grasped onto and held. Bifid tongues may be concealed if desired by holding the two halves together. When the two sides are held together, it may appear as though there is only a deep crevice in the centre of the tongue. Complications Surgical tongue splitting may result in inflammation, bleeding (including hemorrhage), infection, and injury to nerves or arteries on the tongue. A bifurcated tongue may also perceptibly alter fricative production. Resulting scar tissue may also affect speech. Motivation Proponents of body modifications such as tongue bifurcation may feel that body modification leads to a sense of strength and empowerment, assists pair or group bonding, or emotional 'healing' from past trauma. Proponents may simply like the appearance, considering it “beautiful,” enjoy the novelty or shock value, or believe it leads to increased sensation or enhancement when kissing. Challenging oneself, rites of passage, connecting with or being in control of one's body, making a spiritual connection or testing the body's limits are also reasons given. Like all body modifications, it can be used to connect or identify with a specific group or to ward off those who would make quick undesired judgments based on appearance. Legality The legality of tongue splitting varies greatly depending on the country and within those countries, individual states or territories. Some examples are given below, but do not encompass all the laws regarding this subject. United States of America Some branches of the U.S. military ban body modifications that detract from a professional military image and explicitly include tongue splitting or forking as examples. In 2003, Illinois became the first state in the U.S. to regulate tongue splitting, passing a law making it illegal to perform the procedure on another person, unless it is done by someone licensed to practice medicine. The law does not appear to prohibit performing the procedure on one's self. Since then New York, Delaware, and Texas have enacted laws that either ban the practice, ban the procedure on minors without parental consent, or restrict it to being performed by only doctors and/or dentists. Australia In 2009, the Australian state of Victoria enacted a ban on splitting the tongues of minors. United Kingdom In 2017 Brendan McCarthy was charged in the United Kingdom for a number of body modifications including tongue splitting. He pleaded guilty in 2019 to causing grievous bodily harm with intent. Cases of body modification artists illegally possessing and injecting local anaesthetics for tongue bifurcation procedures have also been recorded in England. In March 2018, the Court of Appeal ruled tongue splitting to be illegal in England and Wales when performed by a body modification practitioner for cosmetic purposes. Notable cases Dustin Allor, a 19-year-old body piercer in the U.S., split her tongue in 1996 herself. Not having any reference of this being done before, she came up with the tie-off or fishing line method. In 1997 she was featured on the cover of Fakir Musafar's Body Play Magazine. Dustin's documented success with this process inspired coworker Natalie Lowry to follow suit in 2001. Erik Sprague, aka The Lizardman had his tongue split on July 18, 1997, by oral surgeon Dr. Lawrence Busino, using an argon laser. A new deeper split was done on October 3, 1997. This was the third modern tongue bifurcation and the first one done using a laser. 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251010	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskers	Whiskers	Whiskers, more generally called vibrissae (; singular: vibrissa; ), are a type of stiff, functional hair used by animals to sense their environment. These hairs are finely specialised for this purpose, whereas other types of hair are coarser as tactile sensors. Although whiskers are specifically those found around the face, vibrissae are known to grow in various groups around the body. Most mammals have them, including all non-human primates and especially nocturnal mammals, but some birds and fish are known to have similar structures too. Vibrissae (from Latin 'to vibrate') are analogous to antennae found on insects and other arthropods. In medicine, the term also refers to the thick hairs found inside human nostrils. Anatomy Vibrissae are anatomically characterised by their long length, large and well-innervated hair follicle, and by having an identifiable representation in the somatosensory cortex of the brain. Vibrissal groups Vibrissae typically grow in clusters. These groups vary somewhat in form and function, but they are relatively consistent among land mammals. Between land and marine mammals, there is less consistency (though commonalities are certainly present). Many land mammals, like rats and hamsters, have four typical whisker groups on their heads (called cranial vibrissae), which might vary among animals due to different lifestyles. These cranial groups include: above the eyes (supraorbital) on the cheeks (genal) where a moustache would be (mystacial) under the snout (mandibular). The mystacial whiskers can be roughly identified as macrovibrissae (long whiskers for feeling the space around the head) and microvibrissae (small, down-pointing whiskers for identifying objects). Not only are these two types hard to distinguish on an animal's face (See the rat image to the right), there are similarly weak distinctions in how they're used, though the distinction is nonetheless referred to ubiquitously in scientific literature and is considered useful in analysis. Many land mammals, including domestic cats, also have vibrissae on the underside of the leg just above the paws (called carpal vibrissae). Whilst these five major groups are often reported in studies of land mammals, several other groups have been reported more occasionally; for instance nasal, angular, and submental whiskers. Marine mammals can have substantially different arrangements of their vibrissae. For instance, whales and dolphins have lost their snout whiskers and gained vibrissae around their blowholes, whereas every single one of the body hairs of the Florida manatee may be a vibrissa (See image). Other marine mammals, like seals and sea-lions, have head vibrissae just like those on land mammals (See the seal image to the right), although these groups function quite differently. Vibrissae The vibrissal hair is usually thicker and stiffer than other types of (pelagic) hair but, like other hairs, the shaft consists of an inert material (keratin) and contains no nerves. However, vibrissae are different from other hair structures because they grow from a special hair follicle incorporating a capsule of blood called a blood sinus which is heavily innervated by sensory nerves. Vibrissae are symmetrically arranged in groups on the face and supply the trigeminal nerve. The mystacial macrovibrissae are shared by a large group of land and marine mammals (see images), and it is this group that has received by far the most scientific study. The arrangement of these whiskers is not random: they form an ordered grid of arcs (columns) and rows, with shorter whiskers at the front and longer whiskers at the rear (see images). In the mouse, gerbil, hamster, rat, guinea pig, rabbit, and cat, each individual follicle is innervated by 100–200 primary afferent nerve cells. These cells serve an even larger number of mechanoreceptors of at least eight distinct types. Accordingly, even small deflections of the vibrissal hair can evoke a sensory response in the animal. Rats and mice typically have approximately 30 macrovibrissae on each side of the face, with whisker lengths up to around 50 mm in (laboratory) rats, 30 mm in (laboratory) mice, and a slightly larger number of microvibrissae. Thus, an estimate for the total number of sensory nerve cells serving the mystacial vibrissal array on the face of a rat or mouse might be 25,000. Natural shapes of rat's mystacial pad vibrissae are well approximated by pieces of the Euler spiral. When all these pieces for a single rat are assembled together, they span an interval extending from one coiled domain of the Euler spiral to the other. Rats and mice are considered to be "whisker specialists", but marine mammals may make even greater investment in their vibrissal sensory system. Seal whiskers, which are similarly arrayed across the mystacial region, are each served by around 10 times as many nerve fibres as those in rats and mice, so that the total number of nerve cells innervating the mystacial vibrissae of a seal has been estimated to be in excess of 300,000. Manatees, remarkably, have around 600 vibrissae on or around their lips. Whiskers can be very long in some species; the length of a chinchilla's whiskers can be more than a third of its body length (see image). Even in species with shorter whiskers, they can be very prominent appendages (see images). Thus, whilst whiskers certainly could be described as "proximal sensors" in contrast to, say, eyes, they offer a tactile sense with a sensing range that is functionally very significant. Operation Movement The follicles of some groups of vibrissae in some species are motile. Generally, the supraorbital, genal and macrovibrissae are motile, whereas the microvibrissae are not. This is reflected in anatomical reports that have identified musculature associated with the macrovibrissae that is absent for the microvibrissae. A small muscle 'sling' is attached to each macrovibrissa and can move it more-or-less independently of the others, whilst larger muscles in the surrounding tissue move many or all of the macrovibrissae together. Amongst those species with motile macrovibrissae, some (rats, mice, flying squirrels, gerbils, chinchillas, hamsters, shrews, porcupines, opossums) move them back and forth periodically in a movement known as whisking, while other species (cats, dogs, racoons, pandas) do not appear to. The distribution of mechanoreceptor types in the whisker follicle differs between rats and cats, which may correspond to this difference in the way they are used. Whisking movements are amongst the fastest produced by mammals. In all whisking animals in which it has so far been measured, these whisking movements are rapidly controlled in response to behavioural and environmental conditions. The whisking movements occur in bouts of variable duration, and at rates between 3 and 25 whisks/second. Movements of the whiskers are closely co-ordinated with those of the head and body. Function Generally, vibrissae are considered to mediate a tactile sense, complementary to that of skin. This is presumed to be advantageous in particular to animals that cannot always rely on sight to navigate or to find food, for example, nocturnal animals or animals which forage in muddy waters. Sensory function aside, movements of the vibrissae may also indicate something of the state of mind of the animal, and the whiskers play a role in social behaviour of rats. The sensory function of vibrissae is an active research area—experiments to establish the capabilities of whiskers use a variety of techniques, including temporary deprivation either of the whisker sense or of other senses. Animals can be deprived of their whisker sense for a period of weeks by whisker trimming (they soon grow back), or for the duration of an experimental trial by restraining the whiskers with a flexible cover like a mask (the latter technique is used, in particular, in studies of marine mammals). Such experiments have shown that whiskers are required for, or contribute to: object localization, orienting of the snout, detection of movement, texture discrimination, shape discrimination, exploration, thigmotaxis, locomotion, maintenance of equilibrium, maze learning, swimming, locating food pellets, locating food animals, and fighting, as well as nipple attachment and huddling in rat pups. Whisking—the periodic movement of the whiskers—is also presumed to serve tactile sensing in some way. However, exactly why an animal might be driven "to beat the night with sticks", as one researcher once put it, is a matter of debate, and the answer is probably multi-faceted. Scholarpedia offers: "Since rapid movement of the vibrissae consumes energy, and has required the evolution of specialised musculature, it can be assumed that whisking must convey some sensory advantages to the animal. Likely benefits are that it provides more degrees of freedom for sensor positioning, that it allows the animal to sample a larger volume of space with a given density of whiskers, and that it allows control over the velocity with which the whiskers contact surfaces." Animals that do not whisk, but have motile whiskers, presumably also gain some advantage from the investment in musculature. Dorothy Souza, in her book Look What Whiskers Can Do reports some whisker movement during prey capture (in cats, in this case): "Whiskers bend forward as the cat pounces. Teeth grasp the mouse tightly around its neck. The cat holds on until the prey stops wriggling." Anecdotally, it is often stated that cats use their whiskers to gauge whether an opening is wide enough for their body to pass through. This is sometimes supported by the statement that the whiskers of individual cats extend out to about the same width as the cat's body, but at least two informal reports indicate that whisker length is genetically determined and does not vary as the cat grows thinner or fatter. In the laboratory, rats are able to accurately (within 5-10%) discriminate the size of an opening, so it seems likely that cats can use their whiskers for this purpose. However, reports of cats, particularly kittens, with their heads firmly stuck in some discarded receptacle are commonplace indicating that if a cat has this information available, it doesn't always make best use of it. Marine mammals Pinnipeds have well-developed tactile senses. Their mystacial vibrissae have ten times the innervation of terrestrial mammals, allowing them to effectively detect vibrations in the water. These vibrations are generated, for example, when a fish swims through water. Detecting vibrations is useful when the animals are foraging and may add to or even replace vision, particularly in darkness. Harbor seals have been observed following varying paths of other organisms that swam ahead several minutes before, similar to a dog following a scent trail, and even to discriminate the species and the size of the fish responsible for the trail. Blind ringed seals have even been observed successfully hunting on their own in Lake Saimaa, likely relying on their vibrissae to gain sensory information and catch prey. Unlike terrestrial mammals, such as rodents, pinnipeds do not move their vibrissae over an object when examining it but instead extend their moveable whiskers and keep them in the same position. By holding their vibrissae steady, pinnipeds are able to maximize their detection ability. The vibrissae of seals are undulated and wavy while sea lion and walrus vibrissae are smooth. Research is ongoing to determine the function, if any, of these shapes on detection ability. The vibrissa's angle relative to the flow, and not the fiber shape, however, seems to be the most important factor. Lines of research Neuroscience A large part of the brain of whisker-specialist mammals is involved in the processing of nerve impulses from vibrissae, a fact that presumably corresponds to the important position the sense occupies for the animal. Information from the vibrissae arrives in the brain via the trigeminal nerve and is delivered first into the trigeminal sensory complex of brainstem. From there, the most studied pathways are those leading up through parts of thalamus and into barrel cortex, though other major pathways through the superior colliculus in midbrain (a major visual structure in visual animals) and the cerebellum, to name but a couple, are increasingly coming under scrutiny. Neuroscientists, and other researchers, studying sensory systems favour the whisker system for a number of reasons (see Barrel cortex), not least the simple fact that laboratory rats and mice are whisker, rather than visual, specialists. Evolutionary biology The presence of mystacial vibrissae in distinct lineages (Rodentia, Afrotheria, marsupials) with remarkable conservation of operation suggests that they may be an old feature present in a common ancestor of all therian mammals. Indeed, some humans even still develop vestigial vibrissal muscles in the upper lip, consistent with the hypothesis that previous members of the human lineage had mystacial vibrissae. Thus, it is possible that the development of the whisker sensory system played an important role in mammalian development, more generally. Artificial whiskers Researchers have begun to build artificial whiskers of a variety of types, both to help them understand how biological whiskers work and as a tactile sense for robots. These efforts range from the abstract, through feature-specific models, to attempts to reproduce complete whiskered animals in robot form (ScratchBot and ShrewBot, both robots by Bristol Robotics Laboratory). In non-mammalian animals A range of non-mammalian animals possess structures which resemble or function similarly to mammalian whiskers. In birds Some birds possess specialized hair-like feathers called rictal bristles around the base of the beak which are sometimes referred to as whiskers. The whiskered auklet (Aethia pygmaea) has striking, stiff white feathers protruding from above and below the eyes of the otherwise slate-grey bird, and a dark plume which swoops forward from the top of its head. Whiskered auklets sent through a maze of tunnels with their feathers taped back bumped their heads more than twice as often as they did when their feathers were free, indicating they use their feathers in a similar way to cats. Other birds that have obvious "whiskers" are kiwis, flycatchers, swallows, nightjars, whip-poor-wills, the kakapo and the long-whiskered owlet (Xenoglaux loweryi). In fish Some fish have slender, pendulous tactile organs near the mouth. These are often referred to as "whiskers", although they are more correctly termed barbels. Fish that have barbels include the catfish, carp, goatfish, hagfish, sturgeon, zebrafish and some species of shark. The Pimelodidae are a family of catfishes (order Siluriformes) commonly known as the long-whiskered catfishes. In pterosaurs Anurognathid pterosaurs had a rugose (wrinkled) jaw texture that has been interpreted as the attachment sites for vibrissae, though actual vibrissae have not been recorded. More recently, a specific type of pycnofibers/feathers has been found around anurognathid mouths. Gallery References External links A night in the life of a rat, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1225:110–118, April 2011. The Mysterious Whiskers of Cats, Blog-post about the functions of cat whiskers, April 7, 2012. 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251011	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Connolly	Billy Connolly	Sir William Connolly (born 24 November 1942) is a Scottish actor, retired comedian, artist, writer, musician, and presenter. He is sometimes known, especially in his homeland, by the Scots nickname the Big Yin ("the Big One"). Known for his idiosyncratic and often improvised observational comedy, frequently including strong language, Connolly has topped many UK polls as one of the greatest comedians of all time. Connolly's trade, in the early 1960s, was that of a welder (specifically a boilermaker) in the Glasgow shipyards, but he gave it up towards the end of the decade to pursue a career as a folk singer. He first sang in the folk rock band The Humblebums with Gerry Rafferty and Tam Harvey, with whom he stayed until 1974, before beginning singing as a solo artist. In the early 1970s, Connolly made the transition from folk singer with a comedic persona to fully-fledged comedian, for which he is now best known. In 1972, he made his theatrical debut, at the Cottage Theatre in Cumbernauld, with a revue called Connolly's Glasgow Flourish. He also played the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. In 1972, Connolly's first solo album, Billy Connolly Live!, was produced, with a mixture of comedic songs and short monologues. As an actor, Connolly has appeared in various films, including Indecent Proposal (1993), Pocahontas (1995), Muppet Treasure Island (1996), Mrs Brown (1997) (for which he was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role), The Boondock Saints (1999), The Last Samurai (2003), Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events (2004), The X-Files: I Want to Believe (2008), Brave (2012), and The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies (2014). On his 75th birthday in 2017, three portraits of Connolly were made by leading artists Jack Vettriano, John Byrne, and Rachel Maclean. These were later turned into part of Glasgow's official mural trail. In October that year, he was knighted at Buckingham Palace by Prince William, for services to entertainment and charity. Connolly announced his retirement from comedy in 2018, and in recent years he has established himself as an artist. In 2020, he unveiled the fifth release from his Born On A Rainy Day collection in London, followed by another installment later that year. During the filming of the ITV documentary Billy Connolly: It's Been a Pleasure, he described how art had given him "a new lease of life". Early life Connolly was born on 24 November 1942 at 69 Dover Street, "on the linoleum, three floors up", in Anderston, Glasgow. This section of Dover Street, between Breadalbane and Claremont streets, was demolished in the 1970s. Connolly refers to this in his 1983 song "I Wish I Was in Glasgow" with the lines "I would take you there and show you but they've pulled the building down" and "they bulldozed it all to make a road". The flat had only two rooms: a kitchen-living room, with a recess where the children slept, and another room for their parents. The family bathed in the kitchen sink, and there was no hot water. Connolly was born to Catholic parents, William Connolly and Mary McLean, both of whom were of partly Irish descent. In 1946, when he was four years old, Connolly's mother left her children while their father was serving as an engineer in the Royal Air Force in Burma. "I've never felt abandoned by her," Connolly explained in 2009. "My mother was a teenager. My father was in Burma, fighting a bloody war. The Germans were dropping all sorts of crap on the town. We lived at the docks, so that's where all the bombs were happening. She was a teenager with two kids in a slum. A guy comes along and says, 'I love you. Come with me.' Given the choice, I think I'd have gone with him. It looks as though it might all end next Wednesday, from where you're standing. I don't have an ounce of feelings that she abandoned me. She tried to survive." Connolly and his older sister, Florence (named after their maternal grandmother, and eighteen months his senior), were cared for by his father's two sisters, Margaret and Mona Connolly, in their cramped tenement in Stewartville Street, Partick. "My aunts constantly told me I was stupid, which still affects me today pretty badly. It's just a belief that I'm not quite as good as anyone else. It gets worse as you get older. I'm a happy man now but I still have the scars of that." Regarding his sister, Connolly has called her his "great defender". "To this day," he explained in 2009, "Guys say, 'God, your sister... We didn't dare beat you up – your sister was a nightmare'. She used to get after them." In the mid-1960s, Flo was on holiday in Dunoon with her husband and two children. "My mother said, 'I saw Florence walking along, and I followed her.'" "I said, 'Did you speak to her?' 'Oh, no, I didn't,' she said. I thought, 'Oh, my god. It's like being a ghost while you're still alive.' Walking behind your own child. Having a look. I couldn't bear that." The aunts resented the children for the fact that they had to sacrifice their young lives to look after them. It was Mona who was troubled the most by having to care for her niece and nephew. "It was very big of her to take on the responsibility, but having said that, I wish people wouldn't do that. I wish people wouldn't be very big for five minutes and rotten for twenty years. Just keep your 'big' and keep your 'rotten' and get out of my life, because, quite frankly, I would rather have gone to a children's home and be with a lot of other kids being treated the same. To this day, I'm still working on the things she did to me." Connolly credits one of John Bradshaw's publications with helping him deal with his past demons. "He reckons that if this trauma happened to you when you were five or six then, emotionally, that part of you remains five or six. And what you have to do is carry that five- or six-year-old around with you and try and emotionally help that other part of you. It sounds a bit airy-fairy, but I think he's something of a genius, Mr. Bradshaw." Connolly, Sr. returned from the war, a stranger to his children, shortly after the move to Partick. He never spoke to them about their mother's departure. Connolly's biography, Billy, written by wife Pamela Stephenson, documented years of physical and sexual abuse by his father, which began when he was ten and lasted until he was about 15. "Sometimes, when father hit me, I flew over the settee backwards in a sitting position. It was fabulous. Just like real flying, except you didn't get a cup of tea or a safety belt or anything." In 1949, Mona gave birth to a son, Michael, by a "local man". He was presented as a brother to Billy and Flo, and nobody questioned it. Connolly's bedroom had double windows, which directly faced St Peter's Primary School across the street. Now defunct, the school has been converted into living accommodation. "The school was very violent indeed. At first, in the infant school, the nuns were very violent. And then over here at St Peter's, they were just strapping you all the time. I had a psychopath in here, called McDonald — Miss McDonald. "Big Rosie", they called her. There was a guy with glasses in my class and she called him "four eyes", and she was a teacher!" At St. Peter's, Connolly decided that he wanted to make people laugh. "I can remember the moment in the school playground. I would have been 7 or 8. And I was sitting in a puddle and people were laughing. I had fallen in it and people found it funny. And it wasn't all that uncomfortable, so I stayed in it longer than I normally would because I really enjoyed the laughing. My life was very unhappy at the time, and laughter wasn't something I heard all the time, so it was a joy. And I realised quickly that if you can have an audience this way, life was rather pleasant." While at St Peter's, Connolly joined a gang. His arch-enemy was Geordie Sinclair, who lived around the corner. Connolly was a Wolf Cub with the 141st Glasgow Scout Group. He revisits the site of one field trip, Auchengillan scout camp, during his World Tour of Scotland. At age 12, Connolly decided he wanted to become a comedian but did not think that he fit the mold, feeling he needed to become more "windswept and interesting". Also at that age, he joined an organisation called The Children of Mary. The group would visit people and say the Rosary, with a statue of the Lady of Lourdes in a shoebox. "We were as welcome as haemorrhoids." The group would all kneel around the statue and pray. "You could hear people hurrying prayers because there was a good television programme coming." In the 1950s, Glasgow's sandstone tenements fell out of favour with the planners, which resulted in new houses being built on the fields and farmlands in the outskirts of the city. Between the ages of fourteen and twenty, Connolly was brought up on a now-demolished council estate on Kinfauns Drive in the Drumchapel district of Glasgow, and would make the daily journey to St. Gerard's Secondary School (also now defunct) in Govan, on the southern side of the River Clyde. He rode the bus to Partick, crossed the water by ferry and walked to 80 Vicarfield Street. "Drumchapel is a housing estate just outside Glasgow. Well, it's in Glasgow, but just outside civilisation," he has joked. "To be quite honest, I quite liked it when I lived there. When I moved to Drumchapel, I was fourteen and there was a bluebell wood there, and it was in great condition then — I don't think it's in quite so good condition now — but it was lovely then. We had rabbits and pheasants, and I really quite liked it. I just started to dislike it when I got older, into my teens and things. In my late teens, when I was stuck out there, it cost me a lot of money to go anyplace. It was a kind of cowboy town, but I liked that aspect of it, buying stuff out of vans, a ragman coming in a wee green van." Connolly revisited this tenement in Drumchapel during filming for The South Bank Show in 1992. "It eventually started to pall. This dreadful atmosphere came about the place. It's like Siberia. And once you're out here, there's no getting out of it. You have to buy your way out, or some kind of talent has to take you out, or you have to be very bright and move away to university." Also at fourteen, Connolly started to become interested in music — mainly Jerry Lee Lewis and Chuck Berry. At fifteen, he left school with two engineering qualifications, one collected by mistake which belonged to a boy named Connell. Connolly was a year too young to work in the shipyards. Instead, he started working for John Smith's Bookshop, on St Vincent Street, delivering books on his bicycle. He became a delivery-van driver with Bilslands' Bakery until he was sixteen, when he was deemed overqualified (due to his J1 and J2 certificates) to become an engineer. Instead, he worked as a boilermaker at Alexander Stephen and Sons shipyard in Linthouse. "What an extraordinary feeling," Connolly said, upon returning to the site of the now-demolished shipyard in 1992. "I spent a great deal of my life in here. From age 16 to... well, I started at 15. I started my apprenticeship at 16 and finished when I was 21. Stayed till I was 22, and moved along. I finished welding when I was 24. When I came here, as an apprentice, there was six ships being built, right where I'm standing. It was an extraordinary place. A hive of activity. Welders, caulkers, platers, burners, joiners, engineers, electricians. I learned how men talked to one another, and how merciless Glasgow humour can be. It has made an indelible mark on me." His foreman was Sammy Boyd, but the two biggest influences on him, according to the book written by his wife Pamela, were Jimmy Lucas and Bobby Dalgleish. Jimmy was one of Billy's trainers in the yard who helped him to hone his skills as a welder and a comedian. Connolly also joined the Territorial Army Reserve unit 15th (Scottish) Battalion, the Parachute Regiment (15 PARA). He later commemorated his experiences in the song "Weekend Soldier". Career Origin of "The Big Yin" Connolly's nickname The Big Yin was first used during his adolescent years to differentiate between himself and his father. "My father was a very strong man. Broad and strong. He had an 18½-inch neck collar. Huge, like a bull. He was "Big Billy" and I was "Wee Billy". And then I got bigger than him, and the whole thing got out of control. And then I became The Big Yin in Scotland. So, we'd go into the pub and someone would say, 'Billy Connolly was in.' 'Oh? Big Billy or Wee Billy?' 'The Big Yin.' 'Oh, Wee Billy.' If you were a stranger, you'd think, 'What are these people talking about?!'" 1960s In the early 1960s, Connolly attended the Edinburgh Festival Fringe for the first time. After spending time on the city's Rose Street, patronising the various drinking establishments, he became enamoured by some long-haired musicians and decided to model himself on them. In 1965, after he had completed a 5-year apprenticeship as a boilermaker, Connolly accepted a ten-week job building an oil platform in Biafra, Nigeria. Upon his return to the United Kingdom, via Jersey, he worked briefly at John Brown & Company but decided to walk out on a Fair Friday to focus on being a folk singer. After watching The Beverly Hillbillies, he bought his first banjo at the Barrowland market. He began to tour with the folkie crowd, including regular stints at The Scotia bar, on Stockwell Street, guided by folk singer Danny Kyle. "I kind of introduced Billy to the folk clubs, such as there were in those days – there were very few in those days. We used to go to places like Saturday Late or the Montrose Street Glasgow Folk Club." Connolly formed a folk-pop duo called the Humblebums with Tam Harvey. In 1969, they were joined by Gerry Rafferty, who had approached Connolly after a gig in Paisley. The band signed for independent label, Transatlantic Records, and after recording one album (1969's First Collection of Merry Melodies), Harvey left the trio and Connolly and Rafferty went on to release two more albums: The New Humblebums (1969) and Open up the Door (1970). Connolly's time with Rafferty possibly influenced his future comedy, because years later he would recall how Rafferty's expert prank telephone calls, made while waiting to go on stage, used to make him "scream" with laughter. Connolly's contributions were primarily straightforward pop-folk with quirky and whimsical lyrics, but he had not especially focused on comedy at this point. In 1968, a 26-year-old Connolly married Springburn native and interior designer Iris Pressagh, with whom he had two children. They initially lived on Redlands Road in Glasgow's West End, but when fans began to wait out in the street, they moved to Drymen near the south-eastern shore of Loch Lomond. Later that year, Connolly's mother went to meet him backstage after a Humblebums gig in Dunoon, where she was working in the cafeteria at Dunoon General Hospital. It was the second and final meeting between them since she had abandoned Connolly. She had been living in the town with her partner, Willie Adams, with whom she had three daughters and a son. "I went home to her house and stayed the night, instead of the hotel. The sadness is... She was a very nice woman, but we never got along. We both tried to like each other, and I don't think she liked me very much. I don't regret it, but I'm sad about it. I wish I'd liked her. And I wish she'd liked me." In 1971, the Humblebums broke up, with Rafferty going on to record his solo album Can I Have My Money Back? Connolly returned to being a folk singer. His live performances featured humorous introductions that became increasingly long. The head of Transatlantic Records, Nat Joseph, who had signed The Humblebums and had nurtured their career, was concerned that Connolly find a way to develop a distinctive solo career just as his former bandmate, Gerry Rafferty, was doing. Joseph saw several of Connolly's performances and noted his comedic skills. Joseph had nurtured the recording career of another Scottish folk entertainer, Hamish Imlach, and saw potential in Connolly following a similar path. He suggested to Connolly that he drop the folk-singing and focus primarily on becoming a comedian. 1970s In 1972, Connolly made his theatrical debut, at the Cottage Theatre in Cumbernauld, with a revue called Connolly's Glasgow Flourish. He played the Edinburgh Festival Fringe with poet Tom Buchan, with whom he had written The Great Northern Welly Boot Show, and in costumes designed by the artist and writer John Byrne, who also designed the covers of the Humblebums' records. Also in 1972, Nat Joseph produced Connolly's first solo album, Billy Connolly Live!, a mixture of comedic songs and short monologues that hinted at what was to follow. In late 1973, Joseph produced the breakthrough album that propelled Connolly to British stardom. Recorded at a small venue, The Tudor Hotel in Airdrie, the record was a double album titled Solo Concert. Releasing a live double-album by a comedian who was virtually unknown (except to a cult audience in Glasgow) was an unusual gambit by Joseph but his faith in Connolly's talent turned out to be warranted. Joseph and his marketing team, which included publicist Martin Lewis, promoted the album to chart success on its release in 1974. It featured one of Connolly's most famous comedy routines — "The Crucifixion" — in which he likens Christ's Last Supper to a drunken night out in Glasgow. The recording was banned by many radio stations at the time. In 1974, he sold out the Pavilion Theatre in his home town. In 1975, the rapidity and extent of Connolly's breakthrough was used to secure him a booking on Britain's premier TV chat show, the BBC's Parkinson. Connolly made the most of the opportunity and, ignoring objections from his manager, told a bawdy joke about a man who had murdered his wife and buried her bottom-up so he'd have somewhere to park his bike. This ribald humour was unusually forthright on a primetime Saturday night on British television in the mid-1970s, and his appearance made a great impact. "When I finished that show, I came back to Glasgow, and I was coming through the airport and the whole airport started to applaud." Connolly became a good friend of the host, Michael Parkinson, and now holds the record for appearances on the programme, having been a guest on fifteen occasions. Referring to that debut appearance, he later said: "That programme changed my entire life." Parkinson, in the documentary, Billy Connolly: Erect for 30 Years, stated that people still remember Connolly telling the punchline to the 'bike joke' three decades after that TV appearance. When asked about the material, Connolly stated, "Yes, it was incredibly edgy for its time. My manager, on the way over, warned me not to do it, but it was a great joke and the interview was going so well, I thought, 'Oh, fuck that!!' I don't know where I got the courage in those days, but Michael did put confidence in me." Connolly's success spread to other English-speaking countries: Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. However, his broad Scottish accent and British cultural references made success in the US improbable. His increased profile led to contact with other celebrities; including musicians such as Elton John. John at that time was trying to assist British performers whom he personally liked to achieve success in the United States (he had released records in the US by veteran British pop singer Cliff Richard on his own Rocket label). John tried to give Connolly a boost in America by using him as the opening act on his 1976 US tour, but the well-intentioned gesture was a failure. John's American fans had no interest in being warmed-up by an unknown comedian – especially a Scotsman whose accent they found incomprehensible. "In Washington, some guy threw a pipe and it hit me right between my eyes", he told Michael Parkinson two years later. "It wasn't my audience. They made me feel about as welcome as a fart in a spacesuit." The quip caused fellow guest Angie Dickinson to laugh uncontrollably. Connolly continued to grow in popularity in the UK. In 1975, he signed with Polydor Records. Connolly continued to release live albums and he also recorded several comedic songs that enjoyed commercial success as novelty singles including parodies of Tammy Wynette's song "D.I.V.O.R.C.E." (which he performed on Top of the Pops in December 1975) and the Village People's "In the Navy" (titled "In the Brownies"). In 1976, Connolly's first play, An' Me wi' a Bad Leg, Tae, opened in Irvine and toured in London. It was there that, after consuming a sizable amount of cocaine and alcohol, he collapsed on the floor of a recording studio. In 1979, Connolly met Pamela Stephenson, the New Zealand-born comedy actress, for the first time when he made a cameo appearance on the BBC sketch show, Not the Nine O'Clock News, in which she was one of the four regular performers. Returning to the stage, Connolly embarked on his Big Wee Tour of Britain, performing 69 dates in 84 days. While backstage in Brighton, he met Stephenson for a second time. He confided in her that he was unhappy and that his current marriage was over. Back at his hotel, where they began an affair, he reportedly drank thirty brandies. "What I saw of him – particularly in that dressing room – was that he was about to die," Stephenson said. "He was very suicidal. He was throwing everything away, desperately trying to feel no pain at all. You know how you get a sense from some people when they are very self-destructive that there is something they are trying to bury? They've got something they are trying to forget, or they are trying to drown their sorrows? He was hurting in a very deep way. I thought, 'If I leave this man, he's going to die.'" Also in 1979, Connolly was invited by producer Martin Lewis to join the cast of The Secret Policeman's Ball, the third in the series of The Secret Policeman's Balls fundraising shows for Amnesty International. Connolly was the first comedic performer in the series who was not an alumnus of the Oxbridge school of middle-class university-educated entertainers and he made the most of his appearance. Appearing in the company of long-established talents such as John Cleese and Peter Cook helped elevate the perception of Connolly as one of Britain's leading comedic talents. Lewis also teamed Connolly with Cleese and Cook to appear in the television commercial for the album. 1980s In 1981, John Cleese and Martin Lewis invited Connolly to appear in that year's Amnesty show, The Secret Policeman's Other Ball. The commercial success of the special US version of The Secret Policeman's Other Ball film (Miramax Films, 1982) introduced Connolly to a wider American audience, who were attracted to the film because of the presence of Monty Python members. His on-screen presence alongside these performers – who were already familiar to Anglophile comedy buffs – helped lay down a marker for Connolly's eventual return to the US in his own right eight years later. En route to begin filming Water (1985) in Saint Lucia, Connolly drank an excessive amount of alcohol on the plane. Upon arriving on the island, he had dinner with the cast and crew, including Michael Caine. In 1985, he divorced Iris Pressagh, his wife of sixteen years (they had separated four years earlier), and he was awarded custody of their children Jamie and Cara. That same year, he performed An Audience with..., which was videotaped at the South Bank Television Centre in front of a celebrity audience for ITV. The uncut, uncensored version was subsequently released on video. In July 1985, Connolly performed at Live Aid at Wembley Stadium, immediately preceding Elton John, whom he introduced on stage. 1990s Although Connolly had performed in North America as early as the 1970s and had appeared in several movies that played in American theatres, he nonetheless remained relatively unknown until 1990 when he was featured in the HBO special Whoopi Goldberg and Billy Connolly in Performance, produced by New York's Brooklyn Academy of Music. Soon after, Connolly succeeded Howard Hesseman as the star of the sitcom, Head of the Class for its final season. He would also take part on its spin-off series Billy. Connolly joined boxer Frank Bruno and Ozzy Osbourne when singing "The War Song of the Urpneys" in the British animated television series The Dreamstone. In 1991, HBO released Billy Connolly: Pale Blue Scottish Person, a standup performance recorded at the Wilshire Ebell Theatre in Los Angeles, California. On 4 June 1992, Connolly performed his 25th-anniversary concert in Glasgow. Parts of the show and its build-up were documented in The South Bank Show, which aired later in the year. In early January 1994, Connolly began a 40-date World Tour of Scotland, which would be broadcast by the BBC later in the year as a six-part series. It was so well received he did Billy Connolly's World Tour of Australia for the BBC in 1995. The eight-part series followed Connolly on his custom-made Harley Davidson trike. Also in 1995, Connolly recorded a BBC special, entitled A Scot in the Arctic, in which he spent a week by himself in the Arctic Circle. He voiced Captain John Smith's shipmate, Ben, in Disney's animated film, Pocahontas. In 1996, he appeared in Muppet Treasure Island as Billy Bones. In 1997, he starred with Dame Judi Dench in Mrs Brown, in which he played John Brown, the favoured Scottish servant of Queen Victoria. He was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role and a BAFTA Scotland Award for Best Actor, as well as a Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance. In 1998, Connolly's best friend, Danny Kyle, died. "He was my dearest, dearest, oldest friend", Connolly explained to an Australian audience on his Greatest Hits compilation, released in 2001. It was Kyle who helped Connolly overcome his habit of recoiling on being touched by others, a remnant of the abuse he endured as a child. "Every time it happened, Danny would just collapse with hysterics," said Pamela Stephenson. "'That's not normal, Billy,' Danny tried to be patient with him. 'You'll have to relax. It's touchy-feely, you know, the way we live. We like to touch each other and we kiss: we're different. You'll have to calm down or you'll always be fighting.'" He performed a cover version of the Beatles' song, "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite" on George Martin's 1998 album, In My Life. In November 1998, Connolly was the subject of a two-hour retrospective entitled, Billy Connolly: Erect for 30 Years, which included tributes from Dench, Sir Sean Connery, Whoopi Goldberg, Robin Williams, Dustin Hoffman, and Eddie Izzard. In 1999, after forming Tickety-Boo management company with Malcolm Kingsnorth, his tour manager and sound engineer of 25 years, Connolly undertook a four-month, 59-date sellout tour of Australia and New Zealand. Later in the year, he completed a five-week, 25-date sellout run at London's Hammersmith Apollo. 2000s In 2000, Connolly starred in Beautiful Joe alongside Sharon Stone. The following year, he completed the third in his "World Tour" BBC series, this time of England, Ireland and Wales, which began in Dublin and ended in Plymouth. It was broadcast the following year. Also in 2001, Stephenson's first biography of her husband, Billy, was published. Much of the book is about Connolly the celebrity but the account of his early years provides a context for his humour and point of view. A follow-up, Bravemouth, was published in 2003. A fourth BBC series, World Tour of New Zealand, was filmed in 2004 and aired that winter. Also in his 63rd year, Connolly performed two sold-out benefit concerts at the Oxford New Theatre in memory of Malcolm Kingsnorth. He has continued to be a much in-demand character actor, appearing in several films such as White Oleander (2002), The Last Samurai (2003), and Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events (2004). He has played an eclectic collection of leading roles in recent years, including a lawyer who undertakes a legal case of Biblical proportions in The Man Who Sued God (2001), and a young boy's pet zombie in Fido (2006). Also in 2005, Connolly and Stephenson announced, after fourteen years of living in Hollywood, they were returning to live in the former's native land. They purchased a yacht with the profits from their house-sale and split the year between Malta and the 12-bedroom Candacraig House in Strathdon, Aberdeenshire, which they had purchased in 1998 from Dame Anita Roddick. Later in the year, Connolly topped an unscientific poll of "Britain's Favourite Comedian" conducted by the network Five, placing him ahead of performers such as John Cleese, Ronnie Barker, Dawn French, and Peter Cook. In 2006, he revealed he has a house on the Maltese island of Gozo. He and his wife also have an apartment in New York City near Union Square. On 30 December 2007, Connolly escaped uninjured from a single-car accident on the A939 near Ballater, Aberdeenshire. 2010s In 2011, Connolly and his wife were living full-time in New York City, whilst retaining their Candacraig residence. The Connollys decided to sell Candacraig House in September 2013, with a price of £2.75 million. In 2012, Connolly provided the voice of King Fergus in Pixar's Scotland-set animated film Brave, alongside fellow Scottish actors Kelly Macdonald, Craig Ferguson, Robbie Coltrane, Emma Thompson, and Kevin McKidd. Connolly appeared as Wilf in Quartet, a 2012 British comedy-drama film based on the play Quartet by Ronald Harwood, directed by Dustin Hoffman. In 2014, he appeared in The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies as Dáin II Ironfoot, a great dwarf warrior and cousin of Thorin II Oakenshield. Peter Jackson stated: "We could not think of a more fitting actor to play Dain Ironfoot, the staunchest and toughest of dwarves, than Billy Connolly, the Big Yin himself. With Billy stepping into this role, the cast of The Hobbit is now complete. We can't wait to see him on the battlefield." Steve Brown, Connolly's manager of 32 years, died in December 2017 at the age of 72. In 2018, Connolly, now resident in Florida, held his first art exhibition. He stated at the time that he would no longer be touring as a comedian. 2020s As of 2021, he and his wife live in Florida. He published a biography, Windswept and Interesting, in October 2021. Personal life Connolly married Iris Pressagh in 1969. They separated in 1981 and divorced in 1985. In 1981 he began living with Pamela Stephenson; they were married in Fiji on 20 December 1989. "Marriage to Pam didn't change me; it saved me," he later said. "I was going to die. I was on a downwards spiral and enjoying every second of it. Not only was I dying, but I was looking forward to it." Connolly has two children from his first marriage and three from his second. He became a grandfather in 2001, when his daughter Cara gave birth to Walter. On 30 December 1985, Connolly became teetotal, having been an alcoholic. "I don't miss drinking. It has taken me by surprise," Connolly stated 24 years later. "I miss the craic. I miss the joy of it all. The headbanging stupidity, the loveliness, the craziness of it. I miss it terribly." He recalls blackouts that he would fill in upon returning to sobriety. "Well, [the memories] stopped coming back. But when I drank, I would go, 'Oh, I remember now.'" Connolly is describing the phenomenon of state-dependent learning. "That was frightening. I remember thinking, 'Beware, Billy boy. Beware. All is not well. Do something.'" Regarding the decision he made to stay sober: "If Pamela goes away, I'm on my own. There's nothing. There's only me and it. So the choice becomes very apparent." In 1986, he visited Mozambique to appear in a documentary for Comic Relief. He also featured in the charity's inaugural live stage show, both as a stand-up and portraying a willing "victim" in his partner Pamela Stephenson's act of sawing a man in half to create two dwarfs. Connolly completed his first world tour in 1987, including six nights at the Royal Albert Hall in London, which was documented in the Billy and Albert video. In March 1988, his father died after a stroke, the eighth of his life. His mother died five years later, in 1993, of motor neurone disease. In the book Billy (and in a December 2008 online interview), Connolly states he was sexually abused by his father between the ages of ten and fifteen. He believes this was a result of the Catholic Church not allowing his father to divorce after his mother left the family. Because of this, Connolly has a "deep distrust and dislike of the Catholic church and any other organisation that brainwashes people". He has called himself an atheist. In September 2013, Connolly underwent minor surgery for early-stage prostate cancer. The announcement also stated that he was being treated for the initial symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Connolly had acknowledged earlier in 2013 that he had started to forget his lines during performances. In January 2019, he disclosed that its advance may force his retirement from performing. He appeared on the BBC's genealogy programme Who Do You Think You Are? on 2 October 2014, in which he discovered his Indian ancestry. Ancestry Connolly's paternal grandfather, whom – like his paternal grandmother – Connolly never met, was an Irish immigrant who left Ireland when he was ten years old. His great-great-great grandfather (Charles Mills, a coast guard, 1796–1870) and great-great grandfather (Bartholomew Valentine Connolly) were from Connemara. His father was William Connolly; his mother, Mary "Mamie" McLean, was from the Clan Maclean of Duart Castle on the Isle of Mull on the west coast of Scotland. Mamie's father, Neil, was a Protestant and her mother, Flora, was a Roman Catholic who "made clandestine arrangements for the children to be baptised as Catholics", even though they were "formally raised as Protestants". His maternal grandparents moved inland to Finnieston Street, Glasgow, in the early 1900s. His maternal great-great-great-grandfather, John O'Brien, fought at the Siege of Lucknow during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. He was wounded during the long siege by a severe gunshot to the left shoulder. He married a local 13-year-old Indian girl called Matilda. They had four children and settled in Bangalore after his military service. In 2018, Connolly moved to Key West, Florida. Political views Connolly had previously been a vocal opponent of Scottish independence. In 1974, he made a political party television broadcast on behalf of the Labour Party which criticised the Scottish National Party. In 1999, he blamed the SNP for a perceived increase in Anglophobia in Scotland; described the new Scottish Parliament as a joke; and declined to attend the opening ceremony. He questioned the expense of independence, and whether average Scots would benefit from another level of government, though he added "Scots are very capable of making up their mind without my tuppence worth." In April 2014, in an interview with the Radio Times leading up to the independence referendum, he stated "I think it's time for people to get together, not split apart. The more people stay together, the happier they'll be." He also referred to the Darien scheme, an effort to establish a Scottish colony in the Isthmus of Panama in 1698; the colony's failure destroyed the Kingdom of Scotland's economy and led to the Acts of Union in 1707. Connolly wrote, "You must remember that the Union saved Scotland. Scotland was bankrupt and the English opened us up to their American and Canadian markets, from which we just flowered." During an interview with the BBC prior to polling day for the Scottish independence referendum on 18 September 2014, Connolly revealed he would not be voting as he was flying to New Zealand that day. He expressed his belief that the people of Scotland did not need his opinion to make up their minds on the subject. In October 2018, several media outlets stated that in his book Made in Scotland, released on 10 October, Connolly had voiced his support for independence in light of the 2016 referendum on the United Kingdom leaving the European Union (Brexit), in which Scotland voted to remain. The Times reported Connolly as calling the Brexit vote a "disaster" and saying that independence "may be the way to go" in order for Scotland to maintain a connection to Europe. In Episode Five of the BBC Scotland documentary, Billy and Us, first broadcast on 11 June 2020, he said "I've never liked nationalism in any of its guises. I'm not saying I've never agreed with independence. I think a Scottish republic is as good an idea as any I ever heard." Support for charity Connolly is a patron of the National Association for Bikers with a Disability. He is also a patron of Celtic F.C.'s The Celtic Foundation. Other ventures Folk music In 1965, together with Tam Harvey, Connolly started a group called The Humblebums. At their first gig, Connolly reportedly introduced them both to the audience by saying, "My name's Billy Connolly, and I'm humble. This is Tam Harvey, he's a bum." The band would later include Gerry Rafferty, who saw Connolly at a charity show in Paisley. "Gerry was very good for me. He taught me that I would never be a musician as long as my arse looked south. He was just so outstandingly good and getting better, and although I was getting better too, the space between us remained huge. He was a real musician, he knew and felt music, a bass player, with a lovely sense of harmony, as well as a great guitarist. I knew tunes and how to play them but that was where my musicianship ended. Unfortunately, I'm still the same to this day. I work very hard, I play every day but I'm still ordinary. I can be flashy, but it's all tricks really. He's a musician and I'm just not in the same league. So, I gave up these ambitions and concentrated on what I was really born to do." After Harvey left the group, Connolly and Rafferty continued as a duo and the latter two of their three albums featured just that duo. Connolly sang, played five-string banjo, guitar, and autoharp, and at live shows entertained the audience with his humorous introductions to the songs. Frank Bruno and Connolly provided lead vocals on, "The War Song of the Urpneys" from The Dreamstone; although the version heard in the series was largely sung by composer Mike Batt. In his World Tour of Scotland, Connolly revealed that, at a trailer show during the Edinburgh Festival, the Humblebums took to the stage just before Yehudi Menuhin. The Humblebums broke up in 1971 and both Connolly and Rafferty went solo. Connolly's first solo album in 1972, Billy Connolly Live! on Transatlantic Records, featured him as a singer-songwriter. His early albums were a mixture of comedy performances, with comedic and serious musical interludes. Among his best-known musical performances were "The Welly Boot Song", a parody of the Scottish folk song "The Wark O' The Weavers," which became his theme song for several years; "In the Brownies", a parody of the hit Village People songs "In the Navy" and "Y.M.C.A." (for which Connolly filmed a music video); "Two Little Boys in Blue", a tongue-in-cheek indictment of police brutality done to the tune of Rolf Harris' "Two Little Boys"; and the ballad, "I Wish I Was in Glasgow," which Connolly would later perform in duet with Malcolm McDowell on a guest appearance on the 1990s American sitcom Pearl (which starred Rhea Perlman). He also performed the occasional Humblebums-era song such as, "Oh, No!" as well as straightforward covers such as a version of Dolly Parton's, "Coat of Many Colors", both of which were included on his Get Right Intae Him! album. In November 1975, his spoof of the Tammy Wynette song, "D-I-V-O-R-C-E" was a UK No. 1 single for one week. Wynette's original was about parents spelling out words of an impending marital split to avoid traumatising their young child. Connolly's spoof of the song played on the dog owners using the same tactic to avoid worrying their pet about an impending trip to the vet. Connolly's song is about a couple whose marriage is ruined by a bad vet visit (spelling out "W-O-R-M" or "Q-U-A-R-A-N-T-I-N-E", for example.) His song, "No Chance" was a parody of J. J. Barrie's cover of the song, "No Charge". In 1985, he sang the theme song to Super Gran which was released as a single. In 1996, he performed a cover of Ralph McTell's "In the Dreamtime" as the theme to his World Tour of Australia. By the late 1980s, Connolly had all but dropped the music from his act, though he still records the occasional musical performance, such as a 1980s recording of his composition "Sergeant, Where's Mine?" with The Dubliners. In 1998, he covered The Beatles' "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" on the George Martin tribute album In My Life. He sang the Scottish folk song "Bonnie George Campbell" during the film, Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events. In 1995 and 2005, he released two albums of instrumental performances, Musical Tour of Scotland and, Billy Connolly's Musical Tour of New Zealand, respectively. Connolly is among the artists featured on Banjoman, a tribute to American folk musician Derroll Adams, released in 2002. He plays one song, "The Rock". Stand-up comedy Connolly's observational comedy is idiosyncratic and often off-the-cuff. He has offended certain sectors of audiences, critics and the media with his free use of the word "fuck", and he has made jokes relating to masturbation, blasphemy, defecation, flatulence, hemorrhoids, sex, his father's illness, his aunts' cruelty and, in the latter stages of his career, old age (specifically his experiences of growing old). In 2007 and again in 2010, he was voted the greatest stand-up comic on Channel 4's 100 Greatest Stand-Ups. He once again topped the list on Channel 5's Greatest Stand-Up Comedians, broadcast on New Year's Eve 2013. Since the 1980s, Connolly has worn a custom-made black T-shirt with a shirt-tail as part of his on-stage attire. Steve Brown was his manager from 1986 until his death in 2017. Comics writing Between 1973 and 1977 Connolly wrote a newspaper gag-a-day comic with cartoonist Malky McCormick, titled The Big Yin. Art Connolly has published six collections of humorous black-and-white drawings. His method is similar to that of the Surrealist Automatism movement, whereby the artist allows their hand to move randomly across the paper or canvas without a specific intent. In April 2019, to celebrate World Parkinson's Day, his art was projected onto MacLellan's Castle in Kirkcudbright. His first sculpture, which is inspired by his past as a welder, was released in March 2020. Discography Below is a partial list of Connolly's solo musical and comedic recordings. For his releases with the Humblebums, see here. 1972 – Billy Connolly Live 1974 – Cop Yer Whack for This 1974 – Solo Concert 1975 – Get Right Intae Him! (#80 AUS 1975 – Words and Music 1975 – The Big Yin 1976 – Atlantic Bridge 1977 – Billy Connolly 1977 – Raw Meat for the Balcony! 1978 – Anthology 1979 – Riotous Assembly 1981 – The Pick of Billy Connolly (compilation) (#34 AUS) 1983 – A Change Is as Good as Arrest 1983 – In Concert 1984 – Big Yin Double Helping (compilation) 1985 – An Audience with Billy Connolly 1985 – Wreck on Tour 1987 – Billy & Albert 1991 – Live at the Odeon Hammersmith London 1995 – Musical Tour of Scotland 1995 – Billy Connolly – Live Down Under 1995 1996 – World Tour of Australia 1997 – Two Night Stand 1999 – Comedy and Songs (compilation) 1999 – One Night Stand Down Under 2002 – Live in Dublin 2002 2002 – The Big Yin – Billy Connolly in Concert (compilation) 2003 – Transatlantic Years (compilation of material recorded between 1969 and 1974) 2003 – Humble Beginnings: The Complete Transatlantic Recordings 1969–74 2005 – Billy Connolly's Musical Tour of New Zealand 2007 – Live in Concert 2010 – The Man: Live in London (recorded January 2010) 2011 – Billy Connolly's Route 66 VHS / DVD releases Playwright Connolly has written three plays: An' Me Wi' A Bad Leg Tae (1975) When Hair Was Long And Time Was Short (1977) Red Runner (1979) Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations On 11 July 2001, Connolly was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters degree by the University of Glasgow. In 2002, the BAFTA presented him with a Lifetime Achievement Award. In the 2003 Birthday Honours, Connolly was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), for "services to Entertainment". On 4 July 2006, Connolly was awarded an honorary doctorate by Glasgow's Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD), for his service to performing arts. On 18 March 2007 and again on 11 April 2010, Connolly was named Number One in Channel 4's "100 Greatest Stand-Ups". On 22 July 2010, Connolly was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) by Nottingham Trent University. On 20 August 2010, Connolly was made a Freeman of Glasgow, with the award of the Freedom of the City of Glasgow. On 10 December 2012, Connolly picked up his BAFTA Scotland Award for Outstanding Achievement in Television and Film at his BAFTA, A Life in Pictures, interview in the Old Fruitmarket, Glasgow. In January 2016, he was presented with the Special Recognition award at the National Television Awards to honour his career. In the 2017 Birthday Honours, Connolly was knighted for "services to entertainment and charity". As of 2017, Glasgow has at least three large-scale gable murals commissioned by BBC Scotland and one metalwork mural commissioned by Sanctuary Scotland Housing Association depicting him. On 22 June 2017, Connolly received an honorary doctorate from University of Strathclyde in Glasgow. In November 2019, The Glasgow Times named Connolly as The Greatest Glaswegian as determined by a public poll. Bibliography References External links 1989 KCRW one-hour radio interview "Bob Claster's Funny Stuff" 1942 births Living people 20th-century Scottish comedians 20th-century Scottish male actors 20th-century Scottish male singers 21st-century Scottish comedians 21st-century Scottish male actors 21st-century Scottish male singers Acoustic guitarists Actors awarded knighthoods Audiobook narrators Autoharp players British boilermakers British harmonica players British Parachute Regiment soldiers Comedians from Glasgow Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Critics of religions Critics of the Catholic Church Cultural critics Former Roman Catholics Knights Bachelor Male actors from Glasgow People from Anderston People with Parkinson's disease Polydor Records artists Scottish artists Scottish atheists Scottish banjoists Scottish comics writers Scottish expatriates in the United States Scottish folk singers Scottish male comedians Scottish male film actors Scottish male guitarists Scottish male television actors Scottish male voice actors Scottish memoirists Scottish people of Indian descent Scottish people of Irish descent Scottish social commentators Scottish stand-up comedians Social critics Transatlantic Records artists Virgin Records artists	[ -0.24929599463939667, -0.5957802534103394, -0.0826791301369667, -0.6985815763473511, 0.11339408159255981, 0.4948512315750122, 0.4093658924102783, 0.3450879454612732, -0.13590401411056519, 0.38579532504081726, -0.372649222612381, 0.6139360666275024, -0.3353746235370636, -0.03488493710756302, 0.01594049483537674, 0.8617077469825745, 0.1503492146730423, 0.06116720288991928, 0.30814749002456665, -0.4366537034511566, -0.5693012475967407, 0.27138566970825195, 0.48948848247528076, 0.04455745220184326, -0.2819947600364685, 0.24595564603805542, -0.11740463972091675, -0.3083997070789337, -0.1262780874967575, 0.2709936201572418, -0.16521038115024567, 0.18399855494499207, 0.18391020596027374, -0.32816243171691895, 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251012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1mara%27s%20Flying%20Relief%20Column	Cámara's Flying Relief Column	During the Spanish–American War of 1898, Cámara's Flying Relief Column was a naval task force of Spain's most powerful warships, under the command of Rear Admiral Manuel de la Cámara, tasked with relieving Spanish forces in Manila after the defeat of Spanish Pacific Squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo y Pasarón by the American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. The Spanish fleet, consisting of the battleship Pelayo, armored cruiser Emperador Carlos V, auxiliary cruisers Patriota and Rapido, destroyers Audaz, Osado, and Prosepina, and transports Buenos Aires and Panay, left Spain in June 1898. The squadron was far more powerful than that commanded by Dewey, which only consisted of four protected cruisers and two gunboats. The monitor had been ordered from the U.S. to the Philippines, and departed on 11 June. With the bulk of the Spanish Navy heading to the Pacific, the U.S. made plans for battleships Iowa and Oregon and the cruiser USS Brooklyn to raid and bombard Spanish ports. But, following the destruction of the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, Cámara's column was ordered to return to Spain to defend the Spanish coast. On 7 July, after arriving in Egypt, Cámara's fleet turned home, and the American battleships never left the Caribbean. References Further reading External links The Spanish–American War Centennial Website Military units and formations of the Spanish–American War Military units and formations of Spain	[ -0.6123096346855164, 0.3321552574634552, -0.08484068512916565, 0.393884539604187, -0.37945303320884705, 0.3430330157279968, 0.167092964053154, 0.3492509126663208, -0.2983069121837616, 0.016339991241693497, -0.1480059176683426, 0.18144065141677856, -0.09626536071300507, 0.34771978855133057, -0.028317507356405258, 0.11074996739625931, 0.6693074107170105, 0.19944369792938232, 0.21601560711860657, -0.6373904347419739, -0.2933046221733093, 0.07025984674692154, 0.09651118516921997, -0.17950387299060822, 0.46132180094718933, -0.13017034530639648, 0.04287617653608322, 0.37886136770248413, 0.4840877950191498, -0.08804884552955627, 0.8737658858299255, 0.5639844536781311, 0.06778103113174438, -0.2539328634738922, -0.3955461084842682, -0.13616305589675903, -0.1842525750398636, -0.17673347890377045, 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251013	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrophoridae	Centrophoridae	The Centrophoridae are a family of squaliform sharks. The family contains just two genera and about 15 species. They are sometimes called gulper sharks, but this is also the name of a specific species in the family, Centrophorus granulosus. These are generally deepwater fish. While some, such as the gulper shark C. granulosus, are found worldwide and fished commercially, others are uncommon and little-known. Their usual prey is other fish; some are known to feed on squid, octopus, and shrimp. Some species live on the bottom (benthic), while others are pelagic. They are ovoviviparous, with the female retaining the egg-cases in her body until they hatch. They are small to medium sharks, ranging from in adult body length. The members of the genus Deania generally have a long flattened snout. Species The 18 known species are grouped into two genera: Centrophorus J. P. Müller & Henle, 1837 Centrophorus atromarginatus Garman, 1913 (dwarf gulper shark) Centrophorus granulosus (Bloch & J. G. Schneider, 1801). (gulper shark) Centrophorus harrissoni McCulloch, 1915 (dumb gulper shark) Centrophorus isodon (Y. T. Chu, Q. W. Meng & J. X. Liu, 1981) (blackfin gulper shark) Centrophorus lusitanicus Barbosa du Bocage & Brito Capello, 1864 (lowfin gulper shark) Centrophorus moluccensis Bleeker, 1860 (smallfin gulper shark) Centrophorus seychellorum Baranes, 2003 (Seychelles gulper shark) Centrophorus squamosus (Bonnaterre, 1788) (leafscale gulper shark) Centrophorus tessellatus Garman, 1906 (mosaic gulper shark) Centrophorus uyato Rafinesque, 1810 (Little gulper shark) Centrophorus westraliensis W. T. White, Ebert & Compagno, 2008 (western gulper shark) Centrophorus zeehaani W. T. White, Ebert & Compagno, 2008 (southern dogfish) Centrophorus sp. A (minigulper) Centrophorus sp. B (slender gulper) Deania D. S. Jordan & Snyder, 1902 Deania calcea (R. T. Lowe, 1839) (birdbeak dogfish) Deania hystricosa (Garman, 1906) (rough longnose dogfish) Deania profundorum (H. M. Smith & Radcliffe, 1912) (arrowhead dogfish) Deania quadrispinosa (McCulloch, 1915) (longsnout dogfish) References External links FishBase entry for Centrophoridae Shark families Taxa named by Pieter Bleeker	[ -0.10302355885505676, 0.10491259396076202, -0.3194742500782013, 0.22721408307552338, -0.1172085627913475, 0.2550964951515198, -0.08347533643245697, 0.42150357365608215, -0.3435506522655487, -0.25176727771759033, 0.16832169890403748, 0.3395444452762604, -0.005803063977509737, 0.30720385909080505, 0.19230619072914124, 0.7068032622337341, -0.17453837394714355, 0.37041938304901123, 0.2861343324184418, 0.02418961003422737, -0.18160058557987213, -1.0037237405776978, 0.2813688814640045, -0.7089490294456482, 0.1694628745317459, 0.6023639440536499, 0.08872625231742859, 0.6459779739379883, 0.664669394493103, -0.8312515020370483, 0.10958797484636307, 1.014497995376587, 0.2349443882703781, -0.1058311015367508, 0.3095724880695343, -0.09197948127985, -0.37710657715797424, -0.3828418254852295, 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251015	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Wright%20%28defensive%20tackle%29	Keith Wright (defensive tackle)	Keith Wright (born June 8, 1980) is a former American football defensive tackle. In 2012, Wright was found guilty on 19 charges including armed robbery, kidnapping, forced oral copulation, first degree burglary, and false imprisonment, and was sentenced to a 234 years and 8 months prison sentence. Biography Wright graduated at 17 and went to Arizona Western college, where he stayed for 2 years before moving on to Sacramento City College in 1999. There, he had a total of 14 sacks during one season. Later he had 68 tackles his first season at Missouri. Then, he was moved to defensive tackle at the Missouri team, and he was able to complete 92 tackles in 2002. With that, he expected to be chosen in the third or fourth round of the 2003 NFL Draft. Wright was chosen by the Texans as the final pick of the sixth round instead. He signed a contract worth $925,000 for the seasons from 2003 to 2005. On November 10, 2003, Wright was signed as a free agent from the Texans practice squad by the Indianapolis Colts. On November 24, 2004, he was signed by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to their practice squad and released on July 27, 2005. The Arizona Cardinals signed him to a one-year contract on August 5, 2005, but subsequently released him on August 29. The Buccaneers signed him as a free agent in January 2006 and assigned him to NFL Europe. He was released on September 2, 2006, and signed to the Detroit Lions practice squad on October 18. On August 29, 2011, Wright was arrested on suspicion of home invasion and sexual assault in the Natomas neighborhood of Sacramento, California. He was linked to three home invasions that took place in July and August 2011. During one of them, he sexually assaulted a woman and forced her to pull money out of two ATMs. In October 2012, Wright was found guilty on 19 charges including armed robbery, kidnapping, forced oral copulation, first degree burglary, and false imprisonment. On November 30, he was sentenced to 234 years and 8 months in prison. Sources Sportsnet biography Career transactions References 1980 births 21st-century American criminals Living people Players of American football from California American football defensive tackles Missouri Tigers football players Hamburg Sea Devils players Sportspeople from Santa Clara, California American people convicted of burglary American people convicted of kidnapping American people convicted of sexual assault American sportspeople convicted of crimes Prisoners and detainees of California American expatriate sportspeople in Germany American expatriate players of American football Sacramento City Panthers football players Arizona Western College alumni Criminals from California	[ -0.6057636737823486, 0.16619335114955902, -0.8819058537483215, -0.11049669235944748, -0.08112765103578568, 0.21384060382843018, 0.9450865983963013, -0.06595534831285477, -0.7110843062400818, -0.15596111118793488, 0.14838969707489014, 0.5238131284713745, -0.7327713966369629, -0.6430567502975464, 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251020	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Fuzhou	Battle of Fuzhou	The Battle of Fuzhou, or Battle of Foochow, also known as the Battle of the Pagoda Anchorage (French: Combat naval de Fou-Tchéou, Chinese: , 馬江之役 or 馬尾海戰, literally Battle of Mawei), was the opening engagement of the 16-month Sino-French War (December 1883 – April 1885). The battle was fought on 23 August 1884 off the Pagoda Anchorage in Mawei () harbour, to the southeast of the city of Fuzhou (Foochow). During the battle Admiral Amédée Courbet's Far East Squadron virtually destroyed the Fujian Fleet, one of China's four regional fleets. Background On 11 May 1884 French and Chinese negotiators concluded the Tientsin Accord, an agreement designed to end several months of undeclared hostilities between France and China in Tonkin. On 23 June 1884, French troops advancing to occupy Lạng Sơn, in accordance with the terms of this agreement, clashed near the small town of Bắc Lệ with a detachment of the Chinese Guangxi Army. The Chinese opened fire on the advancing French, precipitating a two-day battle in which the French column was seriously mauled. This incident, the Bắc Lệ ambush, was the proximate cause of the Sino-French War. When news of the Bắc Lệ ambush reached Paris, there was fury at what was perceived as blatant Chinese treachery. Jules Ferry's government demanded an apology, an indemnity, and the immediate implementation of the terms of the Tianjin Accord. The Chinese government agreed to negotiate, but refused to apologise or pay an indemnity. The mood in France was against compromise, and although negotiations continued throughout July, Admiral Courbet was ordered to take his squadron to Fuzhou (Foochow). Courbet was instructed to prepare to destroy the Foochow Navy Yard, downriver from Fuzhou at Mawei, and to attack the Chinese fleet in Mawei harbour. Ironically, the Foochow Navy Yard represented a substantial French investment in China's future, having been built several years earlier under the direction of the French administrator Prosper Giquel. During the second half of July and the first half of August Courbet gradually concentrated his squadron in Mawei harbour, at the Pagoda Anchorage—named for a conspicuous Chinese pagoda, the Luoxingta (), which stood on a hill above the harbour. Negotiations between France and China broke down in mid-August, and on the evening of 22 August Courbet was authorised by the French government to commence hostilities. He duly notified the foreign consuls, the governor-general of Fujian and Zhejiang, and the commanders of several neutral warships moored at the Pagoda Anchorage (the British gunboats , and and the American corvette ). Order of battle Only a fraction of the Far East squadron was present off the Pagoda Anchorage on the morning of 23 August. In particular, none of the Far East squadron's four ironclads was immediately available. Bayard, Courbet's flagship, was at Sharp Peak near the island of Matsu, guarding a vital telegraph station. Atalante was hunting down pirate ships in the Gulf of Tonkin. Courbet had summoned the ironclads Triomphante from Shanghai and La Galissonnière from Keelung to join him off Fuzhou, but La Galissonnière had been detained at Keelung by bad weather, and although Triomphante was approaching the Min River, it was not clear whether she would be able to cross the bar at its entrance. Courbet had under his immediate command the first-class cruisers Duguay-Trouin, Villars and d'Estaing, the third-class cruiser Volta (which he chose as his flagship during the engagement), the gunboats Lynx, Aspic and Vipère and Torpedo Boats No. 45 and No. 46. The second-class cruiser Châteaurenault and the troopship Saône had been left at the Jinpai pass, at the entrance to the Min River, to stop the Chinese from laying a barrage to prevent the squadron's escape. The Chinese Fujian fleet consisted of the wooden corvette Yangwu (the flagship), the scout-transports Chenhang, Yongbao, Fupo, Feiyun and Ji'an, the paddle steamer Yixin, the wooden gunboats Zhenwei and , and the Rendel flatiron gunboats Fusheng and Jiansheng. Twelve large junks were nearby, but did not take part in the battle. The French squadron displaced 14,500 tons and included 1,780 men, while the eleven warships in the Chinese fleet displaced 8,000 tons, and included 1,040 men. The French squadron was much better-led and better-armed than the Chinese fleet. Only a few of the Chinese ships were capable of offering serious resistance to Courbet's attack. The Chinese defence was under the command of the imperial commissioner Zhang Peilun (), one of the leading members of China's war party. Table 1: French warships in the Min River actions, August 1884 Table 2: Composition of the Fujian fleet, August 1884 Fleet deployments The Chinese fleet was deployed into a northern group of eight ships and a southern group of three ships, with the French squadron lying in between. The wooden corvette Yangwu, the wooden gunboat Fuxing, the armed transport Fupo, the Rendel flatiron gunboats Jiansheng and Fusheng and the small paddle steamer Yixin were deployed on the northwest curve of the river, between the French ships and the Foochow Navy Yard. A little behind them lay the unarmed transports Yongbao and Chenhang, anchored just off the dockyard. The role of this northern group of ships was obviously to prevent the French from attacking the Navy Yard. Meanwhile, the armed wooden transports Ji'an and Feiyun and the wooden gunboat Zhenwei lay downstream of the French squadron, dangerously isolated on the southwesterly leg of the river, in front of the Customs building. Their job seems to have been to protect the Customs building and to block Courbet's exit from the Min River. Courbet's plan provided for overwhelming firepower to be deployed against the Chinese fleet. He had noticed that the Chinese ships swung with the tide, and determined to make his attack just before the top of the tide at 2:00 pm on the following afternoon, Saturday 23 August, when with luck the Chinese ships would have swung away from the French ships and would be presenting their vulnerable sterns to the attackers. This timing was also important for another reason. If Triomphante successfully ascended the Min River, it was about then that she would be making her appearance. Assuming that the Chinese fleet did not change its position, Courbet's orders provided for the French ships to be at action stations at 1:45 pm and to go into action at around 2:00 pm, on his signal. The battle would begin with an attack by Torpedo Boats No. 45 and No. 46 on Yangwu and Fupo. This attack would be supported by cannon and rifle fire from Volta. Volta would then concentrate on destroying a line of war junks and fireships drawn up just to the west of Losing Island. Once the attack by the torpedo boats had cleared the way, the gunboats Aspic, Vipère and Lynx would sail upriver towards the Navy Yard and take on the other ships of the Chinese northern group. Four steam launches under the command of lieutenant de vaisseau Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère, the future French admiral, were given the job of protecting Volta and the three French gunboats from attack by the Chinese mineboats. To the east Duguay-Trouin, Villars and d'Estaing were to reduce the three ships of the Chinese southern group, to engage the war junks from the flank, and to engage a battery armed with three Krupp cannon near the Pagoda, and three other batteries armed with Krupp cannon which protected the Arsenal. Their launches would be deployed to give protection against Chinese torpedo attacks. The battle of Fuzhou On the morning of Saturday 23 August, although the Chinese commanders knew that the French would launch their attack at around 2:00 pm, the sailors in both fleets went about their routine business. The ships of the Fujian Fleet made no attempt to redeploy or to anticipate the French attack by opening fire first. The French crews went to their action stations at 1:30 pm, after eating their midday meal. The Chinese did not react to this obvious threat, and at 1:45 pm the flurry of activity aboard the French ships died down. For the next ten minutes the tension grew aboard the French ships as the minutes ticked away towards 2:00 pm. At 1:55 pm a Chinese mineboat advanced towards the French squadron. Courbet immediately ordered the attack to begin, only five minutes short of his original timetable. At the outset of the battle the Chinese flagship Yangwu was successfully attacked with a spar torpedo by Torpedo Boat No.46 (lieutenant de vaisseau Douzans) and grounded. The French torpedo boat suffered damage to her boiler during this attack. The despatch vessel Fupo was attacked less successfully by Torpedo Boat No.45 (lieutenant de vaisseau Latour), and was subsequently crippled by Voltas torpedo launch and carried by boarding by Boué de Lapeyrère's sailors. She had already been set alight by French shellfire, and was eventually abandoned by the French prize crew and sank in the middle of the Min River. Their spar torpedoes expended, the two French torpedo boats drifted downriver after making their attack, towards the anchorage of the neutral vessels off Losing Island. Lieutenant Latour had been seriously wounded in the eye during the attack, but he refused an offer of medical assistance from American officers on , explaining that he could not leave his post while the battle was still in progress. Meanwhile, the French cruisers and the ironclad Triomphante, which joined the French squadron only minutes before the battle began, were making short work of the rest of the Chinese fleet. Chenhang, Yongbao, Feiyun, Ji'an, Fusheng and Jiansheng were either sunk or set alight by shellfire from the cruisers Duguay-Trouin, Villars and d'Estaing. Only Fupo and Yixin survived the battle without serious damage, by escaping upriver before the gunboats Lynx, Aspic and Vipère had a chance to engage them. Zhenwei was blown up by a single shell from Triomphante. Before they were put out of action the outgunned Chinese vessels concentrated their fire on the French flagship Volta, hoping to kill Courbet and the officers of his entourage. Several sailors aboard the French cruiser were killed or wounded, and shortly after the start of the battle a roundshot ploughed through Courbet's command group on the flagship's bridge, killing the British pilot Thomas and only narrowly missing capitaine de frégate Gigon, Volta'''s captain. A few minutes later splinters from an exploding Chinese shell wounded lieutenant de vaisseau Ravel, Courbet's aide-de-camp. The fighting ended at 5:00pm, but during the night of 23August the Chinese made a number of unsuccessful attacks with fireships on the French warships, obliging some of them to shift their anchorages to evade them. Bombardment of the Foochow Navy Yard On the morning of 24 August Courbet issued orders for his ships' landing companies to go ashore with the naval engineers to destroy the Foochow Navy Yard. Preparations were made for a landing, but Courbet then changed his mind, after observing that the Navy Yard was defended by organised groups of Chinese infantry. The attack was cancelled as the French sailors were on the point of climbing into their launches. Instead, the French bombarded the Foochow Navy Yard, damaging a number of outbuildings and holing the sloop Henghai (Heng-hai, 橫海), still under construction and lying on the slips. A certain amount of damage was inflicted, but without the support of the heavy guns of Triomphante and Duguay-Trouin or the slightly lighter guns of the cruisers Villars and d'Estaing, which drew too much water to enter the shallows off the Navy Yard except around high tide, Courbet was unable to destroy the Yard completely. He himself admitted in his official report that the damage done 'was not as much as I had hoped for'. The French squadron remained off Fuzhou during the night of 24 August. Once again the Chinese tried to make a night attack. At 4:00 am two Chinese torpedo launches tried to attack the gunboat Vipère, anchored at the head of the French line. Both launches were lit up by searchlights on the French ships and attacked with Hotchkiss fire by Duguay-Trouin. One launch was sunk instantly, while the crew of the other abandoned ship and swam for the shore. Descent of the Min River On 25 August, after receiving the congratulations of the captains of the neutral warships on the professionalism displayed by the French squadron during the action of 23 August, Courbet began to lead his ships back down the Min River. The squadron's two heaviest ships, Triomphante and Duguay-Trouin, led the way. On 25 and 26 August the French bombarded the Tianluowan () and Min'an () batteries, two Chinese shore batteries covering the approach to Fuzhou through the narrow Min'an Pass. The Chinese batteries, built to fire only on enemy ships approaching from the mouth of the river, were taken in reverse and destroyed by Duguay-Trouin and Triomphante. On 27 and 28 August the French squadron bombarded and destroyed the Chinese defences at the Jinpai pass near the entrance to the Min River. The Jinpai () and Changmen () batteries, known to the French as Fort Kimpai and the White Fort (Fort Blanc), were put out of action, and the French also inflicted heavy casualties on a number of Chinese field batteries and infantry formations. However, before its guns were destroyed the White Fort was able to inflict moderate damage on the French ironclad La Galissonnière, which had sailed up from Keelung to join Courbet's squadron and attempted unsuccessfully to fight its way into the Min River. Chinese infantry at the Jinpai pass also killed and wounded several French sailors aboard the gunboat Vipère on 27 August. Losses The losses of the French squadron in the course of the operations before Fuzhou and in the Min River were relatively light (10 dead and 48 wounded). Most of these casualties were inflicted not by shellfire during the engagement of 23 August but by sniper fire from Chinese infantry during the squadron's descent of the Min River. The French dead included lieutenant de vaisseau Bouët-Willaumez, second-in-command of the gunboat Vipère and son of the noted French admiral Louis-Édouard Bouët-Willaumez (1809–71), who was shot dead on Vipères bridge during an exchange of fire with the defenders of Fort Kimpai on 27 August. With the exception of La Galissonnière and Torpedo Boat No. 46, none of Courbet's vessels suffered serious damage. The Chinese lost nine of the eleven ships of the Fujian Fleet. Some of the Chinese ships foundered where they were struck, sinking off the Pagoda anchorage and the Foochow Navy Yard. Others drifted downriver and either ran aground or sank between Losing Island and the Min'an pass. French officers aboard Châteaurenault, anchored near the entrance to the Min River, saw three Chinese warships drifting downriver on the evening of 23 August, abandoned by their crews and blazing from stem to stern. One of the Chinese ships exploded in front of their eyes. Courbet estimated Chinese casualties at between 2,000 and 3,000 dead. The commemorative tablets in a shrine erected shortly after the war at the Pagoda Anchorage to honour the Chinese dead list the names of 831 sailors and soldiers killed on 23 August, but this list does not include the hundreds of Chinese soldiers killed by the French during their descent of the Min River. The Chinese imperial commissioner Zhang Peilun, who made no serious attempt to coordinate the resistance of the Fujian fleet, was degraded after the battle and replaced by the veteran general Zuo Zongtang (). He Jing (), the governor-general of Fujian and Zhejiang, Zhang Zhaotong (), the governor of Fujian, and He Ruzhang (), the director-general of the Foochow Navy Yard, were also degraded. The Manchu General of Fuzhou Mutušan (), who had directed the defence of the Jinpai pass on 27 and 28 August with skill and energy, kept his job. The Cantonese naval officer Zhang Cheng (), a graduate of the Foochow naval college and captain of the Chinese flagship Yangwu, abandoned ship as soon as the battle started and was later beheaded for cowardice. Factors in the French victory One of the factors in the French victory at Fuzhou was that the French squadron had sailed up the Min River in time of peace. The Chinese claimed after the battle, with some justification, that the French would never have been able to ascend the river if the two countries had been at war. A second important factor was the absence from the battle of the modern battleships Dingyuan and Zhenyuan, which had recently been completed in Germany for China's Beiyang Fleet (Northern Seas fleet). The Chinese battleships were more powerful than any of the ships under Courbet's command, and in December 1883, foreseeing that war with China was imminent, the French persuaded the German government to detain them in the event of hostilities. The German government invented a number of plausible excuses for keeping the two battleships in port, and they remained in Germany for the duration of the Sino-French War. They were finally released in July 1885, and joined the Northern Seas fleet in October of the same year. Some Chinese historians have asserted that disunity in the Chinese command structure was an important factor in the Chinese defeat. The Chinese regional fleets and armies represented a considerable 'personal' investment of revenue and prestige that was used to leverage influence at court, and the respective fleet commanders were often loath to see these important assets diminished by war damage. The result, at Fuzhou, was that the Fujian Fleet received little help from China's three other regional fleets. Despite appeals from Zhang Peilun and direct orders from the Empress Dowager Cixi, the commanders of the Beiyang Fleet, the Nanyang Fleet and the Guangdong Fleet declined to send ships to reinforce the Fujian Fleet. Feiyun and Ji'an, two Fujian vessels which had been loaned to the Guangdong Fleet in 1882 to observe French movements in the Gulf of Tonkin, were sent back to Fuzhou in early August by Zhang Zhidong, the governor-general of the two Guangs, arriving just in time to share the fate of their comrades in the forthcoming battle. However, Zhang did not release any of his own Guangdong ships. Li Hongzhang defied an order to send two ships from the Beiyang Fleet to Fuzhou, and the Zhejiang governor Liu Bingzhang () refused to release the Nanyang ship Chaowu. Ships involved in the Min River actions France: China: French naval uniforms, 1884 The battlefield today See also Fuzhou Notes References Destelan, P., Annam et Tonkin: Notes de voyage d'un marin (Paris, 1892) Duboc, E., Trente cinq mois de campagne en Chine, au Tonkin (Paris, 1899) Ferrero, S., Formose, vue par un marin français du XIXe siècle (Paris, 2005) Huard, La guerre du Tonkin (Paris, 1887) Loir, M., L'escadre de l'amiral Courbet (Paris, 1886) Lung Chang [龍章], Yueh-nan yu Chung-fa chan-cheng [越南與中法戰爭, Vietnam and the Sino-French War] (Taipei, 1993) Rawlinson, J., China's Struggle for Naval Development, 1839–1895 (Harvard, 1967) Rollet de l'Isle, M., Au Tonkin et dans les mers de Chine (Paris, 1886) Thomazi, A., La conquête de l'Indochine (Paris, 1934) Vienet, R., 'Devant le champ de bataille de Mawei (Chine)', La Géographie, 1525 (June 2007), 31–53 Wright, R., The Chinese Steam Navy, 1862–1945'' (London, 2001) Fuzhou Fuzhou 1884 History of Fujian 1884 in France 1884 in China 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251023	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guaynabo%2C%20Puerto%20Rico	Guaynabo, Puerto Rico	Guaynabo () is a city, suburb of San Juan and municipality in the northern part of Puerto Rico, located in the northern coast of the island, north of Aguas Buenas, south of Cataño, east of Bayamón, and west of San Juan. Guaynabo is spread over 9 barrios and Guaynabo Pueblo (the downtown area and the administrative center of the suburb). Guaynabo is considered, along with its neighbors – San Juan and the municipalities of Bayamón, Carolina, Cataño, Trujillo Alto, and Toa Baja – to be part of the San Juan metropolitan area. It is also part of the larger San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area, (the largest MSA in Puerto Rico). The municipality has a land area of and a population of 89,780 as of the 2020 census. The municipality is known for being an affluent suburb of San Juan and for its former Irish heritage. The studios of WAPA-TV is located in Guaynabo. History The first European settlement in Puerto Rico, Caparra, was founded in 1508 by Juan Ponce de León in land that is today part of Guaynabo. Ponce de León resided there as first Spanish governor of Puerto Rico. This settlement was abandoned in 1521 in favor of San Juan. The ruins of Caparra remain and are a U.S. National Historic Landmark. The Museum of the Conquest and Colonization of Puerto Rico, which features artifacts from the site and others in Puerto Rico, is located on the grounds. The municipality of Guaynabo was founded in 1769 by Pedro R. Davila (P.R.), after a struggle for division from the municipality of Bayamón. Previously, the municipality was known as Buinabo, a name that it is popularly said to mean in Taíno "Here is another place of fresh water." Irish officer Thomas O'Daly and fellow Irishman Miguel Kirwan settled the area in the late 18th century and developed a farm and sugarcane plantation he named Hacienda San Patricio. The plantation no longer exists but the land on which it was located is now the central business district of Guaynabo and the San Patricio Plaza shopping mall. In October 2017, after a couple of hurricanes struck Guaynabo, including Hurricane Maria, President Donald Trump visited the area. Mayoral Scandals After 24 years as mayor, Héctor O'Neill García resigned in 2017 when allegations surfaced of sexual harassment toward a female municipal employee. He was replaced in a run-off election by Angel Pérez Otero, who in turn was forced out due to his arrest for Federal corruption allegations in 2021. Héctor O'Neill's son Edward O'Neill Rosa won the following run-off election to succeed him as mayor in January of 2022. Geography Guaynabo is on the northern side. Hurricane Maria Hurricane Maria on September 20, 2017 triggered numerous landslides in Guaynabo with the significant amount of rainfall. Due to the municipality's fiscal difficulties, it was not until April 2, 2019, over a year and half later, that the overtime pay owed to municipal workers was paid. Barrios Like all municipalities of Puerto Rico, Guaynabo is subdivided into barrios. The municipal buildings, central square and large Catholic church are located in a smaller barrio referred to as , located near the center of the municipality. Camarones Frailes Guaraguao Guaynabo barrio-pueblo Hato Nuevo Mamey Pueblo Viejo Río Santa Rosa Sonadora Sectors Barrios (which are like minor civil divisions) in turn are further subdivided into smaller local populated place areas/units called sectores (sectors in English). The types of sectores may vary, from normally sector to urbanización to reparto to barriada to residencial, among others. Special Communities (Special Communities of Puerto Rico) are marginalized communities whose citizens are experiencing a certain amount of social exclusion. A map shows these communities occur in nearly every municipality of the commonwealth. Of the 742 places that were on the list in 2014, the following barrios, communities, sectors, or neighborhoods were in Guaynabo: Amelia, Buen Samaritano, Camarones barrio, Corea, El Polvorín, Honduras, Jerusalén, Los Filtros, Sector El Laberinto, Sector La Pajilla, Sector Los Ratones (Camino Feliciano), Sector San Miguel, Trujillo, Sector Tomé, Vietnam, and Villa Isleña. Demographics Tourism Landmarks and places of interest Rancho de Apa (restaurant) Centro de Bellas Artes (Guaynabo Performing Arts Center) Caparra Ruins Caribe Recreational Center Iglesia Parroquial de San Pedro Mártir La Marquesa Forest Park Paseo Tablado Mario Morales Coliseum San Patricio Plaza Caparra Country Club Plaza Guaynabo Museum of Transportation Museo del Deporte Fort Buchanan Economy Several businesses have their headquarters or local Puerto Rican branches in Guaynabo. El Nuevo Día, Chrysler, Santander Securities, Puerto Rico Telephone, and many sales offices for large US and international firms (such as Total, Microsoft, Toshiba, Puma Energy and others) have their Puerto Rican headquarters in Guaynabo. WAPA-TV (Televicentro) and Univision Puerto Rico have their main studios in Guaynabo. Iberia's San Juan-area offices are in Guaynabo. Crime Carjackings have been an ongoing problem in Guaynabo, Puerto Rico and in 2014 the FBI reported a carjacking that occurred in Camarones. Climate Culture Festivals and events Guaynabo celebrates its patron saint festival in April. The is a religious and cultural celebration that generally features parades, games, artisans, amusement rides, regional food, and live entertainment. Other festivals and events celebrated in Guaynabo include: Three Kings Festival – January Mabó Carnival – February Mothers’ Day celebration – May National Salsa Day – June Fine Arts camp and recreation and sports camp – June Bomba and Plena (folkloric music and dance) Festival – October Official lighting of Christmas Lights – November Sports Guaynabo's old BSN team, the Guaynabo Mets, won national championships in 1980, 1982 and 1989, commanded by the player whom the Mario Morales Coliseum was named after, Mario "Quijote" Morales. The Conquistadores de Guaynabo, or Guaynabo Conquistadores, are the Guaynabo Mets replacement and still play in the Mario Morales Coliseum. The Mets de Guaynabo are the local women's volleyball team that play in the LVSF, or The Liga de Voliebol Superior Femenino. They have not won any championships yet. They also play in the Mario Morales Coliseum. Guaynabo Fluminense FC is Guaynabo's professional soccer team that plays in the Puerto Rico Soccer League. The league started in 2008 and Guaynabo's current position in the league is 4th place. Guaynabo Fluminense FC play their matches at the Jose Bonano Stadium that was originally made for baseball, but became a soccer arena after the Puerto Rico Baseball League was cancelled for the 2008 season. It was at the same year that the Puerto Rico Soccer League was starting to take place. In the 2009 season, Guaynabo Fluminense FC moved to the Sixto Escobar Stadium. Mets de Guaynabo (Women's Volleyball) LVSF Guaynabo Conquistadores (Basketball) Baloncesto Superior Nacional Guaynabo Fluminense FC (Soccer) Puerto Rico Soccer League Government and infrastructure The United States Postal Service operates two post offices, Guaynabo and Caparra Heights, in Guaynabo. The Federal Bureau of Prisons operates the Metropolitan Detention Center, Guaynabo in Guaynabo. Some regions of the city belong to the Puerto Rico Senatorial district I while others belong to the Puerto Rico Senatorial district II. Both of the Districts are represented by two Senators. In 2016, Henry Neumann and Miguel Romero were elected as Senators for District I, while Migdalia Padilla and Carmelo Ríos have been serving as Senators for District II since being elected in 2004. Mayors Mayors of Guaynabo from 1969 to present Mayors of Guaynabo from 1782 to 1969 {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Term ! Name \|- \| 1782 \| Cayetano de la Sarna \|- \| 1800 \| Pedro Dávila \|- \| 1812 \| Dionisio Cátala \|- \| 1816 \| Angel Umpierre \|- \| 1818 \| Juan José González \|- \| 1821 \| Joaquín Goyena \|- \| 1822 \| José María Prosis \|- \| 1823 \| Simón Hinonio \|- \| 1825 \| José R. Ramírez \|- \| 1827 \| Antonio Guzmán \|- \| 1828 \| Genaro Oller \|- \| 1836 \| Andrés Degal \|- \| 1836 \| Agustín Rosario \|- \| 1840 \| Francisco Hiques \|- \| 1844 \| Martínez Díaz \|- \| 1848 \| Tomás Cátla \|- \| 1849 \| Andrés Vega \|- \| 1852 \| Justo García \|- \| 1856 \| José Tomás Sagarra \|- \| 1857 \| Manuel Manzano \|- \| 1859 \| Juan Floret \|- \| 1859 \| José Francisco Chiques \|- \| 1862 \| Segundo de Echeverte \|- \| 1862 \| José de Murgas \|- \| 1869 \| Juan J. Caro \|- \| 1873 \| Benito Gómez \|- \| 1874 \| Manuel Millones \|- \| 1876 \| José Otero \|- \| 1891 \| Juan Díaz de Barrio \|- \| 1914 \| José Ramón \|- \| 1914 \| José Carazo \|- \| 1919 \| Narciso Vall-llobera Feliu \|- \| 1924 \| Zenón Díaz Valcárcel \|- \| 1936 \| Dolores Valdivieso \|- \| 1944 \| Augosto Rivera \|- \| 1948 \| Jorge Gavillán Fuentes \|- \| 1956 \| Juan Román \|- \| 1964 \| José Rosario Reyes \|} Symbols The has an official flag and coat of arms. Flag This municipality has a flag. Coat of arms This municipality has a coat of arms. Health facilities Professional Hospital Guaynabo located on Felisa Rincón Avenue (formerly Las Cumbres Avenue), is the newest hospital infrastructure built in Puerto Rico. Guaynabo is the only city in Puerto Rico to have a hospital specialized in advanced vascular surgery. Some of the first and newest procedures performed in Puerto Rico during 2009 were done in Professional Hospital Guaynabo, including the first AxiaLIF surgery for lumbar fusion. Transportation The Tren Urbano has only one station in the municipality, Torrimar Station. Guaynabo has a bus network called “Guaynabo City Transport”. There are 63 bridges in Guaynabo. Notable people Tomas Nido, Baseball Catcher for the New York Mets Iván DeJesús Jr., Baseball player infielder Education Guaynabo is home to Atlantic University College, which specializes in new media art. The Japanese Language School of Puerto Rico (プエルトリコ補習授業校 Puerutoriko Hoshū Jugyō Kō), a weekend Japanese school, previously held its classes in Guaynabo. It closed in March 2006. International relations Guaynabo serves as a host city to four foreign consulates with business in Puerto Rico: Gallery See also List of Puerto Ricans History of Puerto Rico Did you know-Puerto Rico? References External links Guaynabo and its barrios, United States Census Bureau Historic Places in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary Guaynabo Municipality on Facebook Municipalities of Puerto Rico Populated places established in 1769 San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area 1769 establishments in the Spanish Empire	[ -0.3113407492637634, 0.31515711545944214, 0.07874762266874313, -0.20120534300804138, -0.25248074531555176, 0.16409164667129517, -0.015583114698529243, 0.7881298065185547, -0.595686137676239, -0.04743148013949394, -0.01009203027933836, 0.40108779072761536, -0.28099048137664795, 0.4484039843082428, -0.2932268977165222, 0.9573612809181213, 0.7163955569267273, 0.37484416365623474, 0.3179701268672943, -0.7169966697692871, -0.529994547367096, -0.5440406799316406, -0.2056323140859604, 0.03985253721475601, 0.8986213207244873, 0.2148241251707077, -0.04409261792898178, 0.860776960849762, 0.23458711802959442, 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251024	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown	Downtown	Downtown is a term primarily used in North America by English speakers to refer to a city's sometimes commercial, cultural and often the historical, political and geographic heart. It is often synonymous with its central business district (CBD). Downtowns typically contain a small percentage of a city’s employment. In some metropolitan areas it is marked by a cluster of tall buildings, cultural institutions and the convergence of rail transit and bus lines. In British English, the term "city centre" is most often used instead. History Origins The Oxford English Dictionary's first citation for "down town" or "downtown" dates to 1770, in reference to the center of Boston. Some have posited that the term "downtown" was coined in New York City, where it was in use by the 1830s to refer to the original town at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan. As the town of New York grew into a city, the only direction it could grow on the island was toward the north, proceeding upriver from the original settlement, the "up" and "down" terminology coming from the customary map design in which up was north and down was south. Thus, anything north of the original town became known as "uptown" (Upper Manhattan), and was generally a residential area, while the original town – which was also New York's only major center of business at the time – became known as "downtown" (Lower Manhattan). During the late 19th century, the term was gradually adopted by cities across the United States and Canada to refer to the historical core of the city, which was most often the same as the commercial heart of the city. "Uptown" also spread, but to a much lesser extent. In both cases, though, the directionality of both words was lost, so that a Bostonian might refer to going "downtown", even though it was north of where they were. Downtown lay to the south in Detroit, but to the north in Cleveland, to the east in St. Louis, and to the west in Pittsburgh. In Boston, a resident pointed out in 1880, downtown was in the center of the city. Uptown was north of downtown in Cincinnati, but south of downtown in New Orleans and San Francisco. Notably, "downtown" was not included in dictionaries as late as the 1880s. But by the early 1900s, "downtown" was clearly established as the proper term in American English for a city's central business district, although the word was virtually unknown in Britain and Western Europe, where expressions such as "city centre" (British English), "el centro" (Spanish), "das Zentrum" (German), etc are used. Even as late as the early part of the 20th century, English travel writers felt it necessary to explain to their readers what "downtown" meant. Although American downtowns lacked legally-defined boundaries, and were often parts of several of the wards that most cities used as their basic functional district, locating the downtown area was not difficult, as it was the place where all the street railways and elevated railways converged, and – at least in most places – where the railroad terminals were. It was the location of the great department stores and hotels, as well as that of theaters, clubs, cabarets, and dance halls, and where skyscrapers were built once that technology was perfected. It was also frequently, at first, the only part of a city that was electrified. It was also the place where street congestion was the worst, a problem for which a solution was never really found. But most of all, downtown was the place where the city did its business. Inside its small precincts, sometimes as small as several hundred acres, the majority of the trading, selling, and purchasing – retail and wholesale – in the entire area would take place. There were hubs of business in other places around the city and its environs, but the downtown area was the chief one, truly the central business district. And as more and more business was done downtown, those who had their homes there were gradually pushed out, selling their property and moving to quieter residential areas uptown. Skyscrapers The skyscraper would become the hallmark of the downtown area. Prior to the invention of the elevator – and later the high-speed elevator – buildings were limited in height to about six stories, which was a de facto limit set by the amount of stairs it was assumed that people would climb, but with the elevator, that limit was shattered, and buildings began to be constructed up to about sixteen stories. What limited them then was the thickness of the masonry needed at the base to hold the weight of the building above it. As the buildings got taller, the thickness of the masonry and the space needed for elevators did not allow for sufficient rentable space to make the building profitable. What shattered that restriction was the invention of first the iron- and then the steel frame building, in which the building's load was carried by an internal metal frame skeleton, which the masonry – and later glass – simply hung off of without carrying any weight. Although first used in Chicago, the steel-framed skyscraper caught on most quickly in New York City in the 1880s, and from there spread to most other American cities in the 1890s and 1900s. The apparent lack of a height limitation of this type of building set off a fervent debate over whether their height should be restricted by law, with proponents and opponents of height limits bringing out numerous arguments in favor of their position. The question of height limits also had a profound implication for the nature of downtown itself: would it continue to be a concentrated core, or as it grew, would height limits force it to spread out into a larger area. In the short run, the proponents of height limits were successful in their efforts. By the 1910s, most of the largest and medium-sized cities had height limits in effect, with New York – despite several concerted efforts to enact them – Philadelphia, Detroit, Pittsburgh and Minneapolis being notable holdouts. Zoning Ultimately, though, it would not be height limits per se that restricted skyscrapers, but comprehensive zoning laws which would set up separate requirements for different parts of a city, and would regulate not only height, but also a building's volume, the percentage of the lot used, and the amount of light the building blocked, and would also encourage setbacks to reduce a building's bulk by allowing additional height per foot of setback – the exact amount depending on what zone the building was in. New York City was the first to do this, with the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which was prompted in good part by the construction of the Equitable Building in 1915, a 40-story building with straight sides and no setbacks, which raised fears of the downtown area becoming a maze of dark streets that never saw the sun. What was worse, at least to real estate interests, the building dumped 1.2 million square feet (111,000 m2) of office space on what was a sluggish real estate market. To many in the real estate industry, the zoning law was an example of a "reasonable restriction." Once New York had passed its law, other cities followed, although proposed zoning measures did meet stiff resistance in some places, often because of the inclusion of overly restrictive height limits, and sometimes because the entire concept of zoning was seen as undemocratic and bordering on socialism. Eventually, a model law, the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act of 1922 was drawn up for the guidance of cities wishing to enact zoning regulations, which are now part of virtually every American city. Central business district During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the downtown area was the business district of the American city, but beginning around the 1920s and 1930s, as cities continued to grow in size and population, rival business districts began to appear outside of downtown in outlying districts. This was the time when the term "central business district" began to appear as more-or-less synonymous with the downtown area. The phrase acknowledged the existence of other business districts in the city, but allocated to downtown the primacy of being "central", not only geographically, in many cities, but also in importance. And in many cases, the downtown area or central business district, itself began to grow, such as in Manhattan where the business district lower Manhattan and the newer one in midtown began to grow towards each other, or in Chicago, where downtown expanded from the Loop across the Chicago River to Michigan Avenue. In fact, the instability of downtown was a cause for concern for business and real estate interests, as the business district refused to stay where it had been, and shifted its location in response to numerous factors, although it generally stayed fairly compact – in the early 1930s even the largest took up less than 2% of the city's space, and most were significantly smaller – and remained the primary business district of the city. Real estate interests were particularly concerned about the tendency of downtown to move because the downtown area had by far the highest land values in each city. One commentator said that if Chicago's land values were shown as height on a relief map, the Loop would be equivalent to the peaks of the Himalayas compared to the rest of the city. In 1926, Chicago's central business district, which took up less than 1% of the city, had 20% of the city's land value. The same relationship was true in St. Louis in the mid-20s (20%) and Los Angeles in the early 1930s (17%). So when a downtown area started to shift its location, some property owners were bound to lose a great deal of money, while others would stand to gain. Decentralization One way in which downtown changed from the late 19th century to the early part of the 20th century was that industrial concerns began to leave downtown and move to the periphery of the city, which meant that downtown's businesses were chiefly part of the burgeoning service sector. Brand new firms followed the older ones, and never came to downtown, settling at the edges of the city or the urban area. Industrial districts developed in these areas, which were sometimes specifically zoned for manufacturing. There, land was considerably cheaper than downtown, property taxes were lower, transportation of supplies and finished products was much easier without the constant congestion emblematic of downtown, and with the improvement of the telephone system, the industrial firms could still keep in touch with the companies they did business with elsewhere. As a result of this migration, manufacturing was no longer a significant part of the downtown mix of businesses. Another sector which began to move away from downtown even before the turn of the 20th century were the great cultural institutions: museums, symphony halls, main libraries and so on. Not only was the high cost of land downtown a factor, but these institutions wanted larger plots of land than were available there, so that their buildings could themselves be easily perceived as works of art. Organizations such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the New-York Historical Society, the American Museum of Natural History and the Museum of the City of New York, all in Manhattan, moved out of downtown, as did the Museum of Fine Arts, the Boston Public Library, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, and the Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Baltimore Museum of Art, the Detroit Public Library and the Detroit Institute of Art, and most of the cultural institutions in Pittsburgh. Public reaction to these moves was mixed, with some bemoaning the loss of a counterbalance to the overall materialism of downtown, while others, particularly those involved in real estate, looked positively on the availability of the land which the cultural institutions left behind. The loss of the major cultural institutions left downtown as a place primarily dedicated to business, but the loss of another sector, retail shopping, defined the type of business that was done there. The great retail outlets like the department stores had always had the tendency to move closer to the residential districts, to make it easier for their customers to get to them, but after 1920 they started to congregate in secondary business districts on the periphery of the city. The growth of chain stores such as J. C. Penney, F. W. Woolworth, Kresge and W. T. Grant, contributed to the increased importance of the outlying shopping districts, which began outselling those retail stores which had remained in the central business district, and provoked those stores to open branches in the secondary districts in attempt to go to where there customers were instead of having them come downtown to them. Entertainment venues also contributed to the decentralization of commerce which affected the importance and influence of downtown and the central business district. Theaters, vaudeville houses, dance halls and night clubs had been primarily located in downtown, with nickelodeons spread throughout the city. When film became the dominant medium, and exhibitors started to build movie theaters to show them in, they at first built those venues downtown as well, but, as in retail shopping, chain exhibitors such as Loews began to construct them in locations convenient to the mass audience they were seeking; again, it was a matter of bringing their product to where the people were. By the late 1920s, movie houses outside of downtown far outnumbered those in the central district. Not all the movie theaters in the periphery were palaces, but some were, and the net effect was that downtown was no longer the entertainment center of the city. With the loss of manufacturing, the major cultural institutions, much of the retail shopping in the city, and its loss of status as the entertainment center, the nature of downtown had changed considerably. It was still the location of banks, stocks and commodity exchanges, law and accounting firms, the headquarters of the major industrial concerns and public utilities, insurance companies, and advertising agencies, and in its confines continued to be built new and taller skyscrapers housing offices, hotels and even department stores, but it was still steadily losing ground as decentralization took its toll. Its daytime population was not keeping pace with the population growth of the city around it, and property values, while continuing to rise, were not rising as fast as those in the secondary business districts. Downtown was still the central business district, and was still the most important area for doing business and commerce, but it was no longer as dominant as it once was. Cause and effect The causes of decentralization, which decreased the importance of downtown in the life of American cities, have been ascribed to many factors, including each city's normal growth patterns; advances in technology like the telephone, which made it easier for business-to-business intercourse to take place over a distance, thus lessening the need for a centralized commercial core; the rise of the private automobile, which allowed shoppers to go to peripheral business districts more easily; a strong increase in streetcar fares; and the continuing problem of congestion in the narrow streets of the downtown area. As much as people disagreed about what caused decentralization, they were even less in agreement about how decentralization would affect the central business district, with opinions varying all the way from the belief that it would diminish downtown sufficiently that it would eventually consist of only offices and the headquarters of corporate giants, to the belief that decentralization would lead to the (perhaps deserved) death of downtown entirely as unnecessary, a victim of its untameable traffic congestion. In between were those who saw a diminishment of the area's influence, but not enough to prevent it from remaining the "Sun" that the outlying business districts revolved around. Others doubted whether decentralization had as strong an impact as it was credited with. Positions were taken that downtown was a natural part of the evolution of a city, or the unnatural result of a de facto conspiracy by merchants and property owners, so the question of what decentralization would do to downtown became bound up with the question about the area's legitimacy. Decentralization also increased the incidences of rivalry between downtown and burgeoning business districts. In Los Angeles, for instance, downtown and Wilshire Boulevard battled for dominance, and in Cincinnati the rivalry was between the old downtown centered around Fountain Square and the one on Canal Street. The diminishment of downtown by decentralization caused these battles to be between areas that were now more relatively equal. The Great Depression Like almost every other aspect of American life, the Great Depression had a major effect on the country's downtown area. Downtown was just coming off a major building boom, in which significant amounts of new commercial and office space, hotels, and department stores had been built. By 1931 there were 89 buildings of 30 stories or more in Manhattan, and between 1925 and 1931, office space nearly doubled; in Chicago, it increased by almost 75%, in Philadelphia by almost two-thirds, and by more than 50% in New Orleans and Denver. In the 1920s, 500,000 additional hotel rooms were built in New York, and from 1927 to 1931 there were 84 large hotels built there, an increase of hotel space by two-thirds. When the boom was over, and the Depression had begun to have its effect, much of this new space became unneeded excess. Owners of smaller buildings who could not keep a sufficient number of tenants to pay their overhead, tore down their buildings, but whereas in the recent past they would have been replaced with taller buildings, now they became one- and two-story parking garages or ground-level parking lots. These were widely known as "taxpayers", as they generated enough revenue for the owner of the lot to pay the taxes on it. Rents fell, sometimes as much as 30%, and non-payment of rent increased. Even with the "taxpayers" taking away commercial space, vacancy rates rose precipitously. Owners went into default, and downtown real estate lost considerable value: 25–30% in the Chicago Loop – although values in other parts of the city, including the outlying business districts, fared even worse. Department stores were hit hard; most managed to keep their doors open, but few made money. Hotels which needed to have large staffs, and required high occupancy rates to make a profit were also deeply affected; in Manhattan the hotel occupancy rate fell from 1929's 70% to around 50% in 1933. Room rates were slashed, revenue dropped, and many hotels closed or defaulted. By 1934, 80% of hotels in Manhattan were owned by their creditors. Recovery The slow recovery from the effects of the Great Depression began in the mid-1930s, decelerated at the end of the 1930s, and picked up speed with the start of World War II, so that by the early 1940s the country was for the most part out of the Depression. Excess commercial space began to be used, vacancy rates dropped, department store sales rose, hotel occupancy rates went up, and revenues increased. Despite this recovery, the daytime population of the country's downtowns did not rebound. For instance, in Chicago between 1929 and 1949, the population of the city grew 7%, and that of the entire metropolitan area by about 14%, but the daytime population of The Loop only rose 1/3 of 1%. With a few exceptions, such as New York City, this pattern was typical across American cities, and was tied to the slowing down of the rate of growth of the cities themselves. Cities in the US grew much more slowly than during any other period in the history of the country, and some even lost population. Metropolitan regions grew faster than the cities inside them, indicating the start of the decades of urban sprawl, but they too grew at a slower pace than usual. Downtowns also had less daytime population because people now went to the outlying business districts, which were closer to their homes by car, for their shopping and entertainment, to do business, and to work. The increased use of automobiles over mass transit also damaged downtown, since the streetcar lines converged on downtown, while the roads went everywhere. All of these factors contributed to the lesser recovery of downtown relative to the city as a whole and the metropolitan area. Another sign that downtowns were no longer as central to city life as they once were include the decreased portion of retail trade that took place there as compared to the peripheral business areas, which profited by the growth of the chain stores, to the detriment of the big downtown department stores. Furthermore, the "taxpayers", which many people had expected to disappear once the economy improved, remained in place, and even increased in number. In the Loop in Chicago, by the early 1940s, 18% of the land was vacant or was used for parking; in Los Angeles at the same time, the figure was 25%. Demand for commercial space was so light that it did not make financial sense to construct expensive new buildings, and banks began to refuse to make loans for that purpose, redlining whole neighborhoods in the central business bistrict. Characteristics The typical American downtown has certain unique characteristics. During the postwar economic boom in the 1950s, the residential population of most downtowns crashed. This has been attributed to reasons such as slum clearance, construction of the Interstate Highway System, and white flight from urban cores to rapidly expanding suburbs. Due to well-intended but ineptly executed urban revitalization projects, downtowns eventually came to be dominated by high-rise office buildings in which commuters from the suburbs filled white-collar jobs, while the remaining residential populations sank further into unemployment, poverty, and homelessness. By the 1990s, many office-oriented businesses began to abandon the tired old downtowns for the suburbs, resulting in what are now known as "edge cities". One textbook, in explaining why edge cities are so popular, stated: Since then, between 2000 and 2010, downtown areas grew rapidly in population. In U.S. metro areas with at least five million people, the population within two miles of the city hall grew twice as fast as the overall population in the metro area. Relative geography The terms downtown and uptown can refer to cardinal directions, for example, in Manhattan, where downtown is also a relative geographical term. Anything south of where the speaker is currently standing, in most places, is said to be downtown. Anything north of the speaker is uptown. In the common New York City phrase "We're going to take the subway downtown", downtown refers to traveling in the geographic direction of south. A person standing on 121st Street and walking ten blocks south could also be said to have walked ten blocks downtown. The term uptown is used to refer to the cardinal direction north. Such concepts derive from Manhattan's elongated shape, running roughly north–south and nowhere more than wide. As such, transportation on the island travels in the uptown/downtown directions. The other boroughs are wider, and "downtown" there refers to Lower Manhattan, Downtown Brooklyn, or some more local business district. Mercantile efforts to promote the South Bronx as "Downtown Bronx" have met with little success. In some North American cities, downtown is the formal name of the neighborhood in which the city's central business district is located. Most major North American cities are located on major bodies of water, like oceans, lakes, and rivers. As cities expanded, people built further away from the water and their historical cores, often uphill. Thus the central business district of a North American city, or the historical core of the city, is often located "down", in altitude, relative to the remainder of the city. Many cities use the Manhattan model and continue to use downtown, midtown, and uptown both as informal relative geographical terms and as formal names for distinct districts. However, the city of Philadelphia uses the designation Center City, not downtown, due to the business district's central location, as well as Philadelphia's age and circumstances; "Center City" corresponds to the City of Philadelphia prior to its amalgamation with Philadelphia County in 1854, leaving it without a unique name, unlike the former boroughs surrounding it; the center of the city is also where Philadelphia City Hall is located within the city's original plat. New Orleans uses the term Central Business District (or CBD) for their downtown due to the historical French Quarter district taking up what would usually be considered the city's historical downtown district, and another area of the city south of the CBD being referred to as "downtown". Major downtowns United States (50 most populous American cities) Downtown Albuquerque Downtown Arlington, Texas Downtown Atlanta Downtown Austin Downtown Baltimore Downtown Boston Financial District, Boston Uptown Charlotte Chicago Loop Downtown Colorado Springs Downtown Columbus Downtown Denver Downtown Detroit Downtown Dallas Downtown El Paso Downtown Fort Worth Downtown Fresno Downtown Houston Downtown Indianapolis Downtown Jacksonville Downtown Kansas City Downtown Las Vegas Downtown Long Beach Downtown Los Angeles Downtown Louisville Downtown Memphis Downtown Mesa Downtown Miami Downtown Milwaukee Downtown Minneapolis Downtown Nashville Midtown Manhattan, New York City Financial District, New York City Downtown Brooklyn, New York City Downtown Oakland Downtown Oklahoma City Downtown Omaha Center City, Philadelphia Downtown Phoenix Downtown Portland Downtown Raleigh Downtown Sacramento Downtown Saint Paul Downtown San Antonio Downtown San Diego Downtown San Francisco Downtown San Jose Downtown Seattle Downtown Tucson Downtown Tampa Downtown Tucson Downtown Tulsa Downtown Virginia Beach Downtown, Washington, D.C. Downtown Wichita Canada Downtown Calgary Downtown Edmonton Downtown Halifax Downtown Montreal Downtown Ottawa Downtown St. John's Downtown Toronto Downtown Vancouver Downtown Victoria Downtown Winnipeg See also Concentric zone model High Street Inner city Main Street Urbanization References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Fogelson, Robert M. (2003). Downtown: Its Rise and Fall, 1880–1950. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. External links International Downtown Association City Neighbourhoods Urban studies and planning terminology Articles containing video clips	[ 0.29139649868011475, 0.010162212885916233, -0.17053665220737457, -0.08574864268302917, 0.03745622932910919, 0.3296164870262146, 0.30693650245666504, 1.025570273399353, -0.13659504055976868, -0.4454759359359741, -0.799532413482666, 0.01913217082619667, -0.3286329507827759, 0.5637967586517334, 0.07447424530982971, 0.39989814162254333, 0.20023386180400848, 0.32186147570610046, -0.05975804105401039, 0.5098217129707336, -0.5558069348335266, -0.2575867176055908, 0.3710721731185913, 0.23941655457019806, 0.3116820752620697, -0.31497901678085327, 0.16221320629119873, -0.3644508719444275, -0.5606235265731812, 0.06576918065547943, -0.05777799338102341, 0.5204110145568848, -0.3321577310562134, -0.019893230870366096, 0.014995116740465164, -0.2816149890422821, -0.07916145026683807, -0.4238468408584595, -0.20389610528945923, -0.5141386389732361, 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251027	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemas%20Ward	Artemas Ward	Artemas Ward (November 26, 1727 – October 28, 1800) was an American major general in the American Revolutionary War and a Congressman from Massachusetts. He was considered an effective political leader, President John Adams describing him as "universally esteemed, beloved and confided in by his army and his country." Early life and career Artemas Ward was born at Shrewsbury in the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1727 to Nahum Ward (1684–1754) and Martha (Howe) Ward. He was the sixth of seven children. His father had broad and successful career interests as a sea captain, merchant, land developer, farmer, lawyer and jurist. As a child he attended the common schools and shared a tutor with his brothers and sisters. He graduated from Harvard in 1748 and taught there briefly. On July 31, 1750, he married Sarah Trowbridge (December 3, 1724 – December 13, 1788), the daughter of Reverend Caleb Trowbridge and Hannah Trowbridge of Groton. The young couple returned to Shrewsbury where Artemas opened a general store. In the next fifteen years they would have eight children: Ithamar in 1752, Nahum (1754), Sara (1756), Thomas (1758), Artemas Jr. (1762), Henry Dana (1768), Martha (1760), and Maria (1764). In 1751, at age 23 or 24, he was named a township assessor for Worcester County, the first of many public offices he was to fill. In 1752 he was elected a justice of the peace and to the first of many terms in the Massachusetts provincial assembly, or "general court." French and Indian War (1754–1758) Between 1755 and 1757 Ward was called to active duty at intervals that alternated with his attendance at the General Court. In 1755 the Massachusetts militia was restructured for the war; Ward was made a major in the 3rd Regiment which drew its company mainly from Worcester County. The 3rd primarily served as a garrison force along the frontier in western Massachusetts. In 1757 he was promoted to regimental colonel of the 3rd Regiment of the militias of Middlesex and Worcester counties. In 1758 the regiment marched with Abercrombie's force to sortie on Fort Ticonderoga, but Ward was sidelined during the campaign by an "attack of the stone." Between the wars By 1762, Ward returned to Shrewsbury permanently and was named to the Court of Common Pleas. In the General Court (the provincial assembly) he, with Samuel Adams and John Hancock, was appointed to the taxation committee. On the floor, he was second only to James Otis in speaking out against the acts of parliament in London. His prominence in these debates prompted the Royal Governor Francis Bernard to revoke his military commission in 1767. At the next election in 1768, Bernard voided the election results for Worcester and banned Ward from the assembly, but this didn't silence him. In the growing sentiment favoring rebellion, the 3rd Regiment resigned en masse from British service on October 3, 1774. They then marched on Shrewsbury to inform Ward that they had unanimously elected him their leader. Later that month the governor abolished the assembly. The towns of Massachusetts responded by setting up a colony-wide Committee of Safety. One of the first actions of the Committee was to name Ward as general and commander-in-chief of the colony's militia. American Revolution (1775–1783) Following the Battle of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the rebel (colonial) forces followed the British troops back to Boston and deployed to start the Siege of Boston, cutting all land access to the city. At first Ward directed his forces from his sickbed (in Shrewsbury), later moving his headquarters to Cambridge. Soon, both the New Hampshire and Connecticut provisional governments named him commander of their forces participating in the siege. Most of his efforts during this time were devoted to organization and supply problems. Additional British forces arrived by sea in May, and in June, Ward learned of their plan to attack Bunker Hill. He gave orders to fortify the point, setting the stage for the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775. Command during the battle devolved upon General Israel Putnam and Colonel William Prescott. Meanwhile, the Continental Congress was creating the Continental Army. On June 17 Congress commissioned Ward a major general, and appointed him second in command to General George Washington. (Ward was one of the original four major generals in the Continental Army along with Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler and Israel Putnam.) Over the next nine months he helped convert the assembled militia units into the Continental Army. After the British evacuation of Boston on March 17, 1776, Washington led the main body of the army to New York City. Ward took command of the Eastern Department and held that post until March 1777, when ill health forced his resignation from the army. Post-war and death Even during his military service, Ward also served as a state court justice in 1776 and 1777. From 1777 to 1779, as President of the state's Executive Council, he effectively served as governor before the ratification of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780. He was continuously elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1779 through 1785, leading it as Speaker in 1785. He was appointed a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1780 and 1781,and from 1791 to 1795 was elected twice to the United States House of Representatives. Ward died at his home in Shrewsbury on October 28, 1800 and was buried with Sarah in the town's Mountain View Cemetery. (His great-grandson Artemas Ward wrote The Grocer's Encyclopedia, published in 1911.) Legacy Town of Ward The Town of Ward, Massachusetts was incorporated in 1778 in honor of Artemas Ward. In 1837 the town was renamed to Auburn, Massachusetts after complaints from the U.S. postal service that the name Ward was too similar to the nearby town of Ware. Artemas Ward House Wards's lifelong home had been built by his father, Nahum, about the time Artemas was born. The home is now known as the Artemas Ward House and is a museum preserved by Harvard University. Located at 786 Main Street in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts it is open to the public for limited hours during the summer months. Ward Circle Ward Circle is a traffic circle at the intersection of Nebraska and Massachusetts Avenues in Northwest Washington, D.C. The land on three sides of Ward Circle is owned by American University. The circle contains a statue of Ward. The great-grandson of Ward gave over four million dollars to Harvard University on the condition that they erect a statue in honor of Ward, and maintain his home in Shrewsbury. Harvard's initial offer in 1927 of $50,000 toward the statue was enough for a statue, but inadequate to provide the general with a horse. The statue was unveiled on November 3, 1938 by Maj. Gen. Ward's great-great-great-granddaughter, Mrs. Lewis Wesley Feick. Although there are no crosswalks for pedestrian access to the circle, the base of the statue bears this inscription: ARTEMAS WARD 1727–1800 SON OF MASSACHUSETTS GRADUATE OF HARVARD COLLEGE JUDGE AND LEGISLATOR DELEGATE 1780–1781 TO THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS SOLDIER OF THREE WARS FIRST COMMANDER OF THE PATRIOT FORCES American University American University named the Ward Circle Building, home of the American University School of Public Affairs, in honor of Artemas Ward, as it was the closest building at the time to Ward Circle. However, it was renamed to Kerwin Hall after their former president Cornelius M. Kerwin in June 2017. References Notes Martyn, Charles (1921). The Life of Artemas Ward, the First Commander-in-Chief of the American Revolution Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press. . . Ward, Andrew H. (July 1851). "Memoir of Major General Artemas Ward". New England Historical and Genealogical Register. 5. External links 1727 births 1800 deaths Continental Army generals Continental Army officers from Massachusetts Continental Congressmen from Massachusetts 18th-century American politicians People of colonial Massachusetts Harvard University alumni Members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts People of Massachusetts in the French and Indian War People from Shrewsbury, Massachusetts Members of the colonial Massachusetts Governor's Council Harvard University faculty Speakers of the Massachusetts House of Representatives	[ -0.510323166847229, -0.02115546353161335, -0.8364027738571167, 0.19724854826927185, -0.0656212866306305, 0.7193559408187866, 1.059178352355957, -0.09356080740690231, -0.20201386511325836, -0.2824383080005646, -0.021058697253465652, -0.0404573492705822, -0.6258338093757629, 0.1448378711938858, -0.6823307275772095, 0.5850483775138855, -0.02540622279047966, -0.27073052525520325, -0.6158595681190491, -0.14892573654651642, -0.02480945736169815, 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251028	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Yalu%20River%20%281894%29	Battle of the Yalu River (1894)	The Battle of the Yalu River (; ; ) was the largest naval engagement of the First Sino-Japanese War, and took place on 17 September 1894, the day after the Japanese victory at the land Battle of Pyongyang. It involved ships from the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Chinese Beiyang Fleet. The battle is also known by a variety of names: Battle of Haiyang Island, Battle of Dadonggou, Battle of the Yellow Sea and Battle of Yalu, after the geographic location of the battle, which was in the Yellow Sea off the mouth of the Yalu River and not in the river itself. There is no agreement among contemporary sources on the exact numbers and composition of each fleet, but both were of a similar size, and the battle is considered to be one of the Imperial Japanese Navy's greatest victories. Background Japan's strategy Japan's initial strategy was to gain command of the sea, which was critical to its operations in Korea. Command of the sea would allow Japan to transport troops to the mainland. The Imperial Japanese Army's Fifth Division would land at Chemulpo on the western coast of Korea, both to engage and push Chinese forces northwest up the peninsula and to draw the Beiyang Fleet into the Yellow Sea, where it would be engaged in decisive battle. Depending on the outcome of this engagement, Japan would make one of three choices; If the Combined Fleet were to win decisively, the larger part of the Japanese army would undertake immediate landings on the coast between Shan-hai-kuan and Tientsin in order to defeat the Chinese army and bring the war to a swift conclusion. If the engagement were to be a draw and neither side gained control of the sea, the army would concentrate on the occupation of Korea. Lastly, if the Combined Fleet was defeated and consequently lost command of the sea, the bulk of the army would remain in Japan and prepare to repel a Chinese invasion, while the Fifth Division in Korea would be ordered to hang on and fight a rearguard action. Chinese moves With tensions with Japan increasing over the situation on the Peninsula, the Chinese government chartered three steamers to carry reinforcements to Korea in late July to bolster their position in Korea. The three troopships were escorted by three naval vessels, the cruiser and the gunboats Kwang-yi and . A Japanese force consisting of the cruisers , and intercepted the three Chinese warships off Pungo Island, precipitating the action. Within one hour, the engagement which ended in a Japanese victory, Jiyuan was forced to flee, Kwang-yi became stranded on a shoal and Tsao-kiang had been captured. Although the first two of the three troopships arrived safely in Korea, on 25 July 1894, Naniwa intercepted the third, Kowshing, which was carrying 1,200 Chinese troops. When the Chinese troops on board refused to surrender or to be interned Naniwa sank the vessel. Over 800 Chinese soldiers died in the action. Admiral Ding Ruchang had learned about the engagement at Pungdo on the morning of 26 July, when at 6.00am, the damaged cruiser Jiyuan arrived at Weihaiwei. Although the Chinese admiral had not been aware of the sinking of Kowshing, he considered the destruction of Kwang-yi and shelling of Jiyuan as an act of war. On the same day, without even notifying Li Hongzhang, he left Weihaiwei with eleven warships and seven torpedo boats and headed for the Korean coast, while the damaged Jiyuan sailed to Port Arthur for repairs. After arriving in Korean waters on the morning of the following day, the Chinese ships cruised the area looking to engage the enemy. However, the abrupt change in the weather made the patrolling of the Korean waters more arduous, especially for the small torpedo boats and consequently the Chinese fleet returned to Weihaiwei on 28 July. The Chinese warships immediately resupplied themselves with coal while the weather improved, and the main force of the Beiyang Fleet was put to sea again on the following day but without the torpedo boats, heading for the Korean coast. This second cruise lasted longer, until 3 August, but the fleet did not encounter the Japanese. At the beginning of September, Li Hongzhang decided to reinforce the Chinese forces at Pyongyang, by employing the Beiyang Fleet to escort transports to the mouth of the Taedong River. About 4,500 additional troops were to be redeployed, these had been stationed in the Zhili. On 12 September, half of the troops embarked at Dagu on five specially chartered transports and headed to Dalian where two days later, on 14 September, they were joined by another 2,000 soldiers. Initially, Admiral Ding wanted to send the transports under a light escort with only a few ships, while the main force of the Beiyang Fleet would locate and operate directly against Combined Fleet, in order to prevent the Japanese from intercepting the convoy. However, the appearance near Weihaiwei of the Japanese cruisers Yoshino and Naniwa, which were on reconnaissance sortie, thwarted these plans. The Chinese mistook them for the main Japanese fleet. Consequently on 12 September, the entire Beiyang Fleet departed Dalian, heading for Weihaiwei and arriving near the Shandong Peninsula the following day. The Chinese warships spent the entire day cruising the area, waiting for the Japanese. However, since there was no sighting of the Japanese, Admiral Ding decided to return to Dalian, arriving there in the morning of 15 September. The Japanese victory at Pyongyang had succeeded in pushing Chinese troops north to the Yalu River, in the process removing all effective Chinese military presence on the Korean peninsula. Shortly before the convoy's departure, Admiral Ding received a message concerning the battle at Pyongyang. Although it was rather inaccurate, it informed him about the defeat and subsequently made the redeployment of the troops to near the mouth of the Taedong River unnecessary. Admiral Ding, who then correctly assumed that the next Chinese line of defence would be established on the Yalu River, decided to redeploy the embarked soldiers there. On 16 September, at about 1:00 am, the convoy of five transport ships departed from the Dalian Bay under escort from the main force of the Beiyang Fleet which included the ironclad battleships and , the small coastal defence battleship , the cruisers , , , and , the small cruisers , and , torpedo gunboat Guangbing, the gunboats Zhennan and Zhenzhong as well as the torpedo boats and Zuo 1. They reached the mouth of the Yalu River at about 14.00pm. The transports, escorted by Pingyuan, Guangbing, Zhennan, Zhenzhong, together with both torpedo boats, immediately steamed up the river and dropped their anchors approximately from the mouth of the Yalu. The troops were disembarked and the landing operation lasted until the morning of 17 September. Meanwhile, the remaining warships of the Beiyang Fleet anchored in shallow waters about from the shore, south-west of the mouth of the river, where they remained for the rest of the day and the entire night. On 17 September, at 9:20 am, the fleet left its position and conducted a one-and-a-half-hour training exercise before returning to their previous anchorage. Soon thereafter, at 11:28 am, observers on board the Chinese warships spotted smoke from unknown vessels heading from the south-west. Fleet composition The Japanese Combined Fleet consisted of two formations. A flying squadron, composed of the four fast cruisers , , , and , was under the command of Tsuboi Kōzō. The main fleet consisted of the cruisers (flagship), , , , the ironclads , and , under the command of Admiral Itō Sukeyuki. There were also two dispatch vessels, the converted liner under the command of Swedish-born merchant navy Captain John Wilson, and the gunboat . The Chief of Naval Staff, Admiral Kabayama Sukenori was on a tour of inspection and aboard Saikyō Maru. Admiral Ding Ruchang attempted to form his fleet into a southward-facing line abreast with the strongest ships (Dingyuan, Zhenyuan) in the center. The newer , Guangjia, , , Laiyuan, Jingyuen, and the obsolete and , were lined from left to right. The four-ship group led by , having escorted a convoy upriver, had to catch up, and only joined action around 14:30, in time to chase off Saikyō Maru. The Beiyang Fleet had completed escorting a convoy to the mouth of the Yalu River, and was returning to its base at Lüshunkou when it was engaged by the Japanese navy. On paper, the Beiyang Fleet had the superior ships, included two ironclad battleships, and , for which the Japanese had no counterparts. The Beiyang Fleet could also call on the assistance of numerous military advisers, including Prussian Army Major Constantin von Hanneken, recently from Korea, who was appointed as the naval adviser to Admiral Ding Ruchang. W. F. Tyler, a sub-lieutenant in the Royal Navy Reserve and an Imperial Maritime Customs officer, was appointed as von Hanneken's assistant. Philo McGiffin, formerly an ensign in the U.S. Navy and an instructor at the Weihaiwei naval academy, was appointed to as an adviser or co-commander. However, examination reveals the truth about China's seemingly advantageous position, as most of their warships were over-age and obsolescent; the ships were also not maintained properly and indiscipline was common among their crews. The greater armor of major Chinese warships and the greater weight of broadside they could fire were more than offset by the number of quick-firing guns on most first-line Japanese warships, which gave the Japanese the edge in any sustained exchange of salvos. The worst feature of both Chinese battleships was actually their main armament; each was armed with short-barreled guns in twin barbettes mounted in echelon which could fire only in restricted arcs. The short barrels of the Chinese main armament meant that the shells had a low muzzle velocity and poor penetration, and their accuracy was also poor at long ranges. Tactically, Chinese naval vessels entered the war with only the crudest set of instructions — ships that were assigned to designated pairs were to keep together and all ships were to fight end-on, as far forward from the beam as possible, a tactic dictated by the obsolescent arrangement of guns aboard Chinese warships. The only vague resemblance of a fleet tactic was that all ships were to follow the visible movements of the flagship, an arrangement made necessary because the signal book used by the Chinese was written in English, a language with which few officers in the Beiyang Fleet had any familiarity. Though well drilled, the Chinese had not engaged in sufficient gunnery practice beforehand. This lack of training was the direct result of a serious lack of ammunition. Corruption seems to have played a major role; many Chinese shells appear to have been filled with cement or porcelain, or were the wrong caliber and could not be fired. Philo McGiffin noted that many of the gunpowder charges were "thirteen years old and condemned." What little ammunition there was, was to be preserved for real battle. Live ammunition training was rarely carried out. Li wanted to delay the battle against the Japanese fleet, thus allowing the Chinese more time to equip their ships with additional ammunition. However, the Imperial Court called him a coward and his recommendation was turned down. The Chinese fleet was bigger and armed with bigger guns. The Japanese fleet was much faster. As a result, the Japanese would have an advantage in open water. Battle Initial contact and engagement Late in the morning the two fleets approached each other, in contrasting formations. The Chinese had intended to form a line with the ships side-by-side, but due to confusion in signals and the differing speeds of the ships, they were in a wedge formation, with the two battleships at the fore and the other vessels trailing behind on both flanks. The Japanese were in column formation with the flying squadron in front, followed by the main squadron. When the enemy was well in sight Admiral Sukeyuki Ito ordered the Flying Squadron to attack the Beiyang Fleet's right flank. The Chinese opened fire at a range of , which was far too great to cause any damage. The Japanese, meanwhile, held their fire for another twenty minutes as they headed diagonally across the Beiyang Fleet at twice the speed. On the signal of Admiral Ito, the Japanese squadrons divided. The flying squadron under Tsuboi increased speed from and headed for the very centre of the Chinese formation; the tactic held the puzzled enemy in position. Turning slightly to port, the flying squadron then moved around the right flank of the Chinese formation to strike at the weakest units there. Holding fire until they were in effective range, the cruisers battered Chaoyong and Yangwei. The flying squadron then moved northward to engage Chinese reinforcements coming from the Yalu River. The main squadron of the Japanese fleet initially followed the same course as the flying squadron towards the Chinese left but completed the turn all the way round to circle behind the Chinese fleet. As the flying squadron again turned south, the Beiyang Fleet was caught between the two Japanese squadrons. and resisted the heaviest bombardment as a result of their armour; however, the quick firing Japanese guns decimated crews on their decks. The Flying Squadron meanwhile re-engaged, sinking the cruiser Zhiyuan that had attempted to ram one of the Japanese cruisers, then set off in pursuit of one of several ships on the Chinese left which were deserting their fleet and had fled toward the shallow waters to the north. The squadron successfully hunted down and destroyed the cruiser Jingyuan, but in doing so inadvertently allowed the other Chinese vessels to escape. By this time the main Japanese squadron under Admiral Itō was circling what remained of the Chinese force, the major Japanese ships fired their heavy and quick-firing guns that swept the decks of the Chinese ships and smashed their superstructures. Many of the Japanese ships, however, also received major damage. was hit and and Saikyō Maru were put out of action. also sustained serious damage as a result of her inferior speed, her captain decided not to try to follow the Flying Squadron on its sweep around the Chinese fleet, but instead to pass directly through the Chinese line. This maneuver made Hiei an easy target and sustained a number of serious hits before the ship moved out of range. The damage to , however, was the most severe; where the lack of armour was made apparent when she was struck by two 12-inch shells that tore open the deck and ignited ready ammunition causing nearly one hundred casualties and forcing Admiral Itō to transfer his flag to . By sunset the Beiyang Fleet was near the point of total collapse, most of the fleet had fled or had been sunk and the two largest ships and were nearly out of ammunition. Several different explanations have been put forward as to why the Beiyang Fleet did not change their formation to react to the Japanese tactics more effectively. Per Royal Navy Lieutenant William Ferdinand Tyler, stationed on Dingyuan, Admiral Ding ordered his ships to change course in such a way that would have exposed his ship, the flagship, but put the rest of the squadron in a good position to fire on the Japanese fleet. However, Dingyuans captain deliberately did not acknowledge this order or pass it on to the rest of the fleet. Instead, he ordered Dingyuan to fire its main guns before the Japanese were in range. There is a long-repeated legend that firing the main battery directly forward resulted in the destruction of the flying bridge, but it was a mistranslation of Philo T. McGiffin's memoir, which says that he and Ding were "catapulted" by the shockwave. Now historians agree it was Japanese gunfire that destroyed the flying bridge, leaving Admiral Ding with his legs crushed under the wreckage and thus out of combat for the remainder of the battle. Most of his staff officers on the bridge were likewise injured or killed. The situation was worsened when the Japanese destroyed Dingyuans foremast, making it impossible for the flagship to signal the rest of the fleet. The Chinese fleet, with some foresight, had anticipated something like this happening and formed into three pairs of mutually supporting vessels to carry the fight on. According to an account from James Allan, an officer aboard the U.S.-flagged supply ship Columbia, who witnessed the battle, rumors abounded that Admiral Ding deferred command to Major Constantin von Hannecken. He opined that it was not surprising that the Chinese had suffered such losses if an army officer was directing a naval fleet. The Chinese fleet opened fire on the Japanese fleet as they passed from port to starboard, across the bows of the Chinese vessels. They failed to score any significantly damaging hits on the Japanese with their and guns. At about (the Chinese had been steadily closing the range), the Japanese concentrated their fire on the right flank of the Chinese line, with devastating barrages poured into Chaoyong and Yangwei. Both those vessels burst into flames, because of their heavily varnished and polished wooden surfaces. Burning fiercely, both tried to save themselves by beaching. As the Japanese ships opened fire, Jiyuan turned and fled, followed by Guangjia. Jiyuan was hit only once, while Guangjia became lost, ran aground, and was scuttled a few days later by its own crew. Some sources also say Jiyuan collided with Yangwei, causing her sinking. The Japanese had intended to swing the flying division around the right flank of the Chinese line in an encirclement, but the timely arrival of the Kuang Ping and Pingyuan, along with the torpedo boats Fu Lung (built at Schichau) and Choi Ti (a Yarrow-built vessel), diverted this maneuver. The Japanese fast cruisers veered to port and were then dispatched by Admiral Itoh to go to the assistance of Hiei, Saikyō Maru and Akagi, which had been unable to keep up with the main line, and had then been engaged by the left-hand vessels of the Chinese line when Saikyō Maru tried to finish off the beached Yangwei. At 15:20, the severely crippled and burning Zhiyuan tried to ram Naniwa (Chinese source says Yoshino) but failed. She sank along with her captain, Deng Shichang. The Japanese fleet's more reliable, better-maintained ordnance and overwhelming superiority in rapid-firing guns gave it tactical advantage over the Beiyang Fleet, which fought with limited stocks, consisting of older foreign ammunition and shoddy domestic products. Japanese shells set four Chinese vessels ablaze, destroying three. However, firefighting was well organized on the Chinese vessels. For example, Laiyuan burned severely, yet kept firing. Dingyuan stayed afloat and had casualties of 14 dead and 25 wounded. A total of about 850 Chinese sailors were lost in the battle with 500 wounded. The Chinese severely damaged four Japanese warships and lightly damaged two others. Japanese losses were roughly 180 killed, and 200 wounded. The Japanese flagship Matsushima suffered the worst single-ship loss, with more than 100 dead or wounded after being hit by a heavy Chinese round. Hiei was severely damaged and retired from the conflict; Akagi suffered from heavy fire, with great loss of life. Saikyō Maru, the converted liner, urged on by Admiral Kabayama Sukenori despite its lack of offensive armament, had been hit by four 12-inch (305 mm) shells and was left sailing virtually out of control as a result. Analysis As it was the first fleet encounter since Lissa in 1866, the battle was studied for its tactical lessons not only by the Japanese Navy General Staff, but by naval staffs around the globe. The lessons to a degree were unclear, since the two fleet encounters seemed to be contradictory and cancelled each other out. At Lissa, the Austro-Hungarians had used the ram in a bows-on frontal attack, in a line abreast formation, whereas the Yalu had been won by broadside naval gunfire delivered from a line ahead formation. What also remained unresolved by the encounter was the debate between the proponents of the big gun and advocates of armor. Although the Canet guns of the Sankeikan-class cruisers had malfunctioned and thus the heaviest Japanese shells had not hit the two Chinese battleships, no other shells had penetrated their armor belts deeper than 4 inches. However, there were some conclusions that could be drawn from the course and outcome of the battle. The first was that the line ahead was the best formation which preserved the greatest flexibility and simplicity of movement, minimized tactical confusion and also maximized broadside fire. The case against the line abreast formation was not yet absolutely certain, but the wedge formation adopted purposely or accidentally by the Chinese could only have been effective in the hands of a commander whose ship captains had mastered fleet movements, which Ding's subordinates had not. Secondly, the one common denominator between Lissa and the Yalu appeared to be that the victor had fought in separated squadrons. This arrangement provided tactical flexibility and consequently widened the options for maneuver during the chaos of battle. Due to the Chinese Navy's weak preparations for the battle, faulty ammunition, and a lack of communication and discipline, which was the cause of at least one account of fragging, the Japanese forces were able to operate under very desirable conditions. Their victory in the battle established naval supremacy, demonstrated the weakness of the Chinese military, and by extension, the strength of their own. The New York Times would liken the battle to Waterloo. Aftermath The remnants of the Beiyang Fleet retired into Lüshunkou for repairs, but were withdrawn to Weihaiwei to avoid a second encounter with the Japanese fleet during the Battle of Lüshunkou. The Japanese did not pursue the retreating ships, as Dingyuan and Zhenyuan were only slightly damaged, and the Japanese had no way of knowing that the battleships suffered from a lack of ammunition. The Beiyang Fleet was finally destroyed by a combined land and naval attack during the Battle of Weihaiwei. The defeat of the Beiyang Fleet at the Battle of Yalu River was a major propaganda victory for Japan, with many major European newspapers, including the London Times, Le Temps and Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, providing front-page coverage and crediting the Japanese victory to its rapid assimilation of western methods and technology. Many credited the prompt action of foreign advisers in the Beiyang Fleet (most notably McGiffin) from keeping the fleet from total annihilation, and for keeping even the most heavily damaged Chinese ships fighting until the very end of the engagement. Some military analysts, notably U.S. Secretary of the Navy Hilary A. Herbert, called the battle 'nearly a draw' – although the Chinese had lost several warships, the Japanese had suffered considerable damage, and if the Chinese ammunition had been of higher quality, the outcome might have been different. In addition to Herbert, several other American officials published analyses of the battle, including Alfred Thayer Mahan and William Halsey F. Halsey Sr. The Chinese government, after initially denying that its fleet had been defeated, put the blame for the Chinese defeat on Viceroy Li Hongzhang and Admiral Ding Ruchang, both of whom were demoted and stripped of honors. Their subordinates and relatives suffered similar fates. However, both men remained in their posts, and would oversee the final destruction of the Beiyang Fleet at Weihaiwei. However, this attempt to save face were insufficient, as the foreign press would come to find that many of China's claims were false, discrediting them in the eyes of the international community. The Battle of the Yalu and the naval defeats of 1894-1895 in general have been the topic of extensive discussion among Chinese historians and naval officers since events held to mark the 120th anniversary in 2014. While it was not the first battle involving pre-dreadnought technology on a wide scale (the Battle of Foochow in the 1884 Sino-French War predated it), there were significant lessons for naval observers to consider. Order of battle Order of battle party sourced from JC Perry's The Battle off the Tayang (1964). See also Henry Walton Grinnell Naval history of Japan Naval history of China Notes References Further reading The Battle of the Yalu, Personal Recollections by the Commander of the Chinese Ironclad Chen Yuen - Philo N. McGiffin, Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine, May–October 1895 The Imperial Japanese Navy (1904) – Fred T. 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251032	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nero%20Decree	Nero Decree	The Nero Decree () was issued by Adolf Hitler on March 19, 1945 ordering the destruction of German infrastructure to prevent its use by Allied forces as they penetrated deep within Germany. It was officially titled Decree Concerning Demolitions in the Reich Territory () and has subsequently become known as the Nero Decree, after the Roman Emperor Nero, who, according to an apocryphal story, engineered the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. The decree was deliberately disobeyed by Albert Speer. Background By the beginning of 1945, the German situation was desperate. Most of the conquered territories had been liberated or recaptured, the Ardennes Offensive had failed, and Allied armies were advancing on Germany proper from both the East and the West. However, Hitler was not willing to accept the terms of unconditional surrender, and considered this as repeating the same shame as Versailles. Moreover, according to some around him, Hitler came to view the German people as having failed him, unworthy of their great mission in history and thus deserving to die alongside his regime. This was not the first time Hitler had tried to destroy infrastructure before it could be taken. Shortly before the Liberation of Paris, Hitler ordered explosives to be placed around important landmarks, such as the Eiffel Tower, and key transportation hubs. If the Allies came near the city, the military governor, General Dietrich von Choltitz was to detonate these bombs, leaving Paris "lying in complete debris." Von Choltitz, however, did not carry out the order and surrendered to the Allies, later alleging that this was the moment he realized that "Hitler was insane." Similarly, Hitler had issued orders to enact a scorched earth policy upon the Netherlands in late 1944, when it became obvious that the Allies were about to retake the country, but Arthur Seyss-Inquart, the Reichskommissar in charge of the Netherlands during its occupation, was able to greatly limit the scope to which the order was executed. The Decree Its most pertinent section reads as follows: "It is a mistake to think that transport and communication facilities, industrial establishments and supply depots, which have not been destroyed, or have only been temporarily put out of action, can be used again for our own ends when the lost territory has been recovered. The enemy will leave us nothing but scorched earth when he withdraws, without paying the slightest regard to the population. I therefore order: "1) All military transport and communication facilities, industrial establishments and supply depots, as well as anything else of value within Reich territory, which could in any way be used by the enemy immediately or within the foreseeable future for the prosecution of the war, will be destroyed." Actions The decree was in vain. The responsibility for carrying it out fell to Albert Speer, Hitler's Minister of Armaments and War Production. According to him, Speer was appalled by the order and lost faith in the dictator. Just as von Choltitz had several months earlier, Speer deliberately failed to carry out the order. Upon receiving it, he requested to be given exclusive power to implement the plan, instead using his power to convince the generals and Gauleiters to ignore the order. Hitler remained unaware of this until the very end of the war, when Speer, while visiting Hitler in his Berlin bunker, admitted to him that he deliberately disobeyed. Hitler was angry with his minister, but allowed Speer to leave nonetheless. Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, 42 days after issuing the order. Shortly afterwards, on May 7, 1945, General Alfred Jodl signed the German military surrender, and on May 23 Speer was arrested on the orders of U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, together with the rest of the provisional German government led by Admiral Karl Dönitz, Hitler's successor as head of state. See also Albert Speer Gotthard Heinrici Hellmuth Reymann Is Paris Burning? 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251033	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauldron	Cauldron	A cauldron (or caldron) is a large pot (kettle) for cooking or boiling over an open fire, with a lid and frequently with an arc-shaped hanger and/or integral handles or feet. There is a rich history of cauldron lore in religion, mythology, and folklore. Etymology The word cauldron is first recorded in Middle English as caudroun (13th century). It was borrowed from Norman caudron (Picard caudron, ). It represents the phonetical evolution of Vulgar Latin *caldario for Classical Latin caldārium "hot bath", that derives from cal(i)dus "hot". The Norman-French word replaces the Old English ċetel (German (Koch)Kessel "cauldron", Dutch (kook)ketel "cauldron"), Middle English chetel. The word "kettle" is a borrowing of the Old Norse variant ketill "cauldron". History Cauldrons can be found from the late Bronze Age period - vast cauldrons with a capacity of 60-70 litres. Symbolism and mythology Cauldrons have largely fallen out of use in the developed world as cooking vessels. While still used for practical purposes, a more common association in Western culture is the cauldron's use in witchcraft—a cliché popularized by various works of fiction, such as William Shakespeare's play Macbeth. In fiction, witches often prepare their potions in a cauldron. Also, in Irish folklore, a cauldron is purported to be where leprechauns keep their gold and treasure. In some forms of Wicca, incorporating aspects of Celtic mythology, the cauldron is associated with the goddess Cerridwen. Welsh legend also tells of cauldrons that were useful to warring armies. In the second branch of the Mabinogi in the tale of Branwen, Daughter of Llŷr, the Pair Dadeni (Cauldron of Rebirth) is a magical cauldron in which dead warriors could be placed and then be returned to life, save that they lacked the power of speech. It was suspected that they lacked souls. These warriors could go back into battle until they were killed again. In Wicca and some other forms of neopagan or pagan belief systems, the cauldron is still used in magical practices. Most often a cauldron is made of cast iron and is used to burn loose incense on a charcoal disc, to make black salt (used in banishing rituals), for mixing herbs, or to burn petitions (paper with words of power or wishes written on them). Cauldrons symbolize not only the Goddess but also represent the womb (because it holds something) and on an altar, it represents earth because it is a working tool. Cauldrons are often sold in New Age or "metaphysical" stores and may have various symbols of power inscribed on them. The holy grail of Arthurian legend is sometimes referred to as a "cauldron", although traditionally the grail is thought of as a hand-held cup rather than the large pot that the word "cauldron" usually is used to mean. This may have resulted from the combination of the grail legend with earlier Celtic myths of magical cauldrons. The common translation for ding is often referred to as a cauldron. In Chinese history and culture, possession of one or more ancient dings is often associated with power and dominion over the land. Therefore, the ding is often used as an implicit symbolism for power. The term "inquiring of the ding" (Chinese: 问鼎; pinyin: wèn dǐng) is often used to symbolize the use of divination or for the quest for power. One example of the ding cauldron and gaining power over the traditional provinces of China is the Nine Tripod Cauldrons (whether regarded as myth or history). Archeologically intact actual cauldrons with apparent cultural symbolism include: the Gundestrup cauldron, made in the 2nd or 1st century BC, found at Gundestrup, Denmark a Bronze Age cauldron found at Hassle, Sweden the cauldron where the Olympic Flame burns for the duration of the Olympic Games Cauldrons known only through myth and literature include: Dagda's Cauldron The Cauldron of Dyrnwch the Giant Pair Dadeni Cauldron of Hymir Gallery See also Alfet Fire pot Eldhrímnir Gulyásleves Hassle Kama List of cooking vessels Olympic flame Potjiekos Sacrificial tripod References Cooking vessels Danish inventions Magical objects Wiccan terminology European witchcraft	[ 0.2659626603126526, 0.45304590463638306, -0.5864861011505127, 0.19150957465171814, 0.1883089393377304, 0.21978476643562317, -0.06951841711997986, -0.02105051465332508, -0.2461472749710083, -0.21654196083545685, -0.5200628042221069, -0.25398942828178406, 0.2470521479845047, 0.6881817579269409, -0.19493645429611206, 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251034	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalice	Chalice	A chalice (from Latin 'mug', borrowed from Ancient Greek () 'cup') or goblet is a footed cup intended to hold a drink. In religious practice, a chalice is often used for drinking during a ceremony or may carry a certain symbolic meaning. Religious use Christian The ancient Roman calix was a drinking vessel consisting of a bowl fixed atop a stand, and was in common use at banquets. In Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Lutheranism and some other Christian denominations, a chalice is a standing cup used to hold sacramental wine during the Eucharist (also called the Lord's Supper or Holy Communion). Chalices are often made of precious metal, and they are sometimes richly enamelled and jewelled. The gold goblet was symbolic for family and tradition. Chalices have been used since the early church. Because of Jesus' command to his disciples to "Do this in remembrance of me." (), and Paul's account of the Eucharistic rite in , the celebration of the Eucharist became central to Christian liturgy. Naturally, the vessels used in this important act of worship were highly decorated and treated with great respect. A number of early examples of chalices have a large bowl and two handles. Over time, the size of the bowl diminished and the base became larger for better stability. Over time, official church regulations dictated the construction, blessing, and treatment of chalices. Some religious traditions still require that the chalice, at least on the inside of the cup, to be gold-plated. In Western Christianity, chalices will often have a pommel or node where the stem meets the cup to make the elevation easier. In Roman Catholicism, chalices tend to be tulip-shaped, and the cups are quite narrow. Roman Catholic priests will often receive chalices from members of their families when first ordained. In Eastern Christianity (Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches), chalices will often have icons enameled or engraved on them, as well as a cross. In Orthodoxy and Eastern Catholicism, all communicants receive both the Body of Christ and the Blood of Christ. To accomplish this, a portion of the Lamb (Host) is placed in the chalice, and then the faithful receive Communion on a spoon. For this reason, eastern chalices tend to have larger, rounded cups. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the faithful will often kiss the "foot" (base) of the chalice after receiving Holy Communion. In other traditions, they will kiss the cup. Although Orthodox monks are not permitted to hold personal possessions, the canons permit a hieromonk (i.e., a monk who has been ordained to the priesthood) to keep a chalice and other vessels necessary to celebrate the Divine Liturgy. In the early and medieval church, when a deacon was ordained, he would be handed a chalice during the service as a sign of his ministry. In the West the deacon carries the chalice to the altar at the offertory; in the East, the priest carries the chalice and the deacon carries the paten (diskos). Only wine, water and a portion of the Host are permitted to be placed in the chalice, and it may not be used for any profane purpose. The chalice is considered to be one of the most sacred vessels in Christian liturgical worship, and it is often blessed before use. In the Roman Catholic Church, and some Anglo-Catholic churches, it was the custom for a chalice to be consecrated by being anointed with chrism, and this consecration could only be performed by a bishop or abbot (only for use within his own monastery). Among the Eastern Churches there are varying practices regarding blessing. In some traditions the very act of celebrating the Sacred Mysteries (Sacrament) is the only blessing necessary; in others, there is a special rite of blessing. In some Eastern traditions this blessing may be done only by a bishop, in some it may be done by a priest. In any case, in both the East and the West, once a chalice has been blessed, it may only be touched by an ordained member of the higher clergy (bishop, priest or deacon). In the Russian Orthodox Church a subdeacon is permitted to touch the holy vessels, but only if they are wrapped in cloth. The Holy Chalice In Christian tradition the Holy Chalice is the vessel which Jesus used at the Last Supper to serve the wine. New Testament texts make no mention of the cup except within the context of the Last Supper and give no significance whatsoever to the object itself. Herbert Thurston in the Catholic Encyclopedia 1908 concluded that "No reliable tradition has been preserved to us regarding the vessel used by Christ at the Last Supper. In the sixth and seventh centuries pilgrims to Jerusalem were led to believe that the actual chalice was still venerated in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, having within it the sponge which was presented to Our Saviour on Calvary." Several surviving standing cups of precious materials are identified in local traditions as the Chalice. Holy Grail An entirely different and pervasive tradition concerns the cup of the Last Supper. In this highly muddled though better-known version, the vessel is known as the Holy Grail. In this legend, Jesus used the cup at the Last Supper to institute the Mass. Other stories claim that Joseph of Arimathea used the cup to collect and store the blood of Christ at the Crucifixion. Unitarian Universalism At the opening of Unitarian Universalist worship services, many congregations light a flame inside a chalice. A flaming chalice is the most widely used symbol of Unitarianism and Unitarian Universalism (UU), and the official logo of the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) and other Unitarian and UU churches and societies. The design was originated by the artist Hans Deutsch, who took his inspiration from the chalices of oil burned on ancient Greek and Roman altars. It became an underground symbol in occupied Europe during World War II for assistance to help Unitarians, Jews, and other people escape Nazi persecution. The chalice is often shown surrounded by two linked rings. The two linked rings were used as an early symbol for the Unitarian Universalist Association, signifying the joining of Unitarianism and Universalism. There is no standardized interpretation of the flaming chalice symbol. In one interpretation, the chalice is a symbol of religious freedom from the impositions of doctrine by a hierarchy and openness to participation by all; the flame is interpreted as a memorial to those throughout history who sacrificed their lives for the cause of religious liberty. In another interpretation, the flaming chalice resembles a cross, symbolic of the Christian roots of Unitarian Universalism. Wicca In Wicca, a chalice, as a feminine principle, is often used in combination with the Athame (ceremonial black-handled knife), as male principle. Combining the two evokes the act of procreation, as a symbol of universal creativity. This is a symbol of the Great Rite in Wiccan rituals. A chalice is also used in the Small Rite. Neo-Paganism Some forms of Neo-Paganism make use of chalices in their rituals as well. A chalice may be placed on an altar or on the ground. The chalice may contain wine, whiskey, water, or other liquids. It is used to represent the genitalia of the goddess or female deity. Rastafarian Rastafaris sometimes smoke ganja in a chalice (waterpipe or bong) during an activity called reasoning intended to put participants in touch with peaceful feelings, unity, and "consciousness." Poisoned chalice The term "poisoned chalice" is applied to a thing or situation which appears to be good when it is received or experienced by someone, but then becomes or is found to be bad. The idea was referred to by Benedict of Nursia in one of his exorcisms, found on the Saint Benedict Medal: Vade retro Satana! Nunquam suade mihi vana! Sunt mala quae libas. Ipse venena bibas! (Begone Satan! Never tempt me with your vanities! What you offer me is evil. Drink the poison yourself!). William Shakespeare uses the expression in Act I Scene VII of Macbeth. It occurs in the opening soliloquy of the scene when Macbeth is considering the ramifications of the murder he is plotting. But in these cases We still have judgment here; that we but teach Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return To plague the inventor: this even-handed justice Commends the ingredients of our poison'd chalice To our own lips. It is also used as a term to describe a job offer for a sports coach that would leave the incoming coach with high expectations of success but many potentially hidden challenges or pitfalls. A championship winning team that is in need of a rebuild or a team that overachieved under the previous incumbent could be described as a poisoned chalice. Heraldry The use of chalices as heraldic devices is not unusual, especially in ecclesiastical heraldry. A number of cities and regions also make use of the chalice. For instance, the coat of arms of the municipality of Fanas in the district of Prättigau/Davos in the Swiss canton of Graubünden bears a gold chalice on a solid blue background. The coat of arms of Staufen im Breisgau contains the three golden chalices (i.e. drei staufen in ancient German) of the Lords of Staufen (de), advocates of the monastery of St. Trudpert. A golden chalice (or in some instances three or five) on blue background has been used as coat of arms for the Kingdom of Galicia since at least the late Middle Ages, and is still central in its renewed heraldry. Gallery Other usage Québec In French-Canadian culture, particularly in and around Quebec, the use of the names of holy objects such as "câlice" (a variation of calice, which is the French word for chalice) can be an alternate form of cursing. Somewhat equivalent to the American word "goddam" or the phrase "God damn it", the use of "câlice" or "tabarnak" (a variation of tabernacle) as an interjection is not uncommon in Quebec. For example: "Câlice! I forgot to lock the front door" or muttering "tabarnak" under your breath after you get a flat tire. Presumably a derivation of "taking the Lord's name in vain". Czech Republic With reference to the Hussite movement in the Kingdom of Bohemia, besides religious use, the chalice also became one of the unofficial national symbols of the Czechs. It is frequently used in Czech national symbolism and it is part of many historical banners. See also Ablution in Christianity Ardagh Chalice Ciborium Communion under both kinds Corporal (liturgy) Derrynaflan Chalice Holy Grail Intinction Paten Tassilo Chalice The Oxburgh Chalice The Silver Chalice Treasure of Gourdon Notes External links "Chalice" article from the Catholic Encyclopedia Stem glass classification Material Culture of the Mendicant Orders in Ireland, a selection of photographs of and detailed information about religious artefacts, mainly chalices, belonging to the Irish Franciscans. A UCD Digital Library Collection. 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251037	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maniac	Maniac	Maniac (from Greek μανιακός, maniakos) is a pejorative for an individual who experiences the mood known as mania. In common usage, it is also an insult for someone involved in reckless behavior. Maniac may also refer to: Film Maniac (1934 film), an exploitation film directed by Dwain Esper Maniac (1963 film), directed by Michael Carreras The Ransom (aka Maniac!), 1977 film with Oliver Reed Maniac (1980 film), directed by William Lustig Maniac (2011 film), directed by Shia LaBeouf Maniac (2012 film), a remake of the 1980 film Television Maniac (Norwegian TV series), a Norwegian television series Maniac (miniseries), an American TV series based on the Norwegian series Medicine Melanocytic nevus with intraepidermal ascent of cells Games Ideal Maniac, a handheld electronic LED game created by the Ideal Toy Company Music Maniac (producer), grime producer from London Stage name of Norwegian musician Sven Erik Kristiansen Maniac (band), a band from Los Angeles, California, US Songs "Maniac" (Michael Sembello song), used in the 1983 film Flashdance "Maniac" (Girlicious song), a 2010 song "Maniac" (single), song from the 2011 album Hysterical by Clap Your Hands Say Yeah "Maniac" (Conan Gray song), a 2019 song "Maniac", by Kid Cudi from his album Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager "Maniac", by Jhené Aiko "Maniac", by Merrill Nisker from her album Fancypants Hoodlum "Maniac", by Caravan Palace from their album Panic "Maniac feat Yann Ligner", by Carpenter Brut Sports Maryland Maniacs, a United States indoor football team "Maniac" Mike Davis (1956–2001), American professional wrestler "Maniac" Jimmy Deo, a professional wrestler; one half of the tag-team Assault and Battery The Maniacs, Ultras group of FK Željezničar Sarajevo Other MANIAC I, an early computer See also Manniac, a 2005 film directed by Ingo Trendelbernd Mania (disambiguation) Maniacal (disambiguation) Manic (disambiguation)	[ 0.6508558392524719, 0.3561837375164032, -0.6317739486694336, -0.3271174132823944, -0.2419348508119583, -0.03340267762541771, 1.0451265573501587, 0.6609691977500916, -0.2941451668739319, 0.2006044238805771, -0.3609956204891205, 0.5902758836746216, -0.525690495967865, 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251039	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BLT%20%28disambiguation%29	BLT (disambiguation)	BLT is a sandwich with filling of bacon, lettuce and tomato. The initials BLT may also refer to the following: Art, entertainment, and media B.L.T. (album), a studio album by Robin Trower, Jack Bruce and Bill Lordan Beautiful Lady & Television, a monthly magazine in Japan Brian Lester "BLT" Thomas, a character in the US television series, Degrassi High Other uses Baselland Transport, a Swiss railway company Battalion Landing Team of a US Marine expeditionary BHP, London Stock Exchange stock symbol Bit blit, a computer graphics method for manipulating bitmaps Bounded linear transformation theorem of continuous linear extension Bear-Lion-Tiger, a trio of animals that formed a bond as children and stayed together as trio for life (see BLT in Noah's Ark)	[ 0.5945946574211121, -0.07842858880758286, 0.008780606091022491, -0.43053171038627625, -0.31464359164237976, 0.13018129765987396, -0.16755184531211853, 0.2000705897808075, -0.22993606328964233, -0.5148981213569641, -0.18044927716255188, 0.13060829043388367, -0.2576989233493805, 0.13638058304786682, -0.07077546417713165, 0.544815182685852, 0.7548954486846924, 0.34635478258132935, 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251047	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusional%20disorder	Delusional disorder	Delusional disorder is a mental illness in which a person has delusions, but with no accompanying prominent hallucinations, thought disorder, mood disorder, or significant flattening of affect. Delusions are a specific symptom of psychosis. Delusions can be bizarre or non-bizarre in content; non-bizarre delusions are fixed false beliefs that involve situations that could occur in real life, such as being harmed or poisoned. Apart from their delusion or delusions, people with delusional disorder may continue to socialize and function in a normal manner and their behavior does not necessarily generally seem odd. However, the preoccupation with delusional ideas can be disruptive to their overall lives. For the diagnosis to be made, auditory and visual hallucinations cannot be prominent, though olfactory or tactile hallucinations related to the content of the delusion may be present. The delusions cannot be due to the effects of a drug, medication, or general medical condition, and delusional disorder cannot be diagnosed in an individual previously properly diagnosed with schizophrenia. A person with delusional disorder may be high functioning in daily life. Recent and comprehensive meta-analyses of scientific studies point to an association between a deterioration in aspects of IQ in psychotic patients, in particular perceptual reasoning. According to German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin, patients with delusional disorder remain coherent, sensible and reasonable. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) defines six subtypes of the disorder characterized as erotomanic (belief that someone is in love with one), grandiose (belief that one is the greatest, strongest, fastest, richest, or most intelligent person ever), jealous (belief that one is being cheated on), persecutory (delusions that the person or someone to whom the person is close is being malevolently treated in some way), somatic (belief that one has a disease or medical condition), and mixed, i.e., having features of more than one subtype. Delusions also occur as symptoms of many other mental disorders, especially the other psychotic disorders. The DSM-IV and psychologists agree that personal beliefs should be evaluated with great respect to cultural and religious differences, since some cultures have widely accepted beliefs that may be considered delusional in other cultures. Classification The International Classification of Diseases classifies delusional disorder as a mental and behavioural disorder. Diagnosis of a specific type of delusional disorder can sometimes be made based on the content of the delusions, to wit, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) enumerates seven types: Erotomanic type (erotomania): delusion that another person, often a prominent figure, is in love with the individual. The individual may breach the law as he/she tries to obsessively make contact with the desired person. Grandiose type (megalomania): delusion of inflated worth, power, knowledge, identity or believing oneself to be a famous person, claiming the actual person is an impostor or an impersonator. Jealous type: delusion that the individual's sexual partner is unfaithful when it is untrue. The patient may follow the partner, check text messages, emails, phone calls etc. in an attempt to find "evidence" of the infidelity. Persecutory type: This delusion is a common subtype. It includes the belief that the person (or someone to whom the person is close) is being malevolently treated in some way. The patient may believe that he/she has been drugged, spied upon, harmed, harassed and so on and may seek "justice" by making reports, taking action or even acting violently. Somatic type: delusions that the person has some physical defect or general medical condition Mixed type: delusions with characteristics of more than one of the above types but with no one theme predominating. Unspecified type: delusions that cannot be clearly determined or characterized in any of the categories in the specific types. Signs and symptoms The following can indicate a delusion: An individual expresses an idea or belief with unusual persistence or force, even when evidence suggests the contrary. That idea appears to have an undue influence on the person's life, and the way of life is often altered to an inexplicable extent. Despite their profound conviction, there is often a quality of secretiveness or suspicion when the person is questioned about it. The individual tends to be humorless and oversensitive, especially about the belief. There is a quality of centrality: no matter how unlikely it is that these strange things are happening to the person, he or she accepts them relatively unquestioningly. An attempt to contradict the belief is likely to arouse an inappropriately strong emotional reaction, often with irritability and hostility. They will not accept any other opinions. The belief is, at the least, unlikely, and out of keeping with the individual's social, cultural, and religious background. The person is emotionally over-invested in the idea and it overwhelms other elements of his or her psyche. The delusion, if acted out, often leads to behaviors which are abnormal, and out of character, although perhaps understandable in light of the delusional beliefs. Other people who know the individual observe that the belief and behavior are uncharacteristic and alien. Additional features of delusional disorder include the following: It is a primary disorder. It is a stable disorder characterized by the presence of delusions to which the patient clings with extraordinary tenacity. The illness is chronic and frequently lifelong. The delusions are logically constructed and internally consistent. The delusions do not interfere with general logical reasoning (although within the delusional system the logic is perverted) and there is usually no general disturbance of behavior. If disturbed behavior does occur, it is directly related to the delusional beliefs. The individual experiences a heightened sense of self-reference. Events which, to others, are nonsignificant are of enormous significance to him or her, and the atmosphere surrounding the delusions is highly charged. However this should not be confused with gaslighting, where a person denies the truth, and causes the victim to think that they are being delusional. Causes The cause of delusional disorder is unknown, but genetic, biochemical, and environmental factors may play a significant role in its development. Some people with delusional disorders may have an imbalance in neurotransmitters, the chemicals that send and receive messages to the brain. There does seem to be some familial component, and immigration (generally for persecutory reasons), drug abuse, excessive stress, being married, being employed, low socioeconomic status, celibacy among men, and widowhood among women may also be risk factors. Delusional disorder is currently thought to be on the same spectrum or dimension as schizophrenia, but people with delusional disorder, in general, may have less symptomatology and functional disability. Diagnosis Differential diagnosis includes ruling out other causes such as drug-induced conditions, dementia, infections, metabolic disorders, and endocrine disorders. Other psychiatric disorders must then be ruled out. In delusional disorder, mood symptoms tend to be brief or absent, and unlike schizophrenia, delusions are non-bizarre and hallucinations are minimal or absent. Interviews are important tools to obtain information about the patient's life situation and history to help make a diagnosis. Clinicians generally review earlier medical records to gather a full history. Clinicians also try to interview the patient's immediate family, as this can be helpful in determining the presence of delusions. The mental status examination is used to assess the patient's current mental condition. A psychological questionnaire used in the diagnosis of the delusional disorder is the Peters Delusion Inventory (PDI) which focuses on identifying and understanding delusional thinking. However, this questionnaire is more likely used in research than in clinical practice. In terms of diagnosing a non-bizarre delusion as a delusion, ample support should be provided through fact checking. In case of non-bizarre delusions, Psych Central notes, "All of these situations could be true or possible, but the person suffering from this disorder knows them not to be (e.g., through fact-checking, third-person confirmation, etc.)." Treatment A challenge in the treatment of delusional disorders is that most patients have limited insight, and do not acknowledge that there is a problem. Most patients are treated as out-patients, although hospitalization may be required in some cases if there is a risk of harm to self or others. Individual psychotherapy is recommended rather than group psychotherapy, as patients are often quite suspicious and sensitive. Antipsychotics are not well tested in delusional disorder, but they do not seem to work very well, and often have no effect on the core delusional belief. Antipsychotics may be more useful in managing agitation that can accompany delusional disorder. Until further evidence is found, it seems reasonable to offer treatments which have efficacy in other psychotic disorders. Psychotherapy for patients with delusional disorder can include cognitive therapy which is conducted with the use of empathy. During the process, the therapist can ask hypothetical questions in a form of therapeutic Socratic questioning. This therapy has been mostly studied in patients with the persecutory type. The combination of pharmacotherapy with cognitive therapy integrates treating the possible underlying biological problems and decreasing the symptoms with psychotherapy as well. Psychotherapy has been said to be the most useful form of treatment because of the trust formed in a patient and therapist relationship. Supportive therapy has also been shown to be helpful. Its goal is to facilitate treatment adherence and provide education about the illness and its treatment. Furthermore, providing social skills training has been found to be helpful for many people. It can promote interpersonal competence as well as confidence and comfort when interacting with those individuals perceived as a threat. Insight-oriented therapy is rarely indicated or contraindicated; yet there are reports of successful treatment. Its goals are to develop therapeutic alliance, containment of projected feelings of hatred, powerlessness, and badness; measured interpretation as well as the development of a sense of creative doubt in the internal perception of the world. The latter requires empathy with the patient's defensive position. Epidemiology Delusional disorders are uncommon in psychiatric practice, though this may be an underestimation due to the fact that those afflicted lack insight and thus avoid psychiatric assessment. The prevalence of this condition stands at about 24 to 30 cases per 100,000 people while 0.7 to 3.0 new cases per 100,000 people are reported every year. Delusional disorder accounts for 1–2% of admissions to inpatient mental health facilities. The incidence of first admissions for delusional disorder is lower, from 0.001 to 0.003%. Delusional disorder tends to appear in middle to late adult life, and for the most part first admissions to hospital for delusional disorder occur between age 33 and 55. It is more common in women than men, and immigrants seem to be at higher risk. Criticism In some situations the delusion may turn out to be true belief. For example, in delusional jealousy, where a person believes that the partner is being unfaithful (in extreme cases perhaps going so far as to follow the partner into the bathroom, believing the other to be seeing a lover even during the briefest of separations), it may actually be true that the partner is having sexual relations with another person. In this case, the delusion does not cease to be a delusion because the content later turns out to be verified as true or the partner actually chose to engage in the behavior of which they were being accused. In other cases, the delusion may be mistakenly assumed to be false by a doctor or psychiatrist assessing the belief, just because it seems to be unlikely, bizarre or held with excessive conviction. Psychiatrists rarely have the time or resources to check the validity of a person's claims leading to some true beliefs to be erroneously classified as delusional. This is known as the Martha Mitchell effect, after the wife of the attorney general who alleged that illegal activity was taking place in the White House. At the time, her claims were thought to be signs of mental illness, and only after the Watergate scandal broke was she proved right (and hence sane). Similar factors have led to criticisms of Jaspers' definition of true delusions as being ultimately 'un-understandable'. Critics (such as R. D. Laing) have argued that this leads to the diagnosis of delusions being based on the subjective understanding of a particular psychiatrist, who may not have access to all the information that might make a belief otherwise interpretable. Another difficulty with the diagnosis of delusions is that almost all of these features can be found in "normal" beliefs. Many religious beliefs hold exactly the same features, yet are not universally considered delusional. For instance, if a person was holding a true belief then they will of course persist with it. This can cause the disorder to be misdiagnosed by psychiatrists. These factors have led the psychiatrist Anthony David to write that "there is no acceptable (rather than accepted) definition of a delusion." In popular culture In the 2010 psychological thriller Shutter Island, directed by Martin Scorsese and starring Leonardo DiCaprio, delusional disorder is portrayed along with other disorders. An Indian movie Anantaram (Thereafter) directed by Adoor Gopalakrishnan also portrays the complex nature of delusions. The plot of the French movie He Loves Me... He Loves Me Not revolves around a case of erotomania, as does the plot of the Ian McEwan novel, Enduring Love. See also Delusional parasitosis Monothematic delusions Morgellons Paranoia Shared delusional disorder References Further reading McDermott, Sarah (22 February 2018), "'The story of a weird world I was warned never to tell'", BBC News. [A related case study.] Munro, A. (1999) Delusional Disorder: Paranoia and Related Illnesses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . Sims, A. (1995) Symptoms in the mind: An introduction to descriptive psychopathology. Edinburgh: Elsevier Science Ltd. . 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251049	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Pritchard	Charles Pritchard	Reverend Charles Pritchard (29 February 1808 – 28 May 1893) was a British astronomer, clergyman, and educational reformer. He founded the Clapham Grammar School in 1834 and included sciences in the curriculum. A chapel was erected in 1846. Biography He was born at Alberbury, Shropshire and attended Poplar Academy where he was taught by John Stock, the progressive educationalist. Pritchard later described his studies as consisting of "a systematic course of instruction relating to physical phenomena". At sixteen he was enrolled as a sizar at St John's College, Cambridge, graduating in 1830 as fourth wrangler. In 1832 he was elected a fellow of his college, and in the following year he was ordained, and became head of a private school at Stockwell. From 1834 to 1862 he was headmaster of Clapham grammar school. He then retired to Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, and took an active interest in the affairs of the Royal Astronomical Society, of which he became honorary secretary in 1862 and president in 1866. His sister, Margaret died this same year. His career as a professional astronomer began in 1870, when he was elected Savilian professor of astronomy at the University of Oxford. At his request the university decided to build a fine equatorial telescope for the instruction of his class and for purposes of research, a scheme which, as a result of Warren de la Rue's munificent gift of instruments from his private observatory at Cranford, expanded into the establishment of the new university observatory. By De la Rue's advice, Pritchard began his career there with a determination of the physical libration of the moon, or the nutation of its axis. In 1882 Pritchard commenced a systematic study of stellar photometry. For this purpose he employed an instrument known as the "wedge photometer", with which he measured the relative brightness of 2,784 stars between the North Pole and about -10° declination. The results were published in 1885 in his Uranometria Nova Oxoniensis, and their importance was recognized by the bestowal in 1886 upon him, conjointly with Professor Pickering, of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. He then decided to experiment with applying photography to the determination of stellar parallax. With the object of testing the capabilities of the method, he took for his first essay the well-known star 61 Cygni, and his results agreed so well with those previously attained that he undertook the systematic measurement of the parallaxes of second-magnitude stars, and published the outcome in the third and fourth volumes of the Publications of the Oxford University Observatory. Although some lurking errors impaired the authority of the concluded parallaxes this work ranks as a valuable contribution to astronomy, since it showed the possibility of employing photography in such delicate investigations. When an international survey of the heavens was proposed, the zone between 25° and 31° north declination was allotted to him, and at the time of his death some progress had been made in recording its included stars. Pritchard became a fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1883, and an honorary fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, in 1886. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1840, and in 1892 was awarded one of the royal medals for his work on photometry and stellar parallax. Works Occasional thoughts of an astronomer on nature and revelation (1889) Modern science and natural religion (1874) References Proc. Roy. Soc. liv. 3 Astr. and Astrophysics, xii. 592 J. Foster, Oxford Men and their Colleges, p. 206 Hist. Register of the Univ. of Oxford, p. 95 The Times (30 May 1893) C. J. Robinson's Register of Merchant Taylors' School, ii. 210 Charles Pritchard, D.D., Memoirs of his Life, by Ada Pritchard (London, 1897). External links Awarding of RAS gold medal Obituaries MNRAS 54 (1894) 198 Obs 16 (1894) 256 1808 births 1893 deaths People from Shropshire Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge British Christians 19th-century British astronomers Fellows of the Royal Society Fellows of New College, Oxford Royal Medal winners Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Savilian Professors of Astronomy Presidents of the Royal Astronomical Society	[ 0.19158345460891724, 0.8531058430671692, -0.4245684742927551, -0.46484375, 0.09619339555501938, 0.8552982807159424, 0.7519693970680237, -0.09821872413158417, -0.051353320479393005, -0.42960718274116516, -0.29426494240760803, -0.013626700267195702, -0.31552737951278687, 0.6774433851242065, 0.21200287342071533, 0.02005273476243019, -0.45724359154701233, -0.5275077819824219, -0.4805693030357361, -0.17359638214111328, -0.13270549476146698, 0.29625964164733887, 0.12556162476539612, -0.23255620896816254, -0.16718223690986633, -0.16270174086093903, 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251050	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby%20Murray	Ruby Murray	Ruby Florence Murray (29 March 1935 – 17 December 1996) was a Northern Irish singer and actress. One of the most popular singers in the British Isles in the 1950s, she scored ten hits in the UK Singles Chart between 1954 and 1959. She also made pop chart history in March 1955 by having five hits in the Top Twenty in a single week. Child star Ruby Florence Murray was born near the Donegall Road in south Belfast, Northern Ireland, the youngest child in a Protestant family. She had surgery at six weeks of age due to swollen glands, and as a result, had a very husky voice. Entering a public speaking contest run by Eglinton Young Farmers Club, Londonderry in March 1947, she won a special prize for the youngest competitor under 18. A performance at the Ballymena Variety Theatre in February 1948 received a wonderful reception and she then toured in Northern Ireland as a child singer. Murray first appeared on television at the age of 12, having been spotted by producer Richard Afton. Owing to laws governing children performing, Murray had to delay her start in the entertainment industry. She returned to Belfast and full-time education until she was 14. Chart success Murray kept busy on the variety stage in Northern Ireland in the early 1950s and in 1954 she joined a touring revue called "Yankee Doodle Blarney" which gave her very useful exposure on the English variety stages. Richard Afton offered her the position of resident singer on the BBC's Quite Contrary television show, to replace Joan Regan. After being again spotted by Ray Martin on the first "Quite Contrary" show, Murray was signed to Columbia and her first single, "Heartbeat", reached No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart in December 1954. "Softly, Softly", her second single, reached number one in early 1955. That same year Murray set a pop chart record by having five hits in the Top Twenty in one week, a feat unmatched for many years. In 2014, the Guinness Book of World Records issued three certificates confirming that at the date of issue, nobody had beaten this record, although it was shared with three other singers. The record by a female singer still stands at the date of 26 February 2019. The 1950s was a busy period for Murray, during which she had her own television show, starred at the London Palladium with Norman Wisdom, appeared in a Royal Command Performance (1955), and toured the world. In a period of 52 weeks, starting on 3 December 1954 and lasting until the end of November 1955, Murray constantly had at least one single in the UK charts – this at a time when only a Top 20 was listed. Murray appeared in her only film role, as Ruby, in A Touch of the Sun, a 1956 farce with Frankie Howerd and Dennis Price. A couple of hits followed later in the decade; "Goodbye Jimmy, Goodbye", a No. 10 hit in 1959, was her final appearance in the charts. EMI put together a compilation album of her hits on CD in 1989, including songs that regularly featured in her act; "Mr. Wonderful", "Scarlet Ribbons" and "It's the Irish in Me". They updated this with the release of EMI Presents The Magic of Ruby Murray in 1997 and a four CD album, Anthology – The Golden Anniversary Collection, in 2005, the 50th anniversary of her peak successes on the charts. Legacy Murray's popularity led to her name being adopted in Cockney rhyming slang as a rhyme for "curry". The phrase "have a ruby" appears in various episodes of the BBC TV comedy series Only Fools and Horses. A play about Murray's life, Ruby, written by the Belfast playwright Marie Jones, opened at the Group Theatre in Belfast in April 2000. A second play, by Michael Cameron, opened in Belfast on 13 February 2019 and was sold out at all performances. Personal life In 1957, while working in Blackpool, Murray met Bernie Burgess, a member of a successful television and recording vocal quartet, the Four Jones Boys. Shortly afterwards she left Northern Ireland to marry him and live with him in Northampton, England. Burgess, contrary to press reports, did not become her manager, but rather his role was that of a supporting husband. The couple included a song-and-dance segment in Murray's act during the 1960s. Murray struggled with alcoholism for most of her life and this contributed to the breakdown of her marriage in 1974. The divorce was finalised in 1976 and Murray moved to Torquay to live with an old friend, Ray Lamar, a former stage dancer and theatre impresario, who was 18 years her senior. They married in 1991 and spent the evening with a small party of friends and family at an Italian restaurant in Babbacombe. Murray had two children from her marriage to Burgess, Julie (b. 1960) and Tim (b. 1965). Tim died unexpectedly from a heart condition in July 2020, aged 55. Although her days as a major star were long over, Murray continued performing until close to the end of her life. Spending her last couple of years in Asprey's Nursing Home, she often delighted her carers with a song, and was visited by her friend Max Bygraves. She died of liver cancer on 17 December 1996, aged 61. Ray Lamar died on 3 August 2005 from complications of pneumonia, aged 87. Singles discography "Heartbeat" (1954) – UK number 3 "Softly, Softly" (1955) – UK number 1 "Happy Days and Lonely Nights" (1955) – UK number 6 "Let Me Go Lover" (1955) – UK number 5 "If Anyone Finds This, I Love You" (1955) – UK number 4 † "Evermore" (1955) – UK number 3 "I'll Come When You Call" (1955) – UK number 6 "The Very First Christmas of All" (1955) – UK number 9 (Record Mirror) "You are My First Love" (1956) – UK number 16 "Real Love" (1958) – UK number 18 "Goodbye Jimmy, Goodbye" (1959) – UK number 10 † Ruby Murray with Anne Warren For further discography, please see this page on the Official Ruby Murray website. See also List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart List of Northern Irish people Culture of Northern Ireland List of Belfast people References External links Official website Short biography 45rpm.org.uk BBC recording of interview in 1956 1935 births 1996 deaths Musicians from Belfast 20th-century women singers from Northern Ireland Deaths from liver cancer Deaths from cancer in England Pop singers from Northern Ireland Presbyterians from Northern Ireland	[ -0.4397340714931488, -0.04514744132757187, -0.7685185074806213, -0.6693501472473145, -0.23677530884742737, 1.142242193222046, 1.0194259881973267, 0.2964940071105957, -0.3998260796070099, 0.12295768409967422, -0.08568534255027771, 0.3925379514694214, 0.06906076520681381, 0.3835168778896332, -0.49004706740379333, 0.4154573082923889, 0.03879830986261368, 0.006303927395492792, 0.0994672030210495, -0.48112753033638, -0.4732207953929901, -0.2509157955646515, 0.13733232021331787, 0.3846468925476074, 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251052	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagakure	Hagakure	Hagakure (Kyūjitai: ; Shinjitai: ; meaning Hidden by the Leaves or hidden leaves), or , is a practical and spiritual guide for a warrior, drawn from a collection of commentaries by the clerk Yamamoto Tsunetomo, former retainer to Nabeshima Mitsushige (July 10, 1632 – July 2, 1700), the third ruler of what is now Saga Prefecture in Japan. compiled these commentaries from his conversations with Tsunetomo from 1709 to 1716; however, it was not published until many years afterwards. Written during a time when there was no officially sanctioned samurai fighting, the book grapples with the dilemma of maintaining a warrior class in the absence of war and reflects the author's nostalgia for a world that had disappeared before he was born. Hagakure was largely forgotten for two centuries after its composition, but it came to be viewed as the definitive guide of the samurai during the Pacific War. Hagakure is also known as The Book of the Samurai, Analects of Nabeshima or Hagakure Analects. Content The book records Yamamoto's views on bushido, the warrior code of the samurai. Hagakure is sometimes said to assert that bushido is really the "Way of Dying" or living as though one was already dead, and that a samurai must be willing to die at any moment in order to be true to his lady/lord. His saying "the way of the warrior is death" was a summation of the willingness to sacrifice that bushido codified. Hagakure's text is occasionally misinterpreted as meaning that bushido is a code of death. However, the true meaning is that by having a constant awareness of death, people can achieve a transcendent state of freedom, whereby “it is possible to perfectly fulfill one’s calling as a warrior.” Historical context After the Tokugawa shogunate suppressed the Shimabara Rebellion in 1638, Japan experienced no warfare for about two centuries. Private feuding and dueling between samurai was also suppressed. Yamamoto Tsunetomo was born in 1659, after the end of officially sanctioned samurai fighting. He had no personal combat experience and when he was employed, he worked as a scribe. By the late 1600s and early 1700s, samurai faced the dilemma of maintaining a warrior class in the absence of war, and Hagakure reflects this uncertainty. Written late in the author's life, the book also reflects his nostalgia for a world that had disappeared before his birth. Reception Hagakure was largely forgotten for two centuries. The first modern edition appeared in 1900 and it did not receive much attention during the first decades of the century. Hagakure came to be viewed as a definitive book of the samurai only during the Pacific War. According to Mark Ravina, "Rather than an account of samurai tradition, this work serves as an example of what the Japanese army thought Japanese soldiers should believe about samurai practice." In the post-war era, the nationalist author and poet, Yukio Mishima, was inspired by Hagakure and wrote his own book in praise of the work. Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai features a number of intertitles quoting Hagakure. Editions The Hagakure:The Book of the Samurai, by Yamamoto Tsunetomo, translated by William Scott Wilson. Shambhala Publications, Boulder, 2012. (Shambhala Publications, Boulder, USA). . Hagakure: The Secret Wisdom of the Samurai, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Translated by Alexander Bennett, Tuttle Publishing, 2014, (Full Translation) The Art of the Samurai: Yamamoto Tsunetomo's Hagakure, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Translated by Barry D. Steben, Duncan Baird, September 2008, (Partial translation) Hagakure, The Way of the Samurai, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Translated by Takao Mukoh, Angkor Verlag, 2000 (Reprint), Hagakure, The manga edition, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Translated by William Scott Wilson, a comic book/manga version, adapted by Sean Michael Wilson and Chie Kutsuwada, Kondansha International Ltd., 2011. Bushido, The Way of the Samurai, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Translated by Justin F. Stone and Minoru Tanaka, Square One Publishers, 2003, References Further reading Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushido in Modern Japan, by Oleg Benesch. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. , . Hagakure Nyūmon The Way of the Samurai: Yukio Mishima on Hagakure in modern life 1967 Translated by Kathryn Sparling, 1977, . On Hagakure, by celebrated Japanese novelist Yukio Mishima. The Code of the Samurai: A Modern Translation of the Bushido Shoshinshu of Taira Shigesuke by Thomas Cleary, Tuttle Publishing, 1999. . Hagakure: Spirit of Bushido, by Hideo Koga and Stacey B. Day. Hagakure Society, Saga, Japan, 1993. (University of Kyushu Press, Fukuoka, Japan). C1012. The Wisdom of Hagakure: Way of the Samurai of Saga Domain, by Stacey B. Day and Kiyoshi Inokuchi. Hagakure Society, Saga, Japan, 1994. (University of Kyushu Press, Fukuoka, Japan). . Moudrost Samuraju: Zivotni Stezka Samuraje Z Kraje Saga, by Stacey B. Day and Kijosi Inokuci. (Prelozila Marketa Cukrova). Trigon, Praha, CZ, 1998. . External links Hagakure Kikigaki : Orated Aphorisms of Yamamoto Jocho 佐賀大学電子図書館小城鍋島文庫 “In the Shade of the Leaves”, a revised selection Hagakure Quotes & Passages Japanese aesthetics Japanese books Japanese philosophy Ethics books Samurai Warrior code Codes of conduct Edo-period works Japanese philosophy books	[ -0.10062467306852341, -0.12188220769166946, -0.23571883141994476, -0.18445558845996857, -0.5748592615127563, 0.5236857533454895, 0.8728043437004089, -0.6019400358200073, 0.1789410263299942, -0.08594021946191788, -0.44126513600349426, 0.09719982743263245, -0.11407621949911118, -0.3000367283821106, -0.2073778659105301, -0.08252310007810593, 0.626304566860199, 0.05623577907681465, -0.34756752848625183, -0.49762964248657227, -0.13548238575458527, -0.0623231939971447, -0.28102102875709534, -0.5960919857025146, 0.8250366449356079, -0.07150448113679886, 0.23080943524837494, 0.5631069540977478, -0.1362255960702896, -0.21037378907203674, -0.22818830609321594, 0.45373106002807617, 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251053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Grove	George Grove	Sir George Grove (13 August 182028 May 1900) was an English engineer and writer on music, known as the founding editor of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Grove was trained as a civil engineer, and successful in that profession, but his love of music drew him into musical administration. When responsible for the regular orchestral concerts at the Crystal Palace, he wrote a series of programme notes from which eventually grew his musical dictionary. His interest in the music of Franz Schubert, which was neglected in England at that point in the nineteenth century, led him and his friend Arthur Sullivan to go to Vienna in search of undiscovered Schubert manuscripts. Their researches led to their discovery of the lost score of Schubert's Rosamunde music, several of his symphonies and other music in 1867, leading to a revival of interest in Schubert's work. Grove was the first director of the Royal College of Music, from its foundation in 1883 until his retirement in 1894. He recruited leading musicians including Hubert Parry and Charles Villiers Stanford as members of the College faculty and established a close working relationship with London's older conservatoire, the Royal Academy of Music. In addition to his musical work, Grove had a deep and scholarly knowledge of the Bible. He contributed to the English literature on the subject, including a concordance in 1854 and about a thousand pages of Sir William Smith's 1863 Bible Dictionary. He was a co-founder of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Biography Early years Grove was born in Clapham, the eighth of the eleven children of Thomas Grove (1774–1852), fishmonger and venison dealer, and his wife, Mary (1784–1856), née Blades. A younger sister, Eleanor Grove, was the founding principal of College Hall, London. He went to a preparatory school, on Clapham Common, where one of his schoolfellows was George Granville Bradley, later Dean of Westminster, whose sister Grove subsequently married. He next entered Stockwell (later known as Clapham) Grammar School, run by Charles Pritchard, the astronomer, who was inspired by the progressive principles of King's College, London. The educational curriculum was based on classics, divinity, mathematics and natural philosophy, and rigorously tested by annual examination. Pritchard also encouraged his pupils to develop interests in literature and music. Grove was a regular worshipper at Holy Trinity church, Clapham, where he heard the music of Bach and Handel. By the age of sixteen, he was competent in classics and mathematics; he left the school in 1836 and was apprenticed to Alexander Gordon, a well-known civil engineer in Westminster. In his free time, he immersed himself in music, attending concerts and studying scores. After completing his apprenticeship, Grove was admitted as a graduate of the Institution of Civil Engineers, in 1839. A year later he went to Glasgow, gaining further experience in the factory of Robert Napier. In 1841 Grove had an affair with a woman called Elizabeth Blackwell, who gave birth to his illegitimate son, George Grove Blackwell, in March 1842. Between 1841 and 1846, Grove spent most of his time in the West Indies, as resident engineer during the building of cast-iron lighthouses. After this he joined the staff of the Chester and Holyhead Railway and then became assistant to Edwin Clark, working on the Britannia Bridge across the Menai Strait. An account of the first floating of the tubes of the bridge is recorded in The Spectator of 23 June 1849, which was Grove's first appearance in print. During this period, he lived in Chester, hearing music in the cathedral and also becoming familiar with Welsh folksong. Music and biblical scholarship While working on the Britannia Bridge Grove came into contact with Robert Stephenson, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Sir Charles Barry and other eminent visitors to the works. "These distinguished men", Grove later recalled, "noticed me and were as good as gold to me. They counselled me to go to London and forced me into the secretaryship of the Society of Arts, then vacant by the retirement of Mr. Scott Russell." This was in 1849, when the Great Exhibition of 1851 was in preparation. Grove was the society's secretary for the duration of the exhibition. On 23 December 1851, he married Harriet Bradley, the sister of his old school friend George Bradley. After the Great Exhibition closed in 1852, its principal building, known as "the Crystal Palace", was dismantled and rebuilt in the south London suburb of Sydenham as a centre for education, the arts and leisure. Grove was appointed secretary of the Crystal Palace. He engaged a wind band and a conductor, Heinrich Schallehn. The latter was found to be unsatisfactory, and was replaced by August Manns, who, with Grove's encouragement, developed the band into a full-sized symphony orchestra. With programmes chosen by Grove and Manns, the Crystal Palace concerts became a central feature of London's musical scene and remained so until the end of the century. Grove wrote the programme notes for the concerts. In 1901, a biographer wrote: The daily and weekly orchestral performances at Sydenham prompted those admirable analytical notices of musical compositions with which the name of George Grove was so long and is so favourably associated. He had always shown a great fondness for music, but had never received any technical training in the art. Entirely self-taught, his knowledge was acquired solely by 'picking up' information. "I wish it to be distinctly understood," he said, "that I have always been a mere amateur in music. I wrote about the symphonies and concertos because I wished to try to make them clear to myself and to discover the secret of the things that charmed me so; and from that sprang a wish to make other amateurs see it in the same way." Grove's musical analyses avoided all hint of technical jargon and tried to make clear to everyone who read them what, in Grove's opinion, listeners should be aware of in each piece. In a note on Mozart's Symphony No. 39, after referring to Mozart's extraordinary productivity in the year 1788, Grove wrote: The circumstances which necessitated such fearful exertion on this and many other occasions in Mozart's life we have no means of ascertaining. Whatever they were, they were in accordance with a common custom of Nature. She seems to delight in condemning her most gifted sons to an ordeal the very reverse of that which we should anticipate. It seems equally true in Art and in Morals, that it is not by indulgence and favour, but by difficulty and trouble, that the spirit is formed; and in all ages of the world our Davids, Shakspeares, Dantes, Mozarts, and Beethovens must submit to processes which none but their great spirits could survive – to a fiery trial of poverty, ill health, neglect, and misunderstanding – and be "tried as silver is tried," that they may become the teachers of their fellow-men to all time, and shine, like stars in the firmament, for ever and ever. Grove's Crystal Palace programme notes did not concentrate solely on his favourite Austro-German composers. He embraced a representative selection of composers, notably the Frenchmen Berlioz, Bizet, Delibes, Gounod, Massenet and Saint-Saëns, and the rising generations of British composers – Arthur Sullivan, Hubert Parry, Charles Villiers Stanford, Hamish MacCunn, Edward German and Granville Bantock. Among the composers whom Grove sought to popularise was Schubert, whose music was largely neglected in England. Grove and Manns presented the first performance in England of the Great C major Symphony. Together with his friend Arthur Sullivan, Grove went to Vienna in 1867 in search of Schubert manuscripts. They found several of Schubert's symphonies and much other music, some of which they copied. They were particularly excited about their final discovery, which Grove described thus: "I found, at the bottom of the cupboard, and in its farthest corner, a bundle of music-books two feet high, carefully tied round, and black with the undisturbed dust of nearly half-a-century. … These were the part-books of the whole of the music in Rosamunde, tied up after the second performance in December, 1823, and probably never disturbed since. Dr. Schneider [Schubert's nephew] must have been amused at our excitement; but let us hope that he recollected his own days of rapture; at any rate, he kindly overlooked it, and gave us permission to take away with us and copy what we wanted." In the early years of the Crystal Palace, Grove devoted much of his leisure time to Biblical scholarship. Discovering that there was no full concordance of the proper names in the Bible, Grove, helped by his wife, began work in 1853 making a complete index of each occurrence of every proper name in the Bible, including the Apocrypha. Between 1860 and 1863, Grove was assistant editor to Sir William Smith in a comprehensive Bible dictionary, contributing more than a thousand pages. Some entries written by Grove, such as that on the prophet Elijah, were equivalent almost to book-length. He visited the Holy Land in 1859 and 1861, and helped to found the Palestine Exploration Fund, of which he became honorary secretary, labouring incessantly on its behalf. The Archbishop of York said that Grove was "virtually the founder and institutor of the Society, and has done wonders for it throughout." Grove later observed, "People will insist on thinking of me as a musician, which I really am not in the very least degree. I took quite as much interest in my investigations into the natural features and the little towns of Palestine which I did for Smith's Dictionary of the Bible or for Arthur Stanley's Sinai and Palestine, as I did for Beethoven and Mendelssohn, indeed perhaps more so." Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians After nearly twenty years of service at the Crystal Palace, Grove resigned the secretaryship at the end of 1873 and accepted an offer from the publishers Macmillan and Co. to join their staff and become a director of the firm. He edited Macmillan's Magazine and wrote a primer of geography for Macmillan's "History Primers". By far the most important outcome of his connection with Macmillan was A Dictionary of Music and Musicians, for which his name is best remembered. The idea of the dictionary was entirely his own. He stated, in the prospectus of the dictionary, in March 1874, that "The want of English works on the history, theory, or practice of Music, or the biographies of musicians accessible to the non-professional reader, has long been a subject of remark." Grove conceived of a work to fill the gap he had identified; he originally proposed two volumes of about 600 pages each, but by the time of its first publication, it ran to four volumes containing a total of 3,125 pages. It was issued by Macmillan in alphabetical volumes over a 12-year period ending in 1889. Grove criticised Parry, a leading contributor, for being "inclined to be wordy and diffuse", but articles by Grove on his own particular interests, Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert, were even longer. The Musical Times wrote of the work, "His masterly biographies of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Schubert are models of biographical literature, and are written in a most fascinating style. He made two special journeys to Germany to obtain materials for his Mendelssohn article, and more than two to Vienna in connection with Schubert and Beethoven." Royal College of Music In the 1880s, London's musical academies were in poor shape. The Royal Academy of Music was moribund, and the National Training School for Music, of which Sullivan was the reluctant and ineffectual head, was in financial and administrative difficulties. There was a proposal to merge the two bodies to create a single effective conservatoire, but the Royal Academy insisted on retaining its independence and later revitalised itself under the leadership of Alexander Mackenzie. The National Training School was re-formed as the Royal College of Music in 1882, and Grove was appointed its first director. Throughout 1882 he led a successful fund-raising campaign that ensured the official opening of the new college by the Prince of Wales on 7 May 1883. Grove received a knighthood on the same day. The teaching staff, whom he appointed, were led by Parry and Stanford, and, as a biographer of Grove says, "carried the college with distinction into the twentieth century." Grove focused the college's attention on two main activities: practical training and examining. He was determined to raise the general standard of orchestral playing by replacing the existing ad hoc methods of apprentice-based training, private lessons, or study abroad. His second focus, examination, followed the Victorian trend to form professional bodies regulating and standardising the activity of members of each profession. An example is the Institution of Civil Engineers to which Grove had been admitted in 1839. When the Royal Charter establishing the college was being drawn up, Grove ensured that, unlike the Royal Academy, the college should have degree-awarding powers. Mackenzie, seeing the prospect that the new institution would overshadow the Academy, successfully proposed that both bodies should award qualifications jointly. Grove agreed, realising that this course would do much to dispel the damaging hostility that existed between the Academy and the college. The new Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music thus formed offered musical qualifications to external candidates from anywhere in the British Empire who could meet its rigorous standards. 1,141 candidates entered for the first examinations in 1890, despite the high entry fee of two guineas. The income helped both institutions to keep their own student fees at an affordable level, which enabled the college to make a full three-year course of study its basic standard. Because of the thorough training thus offered, the high standard of playing of the college's students quickly became known. Leading musicians willingly appeared with the College orchestra, including Joseph Joachim and Hans Richter. Manns, Eugène Ysaÿe and Bernard Shaw praised it strongly. The historian David Wright says of Grove's legacy: "The founding of the RCM in 1883 clearly represents the major turning point for musical training in Britain. The new attitudes it espoused stemmed directly from the professionalizing ethos that modernized and transformed Victorian society." Retirement and last years Grove retired at Christmas 1894, when he was succeeded by Parry. By this time, a new building had been constructed for the college. In 1896 Grove's Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies, "addressed to the amateurs of this country", appeared. Early in 1899, Grove's health began to fail, and he died, aged 79, on 28 May 1900, in the house at Sydenham in which he had lived for nearly 40 years. He was buried in the Brockley and Ladywell Cemeteries. References Further reading Gerrit Waidelich. „nicht das Verdienst der im J. 867 nach Wien gekommenen Englishmen“? – Legenden und Tatsachen zu Sullivans und Groves Sichtung des „staubigen“ Aufführungsmaterials von Schuberts Rosamunde-Musik (Teil II), in: Sullivan-Journal. Magazin der Deutschen Sullivan-Gesellschaft e. V. (Hrsg. von Meinhard Saremba) – Nr. 13 (Juli 2015), S. 18–32. ISSN 2190-0647. 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251057	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20George%20Jackson%20Mivart	St. George Jackson Mivart	St. George Jackson Mivart (30 November 1827 – 1 April 1900) was an English biologist. He is famous for starting as an ardent believer in natural selection who later became one of its fiercest critics. Mivart attempted to reconcile Darwin's theory of evolution with the beliefs of the Catholic Church, and finished by being condemned by both. His opposition to the central role of natural selection, his idea that the soul is created by God, and that evolutionism is not unattainable with the idea of God, brought him in contrast with other evolutionist scientists. His theological theories on hell and on the compatibility between science and Catholicism led him to clash with the Catholic Church but importantly, "... the cause of Mivart’s problems was not his advocacy of evolutionism." Early life Mivart was born in London. His parents were Evangelicals, and his father was the wealthy owner of Mivart's Hotel (now Claridge's). His education started at the Clapham Grammar School, and continued at Harrow School and King's College London. Later he was instructed at St. Mary's, Oscott (1844–1846); he was confirmed there on 11 May 1845. His conversion to Roman Catholicism automatically excluded him from the University of Oxford, then open only to members of the Anglican faith. Appointments In 1851 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but he devoted himself to medical and biological studies. In 1862 he was appointed to the chair in zoology at St. Mary's Hospital medical school. In 1869 he became a fellow of the Zoological Society of London, and in 1874 he was appointed by Mgr Capel as Professor of Biology at the short-lived Catholic University College, Kensington, a post he held until 1877. He was vice-president of the Zoological Society twice (1869 and 1882); Fellow of the Linnean Society from 1862, secretary from 1874 to 1880, and vice-president in 1892. In 1867 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society for his work "On the Appendicular skeleton of the Primates". This work was communicated to the society by Thomas Henry Huxley. Mivart was a member of the Metaphysical Society from 1874. He received the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy from Pope Pius IX in 1876, and of Doctor of Medicine from the University of Louvain in 1884. Controversy Mivart and Huxley Mivart met Huxley in 1859, and was initially a close follower and a believer in natural selection. "Even as a professor he continued to attending Huxley's lectures ... they became close friends, dining together and arranging family visits." However, Huxley was always strongly anti-Catholic, and no doubt this attitude led to Mivart becoming disenchanted with him. Once disenchanted, he lost little time in reversing on the subject of natural selection. In short, he now believed that a higher teleology was compatible with evolution. As to "natural selection", I accepted it completely and in fact my doubts & difficulties were first excited by attending Prof. Huxley's lectures at the School of Mines. Mivart's alternative evolutionism Even before Mivart's publication of On the Genesis of Species in 1871, he had published his new ideas in various periodicals. Huxley, Lankester, and Flower had come out against his ideas, although O'Leary (2007) reports that "their initial reaction to Genesis of Species was tolerant and impersonal". Though admitting evolution in general, Mivart denied its applicability to the human intellect (a view also taken by Wallace). His views as to the relationship between human nature and intellect and animal nature in general were given in his books Nature and Thought and Origin of Human Reason. Mivart was someone Darwin took seriously; Darwin prepared a point-by-point refutation which appeared in the sixth edition of Origin of Species. One of Mivart's criticisms to which Darwin responded was a perceived failure of natural selection to explain the incipient stages of useful structures. Taking the eye as an example, Darwin was able to show many stages of light sensitivity and eye development in the animal kingdom as proof of the utility of less-than-perfect sight (argument by intermediate stages). Another was the supposed inability of natural selection to explain cases of parallel evolution, to which Huxley responded that the effect of natural selection in places with the same environment would tend to be similar. Mivart's hostile review of the Descent of Man in the Quarterly Review aroused fury from his former intimates, including Darwin himself, who described it as "grossly unfair". Mivart had quoted Darwin by shortening sentences and omitting words, causing Darwin to write: "Though he means to be honourable, he is so bigoted that he cannot act fairly." Relationships between the two men were near breaking point. In response, Darwin arranged for the reprinting of a pamphlet by Chauncey Wright, previously issued in the US, which severely criticised Genesis of Species. Wright had, under Darwin's guidance, clarified what was, and was not, "Darwinism". The quarrel reached a climax when Mivart lost his usual composure over what should have been a minor incident: In 1873, George Darwin (Charles' son) published a short article in The Contemporary Review suggesting that divorce should be made easier in cases of cruelty, abuse, or mental disorder. Mivart reacted with horror, using phrases like "hideous sexual criminality" and "unrestrained licentiousness". Huxley wrote a counter-attack, and both Huxley and Darwin broke off connections with Mivart. Huxley blackballed Mivart's attempt to join the Athenaeum Club. Mivart's banned theological articles In 1892 and 1893 Mivart published three articles on "Happiness in Hell" in the journal Nineteenth Century. Mivart proposed that the punishments of hell were not eternal, and that hell is compatible with some kind of happiness. These articles were placed on the Index Expurgatorius. This was the first official action of the Catholic Church against Mivart but it "had nothing to do either with evolution or science." Later articles in January 1900 ("The Continuity of Catholicism" and "Scripture and Roman Catholicism" in The Nineteenth Century, and "Some Recent Catholic Apologists" in The Fortnightly Review) led to his being placed under interdict by Cardinal Vaughan. These last articles were written, by Mivart's own admission, in a provocative tone so that the authorities would have to act. In them, reversing his previous stance, he challenged the authority of the Church, concluding that the Bible and Catholic doctrine could not be reconciled with science. "Without attempting to pass judgment on Mivart’s final stance, we can say that his attitude was not solely or principally determined by scientific motives and, more concretely, that evolution did not occupy a determining role in it." The report of the consultor of the Holy Office dealing with Mivart's case significantly does not mention evolution. Death Mivart died of diabetes in London on 1 April 1900. His late heterodox opinions were a bar to his burial in consecrated ground. However, Sir William Broadbent gave medical testimony that these could be explained by the gravity and nature of the diabetes from which he had suffered. After his death, a long final struggle took place between his friends and the church authorities. On 6 April 1900, his remains were deposited in catacomb Z beneath the Dissenters' Chapel, in the unconsecrated ground of the dissenters' section of the General Cemetery of All Souls, Kensal Green, in a public vault reserved for 'temporary deposits' (most of which were destined for repatriation to mainland Europe or the Americas). His remains were finally transferred to St. Mary's Roman Catholic Cemetery, Kensal Green, on 16 January 1904, for burial there on 18 January 1904. Legacy Mivart's name is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of lizard, Emoia mivarti. References Other sources Further reading External links Works by St. George Jackson Mivart, at Europeana Works by St. George Jackson Mivart, at Hathi Trust Illustrations from A Monograph of the Lories,.. Illustrations from Dogs, Jackals, Wolves, and Foxes Images of his 1857 British passport Mivart bibliography Chief works On the Genesis of Species, Macmillan & Co., 1871. An Examination of Mr. Herbert Spencer's Psychology (Dublin 1874–80). Lessons in Elementary Anatomy, 1873. The Common Frog, Macmillan and Co., 1874 [1st Pub. in Nature Series, 1873]. Man and Apes: An Exposition of Structural Resemblances and Differences Bearing upon Questions of Affinity and Origin. London: Robert Hardwicke, 1873. "One Point of Controversy with the Agnostics," in Manning, ed. Essays on Religion and Literature, Third Series, Longmans, Green & Co., 1874. Lessons from Nature, 1876. Contemporary Evolution, Henry S. King & Co., 1876. Address to the Biological Section of the British Association, 1879. The Cat: An Introduction to the Study of Backboned Animals, Especially Mammals, John Murray, 1881. Nature and Thought: An Introduction to a Natural Philosophy, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1882. A Philosophical Catechism, 1884. On Truth: A Systematic Inquiry, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1889. The Origin of Human Reason, Being an Examination of Recent Hypotheses Concerning it, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1889. Dogs, Jackals, Wolves and Foxes: Monograph of the Canidæ, Taylor & Francis, for R.H. Porter and Dulau & Co., 1890. Introduction Générale à l'Etude de la Nature: Cours Professé à l'Université de Louvain, Louvain and Paris, 1891. Birds: The Elements of Ornithology, Taylor & Francis, 1892. Essays and Criticisms, Vol. 2, 1892. Types of Animal Life, 1893. Introduction to the Elements of Science. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1894. The Helpful Science, Harper & Brothers, 1895. Castle and Manor, 1900. A Monograph of the Lories, or Brush-tongued Parrots, H. R. Porter, 1896. The Groundwork of Science: A Study of Epistemology, John Murray, 1898. Miscellany Under the Ban: A Correspondence between Dr. St. George Mivart and Herbert Cardinal Vaughan. New York: Tucker Publishing Co., 1900. Selected articles "Difficulties of the Theory of Natural Selection," Part II, Part III, The Month, Vol. XI, 1869. "On the Use of the Term 'Homology'," The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, No. 32, 1870. "Evolution and its Consequences – A Reply to Professor Huxley," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XIX, 1872. "Contemporary Evolution," Part II, Part III, The Contemporary Review, Vols. XXII/XXIII, 1873/1874. "Instinct and Reason," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXV, 1875. "Likenesses: or Philosophical Anatomy," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXVI, 1875. "Natural History of the Kangaroo," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. VIII, 1876. "What are Bats?," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. IX, 1876. "Liberty of Conscience," The Dublin Review, Vol. XXVII, 1876. "Emotion," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. III, 1878. "The Meaning of Life," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. V, 1879. "The Government of Life," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. V, 1879. "On the Study of Natural History," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXV, 1879. "What are Living Beings?," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXV, 1879. "Animals and Plants," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXVI, 1879. "The Forms and Colours of Living Creatures," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXVI, 1879. "The Relation of Animals and Plants to Time," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXVII, 1880. "The Geography of Living Creatures," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXVII, 1880. "The Relation of Living Beings to One Another," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXVII, 1880. "Notes on Spain," Part II, Part III, The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. V, 1880. "The Soul and Evolution," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. VI, 1881. "A Limit to Evolution," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. VIII, 1883. "On Catholic Politics," The Dublin Review, Vol. XCIII, 1883. "The Life and Times of Frederic II," Part II, Part III, The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. IX, 1884. "Phases of Faith and Unfaith," The Catholic World, Vol. XXXIX, 1884. "Ecclesiastical Survivals and Revivals," The Catholic World, Vol. XL, 1885. "Organic Nature's Riddle," Part II, The Eclectic Magazine, Vol. XLI, 1885. "Modern Catholics and Scientific Freedom," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XVIII, 1885. "A Tour in Catholic Teutonia," Part II, The Catholic World, Vol. XLII, 1886. "What Are Animals and Plants?," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XI, 1886. "Notes on Colonial Zoology," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LI, 1887. "The Catholic Church and Biblical Criticism," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXII, 1887. "Catholicity and Reason," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXII, 1887. "The Future of Christianity," The Forum, Vol. III, 1887. "Laughter," The Forum, Vol. III, 1887. "On the Possibly Dual Origin of the Mammalia," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol. XLIII, 1888. "Why Tastes Differ," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XIII, 1888. "Impressions of Life in Vienna," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XIII, 1888. "Sins of Belief and Sins of Unbelief," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXIV, 1888. "Darwin's Brilliant Fallacy," The Forum, Vol. VII, 1889. "Where Darwinism Fails," The Forum, Vol. VII, 1889. "Professing Themselves to be Wise, They Become Fools," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XVI, 1891. "The Foundations of Science," Natural Science, Vol. I, No. 7, 1892. "Happiness in Hell," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXXII, 1892. "Catholicity in England Fifty Years Ago—A Retrospect," Part II, Part III, The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XVII/XVIII, 1892/1893. "Evolution in Professor Huxley," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXXIV, 1893. "Christianity and Paganism," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXXIV, 1893. "The Index and my Articles on Hell," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXXIV, 1893. "L'Ancien Régime," Part II, The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XVII/XVIII, 1893/1894. "The Newest Darwinism," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XIX, No. 76, 1894. "The Evolution of Evolution," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XX, 1895. "Balfour's Philosophy. Part I.: Some Consequences of Belief," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XXI, 1896. "Balfour's Philosophy. Part II.: Some Reasons for Belief," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XXI, 1896. "What Makes a Species?," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XXIII, 1898. "Living Nature," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XXIII, 1898. "The Continuity of Catholicism," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XLVII, 1900. "Scripture and Roman Catholicism," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XLVII, 1900. 1827 births 1900 deaths People from Clapham People educated at Harrow School English Roman Catholics English biologists Charles Darwin Fellows of the Zoological Society of London Alumni of King's College London Alumni of St Mary's College, Oscott Converts to Roman Catholicism Fellows of the Royal Society Fellows of the Linnean Society of London Members of Lincoln's Inn 19th-century British Roman Catholic theologians Catholic University College, Kensington	[ -0.5981343388557434, 0.7193132638931274, -0.03520692512392998, -0.25985386967658997, 0.0175123643130064, 0.5703215599060059, 1.417066216468811, 0.357471227645874, -0.3871457874774933, -0.5760504007339478, -0.1583373099565506, -0.04951757192611694, 0.22544054687023163, 0.43201717734336853, 0.48803025484085083, 0.10227035731077194, 0.7088611721992493, 0.6263018250465393, 0.5601391792297363, -0.977683961391449, -0.8255512714385986, -0.2401885688304901, 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251058	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piru%20%28spirit%29	Piru (spirit)	A piru is a fiend or demon in Finnish mythology. In folklore, a piru is often featured as a nasty spirit of the forest with which a smart aleck either wins or loses a battle of wits, giving or receiving a forfeit in return. In many cases, poltergeist and haunting phenomena are described as "pirus". The Devil may be referred to as (proper noun) Piru, or Pääpiru, the main piru. "Piru" is also a mild swearword in Finnish. 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251059	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert%20Vaughan	Herbert Vaughan	Herbert Alfred Henry Vaughan (15 April 1832 – 19 June 1903) was an English prelate of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Westminster from 1892 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1893. He was the founder in 1866 of St Joseph's Foreign Missionary Society, known best as the Mill Hill Missionaries. He also founded the Catholic Truth Society and St. Bede's College, Manchester. As Archbishop of Westminster, he led the capital campaign and construction of Westminster Cathedral. In 1871 Vaughan sent a group of Mill Hill priests to the United States to minister to freedmen. In 1893, the American branch of the society spun off, with Vaughan's permission, to form the Society of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart, whose members are known as Josephites. Early life and education Herbert Vaughan was born at Gloucester, the eldest son of Lieutenant-Colonel John Francis Vaughan, of an old recusant (Catholic) family, the Vaughans of Courtfield, Herefordshire. His mother, Eliza Rolls from The Hendre, Monmouthshire, was a Catholic convert and intensely religious. All five of the Vaughan daughters became nuns, while six of the eight sons received Holy Orders and became priests. Two were later called as bishops in addition to Herbert: Roger became Archbishop of Sydney, Australia and John became titular bishop of Sebastopolis and auxiliary bishop in Salford, England. A nephew, Francis, became Bishop of Menevia, Wales. In 1841 Herbert, the eldest, went to study for six years at Stonyhurst College, then to the Jesuit school of Brugelette, Belgium (1846–1848), and then with the Benedictines at Downside Abbey, near Bath, England. In 1851 Vaughan went to Rome, and studied for two years at the Collegio Romano, where for a time he shared lodgings with the poet, Aubrey Thomas de Vere. He became a friend and disciple of Henry Edward Manning. Manning, a Catholic convert, became the second Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster following the restoration of the Catholic hierarchy in Great Britain in 1850. Career Vaughan received Holy Orders at Lucca in 1854. On his return to England, he became Vice-President of St Edmund's College, at that time the chief seminary in the south of England for candidates for the priesthood. Since childhood, Vaughan had been filled with zeal for foreign missions. He convinced Cardinal Wiseman and the bishops to agree to a proposal to build a seminary in England that would train priests to serve on missions throughout the British Empire. With this goal, he made a fund-raising trip to America in 1863, from which he returned with £11,000. In 1868, Vaughan became proprietor of The Tablet. He wrote James McMaster, owner of the New York Freeman's Journal and Catholic Register, ""No one can appreciate more highly than I do the great mission of the Catholic press in these days of steam and universal education." He succeeded in opening St Joseph's Foreign Missionary College, Mill Hill Park, London, in 1869. That same year, the Tenth Provincial Council of Baltimore passed a decree exhorting all bishops to establish missions and schools in their dioceses for African Americans. Subsequently, the Council Fathers wrote a letter requesting clergy for that purpose to Vaughan, superior general at Mill Hill. In 1871, Vaughan led a group of priests to the US to establish a mission society to minister to freedmen in the South. In 1872 Vaughan was consecrated as the second Bishop of Salford, succeeding Bishop William Turner. Vaughan relinquished his position as superior at St. Joseph's College, but in 1876 established St Bede's College, conceived as a "commercial school" to prepare the sons of Manchester Catholics for a life in business and the professions. Vaughan chose to live at Hampton Grange, on the St. Bede's College campus, with his own Bishop's residence on Chapel Street in Salford being given over to a Seminary. In 1879, as the most eminent local Catholic, Vaughan was chosen by the then Home Secretary, R.A. Cross, 1st Viscount Cross, to be one of the trustees of the £1,000 compensation paid to a Whalley Range farm labourer, William Habron, pardoned for the murder of PC Nicholas Cock. In 1892 Vaughan succeeded Manning as Archbishop of Westminster, receiving the cardinal's hat in 1893 as Cardinal-Priest of Santi Andrea e Gregorio al Monte Celio. Vaughan was a man of different type from his predecessor; he had none of the ultramontane Manning's intellectual finesse or his ardor for social reform. Vaughan did however have a more open attitude to women's enfranchisement, reported as saying, "I believe that the extension of the Parliamentary Franchise to women upon the same conditions as it is held by men would be a just and beneficial measure, tending to raise rather than to lower the course of national legislation." Vaughan was an ecclesiastic of remarkably fine presence and aristocratic leanings, intransigent in theological policy, and in personal character simply devout. In 1893 the US Mill Hill mission, based in Baltimore, Maryland, reorganised with Vaughan's blessing as an independent institution, known as Society of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart. Among its founders was the first African-American Catholic priest trained and ordained in the United States, Charles Uncles. It was due to this theological "purity" that Vaughan assisted in scuttling an opportunity for rapprochement between Rome and the Church of England that was put into motion by a high-church Anglican, Charles Wood, 2nd Viscount Halifax and a French priest, Ferdinand Portal. Through the efforts of Vaughan and Archbishop of Canterbury Edward White Benson, this early form of ecumenism was put down. It culminated with the condemnation of Anglican Orders by Pope Leo XIII in his bull, Apostolicae curae. It was Vaughan's most cherished ambition to see an adequate Westminster Cathedral. He worked untiringly to secure subscriptions for a capital campaign, with the result that the foundation stone for the cathedral was laid in 1895. When Vaughan died in 1903 at the age of 71, the building was so far complete that a Requiem Mass was said there. His body was interred at the cemetery of St. Joseph's College, the headquarters of the Mill Hill Missionaries in North London but it was moved back to the Cathedral and reinterred in the Chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury (the "Vaughan Chantry") in 2005. Legacy Founded St. Joseph Foreign Missionary College, London, United Kingdom St Bede's College St. Joseph Society of the Sacred Heart, Baltimore, MD Westminster Cathedral Namesake In 1914, the Cardinal Vaughan Memorial School was founded in his memory in Holland Park, London. See also Catholic Church in Great Britain Bernard Vaughan, his brother Roger Vaughan, his brother John Stephen Vaughan, his brother Alice Ingham References Sources Life of Cardinal Vaughan, JG Snead Cox (2 vols., London: 1910). THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS By Herbert Cardinal Vaughan, Archbishop of Westminster. Fourth Edition St. Louis, MO. : 1902. Published by B. Herder, 17 South Broadway. External links Herbert Vaughan papers, 1893–1898 at Pitts Theology Library, Candler School of Theology Herbert Vaughan, Catholic Hierarchy website 1832 births 1903 deaths People from Gloucester People educated at Stonyhurst College 19th-century British cardinals Roman Catholic archbishops of Westminster 19th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United Kingdom 20th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United Kingdom 20th-century British cardinals Cardinals created by Pope Leo XIII African-American Roman Catholicism Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy alumni People educated at St Edmund's College, Ware Burials at Westminster Cathedral English people of Welsh descent Roman Catholic bishops of Salford British Roman Catholic archbishops	[ -0.16767750680446625, 0.43809372186660767, -1.0420253276824951, -0.09824574738740921, -0.6084082126617432, 0.9104252457618713, 1.5151292085647583, 0.10148099064826965, -0.14433328807353973, -0.49161291122436523, 0.3458652198314667, 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