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251061	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass-ceramic	Glass-ceramic	Glass-ceramics are polycrystalline materials produced through controlled crystallization of base glass. Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both glasses and ceramics. Glass-ceramics have an amorphous phase and one or more crystalline phases and are produced by a so-called "controlled crystallization" in contrast to a spontaneous crystallization, which is usually not wanted in glass manufacturing. Glass-ceramics have the fabrication advantage of glass, as well as special properties of ceramics. When used for sealing, some glass-ceramics do not require brazing but can withstand brazing temperatures up to 700 °C. Glass-ceramics usually have between 30% [m/m] and 90% [m/m] crystallinity and yield an array of materials with interesting properties like zero porosity, high strength, toughness, translucency or opacity, pigmentation, opalescence, low or even negative thermal expansion, high temperature stability, fluorescence, machinability, ferromagnetism, resorbability or high chemical durability, biocompatibility, bioactivity, ion conductivity, superconductivity, isolation capabilities, low dielectric constant and loss, high resistivity and break-down voltage. These properties can be tailored by controlling the base-glass composition and by controlled heat treatment/crystallization of base glass. In manufacturing, glass-ceramics are valued for having the strength of ceramic but the hermetic sealing properties of glass. Glass-ceramics are mostly produced in two steps: First, a glass is formed by a glass-manufacturing process. The glass is cooled down and is then reheated in a second step. In this heat treatment the glass partly crystallizes. In most cases nucleation agents are added to the base composition of the glass-ceramic. These nucleation agents aid and control the crystallization process. Because there is usually no pressing and sintering, glass-ceramics have no pores, unlike sintered ceramics. A wide variety of glass-ceramic systems exist, e.g., the Li2O × Al2O3 × nSiO2 system (LAS system), the MgO × Al2O3 × nSiO2 system (MAS system), the ZnO × Al2O3 × nSiO2 system (ZAS system). Nucleation and crystal growth The key to engineering a glass-ceramic material is controlling the nucleation and growth of crystals in the base glass. The amount of crystallinity will vary depending on the amount of nuclei present and the time and temperature at which the material is heated. It is important to understand the types of nucleation occurring in the material, whether it is homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous nucleation is a process resulting from the inherent thermodynamic instability of a glassy material. When enough thermal energy is applied to the system, the metastable glassy phase begins to return to the lower-energy, crystalline state. The term "homogeneous" is used here because the formation of nuclei comes from the base glass without any second phases or surfaces promoting their formation. Heterogeneous nucleation is a term used when a second phase or "nucleating agent" is introduced into the system. The presence of a second phase or surface can act as a catalyst for nucleation and is particularly effective if there is epitaxy between the nucleus and the substrate. Glass-ceramics in medical applications Glass-ceramics are used in medical applications due to their unique interaction, or lack thereof, with human body tissue. Bioceramics are typically placed into the following groups based on their biocompatibility: biopassive (bioinert), bioactive, or resorbable ceramics. Biopassive (bioinert) ceramics are, as the name suggests, characterized by the limited interaction the material has with the surrounding biological tissue. Historically, these were the "first generation" biomaterials used as replacements for missing or damaged tissues. One problem resulting from using inert biomaterials was the body's reaction to the foreign object; it was found that a phenomenon known as "fibrous encapsulation" would occur, where tissues would grow around the implant in an attempt to isolate the object from the rest of the body. This occasionally caused a variety of problems such as necrosis or sequestration of the implant. Two commonly used bioinert materials are alumina (Al2O3) and zirconia (ZrO2). Bioactive materials have the ability to form bonds and interfaces with natural tissues. In the case of bone implants, two properties known as osteoconduction and osteoinduction play an important role in the success and longevity of the implant. Osteoconduction refers to a material's ability to permit bone growth on the surface and into the pores and channels of the material. Osteoinduction is a term used when a material stimulates existing cells to proliferate, causing new bone to grow independently of the implant. In general, the bioactivity of a material is a result of a chemical reaction, typically dissolution of the implanted material. Calcium phosphate ceramics and bioactive glasses are commonly used as bioactive materials as they exhibit this dissolution behavior when introduced to living body tissue. One engineering goal relating to these materials is that the dissolution rate of the implant be closely matched to the growth rate of new tissue, leading to a state of dynamic equilibrium. Resorbable ceramics are similar to bioactive ceramics in their interaction with the body, but the main difference lies in the extent to which the dissolution occurs. Resorbable ceramics are intended to gradually dissolve entirely, all the while new tissue grows in its stead. The architecture of these materials has become quite complex, with foam-like scaffolds being introduced to maximize the interfacial area between the implant and body tissue. One issue that arises from using highly porous materials for bioactive/resorbable implants is the low mechanical strength, especially in load-bearing areas such as the bones in the legs. An example of a resorbable material that has seen some success is tricalcium phosphate (TCP), however, it too falls short in terms of mechanical strength when used in high-stress areas. LAS system The commercially most important system is the Li2O × Al2O3 × nSiO2 system (LAS system). The LAS system mainly refers to a mix of lithium, silicon, and aluminum oxides with additional components, e.g., glass-phase-forming agents such as Na2O, K2O and CaO and refining agents. As nucleation agents most commonly zirconium(IV) oxide in combination with titanium(IV) oxide is used. This important system was studied first and intensively by Hummel, and Smoke. After crystallization the dominant crystal phase in this type of glass-ceramic is a high-quartz solid solution (HQ s.s.). If the glass-ceramic is subjected to a more intense heat treatment, this HQ s.s. transforms into a keatite-solid solution (K s.s., sometimes wrongly named as beta-spodumene). This transition is non-reversible and reconstructive, which means bonds in the crystal-lattice are broken and new arranged. However, these two crystal phases show a very similar structure as Li could show. An interesting property of these glass-ceramics is their thermomechanical durability. Glass-ceramic from the LAS system is a mechanically strong material and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 800–1000 °C. The dominant crystalline phase of the LAS glass-ceramics, HQ s.s., has a strong negative coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), keatite-solid solution as still a negative CTE but much higher than HQ s.s. These negative CTEs of the crystalline phase contrasts with the positive CTE of the residual glass. Adjusting the proportion of these phases offers a wide range of possible CTEs in the finished composite. Mostly for today's applications a low or even zero CTE is desired. Also a negative CTE is possible, which means, in contrast to most materials when heated up, such a glass-ceramic contracts. At a certain point, generally between 60% [m/m] and 80% [m/m] crystallinity, the two coefficients balance such that the glass-ceramic as a whole has a thermal expansion coefficient that is very close to zero. Also, when an interface between material will be subject to thermal fatigue, glass-ceramics can be adjusted to match the coefficient of the material they will be bonded to. Originally developed for use in the mirrors and mirror mounts of astronomical telescopes, LAS glass-ceramics have become known and entered the domestic market through its use in glass-ceramic cooktops, as well as cookware and bakeware or as high-performance reflectors for digital projectors. Ceramic matrix composites One particularly notable use of glass-ceramics is in the processing of ceramic matrix composites. For many ceramic matrix composites typical sintering temperatures and times cannot be used, as the degradation and corrosion of the constituent fibres becomes more of an issue as temperature and sintering time increase. One example of this is SiC fibres, which can start to degrade via pyrolysis at temperatures above 1470K. One solution to this is to use the glassy form of the ceramic as the sintering feedstock rather than the ceramic, as unlike the ceramic the glass pellets have a softening point and will generally flow at much lower pressures and temperatures. This allows the use of less extreme processing parameters, making the production of many new technologically important fibre-matrix combinations by sintering possible. Cooktops Glass-ceramic from the LAS-System is a mechanically strong material and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes. However, it is not totally unbreakable. Because it is still a brittle material as glass and ceramics are, it can be broken. There have been instances where users reported damage to their cooktops when the surface was struck with a hard or blunt object (such as a can falling from above or other heavy items). The material has a very low heat conduction coefficient, which means that it stays cool outside the cooking area. It can be made nearly transparent (15–20% loss in a typical cooktop) for radiation in the infrared wavelengths. In the visible range glass-ceramics can be transparent, translucent or opaque and even colored by coloring agents. , there are two major types of electrical stoves with cooktops made of glass-ceramic: A glass-ceramic stove uses radiant heating coils or infrared halogen lamps as the heating elements. The surface of the glass-ceramic cooktop above the burner heats up, but the adjacent surface remains cool because of the low heat conduction coefficient of the material. An induction stove heats a metal pot's bottom directly through electromagnetic induction. This technology is not entirely new, as glass-ceramic ranges were first introduced in the 1970s using Corningware tops instead of the more durable material used today. These first generation smoothtops were problematic and could only be used with flat-bottomed cookware as the heating was primarily conductive rather than radiative. Compared to conventional kitchen stoves, glass-ceramic cooktops are relatively simple to clean, due to their flat surface. However, glass-ceramic cooktops can be scratched very easily, so care must be taken not to slide the cooking pans over the surface. If food with a high sugar content (such as jam) spills, it should never be allowed to dry on the surface, otherwise damage will occur. For best results and maximum heat transfer, all cookware should be flat-bottomed and matched to the same size as the burner zone. Industry and material variations Some well-known brands of glass-ceramics are Pyroceram, Ceran, Eurokera, Zerodur, Macor, Kedi, and Kanger. Nippon Electric Glass is a predominant worldwide manufacturer of glass ceramics, whose related products in this area include FireLite, and NeoCeram, ceramic glass materials for architectural and high temperature applications respectively. Keralite, manufactured by Vetrotech Saint-Gobain, is a specialty glass-ceramic fire and impact safety rated material for use in fire-rated applications. Glass-ceramics manufactured in the Soviet Union/Russia are known under the name Sitall. Macor is a white, odorless, porcelain-like glass ceramic material and was developed originally to minimize heat transfer during manned spaceflight by Corning Inc. StellaShine, launched in 2016 by Nippon Electric Glass Co., is a heat-resistant, glass-ceramic material with a thermal shock resistance of up to 800 degrees Celsius. This was developed as an addition to Nippon's line of heat-resistant cooking range plates along with materials like Neoceram. KangerTech is an ecigarette manufacturer which began in Shenzen, China which produces glass ceramic materials and other special hardened-glass applications like vaporizer modification tanks. TGP (Technical Glass Products), is a safety-oriented glass ceramic producer which continues to produce products like FireLite, fireframes, and the Pilkington Pyrostop. The same class of material is also used in Visions and CorningWare glass-ceramic cookware, allowing it to be taken from the freezer directly to the stovetop or oven with no risk of thermal shock while maintaining the transparent look of glassware. History The discovery of glass-ceramics is credited to a man named Donald Stookey, a renowned glass scientist who worked at Corning Inc. for 47 years. The first iteration stemmed from a glass material, Fotoform, which was also discovered by Stookey while he was searching for a photo-etch-able material to be used in television screens. Soon after the beginning of Fotoform, the first ceramic material was discovered when Stookey overheated a Fotoform plate in a furnace at 900 degrees Celsius and found an opaque, milky-white plate inside the furnace rather than the molten mess that was expected. While examining the new material, which Stookey aptly named Fotoceram, he took note that it was much stronger than the Fotoform that it was created from as it survived a short fall onto concrete. In the late 1950s two more glass-ceramic materials would be developed by Stookey, one found use as the radome in the nose cone of missiles, while the other led to the line of consumer kitchenware known as Corningware. Corning executives announced Stookey's discovery of the latter "new basic material" called Pyroceram which was touted as light, durable, capable of being an electrical insulator and yet thermally shock resistant. At the time, there were only few materials which offered the specific combination of characteristics that Pyroceram did and the material was rolled out as the Corningware kitchen line August 7, 1958. Some of the success that Pyroceram brought inspired Corning to put an effort towards strengthening glass which became an effort by the technical director's of Corning titled Project Muscle. A lesser known "ultrastrong" glass-ceramic material developed in 1962 called Chemcor (now known as Gorilla Glass) was produced by Corning's glass team due to the Project Muscle effort. Chemcor would even be used to innovate the Pyroceram line of products as in 1961 Corning launched Centura Ware, a new line of Pyroceram that was lined with a glass laminate (invented by John MacDowell) and treated with the Chemcor process. Stookey continued to forge ahead in the discovery of the properties of glass-ceramics as he discovered how to make the material transparent in 1966. Though Corning wouldn't release a product with his new innovation, for fear of cannibalizing Pyrex sales, until the late 1970s under the name Visions. FireLite, a transparent glass-ceramic material made for combined use with fire-rated doors and other safety materials, was launched in 1988 by Nippon Electric Glass. The glass ceramic at 5 mm thick is able to withstand the pressure of a fire hose after 20–90 minutes (depending upon the grade of ceramic used) of heat in a furnace, and still allows 88% of visible light to transmit through its surface. This product is still widely used and manufactured today by companies like TGP (Technical Glass Products), a fire-rated glass ceramic brand which is part of the safety industry conglomerate Allegion. Sources Literature McMillan P.W., "The glass phase in glass-ceramics", Glass Technology, 1974, Vol. 15 (1), P. 5-15 Bach H. (Editor), "Low thermal expansion glass ceramics", Springer-Verlag (1995). Holand, Wolfram and Beall, George H. Glass-Ceramic Technology. Wiley, 2002. 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251063	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Thomson%20%28bishop%29	William Thomson (bishop)	William Thomson, (11 February 1819 – 25 December 1890) was an English church leader, Archbishop of York from 1862 until his death. Biography Early life He was born the eldest son of John Thomson of Kelswick House, near Whitehaven, Cumberland, and educated at Shrewsbury School and at The Queen's College, Oxford, of which he became a scholar. He took his B.A. degree in 1840, and was soon afterwards made fellow of his college. He was ordained in 1842, and worked as a curate at Cuddesdon. In 1847 he was made tutor of his college, and in 1853 he delivered the Bampton lectures, his subject being The Atoning Work of Christ viewed in Relation to some Ancient Theories. These thoughtful and learned lectures established his reputation and did much to clear the ground for subsequent discussions on the subject. Career Thomson's activity was not confined to theology. He was made fellow of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society. He also wrote a very popular Outline of the Laws of Thought (1842). He sided with the party at Oxford which favoured university reform, but this did not prevent him from being appointed provost of his college in 1855. In 1858 he was made preacher at Lincoln's Inn and a volume of his sermons was published in 1861. In the same year he edited Aids to Faith, a volume written in opposition to Essays and Reviews, the progressive sentiments of which had stirred up controversy in the Church of England. In December 1861 he became Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, and within a year he was elevated to Archbishop of York. In this position his moderate orthodoxy led him to join Archbishop Archibald Campbell Tait in supporting the Public Worship Regulation Act, and, as president of the northern convocation, he came frequently into sharp collision with the lower house of that body. But if he thus incurred the hostility of the High Church party among the clergy, he was admired by the laity for his strong sense, his clear and forcible reasoning, and his wide knowledge, and he remained to the last a power in the north of England. In his later years he published an address read before the members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1868), one on Design in Nature, for the Christian Evidence Society, which reached a fifth edition, various charges and pastoral addresses, and he was one of the projectors of the Speaker's Commentary, for which he wrote the "Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels." See the Quarterly Review (April 1892). Family His parents were John Thomson (1791–1878) and Isabella Thompson (–1847) On 24 July 1855 in Oxford, Thomson married Zoë Skene daughter of James Henry Skene (1812–), British Consul at Aleppo. They had the following children: Ethel Zoë Thomson (1856–), who later edited Thomson's Life and Letters. Wilfred Forbes Home Thomson (1858–1939) Jocelyn Home Thomson (1859–1908) Sir Basil Home Thomson, KCB (21 April 1861 – 26 March 1939), a British intelligence officer, police officer, prison governor, colonial administrator, and writer Zoë Jane Thomson (1862–) Beatrice Mary Thomson (1864–) Alexandra Thomson (1867–1907). Married Col. John Studholme (10 February 1863 – 26 May 1934) Madeline Ita Mary Thomson (1880–) Bernard Henry Home Thomson (1874–1924), his granddaughter is the author Rose Tremain, and his great grandchildren are Rachael Daniel, Tamsin Daniel, Cléon Daniel, and Sebastian Daniel. Notes References Attribution External links 1819 births 1890 deaths Archbishops of York Doctors of Divinity People from Whitehaven People educated at Shrewsbury School Bishops of Gloucester and Bristol Fellows of the Royal Society Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society 19th-century Anglican archbishops Alumni of The Queen's College, Oxford Fellows of The Queen's College, Oxford Provosts of The Queen's College, Oxford Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom	[ -0.1946752965450287, 0.08540841937065125, 0.2698154151439667, -0.510729193687439, -0.41015270352363586, 0.5929858684539795, 0.9193151593208313, 0.028600845485925674, -0.6933307647705078, -0.5713616013526917, -0.20195691287517548, 0.06867357343435287, -0.49815627932548523, 0.4339517652988434, 0.42116349935531616, 0.26814767718315125, -0.13263921439647675, 0.20375752449035645, -1.1158084869384766, -0.7788251042366028, -0.38164272904396057, -0.4434002935886383, 0.5177289843559265, 0.22729797661304474, 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251065	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Magee%20%28archbishop%20of%20York%29	William Magee (archbishop of York)	William Connor Magee (17 December 1821 – 5 May 1891) was an Irish clergyman of the Anglican church, Bishop of Peterborough 1868–1891 and Archbishop of York for a short period in 1891. Life He was born in Cork, Ireland. His father was a minor canon of St Fin Barre's Cathedral, Cork and a curate of the parish attached to the Anglican cathedral; his grandfather was William Magee, Archbishop of Dublin. Young Magee was educated at Kilkenny College and entered Trinity College, Dublin with a scholarship at thirteen. In November 1843, he delivered the inaugural address as Auditor of the reformed College Historical Society, in Trinity College. He was ordained in 1844 to the curacy of St Thomas's, Dublin, but, being threatened with tuberculosis, went after two years to Málaga, Spain. On his return he took a curacy at Bath, England (1849–1851) and was soon appointed to the Octagon Chapel (1851–1860), where his fame both as preacher and platform speaker continued to spread. Some years afterwards he was made prebendary of Wells Cathedral. In 1860, poor health caused him to accept the living of Enniskillen, Ireland. In 1864 he was made Dean of Cork and in 1866, additionally, Dean of the Chapel Royal, Dublin Castle, and a chaplain to the Lord Lieutenant. Here he showed those great gifts which ultimately raised him to high office; a powerful grasp of mental, moral and political problems, combined with eloquence of a high order, illuminated with brilliant flashes of wit. In 1868 the question of the disestablishment of the Irish church came to the fore, and Magee threw himself into its defence with his usual energy and vivacity. The success of his orations caused Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli to offer him the bishopric of Peterborough, England. He justified his appointment by his magnificent speech when the Disestablishment Bill reached the House of Lords in 1869, and then plunged into diocesan and general work in England. He preached three remarkable sermons on Christian Evidence in Norwich Cathedral in 1871. He took up the temperance question, and declared in the House of Lords that he would rather see "England free than England compulsorily sober", a statement which was misquoted and attacked. Initially highly critical of the calling of the second Lambeth Conference (1878) he was won over by the experience, writing in his biography that, He was also a supporter of the movement for abolishing the recitation of the Athanasian Creed in the public services of the Church of England, believing, as he said, that the "presence" of the damnatory clauses, "as they stand and where they stand, is a real peril to the Church and to Christianity itself", and that those clauses "are no essential part" of the creed. The project was laid aside because of the hostility of a large body of the clergy, reinforced by the threat of Edward Bouverie Pusey and Canon Henry Parry Liddon to abandon their offices if it were carried. He was elevated to the see of York in January 1891 and enthroned on 17 March. By this time his energies were exhausted, and he died on 5 May, four months after his appointment. He was buried at Peterborough Cathedral. The life-size marble effigy marking his grave lies in the south aisle. Family He married his cousin Anne Smith in 1851. Legacy Magee had taken a prominent part in the Ritual controversy, opposing what he conceived to be romanising excess in ritual, as well as the endeavour of the opposite party to "put down Ritualism", as Disraeli expressed it, by the operation of the civil law. His incisive way of putting things earned for him the title of the "Militant Bishop", but his efforts were ever for peace. Magee's manifold activities, his capability as an administrator, his sound judgment, and his remarkable, insight into the ecclesiastical problems of his time, rank him among the most distinguished of English prelates. Quotes "The man who makes no mistakes does not usually make anything." – W. C. Magee, 1868 "I should say it would be better that England should be free than that England should be compulsorily sober." 1872 Works Anglican sisterhoods (1886) References Cork Past and Present External links Bibliographic directory from Project Canterbury 1821 births 1891 deaths Doctors of Divinity People educated at Kilkenny College People from County Cork Bishops of Peterborough Archbishops of York Auditors of the College Historical Society 19th-century Anglican archbishops Deans of the Chapel Royal, Dublin Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Burials at Peterborough Cathedral 19th-century Church of England bishops	[ -0.6049759387969971, 0.449230432510376, 0.013550748117268085, -0.4877896308898926, -0.544141411781311, 0.5785702466964722, 0.7094389796257019, 0.3698917031288147, -0.5943655967712402, -0.6358670592308044, 0.10356421023607254, 0.20309995114803314, -0.3495417833328247, -0.036223314702510834, 0.3469594419002533, 0.08989548683166504, -0.0995667427778244, 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251068	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Rathbone%20Greg	William Rathbone Greg	William Rathbone Greg (1809 – 15 November 1881) was an English essayist. Life Born in Manchester, the son of Samuel Greg, the creator of Quarry Bank Mill, and Hannah Greg, he was brother to Robert Hyde Greg and the junior Samuel Greg. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh. In 1827, he joined the Plinian Society, on the same day as Charles Darwin. Greg offered a talk to prove "the lower animals possess every faculty & propensity of the human mind". For a time, he managed a mill of his father's at Bury, and in 1832 began business on his own account. He entered the struggle for free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize offered by the Anti-Corn Law League for the best essay on Agriculture and the Corn Laws. He was too busy with political, economical and theological speculations to give undivided attention to his business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing. His Creed of Christendom was published in 1851, and in 1852 he contributed no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies. Disraeli praised him. Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed a Commissionership of Customs on him in 1856. In 1864 he was made Comptroller of the Her Majesty's Stationery Office. In 1868 he responded to Darwin's On the Origin of Species with an article in Fraser's Magazine, "On the failure of 'Natural Selection' in the case of Man". Darwin cited this, and responded, in The Descent of Man. He became a member of the Metaphysical Society. Besides contributions to periodicals he produced several volumes of essays on political and social philosophy. The general spirit of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best known, The Enigmas of Life (1872) and Rocks Ahead (1874). They represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth, when wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every public ill. Greg was interested in many philanthropic works. He died at Wimbledon, London. He was married in 1835 to Lucy, daughter of William Henry, and also of Manchester. His second wife was the daughter of James Wilson. One son, Percy Greg, was also a writer; another, Walter Wilson Greg, was a leading bibliographer of English Renaissance theatre. Bibliography Efforts for the Extinction of the African Slave Trade (1840) Creed of Christendom (1851) Truth versus edification (1869) On the Failure of 'Natural Selection' in the Case of Man (1868) Why are Women Redundant? (1869) The Enigmas of Life (1872) Rocks Ahead ; or, the Warnings of Cassandra (1874) Prostitution (1850) References 1809 births 1881 deaths Writers from Manchester Alumni of the University of Edinburgh	[ -0.06971553713083267, 0.8246859312057495, -0.8207703828811646, -0.6642356514930725, 0.08999662101268768, 0.8797867298126221, 0.9625458717346191, 0.0665590688586235, -0.3179182708263397, -0.08723298460245132, 0.021545322611927986, -0.12622831761837006, -0.1342523694038391, 0.4518340229988098, -0.1069498211145401, -0.015862498432397842, -0.1717822402715683, -0.14790862798690796, -0.019736971706151962, -0.3962456285953522, -0.1786397397518158, 0.0550062395632267, 0.4771432876586914, -0.5073643326759338, -0.49729108810424805, -0.14266309142112732, 0.2800685167312622, -0.46343794465065, 0.08694551885128021, -0.7530142664909363, 0.1126745194196701, 0.8460575938224792, 0.36302971839904785, -0.08690666407346725, -0.4979991614818573, -0.07633659243583679, -0.3665463924407959, 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251069	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Rodgers%2C%20Baron%20Rodgers%20of%20Quarry%20Bank	Bill Rodgers, Baron Rodgers of Quarry Bank	William Thomas Rodgers, Baron Rodgers of Quarry Bank, PC (born 28 October 1928) is a British politician who served as Secretary of State for Transport from 1976 to 1979, and was one of the 'Gang of Four' of senior British Labour Party politicians who defected to form the Social Democratic Party (SDP). He subsequently helped to lead the SDP into the merger that formed the Liberal Democrats in 1988, and later served as that party's leader in the House of Lords between 1997 and 2001. Early life Rodgers was born in Liverpool, Lancashire, and educated at Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool. After national service in the King's Regiment, he studied Modern History at Magdalen College, Oxford on an Open Exhibition. He was general secretary of the Fabian Society from 1953 to 1960 and a councillor on St. Marylebone Borough Council from 1958 to 1962. He also unsuccessfully fought a by-election at Bristol West in 1957. Member of Parliament Rodgers first entered the British House of Commons at a by-election in 1962, representing Stockton-on-Tees, and served in Labour Governments under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan, becoming Secretary of State for Transport in Callaghan's Cabinet in 1976. Within the Labour Party he was known for being a highly effective organiser around centrist causes such as multilateral nuclear disarmament and Britain's membership of the European Economic Community. He held the post until Labour's defeat in the 1979 general election. From 1979 to 1981 he was Shadow Defence Secretary. With Labour drifting to the left, Rodgers joined Shirley Williams, Roy Jenkins and David Owen in forming the Social Democratic Party in 1981. In September 1982, Rodgers stood to become President of the SDP, but took only 19.4% of the vote, and a distant second place behind Williams. Gang of Four At the 1983 general election the SDP–Liberal Alliance won many votes but few seats, and Rodgers lost his seat of Stockton North (known as Stockton-on-Tees before the boundary changes of 1983). He remained outside Parliament, unsuccessfully contesting Milton Keynes for the SDP in the 1987 general election, until he was created a life peer as Baron Rodgers of Quarry Bank, of Kentish Town in the London Borough of Camden on 12 February 1992. During that interval he was Director-General of the Royal Institute of British Architects and also became Chairman of the Advertising Standards Authority. In 1987, Rodgers was chairman of the successful "Yes to Unity" campaign within the SDP in favour of merger with the Liberal Party. He became the Liberal Democrats' Lords spokesman on Home Affairs in 1994 and was its leader in the Lords between 1997 and 2001. His autobiography was titled Fourth Among Equals, reflecting his position as the least prominent of the SDP's founders. Rodgers was interviewed in 2012 as part of The History of Parliament's oral history project. Personal life In 1955, Rodgers married Silvia Szulman (1928–2006), a Berlin-born artist and writer, who became a political hostess. The couple had three daughters, Rachel, Lucy and Juliet. On 8 May 2001, Rodgers suffered a stroke at his home and was treated at the Royal Free Hospital and attended speech therapy sessions at North Middlesex Hospital for two and a half years. He said he was "very, very lucky not to have suffered any physical damage" as a result. He has since been a keen advocate for better treatment and care for stroke victims. References Bibliography External links Lord Rodgers of Quarry Bank profile at the site of Liberal Democrats Recent Speeches in the Lords The Papers of Lord Rodgers of Quarry Bank held at Churchill Archives Centre \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1928 births 20th-century British Army personnel Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford British autobiographers British Secretaries of State Chairs of the Fabian Society Councillors in Greater London GMB (trade union)-sponsored MPs General Secretaries of the Fabian Society Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Liberal Democrats (UK) life peers Living people Members of St Marylebone Metropolitan Borough Council Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Ministers in the Wilson governments, 1964–1970 People educated at Quarry Bank High School British political party founders Politicians from Liverpool Secretaries of State for Transport (UK) Social Democratic Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies UK MPs 1959–1964 UK MPs 1964–1966 UK MPs 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251072	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grecia%2C%20Costa%20Rica	Grecia, Costa Rica	Grecia is a district of the Grecia canton, in the Alajuela province of Costa Rica. Geography Grecia has an area of km² and an elevation of metres. It is in the foothills of the Cordillera Central on the eastern edge of the Central Valley. The city, which was once named "the cleanest city in Latin America," is 20 kilometers northwest of the provincial capital city of Alajuela, 27 kilometers from Juan Santamaría International Airport, and 45 kilometers from the national capital city of San José. Economy Grecia is part of the tourist route of the western region of the Central Valley of Costa Rica, given the existence in the canton of waterfalls, protected areas, and the Catholic temple of Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes, which is Costa's historical-architectural heritage. Culture and education Iglesia de la Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes Grecia is noted for its unique church, Iglesia de la Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes, made entirely of pre-fabricated steel plates painted red. There are several urban legends about this church. One recounts how the church was donated by some foreign country, and sent to Greece as a gift, but was wrongly shipped to Grecia, Costa Rica. Another legend states that the final destination of the church was the city of Punta Arenas in Chile but was disembarked, by mistake, in the port of Puntarenas, Costa Rica and later sent to the city of Grecia, where it was assembled. However, records clearly show that the instruction, shipment, and construction of the church were a coordinated effort of Grecia's population, the Catholic Church, the Costa Rican government, and Alejo E. Jiménez Bonnefil (1858–1922), a Costa Rican coffee producer and exporter who was in charge of commanding and importing the church from the manufacturer Ateliers de la Société de Couvillet in Belgium, in the late 19th century. Flora and fauna Grecia is the first toucan to receive a prosthetic beak, named Grecia because of the name of this city where the bird was found injured prior to its admission to the Rescate Wildlife Rescue Center (formerly Rescate Animal Zoo Ave), south of the city. Demographics For the 2011 census, Grecia had a population of inhabitants. Transportation Road transportation The district is covered by the following road routes: National Route 107 National Route 118 National Route 154 National Route 711 References Districts of Alajuela Province Populated places in Alajuela Province	[ 0.0710173025727272, 0.2260361760854721, 0.08980222046375275, 0.2616167366504669, -0.31400927901268005, 0.25618690252304077, 0.21142393350601196, 0.7769125699996948, -0.3716149628162384, -0.3372524380683899, 0.2228827178478241, 0.22301039099693298, -0.5751688480377197, 0.5773076415061951, -0.3246556520462036, 0.6418777108192444, 0.5736245512962341, 0.6897021532058716, 0.48016631603240967, -0.47199273109436035, -0.2968825697898865, -0.7006527781486511, 0.11897838115692139, -0.15324409306049347, 0.5481352806091309, -0.4571836292743683, -0.3844127357006073, 0.8298018574714661, 0.03091398999094963, 0.2968842387199402, 0.19566136598587036, 0.49092167615890503, 0.0540645606815815, -0.2587524950504303, 0.09359050542116165, 0.03598969802260399, 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251074	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond%20Des%C3%A8ze	Raymond Desèze	Raymond Romain, Comte de Sèze or Desèze (26 September 17502 May 1828) was a French advocate. Together with François Tronchet and Malesherbes, he defended Louis XVI, when the king was brought before the Convention for trial. Life Raymond de Sèze was born in Bordeaux, Aquitaine, and studied in the famous law school of that city. He gained a reputation for remarkable passion and persuasivness, and came to prominence in 1789 when he defended the Baron de Bensenval against charges of high treason. When, at forty-four, he was called out of retirement to aid the last push of Louis XVI's defence, he was considered one of the best lawyers in the kingdom. Though he had to prepare his defence arguments in a short amount of time, his brilliance shone through in a first draft that, although moving, Louis rejected as too rhetorical, saying, "I do not want to play on their (the Convention's) feelings". When the time for the real defence came, despite having had no sleep for over four days, he pleaded the king's case for three hours, arguing eloquently yet discreetly that the revolution spare his life. Beginning with a description of why the charges were invalid (under the terms of the constitution of 1791 Louis, as king, was immune from prosecution), he attacked the right of Convention to stand as judge and jury. Finally, he moved to a rejection of the charges in the acte enonciatif drawn up by the constitution charge by charge, with a royalist history of the revolution, portraying Louis as 'the restorer of French Liberty". He finished, like many of the set-piece speeches of the revolution, with an appeal to history: Jean-Paul Marat, the démagogue of the sans-culottes, was favourably impressed, and declared: "de Séze read a long speech made with a great deal of art". The Commune, the most violent of the factions at the time, described the speech as "very adroit". Nevertheless, the case was lost, and the king was sent to the guillotine. de Sèze himself was also imprisoned during the revolution, but he managed to elude the scaffold. After release upon the fall of Robespierre, he disappeared from public life, serving neither the Directory nor the Napoleonic government, both of which he saw as illegitimate. Upon the return of the Bourbons he was made a peer, as well as a judge and a member of the French Academy, before dying at the age of seventy eight. References The King's Trial (Louis XVI vs The French Revolution), David P. Jordan, University of California Press, Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Edition. 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251075	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction%20motor	Induction motor	An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motor's rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type. Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because they are self-starting, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFD) in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load applications. Squirrel-cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency drive applications. History In 1824, the French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's rotations. By manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated this in 1879, effectively the first primitive induction motor. The first commutator-free single-phase AC induction motor was invented by Hungarian engineer Ottó Bláthy; he used the single-phase motor to propel his invention, the electricity meter. The first AC commutator-free polyphase induction motors were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla, a working motor model having been demonstrated by the former in 1885 and by the latter in 1887. Tesla applied for US patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these patents in May 1888. In April 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferraris's research on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation. In May 1888 Tesla presented the technical paper A New System for Alternating Current Motors and Transformers to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) describing three, four-stator-pole motor types: one having a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting reluctance motor, another with a wound rotor forming a self-starting induction motor, and the third a true synchronous motor with a separately excited DC supply to the rotor winding. George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system at that time, licensed Tesla's patents in 1888 and purchased a US patent option on Ferraris' induction motor concept. Tesla was also employed for one year as a consultant. Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at Westinghouse. Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889 and the three-limb transformer in 1890. Furthermore, he claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, which prompted him to persist in his three-phase work. Although Westinghouse achieved its first practical induction motor in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60 hertz induction motors in 1893, these early Westinghouse motors were two-phase motors with wound rotors until B. G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. The General Electric Company (GE) began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891. By 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Arthur E. Kennelly was the first to bring out the full significance of complex numbers (using j to represent the square root of minus one) to designate the 90º rotation operator in analysis of AC problems. GE's Charles Proteus Steinmetz greatly developed application of AC complex quantities including an analysis model now commonly known as the induction motor Steinmetz equivalent circuit. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5-horsepower motor in 1897. Principle of operation 3 phase motor In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motor's stator creates a magnetic field that rotates in synchronism with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an induction motor's rotor rotates at a somewhat slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor stator's magnetic field is therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces an opposing current in the induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary winding, when the latter is short-circuited or closed through an external impedance. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor, in a manner similar to currents induced in a transformer's secondary winding(s). The induced currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field. The direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the change in current through the rotor windings, in agreement with Lenz's Law. The cause of induced current in the rotor windings is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose the change in rotor-winding currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field. The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the applied mechanical load on the rotation of the rotor. Since rotation at synchronous speed would result in no induced rotor current, an induction motor always operates slightly slower than synchronous speed. The difference, or "slip," between actual and synchronous speed varies from about 0.5% to 5.0% for standard Design B torque curve induction motors. The induction motor's essential character is that it is created solely by induction instead of being separately excited as in synchronous or DC machines or being self-magnetized as in permanent magnet motors. For rotor currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field (); otherwise the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field induced in the rotor and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called "slip". Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as "asynchronous motors". An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion. The generating mode for induction motors is complicated by the need to excite the rotor, which begins with only residual magnetization. In some cases, that residual magnetization is enough to self-excite the motor under load. Therefore, it is necessary to either snap the motor and connect it momentarily to a live grid or to add capacitors charged initially by residual magnetism and providing the required reactive power during operation. Similar is the operation of the induction motor in parallel with a synchronous motor serving as a power factor compensator. A feature in the generator mode in parallel to the grid is that the rotor speed is higher than in the driving mode. Then active energy is being given to the grid. Another disadvantage of the induction motor generator is that it consumes a significant magnetizing current I0 = (20-35)%. Synchronous speed An AC motor's synchronous speed, , is the rotation rate of the stator's magnetic field, , where is the frequency of the power supply, is the number of magnetic poles, and is the synchronous speed of the machine. For in hertz and synchronous speed in RPM, the formula becomes: . For example, for a four-pole, three-phase motor, = 4 and = 1,500 RPM (for = 50 Hz) and 1,800 RPM (for = 60 Hz) synchronous speed. The number of magnetic poles, , is equal to the number of coil groups per phase. To determine the number of coil groups per phase in a 3-phase motor, count the number of coils, divide by the number of phases, which is 3. The coils may span several slots in the stator core, making it tedious to count them. For a 3-phase motor, if you count a total of 12 coil groups, it has 4 magnetic poles. For a 12-pole 3-phase machine, there will be 36 coils. The number of magnetic poles in the rotor is equal to the number of magnetic poles in the stator. The two figures at right and left above each illustrate a 2-pole 3-phase machine consisting of three pole-pairs with each pole set 60° apart. Slip Slip, , is defined as the difference between synchronous speed and operating speed, at the same frequency, expressed in rpm, or in percentage or ratio of synchronous speed. Thus where is stator electrical speed, is rotor mechanical speed. Slip, which varies from zero at synchronous speed and 1 when the rotor is stalled, determines the motor's torque. Since the short-circuited rotor windings have small resistance, even a small slip induces a large current in the rotor and produces significant torque. At full rated load, slip varies from more than 5% for small or special purpose motors to less than 1% for large motors. These speed variations can cause load-sharing problems when differently sized motors are mechanically connected. Various methods are available to reduce slip, VFDs often offering the best solution. Torque Standard torque The typical speed-torque relationship of a standard NEMA Design B polyphase induction motor is as shown in the curve at right. Suitable for most low performance loads such as centrifugal pumps and fans, Design B motors are constrained by the following typical torque ranges: Breakdown torque (peak torque), 175–300% of rated torque Locked-rotor torque (torque at 100% slip), 75–275% of rated torque Pull-up torque, 65–190% of rated torque. Over a motor's normal load range, the torque's slope is approximately linear or proportional to slip because the value of rotor resistance divided by slip, , dominates torque in a linear manner. As load increases above rated load, stator and rotor leakage reactance factors gradually become more significant in relation to such that torque gradually curves towards breakdown torque. As the load torque increases beyond breakdown torque the motor stalls. Starting There are three basic types of small induction motors: split-phase single-phase, shaded-pole single-phase, and polyphase. In two-pole single-phase motors, the torque goes to zero at 100% slip (zero speed), so these require alterations to the stator such as shaded-poles to provide starting torque. A single phase induction motor requires separate starting circuitry to provide a rotating field to the motor. The normal running windings within such a single-phase motor can cause the rotor to turn in either direction, so the starting circuit determines the operating direction. In certain smaller single-phase motors, starting is done by means of a copper wire turn around part of a pole; such a pole is referred to as a shaded pole. The current induced in this turn lags behind the supply current, creating a delayed magnetic field around the shaded part of the pole face. This imparts sufficient rotational field energy to start the motor. These motors are typically used in applications such as desk fans and record players, as the required starting torque is low, and the low efficiency is tolerable relative to the reduced cost of the motor and starting method compared to other AC motor designs. Larger single phase motors are split-phase motors and have a second stator winding fed with out-of-phase current; such currents may be created by feeding the winding through a capacitor or having it receive different values of inductance and resistance from the main winding. In capacitor-start designs, the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed, usually either by a centrifugal switch acting on weights on the motor shaft or a thermistor which heats up and increases its resistance, reducing the current through the second winding to an insignificant level. The capacitor-run designs keep the second winding on when running, improving torque. A resistance start design uses a starter inserted in series with the startup winding, creating reactance. Self-starting polyphase induction motors produce torque even at standstill. Available squirrel-cage induction motor starting methods include direct-on-line starting, reduced-voltage reactor or auto-transformer starting, star-delta starting or, increasingly, new solid-state soft assemblies and, of course, variable frequency drives (VFDs). Polyphase motors have rotor bars shaped to give different speed-torque characteristics. The current distribution within the rotor bars varies depending on the frequency of the induced current. At standstill, the rotor current is the same frequency as the stator current, and tends to travel at the outermost parts of the cage rotor bars (by skin effect). The different bar shapes can give usefully different speed-torque characteristics as well as some control over the inrush current at startup. Although polyphase motors are inherently self-starting, their starting and pull-up torque design limits must be high enough to overcome actual load conditions. In wound rotor motors, rotor circuit connection through slip rings to external resistances allows change of speed-torque characteristics for acceleration control and speed control purposes. Speed control Resistance Before the development of semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to vary the frequency, and cage induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed applications. Applications such as electric overhead cranes used DC drives or wound rotor motors (WRIM) with slip rings for rotor circuit connection to variable external resistance allowing considerable range of speed control. However, resistor losses associated with low speed operation of WRIMs is a major cost disadvantage, especially for constant loads. Large slip ring motor drives, termed slip energy recovery systems, some still in use, recover energy from the rotor circuit, rectify it, and return it to the power system using a VFD. Cascade The speed of a pair of slip-ring motors can be controlled by a cascade connection, or concatenation. The rotor of one motor is connected to the stator of the other. If the two motors are also mechanically connected, they will run at half speed. This system was once widely used in three-phase AC railway locomotives, such as FS Class E.333. By the turn of this century, however, such cascade-based electromechanical systems became much more efficiently and economically solved using power semiconductor elements solutions. Variable-frequency drive In many industrial variable-speed applications, DC and WRIM drives are being displaced by VFD-fed cage induction motors. The most common efficient way to control asynchronous motor speed of many loads is with VFDs. Barriers to adoption of VFDs due to cost and reliability considerations have been reduced considerably over the past three decades such that it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many as 30–40% of all newly installed motors. Variable frequency drives implement the scalar or vector control of an induction motor. With scalar control, only the magnitude and frequency of the supply voltage are controlled without phase control (absent feedback by rotor position). Scalar control is suitable for application where the load is constant. Vector control allows independent control of the speed and torque of the motor, making it possible to maintain a constant rotation speed at varying load torque. But vector control is more expensive because of the cost of the sensor (not always) and the requirement for a more powerful controller. Construction The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, windings are distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same number of north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number of phases. Many single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since a capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90° from the single-phase supply and feeds it to the second motor winding. Single-phase motors require some mechanism to produce a rotating field on startup. Induction motors using a squirrel-cage rotor rotor winding may have the rotor bars skewed slightly to smooth out torque in each revolution. Standardized NEMA & IEC motor frame sizes throughout the industry result in interchangeable dimensions for shaft, foot mounting, general aspects as well as certain motor flange aspect. Since an open, drip proof (ODP) motor design allows a free air exchange from outside to the inner stator windings, this style of motor tends to be slightly more efficient because the windings are cooler. At a given power rating, lower speed requires a larger frame. Rotation reversal The method of changing the direction of rotation of an induction motor depends on whether it is a three-phase or single-phase machine. A three-phase motor can be reversed by swapping any two of its phase connections. Motors required to change direction regularly (such as hoists) will have extra switching contacts in their controller to reverse rotation as needed. A variable frequency drive nearly always permits reversal by electronically changing the phase sequence of voltage applied to the motor. In a single-phase split-phase motor, reversal is achieved by reversing the connections of the starting winding. Some motors bring out the start winding connections to allow selection of rotation direction at installation. If the start winding is permanently connected within the motor, it is impractical to reverse the sense of rotation. Single-phase shaded-pole motors have a fixed rotation unless a second set of shading windings is provided. Power factor The power factor of induction motors varies with load, typically from around 0.85 or 0.90 at full load to as low as about 0.20 at no-load, due to stator and rotor leakage and magnetizing reactances. Power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors either on an individual motor basis or, by preference, on a common bus covering several motors. For economic and other considerations, power systems are rarely power factor corrected to unity power factor. Power capacitor application with harmonic currents requires power system analysis to avoid harmonic resonance between capacitors and transformer and circuit reactances. Common bus power factor correction is recommended to minimize resonant risk and to simplify power system analysis. Efficiency Full-load motor efficiency is around 85–97%, related motor losses being broken down roughly as follows: Friction and windage, 5–15% Iron or core losses, 15–25% Stator losses, 25–40% Rotor losses, 15–25% Stray load losses, 10–20%. Various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher efficiency electric motors. There is existing and forthcoming legislation regarding the future mandatory use of premium-efficiency induction-type motors in defined equipment. For more information, see: Premium efficiency. Steinmetz equivalent circuit Many useful motor relationships between time, current, voltage, speed, power factor, and torque can be obtained from analysis of the Steinmetz equivalent circuit (also termed T-equivalent circuit or IEEE recommended equivalent circuit), a mathematical model used to describe how an induction motor's electrical input is transformed into useful mechanical energy output. The equivalent circuit is a single-phase representation of a multiphase induction motor that is valid in steady-state balanced-load conditions. The Steinmetz equivalent circuit is expressed simply in terms of the following components: Stator resistance and leakage reactance (, ). Rotor resistance, leakage reactance, and slip (, or , , and ). Magnetizing reactance (). Paraphrasing from Alger in Knowlton, an induction motor is simply an electrical transformer the magnetic circuit of which is separated by an air gap between the stator winding and the moving rotor winding. The equivalent circuit can accordingly be shown either with equivalent circuit components of respective windings separated by an ideal transformer or with rotor components referred to the stator side as shown in the following circuit and associated equation and parameter definition tables. The following rule-of-thumb approximations apply to the circuit: Maximum current happens under locked rotor current (LRC) conditions and is somewhat less than , with LRC typically ranging between 6 and 7 times rated current for standard Design B motors. Breakdown torque happens when and such that and thus, with constant voltage input, a low-slip induction motor's percent-rated maximum torque is about half its percent-rated LRC. The relative stator to rotor leakage reactance of standard Design B cage induction motors is . Neglecting stator resistance, an induction motor's torque curve reduces to the Kloss equation , where is slip at . Linear induction motor Linear induction motors, which work on the same general principles as rotary induction motors (frequently three-phase), are designed to produce straight line motion. Uses include magnetic levitation, linear propulsion, linear actuators, and liquid metal pumping. See also AC motor Circle diagram Induction generator Premium efficiency Variable refrigerant flow Notes References Classical sources External links Who Invented the Polyphase Electric Motor? Silvanus Phillips Thompson: Polyphase electric currents and alternate current motors Induction motor topics from Hyperphysics website hosted by C.R. Nave, GSU Physics and Astronomy Dept. 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251076	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Monckton%20Milnes%2C%201st%20Baron%20Houghton	Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton	Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton, FRS (19 June 1809 – 11 August 1885) was an English poet, patron of literature and a politician who strongly supported social justice. Background and education Milnes was born in London, the son of Robert Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall, Castleford, West Yorkshire, and the Honourable Henrietta, daughter of Robert Monckton-Arundell, 4th Viscount Galway. His grandmother was Rachel Slater Milnes (née Busk, 1760-1835), niece of Sir Wadsworth Busk. Milnes was educated privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827. There he was drawn into a literary set, and became a member of the famous Apostles Club, which then included Alfred Lord Tennyson, Arthur Hallam, Richard Chenevix Trench, Joseph Williams Blakesley, and others. After graduating with an M.A. in 1831, Milnes travelled abroad, spending some time at the University of Bonn. He went to Italy and Greece, and published in 1834 a volume of Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece, describing his experiences. Political career Milnes returned to London in 1837, and was elected to Parliament as member for Pontefract as a Conservative. In parliament he interested himself particularly in the question of copyright and the conditions of reformatory schools. He left Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel's party over the Corn Law controversy, and was afterwards identified in politics with Lord Palmerston. His easy good nature had the effect that his political career was viewed with less seriousness by his contemporaries than it might otherwise have been. In 1848, he went to Paris to see something of the revolution, and to fraternise with both sides. On his return he wrote, as a ‘Letter to Lord Lansdowne,' 1848, a pamphlet on the events of that year, in which he offended the conservatives by his sympathy with continental liberalism, and in particular with the struggle of Italy against Austria. During the Chartist riots of 1848, Matthew Arnold wrote to his mother:Tell Miss Martineau it is said here that Monckton Milnes refused to be sworn in a special constable, that he might be free to assume the post of President of the Republic at a moment's notice. In 1863, Palmerston elevated Milnes to the peerage as Baron Houghton, of Great Houghton in the West Riding of the County of York. George W. E. Russell said of him: "As years advanced he became not (as the manner of most men is) less Liberal, but more so; keener in sympathy with all popular causes; livelier in his indignation against monopoly and injustice." Literary career Milnes' literary career was often influenced by church matters. He wrote a tract in 1841, which was praised by John Henry Newman. He took part in the discussion about "Essays and Reviews", defending the tractarian position in One Tract More (1841). He published two volumes of verse in 1838, Memorials of Residence upon the Continent and Poems of Many Years, Poetry for the People in 1840 and Palm Leaves in 1844. He also wrote a Life and Letters of Keats in 1848, the material for which was largely provided by the poet's friend, Charles Armitage Brown. Milnes' ballads were among the most popular of their day. In 1868, Lord Houghton was elected to the Royal Society. In 1870, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. Despite his piety, he had apparently an almost unsurpassed collection of erotic literature, which he bequeathed to the British Library, a collection known to few in his lifetime. A man whom his biographer Saunders said, "had many fine tastes and some coarse ones," Milnes authored The Rodiad, a pornographic poem on the subject of flagellation. However, his chief distinctions were his sense of literary merit in others, and the way he fostered it. He was surrounded by the most brilliant men of his time, many of whom he had been the first to acclaim. His reputation rests largely on the part he played, as a man of influence in society and in moulding public opinion on literary matters, in connection with his large circle of talented friends. He secured a pension for Tennyson, helped to make Ralph Waldo Emerson known in Britain, and was one of the earliest champions of Algernon Charles Swinburne. He helped David Gray by writing a preface for The Luggie. He helped to obtain a job for Coventry Patmore at the British Museum. He was, in the traditional sense, a patron of literature, who never abused the privileges of his position. Women's rights He admired the literacy brilliance in female writers and was a firm friend of the Gaskell family of Manchester. A champion of women's rights, in 1871 he served as a vice-president on the Leeds Committee of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science and was president of the association in 1873. He supported Meta, the daughter of novelist Elizabeth Gaskell in her work as the Representative of the Manchester Ladies' Educational Association and on The North of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women. The Spectator reported upon Meta's death in 1913 that, "Lord Houghton once said that the conversation and society to be met with in the house of the Gaskells at Manchester – Plymouth Grove – were the one thing which made life in that city tolerable for people of literary tastes". Personal life Milnes was a persistent suitor of Florence Nightingale (who finally refused to marry him), and one of her staunchest supporters along with the statesman Sidney Herbert. On 30 July 1851, he married the Honourable Annabella Hungerford Crewe, daughter of John Crewe, 2nd Baron Crewe. Together they had three children: Hon. Amicia Henrietta Milnes (d. 4 Jul 1902). She married Sir Gerald FitzGerald. They had one known son, archaeologist Capt. Gerald Milnes FitzGerald (b. 5 October 1883). Hon. Florence Ellen Hungerford Milnes (d. 4 Apr 1923). She married Maj.-Gen. Arthur Henry Henniker-Major, son of John Henniker-Major, 4th Baron Henniker. They had no issue. Lord Robert Offley Ashburton Crewe-Milnes, 1st and last Marquess of Crewe (12 Jan 1858 – 20 Jun 1945) She died in 1874. Lord Houghton died at Vichy, France, in August 1885, aged 76, and was buried at Fryston. He was succeeded in the barony by his son, Robert, who became a prominent Liberal statesman and was created Earl of Crewe in 1895 and Marquess of Crewe in 1911. Richard and Annabella's two daughters were Amicia Henrietta and the novelist Florence Henniker. Milnes took an interest in parapsychology and was a member of the Society for Psychical Research. References Attribution External links 1809 births 1885 deaths Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Fellows of the Royal Society Presidents of the Royal Statistical Society Barons Houghton Parapsychologists Patrons of literature Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies UK MPs 1837–1841 UK MPs 1841–1847 UK MPs 1847–1852 UK MPs 1852–1857 UK MPs 1857–1859 UK MPs 1859–1865 UK MPs who were granted peerages Bibliophiles English male poets 19th-century English poets Members of the American Antiquarian Society Peers of the United Kingdom created by Queen Victoria	[ -0.2674363851547241, 0.6317510604858398, -0.7683079242706299, -0.5150639414787292, -0.6257356405258179, 1.0301369428634644, 0.8249131441116333, 0.22825217247009277, -0.3353562355041504, -0.032234158366918564, -0.4619045853614807, -0.011983469128608704, -0.2971736490726471, 0.5454471707344055, 0.20516721904277802, -0.26124271750450134, -0.5540181994438171, 0.12709829211235046, -0.2204398661851883, -0.17873018980026245, 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251077	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Blakesley	Joseph Blakesley	Joseph Williams Blakesley (6 March 1808 – 18 April 1885) was an English clergyman. Life Blakesley was born in London and was educated at St Paul's School, London, and at Corpus Christi and Trinity College, Cambridge. At university he became a member of the "Apostles Club", along with Alfred Tennyson and other literary names. In 1831 he was elected a fellow, and in 1839 a tutor of Trinity. In 1833 he took holy orders and from 1845 to 1872 held the college living of Ware, Hertfordshire. Over the signature "Hertfordshire Incumbent" he contributed a large number of letters to The Times on the leading social and political subjects of the day, and he also wrote many reviews of books for that paper. In 1863 he was made a canon of Canterbury Cathedral and in 1872 Dean of Lincoln. Blakesley was the author of the first English Life of Aristotle (1839), an edition of Herodotus (1852–1854) in the Bibliotheca Classica, and Four Months in Algeria (1859). References Attribution External links 1808 births 1885 deaths People educated at St Paul's School, London Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Canons of Canterbury Deans of Lincoln English classical scholars English male writers	[ 0.1477579027414322, 0.468789666891098, -0.5967708230018616, -0.8033227920532227, 0.0961802750825882, 1.2189956903457642, 1.022989273071289, -0.16789117455482483, -0.024145280942320824, -0.3108721971511841, 0.15010225772857666, 0.10654637962579727, -0.5627988576889038, 0.5629807114601135, -0.287274569272995, 0.4191877841949463, -0.4197002947330475, -0.2738889157772064, -0.6981451511383057, -0.5141759514808655, -0.3170112073421478, -0.394574910402298, 0.48309898376464844, -0.20661592483520508, -0.2955383360385895, -0.05853363126516342, -0.1479913741350174, -0.319008469581604, 0.13246315717697144, -0.753415048122406, 0.508571982383728, 0.5574507117271423, 0.8988111019134521, -0.0683363601565361, -0.11991183459758759, 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251081	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asha%20Bhosle	Asha Bhosle	Asha Bhosle (; Mangeshkar; born 8 September 1933) is an Indian playback singer, entrepreneur and occasional actress and television personality who predominantly works in Indian Cinema. Known for her versatility, she has been described in the media as one of the most influential and successful singers in Hindi Cinema. In her career spanning over eight decades she has recorded songs for films and albums in various Indian languages and received several accolades including two National Film Awards, four BFJA Awards, eighteen Maharashtra State Film Awards, nine Filmfare Awards including a Lifetime Achievement Award and a record seven Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer, in addition to two Grammy nominations. In 2000, she was honoured with the Dadasaheb Phalke Award, India's highest award in the field of cinema. In 2008, she was honoured by the Government of India with the Padma Vibhushan, the second-highest civilian honour of the country. Additionally she holds the Guinness World Record for the most studio recordings - singles. Bhosle is the sister of playback singer Lata Mangeshkar and belongs to the prominent Mangeshkar family. Renowned for her soprano voice range and often credited for her versatility, Bhosle's work includes film music, pop, ghazals, bhajans, traditional Indian classical music, folk songs, qawwalis, and Rabindra Sangeet. Apart from Hindi, she has sung in over 20 Indian and foreign languages. In 2013, she made her debut as an actress in the film Mai, and received critical acclaim for her performance. In 2006, Bhosle stated that she has recorded over twelve thousand songs in her career. a figure repeated by several other sources. Early life and career Asha Mangeshkar was born in the small hamlet of Goar in Sangli, then in the salute princely state of Sangli (now in Maharashtra), into the musical family of Deenanath Mangeshkar, who was Marathi and Konkani, and his Gujarati wife, Shevanti. Deenanath was an actor and classical singer on the Marathi Musical stage. When Asha was nine years old, her father died. The family moved from Pune to Kolhapur and then to Mumbai. She and her elder sister Lata Mangeshkar began singing and acting in films to support their family. She sang her first film song '"Chala Chala Nav Bala" for the Marathi film Majha Bal (1943). The music for the film was composed by Datta Davjekar. She made her Hindi film debut when she sang the song "Saawan Aaya" for Hansraj Behl's Chunariya (1948). Her first solo Hindi film song was for the movie Raat Ki Raani (1949). At the age of 16, she eloped with 31-year-old Ganpatrao Bhosle, marrying him against her family's wishes. Career In the early 1960s, prominent playback singers such as Geeta Dutt, Shamshad Begum, and Lata Mangeshkar dominated the singing for the female lead and the big films. Asha used to get the assignments they refused, singing for the bad girls and vamps, or songs in low-budget movies. In the 1950s, she sang more songs than most playback singers in Hindi films. Most of these were in low budget B- or C-grade films. Her earliest songs were composed by A. R. Qureshi, Sajjad Hussain, and Ghulam Mohammed, and most of these songs failed to do well. Singing in Sangdil (1952), composed by Sajjad Hussain, she got reasonable recognition. Consequently, film director Bimal Roy gave her a chance to sing in Parineeta (1953). Raj Kapoor signed her to sing "Nanhe Munne Bachche" with Mohammed Rafi in Boot Polish (1954), which gained popularity. O. P. Nayyar gave Asha a break in C.I.D. (1956). She first achieved success in B. R. Chopra's Naya Daur (1957), composed by him. Her duets with Rafi like "Maang Ke Saath Tumhara", "Saathi Haath Badhana" and "Uden Jab Jab Zulfein Teri", penned by Sahir Ludhianvi, earned her recognition. It was the first time she sang all the songs for a film's leading actress. Chopra approached her for several of his later productions, including Gumrah (1963), Waqt (1965), Hamraaz (1967), Aadmi Aur Insaan (1966) and Dhund (1973). Nayyar's future collaboration with Bhosle also resulted in success. Gradually, she established her status and received the patronage of such composers as Sachin Dev Burman and Ravi. Bhosle and Nayyar had a professional and personal parting of ways in the 1970s. In 1966, Bhosle's performances in the duets from one of music director R.D. Burman's first soundtracks, for the movie Teesri Manzil, won popular acclaim. Reportedly, when she first heard the dance number "Aaja Aaja", she felt she would not be able to sing this westernised tune. While Burman offered to change the music, she refused, taking it as a challenge. She completed the song after ten days of rehearsals, and "Aaja Aaja", along with such other songs as "O Haseena Zulfonwali" and "O Mere Sona Re" (all three duets with Rafi), became successful. Shammi Kapoor, the film's leading actor, was once quoted as saying– "If I did not have Mohammad Rafi to sing for me, I would have got Asha Bhosle to do the job". Bhosle's collaboration with Burman resulted in numerous hits and a marriage. During the 1960-70s, she was the voice of Hind film actress and dancer, Helen, on whom "O Haseena Zulfon Wali" was picturised. It is said that Helen would attend her recording sessions so that she could understand the song better and plan dance steps accordingly. Some of their other popular numbers include "Piya Tu Ab To Aaja" (Caravan) and "Yeh Mera Dil" (Don), among others. By the 1980s, Bhosle, although highly regarded for her abilities and versatility, had sometimes been stereotyped as a "cabaret singer" and a "pop crooner". In 1981 she attempted a different genre by singing several ghazals for the Rekha-starrer Umrao Jaan, including "Dil Cheez Kya Hai", "In Aankhon Ki Masti Ke", "Yeh Kya Jagah Hai Doston" and "Justuju Jiski Thi". The film's music director Khayyam, had lowered her pitch by half a note. Bhosle herself expressed surprise that she could sing so differently. The ghazals won her the first National Film Award of her career. A few years later, she won another National Award for the song "Mera Kuchh Saamaan" from Ijaazat (1987). In 1995, 62-year-old Bhosle sang for actress Urmila Matondkar in the movie Rangeela. The soundtrack featured songs like "Tanha Tanha" and "Rangeela Re" sung by her, and composed by music director A. R. Rahman, who would go on to record several songs with her. During the 2000s, several of Bhosle's numbers became chartbusters, including "Radha Kaise Na Jale" from Lagaan (2001), "Kambakht Ishq" from Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya (2001), "Yeh Lamha" from Filhaal (2002) and "Lucky Lips" from Lucky (2005). In October 2004, The Very Best of Asha Bhosle, The Queen of Bollywood, a compilation album of songs recorded by Bhosle for albums and Hindi language films that were released between 1966 and 2003, was released. In 2012 she judged Sur Kshetra. In 2013, Bhosle debuted in the film Mai in the title role, at the age of 79. Bhosle played the role of a 65-year-old mother who suffers from Alzheimer's disease and is abandoned by her children. She received positive reviews for her acting as well from critics. In May 2020, Bhosle launched her YouTube channel named Asha Bhosle Official. Partnership with music directors O. P. Nayyar Music director O. P. Nayyar's association with Asha is part of Hindi film lore. He was the composer who first gave Asha her own identity. Many people have speculated about a romantic relationship between the two. Nayyar first met Asha in 1952, at the music recording of Chham Chhama Chham. He first called her for a film called Mangu (1954), and gave her a big break in C.I.D. (1956). However, it was the success of Naya Daur (1957) that made the duo very popular. After 1959, she was emotionally and professionally involved with Nayyar. The team of O. P. Nayyar and Asha Bhosle is best remembered for their breezy and sometimes sirenish songs. Some good examples of their sensuous numbers are "Aaiye Meherbaan" picturised on Madhubala (Howrah Bridge, 1958) and "Yeh Hai Reshmi Zulfon Ka Andhera", (Mere Sanam, 1965). "Aao Huzoor Tumko" (Kismat) and "Jaaiye Aap Kahan" (Mere Sanam) were also popular. They also recorded songs for many hit movies like Tumsa Nahin Dekha (1957), Ek Musafir Ek Hasina (1962) and Kashmir Ki Kali (1964). O. P. Nayyar used the Asha Bhosle-Mohammad Rafi duo for his most popular duets such as "Ude Jab Jab Zulfein Teri" (Naya Daur), "Main Pyaar Ka Rahi Hoon" (Ek Musafir Ek Haseena), "Deewana Hua Baadal" and "Ishaaron Ishaaron Mein" (Kashmir Ki Kali). Asha recorded her last song for O. P. Nayyar in the movie Pran Jaye Par Vachan Na Jaye (1974). The solo number "Chain Se Humko Kabhi" garnered many awards, but it was not included in the movie. They separated on 5 August 1972. It is not clear what made them part their ways. On being asked the reason for their parting, O. P. Nayyar once said, "I know astrology very well. I knew that one day I had to part with her. Something also happened that upset me, so I left her." Nevertheless, he also said "...now that I am seventy-six, I can say that the most important person in my life was Asha Bhosle. She was the best person I ever met." The parting of Asha Bhosle and O. P. Nayyar was bitter, and probably therefore she has hesitated to give Nayyar his due. While talking about O. P. Nayyar in an interview with The Times of India, she once remarked, "Whichever composer gave me work, it was because my voice was suited to his music at that point. No one musician did me any favor by asking me to sing for him." She gives the credit for her first big break to B. R. Chopra, the producer of Naya Daur. Khayyam Another music director who recognized Asha's talent early was Khayyam. Their partnership dates back to his first movie Biwi (1948). Khayyam gave her some good assignments in the 1950s, including Dard and Phir Subah Hogi. However, their collaboration is chiefly remembered for the songs of Umrao Jaan. Ravi Music composer Ravi considered Asha one of his favorite singers. She sang for his first movie Vachan (1955). The melodious lullaby from this movie, "Chanda Mama Door Ke" became an overnight hit among young mothers in India. Ravi got her to sing bhajans for the movies Gharana, Grihasti, Kaajal and Phool Aur Patthar, at a time when most of the composers remembered her only when they needed to record B-grade songs picturized on the vamps or the side-heroines. Ravi and Asha recorded a variety of songs, including the popular comic duet with Kishore Kumar – "C A T...Cat. Cat Maane Billi" (Dilli Ka Thug). The bhajan "Tora Man Darpan" (Kaajal) attained great popularity. They also recorded songs for many popular movies like Waqt, Chaudhvin Ka Chand, Gumrah, Bahu Beti, China Town, Aadmi Aur Insaan, Dhund and Hamraaz. For Chaudhvin Ka Chand, Ravi wanted Geeta Dutt (the wife of actor and producer Guru Dutt) to sing the songs. But when she backed out, Guru Dutt insisted that Asha sing the songs. Sachin Dev Burman One of Hindi film industry's most famous composers, Sachin Dev Burman and his favorite singer, Lata Mangeshkar, were not on good terms from 1957 to 1962. During this period, S D Burman used Asha as his lead female voice. She and Burman gave many hit songs in movies such as Kaala Pani, Kaala Bazaar, Insaan Jaag Utha, Lajwanti, Sujata and Teen Deviyaan (1965). They recorded many songs together after 1962 as well. Most famous of these songs were Asha's duets with Kishore Kumar and Mohammed Rafi.The song "Ab Ke Baras" in Bimal Roy's Bandini (1963) consolidated her position as a lead singer. The seductive song "Raat Akeli Hai" from Jewel Thief (1967), picturised on Tanuja, became very popular. Rahul Dev Burman (Pancham) Asha first met Rahul Dev Burman (also known as Pancham) when she was the mother of two and he was in 10th grade having dropped out to pursue music. Their partnership was first noticed in Teesri Manzil (1966). She went on to record a variety of songs with him – cabarets, rock, disco, ghazals and classical. In the 1970s, Asha and Burman's youthful Western songs took Hindi film music by storm – the raunchy cabaret "Piya Tu Ab To Aaja" (Caravan, picturized on Helen), the rebellious "Dum Maro Dum" (Hare Rama Hare Krishna, 1971), the sexy "Duniya Mein" (Apna Desh, 1972) and the romantic "Chura Liyaa Hai Tumne" (Yaadon Ki Baaraat, 1973). Burman also recorded many hit duets with Asha and Kishore Kumar such as "Jaane Jaan" (Jawani Diwani) and "Bhali Bhali Si Ek Soorat" (Buddha Mil Gaya). In the 1980s, Burman and Asha recorded subtle numbers for films like Ijaazat (1987) - "Mera Kuch Saaman", "Khaali Haath Shaam Aayi Hai" and "Katra Katra". They also recorded the popular duet "O Maria!" (Saagar). Asha used to call R. D. Burman "Bubs". She married him in 1980. Their partnership lasted until his death. R. D. Burman made her sing some of the most legendary songs in Bengali as well, namely "Mohuyae Jomechhe Aaj Mou Go", "Chokhe Chokhe Kotha Bolo", "Chokhhe Naame Brishti" (Bengali version of "Jaane Kya Baat Hai"), "Baanshi Sune Ki Ghore Thaka Jaye", "Sondhya Belae Tumi Aami" and "Aaj Gungun Gun Gunje Amar" (Bengali version of "Pyaar Deewana Hota Hai"). Ilaiyaraaja Prolific Indian film composer Ilaiyaraaja began employing Asha's vocals in the early 1980s, their earliest collaboration being for the film Moondram Pirai (1982) (remade in Hindi as Sadma in 1983). Their association continued, mostly through the latter half of the 1980s and early 1990s. Another notable song from this period is "Shenbagamae" for the movie Enga Ooru Pattukaran in 1987. In 2000, Asha sung the theme song for Kamal Haasan's political film Hey Ram. The song, "Nee Partha Parvai" in Tamil and Janmon Ki Jwala in Hindi (or Aparna's Theme), was a duet with singer Hariharan. A. R. Rahman A. R. Rahman is credited with Asha's "comeback" with Rangeela (1994). Songs like "Tanha Tanha" and "Rangeela Re" were chartbusters. She and Rahman went on to record more hits like "Mujhe Rang De" (Thakshak), "Radha Kaise Na Jale" (Lagaan, duet with Udit Narayan), "Kahin Aag Lage" (Taal), "O Bhanware" (Daud, duet with K. J. Yesudas), "Venilla Venilla" (Iruvar, 1999), "September Madham" (Alaipayuthey, 2000) and "Dhuan Dhuan" (Meenaxi, 2004). Jaidev When S D Burman's assistant Jaidev started giving music independently, he got Asha to sing some of his songs as well. They worked in Hum Dono (1961), Mujhe Jeene Do (1963), Do Boond Pani (1971) and other movies. In 1971, the pair released an LP of eight non-film devotional songs and ghazals called An Unforgettable Treat. Asha considered Jaidev a close friend who stood by her when she was struggling personally and professionally. Upon his death in 1987, she released a compilation album of lesser-known songs he had composed for her, called Suranjali. Shankar–Jaikishan Shankar–Jaikishan worked with Asha, although not as extensively as some other composers did. However, the trio produced quite a few hits including the seductive "Parde Mein Rehne Do" (Shikar, 1968). Asha got her second Filmfare Award for the song. She also sang "Zindagi Ek Safar Hai Suhana" (Andaz, 1971) for Shankar–Jaikishan, in which she tried to yodel like Kishore Kumar, whose version of the song is more popular. Shankar–Jaikishan also used her voice in Boot Polish (1954), Shree 420 (1955), Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai (1960), Junglee (1961), An Evening in Paris (1968), and Kal Aaj Aur Kal (1971), among others. When Raj Kapoor was not on speaking terms with Lata Mangeshkar, Asha sang the songs of Mera Naam Joker (1970). Anu Malik Composer Anu Malik and Asha have recorded many hit singles together, including songs for his first movie Sohni Mahiwal (1984). Their most popular songs include "Ye Lamhaa Filhaal" (Filhaal) and "Kitabein Bahut Si" (Baazigar) among others. The four lines sung by Asha in Malik's "Jab Dil Mile" (Yaadein) stood out among voices of Sukhwinder Singh, Udit Narayan and Sunidhi Chauhan. Asha had also sung for Anu's father Sardar Malik in the 1950s and 1960s, most notably in Saranga (1960). Other composers Madan Mohan recorded a number of songs with Asha, including the popular folk number "Jhumka Gira Re" picturised on Sadhana from Mera Saaya (1966). In Chhoti Si Baat (1975), Asha sang the "Jaaneman Jaaneman" number with K. J. Yesudas for Salil Chowdhury. Salil's 1956 movie Jagte Raho also had a number recorded by Asha, "Thandi Thandi Saawan Ki Phuhaar". Another Asha patron is the young composer Sandeep Chowta, who got her to sing "Kambakht Ishq", a duet with Sonu Nigam for the movie Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya (2001). The song gained major popularity among the Indian youth. Asha has worked with Lata-patrons like Laxmikant–Pyarelal, Naushad Ali, Ravindra Jain, N. Dutta and Hemant Kumar. When Naushad was asked to sum up the essential difference between Lata and Asha, he said that Asha "lacks certain something which Lata, and Lata alone has." Later he stated in an interview, "Maybe I said it because I then had a closed ear on Asha". Naushad, later in his life, also admitted that he has been unfair to Asha. Asha has also worked with other noted Hindi film composers like Jatin–Lalit, Bappi Lahiri, Kalyanji-Anandji, Usha Khanna, Chitragupt, and Roshan. Non-film music Private albums In a rare feat, noted lyricist Gulzar, music director R.D. Burman and Asha Bhosle came together in 1987 to create a double album, titled Dil Padosi Hai, which was released on 8 September 1987. In 1995, Asha underwent the gatha bandan (thread-tying) ceremony with Hindustani classical music maestro Ali Akbar Khan to learn a classical repertoire held within the Maihar gharana (stylistic school of Indian classical music), as handed down to Khan by his father Allauddin Khan (the guru of Ravi Shankar). Later, Asha and Ustad Ali Akbar Khan recorded eleven fixed compositions (or bandishes) in California for Legacy, a private album that earned them a Grammy Award nomination. In the 1990s, Asha experimented with remixed R.D. Burman songs. She was criticized by many, including Khayyam, for tampering with old melodies. Nevertheless, albums like Rahul And I became quite popular. In 1997, Asha did a private Indipop album Janam Samjha Karo with Lesle Lewis. The album was hugely popular and won her many awards including the 1997 MTV Award. Asha had been once asked by director B. R. Ishara to compose music for one of his films, but she had politely declined. In 2002, she turned music composer with the album Aap Ki Asha, an eight-song music and video album. The lyrics were written by Majrooh Sultanpuri. The album was released by Sachin Tendulkar on 21 May 2001 at a lavish party in Mumbai. The album received mixed reviews. Asha had spotted Pakistani singer Adnan Sami's talent when he was about 10 years old. At that time, she was performing in London with R. D. Burman. It was she who had asked him to pursue his interests in music. When Adnan grew up and became a professional musician, Asha sang the title duet with him for his best-selling album Kabhi to nazar milao. The two came together again in the album Barse Badal. The album comprises eight songs, based on Indian Classical music. She contributed the song Yun Na Thi to the recording Womad Talking Book Volume Four: An Introduction to Asia 1 on Womad Records. Asha has sung ghazals for many albums like Meraj-E-Ghazal, Aabshar-e-Ghazal and Kashish. In 2005, Asha released a self-titled album as a tribute to the four ghazal maestros – Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, Farida Khanum and Jagjit Singh. The album features eight of her favorite ghazals like Farida Khanum's Aaj Jaane Ki Zid Na Karo, Ghulam Ali's Chupke Chupke, Aawargi and Dil Mein Ek Lahar, Jagjit Singh's Ahista Ahista and Mehdi Hassan's Ranjish Hi Sahi, Rafta Rafta and Mujhe Tum Nazar Se. These classic ghazals were recreated with modern sounds by musician Pandit Somesh Mathur. The album was aimed at the younger generation, who, according to Asha, are "turned off" by the traditional sounds of tabla and sarangi. Numerous compilations of Asha's songs have been released as well. To commemorate her 60th birthday, EMI India released three cassettes: Bala Main Bairagan Hoongi (devotional songs), The Golden Collection: Memorable Ghazals (non-film ghazals by composers such as Ghulam Ali, R.D. Burman and Nazar Hussain), and The Golden Collection: The Ever Versatile Asha Bhosle (44 popular film songs). In 1996, Asha Bhosle sang Channeache Rati among several other songs in Rajendra Talak's Konkani album Daryachya Deger with Suresh Wadkar. In 2006, she recorded an album Asha and Friends, singing duets, with film actors Sanjay Dutt and Urmila Matondkar and famous cricket player Brett Lee, with whom she sang, "You're the One for Me" (Haan Main Tumhara Hoon). All these songs composed by Shamir Tandon were shot on video by journalist turned director S. Ramachandran. In 2014, she sang a song titled "Dil Lagane Ko Dil Jab" for the International Women's Day special album, Women's Day Special: Spreading Melodies Everywhere. It was composed by Shamir Tandon and penned by Saajan Agarwal. In 2015, Asha Bhosle recorded a Sufi song, "Fariyad Sun Fakira" with co-singers Javed Ali and Pankaj Kumar. In 2016, she recorded the album "82" with music director Mandar Agashe who decorated six of Suresh Bhat's ghazals with his musical touch of pop, reggae, blues, and rock. The album was named after her age at the time of recording. About the album "82", Bhosle said, "I had a long association with Suresh Bhat and have a lot of memories about him. With this album, I will relive those memories. I don't need to tell you how powerful his words were and, with the album, that power can be experienced again. Mr. Bhat always wanted to record these ghazals in the pop and rock genres and it is good to see Mandar fulfilling that wish. I just wish Mr. Bhat was among us today." In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown throughout the nation, Bhosle along with many noted artists like S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Udit Narayan, Kailash Kher, Usha Uthup, Shaan, Alka Yagnik, Sonu Nigam and other 200 artists of India, made a song named 'Jayatu Jayatu Bharatam' to make the country unite during the pandemic. Concerts and collaborations with foreign artists In the 1980s and 1990s, Asha went globe-trotting, staging concerts in Canada, Dubai, UK, US and many other countries. In October 2002, she did a concert with Sudesh Bhosle and others, in London, for "Help the Aged" to help raise funds for the elderly in India. In 2007 she toured the US, Canada, and West Indies in a tour called "The Incredibles". In this tour, she was accompanied by singers Sonu Nigam, Kunal Ganjawala and Kailash Kher. This tour, originally scheduled for only 12 concerts, went on to run more than 20. In the early 1990s, Asha sang with Boy George ("Bow Down Mister") and Stephen Lauscombe. In 1997, she sang a love song with the boy band Code Red, at the age of 64. She also recorded the song "The Way you Dream" (One Giant Leap), with Michael Stipe that was used in the English movie, Bulletproof Monk. The song was also released on the album 1 Giant Leap for 2002. In 1997, the British band Cornershop paid tribute to Asha with their song "Brimful of Asha," an international hit which was later remixed by Fatboy Slim. In 2001, the CD single of Nelly Furtado's "I'm Like a Bird" included a "Nellie vs. Asha Remix" created by Digital Cutup Lounge. In 2003, British opera pop singer Sarah Brightman sampled her song "Dil Cheez Kya Hai" on her album Harem. It was used as the intro for her song "You Take My Breath Away". In 2005, American string quartet Kronos Quartet re-recorded R D Burman compositions like "Chura Liya", "Piya Tu" and "Mera Kuchh Saaman" among others and got Asha to sing them. Despite her age, she recorded three to four songs a day, leaving the quartet members stupefied. On 23 August 2005, You've Stolen My Heart: Songs from R.D. Burman's Bollywood was released in US. The album was nominated for Grammy Awards 2006 in the category of "Best Contemporary World Music Album". In the 1990s, a friend had introduced David Harrington of Kronos Quartet to the song "Aaj ki raat." Harrington was mesmerised, and the song ended up on the album Kronos Caravan. Also in 2005, The Black Eyed Peas sampled her songs "Ae Naujawan Sab Kuchh Yahan" (Apradh, 1972) and "Yeh Mera Dil Pyaar Ka Diwana" (Don, 1978) in their hit single "Don't Phunk with My Heart". In late 2006, Asha collaborated with Australian test cricket star, Brett Lee. The single, "You're the One for Me", debuted at number 4 on the charts and reached a peak position of number 2. In 2006 Asha recorded one song for the soundtrack of the Pakistani movie Mein Ek Din Laut Kay Aaaonga. She sang the song titled "Dil Key Taar Bajey", with famous Pakistani pop singer Jawad Ahmed. It was aired as part of the film's promotional campaign and became very popular, featuring on top music charts. Bengali career Asha Bhosle sang her first Bengali song in 1958 under the banner of HMV. The songs were duets with Binod Chattopadhyay and composed by Manna Dey. The following year, she recorded her very first "Pooja Songs" from HMV with music arranged by Dey again. She sang many pooja songs in Bengali. Rahul converted some Hindi tracks to Bengali such as "Gunjone Dole Je Bhramar" (made from Gunguna Rahe Hain Bawre in Aradhana), "Chokhe Name Bristi" (from Jane Kya Baat Hai), "Gungun Gunje" (from Pyaar Deewana Hota Hain). In the mid 1970s, she would frequently sing for Bengali songs tuned by Sudhin Dasgupta, Nachiketa Ghosh rtc. In 1975, she sang the duet "Sara Pyaar Tumhara" with Kishore Kumar in Anand Ashram and "Amar Swapno Tumi" in its Bengali version with the same title. In the 1970s, she sang a lot of songs in films such as Chhadmabeshi, Bandi, Mouchak, Anand Ashram etc. In 1980, she sang the Bhajan "Kunjo Bihari He Giridhari" in Mayer Ashirbad. In 1981, she sang the duet "Adho Alo Chhayate" with Kishore in Kalankini Kankanati. In 1982, she sang a Bengali Adhunik song "Kotha Hoyechilo" in Troyee for Debasri Roy. In 1986, the duet with Kishore Kumar "Chiridini Tumi Je Amar" composed by Bappi Lahiri. In 2014, she has created the album "Pancham Tumi Kothay" in honor of her husband Rahul Dev Burman's 75th birth anniversary. In this album she has sung 8 songs previously composed by Burman. She has also sung in a 2014 film Parapar at the age of 81. Marathi career Asha started her playback singing in Marathi with the mythological film Gokulcha raja. Since then Asha Bhosle has sung thousands of Marathi film songs, Bhavgeet (non-film songs). Natya sangeet from Master Deenanath Mangeshkar's Marathi Sangeet natak has also been recorded in Asha Bhosle's voice. During the 1950s and 60s, Asha and her sister Lata were the main playback singers for Marathi films. She won the 1962 Maharashtra government best singer award for the Marathi film, Manini. In 1963 music director Vasant Desai used her voice with Talat Mehmood in the film, Molkarin. Some Marathi films in which Asha Bhosle has rendered her voice are: Molkarin, Jait re Jait, Gharkul, Devbappa, Sangtye Aika, Singhasan, Saamna, Maratha Tituka Melvava, and Nivdung. Asha also sang many Marathi devotional songs (abhang) with music composed by Srinivas Khale. Personal life Asha's house is situated in Prabhukunj Apt on the Peddar Road area of South Mumbai. Asha, at the age of 16, had eloped with 31-year-old Ganpatrao Bhosle. They separated in 1960. They have three children and five grandchildren. The eldest of her three children, Hemant Bhosle (named after Hemant Kumar), spent most of his early years as a pilot and quit to have a brief career as a music director. Bhosle's daughter Varsha committed suicide on 8 October 2012; she was 56 years old and worked as a columnist for The Sunday Observer and Rediff. Asha's youngest child, Anand Bhosle, has studied business and film direction. He manages Asha's career. Her grandson, Chaitanya (Chintu) Bhosle (Hemant's son) is a part of the world of music. He is a member of India's first & only boy band, "A Band of Boys". Her sisters Lata and Usha Mangeshkar are playback singers. Her other, sister Meena Mangeshkar and brother Hridaynath Mangeshkar are music directors. Her granddaughter Zanai Bhosle (daughter of Anand Bhosle) runs iAzure Apple Inc. Store in Mumbai. Zanai is an emerging singer and Kathak dancer and had sung with Asha Bhosle. Hemant Bhosle 's best known compositions were the Kishore-Asha duets such as "Aji Kaho Kya Haal Hai" from Anpadh picturised on Vijendra Ghatke and "Sarika" and "Salamat Raho Tum" from the same film "Anpadh" picturised on Ashok Kumar and Sarika. Hemant died of cancer in 2015. Asha's first husband Ganpatrao was her personal secretary. Their marriage failed miserably in 1960. Her husband and in-laws mistreated her. After a few years of marriage, Asha was turned out by a suspicious Ganpatrao and she went to her maternal home with two children while pregnant with her third child. She continued to sing in films to earn money. Asha married Rahul Dev Burman in 1980. This was the second marriage for both Rahul and Asha. Rahul, 6 years younger than her, earlier got divorced from Rita Patel in 1971. Asha is an excellent cook and cooking is her favorite hobby. She often gets flooded with requests by Hind film celebrities for kadai ghosht and biryani dishes and has rarely turned down a request. In fact, her paya curry, Goan fish curry and dal are very popular with the Kapoor family of Hindi films. Once, when asked in a The Times of India interview, what if her singing career had not taken off, she said "I would have become a cook. I'd have cooked in four houses and made money." The love of cooking got Asha into a successful restaurant business. She runs restaurants in Dubai and Kuwait called Asha's. Asha's offers traditional north-western Indian cuisine. It has a presence in the Wafi City development in Dubai, as well as three restaurants in Kuwait, at The Avenues Mall, the Marina Mall and a brand new third outlet at the Spoons Complex. Other restaurants can be found in Abu Dhabi's Khaldiya Mall, Doha's Villagio and Bahrain's City Center Mall, with future outposts planned for Dubai's Mall of the Emirates and Cairo, Egypt. Asha Bhosle has a 20% stake in the business. Asha is not involved in the day-to-day running of the restaurant which is looked after by the Wafi Group. She takes care of the kitchen and the décor. She personally trained the chefs for almost six months. According to a December 2004 report in Menu Magazine, Russell Scott, a former head of Harry Ramsden's (the fish and chips chain), secured the UK rights to the Asha's brand and planned to open up to 40 restaurants over the next five years. As part of her chain of restaurants, Asha has recently opened a new restaurant in Birmingham, UK. Asha Bhosle will be on view at the Madame Tussauds gallery that opens in New Delhi soon. Rivalry with Lata Mangeshkar Asha's sibling rivalry with Lata Mangeshkar is often talked about, in spite of their insistence that these are just tales. As young children, they were very close. As a child, Lata used to carry Asha all the time. They were so inseparable that when Lata went to school she would take Asha with her. One day the teacher protested and said that they cannot have two students on one fee. Lata refused to return to school without Asha and quit her studies. Lata considered Asha's act of eloping with her lover as irresponsible, leaving her alone to sing and earn for the family. This led to tensions between them. Asha herself stated in an interview – "It was a love marriage and Lata didi did not speak to me for a long time. She disapproved of the alliance." At one time, their relationship was very adversarial and there have been periods of non-communication. In her initial days in the industry, Asha always played second fiddle to her elder sister. Some say that Lata had once criticised Asha's relationship with O. P. Nayyar. This widened the rift between the two sisters and O. P. Nayyar also decided that he would never work with Lata. O. P. Nayyar had once revealed that "Asha and Lata, staying in opposite flats at Bombay's Peddar Road, shared a maid. Said maid's responsibility was to come and tell the younger sister that Lata had just recorded something wonderful for Asha to lose her vocal poise. Such was her Lata phobia that it took me some months to convince Asha that she had a voice individualistic enough to evolve a singing style all of her own." Asha once said that she has worked for years to create a voice and a style that was different from Lata, so that she could carve her own niche and not be banished to live in her sister's shadow. Asha and Lata have also sung together. Their first duet was for the film Daman (1951). Some of their songs include "Man Bhawan Ke Ghar aye" (Chori Chori, 1956), "Sakhi ri sun bole papihaa us paar" (Miss Mary, 1957), "O chand jahaan woh jayein" (Sharada, 1957), "Mere Mehboob Mein Kya Nahi" (Mere Mehboob, 1963), "Unse Nazrein Mili" (Gazal, 1964), "Ai kash kisi deewane ko" (Aaye Din Bahar Ke, 1966), "Jabse Laagi Toose Najariya" (Shikar, 1968), "Main Haseena Nazneena Koi Mujhsa Nahi" (Baazi, 1968), "Main Chali Main Chali" (Padosan, 1968), "Chhap tilak sab" (Main Tulsi Tere Aangan Ki, 1978), and "Man kyun behka" (Utsav, 1984). While singing, Lata used to hold her notebook in her right hand, while Asha held hers in the left hand. This meant Lata had her face away from Asha, making it difficult for them to "anticipate" each other. The movie Saaz was supposedly based on Lata and Asha's rivalry. Asha said about the movie – "To have two women in long plaits, take a couple of incidents and exaggerate them into a 3-hour film is such a waste of time." In the last few years, Asha and Lata have often been seen in public, enjoying each other's company. In an interview with The Times of India, Asha once said – "I remember, sometimes both of us would be at a function and some industry types would ignore me and interact only with her, as if to prove their loyalty. Later, didi and I would have a good laugh!" In popular culture British alternative rock band Cornershop released "Brimful of Asha" in 1997. The song, dedicated to Asha Bhosle, became an international hit single for the band and topped the UK Singles Chart in February 1998. A number of remixes have been released as well, notably by Norman Cook, also known as Fatboy Slim. Awards Filmfare awards Asha Bhosle has won seven Filmfare Best Female Playback Awards of 18 nominations. She won her first two awards in 1967 and 1968. (Mangeshkar asked not to be considered for the award nominations after 1969 to promote new talent). After receiving the award in 1979, Bhosle emulated her elder sister and requested that her name not be considered for the nominations hereafter. Despite this, Bhosle is the most frequent winner of this award to date, tying with Alka Yagnik. She was later given a Special Award for Rangeela in 1996, and the Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award in 2001. Following is the list of her Filmfare Awards: Filmfare Best Female Playback Award 1968: "Garibon ki Suno" (Dus Lakh, 1966) 1969: "Parde Mein Rehne Do" (Shikar, 1968) 1972: "Piya Tu Ab To Aaja" (Caravan, 1971) 1973: "Dum Maro Dum" (Hare Rama Hare Krishna, 1972) 1974: "Hone Lagi Hain Raat" (Naina, 1973) 1975: "Chain Se Humko Kabhi" (Pran Jaye Par Vachan Na Jaye, 1974) 1979: "Yeh Mera Dil" (Don, 1978) Special Award 1996 – Special Award (Rangeela, 1995) Lifetime Achievement Award 2001 – Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award National Film Awards Asha has won the National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer twice: 1981: Dil Cheez Kya Hai (Umrao Jaan) 1986: Mera Kuch Samaan (Ijaazat) IIFA Awards IIFA Award for Best Female Playback 2002: "Radha Kaisa Na Jale" ( Lagaan) Grammy's Bhosle is one of the very few Indian artists who has been nominated at the Grammy Awards. 39th Grammy Awards - 1997 - Grammy Award for Best Global Music Album - Ali Akbar Khan's Legacy (nominated) 48th Grammy Awards - 2006 - Grammy Award for Best Contemporary World Music Album - You've Stolen My Heart (nominated) Other awards Asha has won numerous other awards, including: 1987: Nightingale Of Asia Award (from the Indo–Pak Association, UK). 1989: Lata Mangeshkar Award (Government of Madhya Pradesh). 1997: Screen Videocon Award (for the album Jaanam Samajha Karo). 1997: MTV Award (for the album Jaanam Samajha Karo). 1997: Channel V Award (for the album Jaanam Samjha Karo). 1998: Dayawati Modi Award. 1999: Lata Mangeshkar Award (Government of Maharashtra) 2000: Singer of the Millennium (Dubai). 2000: Zee Gold Bollywood Award (for Mujhe Rang De from Thakshak). 2001: MTV Award (for Kambakht Ishq). 2002: BBC Lifetime Achievement Award (presented by the UK Prime Minister Tony Blair). 2002: Zee Cine Award for Best Playback Singer - Female (for Radha Kaise Na Jale from Lagaan). 2002: Zee Cine Special Award for Hall of Fame. 2002: Sansui Movie Award (for Radha Kaise Na Jale from Lagaan). 2003: Swaralaya Yesudas Award for outstanding contributions to Indian music. 2004: Living Legend Award by the Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry. 2005: MTV Immies, Best Female Pop Act for Aaj Jaane Ki Zid Na Karo. 2005: Most Stylish People in Music. Honours and recognitions In 1997, Asha became the first Indian singer to be nominated for the Grammy Award, for Legacy, an album with Ustad Ali Akbar Khan. She has received seventeen Maharashtra State Awards. She received the Dadasaheb Phalke Award in 2000 for her outstanding contribution to Indian cinema. She holds honorary doctorates from the university of Amravati and University of Jalgaon in Literature and from the University of Salford in Arts. She has received The Freddie Mercury Award for Outstanding Achievement in Arts. The Birmingham Film Festival paid her a special tribute in November 2002. She was honoured with the Padma Vibhushan by the Government of India. She was among top 20 music icons of the past 50 years. In 2011 the Guinness Book of World Records officially acknowledged Bhosle, at The Asian Awards, as the most recorded artist in the history of music. She was awarded a certificate for "the most studio recordings (singles) from Sebastian Coe for recording up to 11,000 solo, duet and chorus-backed songs and in over 20 Indian languages since 1947". At the event she was also awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award. Asha Bhosle is the recipient of the first Doctor of Literature (D.Litt.) of the Jodhpur National University. BBC list of 100 inspiring women for 2015. Further reading See also Mangeshkar Family Notes References External links 1933 births Living people Bengali-language singers Bollywood playback singers Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipients English-language singers from India Women guitarists Gujarati-language singers Hindi-language singers 20th-century Indian women singers Indian women playback singers Indian guitarists Tamil playback singers Marathi-language singers Marathi playback singers Nepali-language singers Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in arts Russian-language singers Tamil-language singers Konkani-language singers Kannada playback singers People from Sangli Mangeshkar family Best Female Playback Singer National Film Award winners 20th-century Indian singers 21st-century Indian singers 21st-century Indian women singers Women musicians from Maharashtra Singers from Maharashtra Marathi people BBC 100 Women	[ -0.14777734875679016, -0.0874081626534462, -0.9842005968093872, -0.5204456448554993, 0.0167054682970047, 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251083	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Robert%20Seeley	John Robert Seeley	Sir John Robert Seeley, KCMG (10 September 1834 – 13 January 1895) was an English Liberal historian and political essayist. He was a prominent advocate for the British Empire, promoting a concept of Greater Britain. This he expounded in his most widely known book The Expansion of England (1883). Whilst he was an early advocate of the establishment of political science as a distinct academic discipline, he retained a theological approach in which this was embedded. Early life Seeley was born in London. His father was Robert Benton Seeley, a publisher who issued books under the name of Seeley, Jackson and Halliday. He was a strong advocate of Evangelical Anglicanism and was the author of several religious books and of The Life and Times of Edward I. His mother was Mary Ann Jackson (1809-1868), who shared her husbands religious views. Her brother, John Henry Jackson, was a partner in Robert Seeley's publishing company. John was related to the chemist Arthur Herbert Church, a cousin through his mother. John was educated at City of London School, where he enjoyed history, theology and literature. Whilst there he had two essays comparing Shakespeare and classical greek drama in 1850 and 1851. He went on to Christ's College, Cambridge, at which he was head of the Classical tripos and senior Chancellor's medallist. His education at Cambridge was interrupted by illness and he only completed his exams in 1858.Whilst at Christ's he became friends with Charles Stuart Calverley, John Wesley Hales, Walter Besant, Walter Skeat and Walter Sendall. He was elected a fellow of Christ's and subsequently became a classical studies tutor at the college. He published an anonymous book of poetry and then went through a personal crisis during which abandoned many of the conventional beliefs of his youth and sought to replace them with more well-founded and secure beliefs. He left Cambridge in 1860. Life London, 1860-69 Seeley returned to his old school where he became a teacher. Then in 1863, he was appointed professor of Latin at University College, London. This drew him into quite different intellectual circles. In August 1869, Seeley married Mary Agnes Phillot (1839-1921) who was a granddaughter of William Frend and sister of Constance Phillott. He is buried in the Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge, with his wife. Ecce Homo: A Survey in the Life and Work of Jesus Christ (1865) Seeley's first published book was Ecce Homo: A Survey in the Life and Work of Jesus Christ, which published anonymously in 1865. It was controversial because it focussed almost entirely on Jesus's moral character and his historical actions, as a founder and king of a theocracy, and it excluded discussion of the theological interpretations of his life. The work attempted to demonstrate the consequences that Christ's theocracy and its Church and society had upon the standard and active practice of morality of men. Seeley intended the book as an incomplete analysis of the subject. His text did not deny the truth of the doctrines, which it did not address, but many critics objected to its representation of Christ. Many considered the book to be extraordinary in its prose style in addition to in its content. It is characterised by relatively terse and fluid prose. Its anonymous status also added a significant dimension to the controversy surrounding its publication, as readers sought to discover the author's identity. George Eliot, John Henry Newman, William Ewart Gladstone and Napoleon III were some of the more well-known figures believed to have written the book. Seeley was eventually discovered as the author, and from November 1866, his authorship became an open secret. However, Seeley declined to acknowledge his authorship publicly of Ecce Homo, which was first officially stated only in a posthumous edition, which was published in 1895. Regius Professor in Cambridge He was made Regius Professor of Modern History, Cambridge, in 1869. He described himself as a Liberal in politics, but a Radical in education; he made important contributions to education reform, including the admission of women into the ancient universities. Works Subsequent work His later essay on Natural Religion, signed "by the Author of Ecce Homo," which denied that supernaturalism is essential to religion and maintained that the negations of science tend to purify rather than destroy Christianity, satisfied few and excited far less interest than his earlier work. In 1869, he was appointed professor of modern history at the University of Cambridge. He was a popular instructor and prepared his lectures carefully, which were well attended. In historical work, he is distinguished as a thinker rather than as a scholar. He valued history solely in its relation to politics as the science of the state. He maintained that history should be studied scientifically and for a practical purpose, the solution of existing political questions. Thus, he naturally devoted himself mainly to recent history, especially the relations between England and other states. His Life and Times of Stein, a valuable narrative of the anti-Napoleonic revolt, led by Prussia mainly at Heinrich Friedrich Karl von und zum Stein's instigation, was written under German influence and shows little of the style of his short essays. Its length, its colourlessness and the space that it devotes to subsidiary matters render it unattractive. The Expansion of England (1883) Far otherwise was his The Expansion of England (1883). Written in his best manner, that essay answered to his theory that history should be used for a practical purpose and pointed out how and why Britain gained its colonies and India, the character of the British Empire and the light in which it should be regarded. As a historical essay, the book was a fine composition, and its defence of the empire was then very persuasive. His defence consisted largely of the claim that British rule was in India's best interest. Seeley also questioned the usefulness of India to the power and security of Britain and even claimed that there was 'no doubt' that India vastly increased the responsibilities and dangers to Britain. The book contains this much-quoted statement: "we seem, as it were, to have conquered half the world in a fit of absence of mind." It appeared at an opportune time and did much to make Englishmen regard the colonies not as mere appendages but as an expansion of the British state as well as of British nationality and to remind them of the value of the empire in the East. The essay was reprinted ten times in the year in which it was published and many more times in later years. Seeley was rewarded for public service by being made a Knight of the Order of St Michael and St George, on the recommendation of Lord Rosebery. In the spring of 1883, Seeley started a debate over the Tripos bachelor's honours exam at Cambridge, wishing it to concentrate on political history, but historians Frederick William Maitland, George Walter Prothero, Henry Melvill Gwatkin and Mandell Creighton argued for a broader more scientific approach, reaching a compromise emphasising the reading of primary sources, requiring a compulsory paper on "Political Science", with required readings including "Introduction to Political Science" (1896) by Seeley and "The Elements of Politics" (1891) by Sidgwick. The Growth of British Policy His last book, The Growth of British Policy, written as an essay and intended to be an introduction to a full account of the expansion of Britain, was published posthumously. Later matters Inagaki Manjiro dedicated his Japan and the Pacific and the Japanese View of the Eastern Question (1890) to Seeley, who had taught him at Caius College. Correspondence to and from Seeley, including that relating to the publication of and reactions to Ecce Homo, is held by the archives in Senate House Library. In 1897, the history library of the University of Cambridge was named the Seeley Historical Library in his honour. In 1895 a memorial fund was raised to commemorate his services to the British Empire and to the University; the greater part of this fund was devoted to the endowment of the library. After moving from King's College and Caius College, in 1912, the collection relocated to the top floor of the newly reopened Arts School, Bene't Street, then in 1935 to the Old Schools. In 1968 the Seeley moved to the Sidgwick Site of Cambridge University as part of the new History Faculty building designed by James Stirling. Significance of empire Seeley wrote that the first chapter of the history of British India "embraces chronologically the first half of George III's reign, that stormy period of transition in English history when at the same time America was lost and India won... [and] covers the two great careers of Robert Clive and Hastings... [T]he end of the struggle is marked by the reign of Lord Cornwallis, which began in 1785". The trial of Warren Hastings had been the final act in the efforts spanning the eighteenth century to harness imperial power, along with imperial wealth and prestige, securely to Britain, both as a "nation" and as a "state". Once Edmund Burke had succeeded in that endeavour, the stain of commercial origins could be removed, with the special mix of economic and political interests realigned as the expression of national interest and the blot of scandal washed out, as the moral mandate for a new kind of imperial project was launched. Blinkers of English historiography Seeley was far more astute than many later imperial historians, as he complained that very transformation had made possible a national amnesia about the significance of empire in the history of England itself. His lectures were filled with a critique of the blinkers of English historiography: "They [our historians] make too much of the parliamentary wrangle and the agitations about liberty, in all which matters the eighteenth century of England was but a pale reflection of the seventeenth. They do not perceive that in that century the history of England is not in England but in Americas and Asia". Justifications for empire Seeley's account of imperial wars and conquest repeats the justifications made first by the conquerors themselves: the sole objective of trade turned into political conquest by accident, rather than contrivance or calculation. Most historians have argued that the East India Company was drawn reluctantly into political and military conflict in India, and took an interest in territorial power and revenue only as a last-ditch effort to protect its trading activities. Among the narratives of imperial historians, Seeley concurred and wrote that India "lay there waiting to be picked up by somebody". He considered that what happened in India in the late 18th century was thus an "internal revolution", rather than a "foreign conquest". Notable quotations "History is the school of statesmanship". "History without politics descends to mere literature". He is often erronously believed to have said, "History is past politics, and politics present history". Works Notes Further reading Bell, Duncan SA. "Unity and Difference: John Robert Seeley and the Political Theology of International Relations". Review of International Studies 31#3 (2005): 559–579. Burroughs, Peter. "John Robert Seeley and British Imperial History." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 1.2 (1973): 191-211. Greenlee, James G. "‘A succession of Seeleys’: The ‘old school’ re‐examined." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 4.3 (1976): 266-282. Hesketh, Ian. Victorian Jesus: J.R. Seeley, Religion, and the Cultural Significance of Anonymity (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017). Hesketh, Ian. "Writing History in Macaulay's Shadow: JR Seeley, EA Freeman, and the Audience for Scientific History in Late Victorian Britain". Journal of the Canadian Historical Association/Revue de la Société historique du Canada, 22#2 (2011): 30–56. Hyam, Ronald. "The study of imperial and commonwealth history at Cambridge, 1881–1981: Founding fathers and pioneer research students." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 29.3 (2001): 75-103. Kenyon, John Philipps. The History Men: The Historical Profession in England Since the Renaissance (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1984). G. W. Prothero, Memoir prefixed to Growth of British Policy (London, 1895) Shannon, R. T. "Seeley, Sir John Robert" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004) External links "John Seely" at Literary Encyclopedia The Expansion of England at Internet Archive Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900, Volume 51, Seeley, John Robert by George Walter Prothero 1834 births 1895 deaths Fellows of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge People educated at the City of London School English essayists English historians English religious writers Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge Academics of University College London English male non-fiction writers 19th-century historians 19th-century male writers	[ -0.0004485695681069046, 0.3213005065917969, -0.746989369392395, -0.4115777909755707, -0.16076809167861938, 0.9379081130027771, 0.4922843277454376, -0.12276773154735565, -0.07550720870494843, -0.3388378620147705, -0.3014777600765228, 0.05940702557563782, -0.21333782374858856, 0.43634846806526184, 0.43033212423324585, 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251084	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branxton%2C%20Northumberland	Branxton, Northumberland	Branxton is a village and civil parish in northern Northumberland, England. It lies about from the England-Scotland border and about from the Scottish border town of Coldstream, just off the A697 Newcastle-Edinburgh road. At the 2011 Census, the population of the parish was 123, increasing slightly from 121 at the 2001 Census. Landmarks Branxton is very close to the site of the Battle of Flodden, fought on 9 September 1513 between Scotland and England, the latter prevailing. A granite cross on the nearby Piper Hill (UK map reference NT890373) commemorates the battle. In 2013, the local community commemorated the 500 year anniversary of the battle. Pallinsburn House, an 18th-century country mansion, stands nearby. There is a painted concrete menagerie in the garden of one of the houses in the village. The sculptures were made, starting in 1962, by James Beveridge to designs by retired joiner John Fairnington (d. 1981) to amuse his disabled son, Edwin. As well as animals, there are statues of Winston Churchill, T. E. Lawrence and Robert Burns, and many texts set into the plinths and pathways. It has been a popular tourist attraction, with its own tea room, and may still be accessible by the public for free (although with a coin box for voluntary donations). Religious sites The parish church, dedicated to Saint Paul, occupies the site of an ancient church which was taken down and replaced by the present structure in 1849. Notable people Percival Stockdale, (1736–1811) poet, writer and reformer, especially in opposing slavery. 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251087	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold%20%28color%29	Gold (color)	Gold, also called golden, is a color. The web color gold is sometimes referred to as golden to distinguish it from the color metallic gold. The use of gold as a color term in traditional usage is more often applied to the color "metallic gold" (shown below). The first recorded use of golden as a color name in English was in 1300 to refer to the element gold. The word gold as a color name was first used in 1400 and in 1423 to refer to blond hair. Metallic gold, such as in paint, is often called goldtone or gold tone, or gold ground when describing a solid gold background. In heraldry, the French word or is used. In model building, the color gold is different from brass. A shiny or metallic silvertone object can be painted with transparent yellow to obtain goldtone, something often done with Christmas decorations. Metallic gold Gold (metallic gold) At right is displayed a representation of the color metallic gold (the color traditionally known as gold) which is a simulation of the color of the actual metallic element gold itself—gold shade. The source of this color is the ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names (1955), a color dictionary used by stamp collectors to identify the colors of stamps—See color sample of the color Gold (Color Sample Gold (T) #84) displayed on indicated web page: Web color gold vs. metallic gold The American Heritage Dictionary defines the color metallic gold as "A light olive-brown to dark yellow, or a moderate, strong to vivid yellow." Of course, the visual sensation usually associated with the metal gold is its metallic shine. This cannot be reproduced by a simple solid color, because the shiny effect is due to the material's reflective brightness varying with the surface's angle to the light source. This is why, in art, a metallic paint that glitters in an approximation of real gold would be used; a solid color like that of the cell displayed in the adjacent box does not aesthetically "read" as gold. Especially in sacral art in Christian churches, real gold (as gold leaf) was used for rendering gold in paintings, e.g. for the halo of saints. Gold can also be woven into sheets of silk to give an East Asian traditional look. More recent art styles, e.g. art nouveau, also made use of a metallic, shining gold; however, the metallic finish of such paints was added using fine aluminum powder and pigment rather than actual gold. Shades Old gold Old gold is a dark yellow, which varies from heavy olive or olive brown to deep or strong yellow. The widely accepted color old gold is on the darker rather than the lighter side of this range. The first recorded use of old gold as a color name in English was in the early 19th century (exact year uncertain). The official colors of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, Inc., founded on December 4th, 1906 are black and old gold. The Delta Sigma Pi fraternity, founded in November 7, 1907, official colors are designated royal purple and old gold. The Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity's colors are garnet and old gold. Maroon and old gold are the colors of Texas State University's intercollegiate sports teams. Old Gold and black are the team colors of Purdue University Boilermakers intercollegiate sports teams. The Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets formerly wore white and old gold (now called Tech Gold). The Wake Forest Demon Deacons, UCF Knights, and Vanderbilt Commodores wear old gold and black. The UAB Blazers team colors are Forest Green and Old Gold. The New Orleans Saints list their official team colors as black, old gold and white. Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C., an association football club in England, also traditionally features old gold and black uniforms. Golden yellow Golden yellow is the color halfway between amber and yellow on the RGB color wheel. It is a color that is 87.5% yellow and 12.5% red. The first recorded use of golden yellow as a color name in English was in the year 1597. Golden Yellow is one of the colors of the United States Air Force, along with Ultramarine Blue. Golden poppy Golden poppy is a tone of gold that is the color of the California poppy—the official state flower of California—the Golden State. The first recorded use of golden poppy as a color name in English was in 1927. Arizona State University (ASU) Gold Gold is the oldest color associated with Arizona State University and dates back to 1896 when the school was named the Tempe Normal School. Gold signifies the "golden promise" of ASU. Gold also signifies the sunshine Arizona is famous for, including the power of the sun and its influence on the climate and the economy. The student section, known as The Inferno, wears gold on game days. University of Southern California (USC) Gold The official colors of the University of Southern California are Pantone 201C and Pantone 123C. These colors, designated as USC Cardinal and USC Gold, were adopted in 1895 by Rev. George W. White, USC's third president, and are equal in importance in identifying the USC Trojans. California (Berkeley) Gold California Gold is one of the official colors of the University of California, Berkeley, as identified in their graphic style guide for use in on-screen representations of the gold color in the university's seal. For print media, the guide recommends to, "[u]se Pantone 7750 metallic or Pantone 123 yellow and 282 blue". The color is one of two most used by Berkeley, the other being Berkeley Blue; these, together, are the original colors of the University of California system, of which variations of blue and gold can be found in each campus' school colors. Cal Poly Pomona gold Cal Poly Pomona gold was one of the two official colors of California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Cal Poly Pomona). The official university colors were green (PMS 349) and gold (PMS 131). Cal Poly Pomona's Office of Public Affairs created the colors for web development and has technical guidelines, copyright and privacy protection; as well as logos and images that developers are asked to follow in the University's Guidelines for using official Cal Poly Pomona logos. If web developers are using gold on a university website, they were encouraged to use Cal Poly Pomona gold. Cal Poly Pomona has adopted a new brand color palette including a different gold color: #FFB500. The logo of the Cal Poly Pomona's athletic teams, the Cal Poly Pomona Broncos, has changed in 2014 to reflect the new gold color, but is currently using #FFB718. UCLA Gold The color was approved by the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Chancellor in October 2013. This is a shade of gold identified by the university for use in their printed publications. MU Gold MU Gold is used by the University of Missouri as the official school color along with black. Mizzou Identity Standards designated the color for web development as well as logos and images that developers are asked to follow in the University's Guidelines for using official Mizzou logos. Pale gold The color pale gold is displayed at right. This has been the color called gold in Crayola crayons since 1903. Pale gold is one of the Lithuanian basketball club Lietkabelis Panevėžys primary colors. Sunglow The color sunglow is displayed at right. This is a Crayola crayon color formulated in 1990. Harvest gold The color harvest gold is displayed at right. This color was originally called harvest in the 1920s. The first recorded use of harvest as a color name in English was in 1923. Harvest gold was a common color for metal surfaces (including automobiles and household appliances), as was the color avocado, during the whole decade of the 1970s. They were both also popular colors for shag carpets. Both colors (as well as shag carpets) went out of style by the early 1980s. Goldenrod Displayed at right is the web color goldenrod. The color goldenrod is a representation of the color of some of the deeper gold colored goldenrod flowers. The first recorded use of goldenrod as a color name in English was in 1915. Vegas gold Displayed at right is the color Vegas gold. Vegas gold, rendered within narrow limits, is associated with the glamorous casinos and hotels of the Las Vegas Strip, United States. Vegas gold is one of the official athletic colors for the Notre Dame Fighting Irish, Boston College Eagles, Colorado Buffaloes, South Florida Bulls, St. Vincent–St. Mary High School, Vanderbilt Commodores, the United States Naval Academy Midshipmen, and Western Carolina University Catamounts. It is one of the official colors of the NHL's Vegas Golden Knights, and was the type of gold the Pittsburgh Penguins used on their uniforms until they reverted to "Pittsburgh gold", the shade traditionally associated with the city. Satin sheen gold At right is displayed the color satin sheen gold. This is the name of the color of the Starfleet command personnel uniform worn by Captain Kirk of the USS Enterprise in the TV show and movies Star Trek. Golden brown The first recorded use of golden brown as a color name in English was in the year 1891. Golden brown is commonly referenced in recipes as the desired color of properly baked and fried foods. Golden in nature Protista The golden algae or chrysophytes are a large group of heterokont algae, found mostly in freshwater. Plants Golden bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea) is a bamboo species. The golden poppy and goldenrod are popular flowers to cultivate in horticulture. The Yukon Gold potato is a variety of potato recognizable through its smooth eyes and golden interior. Animals The golden bamboo lemur (Hapalemur aureus) is a medium-sized bamboo lemur endemic to southeastern Madagascar. The golden eagle is a Northern Hemisphere bird of prey. The goldfish was one of the earliest fish to be domesticated, and is still one of the most commonly kept aquarium fish and water garden fish. The golden retriever is a medium-sized breed of dog that is one of the most popular companion animals. The golden toad was an amphibian that used to live in Costa Rica that is now extinct. In culture Art Gold is a typical background color ("gold ground") in Byzantine art, as well as in the paintings of Gustav Klimt that took inspiration from Byzantine work. Business In advertising for the Union Pacific Railroad in the 1950s, the southwestern states of the United States served by the Union Pacific were collectively called The Golden Empire because the railroad's diesel engines were and are colored golden, red, and black. Ads with maps showing the Union Pacific's Golden Empire colored golden were placed in many popular mass-circulation magazines. Exploration On 26 September 1580, Sir Francis Drake returned to England, becoming the second person to circumnavigate the globe. His ship was called the Golden Hind. Food Golden rice is a variety of rice produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesize the precursors of beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A) in the edible parts of rice. Golden Oreos are composed of vanilla instead of chocolate cookies with a vanilla cream filling. Golden raisins are dried grapes that have been treated with sulfur dioxide and flame-dried. Film and television Kingsman: The Golden Circle is a 2017 spy film. The Golden Girls was a popular American television sitcom series. Gemstones South Sea Pearls, which have historically been cultured in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, in the countries of Myanmar, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Northern Australia but mostly attributed to the former thalassocratic Sultanate of Sulu have a gold colored variety from the Pinctada maxima Pearl oyster. This golden pearl is the national gemstone of the Philippines. This can now be manufactured in the laboratory at a much lower cost. Interior design The Chrysotriklinos (golden reception hall) throne room of the Byzantine Emperor in the Great Palace of Constantinople from its construction, in the late 6th century, until the 10th century The Queen's Bedchamber in the Grand appartement de la reine in the Versailles Palace is decorated in the color gold. This room was where Marie Antoinette, wife of King Louis XVI of France, slept. Golden is a warm color that can both provide not only a bright and cheerful feeling but also a somber, traditional, and religious aura. Golden tends to go well with earth colors, but it can also enrich a palette of red or burgundy. Literature Blonde hair in women (or sometimes men) is sometimes referred to poetically as golden. Music “Band of Gold” is a 1970 song by Freda Payne. The lyrics tell of a woman whose lover has left her, only leaving behind a gold wedding ring (the song's “band of gold”). “Gold” is a 1983 song by Spandau Ballet. “We Are Golden” is a 2009 song by Mika from his album The Boy Who Knew Too Much. "Golden" is the 2020 song by Harry Styles. "Golden Brown" is a song by The Stranglers Parapsychology Psychics who claim to be able to observe the aura with their third eye report that great spiritual teachers usually have golden auras. People who have gold auras are said to be those whose pure intellect is applied to abstract philosophy and mathematics. Politics The Gold Shirts were a Mexican fascist party in the 1930s. Gold is often used as an official color by laissez-faire or libertarian political parties, such as the United States Libertarian Party, as well as ideologies such as voluntaryism and anarcho-capitalism, due to their frequent support for Austrian School economics and the gold standard. Religion The color golden is associated with Buddhism: Statues of Buddha are usually painted metallic gold, are made of the metal gold, or have gold plating. Theravada Buddhist monks wear saffron robes, a color close to golden. The Shwedagon Pagoda, in Yangon, Myanmar is plated in solid gold. The Golden Pavilion is a notable Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Kinki, Japan. The Secret of the Golden Flower is an important religious text in Daoism. The Golden Temple in Amritsar, Punjab, India, is the holiest site of the Sikh religion. The Golden Mosque in Samarra, Iraq, a Shiite Muslim holy site constructed in 944. In Paganism, it used used for inner strength, self-realization, understanding, and intuition. It has a masculine energy and brings fortune and luck. Sports In association football, the Wolverhampton Wanderers traditionally uses "old gold" as its primary color, though the shade of the color is not quite metallic. In Major League Baseball, the Milwaukee Brewers, Oakland Athletics, and Pittsburgh Pirates use gold as one of their team's primary colors. The three teams utilize a more yellowish shade of the color. A Gold Glove Award is given to the best player at each fielding position in each major league. In the NBA, the Boston Celtics use "old gold" as an accent color. The Cleveland Cavaliers, Los Angeles Lakers, Indiana Pacers, Denver Nuggets, Golden State Warriors, Memphis Grizzlies, New Orleans Pelicans, Utah Jazz and Oklahoma City Thunder also use gold as an accent color, although the shade is mostly yellowish in appearance. Fans of the National Football League will note the Los Angeles Rams, Pittsburgh Steelers, Washington Commanders, Minnesota Vikings, Green Bay Packers, and Kansas City Chiefs as having gold as a color. The gold they use, however, is a distinctly more yellow color (akin to the non-metallic web color version) than the traditional "old gold" used by the New Orleans Saints and San Francisco 49ers. In both cases, the color is referred to as "gold", with the yellow shade sometimes referred to as "athletic gold" when distinguishing it from the metallic shades. In the NHL, eleven teams currently use a form of gold in their color schemes. The Boston Bruins are the oldest team to do so, and have always used a yellow "athletic" gold; they have even worn several gold sweaters throughout the years. Other teams using athletic gold include the St. Louis Blues, Buffalo Sabres (excluding the 1996–2006 period), Calgary Flames, Florida Panthers (who use a darker, more metallic shade in their logo) and Nashville Predators. Teams that have switched from athletic gold to a metallic shade include the Minnesota North Stars (now the Dallas Stars), Pittsburgh Penguins, and Anaheim Ducks. The Ottawa Senators and Minnesota Wild have always used metallic gold. In addition, the Los Angeles Kings and Vancouver Canucks have used versions of athletic gold in the past. The Kings, Canucks, and Penguins have also worn gold sweaters color in the past. For the 2014–15 season, the Penguins revived the black uniform the team wore during its first two championship seasons in 1991 and 1992, with the team's old shade of gold as an alternate uniform. When the team first switched from shades of blue to black and gold in 1980, the color scheme was similar to that of the Bruins, who protested the Penguins' new uniforms. The protest failed, and Pittsburgh wore the shade of gold, now dubbed "Pittsburgh gold", until 2002 and once again in 2014. In college sports, the U.S. Military Academy and the U.S. Naval Academy use gold as a primary color. The Golden Gloves is the name given to annual competitions for amateur boxing in the United States. State decorations The Gold Star was the highest state decoration in the Soviet Union and remains so in several post-Soviet states. Vexillology Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Belgium, Bhutan, China, Colombia, Egypt, Ecuador, Germany, Ghana, Malaysia, the Philippines Spain, Sri Lanka, Venezuela, Vietnam are examples of modern nations that use the color golden in their national flags. The Holy Roman Empire, which existed from 800 to 1806, had a golden flag with a black double-headed Imperial Eagle on the field, the origin of the use of the color in the German and Belgian flags. The Byzantine Empire from 1261 until its collapse in 1453 had a flag that had a black double-headed eagle on a field of golden. This flag is still used today as the flag of the Mount Athos autonomous region in Greece. The Flag of the Hispanic People (Bandera de la Raza) is an ethnic flag that is golden and purpure (purple) on a white field. It is also used as the flag of Hispanic America. (This flag is sometimes also called the Flag of the Americas when used on a non-ethnic basis to symbolically represent the combined geographical area of North America and South America together.) Video games Pokémon Gold (and its remake, Pokémon HeartGold) are entries in the Pokémon franchise of video games. Golden Sun is a series of role-playing games (RPGs). Chemical compounds In addition to elemental gold, a number of compounds or alloys have a reflective gold hue: Several brasses, specifically those rich (65%+ wt.) in copper. Prince's metal is a brass-based gold simulant. Titanium nitride Zirconium nitride See also Or List of colors References External links Quaternary colors Symbols of California Shades of yellow Shades of orange Gold	[ -0.03711666539311409, 0.16046440601348877, -0.36404362320899963, -0.05854937061667442, 0.3098214268684387, 0.07029332220554352, 0.2710314691066742, 0.4473938047885895, -0.4325864017009735, -0.4257929027080536, -0.3827883005142212, 0.3276286721229553, 0.016163593158125877, 0.4515298008918762, -0.21004599332809448, 0.5905083417892456, 0.7223014235496521, 0.8066652417182922, -0.0315968282520771, 0.08536843955516815, -0.038401927798986435, 0.09278309345245361, 0.15718230605125427, -0.5510042309761047, 0.05820314213633537, -0.21458470821380615, 0.11766637116670609, 0.3382701277732849, 0.46647021174430847, 0.2907382547855377, -0.32455357909202576, 0.3683262765407562, -0.0029583871364593506, 0.29037946462631226, -0.03550092503428459, -0.20315591990947723, 0.24135375022888184, -0.5410022139549255, 0.01671731472015381, 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251088	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Palmer%2C%202nd%20Earl%20of%20Selborne	William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne	William Waldegrave Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne, (17 October 185926 February 1942), styled Viscount Wolmer between 1882 and 1895, was a British politician and colonial administrator, who served as High Commissioner for Southern Africa. Background and education Selborne was the son of Lord Chancellor Roundell Palmer, 1st Earl of Selborne, and Lady Laura, daughter of Vice-Admiral William Waldegrave, 8th Earl Waldegrave. He was educated at Temple Grove School, Winchester and University College, Oxford, where he took a first class degree in history. Political career 1882–1910 As Viscount Wolmer, he was assistant private secretary to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Hugh Childers, from 1882 to 1885, when he was elected Liberal Member of Parliament for East Hampshire. Like his father, he became a Liberal Unionist in 1886 when William Ewart Gladstone proposed Irish Home Rule. He retained his seat till 1892, when he was elected for Edinburgh West. Despite succeeding to the Earldom on his father's death, on 13 May 1895 he attempted to sit as before in the Commons, arguing that, although he was now a Peer, he had not requested a writ of summons to the Lords. After some debate, on 21 May the Commons moved a by-election writ. After the 1895 general election, Selborne, now sitting in the Lords, was appointed Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies by his father-in-law Lord Salisbury, where he became junior to the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain. During the difficult period before the outbreak of the Second Boer War he progressed rapidly. In November 1900 Selborne was sworn of the Privy Council and made First Lord of the Admiralty under Salisbury, with a seat in the cabinet, an office he retained when Arthur Balfour became Prime Minister in 1902. In 1905 he succeeded Lord Milner as High Commissioner for Southern Africa and governor of the Transvaal and Orange River colonies. He assumed office at Pretoria in May of that year. He had gone out with the intention of guiding the destinies of South Africa during a period when the ex-Boer republics would be in a transitional state between crown colony government and self-government, and letters patent were issued granting the Transvaal representative institutions. But the Liberal Party came into office in Britain the following December, before the new constitution had been established, and, the decision was now taken to give both the Transvaal and Orange River colonies self-government without delay. Lord Selborne accepted the changed situation, and the experiment proved successful. He ceased to be governor of the Orange River Colony on its assumption of self-government in June 1907, but retained his other posts until May 1910, retiring on the eve of the establishment of the Union of South Africa. The despatch, dated 7 January 1907 and known as the Selborne Memorandum, in which he reviewed the situation in its economic and political aspects, was a comprehensive statement of the dangers inherent in the existing system and of the advantages likely to attend union. The document had in fact been compiled by Lionel Curtis and other members of Milner's Kindergarten. The force of its appeal had a marked influence on the course of events, while the loyalty with which Lord Selborne co-operated with the Botha administration was an additional factor in reconciling the Dutch and British communities. 1910–1942 He returned to England with his reputation, according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, "as a statesman enhanced by the respect of all parties, and with a practical experience, second only to that of Lord Milner, of British imperialism in successful operation." His experience made him a valuable ally in the movement among the Unionist party at home for Tariff Reform and Colonial Preference, to which he could now give his full support. In 1915 Selborne returned to government during the First World War when he became President of the Board of Agriculture in the war time coalition of Liberal prime minister H. H. Asquith. He resigned from Cabinet in June 1916 because of Lloyd George's handling of the botched Home Rule negotiations (May–July) and the Prime Minister's failure to bring Lloyd George to task while the negotiations were still in progress. Selborne did not hold high political office again. The Selborne Committee on Church and State from 1914 to 1916 was chaired by Lord Selborne. Apart from his political career Selborne served as Master of the Worshipful Company of Mercers in 1910 and 1933, as his father had done before him, in 1875. In 1916 he was elected a member of the Society for Psychical Research. He was also Warden of Winchester College between 1920 and 1925 and High Steward of Winchester between 1929 and 1942. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1909. Family Lord Selborne married Lady Maud Cecil, elder daughter of future Prime Minister Robert Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, in 1883. A Suiderberg, Pretoria district, Lady Selborne, is named after her. They had three sons and one daughter. Lady Mabel Laura Georgiana Palmer (6 October 188415 July 1958); married Charles Grey, 5th Earl Grey, and had two daughters. Roundell Cecil Palmer, 3rd Earl of Selborne (15 April 18873 September 1971); married, firstly, Hon. Grace Ridley in 1910; had issue. Married, secondly, Valerie Irene Josephine Margaret de Thomka de Thomkahaza in 1966; no issue. Hon. Robert Stafford Arthur Palmer (26 September 188821 January 1916) Hon. William Jocelyn Lewis Palmer (15 September 18946 June 1971); married Hon. Dorothy Cicely Sybil Loder in 1922 and had two children. His second son, the Hon. Robert Palmer, was a captain in the Hampshire Regiment and was killed on active service in Mesopotamia in 1916. His daughter was Lady Mabel Laura Georgiana Palmer, who became Countess Grey as the wife of Charles Grey, 5th Earl Grey. His letters home were privately published as Letters from Mesopotamia. Lord Selborne died in February 1942, aged 82, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Roundell, Viscount Wolmer, who had already the previous year been summoned to the House of Lords by writ of acceleration in his father's junior title of Baron Selborne. The Countess of Selborne died in April 1950. References External links \|- 1859 births 1942 deaths Alumni of University College, Oxford Conservative Party (UK) hereditary peers Diplomatic peers Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom Knights of the Garter Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Wolmer, William Palmer, Viscount Liberal Unionist Party MPs for English constituencies First Lords of the Admiralty Palmer, William Parapsychologists People educated at Temple Grove School People educated at Winchester College Wolmer, William Palmer, Viscount Wolmer, William Palmer, Viscount Wolmer, William Palmer, Viscount Selborne, E2 Ambassadors and High Commissioners of the United Kingdom to South Africa Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Edinburgh constituencies Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Liberal Unionist Party peers Governors of the Transvaal	[ -0.2574496865272522, 0.1290239840745926, -0.31018996238708496, -0.26677945256233215, -0.06118158996105194, 0.4855370819568634, 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251090	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%20quarter%20%28disambiguation%29	No quarter (disambiguation)	No quarter, no mercy shown by a victor, who treats a vanquished opponent very harshly or refuses to spare a surrendering opponent's life. No quarter may also refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media "No Quarter" (song), a song by Led Zeppelin No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded, an album by Page and Plant named after the above song "No Quarter", a song by Scottish pirate folk metal band Alestorm from their album Black Sails at Midnight No Quarter, a 1932 book by Alec Waugh "No Quarter", an episode of the TV series Revolution No Quarter, a popular modification of the video game Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory (2003) "", in English translated as "No Quarter", a short story by Guy de Maupassant Other uses No Quarter, the motto of the destroyer USS Leary (DD-879) No Quarter Pounder, an album by Dread Zeppelin Ordinance of no quarter to the Irish, a decree passed by the English Parliament in 1644 See also Take no prisoners	[ -0.02055971696972847, 0.2846226096153259, -0.6185777187347412, 0.03235001489520073, -0.6951479911804199, 0.051212746649980545, 0.843069851398468, -0.31367048621177673, -0.019476762041449547, 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251093	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20Childers	Hugh Childers	Hugh Culling Eardley Childers (25 June 1827 – 29 January 1896) was a British Liberal statesman of the nineteenth century. He is perhaps best known for his reform efforts at the Admiralty and the War Office. Later in his career, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his attempt to correct a budget shortfall led to the fall of the Liberal government led by William Gladstone. Early life Childers was born in London, the son of Reverend Eardley Childers and his wife Maria Charlotte (née Smith), sister of Sir Culling Eardley, 3rd Baronet and granddaughter of Sampson Eardley, 1st Baron Eardley. He was educated at Cheam School under Pestalozzi and then both Wadham College, Oxford and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. from the latter in 1850. Influential on his intellectual development were Adam Smith's theories of free trade, and capital returns. Childers then decided to seek a career in Australia and on 26 October 1850 arrived in Melbourne, Victoria along with his wife Emily Walker. Australia Childers joined the government of Victoria and served as Inspector of Denominational schools (meaning Protestant and Catholic schools) and immigration agent. In 1852 he became a director of the Melbourne, Mount Alexander and Murray River Railway Company. Childers became auditor-general on 26 October 1852 and was nominated to the Victorian Legislative Council. In 1852 he placed a bill before the state legislature proposing the establishment of a university for Victoria, the second in Australia following the foundation of the University of Sydney in 1850. With the receipt of the Royal Assent in 1853, the University of Melbourne was founded, with Childers as its first vice-chancellor. Childers was Collector of Customs from 5 December 1853 to 28 November 1855 and Commissioner of Trade & Customs 28 November 1855 to 25 February 1857. Childers was elected to the inaugural Victorian Legislative Assembly for Portland in November 1856, a seat he held until resigning in February 1857. Return to Britain Childers retained the vice-chancellorship until his return to Britain in March 1857 and received an M.A. from Cambridge in the same year. Enters British politics In 1860 he entered the House of Commons as a Liberal member for Pontefract, and within a few years joined the government of Lord Palmerston, becoming a Civil Lord of the Admiralty in 1864 and then Financial Secretary to the Treasury in 1865. First Lord of the Admiralty With the election of Gladstone's government in December 1868, he rose to greater prominence, serving as First Lord of the Admiralty. Childers "had a reputation for being hardworking, but inept, autocratic and notoriously overbearing in his dealing with colleagues." He "initiated a determined programme of cost and manpower reductions, fully backed by the Prime Minister, Gladstone described him [Childers] as 'a man likely to scan with a rigid eye the civil expenses of the Naval Service'. He got the naval estimates just below the psychologically important figure of £10,000,000. Childers strengthened his own position as First Lord by reducing the role of the Board of Admiralty to a purely formal one, making meetings rare and short and confining the Sea Lords rigidly to the administrative functions... Initially Childers had the support of the influential Controller of the Navy, Vice-Admiral Sir [Robert] Spencer Robinson." "His re-organisation of the Admiralty was unpopular and poorly done." Childers was responsible for the construction of HMS Captain in defiance of the advice of his professional advisers, the Controller (Robinson) and the Chief Constructor Edward James Reed. Captain was commissioned in April 1870, and sank on the night of 6/7 September 1870. She was, as predicted by Robison and Reed, insufficiently stable. "Shortly before the battleship sank, Childers had moved his son, Midshipman Leonard Childers from Reed's designed HMS Monarch onto the new ship-of-the-line; Leonard did not survive." Childers "faced strong criticism following the Court Martial on the loss of HMS Captain, and attempted to clear his name with a 359-page memorandum, a move described as "dubious public ethics". Vice Admiral Sir Robert Spencer Robinson wrote 'His endeavors were directed to throw the blame which might be supposed to attach to himself on those who had throughout expressed their disapproval of such methods of construction'." Childers unfairly blamed Robinson for the loss of the Captain, and as a result of this Robinson was replaced as Third Lord and Controller of the navy in February 1871. "Following the loss of his son and the recriminations that followed, Childers resigned through ill health as First Lord in March 1871." 1871–1880 Following his resignation he spent some months on the Continent, and recovered sufficiently to take office in 1872 as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The consequent ministerial by-election on 15 August 1872 was the first Parliamentary election to be held after the Ballot Act 1872 required the use of a secret ballot. Secretary for War When the Liberals regained power in 1880, Childers was appointed Secretary for War, a position he accepted reluctantly. He therefore had to bear responsibility for cuts in arms expenditure, a policy that provoked controversy when Britain began fighting; first the Boers in South Africa in 1880 and then the invasion of Egypt in 1882. Childers was also very unpopular with Horse Guards for the reinforcement and expansion of the Cardwell reforms. On 1 May 1881 he passed General Order 41, which outlined a series of improvements known as the Childers reforms. Chancellor of the Exchequer Childers became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1882, a post he had coveted. As such, he attempted to implement a conversion of Consols in 1884. Although the scheme proved a failure, it paved the way for the subsequent conversion in 1888. He attempted to resolve a budget shortfall in June 1885 by increasing alcohol duty and income tax. His budget was rejected by Parliament, and the government - already unpopular due to events in Egypt - was forced out of office. Childers's colleague the Earl of Rosebery commented resignedly: "So far as I know the budget is as good a question to go out upon as any other, and Tuesday as good a day." Home Secretary At the subsequent election in December 1885 Childers lost his Pontefract seat, but returned as an independent Home Ruler for Edinburgh South (one of the few Liberals who adopted this policy before Gladstone's conversion in 1886). Childers then served as Home Secretary in the short-lived ministry of 1886. He was critical of the financial clauses of the First Home Rule Bill, and their withdrawal was largely due to his threat of resignation. Nevertheless, the bill still failed to pass, and its rejection brought down the Liberal government. Retirement and the Childers Commission He retired from parliament in 1892, and his last piece of work was the drafting of a report for the 1894 "Financial Relations Commission" on Irish financial matters, of which he was chairman (generally known as the Childers Commission). This found that, compared to the rest of the United Kingdom, Ireland had been overtaxed on a per capita basis by some £2 or £3 million annually in previous decades. The matter was finally debated in March 1897. In the following decades Irish nationalists frequently quoted the report as proof that some form of fiscal freedom was needed to end imperial over-taxation, which was prolonging Irish poverty. Their opponents noted that the extra tax received had come from an unduly high consumption of tea, stout, whiskey and tobacco, and not from income tax. His younger cousin Erskine Childers wrote a book on the matter in 1911. Childers' 1894 report was still considered influential in 1925 in considering the mutual financial positions between the new Irish Free State and the United Kingdom. In 1926 an Irish Senate debate included claims by some Senators that, with compound interest, Ireland was owed as much as £1.2 billion by Britain. This, however, ignored the changed economic conditions since 1894, and at the eve of secession Southern Ireland was being heavily subsidised by the British taxpayer. This economic reality forced the initial Irish Free State government to cut the old age pension from five to four shillings. In 1932 on the start of the Anglo-Irish Trade War, the Irish government made a claim for £400 million in respect of past overtaxation, amongst others, but this was not mentioned when the dispute was settled in 1938. Family, later life and death Childers married Emily Walker in 1850. They had six sons and two daughters. One of their daughters, Emily "Milly" Childers, was a portrait and landscape painter. His first wife died in 1875 and Childers married Katherine Anne Gilbert in 1879. A cousin, Erskine Childers, was the author of the spy novel The Riddle of the Sands, an important figure in the Irish War of Independence and Irish Civil War (during which he was executed), and father of the fourth President of Ireland, Erskine Hamilton Childers. Towards the end of his ministerial career "HCE" Childers was known for his girth, and so acquired the nickname "Here Comes Everybody", which was later used as a motif in Finnegans Wake by James Joyce. Childers died in January 1896, aged 68. He is buried on the south side of the central enclosed roundel in Brompton Cemetery, London. See also Childers, Queensland, town named after Childers HMAS Childers (ACPB 93), Australian ship named after the town Footnotes Further reading Childers Commission Biography Vol. I; Vol. II The Educational Activities in Victoria of the Right Hon. H. C. E. Childers, E. Sweetman, 1940 External links A Portrait from the New York Public Library Archives Childers and Cardwell Reforms 1827 births 1896 deaths Hugh Politicians from London People educated at Cheam School Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly Members of the Victorian Legislative Council English people of Portuguese-Jewish descent Vice-Chancellors of the University of Melbourne Chancellors of the Exchequer of the United Kingdom British Secretaries of State Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster First Lords of the Admiralty Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies UK MPs 1859–1865 UK MPs 1865–1868 UK MPs 1868–1874 UK MPs 1874–1880 UK MPs 1880–1885 UK MPs 1886–1892 Scottish Liberal Party MPs Fellows of the Royal Society Agents-General for Victoria Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Edinburgh constituencies	[ 0.12497007101774216, 0.07482609897851944, -0.4034094214439392, 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251097	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Alford	Henry Alford	Henry Alford (7 October 181012 January 1871) was an English churchman, theologian, textual critic, scholar, poet, hymnodist, and writer. Life Alford was born in London, of a Somerset family, which had given five consecutive generations of clergymen to the Anglican church. Alford's early years were passed with his widowed father, who was curate of Steeple Ashton in Wiltshire. He was a precocious boy, and before he was ten had written several Latin odes, a history of the Jews and a series of homiletic outlines. After a peripatetic school course he went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827 as a scholar. In 1832 he was 34th wrangler and 8th classic, and in 1834 was made fellow of Trinity. Service He had already taken orders, and in 1835 began his eighteen-year tenure of the vicarage of Wymeswold in Leicestershire, from which seclusion the twice-repeated offer of a colonial bishopric failed to draw him. He was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1841–1842, and steadily built up a reputation as scholar and preacher, which might have been greater if not for his excursions into minor poetry and magazine editing. In 1844, he joined the Cambridge Camden Society (CCS) which published a list of do's and don'ts for church layout which they promoted as a science. He commissioned A.W.N. Pugin to restore St Mary's church. He also was a member of the Metaphysical Society, founded in 1869 by James Knowles. In September 1853 Alford moved to Quebec Street Chapel, Marylebone, London, where he had a large congregation. In March 1857 Lord Palmerston advanced him to the deanery of Canterbury, where, till his death, he lived the same energetic and diverse way as ever. He had been the friend of most of his eminent contemporaries, and was much beloved for his amiable character. The inscription on his tomb, chosen by himself, is Diversorium Viatoris Hierosolymam Proficiscentis ("the lodging place of a traveler on his way to Jerusalem"). Published works Alford was a talented artist, as his picture-book, The Riviera (1870), shows, and he had abundant musical and mechanical talent. Besides editing the works of John Donne, he published several volumes of his own verse, The School of the Heart (1835), The Abbot of Muchelnaye (1841), The Greek Testament. The Four Gospels (1849), and a number of hymns, the best-known of which are "Forward! be our watchword," "Come, ye thankful people, come", and "Ten thousand times ten thousand." He translated the Odyssey, wrote a well-known manual of idiom, A Plea for the Queen's English (1863), and was the first editor of the Contemporary Review (1866–1870). His chief fame rests on his monumental edition of the New Testament in Greek (8 vols.), which occupied him from 1841 to 1861. In this work he first produced a careful collation of the readings of the chief manuscripts and the researches of the ripest continental scholarship of his day. Philological rather than theological in character, it marked an epochal change from the old homiletic commentary, and though more recent research, patristic and papyral, has largely changed the method of New Testament exegesis, Alford's work is still a quarry where the student can dig with a good deal of profit. See Alford's Law for an example. Alford subsequently published the New Testament for English Readers (4 vols., Rivingtons, 1868). His Life, written by his widow, appeared in 1873 (Rivingtons). References Bibliography External links Article on one of Alford's Hymns Henry Alford at the Encyclopædia Britannica (1902) 1810 births 1871 deaths 19th-century English theologians Linguists of English English male poets 19th-century English Anglican priests Anglican hymnwriters Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge English hymnwriters Deans of Canterbury Musicians from Kent English male non-fiction writers 19th-century English musicians 19th-century British male writers People from Wymeswold Translators of Homer	[ -0.12721829116344452, 0.8455817699432373, -0.24012283980846405, -0.8578763604164124, -0.16806408762931824, 1.0750174522399902, 0.8430702090263367, -0.6175214052200317, -0.23478759825229645, -0.07685049623250961, -0.24248981475830078, 0.22595176100730896, -0.18542611598968506, 0.2784039080142975, 0.43228620290756226, 0.09998288750648499, -0.25326958298683167, -0.07118968665599823, -0.6885239481925964, -0.22235742211341858, 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251098	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Jeffery	Michael Jeffery	Major General Philip Michael Jeffery, (12 December 1937 – 18 December 2020) was a senior Australian Army officer and vice-regal representative. He was the 28th Governor of Western Australia from 1993 to 2000, and the 24th Governor-General of Australia, serving from 2003 to 2008. From Perth, Western Australia, Jeffery graduated from the Royal Military College, Duntroon, and served in the Malayan Emergency and the Vietnam War, being awarded the Military Cross during the latter conflict. Jeffery was at various stages commander of the Special Air Service Regiment and the 1st Division, and subsequently Deputy Chief of General Staff, before retiring from active service in 1993. After serving for seven years as Governor of Western Australia, Jeffery was appointed Governor-General of Australia in 2003, following the resignation of Peter Hollingworth. He was the first career Australian Army officer to hold the position, and was succeeded by Quentin Bryce. Early life and military career Jeffery was born in Wiluna, Western Australia, on 12 December 1937, and was educated at Kent Street Senior High School. At 16 he left Perth to attend the Royal Military College, Duntroon, in Canberra. After graduating in 1958, he served in a number of junior positions before being posted to Malaya in 1962 for operational service. From 1966 to 1969 he served in Papua New Guinea. During this posting, he married Marlena Kerr of Sydney, with whom he had three sons and a daughter. This was followed by a tour of duty in the Vietnam War, during which he was awarded the Military Cross (MC). In 1972, Jeffery was promoted to lieutenant colonel, commanding the 2nd Battalion of the Pacific Islands Regiment from 1974 to 1975. He assumed command of the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR) in Perth from 7 January 1976 until 22 October 1977, and was then promoted to colonel as the first Director of the Army's Special Action Forces in 1979. From 1982 to 1983, Jeffery headed Australia's national counter-terrorist co-ordination authority. In 1985 he was promoted to major general, being appointed to command the 1st Division the following year. In 1990 he became Deputy Chief of the General Staff and in 1991 he was appointed Assistant Chief of the General Staff for Materiel. Jeffery retired from the army in 1993, and was appointed to the ceremonial position of Honorary Colonel of the SASR. Career Governor of Western Australia (1993–2000) In November 1993, Jeffery was appointed Governor of Western Australia and in June 1996 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC). He was appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO) on 1 April 2000. During his seven years in the post he made a number of public statements of his conservative views on marriage, sex and education. He received some criticism from the Labor opposition and sections of the media for appearing to take positions on political issues. Governor-General of Australia (2003–2008) Following the resignation of Peter Hollingworth as Governor-General of Australia, Prime Minister John Howard announced on 22 June 2003 that he had chosen Jeffery to succeed Hollingworth. He was formally appointed by Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia and sworn in on 11 August 2003, becoming the first Australian career soldier to become governor-general. Jeffrey has represented Australia at multiple royal weddings, including the Wedding of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark, and Mary Donaldson and the Wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles. In 2005, Jeffery became a co-patron of the private, non-profit Australia China Friendship and Exchange Association (ACFEA), founded by Chinese-Australian businessman Chau Chak Wing. The organization promoted bilateral and international dialogue, particularly between China and Australia, having established the annual Imperial Springs International Forum in 2014. On 8 April 2005, Jeffery represented Australia at the funeral of Pope John Paul II. In 2007, in his position as governor-general, Jeffery was appointed as the colonel-in-chief of the Royal Australian Army Medical Corps, succeeding the previous colonel-in-chief, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. Jeffery was the Chief Scout of Australia. Jeffery left Yarralumla prior to the swearing-in of his successor, Quentin Bryce, the former Governor of Queensland. Bryce was sworn in on 5 September 2008. Career after office On 23 October 2012, at the National Farmers' Federation Congress in Canberra, Prime Minister Julia Gillard announced the appointment of Jeffery as Australia's first Advocate for Soil Health. Gillard noted that, as Governor-General, Jeffery had a passion for regional development and the future of our rural industries, a commitment he continued after leaving office. Prime Minister Tony Abbott extended Jeffery's appointment as the national Advocate for Soil Health until December 2014, indicating Jeffery would continue to raise public awareness of the role soil plays in underpinning sustainable productivity, delivering quality ecosystem services and helping to meet global challenges including food security and climate change. In June 2020, Jeffery stepped down from this role, now the Patron of the Soil Cooperative Research Centre, due to illness. Honours and awards Unit Award: Personal life Jeffery was a Christian. He died on 18 December 2020, at the age of 83. References \|- \|- \|- 1937 births 2020 deaths Australian Christians Australian generals Australian military personnel of the Malayan Emergency Australian military personnel of the Vietnam War Companions of the Order of Australia Australian Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order Royal Military College, Duntroon graduates Governors of Western Australia Governors-General of Australia Honorary Grand Companions of the Order of Logohu Australian recipients of the Military Cross Recipients of the Centenary Medal People from Wiluna, Western Australia People educated at Kent Street Senior High School	[ -0.2818882167339325, 0.4347066879272461, -0.6608923673629761, -0.27335208654403687, -0.1847713440656662, 0.9053758382797241, 0.7032244205474854, -0.17214614152908325, -0.24363771080970764, 0.2030237317085266, -0.7487037181854248, 0.30206093192100525, 0.08862296491861343, 0.22883214056491852, 0.7539503574371338, 0.5886121988296509, 0.04367680475115776, -0.12915025651454926, -0.25390636920928955, 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251099	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain%20Corelli%27s%20Mandolin	Captain Corelli's Mandolin	Captain Corelli's Mandolin, released simultaneously in the United States as Corelli's Mandolin, is a 1994 novel by the British writer Louis de Bernières, set on the Greek island of Cephalonia during the Italian and German occupation of the Second World War. The main characters are Antonio Corelli, an Italian army captain, and Pelagia, the daughter of the local physician, Dr Iannis. An important event in the novel is the massacre of Italian troops by the Germans in September 1943—the Italian Acqui Division had refused to surrender and had fought the Germans for nine days before running out of ammunition. Some 1,500 Italian soldiers died in the fighting; 5,000 were massacred after surrendering, and the rest were shipped to Germany, of whom 3,000 drowned when the ship carrying them hit a mine. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 19 on the BBC's survey The Big Read. Synopsis The story begins with Dr. Iannis, a multilingual doctor with an established practice on the Greek island of Cephalonia. Iannis lives with his daughter Pelagia; Pelagia's mother died of tuberculosis. Pelagia, now a young woman, is headstrong and intelligent, and has learned about medicine by observing her father. Pelagia meets a young fisherman named Mandras, and they become engaged. War has been declared, and Mandras decides to go fight at the front. Pelagia's letters to him go unanswered. Meanwhile, Carlo Guercio fights among the Italian forces that invade Albania, and sees his beloved friend, Francesco, whom he is in love with, shot by the Greek army during the Greco-Italian War. In 1941, Italian and German soldiers are posted to Cephalonia, where they are ostracized by the locals. Pelagia is determined to hate them, especially when a jovial young captain by the name of Antonio Corelli is domiciled with her. Mandras comes home from the war, injured and filthy, and as Pelagia nurses him she realizes she no longer loves him. Mandras leaves for the Greek mainland, where he joins the communist partisan organisation ELAS. In the book's depiction, ELAS is cruel towards the civilian population and more frequently attacks other partisan groups (for being ideologically different) than the Axis' occupying forces. After Mussolini loses power, Italy joins forces with the Allies. The Italians who occupy Greece thus are freed from their duties. After defeating the Italian division, the German soldiers on Cephalonia turn on them, and order a massive execution. Corelli's life is saved by Carlo Guercio, who shields him with his body when they face execution by firing squad. Guercio dies, and the wounded Corelli is aided by a Greek back to Pelagia's house. Corelli has to stay hidden from the Germans, whose orders are to kill any surviving Italians. As soon as he is well enough, Corelli escapes to Italy, promising Pelagia that he will return as soon as the war ends and then they will be married. Corelli leaves Antonia, his mandolin, with Pelagia for safekeeping. The Germans become brutal but the war eventually ends. Communists take over the island for a period of time (and large parts of Greece in general) and mistreat the population. Dr Iannis is considered an intellectual, therefore suspect, and is sent to a camp along with some of his friends who protest against his treatment. Mandras returns, indoctrinated with Communist ideologies and having learned to read. He has read Pelagia's letters and knows that she does not love him, so he tries to rape her. This is prevented by the fact that Pelagia is armed, and by intervention of Mandras' mother who realizes what almost happened and repudiates her own son. Ashamed, he commits suicide. Mandras' mother comforts Pelagia and for the remainder of her life, remains close with Pelagia. Some time after, a baby girl is left on Pelagia's doorstep, whom Pelagia adopts. Dr Iannis comes home, traumatised. Life goes on in Cephalonia, though interrupted by the 1953 Ionian earthquake, in which Iannis dies. Corelli does not return, though Pelagia is convinced she sees his ghost. The baby girl, whom Pelagia has named Antonia, grows up and marries. Antonia later has a son who is named Iannis in honor of the doctor. Many years later, an old man visits Pelagia. It is Antonio Corelli, now a famous mandolin player. He explains that he did not visit before because, having seen her with baby Antonia on her doorstep and believing her to be married, he was bitter. The novel ends on a happy note. Major themes Captain Corelli's Mandolin explores many varieties of love. We see the initial lust-based love between Pelagia and Mandras, which burns out as a result of the war, and the change it prompts in both of them. Corelli and Pelagia's slow-developing love is the central focus of the novel. Love is described by Dr Iannis as "what is left when the passion has gone", and it certainly appears that this criterion is fulfilled by the love of Corelli and Pelagia. The paternal love of Iannis for Pelagia is also strong and is heavily compared with that of Corelli. The theme of music is predominant, offering a direct contrast to the horror and destruction that the war brings and showing how something beautiful can arise from something horrible. The war is described in graphic detail, particularly the death of Francesco. It is responsible for the fall of Mandras and Weber, the deaths of Carlo and Francesco, and the separation of Pelagia and Corelli. Throughout the novel, Bernières takes a harsh view of all forms of totalitarianism, condemning Fascism, Nazism, and Communism alike. Bernières himself described this as a novel about "what happens to the little people when megalomaniacs get busy." Another theme of the novel is the study of history. Dr Iannis spends much of his spare time attempting to write a history of Cephalonia, but he often finds his personal feelings and biases running through whatever he writes. There is also a strong feeling against 'professional' history, which is suggested by Carlo Guercio's statement that "I know that if we [the Axis] win then there will be stories about mass graves in London and vice versa". This is reinforced by a quotation from Bernières which says that: "history ought to be made up of the stories of ordinary people only." From this viewpoint, it can be seen that Bernières is very much a revisionist historian, considering social history superior to political history. Bernières takes an ambiguous attitude towards heroism and villainy in the novel: many of the characters, despite committing atrocities, are viewed as human victims of bad circumstances. For example, the German character Günter Weber receives a great degree of sympathy from the writer, even though he fully engages with the Nazi ideology and is guilty of taking part in the killing of an entire Italian division. Despite having become friends with many of the men, Weber must follow orders. Similarly, Mandras is guilty of murder, torture, and rape, yet the author portrays him sympathetically: "just another life tarnished... by war." References Near the end of the novel, in Chapter 62, Pelagia receives a photograph from Günter Weber and written on the back is a passage in German from Goethe's Faust, "Gretchen am Spinnrad," which is also a popular German Lied, set to music by Schubert. It reads: Meine Ruh ist hin, Mein Herz ist schwer, Ich finde sie nimmer und nimmermehr. Which translates as: My peace is gone, My heart is sore [lit. "heavy"], I will find it never and nevermore. Real story and precedents Bernières has denied that the character of Corelli is based on Amos Pampaloni who was then an Italian artillery captain in Cephalonia, despite the many similarities in their stories. Pampaloni survived execution, joined the Greek People's Liberation Army, the Partisans in the Greek civil war, and fought with them in Epirus for fourteen months. Pampaloni was interviewed by The Guardian newspaper in 2000 and expressed the view that the novel misrepresented the Greek partisan movement. The novel also shows some similarities to Bandiera bianca a Cefalonia, a novel by Marcello Venturi published in 1963, translated in English as The White Flag (1969). Reception The Orlando Sentinel called Corelli's Mandolin a "radically traditionalist" novel, "a good nourishing tale full of true things, historical and psychological, spiced with opinion and contrariness, with not one dollop of regard for artistic fashion." The Cleveland Plain Dealer praised the multiple emotional levels of the novel, remarking, "Like Puccini, de Bernières can evoke golden narrative, full of both pain and gladness." Gene Hyde wrote, "To defy Sisyphus and rebel against the absurd, especially in the face of war, is an excruciatingly difficult and noble task. The beauty of Bernières' unique and deeply moving novel is his insistence that our hope lies in these seemingly quixotic impulses." Awards 1995 – Commonwealth Writers Prize for Best Book 2004 – 19th place on The Big Read Adaptations Radio The novel was adapted as four 45-minute radio plays from 17–20 September 2007 on BBC Radio 4, having been chosen as a popular "Book of the Week" on the same station some years earlier. The episode titles were "A Pea in the Ear," "Invasion of the Italians," "Looking for Snails" and "Earthquake." It was narrated by Tom Goodman-Hill, with Celia Meiras as Pelagia, Stephen Greif as Dr Iannis, Daniel Philpott as Corelli. The mandolin music for it was composed and performed by Alison Stephens, and the production was produced and directed by David Hunter. Other cast members included: Carlo – Anthony Psaila Mandras – Chris Pavlo Velisarios – Alexi Kaye Campbell Father Arsenios – Alex Zorbas Lemoni – Ania Gordon Drosoula – Anna Savva Hector – Nitin Ganatra Officer – Simon Treves Film A film version of Captain Corelli's Mandolin was released in 2001, with Nicolas Cage as the Italian Captain Corelli, John Hurt as Dr Iannis, and Penélope Cruz as his daughter, Pelagia. The film, directed by John Madden, also starred Christian Bale, Irene Papas and Joanna Daria Adraktas. Theatre In 2011, the Mercury Theatre in Colchester, England, and the Kote Marjanishvili Theatre of Tbilisi, Georgia, produced an adaptation of the novel written by Mike Maran and directed by Levan Tsuladze. This production combined live actors and puppetry. It had its premiere in Georgia at the Tbilisi International Festival in October 2011, before transferring to the Mercury. A new stage adaptation by Rona Munro and directed by Melly Still previews at the Leicester Curve from 13 to 20 April 2019 before opening at the Rose Theatre, Kingston (23 April to 12 May), and touring to Theatre Royal, Bath (14 to 18 May), Birmingham Repertory Theatre (29 May to 15 June), King's Theatre, Edinburgh (18 to 22 June) and Theatre Royal, Glasgow (25 to 29 June). Following its UK tour, the production transferred to London's West End at the Harold Pinter Theatre from 4 July to 31 August 2019 starring Alex Mugnaioni as Captain Antonio Corelli and Madison Clare as Pelagia. References External links 1994 British novels British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into plays Cephalonia Cultural depictions of Benito Mussolini English novels Italian occupation of Greece during World War II Novels adapted into radio programs Novels by Louis de Bernières Novels set in Greece during World War II Novels set on islands Secker & Warburg books	[ -0.3499208092689514, 0.25176581740379333, -0.13201835751533508, 0.008189900778234005, 0.5873399376869202, 0.46572956442832947, -0.010020449757575989, -0.17209602892398834, -0.4774896204471588, 0.32334914803504944, 0.02463090419769287, 0.2373846173286438, -0.04994294047355652, 0.653994619846344, 0.13278739154338837, 0.9067621231079102, 0.20321877300739288, 0.006815114989876747, -0.3309309780597687, -0.6488348245620728, -0.11750571429729462, -0.12794314324855804, 0.37877824902534485, 0.5652970671653748, 0.021621571853756905, 0.6368350386619568, 0.15005844831466675, 0.43017125129699707, 0.06160946190357208, 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251103	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druk%20tsendhen	Druk tsendhen	Druk Tsenden (, ; The Thunder Dragon Kingdom") is the national anthem of Bhutan. Adopted in 1953, the lyrics were written by Dolop Droep Namgay and possibly translated into English by Dasho Gyaldun Thinley. The accompanying music was composed by Aku Tongmi. History Despite claims made in Brozović's Enciklopedija (1999) and many subsequent authors, who attribute the authorship of the national anthem to Gyaldun Thinley, father of the former Prime Minister Jigme Thinley, there are many who believe that the words and the national anthem itself were penned by Dorji Lopen Dolop Droep Namgay of Talo, Punakha. The Dorji Lopen is the most senior of the four senior Lopens in Bhutan's religious establishment, and often serves as the Deputy Je Khenpo. Dolop Droep Namgay maintained close personal and working relations with the third King of Bhutan, Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, during whose reign Gyaldun Thinley served in various capacities. It is possible that Gyaldun Thinley may have been involved in working closely with Dolop Droep Namgay as well as translating the lyrics into English. It is also highly likely that he (and/or his son Jigme Thinley who served in many important government and political capacities since the 1990s) was one of the persons of first contact for Dalibor Brozović who attributed Gyaldun Thinley as the author of the lyrics; however, many regard Dolop Droep Namgay as the author. Aku Tongmi was educated in India and had recently been appointed leader of the military brass band when the need for an anthem rose at the occasion of a state visit from the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. His original score was inspired by the Bhutanese folk tune "The Unchanging Lotus Throne" (Thri nyampa med pa pemai thri). The melody has twice undergone changes by Tongmi's successors as band leaders. The original lyrics were 12 lines, but were shortened to the present six-line version in 1964 by a secretary to the king. As the anthem is inspired by a folk tune, there is a choreography to it as well, originally directed by Tongmi. Lyrics The lyrics to the national anthem are inscribed in the Constitution of Bhutan. See also Flag of Bhutan Emblem of Bhutan National symbols of Bhutan Notes References Further reading External links Druk tsendhen - Audio of the national anthem of Bhutan, with information and lyrics National anthems.net midi file Dookola Swiata - This travel website has an instrumental version of the Anthem, as an .asx file. Children sing the anthem - This website has a sound file of Bhutanese children singing the Anthem without musical accompaniment. Dragon King of Bhutan calls-on President of the Republic of India on the eve of 63rd Republic Day - The anthem starts at 01:30. Rendition by Rashtrapati AngRakshak. 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251107	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20anthem%20of%20Bolivia	National anthem of Bolivia	The national anthem of Bolivia (), also known as Bolivianos, el Hado Propicio () and originally titled the Canción Patriótica ("Patriotic Song"), was adopted in 1851. José Ignacio de Sanjinés, a signer of both the Bolivian Declaration of Independence and the first Bolivian Constitution, wrote the lyrics. The music was composed by an Italian, Leopoldo Benedetto Vincenti. It is a march in 4/4 time, although it is popularly sung in 8/12. It was premiered in the city of La Paz, in front of the Palacio de Gobierno, at noon on 18 November 1845, by about 90 instrumentalists belonging to the military bands of the 5th, 6th and 8th battalions. That day, the fourth anniversary of the Battle of Ingavi was celebrated with several acts of extraordinary magnitude, a highlight of which was the opening of the Municipal Theatre. In 1851, during the government of General Manuel Isidoro Belzu, the national anthem of Bolivia was made official by a supreme decree, and it was sent out to print for distribution in schools. It has since been performed and sung in all official school functions. History Background In the city of Chuquisaca (modern Sucre) in 1835, the composition called ("National March") came to light, the first national anthem, the work of the Peruvian teacher Pedro Ximénez Abril Tirado, who was the chapelmaster of Chuquisaca Cathedral. This composition did not become official, quite possibly due to the creation, organisation and subsequent elimination of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839). The original scores are found in the Historical Archive of Chuquisaca Cathedral, where they are part of the musical heritage of Bolivia. A piano performance, performed by the teacher María Antonieta García Meza de Pacheco, exists in a compilation on CD as a tribute to the work of Ximenez Abrill Tirado. National anthem Once the independence and sovereignty of Bolivia was consolidated in the Battle of Ingavi on 18 November 1841, the need for a patriotic song was noted again, because General José Ballivián, then president of Bolivia, noted that small bands of the Army were not managing to conquer popular fervour by performing inherited Spanish marches and popular pieces. It was under these circumstances that Ballivián learned of the visit to Chile of Italian teacher and composer Leopoldo Benedetto Vincenti, whom he invited in 1844 to exercise the position of general director of bands of the Bolivian army and to compose, under contract, the music of ("the Patriotic Song"), under which name it was to be known at the time. Vincenti arrived in La Paz in September 1844 and found the musical bands in a dire state, as could be established in his family letters. His work was exhausting; many times, he went to bed dressed to go to the barracks at dawn. The trials were long and pressing. Vincenti rejected one text after another; it was then that lawyer and poet José Ignacio Sanjinéz presented him with the verses of what is now the Bolivian national anthem, originally written in Spanish. In the La Paz Plaza Murillo at noon on 18 November 1845, after Te Deum was performed at the Cathedral of La Paz in honour of the Battle of Ingavi, the military bands of the Battalions 5th, 6th and 8th played, for the first time, the chords of the Bolivian national anthem. Ballivián came out excited to one of the balconies of the Palacio Quemado, profusely congratulating the performance. That same night, simultaneously, the Municipal Theatre of La Paz was premiered in a lyrical-musical programme, a central part of which was the interpretation of . The new theatre was packed: the president of the republic, José Ballivián, attended with his cabinet; prefectural, municipal and public authorities gathered. Lyrics Spanish original In indigenous languages Notes References See also Read full texts on Wikisource Read full Spanish texts on the Spanish Wikisource External links Bolivia: Himno Nacional de Bolivia - Audio of the national anthem of Bolivia, with information and lyrics (archive link) Bolivian music Bolivia National symbols of Bolivia Spanish-language songs Bolivia National anthem compositions in B-flat major	[ -0.06880313903093338, 0.5624977350234985, 0.04918835312128067, -0.19366766512393951, -0.4704723358154297, 0.5203940868377686, 0.27974414825439453, 0.28750672936439514, -0.5320752263069153, -0.03473389148712158, 0.22264264523983002, 0.5781863331794739, -0.19620002806186676, 0.3853953778743744, -0.38283276557922363, 0.662032425403595, 0.46802353858947754, 0.7671522498130798, 0.16005808115005493, -0.3666234314441681, -0.6602128744125366, 0.16228361427783966, 0.6715664267539978, -0.0524403341114521, 0.5786399841308594, -0.2847777009010315, 0.1332021802663803, 0.5564009547233582, 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251111	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Anthem%20of%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina	National Anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina	The National Anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina (, Државна химна Босне и Херцеговине) is the name of the national anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is one of four national anthems in the world (along with those of Spain, San Marino, and Kosovo) to have no official lyrics, though unofficial lyrics have been written for it. Following the Dayton Agreement that ended the Bosnian War in the mid-1990s, Bosnian state symbols were mandated to be inclusive of the country's main ethnic groups and not make any overt references to a specific one. The Bosnian national anthem that was in use at the time was considered to be insufficiently inclusive towards all of the country's ethnic groups and thus the United Nations, which oversaw the country as part of the Dayton Agreement, decided to replace it with an instrumental one, which was considered by it to be more inclusive. In the two decades since its inception, various attempts have been made to adopt lyrics for it, most recently in 2018, but due to political disagreements, none have been successful as yet. History Background The national anthem was adopted provisionally by the UN's High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina on 25 June 1999 by the promulgation of the Law on the National Anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina, replacing the previous national anthem, "Jedna si jedina", which was not particularly well-liked the country's Serb and Croat communities. The Bosnian government itself formally adopted it in 2001, and it has reportedly been in use along with the flag and coat of arms since 10 February 1998. Inception Bosnian Serb composer Dušan Šestić from Banja Luka composed the melody, to which initially there were no lyrics under the working title "Intermeco" ("Intermezzo"), which is commonly referred to as its title although it was never officially adopted as such. Šestić was denounced by some Serbs who disliked that he had written the national anthem of a state whose existence they were opposed to, whereas some Croats and Bosniaks disliked that a Serb had composed the national anthem as opposed to a member of their ethnicity. Due to its length, an abridged version omitting several bars near the middle of the piece is often played at occasions requiring brevity. Lyrics Since 2007, various unsuccessful attempts have been made to have lyrics adopted for the Bosnian national anthem. Lyrics written by Šestić, the original composer, and Benjamin Isović were proposed in June 2008 and accepted by a parliamentary commission in February 2009. The 2008 lyrics emphasize national unity and a focus on the future, rather than emphasizing the past or ethnic differences. Though he was reportedly supposed to be paid 17,000 Euros by the state split with Isović for his role in writing new lyrics, Šestić had not yet received compensation as of 2015. The decision still requires approval of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The proposed lyrics do not mention the two administrative entities or the constitutional nations that make up the state, leading to some opposition, and end with the line "We are going into the future, together!". As part of the consideration process, a recording of the lyrics was sung for a government committee by Dragica Panić Kašanski, a musicologist. A lyrical adoption was again proposed in 2016, but those were not approved either. In February 2018, a renewed effort for an adoption of lyrics was initiated, though due to the ethnically-fragmented nature of Bosnian politics, it is unlikely to succeed in light of several other similar attempts being made before having failed. Some have suggested using the words from the Serbo-Croatian poem "Emina" as the lyrics for the national anthem, due to its connection to Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs alike. Reception According to a 2011 survey conducted of the Bosnian population, Bosnians' attitudes towards their country's national anthem were shown to be sharply split along ethnic lines, with Bosniaks generally liking the national anthem, Croats being ambivalent towards it, and Serbs overwhelmingly disliking it, even booing it at some performances, refusing to stand for it, and displaying three-fingered salutes. In some cases, the Bosnian national anthem is not played in Republika Srpska even at events where others are played. Controversy In the late 2000s, commentators noted an aesthetic similarity of the Bosnian national anthem to Elmer Bernstein's instrumental piece "Faber College Theme" that serves as the introductory music to the 1978 film National Lampoon's Animal House, leading to accusations of plagiarism and calls for the composition to be replaced as a result. The composer Dušan Šestić defended himself against accusations of plagiarism, saying that he could not have plagiarized Bernstein's work as he was unaware of the latter's composition. Unofficial lyrics References External links The Bosnia and Herzegovina, Council of Ministers have a page about the national symbols, including an instrumental file. Vocal version with unofficial lyrics Himna BiH napokon dobila tekst - The website "Sarajevo-x" features a page on the anthem's lyrics, including a vocal version. 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251113	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Lowe	Robert Lowe	Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke, GCB, PC (4 December 1811 – 27 July 1892), British statesman, was a pivotal conservative spokesman who helped shape British politics in the latter half of the 19th century. He held office under William Ewart Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer between 1868 and 1873 and as Home Secretary between 1873 and 1874. Lowe is remembered for his work in education policy, his opposition to electoral reform and his contribution to modern UK company law. Gladstone appointed Lowe as Chancellor expecting him to hold down public spending. Public spending rose, and Gladstone pronounced Lowe "wretchedly deficient"; most historians agree. Lowe repeatedly underestimated the revenue, enabling him to resist demands for tax cuts and to reduce the national debt instead. He insisted that the tax system be fair to all classes. By his own main criterion of fairness – that the balance between direct and indirect taxation remain unchanged – he succeeded. However historians do not believe this balance is a good measure of class incidence and was by that time thoroughly archaic. Early life Lowe was born in Bingham, Nottinghamshire, England, the second son of the Reverend Robert Lowe (rector of St Mary and All Saints, Bingham). His mother was Ellen, the daughter of the Rev. Reginald Pyndar. Lowe had albinism, and his sight was so weak that initially it was thought he was unfit to be sent to school. In 1822 he went to a school at Southwell, then to one at Risley, and in 1825 to Winchester as a commoner. In Lowe's fragment of autobiography he shows an unpleasing picture of the under-feeding and other conditions of the school life of the time. The languages of Latin and Greek were the main subjects of study and Lowe records that both were easy for him. Lowe then attended University College, Oxford, and enjoyed the change; there as a pupil of Benjamin Jowett he gained a first class degree in Literae Humaniores and a second class in mathematics, besides taking a leading part in the Union debates. In 1835 he won a fellowship at Magdalen, but vacated it on marrying, on 26 March 1836, Georgiana Orred (d. 1884). Lowe was for a few years a successful tutor at Oxford, but in 1838 was disappointed at not being elected to the professorship of Greek at the University of Glasgow. Australia In 1841 Lowe moved to London to read for the Bar, but his eyesight showed signs of serious weakness, and, acting on medical advice, he sailed to Sydney in the colony of New South Wales, where he set to work in the law courts. On 7 November 1843 he was nominated by Sir George Gipps, the Governor of New South Wales, to a seat in the New South Wales Legislative Council replacing Robert Jones who had to resign from the Council due to insolvency. Owing to a difference of opinion with Gipps, Lowe resigned from the council on 9 September 1844, but was elected in April 1845 for Counties of St Vincent and Auckland. Lowe held that seat until 20 June 1848 and was elected for City of Sydney in July 1848, a seat he held until November 1849. Lowe soon made his mark in the political world by his clever speeches, particularly on finance and education; and besides obtaining a large legal practice, he was involved with the founding and was one of the principal writers for the Atlas newspaper. In 1844, Lowe defended a Royal Navy captain, John Knatchbull, on a charge of murdering a widowed shopkeeper named Ellen Jamieson; he was one of the earliest to raise in a British court the plea of moral insanity (unsuccessfully). Knatchbull was hanged on 13 February 1844. Lowe and his wife adopted Mrs. Jamieson's two orphaned children, Bobby and Polly Jamieson. On 27 January 1850, the Lowes and the two Jamieson children sailed to England. British politics Early years Lowe's previous university reputation and connections combined with his colonial experience stood him in good stead; The Times was glad to employ him, and, as one of its ablest leader-writers, he made his influence widely felt. In 1852, he was returned to Parliament for Kidderminster in the Liberal interest. In the House of Commons, his acute reasoning made a considerable impression, and, under successive Liberal ministries (1853–1858), he obtained official experience as Secretary to the Board of Control and Vice-President of the Board of Trade. During his time there, he saw the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 passed – the first nationwide codification of company law in the world. He has been referred to as "the father of modern company law". This status was again referred to in the presentation by Lord Sainsbury of the second reading leading up to the new United Kingdom Companies Act 2006. "One hundred and fifty years ago, my predecessor Robert Lowe, later First Viscount Sherbrooke, brought forward the Bill that created the joint stock limited liability company. It was the first nationwide codification of company law in the world, and he has recently been described as "the father of modern company law". Our company law continues to have an excellent record. Since 1997 new incorporations have risen by over 60 per cent and the number of foreign firms incorporating in the UK has more than quadrupled. No doubt this is because, according to the World Bank's assessment, it is quicker and cheaper for companies to set up in the UK than in any other EU member state." In 1859, Lowe went to the Education Office as Vice-President of the Committee of the Council on Education in Lord Palmerston's ministry; there he pursued a vigorous policy, insisting on payment by results, and bringing in the revised code (1862), which embodied this principle and made an examination in "the three R's" the test for grants of public money. He felt then, and still more after the Reform Act of 1867, that "we must educate our masters," and he rather scandalized his old university friends by the stress he laid on physical science as opposed to classical studies. Considerable opposition was aroused by the new regime at the Education Office, and in 1864 Lowe was driven to resign by an adverse vote in Parliament with reference to the way in which inspectors' reports were "edited." This was the result of the strong feelings that had been aroused against Lingen's administration of the Education Office. Reform Lord Palmerston had been a towering opponent to widening democratic participation and his death in October 1865 opened the way to the Russell–Gladstone reform ministry, which introduced the Reform Bill of 1866. Lowe carried on his former Prime Minister's views, as part of the Canning and Peel Liberal school. Moreover, he had been heavily shocked by his experiences of the comparatively developed union movement in his time in Australia in a less rigid class system. He had already made known his objections to the advance of "democracy", notably in his speech in 1865 on Sir Edward Baines's Borough Franchise Bill. He was not invited to join the new ministry. Lowe retired into what Bright called the "Cave of Adullam", and with other Liberals and Whig peers (known collectively as the 'Adullamites' ) opposed the bill in a series of brilliant speeches, which raised his reputation as an orator to its highest point and helped to cause government's downfall. However Benjamin Disraeli who led the subsequent Conservative government proposed his own Reform Bill, which by splitting the parties succeeded to become the Reform Act 1867. As he said in the third reading of the Bill, Lowe thought any step towards democracy was bad because it engendered "a right existing in the individual as opposed to general expediency… numbers as against wealth and intellect". So the bill contained "the terms of endless agitation". Proponents of the Bill argued a lower property qualification would give the vote to respectable members of the working class. But Lowe thought: Being a man of company law, Robert Lowe saw unions as a threat to the order, which as he drafted, allowed only for social participation through investment of capital, not investment of labour. As it was the case that participation in Parliament was also only possible through possession of property, Lowe was fearful that a change in one part of the world he understood would lead to another, ending in unforeseeable chaos. Lowe concluded his speech with considerable flair. Gladstone Ministry In spite of the fact that his appeals did not prevent the passing of the Second Reform Act, Robert Lowe beat Walter Bagehot in the next election to become the first Member of Parliament (MP) for the London University, a new constituency created by the very Act he opposed. In 1868 he accepted office in the Gladstone Cabinet as Chancellor of the Exchequer, an office that he described in the following terms in the House of Commons on 11 April 1870: "The Chancellor of the Exchequer is a man whose duties make him more or less of a taxing machine. He is entrusted with a certain amount of misery which it is his duty to distribute as fairly as he can." Lowe was a rather cut-and-dried economist, who prided himself that during his four years of office he took twelve millions off taxation; but later opinion has hardly accepted his removal of the shilling registration duty on corn (1869) as good statesmanship, and his failures are remembered rather than his successes. His proposed tax of a halfpenny a box on Lucifer matches in 1871 (for which he suggested the epigram ex luce lucellum, "out of light a little profit") roused a storm of opposition, and had to be dropped. In 1873 he was transferred to the Home Office, but in 1874 the government resigned. Later years Lowe spoke against the Royal Titles Bill 1876 at East Retford and implied that Queen Victoria had been responsible for the bill's introduction. As a result, when the Liberals returned to power in 1880, Victoria made it clear that she would not accept any ministry that included Lowe. Nevertheless, he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Sherbrooke, of Sherbrooke in the County of Surrey (a peerage that would become extinct on his death), against the express wishes of Queen Victoria, but with the backing of William Gladstone. In 1885, he was also further honoured by being created Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. But from 1875 till his death at Warlingham, Surrey, his health was constantly failing, and by degrees he figured less and less in public life. He became a supporter of the Liberal Unionist party in 1886. During the 1870s the following epitaph was suggested for him by one of the wits of his day: Here lies poor old Robert Lowe; Where he's gone to I don't know; If to the realms of peace and love, Farewell to happiness above; If, haply, to some lower level, We can't congratulate the devil. Lowe was delighted with this, and promptly translated it into Latin, as follows: Continentur hac in fossa Humilis Roberti ossa; Si ad coelum evolabit, Pax in coelo non restabit; Sin in inferis jacebit, Diabolum ejus poenitebit. On his death he was buried in Brookwood Cemetery. Australian federal electoral division The Division of Lowe, a now abolished Australian electoral division located in Sydney, was named after him. Arms See also Liberal Party (UK) Reform Act 1867 UK company law Notes Bibliography Own works Poems of a Life (1884) Sources Briggs, Asa. “Robert Lowe and the Fear of Democracy," in Briggs, Victorian People (1955) pp. 232–263. online External links Parliamentary Archives, Papers of Robert Lowe, Viscount Sherbrooke 1811 births 1892 deaths Chancellors of the Exchequer of the United Kingdom British Secretaries of State Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies UK MPs 1852–1857 UK MPs 1857–1859 UK MPs 1859–1865 UK MPs 1865–1868 UK MPs 1868–1874 UK MPs 1874–1880 UK MPs who were granted peerages Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for London University Sherbrooke Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Alumni of University College, Oxford People from Bingham, Nottinghamshire Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People with albinism Fellows of the Royal Society Members of the New South Wales Legislative Council Burials at Brookwood Cemetery Presidents of 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251114	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatshe%20leno%20la%20rona	Fatshe leno la rona	"" (meaning "Blessed Be This Noble Land") is the national anthem of the Republic of Botswana. The music was composed by Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete, who also authored the song's lyrics. It was adopted when the country became independent in 1966. Since independence, the song is sung occasionally during the country's important events such as Kgotla meetings, independence celebrations and other national events. The national anthem is highly respected to an extent that when it is sung movements are not allowed, people stand at attention, and security officers, like the police and soldiers, salute as a show of respect. History From the late 19th-century until the height of decolonisation during the 1960s, Bechuanaland (as it was then known) was a protectorate of the United Kingdom within its colonial empire. In the run up to independence, proposals for the national symbols for the future country were made. Although the flag and the coat of arms were straightforward choices, the selection of the national anthem became a source of contention. Despite its popularity, "Fatshe leno la rona" was reportedly not the frontrunner because its composer – Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete, who possessed "a music degree from London" – was the co-founder and leader of the opposition Botswana People's Party (BPP), which at the time was a radical faction. Instead, the government wanted to maintain "Morena boloka Sechaba sa Etsho" ("Lord protect the nation of the world") as the anthem after independence. Although the latter song was considered by some government officials to be a "colonial song", it was in fact embraced by nationalists in the south of the continent in their struggle against colonialism, as well as in South Africa during the apartheid era. In an interview with the national newspaper Mmegi, fellow BPP co-founder Motsamai Mpho stated that "Fatshe leno la rona" was written in 1962. He stated that Motsete had penned the anthem in Ghana, where he was inspired by the songs of liberation from that country. Indeed, Mpho asserts that himself, Motsete, and three others affiliated with the BPP were the first people to sing the anthem while returning home on a flight from a Pan-Africanist conference held in Accra that same year. According to the biographer of Gobe Matenge, a former Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Home Affairs, he was one of several civil servants – including the future vice president Peter Mmusi – that compelled the Motswana government to adopt "Fatshe leno la rona" as the anthem of the independent nation. In order to ascertain the opinion of the general public on the matter, the government transmitted all of the contending hymns over Radio Botswana. However, Matenge's group was able to obtain recordings of these songs for themselves and air them in front of quasi-town hall gatherings held in major settlements like Lobatse, Molepolole, and Mafikeng, in addition to the capital Gaborone. They strategically played "Fatshe leno la rona" as the last song – which in theory would increase the likelihood that the audience would remember the tune – while having their organisers add words of praise for it in an attempt to sway the crowd's opinion in favour of that hymn. At the end of the exercise, they would circulate a boilerplate form letter articulating the author's viewpoint of "Fatshe leno la rona" being their favourite candidate for national anthem. This was done because of the low levels of literacy in Botswana at the time. Of the multitude of letters sent to the Department of Information and Broadcasting, the vast majority of them expressed an inclination towards the aforementioned song. However, this account has been disputed by George Winstanley, the first clerk to the Cabinet after independence. He insists that stories about how the government was pressured into ratifying "Fatshe leno la rona" are simply inaccurate, especially in light of the fact that the civil servants who supposedly did this were merely "junior executive officers" at the time. Rather, Winstanley remembers how Seretse Khama initially leaned towards selecting "Morena" ("Lord keep the nation of the world"), before he convinced Khama to select a hymn that was "unique to Botswana". Khama's deputy Quett Masire recalled how the future president wanted an anthem that was enduring and would transcend the political spectrum, so that it would not be changed when another political party assumed power in the future. A total of seven hymns were shortlisted as finalists for the new national anthem. Motsete actually made another submission – "Botswana Fatshe le Lentle" (meaning "Botswana, a Beautiful Country") – in addition to "Fatshe leno la rona"; the two compositions finished runner-up and winner, respectively. The latter was officially adopted in 1966, the year the country gained independence. One of the first public occasions where the anthem was played was at the flag hoisting ceremony at midnight on 30 September 1966, marking the end of British rule over Botswana. Modern day The anthem is normally sung in four part vocal harmony. It is performed at events, both at tribal and at national level. For instance, it is sung before traditional village meetings (kgotla). Lyrics Context of lyrics The lyrics of "Fatshe leno la rona" alludes to God and his standing as the bestower of the nation's land. It also promotes values such as love of the country, and accord among the different ethnic groups residing in the state. The author is saying that this land is a gift from our forefathers and pleads that it must remain peaceful. He further suggests that the people of Botswana should work collectively to build up the nation, both men and women. He does not only call for cooperation but also commitment. Finally, the song echoes how beautiful the name Botswana is, expressly noting that this beauty is from the unity and stability of Botswana. Notes References External links Botswana: Fatshe leno la rona – Audio of the national anthem of Botswana, with information and lyrics Fatshe leno la rona MIDI – Vocal African anthems Botswana music National symbols of Botswana National anthem compositions in B-flat major	[ 0.3727548122406006, 0.05542430654168129, 0.0299991462379694, -0.4443713128566742, -0.2839089035987854, 0.5014411807060242, 0.4963650703430176, 0.18377122282981873, -0.3522087335586548, -0.303439199924469, -0.15333253145217896, 0.5842648148536682, -0.6707123517990112, 0.04966730624437332, -0.6245806217193604, 0.5485516786575317, 0.32470574975013733, 0.08556168526411057, 0.03491050377488136, -0.29171380400657654, -0.0073011768981814384, 0.13189873099327087, 0.18532057106494904, 0.24610771238803864, 0.4530383348464966, 0.49483707547187805, 0.6099276542663574, 0.6248349547386169, -0.6114055514335632, 0.3033621907234192, -0.026700077578425407, -0.1579754799604416, 0.6416656970977783, 0.33886152505874634, 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251116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamphaeng%20Phet%20province	Kamphaeng Phet province	Kamphaeng Phet (, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat) that lies in lower northern Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Sukhothai, Phitsanulok, Phichit, Nakhon Sawan, and Tak. Toponymy In Thai or Lao kamphaeng means 'wall' and phet (from Sanskrit vájra) means 'diamond'. The name means 'wall as hard as diamond'. This wall served as a defensive line to protect the Ayutthaya Kingdom from what is now modern-day Burma. The old name was Khao Kampeng, referring to a 'mountain wall' between the two countries. Geography The main river is the Ping, a major tributary of the Chao Phraya River. River flats make up much of the east of the province, while the west is mountainous and covered with forests. The total forest area is or 23.5 percent of provincial area. One of the provinces best-known products is bananas, especially the kluai khai, a small, round, sweet banana. Banana festivals are held every year to thank the spirits for the harvest. History Kamphaeng Phet was already a royal city in the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 14th century, then known under its old name Chakangrao. It formed an important part of the defence system of the kingdom, as well as later of the Ayutthaya Kingdom. Symbols The provincial seal shows the city walls surmounted by diamonds, since the city name means 'diamond wall' (from the shape of the ramparts of the old city wall). The provincial tree is the areca nut palm (Acacia catechu), and the provincial flower the bullet wood (Mimusops elengi). Golden belly barb (Hypsibarbus wetmorei) is provincial fish, since it is a fish found in the Ping river especially in the area of Kamphaeng Phet. Administrative divisions provincial government The province is divided into 11 districts (amphoes). These are further divided into 78 subdistricts (tambons) and 823 villages (mubans). Local government As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Kamphaeng Phet Provincial Administration Organisation () and 25 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Kamphaeng Phet, Pang Makha and Nong Pling have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 22 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 64 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon). Human achievement index 2017 Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017. Notable residents Saman Sorjaturong: WBC & IBF light flyweight world champion Kaeo Pongprayoon: 2012 Summer Olympics silver medalist Gallery References External links Provincial page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand Website of province (Thai) Provinces of Thailand	[ -0.0878015011548996, 0.3715195655822754, 0.2877882421016693, 0.04348254203796387, -0.2352641522884369, -0.07894104719161987, 0.5149358510971069, 0.4824351370334625, -0.7681320309638977, 0.05440866947174072, -0.08814180642366409, -0.3508738577365875, -0.33451324701309204, 0.2815426290035248, -0.32624998688697815, 0.883365273475647, 1.1325690746307373, 0.07737289369106293, 0.27472493052482605, -0.5653226971626282, -0.17976413667201996, -0.6202691793441772, 0.6486108303070068, -0.13696950674057007, 0.25221046805381775, 0.19070735573768616, 0.36434659361839294, 0.6473662853240967, 0.7634317278862, -0.16003450751304626, -0.5389879941940308, 0.4990024268627167, -0.34547722339630127, -0.10007620602846146, 0.2690478563308716, 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251117	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolyn%20S.%20Shoemaker	Carolyn S. Shoemaker	Carolyn Jean Spellmann Shoemaker (June 24, 1929 – August 13, 2021) was an American astronomer and a co-discoverer of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9. She discovered 32 comets (then a record for the most by an individual) and more than 500 asteroids. Having earned degrees in history, political science, and English literature, she had little interest in science until she met and married geologist Eugene Shoemaker. Her career in astronomy began when she demonstrated good stereoscopic vision, a particularly valuable quality for looking for objects in near-Earth space. Despite the fact that her degrees were not in science, having that visual ability motivated the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to hire her as a research assistant on a team led by her husband. She went on to making record-setting discoveries in the field of astronomy, as well as being awarded honorary degrees and many profession awards. Personal life Shoemaker was born on June 24, 1929, in Gallup, New Mexico, United States, to Hazel Arthur and Leonard Spellmann. Her family then moved to Chico, California, where she and her brother Richard grew up. She earned bachelor's and master's degrees in history, political science, and English literature from Chico State University. When her brother attended Caltech, his roommate was a young graduate student named Gene Shoemaker, however, Carolyn did not meet him until the summer of 1950 at her brother's wedding. Following graduation, Shoemaker had moved to New Jersey to begin work toward his doctoral degree at Princeton University. He had flown back to California to serve as Richard's best man. When Shoemaker returned to his studies at Princeton, Carolyn and he maintained a "pen pal" relationship and they both then attended a two-week camping trip on the Tennessee Plateau. They were married on August 18, 1951. They had three children: Christy, Linda, and Patrick (Pat). The Shoemaker family lived in Grand Junction, Colorado, Menlo Park, California, and Pasadena, California, before settling down in Flagstaff, Arizona, where she and her husband worked together at the Lowell Observatory. In 1997, Carolyn and Gene were involved in a car crash in Australia. Gene was killed instantly, while Carolyn sustained severe injuries. Shoemaker died at age 92, after a fall on August 13, 2021. Careers Shortly after her marriage, the first job she held was teaching the seventh grade. Unsatisfied with the teaching profession, she quit to raise a family. Mary Chapman, author of Shoemaker's biography for the USGS Astrogeology Center, wrote "Carolyn is a warm, caring, and extremely patient woman, but her skills were better suited for a non-teaching environment." After her children had grown up and moved out, Shoemaker sought work. In her youth, she had never been interested in scientific topics. She had taken one course in geology, but found it extremely boring. However, she reportedly told others that, "listening to Gene explaining geology made what she had thought was a boring subject into an exciting and interesting pursuit of knowledge". At the suggestion of her husband, she began studying astronomy from a student at Lowell Observatory. Then she began working as a field assistant for her husband. She worked on his search program mapping and analyzing impact craters. Carolyn Shoemaker started her astronomical career in 1980, at age 51, searching for Earth-crossing asteroids and comets at California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, and the Palomar Observatory, San Diego, California. That year, Shoemaker was hired at the United States Geological Survey (USGS) as a visiting scientist in the astronomy branch, and then in 1989 began work as an astronomy research professor at Northern Arizona University. She concentrated her work on searching for comets and planet-crossing asteroids. Teamed with astronomer David H. Levy, the Shoemakers identified Shoemaker-Levy 9, a fragmented comet with an orbit that intersected that of Jupiter, on March 24, 1993. In the 1980s and 1990s, Shoemaker used film taken at the wide-field telescope at the Palomar Observatory, combined with a stereoscope, to find objects that moved against the background of fixed stars. Following recovery from the injuries she suffered in the 1997 automobile crash in which her husband was killed, she resumed her work at the Lowell Observatory with Levy. She was actively involved in astronomical observation work until at least 2002. , Shoemaker had been credited with discovering or co-discovering 32 comets and over 500 asteroids. Awards and honors The Hildian asteroid 4446 Carolyn, discovered by colleague Edward Bowell at Lowell Observatory in 1985, was named in her honor. In 1988, Shoemaker received the Rittenhouse Medal of the Rittenhouse Astronomical Society. She received the Scientist of the Year Award in 1995. In 1996, Shoemaker received an honorary doctorate degree from the Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona and the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal. In 1998, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences named both of the Shoemakers as the recipients of the James Craig Watson Medal. List of discovered minor planets Between 1980 and 1994, Shoemaker was credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 377 numbered minor planets. References External links American women astronomers Women planetary scientists Discoverers of asteroids Discoverers of comets 1929 births 2021 deaths People from Gallup, New Mexico California State University, Chico alumni Northern Arizona University faculty Palomar Observatory People from Flagstaff, Arizona 20th-century American astronomers 21st-century American astronomers 20th-century American women scientists 21st-century American women scientists Planetary scientists American women academics	[ -0.2773834764957428, -0.0010895649902522564, -0.18076255917549133, 0.2581777572631836, 0.19883935153484344, 0.4150994122028351, 0.7137826085090637, -0.1721135973930359, -0.47668781876564026, -0.01246324460953474, -0.1563696265220642, 0.4263717532157898, -0.46953174471855164, 0.5357896089553833, -0.8225040435791016, 0.09390392899513245, -0.08210225403308868, -0.014466148801147938, -0.9983530640602112, -0.2505466341972351, 0.10175680369138718, -0.002160706790164113, 0.4530639350414276, 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251118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian%20National%20Anthem	Brazilian National Anthem	The "Brazilian National Anthem" () was composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva in 1831 and had been given at least two sets of unofficial lyrics before a 1922 decree by President Epitácio Pessoa gave the anthem its definitive, official lyrics, by Joaquim Osório Duque-Estrada, after several changes were made to his proposal, written in 1909. The anthem's lyrics have been described as Parnassian in style and Romantic in content. History The melody of the Brazilian national anthem was composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva, and was presented to the public for the first time in April 1831. On 7 April 1831, the first Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I, abdicated the Crown and days later left for Europe, leaving behind the then-five-year-old Emperor Pedro II. From the proclamation of the independence of Brazil in 1822 until the 1831 abdication, an anthem that had been composed by Pedro I himself, celebrating the country's independence (and that now continues to be an official patriotic song, the Independence Anthem), was used as the national anthem. In the immediate aftermath of the abdication of Pedro I, the anthem composed by him fell in popularity. Francisco Manuel da Silva then seized this opportunity to present his composition, and the anthem written by him was played in public for the first time on April 13, 1831. On that same day, the ship carrying the former Emperor left the port of Rio de Janeiro. The date of April 13 now appears in official calendars as the Day of the Brazilian National Anthem. As to the actual date of composition of the music presented in April 1831, there is controversy among historians. Some hold that Francisco Manuel da Silva composed the music in the last four months of 1822 to commemorate Brazil's independence (declared on 7 September 1822), others hold that the hymn was written in early 1823 and others consider the evidence of composition dating back to 1822 or 1823 unreliable, and hold that the Anthem presented on 13 April 1831 was written in 1831, and not before. In any event, the Anthem remained in obscurity until it was played in public on 13 April 1831. In style, the music resembles early Romantic Italian music such as that of Gioachino Rossini. Initially, the music composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva was given lyrics by Appeals Judge Ovídio Saraiva de Carvalho e Silva not as a national anthem, but as a hymn commemorating the abdication of Pedro I and the accession of Pedro II to the Throne. It was known during this early period as "April 7 Hymn". The lyrics by Ovídio Saraiva soon fell out of use, given that they were considered poor, and even offensive towards the Portuguese. The music, however, continued enjoying sustained popularity, and by 1837 it was played, without lyrics, in all public ceremonies. Although no statute was passed during the imperial period to declare Francisco Manuel da Silva's musical composition as the national anthem, no formal enactment was considered necessary for the adoption of a national anthem. A national anthem was seen as resulting from praxis or tradition. Thus, by 1837, when it was played in all official solemnities, Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition was already the Brazilian National Anthem. A new set of lyrics was proposed in 1841, to commemorate the coming of age and Coronation of Emperor Pedro II; those lyrics, popular but also considered poor, were soon abandoned too, this time by order of Emperor Pedro II, who specified that in public ceremonies the anthem should be played with no lyrics. Emperor Pedro II directed that Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition, as the national anthem of the Empire of Brazil, should be played, without lyrics, on all occasions when the monarch presented himself in public, and in solemnities of military or civilian nature; the composition was also played abroad in diplomatic events relating to Brazil or when the Brazilian Emperor was present. During the Empire of Brazil era, the U.S. composer and pianist Louis Moreau Gottschalk, then residing in Rio de Janeiro, composed two nationalistic works of classical music based on the Brazilian National Anthem that achieved great popularity during the imperial period: the Brazilian Solemn March ("Marcha Solene Brasileira", in the modern Portuguese spelling or "Marcha Solemne Brazileira", in the original spelling in force at the time of composition) and the Great Triumphal Fantasy on the Brazilian National Anthem ("Grande Fantasia Triunfal sobre o Hino Nacional Brasileiro"). The former was dedicated to Emperor Pedro II, and the latter was dedicated to his heiress presumptive, the Princess Imperial Isabel, comtesse d'Eu. Those works are in the vein of similar compositions written at the time in other Nations, such as Charles Gounod's Fantasy on the Russian National Anthem. The Grand Triumphal Fantasy, long forgotten, resurfaced in popularity in 1985, at the dawn of Brazil's New Republic, during the country's re-democratization process, when it was played to accompany the funeral cortège of President Tancredo Neves. After the Proclamation of the Republic in 1889, the new rulers made a competition in order to choose a new anthem, and the competition was won by a music composed by Leopoldo Miguez, with lyrics by Medeiros e Albuquerque. After protests against the adoption of the proposed new anthem, however, the Head of the Provisional Government, Deodoro da Fonseca, formalized Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition as the national anthem, while the composition by Miguez and Medeiros e Albuquerque was declared the Anthem of the Proclamation of the Republic. Deodoro himself was said to prefer the old anthem to the new composition. The Decree of the Provisional Government (Decree 171 of 1890) confirming Francisco Manuel da Silva's music, that had served as the National Anthem of the Empire of Brazil, as the National Anthem of the new Republic, was issued on 20 January 1890. In the early days of the new Federal Republic, the National Anthem continued without official lyrics, but several lyrics were proposed, and some were even adopted by different states of Brazil. The lack of uniform, official lyrics would only be terminated in 1922, during the celebrations of the first centennial of the Proclamation of Independence, when an adapted version of Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada's lyrics, first proposed in 1909, were deemed official. The official lyrics of the Brazilian National Anthem were proclaimed by decree of President Epitácio Pessoa (Decree 15.761 of 1922), issued on 6 September 1922, at the height of the celebrations of the Independence Centennial. This presidential decree was issued in accordance with authorization contained in a legislative decree adopted by Congress on 21 August 1922. Furthermore, as allowed by the said legislative decree, and before the President of the Republic issued his decree proclaiming the official adoption of Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada's lyrics as the official lyrics of the National anthem, the Federal Government finalized the purchase of the lyrics written by Duque Estrada, signing with the composer the contract that transferred all the rights of authorship over the said lyrics to the Federal Union, and paying the agreed price of 5:000$ (five contos of réis). On 7 September 1922, on the exact day of the Independence Centennial, radio broadcasts began in Brazil, and the first broadcast was the performance of the National Anthem with the new lyrics, followed by the speech by President Epitácio Pessoa, the first radio address by a Brazilian President. The national anthem is considered by the current Constitution of Brazil, adopted in 1988, to be one of the four national symbols of the country, along with the Flag, the Coat of Arms and the National Seal. The legal norms currently in force concerning the national anthem are contained in a statute passed in 1971 (Law 5.700 of 1 September 1971), regulating the national symbols. This law regulates in great detail the form of the national anthem and how and when it is to be played. The music of the national anthem was originally intended to be played by symphonic orchestras; for the playing of the anthem by bands, the march composed by Antão Fernandes is included in the instrumentation. This adaptation, long in use, was made official by the 1971 statute regulating national symbols. This same statute also confirmed as official the traditional vocal adaptation of the lyrics of the national anthem, in F major, composed by Alberto Nepomuceno. Due to the fact that the traditional vocal adaptation composed by Alberto Nepomuceno for Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada's lyrics of the national anthem was made official in 1971, other vocal arrangements (as well as other instrumental arrangements departing from the one recognized in law) are unofficial. Because of that, for the remainder of the Military Regime era (that lasted until 1985), the playing of the anthem with any artistic arrangement that departed from the official orchestration and vocal adaptation was prohibited, and there was strict vigilance regarding the use of the National Symbols and the enforcement of this norm. Since the redemocratization of the country, far greater artistic liberty has been allowed regarding renderings of the national anthem. Singer Fafá de Belém's interpretation of the national anthem (initially criticized during the final days of the Military Regime, but now widely accepted), is an example of that. In any event, although the use of different artistic arrangements for the anthem is now permitted (and although the statutory norms that prohibited such arrangements are no longer enforced, on the grounds of constitutional freedom of expression), a rendering of the national anthem is only considered fully official when the statutory norms regarding the vocal adaptation and orchestration are followed. However, the traditional vocal adaptation composed by Alberto Nepomuceno was so well established by the time it became official that the interpretations of the national anthem that depart from the official orchestration or from the official vocal adaptation are few. Indeed, although other arrangements are now allowed, the traditional form tends to prevail, so that, with few exceptions, even celebrity singers tend to only lend their voices to the singing of the official vocal adaptation by Alberto Nepomuceno. The anthem is sung in Brazil's official national language, the Portuguese language. Lyrics The song consists of two consecutive stanzas. The adoption in 1922 of lyrics containing two stanzas thus created the present situation of the music of the anthem being played twice so as to allow for the singing of both stanzas. Brazilian law stipulates that the music needs to be played only once in instrumental renditions of the anthem without vocal accompaniment (thus, in instrumental renditions without vocal accompaniment, the playing of the music twice is optional), but both stanzas must be sung in vocal performances. The second stanza is often dropped when played at sporting events, as most renditions of the Brazilian National Anthem for sporting events are instrumental and not vocal. In the lyrics, the opening line's mention of the Ipiranga river refers to the stream near (and now part of) the city of São Paulo where Prince Dom Pedro, the future Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil, declared Brazilian independence from Portugal. (*) The passages in quotation marks were extracted from Gonçalves Dias' poem "Canção do exílio". (One could also translate "Art thou Brazil" as "'Tis thou Brazil") See also "Brazilian Flag Anthem" () "Brazilian Anthem of Independence" () "Brazilian Republic Anthem" () Notes References External links Hinos at the Brazilian Government 50,000 sing the anthem at FIFA World Cup 2014, partly a capella Brazil National symbols of Brazil Portuguese-language songs National anthem National anthems National anthem compositions in F major	[ 0.13035492599010468, 0.4198359251022339, 0.18626002967357635, 0.19080808758735657, 0.013484802097082138, 0.15955284237861633, 0.22610962390899658, 0.13275057077407837, 0.0363086462020874, -0.4315672218799591, 0.13953357934951782, 0.25427737832069397, 0.0051645501516759396, 0.3068700134754181, -0.05884898453950882, 0.604170560836792, -0.14415527880191803, 0.5098658800125122, 0.03837227821350098, -0.19898438453674316, -0.7659615874290466, 0.43636491894721985, 0.712879478931427, 0.06728307902812958, 0.509169340133667, -0.35137662291526794, 0.7228447198867798, 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251123	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urushiol	Urushiol	Urushiol is an oily mixture of organic compounds with allergenic properties found in plants of the family Anacardiaceae, especially Toxicodendron spp. (e.g., poison oak, Chinese lacquer tree, poison ivy, poison sumac) and also in parts of the mango tree. In most individuals, urushiol causes an allergic skin rash on contact, known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis. The name urushiol is derived from the Japanese word for the lacquer tree, . The oxidation and polymerization of urushiol in the tree's sap in the presence of moisture allows it to form a hard lacquer, which is used to produce traditional Chinese, Korean and Japanese lacquerware. History Although urushiol-containing lacquers and their skin-irritating properties were well known in East Asia for several millennia, its first recorded western texts were in 1624 by John Smith and he initially likened the plant to English Ivy. He did not classify it as a poison at first due to the speed with which its rash disappeared and Smith hypothesized that there may actually be medicinal uses for the plant. In the 18th and 19th centuries, many experiments were done in this area to determine whether or not this theory was true. Because that era's medicinal culture was dominated by plant-based treatments, physicians were hopeful that the strong effect this chemical produced on the body could be effective in some way. André-Ignace-Joseph Dufresnoy was one of the first to come up with a medicinal use for this chemical in 1780 when he boiled poison ivy to produce an infusion for internal use. This led to a distilled extract of poison ivy which he prescribed to many people suffering from skin problems and even paralysis. He claimed this treatment to have yielded several positive results. For many years, poison ivy was thought to fall into the 'Rhus' genus; however, in the 1900s, it was reclassified into a more appropriate genus, 'Toxicodendron,' meaning poison tree. There were many documented cases of irritations and allergic reactions from the plant, and its propensity for medicinal use quickly dwindled. After this new categorization, scientists began attempts to determine what it was that rendered plants of this genus noxious, starting with a hypothesis of a volatile oil present in the plants. While this proved incorrect, Rikou Majima from Japan was able to determine that the chemical urushiol was the irritant. Further, he determined that the substance was a type of alkyl catechol, and due to its structure it was able to penetrate the skin and survive on surfaces for months to years. Urushiol's ability to polymerise into a hard glossy coating is the chemical basis for traditional lacquerware in many Asian countries. After urushiol comes in contact with oxygen, under certain conditions it become a black lacquer and has been named Urushi lacquer. Characteristics Urushiol in its pure form is a pale-yellow liquid with a specific gravity of 0.968 and a boiling point of . It is soluble in diethyl ether, acetone, ethanol, carbon tetrachloride, and benzene. Urushiol is a mixture of several closely related organic compounds. Each consists of a catechol substituted in the 3 position with a hydrocarbon chain that has 15 or 17 carbon atoms. The hydrocarbon group may be saturated or unsaturated. The exact composition of the mixture varies, depending on the plant source. Whereas western poison oak urushiol contains chiefly catechols with C17 side-chains, poison ivy and poison sumac contain mostly catechols with C15 sidechains. The likelihood and severity of allergic reaction to urushiol is dependent on the degree of unsaturation of the hydrocarbon chain. Less than half of the general population experience a reaction with the saturated urushiol alone, but over 90% do so with urushiol that contains at least two degrees of unsaturation (double bonds). Longer side chains tend to produce a stronger reaction. Urushiol is an oleoresin contained within the sap of poison ivy and related plants, and after injury to the plant, or late in the fall, the sap leaks to the surface of the plant, where under certain temperature and humidity conditions the urushiol becomes a blackish lacquer after being in contact with oxygen. Urushi lacquer is very stable. It is able to withstand disturbances from alkali, acid, and alcohol, while also being able to resist temperatures of over 300 °C. However, the lacquer can be degraded by UV rays from the sun and other sources. Within the United States, urushiol-containing plants are distributed throughout. Poison ivy can be found in all states except California, Alaska, and Hawaii. Poison Oak can be found on the west coast or some states in the southeast, while poison sumac can be found only in the eastern half of the country. These plants all have distinguishing features that will help in identification. Poison ivy always grows with three shiny, pointy leaves. Poison oak has a similar look, but with larger and more rounded leaves that are hairy and grow in groups of 3, 5, or 7. Poison sumac grows in groups of 7 to 13 leaves, but always in an odd number. The leaves are feather-shaped and shiny. Allergic response and treatment Before the urushiol has been absorbed by the skin, it can be removed with soap and water. Substantial amounts of urushiol may be absorbed within minutes. Once urushiol has penetrated the skin, attempting to remove it with water is ineffective. After being absorbed by the skin, it is recognized by the immune system's dendritic cells, otherwise called Langerhans cells. These cells then migrate to the lymph nodes, where they present the urushiol to T-lymphocytes and thus recruit them to the skin, and the T-lymphocytes cause pathology through the production of cytokines and cytotoxic damage to the skin. This causes the painful rash, blisters, and itching. Once this response starts, only a few treatments, such as cortisone or prednisone, are effective. Medications that can reduce the irritation include antihistamines (diphenhydramine (Benadryl) or cetirizine (Zyrtec)). Other treatments include applying cold water or calamine lotion to soothe the pain and stop the itching. Mechanism of action To cause an allergic dermatitis reaction, the urushiol is first oxidized to create two double-bonded oxygens on the chemical. It then reacts with a protein nucleophile to trigger a reaction within the skin. Dermatitis is mediated by an induced immune response. Urushiol is too small a molecule to directly activate an immune response. Instead, it attaches to certain proteins of the skin, where it acts as a hapten, leading to a type IV hypersensitive reaction. Hydrocortisone, the active ingredient in cortisone, works to alleviate this condition by stopping the release of chemicals that cause the dermatitis reaction. Hydrocortisone itself does not react with urushiol in any way. Use as lacquer See also Anti-itch drugs, for treating the toxin. Bentoquatam, a barrier cream applied before exposure. Burow's solution which can treat the symptoms of the rash caused by urushiol. Ginkgo biloba and cashew, plants containing chemicals closely related to urushiol. Hapten, small molecules that can elicit an immune response under certain conditions. Mango trees, which may cause cross-reaction allergies with urushiol. References Further reading External links Poison Oak at Wayne's Word Reduce poison ivy dermatitis with the following steps – Deseret News The Poison Ivy Tutorial Catechols Resins	[ -0.2157488316297531, 0.6193841099739075, -0.37273138761520386, -0.05715053156018257, -0.958034873008728, -0.23085981607437134, 0.21873502433300018, 0.10549287497997284, 0.6242918372154236, 0.2123917192220688, -0.13128724694252014, 0.2298509031534195, -0.295101135969162, 0.6038365364074707, -0.0968567356467247, 0.4180496335029602, 0.22810937464237213, 1.1595460176467896, -0.22059455513954163, -0.48320868611335754, 0.051000334322452545, -0.3998797833919525, 0.07688020914793015, -0.22977186739444733, 0.7014031410217285, 0.16071674227714539, 0.39481785893440247, 0.606255054473877, -0.14002284407615662, -0.299501895904541, -0.3442343771457672, 1.2138097286224365, 0.07619854062795639, -0.14465074241161346, 0.5555024743080139, 0.2915996015071869, -0.2796472907066345, -0.07984191179275513, 0.0629291981458664, 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251124	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah%20Peliharakan%20Sultan	Allah Peliharakan Sultan	"Allah Peliharakan Sultan" (Jawi: الله فليهاراكن سلطن; "God Bless the Sultan") is the national anthem of Brunei Darussalam. The anthem is sung in Malay, the national language of the country. It was written by Pengiran Haji Mohamed Yusuf bin Pengiran Abdul Rahim (later bestowed with the title Yang Amat Mulia Pengiran Setia Negara Pengiran Haji Mohamed Yusuf bin Pengiran Abdul Rahim) and composed by Haji Awang Besar bin Sagap in 1947. The song was adopted in 1951 as the national anthem of the British protectorate of Brunei. It was adapted as the national anthem of Brunei Darussalam upon independence from the United Kingdom, and was sung as the national anthem of the independent state at the stroke of midnight 1 January 1984. Usage The national anthem is sung by schoolchildren in Brunei at the beginning of school every Monday during the raising of the national flag and national emblem at school assemblies. The national anthem is played each morning early breakfast on radio and television by Radio Televisyen Brunei (RTB) and at the sign-on and sign-off (replay rerun recorded sign-on) of its transmission for the day. Lyrics A literal translation would be,'O Allah, (please) prolong the life of His Majesty, (may his) just rule protect the land, lead the people (into) eternal happiness, peace be with our country and sultan, Allah save Brunei, the abode of peace. The earlier version of the verse has the word 'rakyat' in place of 'sultan'. 'Rakyat' means the people. Notes References External links Audio of Allah Peliharakan Sultan, national anthem of Brunei, with information and lyrics Collection of Songs for His Majesty The Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam, Copyright (c) Radio Television Brunei, Dirgahayu Kebawah Duli Tuan Patik Asian anthems Bruneian music National symbols of Brunei	[ 0.0504264235496521, 0.5318699479103088, 0.09379933774471283, -0.6843389868736267, -0.7518852353096008, 0.13966284692287445, 0.6645467281341553, -0.0103148790076375, -0.39139801263809204, -0.2694094181060791, -0.6497881412506104, 0.4109134376049042, -0.36835813522338867, 0.20258793234825134, -0.22811631858348846, 0.6331180930137634, 0.44070202112197876, 0.7438382506370544, -0.09738591313362122, 0.011949866078794003, -0.37184906005859375, 0.08390230685472488, 0.30404460430145264, 0.14818061888217926, 0.6468908786773682, 0.3279481828212738, 0.6738231778144836, 0.35611963272094727, -0.8040323257446289, 0.36709392070770264, 0.11002878099679947, 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251128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Lingen%2C%201st%20Baron%20Lingen	Ralph Lingen, 1st Baron Lingen	Ralph Robert Wheeler Lingen, 1st Baron Lingen (19 December 1819 – 22 July 1905) was an English civil servant. Background and education Lingen was born in Birmingham, where his father was in business. He was the grandson of Ralph Lingen, Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, and was a descendant of Elisabeth de Burgh (d. 1522). Lingen was first educated at Bridgnorth Grammar School and then became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1837. He won the Ireland (1838) and Hertford (1839) scholarships; and after taking a first-class in Literae Humaniores (1840), Was elected a fellow of Balliol (1841). He subsequently won the Chancellor's Latin Essay (1843) and the Eldon Law Scholarship (1846). Career After teaching as an assistant master at Rugby School he entered the Inns of Court as a Barrister at Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar in 1847; but instead of practising as a barrister, he accepted an appointment in the Education Office. It was in this role that he became involved with the 1847 Blue Books episode in 1847-8 within which his disdain of the Welsh became apparent. After a short period he was chosen in 1849 to succeed Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth as its secretary or chief permanent official. He retained this position till 1869. The Education Office of that day had to administer a somewhat chaotic system of government grants to local schools, and Lingen was conspicuous for his fearless discrimination and rigid economy, qualities which characterized his whole career. When Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) became, as vice-president of the council, his parliamentary chief, Lingen worked congenially with him in producing the Revised Code of 1862 which incorporated "payment by results"; but the education department encountered adverse criticism, and in 1864 the vote of censure in parliament which caused Lowe's resignation, founded (but erroneously) on an alleged "editing" of the school inspectors' reports, was inspired by a certain antagonism to Lingen's as well as to Lowe's methods. Shortly before the introduction of Forster's Education Act of 1870, Lingen was transferred to the post of permanent secretary of the treasury. In this office, which he held till 1885, he proved a most efficient guardian of the public purse, and he was a tower of strength to successive chancellors of the exchequer. It used to be said that the best recommendation for a secretary of the treasury was to be able to say "No" so disagreeably that nobody would court a repetition. Lingen was at all events a most successful resister of importunate claims, and his undoubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed in the direction of parsimony. In 1885 he retired. He had been made a CB in 1869 and a KCB in 1878, and on his retirement he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lingen, of Lingen in the County of Hereford. In 1889 he was made one of the first aldermen of the new London County Council, but he resigned in 1892 with increasing deafness. His portrait contains the heraldic arms of Trinity College and not his personal arms which are recorded in Burke's Peerage and around his neck hangs his KCB order of knighthood. Personal life In 1852 Lord Lingen married Emma Hutton (1826-1908), daughter of Robert Hutton. There were no children from the marriage. He died on 22 July 1905, aged 85, and was buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. The grave lies on the western side of the central enclosed roundel. The peerage died with him. Lady Emma Lingen died in January 1908 and is buried with him. Notes Attribution References Ralph Lingen, Secretary to the Education Department 1849-1870, by A. S. Bishop. British Journal of Educational Studies, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Jun., 1968), pp. 138–163. Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Society for Educational Studies. 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251129	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditany%C3%A8	Ditanyè	Ditanyè (usually written Le Ditanyè; also known as L'Hymne de la victoire, "The Anthem of Victory", ; or Une Seule Nuit, "One Single Night") is the national anthem of Burkina Faso. Former president Thomas Sankara, also a jazz guitarist, wrote the lyrics. The composer of the melody is unknown, but it has also been attributed to Sankara. It was adopted during his presidency in a decree issued on 2 August 1984, effective midnight on 4 August 1984, the first anniversary of Sankara's accession to the presidency. The decree also renamed the country from Upper Volta to its current name. The anthem replaced the "Hymne National Voltaïque", the national anthem of Upper Volta. Lyrics References External links Burkina Faso: Une Seule Nuit - Audio of the national anthem of Burkina Faso, with information and lyrics National symbols of Burkina Faso National anthems Burkinabé music African anthems 1984 songs National anthem compositions in F major National anthem compositions in F-sharp major	[ 0.394631952047348, -0.014690862968564034, -0.35917922854423523, -0.24406467378139496, -0.732537567615509, 0.32630079984664917, 0.24856889247894287, 0.0872877985239029, -0.4473709166049957, -0.16789261996746063, -0.3139756917953491, 0.27822145819664, -0.5862855911254883, 0.34860292077064514, 0.05462846904993057, 0.6685362458229065, 0.623784601688385, -0.00792226754128933, 0.08520197123289108, -0.24867665767669678, -0.44060978293418884, 0.2964598536491394, 0.056048810482025146, -0.050541747361421585, 0.33420297503471375, 0.24025729298591614, 0.8059966564178467, 0.20920154452323914, -0.3294372260570526, 0.24917612969875336, 0.07652110606431961, 0.23968052864074707, 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251131	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Kay-Shuttleworth	James Kay-Shuttleworth	Sir James Phillips Kay-Shuttleworth, 1st Baronet (20 July 1804 – 26 May 1877, born James Kay) of Gawthorpe Hall, Lancashire, was a British politician and educationist. He founded a further-education college that would eventually become a university. Early life He was born James Kay at Rochdale, Lancashire, the son of Robert Kay and the brother of Joseph Kay and Sir Edward Ebenezer Kay. Career At first engaged in a Rochdale bank, he became in 1824 a medical student at the University of Edinburgh. He settled in Manchester about 1827 and was instrumental in setting up the Manchester Statistical Society. He worked for the Ardwick and Ancoats Dispensary. While still known simply as Dr James Kay, he wrote The Moral and Physical Condition of the Working Class Employed in the Cotton Manufacture in Manchester (1832), which Friedrich Engels cited in The Condition of the Working Class in England. The experience he gained of the conditions of the poor in Lancashire factory districts, along with his interest in economic science, led to an appointment in 1835 as poor law commissioner in Norfolk and Suffolk and later in the London districts. In 1839, he became first secretary of a committee formed by the Privy Council to administer the Government grant for public education in Britain. In 1840, he founded with E. Carleton Tufnell the Battersea Normal College for the training of teachers of pauper children. This became the College of St Mark and St John at Battersea, London and later the University College Plymouth St Mark & St John. In 2012, it gained full university status as the University of St Mark & St John. The original college was the first training college for schoolteachers; today's system of national school education, with public inspection, trained teachers and the support of state as well as local funds, is largely due to its founders' initiative. Later life A breakdown in health led him to resign his post on the committee in 1849, but recovery allowed him an active part in the central relief committee instituted under Lord Derby during the Lancashire cotton famine of 1861–1865. He was created a baronet of Gawthorpe Hall in the County Palatine of Lancaster in 1849. Until the end of his life he interested himself in the movements of the Liberal Party in Lancashire and in the progress of education. His Physiology, Pathology and Treatment of Asphyxia became a standard textbook. He also wrote numerous papers on public education. He was a key figure in the foundation of the Girls' Public Day School Company and a member of its council until shortly before his death. Personal life In 1842, he married Janet Shuttleworth (born 9 November 1817, half-sister of Marianne North), assuming by royal licence his bride's name and arms. His wife had inherited the estate centred on Gawthorpe Hall in Padiham at the age of four months. They had five children. His eldest son, Sir Ughtred James Kay-Shuttleworth (1844–1939), became a well-known Liberal politician, as MP for Hastings from 1869 to 1880 and for the Clitheroe division of Lancashire from 1885 till 1902, when he was created Baron Shuttleworth. He was Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1886, and secretary to the Admiralty in 1892–1895. Charlotte Brontë first met Elizabeth Gaskell at his house. James Kay-Shuttleworth died in 1877 in London and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. References Further reading External resources James Kay-Shuttleworth Papers at the John Rylands Library, Manchester. 1804 births 1877 deaths People from Rochdale English educational theorists Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom High Sheriffs of Lancashire Burials at Brompton Cemetery Girls' Day School Trust Permanent Secretaries of the Education Office 19th-century English medical doctors Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society	[ -0.334651917219162, 0.07291512191295624, -0.08189543336629868, -0.057619858533144, -0.03612305968999863, 0.9223388433456421, 0.5805012583732605, -0.2625805735588074, -0.3082504868507385, 0.014945189468562603, -0.40799689292907715, -0.10729169100522995, -0.6167588233947754, 0.2902563810348511, -0.10653511434793472, -0.03406164422631264, -0.11507993936538696, 0.14513112604618073, -0.4979172945022583, -0.15469059348106384, -0.11842969805002213, 0.13980329036712646, 0.04081479460000992, -0.036542173475027084, -0.2814668118953705, 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251134	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burundi%20Bwacu	Burundi Bwacu	"" (; "Our Burundi") is the national anthem of Burundi. Written in the Kirundi language by a group of writers led by Jean-Baptiste Ntahokaja, a Catholic priest, and composed by Marc Barengayabo, it was adopted upon independence in 1962. Lyrics Notes References External links Burundi: Burundi Bwacu - Audio of the national anthem of Burundi, with information and lyrics (archive link) Burundi Bwacu Vocal African anthems Burundian music National symbols of Burundi National anthem compositions in A-flat major	[ 0.5806165933609009, 0.11263862997293472, -0.2587633728981018, -0.726661741733551, -0.771016538143158, 0.0640183761715889, 0.7823432683944702, 0.2882409393787384, -0.5468522310256958, -0.062187597155570984, -0.1174202635884285, 0.5107930898666382, -0.6736056208610535, 0.7272095084190369, -0.2796226143836975, 0.9788182973861694, 0.20216324925422668, 0.4720720052719116, 0.6188445091247559, -0.4435601830482483, -0.12976665794849396, 0.039048437029123306, 0.37261736392974854, 0.2614362835884094, 0.35277941823005676, 0.5244466662406921, 1.1010106801986694, 0.8869889974594116, -0.33214953541755676, -0.4836532473564148, -0.11157041788101196, 0.12017921358346939, 0.4129239320755005, -0.057653676718473434, 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251135	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Alexandre%20Wallon	Henri-Alexandre Wallon	Henri-Alexandre Wallon (23 December 1812 – 13 November 1904) was a French historian and statesman whose decisive contribution to the creation of the Third Republic led him to be called the "Father of the Republic". He was the grandfather of psychologist and politician Henri Wallon. Early life Wallon was born at Valenciennes, Nord on 23 December 1812. Career Devoting himself to a literary career, in 1840 he became professor at the École Normale Supérieure under the patronage of Guizot, whom he succeeded as professor at the Faculté des Lettres in 1846. His works on slavery in the French colonies (1847) and on slavery in antiquity (1848; new edition in 3 vols., 1879) led to his being placed, after the Revolution of 1848, on a commission for the regulation of labour in the French colonial possessions, and in November 1849 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly by the department of the Nord. He resigned in 1850, disapproving of the measure for the restriction of the suffrage adopted by the majority. In the same year he was elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions, of which he became perpetual secretary in 1873. Under the empire he withdrew altogether from political life, and occupied himself entirely with his duties as a professor of history and with historical writings, the most original of which is a biography, Richard II, épisode de la rivalité de la France et de l'Angleterre (2 vols., 1864). Although remaining a republican, he exhibited decided clerical leanings in his Jeanne d'Arc (2 vols., 1860; 2nd ed., 1875); La Vie de Notre Seigneur Jésus (1865) – a reply to the Vie de Jésus of E. Renan; and Saint Louis et son temps (1871; 4th ed., 1892), which still ranks among hagiographical works. Returning to politics after the Franco-Prussian War, Wallon was re-elected by the department of the Nord in 1871, took an active part in the proceedings of the Assembly, and finally immortalized himself by carrying his proposition for the establishment of the Republic with a president elected for seven years, and then eligible for re-election, which, after violent debates, was adopted by the Assembly on 30 January 1875. "Ma proposition," he declared, "ne proclame pas la République, elle la fait." Upon the definitive establishment of the Republic, Wallon became Minister of Public Instruction, and effected many useful reforms, but his views were too conservative for the majority of the Assembly, and he retired in May 1876. He had been chosen a life senator in December 1875. Returning to his historical studies, Wallon produced four works of great importance, though less from his part in them as author than from the documents which accompanied them: La Terreur (1873) Histoire du tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris avec le journal de ses actes (6 vols., 1880–1882) La Révolution du 31 mai et le fédéralisme en 1793 (2 vols., 1886) Les Représentants du peuple en mission et la justice révolutionnaire dans les départements (5 vols., 1880–1890). Besides these he published a number of articles in the Journal des savants; for many years he wrote the history of the Académie des Inscriptions in the collection of Memoirs of this Academy, and he composed obituary notices of his colleagues, which were inserted in the Bulletin. Death On his death on 13 November 1904, Henri Wallon was interred in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris. See also Henri Wallon (psychologist), Henri-Alexandre Wallon's grandson References 1812 births 1904 deaths People from Valenciennes 19th-century French politicians École Normale Supérieure alumni French life senators Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 19th-century French historians Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery French male non-fiction writers	[ -0.2978142201900482, 0.4740452170372009, -0.6471143960952759, -0.25149405002593994, -0.252747505903244, 0.6398304104804993, 0.47918015718460083, -0.001617871574126184, -0.20420603454113007, -0.8068529963493347, -0.18732379376888275, 0.626478374004364, -0.1539478600025177, 0.28874197602272034, -0.030838215723633766, 0.1127532348036766, -0.2921328842639923, -0.4558388590812683, -0.32554715871810913, 0.0830933004617691, -0.7064178586006165, 0.17745926976203918, 0.25327667593955994, 0.11583559960126877, -0.019150711596012115, -0.2465425580739975, 0.6139336824417114, 0.08421650528907776, 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251140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Darmesteter	James Darmesteter	James Darmesteter (28 March 184919 October 1894) was a French author, orientalist, and antiquarian. Biography He was born of Jewish parents at Château-Salins, in Lorraine. The family name had originated in their earlier home of Darmstadt. He was educated in Paris, where, under the guidance of Michel Bréal and Abel Bergaigne, he imbibed a love for Oriental studies, to which for a time he entirely devoted himself. In 1875, he published a thesis on the mythology of the Avesta, in which he advocated that the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism had been influenced by Judaism (and not backwards as many scholars say). In 1877 became teacher of Persian language at the École des Hautes Études. He continued his research with his Études iraniennes (1883), and ten years later published a complete translation of the Avesta and associated Zend (lit. "commentary"), with historical and philological commentary of his own (Zend Avesta, 3 vols., 1892–1893) in the Annales du Musée Guimet. He also edited the Avesta for Max Müller's Sacred Books of the East series (vols. 4 and 23). Darmesteter regarded the extant texts as far more recent than commonly believed, placing the earliest in the 1st century BC and the bulk in the 3rd century AD. In 1885 he was appointed professor in the Collège de France, and was sent to India in 1886 on a mission to collect the popular songs of the Afghans, a translation of which, with a valuable essay on the Afghan language and literature, he published on his return. His impressions of English dominion in India were conveyed in Lettres sur l'Inde (1888). England interested him deeply; and his attachment to the gifted English writer, Agnes Mary Frances Robinson, whom he shortly afterwards married (and who in 1901 became the wife of Professor E. Duclaux, director of the Pasteur Institute at Paris), led him to translate her poems into French in 1888. Two years after his death a collection of excellent essays on English subjects was published in English. He also wrote Le Mahdi depuis les origines de l'Islam jusqu'a nos jours (1885); Les Origines de la poesie persane (1888); Prophètes d'Israel (1892), and other books on topics connected with the East, and from 1883 onwards drew up the annual reports of the Société Asiatique. He had just become connected with the Revue de Paris, when his delicate constitution succumbed to a slight attack of illness on 10 October 1894 at Maisons-Laffitte. His elder brother, Arsène Darmesteter, was a distinguished philologist and man of letters. There is an éloge of James Darmesteter in the Journal asiatique (1894, vol. iv., pp. 519–534), and a notice by Henri Cordier, with a list of his writings, in The Royal Asiatic Society's Journal (January 1895); see also Gaston Paris, "James Darmesteter," in Penseurs et poètes (1896), (pp. 1–61). References External links 1849 births 1894 deaths People from Moselle (department) 19th-century French Jews French orientalists Linguists from France French Iranologists Translators from Avestan 19th-century translators 19th-century French historians	[ -0.3872971832752228, 0.8519147634506226, -0.8463383316993713, -0.46655887365341187, 0.13526393473148346, 0.7680575847625732, 1.0163689851760864, 0.161726176738739, -0.15654723346233368, -0.632488489151001, -0.5718193650245667, 0.02267368510365486, 0.16453933715820312, 0.518101155757904, 0.3263121545314789, 0.005627984646707773, -0.23099307715892792, -0.3530806005001068, -0.49653011560440063, -0.20252054929733276, -0.2559923529624939, -0.23829232156276703, 0.4400911033153534, -0.1425105780363083, -0.34062421321868896, -0.08052241057157516, 0.1947508603334427, -0.04180485010147095, -0.012337650172412395, -0.28127700090408325, 0.16320131719112396, 0.664070188999176, 0.15283919870853424, -0.39817333221435547, -0.4924202859401703, 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251143	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars%C3%A8ne%20Darmesteter	Arsène Darmesteter	Arsène Darmesteter (5 January 1846, Château-Salins, Moselle16 November 1888, Paris) was a distinguished French philologist and man of letters. Biography He studied under Gaston Paris at the École pratique des hautes études, and became professor of Old French language and literature at the Sorbonne, where he met his wife, the painter Héléna Hartog. His Life of Words appeared in English in 1888. He also collaborated with Adolphe Hatzfeld in a Dictionnaire général de la langue française (2 vols., 1895-1900). Among his most important work was the elucidation of Old French by means of the many glosses in the medieval writings of Rashi and other French Jews. His scattered papers on Romance and Jewish philology were collected by James Darmesteter as Arsène Darmesteter, reliques scientifiques (2 vols., 1890). His valuable Cours de grammaire historique de la langue française was edited after his death by E. Muret and L. Sudre (1891-1895; English edition, 1902). References 1846 births 1888 deaths People from Moselle (department) 19th-century French Jews University of Paris faculty French philologists École Nationale des Chartes alumni	[ -0.5296820402145386, 0.8124459385871887, -0.6856175661087036, -0.217814639210701, -0.3235865533351898, 0.7035806775093079, 0.7474865317344666, 0.1566360890865326, 0.10168115049600601, -0.7340669631958008, -0.5640634894371033, 0.10178396850824356, 0.11751314997673035, 0.2974766194820404, 0.46431735157966614, 0.06848091632127762, -0.21186865866184235, -0.32940801978111267, -0.6635857224464417, -0.04242301732301712, -0.11952760070562363, 0.43084442615509033, 0.09226597100496292, -0.18242548406124115, -0.15709520876407623, 0.09487680345773697, 0.041914232075214386, -0.05132186412811279, 0.42059990763664246, 0.041266508400440216, 0.10457878559827805, 0.6428000926971436, -0.1743948757648468, -0.3152935206890106, -0.4693682789802551, 0.08557307720184326, 0.025379721075296402, -0.01477368175983429, 0.3699240982532501, 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251144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel%20Br%C3%A9al	Michel Bréal	Michel Jules Alfred Bréal (; 26 March 183225 November 1915), French philologist, was born at Landau in Rhenish Palatinate. He is often identified as a founder of modern semantics. Life and career Michel Bréal was born at Landau in Germany of French-Jewish parents. After studying at Wissembourg, Metz and Paris, he entered the École Normale Supérieure in 1852. In 1857 he went to Berlin, where he studied Sanskrit under Franz Bopp and Albrecht Weber. On his return to France he obtained an appointment in the department of oriental manuscripts at the Bibliothèque Impériale. In 1864 he became professor of comparative grammar at the Collège de France, in 1875 member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, in 1879 inspecteur général for higher education until the abolition of the office in 1888. In 1890 he was made commander of the Legion of Honour. He resigned his chair in 1905, and died in Paris. In 1897, Bréal published Essai de Sémantique (science des significations) in which he coined the word semantics (la ‘sémantique’). Works Among his works, which deal mainly with mythological and philological subjects, may be mentioned: L' Etude des origines de la religion Zoroastrienne (1862), for which a prize was awarded him by the Académie des Inscriptions Hercule et Cacus (1863), in which he disputes the principles of the symbolic school in the interpretation of myths Le Mythe d'œdipe (1864) Les Tables Eugubines (1875) Mélanges de mythologie et de linguistique (2nd. ed., 1882) Leçons de mots (1882, 1886) Dictionnaire étymologique Latin (1885) Grammaire latine (1890). Essai de Sémantique (1897), on the signification of words, which was translated into English by Mrs Emmeline Cust with preface by J. P. Postgate. a translation of Bopp's Comparative Grammar (1866–1874), with introductions, which is highly valued. He also wrote pamphlets on education in France, the teaching of ancient languages, and the reform of French orthography. In 1906 he published Pour mieux connaitre Homère. Michel Bréal can also be credited with the invention of the marathon race. He made the suggestion to put this event on the programme of the first modern Olympics in Athens in 1896 to his friend Pierre de Coubertin. The event was to commemorate the Greek soldier Pheidippides who, according to several legends, ran from the Battle of Marathon to either Athens or Sparta. Hans W. Giessen, Heinz-Helmut Lüger, Günther Volz (Hrsg.): Michel Bréal – Grenzüberschreitende Signaturen. Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, Landau 2007 Hans W. Giessen & Heinz-Helmut Lüger: Ein Grenzgänger der ersten Stunde. Michel Bréal: Vom Marathon zum Pynx in: Dokumente. Zs. für den deutsch-französischen Dialog. Gesellschaft für übernationale Zusammenarbeit, Bonn. Heft 4 / 2008, pp. 59 – 62 ISSN 0012-5172 Hans W. Giessen: Mythos Marathon. Von Herodot über Bréal bis zur Gegenwart. (= Landauer Schriften zur Kommunikations- und Kulturwissenschaft. Band 17). Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, Landau 2010, . Heinz-Helmut Lüger (dir.), Hans W. Giessen (dir.) et Bernard Weigel (dir.), Entre la France et l'Allemagne : Michel Bréal, intellectuel engagé, Limoges, Lambert-Lucas, 2012 () Brigitte Nerlich: Michel Bréal: mettre l’homme dans la langue. In: Penser l’histoire des savoirs linguistiques. Hommage à Sylvain Auroux. Textes réunis par Sylvie Archaimbault Jean-Marie Fournier & Valérie Raby, 611-619. Lyon: ENS, 2013. (). Jan Noordegraaf: Salient scholars. Michel Bréal and his Dutch connections. In: Penser l’histoire des savoirs linguistiques. Hommage à Sylvain Auroux. Textes réunis par Sylvie Archaimbault Jean-Marie Fournier & Valérie Raby, 621-632. Lyon: ENS, 2013. (). http://hdl.handle.net/1871/51333 References External links Michel Bréal Society, Michel-Bréal-Gesellschaft People from Landau 1832 births 1915 deaths French philologists École Normale Supérieure alumni Marathon running Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur Collège de France faculty Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres École pratique des hautes études faculty	[ -0.7271173000335693, 0.5545127391815186, 0.12284992635250092, -0.22876855731010437, -0.34127703309059143, 0.39899614453315735, 0.3623189330101013, 0.054432462900877, -0.10479161143302917, -0.5047339200973511, -0.2510121762752533, -0.03112153336405754, 0.35652172565460205, -0.022443823516368866, 0.0626433864235878, 0.24460840225219727, -0.08974512666463852, -0.2755088210105896, -0.5951340794563293, -0.5209482312202454, -0.24462680518627167, -0.17913074791431427, 0.24212026596069336, 0.14287765324115753, -0.3771922290325165, 0.2868784964084625, 0.07964891195297241, -0.033875949680805206, 0.40472832322120667, 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251147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isatis%20tinctoria	Isatis tinctoria	Isatis tinctoria, also called woad (), dyer's woad, or glastum, is a flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae. It is occasionally known as Asp of Jerusalem. Woad is also the name of a blue dye produced from the leaves of the plant. Woad is native to the steppe and desert zones of the Caucasus, Central Asia to Eastern Siberia and Western Asia but is now also found in South-Eastern and Central Europe and western North America. Since ancient times, woad was an important source of blue dye and was cultivated throughout Europe, especially in Western and Southern Europe. In medieval times there were important woad-growing regions in England, Germany and France. Towns such as Toulouse became prosperous from the woad trade. Woad was eventually replaced by the more colourfast Indigofera tinctoria and, in the early 20th century, both woad and Indigofera tinctoria were replaced by synthetic blue dyes. Woad has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. There has also been some revival of the use of woad for craft purposes History of woad cultivation Ancient use The first archaeological finds of woad seeds date to the Neolithic. The seeds have been found in the cave of l'Audoste, Bouches-du-Rhône, France. Impressions of seeds of Färberwaid (Isatis tinctoria L.) or German indigo, of the plant family Brassicaceae, have been found on pottery in the Iron Age settlement of Heuneburg, Germany. Seed and pod fragments have also been found in an Iron Age pit at Dragonby, North Lincolnshire, United Kingdom. The Hallstatt burials of the Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave and Hohmichele contained textiles dyed with woad. Melo and Rondão write that woad was known "as far back as the time of the ancient Egyptians, who used it to dye the cloth wrappings applied for the mummies." Skelton informs us that one of the early dyes discovered by the ancient Egyptians was "blue woad (Isatis tinctoria)." Lucas writes, "What has been assumed to have been Indian Indigo on ancient Egyptian fabrics may have been woad." Hall states that the ancient Egyptians created their blue dye "by using indigotin, otherwise known as woad." A dye known as סטיס satis in Aramaic is mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud. Celtic blue is a shade of blue, also known as glas celtig in Welsh, or gorm ceilteach in both the Irish language and in Scottish Gaelic. Julius Caesar reported (in Commentarii de Bello Gallico) that the Britanni used to colour their bodies blue with vitrum, a word that means primarily "glass", but also the domestic name for the "woad" (Isatis tinctoria), besides the Gaulish loanword glastum (from Proto-Celtic glastos "green"). The connection seems to be that both glass and the woad are "water-like" (lat. vitrum is from Proto-Indo-European wed-ro- "water-like"). In terms of usage, Latin vitrum is more often used to refer to glass rather than woad. The use of the word for the woad might also be understood as "coloured like glass", applied to the plant and the dye made from it. Due to this and other Roman accounts of them painting (or possibly tattooing) their bodies, northern inhabitants of Britain came to be known as Picts (Picti), meaning "painted ones" in Latin. Gillian Carr conducted experiments using indigo pigment derived from woad mixed with different binders to make body paint. The resulting paints yielded colours from "grey-blue, through intense midnight blue, to black". People with modern experiences with woad as a tattoo pigment have claimed that it does not work well, and is actually caustic and causes scarring when put into the skin. It has also been claimed that Caesar was referring to some form of copper- or iron-based pigment. Analysis done on the Lindow Man did return evidence of copper. The same study also noted that the earliest definite reference to the woad plant in the British Isles dates to a seed impression on an Anglo-Saxon pot. The authors theorize that vitrum could have actually referred to copper(II) sulfate's naturally occurring variant chalcanthite or to the mineral azurite. A later study concluded the amount was "not of sufficient magnitude to provide convincing evidence that the copper was deliberately applied as paint". Woad was an important dyeing agent in much of Europe and parts of England during the medieval period. However, dye traders began to import indigo during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which threatened to replace locally grown woad as the primary blue dye. The translation of vitrum as woad may date to this period. Medieval period onwards Woad was one of the three staples of the European dyeing industry, along with weld (yellow) and madder (red). Chaucer mentions their use by the dyer ("litestere") in his poem The Former Age: No mader, welde, or wood no litestere Ne knew; the flees was of his former hewe; The three colours can be seen together in tapestries such as The Hunt of the Unicorn (1495–1505), though typically it is the dark blue of the woad that has lasted best. Medieval uses of the dye were not limited to textiles. For example, the illustrator of the Lindisfarne Gospels () used a woad-based pigment for blue paint. In Viking Age levels at archaeological digs at York, a dye shop with remains of both woad and madder have been excavated and dated to the 10th century. In medieval times, centres of woad cultivation lay in Lincolnshire and Somerset in England, Jülich and the Erfurt area in Thuringia in Germany, Piedmont and Tuscany in Italy, and Gascogne, Normandy, the Somme Basin (from Amiens to Saint-Quentin), Brittany and, above all, Languedoc in France. This last region, in the triangle created by Toulouse, Albi, and Carcassonne, was for a long time the most productive of woad, or "pastel" as it was known there, one writer commenting that "woad […] hath made that country the happiest and richest in Europe." The prosperous woad merchants of Toulouse displayed their affluence in splendid mansions, many of which still stand, as the Hôtel de Bernuy and the Hôtel d'Assézat. One merchant, Jean de Bernuy, a Spanish Jew who had fled the inquisition, was credit-worthy enough to be the main guarantor of the ransomed King Francis I after his capture at the Battle of Pavia by Charles V of Spain. Much of the woad produced here was used for the cloth industry in southern France, but it was also exported via Bayonne, Narbonne and Bordeaux to Flanders, the Low Countries, Italy, and above all Britain and Spain. After cropping the woad eddish could be let out for grazing sheep. The woad produced in Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire in the 19th century was shipped out from the Port of Wisbech, Spalding and Boston, both the last to northern mills and the USA. The last portable woad mill was at Parson Drove, Cambridgeshire, Wisbech & Fenland Museum has a woad mill model, photos and other items used in woad production. A major market for woad was at Görlitz in Lausitz. The citizens of the five Thuringian Färberwaid (dye woad) towns of Erfurt, Gotha, Tennstedt, Arnstadt and Langensalza had their own charters. In Erfurt, the woad-traders gave the funds to found the University of Erfurt. Traditional fabric is still printed with woad in Thuringia, Saxony and Lusatia today: it is known as Blaudruck (literally, "blue print(ing)"). Use as Chinese medicine Woad, known as Banlangen (板蓝根) (de) in Chinese, is used as an herbal medicinal tea in China for colds and tonsular ailments. Used as a tea, it has a brownish appearance and (unlike most Chinese medicines) is mildly sweet in taste. Woad and indigo The dye chemical extracted from woad is indigo, the same dye extracted from "true indigo", Indigofera tinctoria, but in a lower concentration. Following the Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India by the navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498, great amounts of indigo were imported from Asia. Laws were passed in some parts of Europe to protect the woad industry from the competition of the indigo trade. It was proclaimed that indigo caused yarns to rot: "In 1577 the German government officially prohibited the use of indigo, denouncing it as that pernicious, deceitful and corrosive substance, the Devil's dye." This prohibition was repeated in 1594 and again in 1603. In France, Henry IV, in an edict of 1609, forbade under pain of death the use of "the false and pernicious Indian drug". With the development of a chemical process to synthesize the pigment, both the woad and natural indigo industries collapsed in the first years of the 20th century. The last commercial harvest of woad until recent times occurred in 1932, in Lincolnshire, Britain. Small amounts of woad are now grown in the UK and France to supply craft dyers. The classic book about woad is The Woad Plant and its Dye by J. B. Hurry, Oxford University Press of 1930, which contains an extensive bibliography. A method for producing blue dye from woad is described in The History of Woad and the Medieval Woad Vat (1998) . Woad is biodegradable and safe in the environment. In Germany, there have been attempts to use it to protect wood against decay without applying dangerous chemicals. Production of woad is increasing in the UK for use in inks, particularly for inkjet printers, and dyes. The plant can cause problems, however: Isatis tinctoria is classified as an invasive species in parts of the United States. Invasive and noxious weed In certain locations, the plant is classified as a non-native and invasive weed. It is listed as a noxious weed by the agriculture departments of several states in the western United States: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. In Montana, it has been the target of an extensive, and largely successful, eradication attempt. Notes References Sources External links Woad.org.uk - All About Woad - Cultivation, Extraction, Dyeing with Woad, History and facts about woad The Former Woad Industry Rex Wailes in Transactions of the Newcomen Society, 1935-36 Vol 16. 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251154	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokor%20Reach	Nokor Reach	"Nokor Reach" (also spelt Nokoreach; , ; "Majestic Kingdom Song") is the national anthem of Cambodia. It is based on a Cambodian folk tune and was written by Chuon Nath. History "Nokor Reach" originated from a folk poetry usually performed with chapei in ancient era for storytelling and to disclose any recent events. The music of "Nokor Reach" was composed between 1938 and 1939 by Prince Norodom Suramarit during the reign of King Sisowath Monivong with help of Sir J. Jekyll and Sir François Perruchot, the Royal Palace's musical instructors. The lyrics were not finished until 20 July 1941 by Choun Nath, a few months after King Norodom Sihanouk's coronation. In the same year, it was adopted then reconfirmed in 1947 as a national anthem for the country. In 1970, the monarchy was abolished, thereby replacing the state's national anthem as well. After the communists' victory in 1975, former royalist symbols, including "Nokor Reach", were reinstated for a short while. The Khmer Rouge then replaced it with "Dap Prampi Mesa Chokchey" ("Glorious Seventeenth of April") in January 1976. After the royalist party FUNCINPEC defeated the former communists (Cambodian People's Party) in the 1993 elections, the royalist state anthem was restored. Lyrics "Nokor Reach" is a poem consisting of three verses and each verse consists of five lines. See also "March of the Khmer Republic" (Khmer Republic's national anthem [1970–1975]) "Dap Prampi Mesa Chokchey" (Democratic Kampuchea's national anthem [1976–1979]) Anthem of the People’s Republic of Kampuchea (People's Republic of Kampuchea and revised as the State of Cambodia's national anthem [1979–1989]–[1989–1993]) National symbols of Cambodia Angkor Wat Krama Notes References External links Cambodia: "Nokor Reach" - Audio of the national anthem of Cambodia, with information and lyrics Nokor Reach Instrumental VDO clip on YouTube Nokor Reach with lyrics VDO clip on YouTube Cambodian National Anthem - The page "Cambodian View" includes a page about the anthem, which includes a vocal version of the anthem. 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251155	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton%20of%20Jura	Canton of Jura	The Republic and Canton of Jura (), less formally the Canton of Jura or Canton Jura ( , ), is the newest (founded in 1979) of the 26 Swiss cantons, located in the northwestern part of Switzerland. The capital is Delémont. It shares borders with the canton of Basel-Landschaft, the canton of Bern, the canton of Neuchatel, the canton of Solothurn, and the French régions of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté and Grand Est. History The king of Burgundy donated much of the land that today makes up canton Jura to the bishop of Basel in 999. The area was a sovereign state within the Holy Roman Empire for more than 800 years. After the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 the Jura had close ties with the Swiss Confederation. At the Congress of Vienna (1815), the Jura region became part of the canton of Bern. This act caused dissension. The Jura was French-speaking and Roman Catholic, whereas the canton of Bern was mostly German-speaking and Protestant. After World War II, a separatist movement campaigned for a secession of Jura from the canton of Bern. After a long and partly militant struggle, which included some arson attacks by a youth organisation Les Béliers, a constitution was accepted in 1977. In 1978, the split was made official when the Swiss people voted in favour, and in 1979, the Jura joined the Swiss Confederation as a full member. The canton celebrated its independence from the canton of Bern on 23 June. However, the southern part of the region, which is also predominantly French-speaking but has a Protestant majority, opted not to join the newly formed canton, instead remaining part of the canton of Bern. Although this decision may be considered strange linguistically, the choice may have been influenced by the fact that the canton of Bern is financially richer and is at the heart of federal power in Switzerland. The area is now known as Bernese Jura. The word Jura, therefore, may refer either to canton Jura, or to the combined territory of canton Jura and the Bernese Jura. Switzerland as a whole often presents the latter from a touristic standpoint with documentation easily available in French or German. On creation, the canton adopted the title Republic and Canton of Jura. Other cantons in Switzerland using the title "Republic and Canton" are Ticino, Geneva, and Neuchâtel. In each case, the title refers to the autonomy of the canton and its nominal sovereignty within the Swiss Confederation. Since 1994, the question of the Jura region has again been controversial. In 2004, a federal commission proposed that the French-speaking southern Jura be united with the canton of Jura, as the language question now seems to be more important than the denominational one. A possible solution would be to create two half-cantons, as reunification with the creation of only a single canton would mean a complete restructuring of the Jura's current political system, with the cantonal capital being transferred from Delémont to Moutier. On 18 June 2017, the town of Moutier voted to secede from the canton of Bern and join the canton of Jura in a referendum. On 17 September 2017, the nearby municipalities of Belprahon and Sorvilier conversely voted to remain in the canton of Bern. The vote in Moutier was later declared invalid. On 28 March 2021, Moutier voted to secede from Bern and join Jura again in an officially sanctioned referendum. The changeover is expected to be implemented by 2026. Geography Canton Jura lies in the northwest of Switzerland. It consists of parts of the Jura mountains in the south and the Jura plateau in the north. The Jura plateau is hilly and almost entirely limestone. The districts of Ajoie and Franches-Montagnes lie in this region. The term "Jurassic" is derived from the Jura Alps, strata of which give the era its name. To the north and the west of the canton lies France. The canton of Solothurn and Basel-Landschaft are to east of the canton, while the canton of Bern bounds the Jura to the south. The rivers Doubs and the Birs drain the lands. The Doubs joins the Saône and then the Rhône, whereas the Birs is a tributary to the Rhine. Political subdivisions Districts Jura is divided into 3 districts: Delémont (, ) - capital: Delémont Porrentruy (, ) - capital: Porrentruy Franches-Montagnes (, ) - capital: Saignelégier Municipalities There are 53 municipalities in the canton (). Politics Federal election results FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009 "*" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton. Part of the canton of Bern Demographics The population is almost entirely French-speaking. Just one municipality is German-speaking: Ederswiler. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic (75% ) with a small Protestant minority (13%). The population of the canton (as of ) is . , the population included 8,195 foreigners, or about 11.8% of the total population. Historic population The historical population is given in the following chart: Economy Agriculture is important in canton Jura. Cattle breeding is significant, but there is also horse breeding (the Franches-Montagnes is the last Swiss horse race). The main industries are watches, textiles and tobacco. There is a growing number of small and medium-sized businesses. In 2001, there were 3,578 people who worked in the primary economic sector. 14,109 people were employed in the secondary sector and 16,513 people were employed in the tertiary sector. In 2001, the canton produced 0.9% of the entire Swiss national income while it had 0.9% of the total population. In 2005, the average share of the national income per resident of the canton was 38,070 CHF, while the national average was 54,031 CHF, or about 70% of the national income per person. Between 2003 and 2005, the average income grew at a rate of 6.4%, which was larger than the national rate of 5.3%. The average taxes in the canton are higher than in most cantons, in 2006, the tax index in the canton was 126.6 (Swiss average is 100.0). In 2006, the canton had the highest final tax rate on high wage earners (15.26% on a married couple with two children earning 150,000 CHF vs 11.6% nationally), though the tax rate was in the middle for lower-income families. Culture The eau de vie Damassine is one typical produce of the Ajoie area. (see Terroir Jura and Jura Infos) See also Frainc-Comtou dialect Franco-Provençal language Notes and references Bibliography Ganguillet, Gilbert: Le conflit jurassien. Un cas de mobilisation ethno-régionale en Suisse, Zürich 1986. Harder, Hans-Joachim: Der Kanton Jura. Ursachen und Schritte zur Lösung eines Schweizer Minderheitenproblems, Frankfurt am Main 1978. Hauser, Claude: Aux origines intellectuelles de la Question jurassienne. Culture et politique entre la France et la Suisse romande (1910–1950), Diss. Fribourg 1997. Henecka, Hans Peter: Die jurassischen Separatisten. Eine Studie zur Soziologie des ethnischen Konflikts und der sozialen Bewegung, Meisenheim am Glan 1972. Jenkins, John R.G.: Jura Separatism in Switzerland, Oxford 1986. Ruch, Christian: Struktur und Strukturwandel des jurassischen Separatismus zwischen 1974 und 1994, Bern 2001. Schwander, Marcel: Jura. Konfliktstoff für Jahrzehnte, Zürich/Köln 1977. Steppacher, Burkard: Die Jurafrage in der Schweiz, München 1985. External links Republic and Canton of Jura official site Jura Tourism Watch Valley Official statistics Jura 1979 establishments in Switzerland States and territories established in 1979	[ 0.14066466689109802, 0.12685030698776245, 0.05531426519155502, -0.31246158480644226, -0.2455293834209442, 0.2458546757698059, 0.09582441300153732, 0.5397977232933044, -0.7446903586387634, -0.3377642035484314, -0.026984557509422302, 0.031225062906742096, -0.10130360722541809, 0.24321144819259644, -0.6281400322914124, 0.5755549073219299, 0.3656623661518097, 0.1833239048719406, 0.4508785605430603, -0.48602232336997986, -0.05399516969919205, 0.3148229420185089, 0.2079802006483078, 0.25569671392440796, 0.1775428205728531, -0.07965751737356186, 0.48063406348228455, 0.14640983939170837, 0.16125085949897766, -0.02919120341539383, -0.35890334844589233, 0.3355633318424225, -0.1610296219587326, -0.28104734420776367, -0.08335395902395248, 0.46406346559524536, -0.14138759672641754, -0.6545573472976685, 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251157	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%20Cameroon%2C%20Cradle%20of%20Our%20Forefathers	O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers	"" ("The Rallying Song"), also known as "" ("O Cameroon, Cradle of our Forefathers") is the national anthem of Cameroon and former national anthem of French Cameroon. History The song was composed in 1928 by , who also wrote the lyrics along with and Moïse Nyatte Nko'o, all while they were students at the École Normale of . It was used on an unofficial basis in French Cameroon beginning in 1948 before independence and officially adopted as the anthem of the territory in 1957. In 1960, the anthem was officially adopted by the new Republic of Cameroon. In 1961, upon the accession of the former British Southern Cameroons to the Republic of Cameroon, an English version was written by Bernard Nsokika Fonlon, which was later officially adopted in 1978. In 1970, the French lyrics were changed to remove some words such as ("barbarianism") and ("savagery"). Lyrics Current lyrics (1970–present) Former lyrics (1957–1970) Notes References External links Cameroon: O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers - Audio of the national anthem of Cameroon, with information and lyrics (archive link) 'Chant de Ralliement'/'The Rallying Song' MIDI (archive link) National anthems Cameroonian culture African anthems National anthem compositions in B-flat major	[ 0.34235915541648865, 1.1050777435302734, -0.17851321399211884, -0.5478038191795349, -0.5962676405906677, 0.38550639152526855, 0.09633392095565796, 0.8639028072357178, -0.657977283000946, -0.4987100660800934, -0.40594103932380676, 0.18083606660366058, -0.07049798965454102, 0.9582586288452148, 0.18266890943050385, 0.6524695158004761, 0.09290127456188202, 0.7400314807891846, -0.21352438628673553, -0.6016266942024231, -0.11732683330774307, 0.19569748640060425, 0.4537756145000458, 0.23229730129241943, 0.6554197669029236, 0.45982301235198975, 0.7832144498825073, -0.11467783153057098, -0.2938807010650635, 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251158	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston%20Paris	Gaston Paris	Bruno Paulin Gaston Paris (; 9 August 1839 – 5 March 1903) was a French writer and scholar. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1901, 1902 and 1903. Biography Paris was born at Avenay (Marne), the son of Paulin Paris (1800–1881), an important scholar of medieval French literature. In his childhood, Gaston learned to appreciate Old French romances as poems and stories, and this early impulse for the study of Romance literature was placed on a solid basis by courses of study at Bonn (1856) and at the École des chartes. Paris taught French grammar in a private school, later succeeding his father as professor of medieval French literature at the Collège de France in 1872; in 1876 he was admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions and in 1896 to the Académie française; in 1895 he was appointed director of the Collège de France. He won a European reputation as a Romance scholar. He had learnt German methods of exact research, but besides being an accurate philologist he was a literary critic of great acumen and breadth of view, and brought a singularly clear mind to bear on his favourite study of medieval French literature. His Vie de saint Alexis (1872) broke new ground and provided a model for future editors of medieval texts. It included the original text and the variations of it dating from the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. He contributed largely to the Histoire littéraire de la France, and with Paul Meyer published Romania, a journal devoted to the study of Romance literature. In 1877 Gaston Paris was invited to Sweden for the 400th anniversary of the Upsala University, where he was made an honorary doctor. Before returning home he also visited Kristiania (Oslo) to take part in a celebration of the Norwegian philosopher Marcus Jacob Monrad. At the University of Kristiania Gaston Paris also held a lecture about the two folktale collectors, Asbjørnsen and Moe, which he believed to be, besides the Grimm Brothers, the best re-tellers of the genre. He received the German Order Pour le Mérite (civil class) in August 1902. Paris died in Cannes in 1903. Works Histoire poétique de Charlemagne (1865) Les Plus anciens monuments de la langue française (1875) Manuel d'ancien Français (1888) Mystère de la passion by Arnoul Gréban (1878), in collaboration with Gaston Raynaud Deux rédactions du roman des sept sages de Rome (1876) a translation of the Grammaire des langues romanes (1874–1878) of Friedrich Diez, in collaboration with MM. Brachet and Morel-Fatio. La Poésie du Moyen Âge (1885 and 1895) Penseurs et poètes (1897) Poèmes et légendes du moyen âge (1900) François Villon (1901), an admirable monograph contributed to the "Grands Écrivains Français" series Legendes du Moyen Âge (1903). Summary of medieval French literature forms a volume of the Temple Primers. Paris endeared himself to a wide circle of scholars outside his own country by his unfailing urbanity and generosity. In France he trained a band of disciples at the École des Chartes and the College de France who continued the traditions of exact research that he established. Among them were Leopold Pannier; Marius Sepet, the author of Le Drame chrétien au Moyen Âge (1878) and Origines catholiques du théâtre moderne (1901); Charles Joret; Alfred Morel-Fatio; Gaston Raynaud, who was responsible for various volumes of the excellent editions published by the Société des anciens textes français; Arsène Darmesteter; and others. References Attribution Further reading "Hommage à Gaston Paris" (1903), the opening lecture of his successor, Joseph Bédier, in the chair of medieval literature at the College de France; A. Thomas, Essais de philologie française (1897); W. P. Ker, in the Fortnightly Review (July 1904); M. Croiset, Notice sur Gaston Paris (1904); J. Bédier et M. Roques, Bibliographie des travaux de Gaston Paris (1904). 1839 births 1903 deaths People from Marne (department) 19th-century French historians French medievalists Literary historians French philologists Members of the Académie Française Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) École Nationale des Chartes alumni Collège de France faculty École pratique des hautes études faculty	[ 0.12306824326515198, 0.22586773335933685, -0.5354862809181213, 0.09635214507579803, -0.13240820169448853, 0.4836122989654541, 0.34799689054489136, 0.10353817790746689, -0.28476107120513916, -0.9619301557540894, -0.37865447998046875, 0.2902418076992035, -0.247687429189682, 0.1840328425168991, 0.10141574591398239, 0.07802790403366089, -0.11814311891794205, -0.4643714129924774, -0.6806679964065552, -0.5163968205451965, -0.6255829930305481, -0.13143619894981384, 0.12206877022981644, -0.15963764488697052, 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251161	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beloved%20Isle%20Cayman	Beloved Isle Cayman	Beloved Isle Cayman is the official national song of the Cayman Islands, composed by Leila Ross-Shier in 1930. As a British Overseas Territory, the official national anthem is God Save the Queen. References External links Nationalanthems.info Caymanian culture North American anthems 1930 songs	[ -0.23472480475902557, -0.09923963248729706, 0.5109149217605591, -0.0900820642709732, -0.015202186070382595, 0.1367817223072052, 0.23373328149318695, 0.2722513675689697, -0.33946308493614197, 0.11172779649496078, -0.2932991683483124, 0.5377306342124939, 0.19527500867843628, 0.3065841794013977, -0.9422756433486938, 0.40743425488471985, 0.3589140772819519, 0.5683382749557495, 0.06640108674764633, -0.6481841802597046, -0.15007832646369934, -0.025247804820537567, 0.3506344258785248, -0.15630587935447693, 0.3756200969219208, 0.33996227383613586, 0.475538432598114, -0.048491355031728745, -0.28113383054733276, 0.26747289299964905, 0.048107851296663284, 0.40469175577163696, 0.3449172377586365, -0.06625986844301224, 0.23148790001869202, 0.055361878126859665, -0.12449999153614044, -0.5339294075965881, -0.5985706448554993, -0.6047908067703247, 0.22081945836544037, -0.49248576164245605, 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251163	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Renaissance	La Renaissance	"" () is the national anthem of the Central African Republic. It was adopted on 25 May 1960, shortly before the republic's independence on 13 August the same year. The words were written by then Prime Minister Barthélémy Boganda. The music was composed by French composer Herbert Pepper, who also composed the national anthem of Senegal, "". The song was also the national anthem during the Central African Empire, from 1976 to 1979. Lyrics Notes References External links Central African Republic: "La Renaissance" - Audio of the national anthem of the Central African Republic, with information and lyrics National anthems Central African Republic music National symbols of the Central African Republic African anthems Year of song missing National anthem compositions in D major National anthem compositions in E major	[ 0.04127904400229454, 0.05514584854245186, 0.4297463893890381, -0.2454531043767929, -0.0456128865480423, 0.026717744767665863, 0.014523818157613277, 0.5463349223136902, -0.6062514781951904, -0.5852979421615601, -0.696414589881897, 0.45730698108673096, 0.031191213056445122, 0.4118000864982605, -0.09061454236507416, 0.6583065390586853, 0.2904699146747589, -0.0495738610625267, -0.12411800771951675, -0.1926322728395462, -0.7730061411857605, 0.23923370242118835, 0.2571284770965576, 0.15081384778022766, 0.38058769702911377, -0.22552816569805145, 0.4725433588027954, 0.442332923412323, -0.3577207624912262, 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251165	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Tchadienne	La Tchadienne	"La Tchadienne" (, ) is the national anthem of Chad. Written by Louis Gidrol and his student group and composed by Paul Villard, it has been the official state anthem of Chad since it gained independence from France in January 1960. History The anthem was written, following a competition, by Jesuit father Louis Gidrol and his student group from the Saint Paul Boarding School in Fort-Archambault (the current city of Sarh). The music was composed by another Jesuit father, Paul Villard. It was adopted as the official state anthem of Chad upon gaining independence from France in January 1960. Lyrics The anthem comprises a chorus and four verses..Only the chorus and first verse constitute the official national anthem. The other three verses are barely known among young Chadians. 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251167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on%20Gautier	Léon Gautier	Émile Théodore Léon Gautier (8 August 183225 August 1897) was a French literary historian. He was born at Le Havre, France. He was educated at the École des Chartes, and became successively head of the archives of the département of Haute-Marne (1856) and archivist at the Imperial Archives in Paris (1859). In 1874 he became a professor of palaeography at the École des Chartes. He was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887, and became chief of the historical section of the National Archives in 1893. Gautier rendered great services to the study of early French literature, the most important of his numerous works on medieval subjects being a critical text (Tours, 1872) with translation and introduction of the Chanson de Roland, and Les Épopées françaises (3 volumes, 1866–1867; 2nd edition, 5 volumes, 1878–1897, including a Bibliographie des chansons de geste). Works Œuvres poétiques d'Adam de Saint-Victor (1858/59) – Poetic works of Adam de Saint-Victor. Les Épopées françaises (1865/68) – The French epics. La Chanson de Roland (critical edition, 1872) Portraits contemporains et questions actuelles (1873) La Chevalerie (1884) – On chivalry. Histoire de la poésie liturgique au Moyen Âge: les tropes (1886) – History on liturgical poetry of the Middle Ages. Portraits du XIXe siècle I. Poètes et romanciers, (1894/95) Portraits du XIXe siècle. Historiens et critiques, (1894/95) Portraits du XIXe siècle. Nos adversaires et nos amis, (1894/95) Bibliographie des chansons de geste (1897). La France sous Philippe-Auguste (1899) References External links Digital edition of the Portraits du XIXe siècle. Historiens et critiques on the website of the Europeana Digital edition of the Portraits du XIXe siècle. 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251170	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platycercinae	Platycercinae	Platycercinae is a subfamily of birds belonging to the family Psittaculidae that inhabit Oceania. It consists of two tribes, the ground parrots and allies (Pezoporini) and the many species of broad-tailed parrot (Platycercini). Genera Tribe Pezoporini: Genus Neophema Blue-winged parrot, Neophema chrysostoma Elegant parrot, Neophema elegans Rock parrot, Neophema petrophilla Orange-bellied parrot, Neophema chrysogaster Turquoise parrot, Neophema pulchella Scarlet-chested parrot, Neophema splendida Genus Neopsephotus - sometimes included in Neophema Bourke's parrot, Neopsephotus bourkii Genus Pezoporus Eastern ground parrot, Pezoporus wallicus Western ground parrot, Pezoporus flaviventris Night parrot, Pezoporus occidentalis Tribe Platycercini: Genus Prosopeia Crimson shining parrot, Prosopeia splendens Masked shining parrot, Prosopeia personata Maroon shining parrot, Prosopeia tabuensis Genus Eunymphicus Horned parakeet, Eunymphicus cornutus Ouvea parakeet, Eunymphicus uvaeensis Genus Cyanoramphus Black-fronted parakeet, Cyanoramphus zealandicus† Society parakeet, Cyanoramphus ulietanus† Lord Howe parakeet, Cyanoramphus subflavescens† Antipodes parakeet, Cyanoramphus unicolor Red-crowned parakeet, Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae Macquarie parakeet, Cyanoramphus erythrotis† Reischek's parakeet, Cyanoramphus hochstetteri Yellow-crowned parakeet, Cyanoramphus auriceps Chatham parakeet, Cyanoramphus forbesi Malherbe's parakeet, Cyanoramphus malherbi New Caledonian parakeet Cyanoramphus saisseti Norfolk parakeet Cyanoramphus cooki Genus Platycercus Western rosella, Platycercus icterotis Crimson rosella, Platycercus elegans Adelaide rosella, Platycercus (elegans) adelaidae Yellow rosella, Platycercus (elegans) flaveolus Green rosella, Platycercus caledonicus Pale-headed rosella, Platycercus adscitus Eastern rosella, Platycercus eximius Northern rosella, Platycercus venustus Genus Barnardius - sometimes included in Platycercus Australian ringneck, Barnardius zonarius Genus Purpureicephalus Red-capped parrot, Purpureicephalus spurius Genus Lathamus Swift parrot, Lathamus discolor Genus Northiella - often included in Psephotus Eastern bluebonnet, Northiella haematogaster Naretha bluebonnet, Northiella narethae Genus Psephotus Red-rumped parrot, Psephotus haematonotus Genus Psephotellus Mulga parrot, Psephotellus varius Golden-shouldered parrot, Psephotellus chrysoptergius Hooded parrot, Psephotellus dissimilis Paradise parrot, Psephotellus pulcherrimus† References	[ 0.32370343804359436, 0.007453251164406538, -0.6509309411048889, 0.11673370003700256, -0.032430823892354965, 0.46805092692375183, 0.17175225913524628, -0.280927836894989, -0.489031583070755, -0.9502065777778625, 0.40438029170036316, 0.052498817443847656, -0.8657753467559814, 0.4192993640899658, -0.14043787121772766, 0.9391224384307861, 0.18015587329864502, 0.412169873714447, 0.30594930052757263, -0.23966751992702484, -0.1406983733177185, -0.5850319862365723, 0.46553370356559753, -0.6420847773551941, -0.36416932940483093, 0.11602724343538284, 0.21259886026382446, 0.3579992353916168, 0.6425715088844299, -0.2969246506690979, 0.04008971154689789, 0.662993848323822, -0.23885297775268555, 0.2248809039592743, 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251171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Christian%20Diez	Friedrich Christian Diez	Friedrich Christian Diez (15 March 179429 May 1876) was a German philologist. The two works on which his fame rests are the Grammar of the Romance Languages (published 1836–1844), and the Etymological Dictionary of the Romance Languages (1853, and later editions). He spent most of his career at University of Bonn. Biography Diez was born at Giessen, in Hessen-Darmstadt. He was educated first at the gymnasium and then at the university of his native town and Göttingen. There he studied classics under Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker who had just returned from a two years' residence in Italy to fill the chair of archaeology and Greek literature. It was Welcker who kindled in him a love of Italian poetry, and thus gave the first outlet to his genius. In 1813 he joined the Hesse corps as a volunteer and served in the French campaign. Next year he returned to his books, and this short taste of military service was the only break in a long and uneventful life of literary labours. At his parents' desire he applied himself for a short time to law, but a visit to Goethe in 1818 gave a new direction to his studies, and determined his future career. Goethe had been reading Raynouard's Selections from the Romance Poets, and advised the young scholar to explore the rich mine of Provençal literature which the French savant had opened up. This advice was eagerly followed, and henceforth Diez devoted himself to Romance literature. He thus became the founder of Romance philology. After supporting himself for some years by private teaching, he moved in 1822 to University of Bonn, where he held the position of privatdozent. In 1823 he published his first work, An Introduction to Romance Poetry; in the following year appeared The Poetry of the Troubadours, and in 1829 The Lives and Works of the Troubadours. In 1830 he was called to the chair of modern literature. The rest of his life was mainly occupied with the composition of the two great works on which his fame rests, the Grammar of the Romance Languages (1836–1844), and the Etymological Dictionary of the Romance Languages (1853, and later editions). In these two works Diez did for the Romance group of languages what Jacob Grimm did for the Germanic family. The earliest French philologists, such as Perion and Henri Estienne, had sought to discover the origin of French in Greek and even in Hebrew. For more than a century Gilles Ménage's Etymological Dictionary (1650, 1670) held the field without a rival. Considering the time at which it was written, Ménage's was a meritorious work, but philology was then in the infant stage, and many of Ménage's derivations (such as that of "rat" from the Latin "mus," or of "haricot" from "faba") have since become bywords among philologists. A great advance was made by Raynouard, who by his critical editions of the works of the Troubadours, published in the first years of the 19th century, laid the foundations on which Diez afterwards built. The difference between Diez's method and that of his predecessors is well stated by him in the preface to his dictionary. In sum, it is the difference between science and guess-work. The scientific method is to follow implicitly the discovered principles and rules of phonology, and not to swerve a foot's breadth from them unless plain, actual exceptions shall justify it; to follow the genius of the language, and by cross-questioning to elicit its secrets; to gauge each letter and estimate the value which attaches to it in each position; and lastly to possess the true philosophic spirit which is prepared to welcome any new fact, though it may modify or upset the most cherished theory. Works Such is the historical method which Diez pursues in his grammar and dictionary. To collect and arrange facts is, as he tells us, the sole secret of his success, and he adds in other words the apophthegm of Newton, "hypotheses non fingo". The introduction to the grammar consists of two parts: the first discusses the Latin, Greek and Teutonic elements common to the Romance languages; the second treats of the six dialects separately, their origin and the elements peculiar to each. The grammar itself is divided into four books, on phonology, on flexion, on the formation of words by composition and derivation, and on syntax. His dictionary is divided into two parts. The first contains words common to two at least of the three principal groups of Romance—Italian and Romanian, Spanish and Portuguese, and Provençal and French. The Italian, as nearest the original, is placed at the head of each article. The second part treats of words peculiar to one group. There is no separate glossary of Wallachian. Notes References External links An Introduction to the Grammar of the Romance Languages, by Friedrich Diez, translated to English by C.B. Cayley, year 1863. An Etymological Dictionary of the Romance Languages, by Friedrich Diez, translated to English by T.C. Donkin, year 1864. 1794 births 1876 deaths German philologists University of Giessen alumni University of Göttingen alumni University of Bonn faculty Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)	[ -0.2751641571521759, 0.7538771033287048, -0.582615315914154, 0.14658810198307037, -0.24348124861717224, 0.7961605787277222, 1.4278522729873657, 0.25411325693130493, -0.14445489645004272, -0.6510310173034668, -0.17545737326145172, -0.03989994898438454, 0.17444412410259247, 0.36719974875450134, 0.08798158913850784, 0.022081512957811356, -0.184618279337883, -0.0016770503716543317, -0.7058247327804565, -0.22458097338676453, -0.4380986988544464, -0.3726312518119812, 0.3320099711418152, -0.2777269780635834, -0.6677820086479187, -0.27549242973327637, 0.2849960923194885, -0.3853563368320465, 0.6221495866775513, -0.2628808617591858, 0.0887974351644516, 0.7981241345405579, 0.2261769324541092, 0.4050450325012207, -0.5892028212547302, 0.48649972677230835, -0.4801376163959503, 0.11684788763523102, 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251175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles%20M%C3%A9nage	Gilles Ménage	Gilles Ménage (; 15 August 1613 – 23 July 1692) was a French scholar. Biography He was born at Angers, the son of Guillaume Ménage, king's advocate at Angers. A good memory and enthusiasm for learning carried him quickly through his literary and professional studies, and he practised at the bar at Angers before he was twenty. In 1632, he pleaded several causes before the parlement of Paris. Illness caused him to abandon the legal profession for the church. He became prior of Montdidier without taking holy orders, and lived for some years in the household of Cardinal de Retz (then coadjutor to the Archbishop of Paris), where he had leisure for literary pursuits. Some time after 1648, he quarrelled with his patron and withdrew to a house in the cloister of Notre-Dame de Paris, where he gathered round him on Wednesday evenings those literary assemblies which he called “Mercuriales.” Jean Chapelain, Paul Pellisson, Valentin Conrart, Jean François Sarrazin and Du Bos were among the habitués. He was tutor to Marie-Madeleine Pioche de la Vergne, comtesse de la Fayette, later the great writer, to whom he was very attached. He was admitted to the Accademia della Crusca of Florence, but his caustic sarcasm led to his exclusion from the Académie française. Ménage made many enemies and suffered under the satire of Boileau and of Molière. Molière immortalized him as the pedant Vadius in Les Femmes savantes, a portrait Ménage pretended to ignore. In 1664 he published at London an edition of the Lives of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius that contains an unedited anonymous life of Aristotle; this life was known as 'Vita Menagiana' before the critical edition by Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell 1957; reprinted New York, Garland, 1987, pp. 80–93) with the title 'Vita Hesychii' (the attribution to Hesychius of Miletus is controversial). In 1690, he also published a supplement to the work of Diogenes Laërtius titled Historia Mulierum Philosopharum. It is more than a scholarly compilation of 65 women philosophers he had found from his studies of the books of ancient writers. He intended to create a history for these women and dedicated his work to Anne Lefevre Dacier (1654 – 17 August 1720), whom he described in his introduction as "the most learned of women whether of the present or the past." Ménage died at Paris in 1692. After his death his friends published, under the title of Menagiana, a collection of his witticisms and table talk. The edition of this collection by Bernard de la Monnoye (2 vols., 1693/4) has found favor. Works (partial list) Poemata latina, gallica, graeca, et italica (1656) Observationes et emendationes in Diogenem Laertium Paris 1663 (reprint: London, 1664; Amsterdam, 1692) Origini della lingua italiana (1669) Dictionnaire etymologique (1650 and 1670) Observations sur la langue française (1672–1676) Histoire de Sablé (1686) A second part of this work was edited from the manuscript and published by J. B. Haureau in 1873. Anti-Baillet (1690) Historia mulierum philosopharum (1690) - French language translation as: "Histoire des femmes philosophes", Gilles Ménage; 2006, Paris; Editions Arléa (Translated into French from Latin by Manuella Vaney with an introduction by Claude Tarrene); 96 pages, - (See: https://web.archive.org/web/20141013152817/http://www.arlea.fr/Histoire-des-femmes-philosophes,649 ). English translations The History of Women Philosophers translated from the Latin with an introduction by Beatrice H. Zedler, Lanham: University press of America (1984) Notes References External links 1613 births 1692 deaths People from Angers 17th-century philologists French lawyers French philologists 17th-century French writers 17th-century French male writers	[ -0.21077215671539307, 0.46450990438461304, -0.8994795083999634, -0.1934479922056198, -0.08849672228097916, 1.1349304914474487, 0.7715401649475098, -0.02184591256082058, -0.3643655478954315, -0.7697499990463257, -0.23542992770671844, 0.3429056704044342, -0.13487698137760162, -0.1278553307056427, 0.09297697246074677, 0.15073150396347046, 0.48587852716445923, -0.9780481457710266, -0.37231966853141785, -0.7786074280738831, -0.13077399134635925, -0.05723167583346367, 0.4321340024471283, -0.011351697146892548, -0.22838304936885834, 0.2870994806289673, -0.14599314332008362, 0.5476504564285278, 0.2535070478916168, -0.31840288639068604, 0.061454419046640396, 0.5245000720024109, 0.3138088583946228, -0.4509326219558716, -0.7923022508621216, 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251176	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue-winged%20teal	Blue-winged teal	The blue-winged teal (Spatula discors) is a species of bird in the duck, goose, and swan family Anatidae. One of the smaller members of the dabbling duck group, it occurs in North America, where it breeds from southern Alaska to Nova Scotia, and south to northern Texas. It winters along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts and south into the Caribbean islands and Central America. Taxonomy The first formal description of the blue-winged teal was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1766 in the twelfth edition of his Systema Naturae. He coined the binomial name Anas discors. A molecular phylogentic study comparing mitochondrial DNA sequences published in 2009 found that the genus Anas, as then defined, was non-monophyletic. The genus was subsequently split into four monophyletic genera with ten species including the blue-winged teal moved into the resurrected genus Spatula. This genus had been originally proposed by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1822. The name Spatula is the Latin for a "spoon" or "spatula". The specific epithet discors is the Latin for "different" or "at variance". Description The blue-winged teal is long, with a wingspan of , and a weight of . The adult male has a greyish blue head with a white facial crescent, a light brown body with a white patch near the rear and a black tail. The adult female is mottled brown, and has a whitish area at base of bill. Both sexes have sky-blue wing coverts, a green speculum, and yellow legs. They have two molts per year and a third molt in their first year. The call of the male is a short whistle; the female's call is a soft quack. Distribution The range is all of North America except western and northern Alaska, northern Yukon Territory, northern Northwest Territories and the northeastern area of Canada. Blue-winged teal are rare in the desert southwest, and the west coast. The breeding habitat of the blue-winged teal is marshes and ponds. The breeding range extends from east-central Alaska and southern Mackenzie District east to southern Quebec and southwestern Newfoundland. In the contiguous United States it breeds from northeast California east to central Louisiana, central Tennessee, and the Atlantic Coast. The western blue-winged teal inhabits that part of the breeding range west of the Appalachian Mountains. The Atlantic blue-winged teal nests along the Atlantic Coast from New Brunswick to Pea Island, North Carolina. They migrate in flocks to winter in to the south of its breeding range. During migration, some birds may fly long distances over open ocean. They are occasional vagrants to Europe, where their yellow legs are a distinction from other small ducks like the common teal and garganey, and in recent years have been annual vagrants in Britain and Ireland. The blue-winged teal winters from southern California to western and southern Texas, the Gulf Coast to the Atlantic Coast, the Caribbean, and south to Central and South America. It is often seen wintering as far south as Brazil and central Chile. Habitat Blue-winged teal inhabit shoreline more often than open water and prefer calm water or sluggish currents to fast water. They inhabit inland marshes, lakes, ponds, pools, and shallow streams with dense emergent vegetation. In coastal areas, breeding occurs in salt-marsh meadows with adjoining ponds or creeks. Blue-winged teal use rocks protruding above water, muskrat houses, trunks or limbs of fallen trees, bare stretches of shoreline, or mud flats for resting sites. Blue-winged teal winter on shallow inland freshwater marshes and brackish and saltwater marshes. They build their nests on dry ground in grassy sites such as bluegrass meadows, hayfields, and sedge meadows. They will also nest in areas with very short, sparse vegetation. Blue-winged teal generally nest within several hundred yards of open water; however, nests have been found as far as away from water. Where the habitat is good, they nest communally. Blue-winged teal often use heavy growth of bulrushes and cattails as escape cover. Grasses, sedges, and hayfields provide nesting cover for these ducks. Erik Fritzell reported that blue-winged teal nests located in light to sparse cover were more successful than those in heavy cover. Nesting success was 47% on grazed areas and 14% on ungrazed areas. The blue-winged teal is primarily found in the northern prairies and parklands. It is the most abundant duck in the mixed-grass prairies of the Dakotas and the prairie provinces of Canada. The blue-winged teal is also found in wetlands of boreal forest associations, shortgrass prairies, tallgrass prairies, and deciduous woodlands. This duck commonly inhabits wetland communities dominated by bulrush (Scirpus spp.), cattail (Typha spp.), pondweed (Potamogeton spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima), and other emergent and aquatic vegetation. During molting, it often remains among extensive beds of bulrushes and cattails. The blue-winged teal favors areas dominated by bluegrass (Poa spp.) for nesting. Hayfields and plant communities of buckbrush (Ceonothus cuneatus) and sedges are also important as nest sites. Behavior These birds feed by dabbling in shallow water at the edge of marshes or open water. They mainly eat plants; their diet may include molluscs and aquatic insects. Blue-winged teal are generally the first ducks south in the fall and the last ones north in the spring. Adult drakes depart the breeding grounds well before adult hens and immatures. Most blue-winged teal flocks seen after mid-September are composed largely of adult hens and immatures. The northern regions experience a steady decline in blue-winged teal populations from early September until early November. Blue-winged teal in central migration areas tend to remain through September, then diminish rapidly during October, with small numbers remaining until December. Large numbers of blue-winged teal appear on wintering grounds in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas in September. Reproduction The onset of courtship among immature blue-winged teal often starts in late January or early February. In areas south of the breeding grounds, blue-winged teal are more active in courtship during the spring migration than are most other ducks. Blue-winged teal are among the last dabbling ducks to nest, generally nesting between April 15 and May 15. Few nests are started after mid-July. Chronology of nesting can vary from year to year as a result of weather conditions. At Delta Marshes, Manitoba, blue-winged teal nesting was delayed a week in 1950 due to abnormally cold weather. The nest is a shallow depression on the ground lined with grass and down, usually surrounded by vegetation. Blue-winged teal generally lay 10 to 12 eggs. Delayed nesting and renesting efforts have substantially smaller clutches, averaging five to six eggs. Clutch size can also vary with the age of the hen. Yearlings tend to lay smaller clutches. Incubation takes 21 to 27 days. Blue-winged teal are sexually mature after their first winter. During incubation, the drake leaves its mate and moves to suitable molting cover where it becomes flightless for a period of 3 to 4 weeks. Blue-winged teal ducklings can walk to water within 12 hours after hatching but do not fledge until 6 to 7 weeks. Food habits Blue-winged teal are surface feeders and prefer to feed on mud flats, in fields, or in shallow water where there is floating and shallowly submerged vegetation plus abundant small aquatic animal life. They mostly eat vegetative matter consisting of seeds or stems and leaves of sedge, grass, pondweed, smartweed (Polygonum spp.), duckweed (Lemna spp.), Widgeongrass, and muskgrass (Chara spp.). The seeds of plants that grow on mud flats, such as nutgrass (Cyperus spp.), smartweed, millet (Panicum spp.), and Rice Cut-grass (Leersia oryzoides), are avidly consumed by this duck. One-fourth of the food consumed by blue-winged teal is animal matter such as mollusks, crustaceans, and insects. Predators Common predators of blue-winged teal include humans, snakes, snapping turtles (Chlycha serpentina), dogs, cats, muskellunge, American crows (Corvus brachyrhnchos), magpies (Pica spp.), ground squirrels, coyotes (Canis latrans), red foxes (Vulpes fulva), gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), raccoons (Procyon lotor), long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata), American minks (Mustela vison), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), spotted skunks (Spilogale putorius), and American badgers (Taxidea taxus). During one study, about half of the nest failures of blue-winged teal were caused by mammals. Striped and Spotted Skunks were responsible for two-thirds of these losses. All nest losses caused by birds were attributed to either crows or magpies. References Further reading External links Blue-winged Teal - Anas discors - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter Blue-winged Teal Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Blue-winged Teal Information at eNature.com blue-winged teal Birds of North America Birds of Canada Birds of the United States Birds of Hispaniola Birds of the Dominican Republic Birds of Haiti blue-winged teal Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus	[ -0.39452335238456726, 0.09887741506099701, -0.5593113303184509, 0.20261140167713165, 0.017289837822318077, 0.5025671720504761, 0.06266974657773972, 0.8245458602905273, -0.9931502342224121, -0.2545507848262787, -0.11403946578502655, -0.2760251760482788, -0.73610919713974, 0.40121835470199585, 0.07399145513772964, 0.783610999584198, 0.2586249113082886, 0.055834196507930756, 0.5033009052276611, -0.7232198715209961, -0.6035754084587097, -0.7133544087409973, 0.25450649857521057, -0.5403943657875061, 0.42987510561943054, 0.20087991654872894, 0.14464133977890015, 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251177	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence%20theorem	Existence theorem	In mathematics, an existence theorem is a theorem which asserts the existence of a certain object. It might be a statement which begins with the phrase "there exist(s)", or it might be a universal statement whose last quantifier is existential (e.g., "for all , , ... there exist(s) ..."). In the formal terms of symbolic logic, an existence theorem is a theorem with a prenex normal form involving the existential quantifier, even though in practice, such theorems are usually stated in standard mathematical language. For example, the statement that the sine function is continuous everywhere, or any theorem written in big O notation, can be considered as theorems which are existential by nature—since the quantification can be found in the definitions of the concepts used. A controversy that goes back to the early twentieth century concerns the issue of purely theoretic existence theorems, that is, theorems which depend on non-constructive foundational material such as the axiom of infinity, the axiom of choice or the law of excluded middle. Such theorems provide no indication as to how to construct (or exhibit) the object whose existence is being claimed. From a constructivist viewpoint, such approaches are not viable as it lends to mathematics losing its concrete applicability, while the opposing viewpoint is that abstract methods are far-reaching, in a way that numerical analysis cannot be. 'Pure' existence results In mathematics, an existence theorem is purely theoretical if the proof given for it does not indicate a construction of the object whose existence is asserted. Such a proof is non-constructive, since the whole approach may not lend itself to construction. In terms of algorithms, purely theoretical existence theorems bypass all algorithms for finding what is asserted to exist. These are to be contrasted with the so-called "constructive" existence theorems, which many constructivist mathematicians working in extended logics (such as intuitionistic logic) believe to be intrinsically stronger than their non-constructive counterparts. Despite that, the purely theoretical existence results are nevertheless ubiquitous in contemporary mathematics. For example, John Nash's original proof of the existence of a Nash equilibrium in 1951 was such an existence theorem. An approach which is constructive was also later found in 1962. Constructivist ideas From the other direction, there has been considerable clarification of what constructive mathematics is—without the emergence of a 'master theory'. For example, according to Errett Bishop's definitions, the continuity of a function such as should be proved as a constructive bound on the modulus of continuity, meaning that the existential content of the assertion of continuity is a promise that can always be kept. Accordingly, Bishop rejects the standard idea of pointwise continuity, and proposed that continuity should be defined in terms of "local uniform continuity". One could get another explanation of existence theorem from type theory, in which a proof of an existential statement can come only from a term (which one can see as the computational content). See also Constructive proof Constructivism (philosophy of mathematics) Uniqueness theorem Notes Mathematical theorems Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)	[ -0.12801307439804077, 0.6013832092285156, -0.5056589841842651, 0.4992927014827728, -0.3885452151298523, -0.1737985610961914, 0.3893204629421234, 0.31205928325653076, -0.09464326500892639, -0.11388052999973297, -0.6693201065063477, 0.43155816197395325, -0.21295642852783203, 0.5713685154914856, -0.19688190519809723, 0.15012453496456146, 0.29122504591941833, 0.4693053066730499, -0.29866504669189453, -0.46696966886520386, 0.187263622879982, 0.2728292942047119, -0.25654760003089905, -0.6991481184959412, 0.33163708448410034, 0.08612480014562607, 0.02764117158949375, -0.28085950016975403, -0.007106590084731579, 0.49578142166137695, -0.1713165044784546, 0.39194467663764954, 0.03720816224813461, 0.008952537551522255, -0.3780096769332886, 0.04641910642385483, 0.5055429339408875, 0.22324782609939575, -0.11171245574951172, 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251178	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad-tailed%20parrot	Broad-tailed parrot	A broad-tailed parrot is any of about 35–40 species belonging to the tribe Platycercini. The members of the tribe are small to medium in size, and all are native to Australasia, Australia in particular, but also New Zealand, New Caledonia, and nearby islands. Species Genus Prosopeia Crimson shining parrot, Prosopeia splendens Masked shining parrot, Prosopeia personata Maroon shining parrot, Prosopeia tabuensis Genus Eunymphicus Horned parakeet, Eunymphicus cornutus Ouvea parakeet, Eunymphicus uvaeensis Genus Cyanoramphus Black-fronted parakeet, Cyanoramphus zealandicus† Society parakeet, Cyanoramphus ulietanus† Lord Howe parakeet, Cyanoramphus subflavescens† Antipodes parakeet, Cyanoramphus unicolor Red-crowned parakeet, Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae Macquarie parakeet, Cyanoramphus erythrotis† Reischek's parakeet, Cyanoramphus hochstetteri Yellow-crowned parakeet, Cyanoramphus auriceps Chatham parakeet, Cyanoramphus forbesi Malherbe's parakeet, Cyanoramphus malherbi New Caledonian parakeet Cyanoramphus saisseti Norfolk parakeet Cyanoramphus cooki Genus Platycercus Western rosella, Platycercus icterotis Crimson rosella, Platycercus elegans Adelaide rosella, Platycercus (elegans) adelaidae Yellow rosella, Platycercus (elegans) flaveolus Green rosella, Platycercus caledonicus Pale-headed rosella, Platycercus adscitus Eastern rosella, Platycercus eximius Northern rosella, Platycercus venustus Genus Barnardius - sometimes included in Platycercus Australian ringneck, Barnardius zonarius Genus Purpureicephalus Red-capped parrot, Purpureicephalus spurius Genus Lathamus Swift parrot, Lathamus discolor Genus Northiella - often included in Psephotus Eastern bluebonnet, Northiella haematogaster Naretha bluebonnet, Northiella narethae Genus Psephotus Red-rumped parrot, Psephotus haematonotus Genus Psephotellus Mulga parrot, Psephotellus varius Golden-shouldered parrot, Psephotellus chrysoptergius Hooded parrot, Psephotellus dissimilis Paradise parrot, Psephotellus pulcherrimus† (extinct, late 1920s) The budgerigar was traditionally placed in this tribe, but this inclusion is incorrect. The closest relatives of the budgerigar are the lories and lorikeets. The genera Neopsephotus, Neophema, and Pezoporus are placed in a separate, but closely related tribe, the Pezoporini based on the paper by Joseph et al. (2011) References	[ -0.04337579756975174, 0.30103832483291626, -0.6105533242225647, -0.23507022857666016, -0.15554292500019073, 0.32249242067337036, 0.6126214861869812, 0.09184212982654572, -0.7106349468231201, 0.16056285798549652, -0.3048085570335388, 0.21262729167938232, -0.6281374096870422, -0.02310694381594658, -0.14194385707378387, 1.3253151178359985, 0.4560196101665497, 0.675751268863678, 0.2176511436700821, -0.7142713069915771, -0.3478892743587494, -0.6902442574501038, 0.20961010456085205, -0.8033503890037537, 0.3223891854286194, 0.4383089542388916, 0.4224584698677063, 0.7928005456924438, 0.3330387771129608, 0.2600667476654053, 0.2833699584007263, 1.2051197290420532, 0.33706286549568176, 0.2512386739253998, 0.5786901116371155, 0.17217692732810974, 0.3120304346084595, -0.33903050422668457, 0.25313645601272583, -1.072542667388916, 0.5416169166564941, -0.12918686866760254, -0.1285763680934906, 0.24760200083255768, -0.22508545219898224, -0.9700410962104797, -1.0665030479431152, 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251179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udzima%20wa%20ya%20Masiwa	Udzima wa ya Masiwa	"" (also written "", Comorian for "The Union of the Great Islands"; also known as "", sometimes written "") is the national anthem of the Comoros. Adopted in 1978, it was written by Said Hachim Sidi Abderemane, who also composed the music, along with Kamildine Abdallah. Mayotte (claimed by the Comoros but under French administration) is also mentioned in the song. History The anthem replaced a previous anthem titled "" ("Liberty"), also known as "" ("Four Comorian Islands"), adopted in 1976 under the Ali Soilih administration following a competition won by writer and musician Abou Chihabi. It was used until 1978, when a coup by Ahmed Abdallah and Bob Denard took place. Lyrics Notes References External links Comoros: Udzima wa ya Masiwa - Audio of the national anthem of Comoros, with information and lyrics (archive link) MIDI file mp3 file National anthems Comorian music National symbols of the Comoros 1978 songs African anthems National anthem compositions in F major	[ 0.08797945827245712, -0.13176555931568146, 0.4773300588130951, -0.4825594127178192, -0.45908790826797485, 0.16574683785438538, 0.22826705873012543, 0.0603027306497097, -0.6892114281654358, -0.2131003886461258, -0.33099067211151123, 0.4609587490558624, -0.6898321509361267, 0.441847562789917, -0.2585153579711914, 0.7801306247711182, 0.2863672375679016, 0.2282155603170395, -0.23269358277320862, -0.4412691593170166, -0.25751519203186035, 0.3091404438018799, 0.18824350833892822, 0.29548221826553345, 0.5049042701721191, 0.5081964731216431, 0.8323853015899658, 0.45491623878479004, -0.46778711676597595, -0.03763379901647568, 0.0910458192229271, -0.12761475145816803, 0.43724557757377625, 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251180	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houri	Houri	In Islamic religious belief, houris are women who will accompany faithful Muslim believers in Paradise. Muslim scholars differ as to whether they refer to the believing women of this world or a separate creation, with the majority opting for the latter. Etymology In classical Arabic usage, the word ḥūr () is the plural of both ʾaḥwar () (masculine) and ḥawrāʾ () (feminine) which can be translated as "having eyes with an intense contrast of white and black". The word "houri" has entered several European languages from around the 17th and 18th centuries. Descriptions The houris are mentioned in several passages of the Quran, always in plural form. No specific number is ever given in the Quran for the number of houris accompanying each believer. Quranic description In the tafsirs and commentaries on the Quran, Houris are described as: 36:55 "Companions", 37:48 "with large and beautiful eyes", 38:52 "companions of modest gaze well matched (at thirty-three years of age according to some commentators)" 44:54 wide and beautiful eyes", 52:20 "beautiful houris of wide and beautiful eyes", 55:56 "untouched beforehand by man or jinn", 55:58 "as elegant as rubies and coral", 55:72 "bright-eyed damsels in sheltered in pavilions", 55:74 "untouched by any man", "reclining on green cushions and beautiful carpets", 56:8 56:22 "with intensely black eyes set against the whiteness of their irises", 56:35 "created without the process of birth", 78:31–33 and as "splendid companions". Meaning of the term kawa'ib Several translators—like Arberry, Palmer, Rodwell and Sale—have translated the noun ka'ib in Quran 78:33 as "with swelling breasts". Ibn Kathir, in his tafsir, writes that the word has been interpreted to refer to "fully developed" or "round breasts ... they meant by this that the breasts of these girls will be fully rounded and not sagging, because they will be virgins." Similarly, the authoritative Arabic-English Lexicon of Edward William Lane defines the word ka'ib as "A girl whose breasts are beginning to swell, or become prominent, or protuberant or having swelling, prominent, or protuberant, breasts." However, M. A. S. Abdel Haleem and others point out that the description here refers in classical usage to the young age rather than emphasizing the women's physical features. Others, such as Abdullah Yusuf Ali, translate ka'ib as "companions", with Muhammad Asad interpreting the term as being allegorical. Hadith description In the Hadith, Houris have been described as "transparent to the marrow of their bones", "eternally young", "hairless except the eyebrows and the head", "pure" and "beautiful". Sunni hadith scholars also relate a number of sayings of the Prophet Muhammad in which the houris are mentioned. A narration related by Bukhari states that Another, reported by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj Nishapuri, relates that Tirmidhi reports According to a report transmitted by Ibn Majah in his Sunan: Reference to "72 virgins" The Sunni hadith scholar Tirmidhi quotes the prophet Muhammad as having said: However, others object that the narration granting all men seventy-two wives has a weak chain of narrators. Another hadith, also in Jami at-Tirmidhi and deemed "good and sound" (hasan sahih) gives this reward specifically for the martyr: Sexual intercourse in Paradise In the Quran, there is no overt mention of sexual intercourse in Paradise. However, its existence has been reported in hadiths, tafsirs and Islamic commentaries. Quranic commentators Sunni sources mention that like all men and women of Paradise, the houris do not experience urination, defecation or menstruation. Ibn Kathir states that jinns will have female jinn companions in Paradise. Gender and identity It has traditionally been believed that the houris are beautiful women who are promised as a reward to believing men, with numerous hadith and Quranic exegetes describing them as such. In recent years, however, some have argued that the term ḥūr refers both to pure men and pure women (it being the plural term for both the masculine and feminine forms which refer to whiteness) and the belief that the term houris only refers to females who are in paradise is a misconception. The Quran uses feminine as well as gender-neutral adjectives to describe houris, by describing them with the indefinite adjective عِينٌ, which some have taken to imply that certain passages are referring to both male and female companions. In addition, the use of masculine pronouns for the houris' companions does not imply that this companionship is restricted to men, as the masculine form encompasses the female in classical and Quranic Arabic—thus functioning as an all-gender including default form—and is used in the Quran to address all humanity and all the believers in general. In The Message of The Qur'an, Muhammad Asad describes the usage of the term ḥūr in the verses 44:54 & 56:22, arguing that "the noun ḥūr—rendered by me as 'companions pure'—is a plural of both aḥwār (masc.) and ḥawrā' (fem.)... hence, the compound expression ḥūr ʿīn signifies, approximately, 'pure beings, most beautiful of eye'." Annemarie Schimmel says that the Quranic description of the houris should be viewed in a context of love; "every pious man who lives according to God's order will enter Paradise where rivers of milk and honey flow in cool, fragrant gardens and virgin beloveds await home". Relation to earthly women Regarding the eschatological status of this-worldly women vis-à-vis the houris, scholars have maintained that righteous women of this life are of a higher station than the houris. Sunni theologian Aḥmad al-Ṣāwī (d. 1825), in his commentary on Ahmad al-Dardir's work, states, "The sound position is that the women of this world will be seventy thousand times better than the dark-eyed maidens (ḥūr ʿīn)." Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar Baḥraq (d.1524) mentions in his didactic primer for children that "Adamic women are better than the dark-eyed maidens due to their prayer, fasting, and devotions." Other authorities appear to indicate that houris themselves are the women of this world resurrected in new form, with Razi commenting that among the houris mentioned in the Quran will also be "[even] those toothless old women of yours whom God will resurrect as new beings". Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari mentions that all righteous women, however old and decayed they may have been on earth, will be resurrected as virginal maidens and will, like their male counterparts, remain eternally young in paradise. Symbolism Muhammad Asad believes that the references to houris and other depictions of paradise should be taken to be allegorical rather than literal, citing the "impossibility of man's really 'imagining' paradise". In support of this view he quotes Quran verse 32:17 and a hadith found in Bukhari and Muslim. Shi'ite philosopher Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai mentions that the most important fact of the description of the houris is that good deeds performed by believers are re-compensated by the houris, who are the physical manifestations of ideal forms that will not fade away over time and who will serve as faithful companions to those whom they accompany. See also Garden of Eden Jannah Maid of Heaven (Bahá'í faith) Peri Women in Islam Notes References Islamic eschatology Female legendary creatures Islamic legendary creatures Jannah Quranic words and phrases Women and death Islam and women Sexuality in Islam	[ 0.36025896668434143, 0.03287019208073616, -0.22686687111854553, -0.1644139587879181, -0.20865176618099213, 0.5064873099327087, 0.7186266183853149, -0.10935688018798828, -0.15290483832359314, -0.25794631242752075, -0.41468510031700134, 0.3112025260925293, -0.7503555417060852, -0.09893061220645905, -0.40017810463905334, 0.6205712556838989, 0.2438088208436966, 0.5840229392051697, -0.4382721185684204, -0.8899670839309692, 0.16680629551410675, -0.5039845705032349, 0.1384117603302002, -0.6712332367897034, 0.4690244495868683, -0.14343315362930298, -0.05643505975604057, 0.3657527565956116, -0.07922276854515076, 0.08076857030391693, -0.0610981360077858, 0.16568084061145782, 0.2207823544740677, -0.34053975343704224, 0.1819159835577011, 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251182	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon%20teal	Cinnamon teal	The cinnamon teal (Spatula cyanoptera) is a species of duck found in western North and South America. It is a small dabbling duck, with bright reddish plumage on the male and duller brown plumage on the female. It lives in marshes and ponds, and feeds mostly on plants. Description The adult male has a cinnamon-red head and body with a brown back, a red eye and a dark bill. The adult female has a mottled brown body, a pale brown head, brown eyes and a grey bill and is very similar in appearance to a female blue-winged teal; however its overall color is richer, the lores, eye line, and eye ring are less distinct. Its bill is longer and more spatulate. Male juvenile resembles a female cinnamon or blue-winged teal but their eyes are red. They are long, have a wingspan, and weigh . They have 2 adult molts per year and a third molt in their first year. Distribution Their breeding habitat is marshes and ponds in western United States and extreme southwestern Canada, and are rare visitors to the east coast of the United States. Cinnamon teal generally select new mates each year. They are migratory and most winter in northern South America and the Caribbean, generally not migrating as far as the blue-winged teal. Some winter in California and southwestern Arizona. Two subspecies of cinnamon teal reside within the Andes of South America. The smaller sized S. c. cyanoptera is widespread within low elevations (<1000m) such as the coast of Peru and southern Argentina, whereas the larger size subspecies S. c. orinomus occupies elevations of 3500-4600 meters in the central Andes. Behavior These birds feed by dabbling. They mainly eat plants; their diet may include molluscs and aquatic insects. Taxonomy They are known to interbreed with blue-winged teals, which are very close relatives. Subspecies are: Spatula cyanoptera septentrionalium (Oberholser, 1906) northern cinnamon teal breeds from British Columbia to northwestern New Mexico, and they winter in northwestern South America. Spatula cyanoptera tropica (Snyder & Lumsden, 1951) tropical cinnamon teal occurs in the Cauca Valley and Magdalena Valley in Colombia. Spatula cyanoptera borreroi (Snyder & Lumsden, 1951) Borrero's cinnamon teal (possibly extinct) occurs in the eastern Andes of Colombia with records of apparently resident birds from northern Ecuador. It is named for Colombian ornithologist José Ignacio Borrero. Spatula cyanoptera orinoma (Snyder & Lumsden, 1951) Andean cinnamon teal occurs in the Altiplano of Peru, northern Chile and Bolivia. Spatula cyanoptera cyanoptera (Vieillot, 1816) Argentine cinnamon teal occurs in southern Peru, southern Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and the Falkland Islands. References Works cited Clements, James, (2007) The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World, Cornell University Press, Ithaca Dunn, J. & Alderfer, J. (2006) National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America 5th Ed. Floyd, T (2008) Smithsonian Field Guide to the Birds of North America Harper Collins, NY Herrera, Néstor; Rivera, Roberto; Ibarra Portillo, Ricardo & Rodríguez, Wilfredo (2006): Nuevos registros para la avifauna de El Salvador. ["New records for the avifauna of El Salvador"]. Boletín de la Sociedad Antioqueña de Ornitología 16(2): 1-19. [Spanish with English abstract]PDF fulltext External links Cinnamon Teal, Birds of North America Online Cinnamon Teal Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology cinnamon teal Birds of the Americas Native birds of Western Canada Native birds of the Canadian Prairies Native birds of the Western United States Birds of Argentina Birds of Colombia Birds of Ecuador Birds of the Falkland Islands Birds of Mexico Birds of Patagonia Birds of Peru Birds of Uruguay cinnamon teal Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot	[ -0.4128463864326477, 0.3850913941860199, -0.4162796437740326, 0.27819299697875977, -0.118679478764534, 0.14725419878959656, 0.05707712471485138, 1.0679887533187866, -0.678135097026825, 0.11507081985473633, 0.0971522107720375, 0.296184241771698, -0.6091384887695312, 0.23365242779254913, -0.1033477634191513, 0.4923195242881775, 0.08961654454469681, 0.1904463768005371, 0.3481862246990204, -0.1873423159122467, -0.2872724235057831, -0.7699862122535706, 0.06271492689847946, 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251183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Paul%20de%20Gondi	Jean François Paul de Gondi	Jean François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz (20 September 1613 – 24 August 1679) was a French churchman, writer of memoirs, and agitator in the Fronde. The Florentine banking and noble Gondi family had been introduced into France by Catherine de' Medici; Catherine offered Jérome (Girolamo) de Gondi in 1573 the château that he made the nucleus of the Château de Saint-Cloud; his hôtel in the Faubourg Saint-Germain of Paris became the Hôtel de Condé in the following generation. The Gondi acquired great estates in Brittany and became connected with the noblest houses of the kingdom. Early life Jean-François de Gondi was born in Montmirail, in the Brie region of northern France. He was the third son in his family, and according to Tallemant des Réaux was made a knight of Malta on the very day of his birth. The death of his second brother, however, destined him for a closer connection with the Church. The Retz side of his family had much church influence, and though young Jean-François was not much attracted to the clergy, his family insisted that he join it. They said he lacked the appearance of a soldier, being short, near-sighted, ugly and awkward. He was tutored by St. Vincent de Paul and educated at the Sorbonne. When he was eighteen, he wrote Conjuration de Fiesque, a little historical essay, influenced by the Italian of Agostino Mascardi, and audaciously insinuating revolutionary principles. Family background The district of Retz or Rais is in southern Brittany, and has been under the control of several different families. Retz always spelled the word "Rais." The barony of Retz first belonged to the House of Retz, then to the Chabot family and the Laval family. Gilles de Rais, a Laval and comrade in arms of Joan of Arc, was executed without an heir, so the barony passed successively to the families of Tournemine, Annebaut and Gondi. In 1581, it became a duchy, with Albert de Gondi its first duke. His brother Pierre de Gondi became bishop of Paris in 1570 and cardinal in 1587. Pierre was succeeded by his nephews Henri de Gondi (d. 1622) and Jean-François de Gondi (d. 1654), for whom the episcopal see of Paris was erected into an archbishopric in 1622. Finally, Jean François was then succeeded by Pierre's great-nephew Jean François Paul de Gondi. Archbishop of Paris Retz received no preferment of importance during Cardinal Richelieu's life. Even after the minister's death, though he was presented to Louis XIII and well received, he found difficulty in attaining the co-adjutorship with reversion of the archbishopric of Paris. But almost immediately after the king's death, Anne of Austria appointed him to the coveted post on All Saints Eve, 1643. Retz, who had, according to some accounts, already plotted against Richelieu, set himself to work to make the utmost political capital out of his position. His uncle had lived in great seclusion; Retz, on the contrary, gradually acquired a very great influence with the populace of the city. This influence he gradually turned against Cardinal Mazarin, which helped lead to the outbreak of the Fronde in October 1648. Of the two parties who joined the Fronde, Retz could only depend on the bourgeoisie of Paris. He had some speculative tendencies in favour of popular liberties, and even perhaps of republicanism, but represented no real political principle, which inevitably weakened his position. When the breakup of the Fronde came he was left in the lurch, having more than once been in no small danger from his own party. However, because of a misapprehension on the part of Pope Innocent X, he had been made cardinal. In 1652, he was arrested and imprisoned, first at Vincennes, then at Nantes; he escaped after two years, and traveled through Europe. He went to Rome more than once, and helped elect Pope Alexander VII. In 1662, Louis XIV received him back into favor, and asked him to formally serve as envoy to Rome several times. For this reconciliation to occur, he resigned his claims to the archbishopric of Paris. He was appointed abbot of St-Denis, and restored to his other benefices with the payment of arrears. Later life The last seventeen years of Retz's life were passed partly in his diplomatic duties (he was again in Rome at the papal conclaves of 1667 and 1669), partly in Paris, partly at his estate of Cornmercy, but mostly at Saint-Mihiel in Lorraine. His debts were enormous, and in 1675 he made over to his creditors all his income except twenty thousand livres. He died at Paris on 24 August 1679. During these last years he corresponded with Madame de Sévigné, a relative by marriage. Writings During the last ten years of his life, Retz wrote his Memoirs, which go up to the year 1655. They are addressed in the form of narrative to a lady who is not known, though guesses have been made at her identity, some even suggesting Madame de Sévigné herself. In the beginning there are some gaps. They are known for their narrative skill and the verbal portraits of their characters. Alexandre Dumas, père drew heavily on the Memoirs for Vingt ans après. Besides these memoirs and the youthful essay of the Conjuration de Fiesque, Retz has left diplomatic papers, sermons, Mazarinades and correspondence. Retz and François de La Rochefoucauld, the greatest of the Frondeurs in literary genius, were personal and political enemies, and each left a portrait of the other. De la Rochefoucauld wrote of Retz: "Il a suscité les plus grands désordres dans l'état sans avoir un dessein formé de s'en prévaloir." (He stirred up the greatest disorder in the State, without having a clear plan of how to gain from it). The Memoirs of the cardinal de Retz were first published in a very imperfect condition in 1717. The first satisfactory edition appeared in the twenty-fourth volume of the collection of Joseph François Michaud and Jean Joseph François Poujoulat (Paris, 1836). In 1870 a complete edition of the works of Retz was begun by Alphonse Feillet in the collection of Grands Ecrivains. References External links Biography (in French) 1614 births 1679 deaths Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis People from Marne (department) 17th-century French cardinals Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni Archbishops of Paris French memoirists 17th-century French writers 17th-century French male writers Latin archbishops of Corinth People of the Fronde 17th-century memoirists	[ -0.2642051875591278, -0.05605456605553627, -0.2787802219390869, 0.13146895170211792, -0.33643075823783875, 0.6932684779167175, 0.6304709315299988, 0.06172788143157959, -0.4764350652694702, -0.6835858821868896, -0.14294779300689697, 1.1185439825057983, -0.29825419187545776, 0.10906044393777847, 0.06686385720968246, -0.009924100711941719, 0.3486539423465729, -0.6624179482460022, -0.35695934295654297, -0.13950541615486145, -0.25400152802467346, -0.2547629475593567, 0.030792172998189926, 0.11719533056020737, -0.12155065685510635, 0.2825389802455902, 0.36663752794265747, 0.03128143772482872, 0.24281080067157745, 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251185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCbingen%20%28district%29	Tübingen (district)	Tübingen is a Landkreis (district) in the middle of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Böblingen, Reutlingen, Zollernalbkreis and Freudenstadt. History The district dates back to the Oberamt Tübingen in the state of Württemberg. In 1811 the Oberamt Rottenburg was created, and both were converted into districts in 1934. In 1938 most of the district Rottenburg as well as a few municipalities from the district Herrenberg and Reutlingen were added to the district Tübingen. In 1974 it was enlarged again when some municipalities from the dissolved district Horb were added. Geography The main river in the district is the Neckar. The landscapes covered by the district are called Oberer Gäu and Schönbuch. Coat of arms The coat of arms show the banner (gonfalon) of the Counts of Tübingen. In contrast to the coat of arms of the city Tübingen, it is depicted on a spear. The red-and-white colors are chosen to represent the County Hohenberg, which belonged to Austria. Towns and municipalities References External links Official website (German) Tübingen (region) Districts of Baden-Württemberg	[ 0.2020173966884613, 0.7097187042236328, 1.0557488203048706, -0.5882846117019653, -0.6431036591529846, 0.4898435175418854, 0.6239615678787231, 0.607544481754303, -0.36131489276885986, -0.5369895100593567, -0.017695114016532898, -0.23660555481910706, 0.04616526514291763, 0.5232729315757751, -0.3245452642440796, 0.5095325708389282, 0.9630250930786133, 0.6089049577713013, 0.1360146552324295, -0.5383240580558777, 0.03428952395915985, -0.0196214709430933, 0.6961144208908081, -0.07255011051893234, -0.48693418502807617, -0.47352397441864014, 0.3089944124221802, 0.6517252922058105, 0.21316367387771606, -0.01902811974287033, -0.011945821344852448, 0.8503428101539612, -0.7017863988876343, -0.1524726301431656, 0.28442442417144775, 0.6011338233947754, 0.1516091674566269, -0.8706148862838745, 0.728640079498291, -0.9124342203140259, -0.2788093686103821, 0.23409731686115265, 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251188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhan	Adhan	Adhan ( ; also variously written as azan, adhaan, athan, adhane (French), azaan (Persian, Dari, Pashto and Punjabi), adzan (Indonesian and Malaysian), and ezan (Urdu and Turkish), among other languages) is the Islamic call to prayer recited by a muezzin at prescribed times of the day. The root of the word is ʾadhina meaning "to listen, to hear, be informed about". Another derivative of this word is ʾudhun (), meaning "ear". Adhan is recited loudly from the mosque five times a day on most days and all day long during the religious holidays of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, traditionally from the minaret. It is the first call summoning Muslims to enter the mosque for obligatory (fard) prayer (salah). A second call, known as the iqamah summons those within the mosque to line up for the beginning of the prayers. The main purpose behind the multiple loud pronouncements of adhan in every mosque is to make available to everyone an easily intelligible summary of Islamic belief. In modern times, loudspeakers have been installed on minarets for this purpose. Announcer The muezzin ( muʾaḏḏin) is the person who recites the Adhan from the mosque. Typically in modern times, this is done using a microphone: a recitation that is consequently broadcast to the speakers usually mounted on the higher part of the mosque's minarets, thus calling those nearby to prayer. However, in many mosques, the message can also be recorded. This is due to the fact that the "call to prayer" has to be done loudly and at least five times a day. This is usually done by replaying previously recorded "call to prayer" without the presence of a muezzin. This way, the mosque operator has the ability to edit or mix the message and adjust the volume of the message while also not having to hire a full-time muezzin or in case of the absence of a muezzin. This is why in many Muslim countries, the sound of the prayer call can be exactly identical between one mosque and another, as well as between one Salah hour and another, as is the case for the London Central Mosque. In the event of a religious holidays like Eid al-Fitr, for example in Indonesia, where the Kalimah (speech) has to be recited out loud all day long, mosque operators uses this recording method to create a looping recital of the Kalimah. The muezzin is chosen for his ability in reciting the Adhan clearly, melodic and loudly for all Muslims to hear. This is one of the important duties in the mosque, as his companions and community rely on him in his call for Muslims to come to pray in congregation. The Imam leads the prayer five times a day. The first muezzin in Islam was Bilal ibn Rabah, a freed slave of Abyssinian heritage. Words Religious views Sunni Sunnis state that the adhan was not written or said by the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, but by one of his Sahabah (his companions). Abdullah ibn Zayd, a sahabi of Muhammad, had a vision in his dream, in which the call for prayers was revealed to him by God. He later related this to his companions. Meanwhile, this news reached Muhammad, who confirmed it. Because of his stunning voice Muhammad chose a freed Habeshan slave by the name of Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi to make the call for prayers. Muhammad preferred the call better than the use of bells (as used by the Christians) and horns (as by the Jews). During the Friday prayer (Salat al-Jumu'ah), there is one adhan but some Sunni Muslims increase it to two adhans; the first is to call the people to the mosque, the second is said before the Imam begins the khutbah (sermon). Just before the prayers start, someone amongst the praying people recites the iqama as in all prayers. The basis for this is that at the time of the Caliph Uthman he ordered two adhans to be made, the first of which was to be made in the marketplace to inform the people that the Friday prayer was soon to begin, and the second adhan would be the regular one held in the mosque. Not all Sunnis prefer two adhans as the need for warning the people of the impending time for prayer is no longer essential now that the times for prayers are well known. Shia Shia sources state Muhammad, according to God's command, ordered the adhan as a means of calling Muslims to prayer. Shia Islam teaches that no one else contributed, or had any authority to contribute, towards the composition of the adhan. Shia sources also narrate that Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi was, in fact, the first person to recite the Adhan publicly out loud in front of the Muslim congregation. The fundamental phrase lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh is the foundation stone of Islam along with the belief in it. It declares that "there is no god but the God". This is the confession of Tawhid or the "doctrine of Oneness [of God]". The phrase Muḥammadun rasūlu -llāh fulfills the requirement that there should be someone to guide in the name of God, which states Muhammad is God's Messenger. This is the acceptance of prophethood or Nabuwat of Muhammad. Muhammad declared Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor, at Ghadir Khumm, which was required for the continuation of his guidance. According to the hadith of the pond of Khumm, Muhammad stated that "Of whomsoever I am the authority, Ali is his authority". Hence, it is recommended to recite the phrase ʿalīyun walī -llāh ("Ali is His [God's] Authority"). In one of the Qiblah of Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah (1035–1094) of Fatemi era masjid of Qahira (Mosque of Ibn Tulun) engraved his name and kalimat ash-shahādah as lā ʾilāha ʾillā -llāh, muḥammadun rasūlu -llāh, ʿalīyun walīyu -llāh (). Adhan reminds Muslims of these three Islamic teaching Tawhid, Nabuwat and Imamate before each prayer. These three emphasise devotion to God, Muhammad and Imam, which are considered to be so linked together that they can not be viewed separately; one leads to other and finally to God. The phrase is optional to some Shia as justified above. They feel that Ali's Walayah ("Divine Authority") is self-evident, a testification and need not be declared. However, the greatness of God is also taken to be self-evident, but Muslims still declare Allāhu ʾakbar to publicize their faith. This is the reason that the most Shia give for the recitation of the phrase regarding Ali. Dua (supplication) Sunni While listening to the Adhan, Sunni Muslims repeat the same words silently, except when the Adhan reciter (muezzin) says: "" or "" (ḥayya ʿalā ṣ-ṣalāh or ḥayya ʿala l-falāḥ) they silently say: "" (lā ḥawla wa lā quwwata ʾillā bi-llāh) (there is no strength or power except from God). Immediately following the Adhan, Sunni Muslims recite the following dua (supplications): 1. A testimony: 2. An invocation of blessings on Muhammad: 3. Muhammad's name is invoked requested: 4. Dua are then made directly to God, between the adhan and the iqamaah. According to Abu Dawud, Muhammad said: "Repeat the words of the mu'azzin and when you finish, ask God what you want and you will get it". Shia While listening to the Adhan, Shia Muslims repeat the same words silently, except when the Adhan reciter (muezzin) says: "" and "" (ʾašhadu ʾan lā ʾilāha ʾillā -llāh and ʾašhadu ʾanna Muḥammadan rasūlu -llāh) they silently say: Whenever Muhammad's name is mentioned in the Adhan or Iqama, Shia Muslims recite salawat, a form of the peace be upon him blessing specifically for Muhammad. This salawat is usually recited as either (), (), or (). Immediately following the Adhan, Shia Muslims sit and recite the following dua (supplication): Form The call to prayer is said after entering the time of prayer. The muezzin usually stands during the call to prayer. It is common for the muezzin to put his hands to his ears when reciting the Adhan. Each phrase is followed by a longer pause and is repeated one or more times according to fixed rules. During the first statement each phrase is limited in tonal range, less melismatic, and shorter. Upon repetition the phrase is longer, ornamented with melismas, and may possess a tonal range of over an octave. The adhan's form is characterised by contrast and contains twelve melodic passages which move from one to another tonal center of one maqam a fourth or fifth apart. Various geographic regions in the Middle East traditionally perform the Adhan in particular maqamat: Medina, Saudi Arabia uses Maqam Bayati while Mecca uses Maqam Hijaz. The tempo is mostly slow; it may be faster and with fewer melismas for the sunset prayer. During festivals, it may be performed antiphonally as a duet. Modern legal status Bangladesh In 2016, opposition leader Khaleda Zia alleged the government was preventing the broadcasting of adhans through loudspeakers, with government officials citing security concerns for the prime minister Sheikh Hasina". Israel In 2016, Israel's ministerial committee approved a draft bill that limits the volume of the use of public address systems for calls to prayer, particularly, outdoor loudspeakers for adhaan, citing it as a factor of noise pollution. The bill was submitted by Knesset member Motti Yogev of the far right Zionist party Jewish Home and Robert Ilatov of the right wing Yisrael Beiteinu. The ban is meant to affect three mosques in Abu Dis village of East Jerusalem, disbarring them from broadcasting the morning call (fajr) prayers. The bill was backed by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu who said: "I cannot count the times — they are simply too numerous — that citizens have turned to me from all parts of Israeli society, from all religions, with complaints about the noise and suffering caused to them by the excessive noise coming to them from the public address systems of houses of prayer." The Israel Democracy Institute, a non-partisan think tank, expressed concerns that it specifically stifles the rights of Muslims, and restricts their freedom of religion. Turkey As an extension of the reforms brought about by the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the Turkish government at the time, encouraged by Atatürk, introduced secularism to Turkey. The program involved implementing a Turkish adhan program as part of its goals, as opposed to the conventional Arabic call to prayer. Following the conclusion of said debates, on the 1 February 1932, the Adhan was chanted in Turkish and the practice was continued for a period of 18 years. There was some resistance against the Adhan in Turkish language and protests surged. In order to suppress this protests, in 1941, a new law was issued, with which people who chanted the Adhan in Arabic could be imprisoned until for up to 3 months and be fined with up to 300 Turkish Lira. On 17 June 1950, a new government led by Adnan Menderes, restored Arabic as the liturgical language. Sweden The Fittja Mosque in Botkyrka, south of Stockholm, was in 2013 the first mosque to be granted permission for a weekly public call to Friday prayer, on condition that the sound volume does not exceed 60 dB. In Karlskrona (province of Blekinge, southern Sweden) the Islamic association built a minaret in 2017 and has had weekly prayer calls since then. The temporary mosque in Växjö filed for a similar permission in February 2018, which sparked a nationwide debate about the practice. A yearlong permission was granted by the Swedish Police Authority in May the same year. Kuwait and UAE During the outbreak of the coronavirus in 2019-2020 and the resultant viral pandemic, some cities in Kuwait changed its adhan from the usual hayya 'ala as-salah, meaning "come to prayer", to as-salatu fi buyutikum meaning "pray in your homes" or ala sallu fi rihalikum meaning "pray where you are". Other Muslim countries (notably Saudi Arabia, Malaysia and Indonesia) also made this change because Muslims are prohibited to pray in mosques during the pandemic as preventive measures to stop the chain of the outbreak. The basis for the authority to change a phrase in the adhan was justified by the Prophet Muhammad's instructions while calling for adhan during adverse conditions. Tajikistan The usage of loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan was banned in 2009 with Law No. 489 of 26 March 2009 on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Unions. In other countries, there is no written law forbidding the distribution of the call to prayer in mosques and prayer halls. In popular culture In television In some Muslim-majority countries, television stations usually broadcasts the adhan at prayer times, in a similar fashion to radio stations. In Indonesia and Malaysia, it is mandatory for all television stations to broadcast the adhan at Fajr and Magrib prayers, with the exception of non-Muslim religious stations. Islamic religious stations often broadcast the adhan at all five prayer times. The adhan are broadcast with a visual cinematic sequence depicting mosques and worshippers attending to the prayer. Some television stations in both Malaysia and Indonesia often utilize a more artistic approach to the cinematic, by depicting "everyday life" plot that accompanies the adhan such as children walking together to attend the prayer, helping a disabled or elderly people to pray, a person stuck in a traffic jam while driving to a mosque, a view of a city at sunset, among others. These practices are popularized in Indonesia during the 1990s and has since becoming a staple in every television station. The recording of Masjid al-Haram muezzin Ali Ahmed Mulla is best known for its use in various television and radio stations. Turkish National Anthem The adhan is referenced in the eighth verse of İstiklâl Marşı, the Turkish national anthem: "The Armed Man" The adhan appears in "The Armed Man: A Mass For Peace" composed by Karl Jenkins. See also Barechu - Jewish call to prayer Church bells - Christian call to prayer Dhikr Tashahhud References External links Adhan from the Grand Mosque (Masjid al Haram) recited by Sheikh Ali Ahmed Mulla Adhan from the Prophet's Mosque (Masjid Nabawi), Madinah al Munawarah Adhan (call for prayer) from a mosque Tweaking the Azaan and other measures Muslim countries have taken to combat the virus Meaning of the Adhan Ezan video at Hagia Sophia Articles containing video clips Salah terminology	[ -0.025219010189175606, 0.2946319282054901, -0.16480891406536102, -0.8329065442085266, -0.21494559943675995, 0.4814331531524658, 0.6425774097442627, -0.2381402999162674, 0.053678832948207855, -0.3734973073005676, -0.7237178683280945, 0.35261625051498413, -0.3474421203136444, -0.007188578601926565, 0.1864822655916214, 0.4781855344772339, 0.7016696333885193, 0.15629957616329193, -0.4274657666683197, -0.28692635893821716, -0.12122615426778793, -0.4684115946292877, 0.3307751417160034, 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251191	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-rumped%20parrot	Red-rumped parrot	The red-rumped parrot (Psephotus haematonotus), also known as the red-backed parrot or grass parrot, is a common bird of south-eastern Australia, particularly in the Murray-Darling Basin. Taxonomy The red-rumped parrot was described by John Gould in 1838 as Platycercus haematonotus from a specimen collected in New South Wales. He felt it was intermediate between the genera Platycercus and Nanodes, placing it in the former. He gave it its species name on account of its red rump. It is the type species for the genus Psephotus. It was long presumed to be closely related to the mulga parrot, however analysis of multiple genetic material shows it to be an early offshoot of a group containing the genera Platycercus and Barnardius. Hence all other species in the genus have been moved to the new genus Psephotellus, leaving the red-rumped parrot as the sole member in the now monotypic genus. The IOC has designated red-rumped parrot as its official common name. It is also known as red-backed parrot and grass parrot. Description Red-rumped parrots are slim, moderate-sized parrots approximately in length. The male's plumage is a bright emerald-green with yellow underparts, a brick-red rump and blue highlights on the wings and upper back. The female's plumage is less vibrant, with pale olive underparts, dull green wings and back and blue-black wingtips. The characteristic red rump is only found in the male. Behavior Red-rumped parrots can be found in pairs or flocks in open country with access to water. They avoid the coast and the wetter, more heavily wooded areas. Clearing of large tracts of forest and the provision of water for stock has probably extended their range. They are often seen in suburban parks and gardens. Their green plumage provides such a good camouflage in ankle length grasses that they can hide quite effectively until the viewer is only 10–20 metres away. They spend a great deal of time feeding on the ground, and often call to one another with an attractive . Breeding Like many parrots, red-rumped parrots nest in tree hollows or similar places, including fenceposts and stumps. They lay 3-6 white eggs around 2 or so centimetres. Breeding usually takes place in spring (September-November), however, in the dryer inland areas, breeding can occur at any time of year in response to rainfall. Aviculture Red rumps are bred easily in captivity if provided with necessary flight space and a large nesting box. Breeders usually use peat and wood shavings as bedding for the nests, birds like to arrange the beds to their likings. As soon as mating has occurred the hen will deposit 4 to 7 eggs which she will brood for about 20 days. Red rump hens will not leave the nest box whilst on eggs and not even human checking will make them leave their eggs alone. The eggs will hatch around 30 days after laying. Care must be taken to remove the chicks as soon as they fledge or else the cock may attack his own offspring. One-year-old birds are sexually mature. Incubation from the second egg onwards. The brooding hen is fed by her partner outside the nest. Colour mutations have been bred through aviculture. Yellow red-rumped parrots are readily available in the market. Housing Red-rumped parrots do well in aviaries and cages. They do not like crowded spaces and will sometimes be aggressive towards other birds if they do not have enough space. Red-rumped parrots can also be hand-reared, provided that they have a large cage and are taken out of their cage on a daily basis to prevent boredom, as it may result in the parrot pulling out its feathers to occupy itself. Lifespan In captivity, if properly cared for, these birds will live from 15 to 32 years. Notes References External links red-rumped parrot red-rumped parrot Birds of South Australia Birds of Victoria (Australia) Endemic birds of Australia red-rumped parrot Taxa named by John Gould	[ -0.2078384906053543, 0.509899377822876, -0.25942763686180115, -0.22918355464935303, -0.36624395847320557, 0.6993245482444763, 0.5439513325691223, 0.2402762770652771, -0.786410927772522, 0.07943834364414215, -0.518538236618042, 0.6456502676010132, -0.4307328462600708, 0.08000211417675018, 0.12134302407503128, 1.191257357597351, 0.4451160132884979, 0.6836526393890381, 0.10023556649684906, -0.24478910863399506, -0.594035267829895, -0.8560964465141296, -0.09011916816234589, -0.33171582221984863, 0.7888375520706177, -0.10512905567884445, 0.2919768989086151, 0.5275564789772034, 0.0696067214012146, 0.3613615334033966, 0.46983960270881653, 0.8333600759506226, 0.740745484828949, 0.05800503119826317, 0.3453972637653351, 0.023359982296824455, -0.14611096680164337, -0.3089388906955719, 0.25483232736587524, 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251192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Mulcahy	Richard Mulcahy	Richard James Mulcahy (10 May 1886 – 16 December 1971) was an Irish Fine Gael politician and army general who served as Minister for Education from 1948 to 1951 and 1954 to 1957, Minister for the Gaeltacht from June 1956 to October 1956, Leader of the Opposition from 1944 to 1948, Leader of Fine Gael from 1944 to 1959, Minister for Local Government and Public Health from 1927 to 1932 and Minister for Defence from January to April 1919 and 1922 to 1924. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1918 to 1938 and from 1943 to 1961 and a Senator from March 1938 to June 1938 and 1943 to 1944. He was an army general and commander-in-chief of the Irish Republican Army. He fought in the 1916 Easter Rising, served as Chief of Staff of the Irish Republican Army during the War of Independence and became commander of the pro-treaty forces in the Irish Civil War after the death of Michael Collins. He later served in the cabinets of W. T. Cosgrave and John A. Costello. Early life and 1916 Rising Richard Mulcahy was born in Manor Street, Waterford, in 1886, the son of post office clerk Patrick Mulcahy and Elizabeth Slattery. He was educated at Mount Sion Christian Brothers School and later in Thurles, County Tipperary, where his father was the postmaster. One of his grandmothers was a Quaker who was disowned by her wealthy family for marrying a Catholic. Mulcahy joined the Royal Mail (Post Office Engineering Dept.) in 1902, and worked in Thurles, Bantry, Wexford and Dublin. He was a member of the Gaelic League, and joined the Irish Volunteers at the time of their formation in 1913. He was also a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood. He was second-in-command to Thomas Ashe (who later died on hunger strike) in an encounter with the armed Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) at Ashbourne, County Meath during the Easter Rising in 1916—one of the few stand-out victories won by republicans in that week, and generally credited to Mulcahy's grasp of tactics. In his book on the Rising, Charles Townshend principally credits Mulcahy with the defeat of the RIC at Ashbourne, for conceiving and leading a flanking movement on the RIC column that had engaged with the Irish Volunteers. Arrested after the Rising, Mulcahy was interned at Knutsford and at the Frongoch internment camp in Wales until his release on 24 December 1916. War of Independence and Civil War On his release, Mulcahy immediately rejoined the republican movement and became commandant of the Dublin Brigade of the Irish Volunteers. He was elected to the First Dáil in the 1918 general election for Dublin Clontarf. He was then named Minister for Defence in the new (alternative) government and later Assistant Minister for Defence. In March 1918, he became IRA chief of staff, a position he held until January 1922. He and Michael Collins were largely responsible for directing the military campaign against the British during the War of Independence. During this period of upheaval in 1919, he married Mary Josephine (Min) Ryan, sister of Kate and Phyllis Ryan, the successive wives of Seán T. O'Kelly; her brother was James Ryan. O'Kelly and James Ryan both later served in Fianna Fáil governments. Mulcahy supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921. Archive film shows Mulcahy, as Minister of Defence, was the Irish officer who raised the Irish tricolour at the first, January 1922, hand-over of a British barracks to the National Army and the newly created Provisional Government. He was defence minister in Provisional Government on its creation and succeeded Collins, after the latter's assassination, as Commander-in-Chief of the Provisonal Government's forces, during the subsequent Civil War. He earned notoriety through his order that anti-Treaty activists captured carrying arms were liable for execution. A total of 77 anti-Treaty prisoners were executed by the Provisional Government. Mulcahy served as Minister for Defence in the new Free State government from January 1924 until March 1924, but resigned in protest because of the sacking of the Army Council after criticism by the Executive Council over the handling of the 'Army Mutiny', when some National Army War of Independence officers almost revolted after Mulcahy demobilised many of them at the end of the Civil War. He re-entered the cabinet as Minister for Local Government and Public Health in 1927. Post-independence politician During his period on the backbenches of Dáil Éireann his electoral record fluctuated. He was elected as TD for Dublin North-West at the 1921 and 1922 general elections. He moved to Dublin North for the election the following year, and was re-elected there in four further elections: June 1927, September 1927, 1932 and 1933. Dublin North was abolished for the 1937 election, at which Mulcahy was defeated in the new constituency of Dublin North-East. However, he secured election to Seanad Éireann as a Senator, the upper house of the Oireachtas, representing the Administrative Panel. The 2nd Seanad sat for less than two months, and at the 1938 general election he was elected to the 10th Dáil as a TD for Dublin North-East. Defeated again in the election of 1943, he secured election to the 4th Seanad by the Labour Panel. Leader of Fine Gael After the resignation of W. T. Cosgrave as Leader of Fine Gael in 1944, Mulcahy became party leader while still a member of the Seanad. Thomas F. O'Higgins was parliamentary leader of the party in the Dáil at the time and Leader of the Opposition. Facing his first general election as party leader, Mulcahy drew up a list of 13 young candidates to contest seats for Fine Gael. Of the eight who ran, four were elected. He had successfully cast aside the Cosgrave legacy of antipathy to constituency work, travelling the country on an autocycle and bringing new blood into the party. He was returned again to the 12th Dáil as a TD for Tipperary at the 1944 general election. While Fine Gael's decline had been slowed, its future was still in doubt. Following the 1948 general election—at which, following boundary changes, Mulcahy was elected for Tipperary South, the dominant Fianna Fáil party finished six seats short of a majority. However, it was 37 seats ahead of Fine Gael, and conventional wisdom suggested that Fianna Fáil was the only party that could possibly form a government. Just as negotiations got underway, however, Mulcahy realised that if Fine Gael, the Labour Party, the National Labour Party, Clann na Poblachta and Clann na Talmhan banded together, they would have only one seat fewer than Fianna Fáil—and that if they could get support from seven independents, they would be able to form a government. He played a leading role in persuading the other parties to put aside their differences and join forces to consign the then Taoiseach and Fianna Fáil leader Éamon de Valera, to the opposition benches. Mulcahy initially seemed set to become Taoiseach in a coalition government. However, he was not acceptable to Clann na Poblachta's leader, Seán MacBride. Many Irish republicans had never forgiven Mulcahy for his role in the Civil War executions carried out under the Cosgrave government in the 1920s. Consequently, MacBride let it be known that he and his party would not serve under Mulcahy. Without Clann na Poblachta, the other parties would have had 57 seats between them—17 seats short of a majority in the 147-seat Dáil. According to Mulcahy, the suggestion that another person serve as Taoiseach came from Labour leader William Norton. Mulcahy stepped aside and encouraged his party colleague John A. Costello, a former Attorney General, to become the parliamentary leader of Fine Gael and the coalition's candidate for Taoiseach. For the next decade, Costello served as the party's parliamentary leader while Mulcahy remained the nominal leader of the party. Mulcahy went on to serve as Minister for Education under Costello from 1948 until 1951. Another coalition government came to power at the 1954 election, with Mulcahy once again stepping aside to become Minister for Education in the Second Inter-Party Government. The government fell in 1957, but Mulcahy remained as Fine Gael leader until October 1959. In October the following year, he told his Tipperary constituents that he did not intend to contest the next election. Family Richard Mulcahy married Min Ryan, the former fiancée of Seán Mac Diarmada, in 1920, and lived in a flat in Oakley House, Ranelagh. Min, a member of the Cumann na mBan Executive, had herself been involved in nationalist activity at the time of the Rising. One of his sons, Risteárd Mulcahy, was for many years a cardiologist in Dublin. His daughter Neillí Mulcahy (1925–2012) was one of Ireland's leading fashion designers. She designed the uniforms for Aer Lingus in 1962. Another son was the structural engineer and visual artist Seán Mulcahy (1926–2018). Richard Mulcahy died from natural causes in Dublin on 16 December 1971, at the age of 85. See also List of members of the Oireachtas imprisoned during the Irish revolutionary period References Bibliography 'Portrait of a Revolutionary: General Richard Mulcahy and the Founding of the Irish Free State' by Maryann Gialanella Valiulis 'My Father, the General: Richard Mulcahy and the Military History of the Revolution' by Risteárd Mulcahy External links 1886 births 1971 deaths Politicians from County Waterford Early Sinn Féin TDs Cumann na nGaedheal TDs Leaders of Fine Gael National Army (Ireland) generals Irish Republican Army (1919–1922) members People of the Irish Civil War (Pro-Treaty side) Members of the 1st Dáil Members of the 2nd Dáil Members of the 3rd Dáil Members of the 4th Dáil Members of the 5th Dáil Members of the 6th Dáil Members of the 7th Dáil Members of the 8th Dáil Members of the 10th Dáil Members of the 12th Dáil Members of the 13th Dáil Members of the 14th Dáil Members of the 15th Dáil Members of the 16th Dáil Members of the 2nd Seanad Members of the 4th Seanad Members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Dublin constituencies (1801–1922) UK MPs 1918–1922 Presidential appointees to the Council of State (Ireland) Ministers for Health (Ireland) Ministers for Defence (Ireland) Ministers for Education (Ireland) Chiefs of Staff of the Defence Forces (Ireland) Fine Gael TDs Fine Gael senators	[ -0.44850435853004456, 0.34832558035850525, -0.5060290098190308, -0.7050601840019226, -0.3789854645729065, 0.5688726305961609, 0.5787054300308228, -0.06135961785912514, -0.3168239891529083, -0.38994598388671875, -0.5119943022727966, 0.46501150727272034, -0.05210275202989578, 0.6012965440750122, 0.4235331416130066, 0.010494868271052837, 0.4021480977535248, -0.07830789685249329, -0.28305333852767944, 0.08065638691186905, 0.11032734811306, -0.20927631855010986, 0.511019766330719, 0.23870249092578888, -0.20275257527828217, -0.018535559996962547, 0.4024292230606079, 0.028149165213108063, 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251195	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Bright	John Bright	John Bright (16 November 1811 – 27 March 1889) was a British Radical and Liberal statesman, one of the greatest orators of his generation and a promoter of free trade policies. A Quaker, Bright is most famous for battling the Corn Laws. In partnership with Richard Cobden, he founded the Anti-Corn Law League, aimed at abolishing the Corn Laws, which raised food prices and protected landowners' interests by levying taxes on imported wheat. The Corn Laws were repealed in 1846. Bright also worked with Cobden in another free trade initiative, the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty of 1860, promoting closer interdependence between Great Britain and the Second French Empire. This campaign was conducted in collaboration with French economist Michel Chevalier, and succeeded despite Parliament's endemic mistrust of the French. Bright sat in the House of Commons from 1843 to 1889, promoting free trade, electoral reform and religious freedom. He was almost a lone voice in opposing the Crimean War; he also opposed William Ewart Gladstone's proposed Home Rule for Ireland. He saw himself as a spokesman for the middle class and strongly opposed the privileges of the landed aristocracy. In terms of Ireland, he sought to end the political privileges of Anglicans, disestablished the Church of Ireland, and began land reform that would turn land over to the Catholic peasants. He coined the phrase "The mother of parliaments." Early life Bright was born at Greenbank, Rochdale, in Lancashire, England—one of the early centres of the Industrial Revolution. His father, Jacob Bright, was a much-respected Quaker, who had started a cotton mill at Rochdale in 1809. Jacob's father, Abraham, was a Wiltshire yeoman, who, early in the 18th century, moved to Coventry, where his descendants remained. Jacob Bright was educated at the Ackworth School of the Society of Friends, and apprenticed to a fustian manufacturer at New Mills, Derbyshire. John Bright was his son by his second wife, Martha Wood, daughter of a Quaker shopkeeper of Bolton-le-Moors. Educated at Ackworth School, she was a woman of great strength of character and refined taste. There were eleven children of this marriage, of whom John was the eldest surviving son. His younger brother was Jacob Bright, an MP and mayor. His sisters included Priscilla Bright McLaren (whose husband was Duncan McLaren MP) and Margaret Bright Lucas. John was a delicate child, and was sent as a day pupil to a boarding school near his home, kept by William Littlewood. A year at the Ackworth School, two years at Bootham School, York, and a year and a half at Newton, near Clitheroe, completed his education. He learned, he himself said, but little Latin and Greek, but acquired a great love of English literature, which his mother fostered, and a love of outdoor pursuits. In his sixteenth year, he entered his father's mill, and in due time became a partner in the business. In Rochdale, Jacob Bright was a leader of the opposition to a local church-rate. Rochdale was also prominent in the movement for parliamentary reform, by which the town successfully claimed to have a member allotted to it under the Reform Bill. John Bright took part in both campaigns. He was an ardent Nonconformist, proud to number among his ancestors John Gratton, a friend of George Fox, and one of the persecuted and imprisoned preachers of the Religious Society of Friends. His political interest was probably first kindled by the Preston election in 1830, in which Edward Stanley, after a long struggle, was defeated by Henry "Orator" Hunt. But it was as a member of the Rochdale Juvenile Temperance Band that Bright first learned public speaking. These young men went out into the villages, borrowed a chair of a cottager, and spoke from it at open-air meetings. John Bright's first extempore speech was at a temperance meeting. Bright got his notes muddled, and broke down. The chairman gave out a temperance song, and during the singing told Bright to put his notes aside and say what came into his mind. Bright obeyed, began with much hesitancy, but found his tongue and made an excellent address, although sometimes he spoke with a confused syntax. Tales of these early years circulated through Britain and the United States late into his career, to the extent that students at institutions such as the young Cornell University regarded him as an exemplar for activities such as the Irving Literary Society. On some early occasions, however, he committed his speech to memory. In 1832 he called on the Rev. John Aldis, an eminent Baptist minister, to accompany him to a local Bible meeting. Mr Aldis described him as a slender, modest young gentleman, who surprised him by his intelligence and thoughtfulness, but who seemed nervous as they walked to the meeting together. At the meeting he made a stimulating speech, and on the way home asked for advice. Mr Aldis counselled him not to learn his speeches, but to write out and commit to memory certain passages and the peroration. This "first lesson in public speaking", as Bright called it, was given in his twenty-first year, but he had not then contemplated a public career. He was a fairly prosperous man of business, very happy in his home, always ready to take part in the social, educational and political life of his native town. A founder of the Rochdale Literary and Philosophical Society, he took a leading part in its debates, and on returning from a holiday journey in the east, gave the society a lecture on his travels. Cobden and the Corn Laws He first met Richard Cobden in 1836 or 1837. Cobden was an alderman of the newly formed Manchester Corporation, and Bright went to ask him to speak at an education meeting in Rochdale. Cobden consented, and at the meeting was much struck by Bright's short speech, and urged him to speak against the Corn Laws. His first speech on the Corn Laws was made at Rochdale in 1838, and in the same year he joined the Manchester provisional committee which in 1839 founded the Anti-Corn Law League. He was still only the local public man, taking part in all public movements, especially in opposition to John Fielden's proposed factory legislation, and to the Rochdale church-rate. In 1839 he built the house which he called "One Ash", and married Elizabeth, daughter of Jonathan Priestman of Newcastle upon Tyne. In November of the same year there was a dinner in Bolton in honour of Abraham Paulton, who had just returned from an Anti-Corn Law tour in Scotland. Among the speakers were Cobden and Bright, and the dinner is memorable as the first occasion on which the two future leaders appeared together on a Free Trade platform. Bright is described by the historian of the League as "a young man then appearing for the first time in any meeting out of his own town, and giving evidence, by his energy and by his grasp of the subject, of his capacity soon to take a leading part in the great agitation." In 1840 he led a movement against the Rochdale church-rate, speaking from a tombstone in the churchyard, where it looks down on the town in the valley below. A daughter, Helen, was born to him; but his young wife, after a long illness, died of tuberculosis in September 1841. Three days after her death at Leamington, Cobden called to see him. "I was in the depths of grief", said Bright, when unveiling the statue of his friend at Bradford in 1877, "I might almost say of despair, for the life and sunshine of my house had been extinguished." Cobden spoke some words of condolence, but "after a time he looked up and said, 'There are thousands of homes in England at this moment where wives, mothers and children are dying of hunger. Now, when the first paroxysm of your grief is past, I would advise you to come with me, and we will never rest till the Corn Laws are repealed.' I accepted his invitation", added Bright, "and from that time we never ceased to labour hard on behalf of the resolution which we had made." Into Parliament: the Member for Durham At the general election in 1841 Cobden was returned for Stockport, Cheshire, and in 1843 Bright was the Free Trade candidate at a by-election at Durham. He was defeated, but his successful competitor was unseated on petition, and at the second contest Bright was returned. He was already known as Cobden's chief ally, and was received in the House of Commons with suspicion and hostility. In the Anti-Corn Law movement the two speakers complemented each other. Cobden had the calmness and confidence of the political philosopher, Bright had the passion and the fervour of the popular orator. Cobden did the reasoning, Bright supplied the declamation, but mingled argument with appeal. No orator of modern times rose more rapidly. He was not known beyond his own borough when Cobden called him to his side in 1841, and he entered parliament towards the end of the session of 1843 with a formidable reputation. He had been all over England and Scotland addressing vast meetings and, as a rule, carrying them with him; he had taken a leading part in a conference held by the Anti-Corn Law League in London had led deputations to the Duke of Sussex, to Sir James Graham, then home secretary, and to Lord Ripon and Gladstone, the secretary and under secretary of the Board of Trade; and he was universally recognised as the chief orator of the Free Trade movement. Wherever "John Bright of Rochdale" was announced to speak, vast crowds assembled. He had been so announced, for the last time, at the first great meeting in Drury Lane Theatre on 15 March 1843; henceforth his name was enough. He took his seat in the House of Commons as one of the members for Durham on 28 July 1843, and on 7 August delivered his maiden speech in support of a motion by Mr Ewart for reduction of import duties. He was there, he said, "not only as one of the representatives of the city of Durham, but also as one of the representatives of that benevolent organisation, the Anti-Corn Law League." A member who heard the speech described Bright as "about the middle size, rather firmly and squarely built, with a fair, clear complexion and an intelligent and pleasing expression of countenance. His voice is good, his enunciation distinct, and his delivery free from any unpleasant peculiarity or mannerism." He wore the usual Friend's coat, and was regarded with much interest and hostile curiosity on both sides of the House. Mr Ewart's motion was defeated, but the movement of which Cobden and Bright were the leaders continued to spread. In the autumn the League resolved to raise £100,000; an appeal was made to the agricultural interest by great meetings in the farming counties, and in November The Times startled the country by declaring, in a leading article, "The League is a great fact. It would be foolish, nay, rash, to deny its importance." In London great meetings were held in Covent Garden Theatre, at which William Johnson Fox was the chief orator, but Bright and Cobden were the leaders of the movement. Bright publicly deprecated the popular tendency to regard Cobden and himself as the chief movers in the agitation, and Cobden told a Rochdale audience that he always stipulated that he should speak first, and Bright should follow. His "more stately genius", as John Morley calls it, was already making him the undisputed master of the feelings of his audiences. In the House of Commons his progress was slower. Cobden's argumentative speeches were regarded more sympathetically than Bright's more rhetorical appeals, and in a debate on George Villiers's annual motion against the Corn Laws, Bright was heard with so much impatience that he was obliged to sit down. In the next session (1845) he moved for an inquiry into the operation of the Game Laws. At a meeting of county members earlier in the day Robert Peel, then Prime Minister, had advised them not to be led into discussion by a violent speech from the member for Durham, but to let the committee be granted without debate. Bright was not violent, and Cobden said that he did his work admirably, and won golden opinions from all men. The speech established his position in the House of Commons. In this session Bright and Cobden came into opposition, Cobden voting for the Maynooth Grant and Bright against it. On only one other occasion—a vote for South Kensington—did they go into opposite lobbies, during twenty-five years of parliamentary life. In the autumn of 1845 Bright retained Cobden in the public career to which Cobden had invited him four years before; Bright was in Scotland when a letter came from Cobden announcing his determination, forced on him by business difficulties, to retire from public work. Bright replied that if Cobden retired the mainspring of the League was gone. "I can in no degree take your place", he wrote. "As a second I can fight, but there are incapacities about me, of which I am fully conscious, which prevent my being more than second in such a work as we have laboured in." A few days later he set off for Manchester, posting in that wettest of autumns through "the rain that rained away the Corn Laws", and on his arrival got his friends together, and raised the money which tided Cobden over the emergency. The crisis of the struggle had come. Peel's budget in 1845 was a first step towards Free Trade. The bad harvest and the potato blight drove him to the repeal of the Corn Laws, and at a meeting in Manchester on 2 July 1846 Cobden moved and Bright seconded a motion dissolving the league. A library of twelve hundred volumes was presented to Bright as a memorial of the struggle. "Flog a dead horse" According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first recorded use of the expression in its modern sense was by Bright in reference to the Reform Act of 1867, which called for more democratic representation in Parliament. Trying to rouse Parliament from its apathy on the issue, he said in a speech, would be like trying to "flog a dead horse" to make it pull a load. However, an earlier instance is attributed to Bright some thirteen years prior: speaking in the Commons on 28 March 1859 on a similar issue of parliamentary reform, Lord Elcho remarked that Bright had not been "satisfied with the results of his winter campaign" and that "a saying was attributed to him [Bright] that he [had] found he was 'flogging a dead horse.'" "England is the Mother of Parliaments" Bright coined this famous phrase on 18 January 1865 in a speech at Birmingham supporting an expansion of the franchise. It has often been misquoted as a reference to the UK Parliament. Marriage and Manchester Bright married firstly, on 27 November 1839, Elizabeth Priestman of Newcastle, daughter of Jonathan Priestman and Rachel Bragg. They had one daughter, Helen Priestman Bright (b. 1840) but Elizabeth died on 10 September 1841. Helen Priestman Bright later married William Stephens Clark (1839–1925) of Street in Somerset. Bright married secondly, in June 1847, Margaret Elizabeth Leatham, sister of Edward Aldam Leatham of Wakefield, by whom he had seven children including John Albert Bright and William Leatham Bright. Bright employed Lydia Rous in 1868 to teach his children. He compared her abilities as second only to the Queen. In July 1847, Bright was elected uncontested for Manchester, with Milner Gibson. In the new parliament, he opposed legislation restricting the hours of labour, and, as a Nonconformist, spoke against clerical control of national education. In 1848 he voted for Hume's household suffrage motion, and introduced a bill for the repeal of the Game Laws. When Lord John Russell brought forward his Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, Bright opposed it as "a little, paltry, miserable measure", and foretold its failure. In this parliament he spoke much on Irish questions. In a speech in favour of the government bill for a rate in aid (a tax on the prosperous parts of Ireland that would have paid for famine relief in the rest of that island) in 1849, he won loud cheers from both sides, and was complimented by Disraeli for having sustained the reputation of that assembly. From this time forward he had the ear of the House, and took effective part in the debates. He spoke against capital punishment, against church-rates, against flogging in the army, and against the Irish Established Church. He supported Cobden's motion for the reduction of public expenditure, and in and out of parliament pleaded for peace. In the election of 1852 Bright was again returned for Manchester on the principles of free trade, electoral reform and religious freedom. But war was in the air, and the most impassioned speeches he ever delivered were addressed to this parliament in fruitless opposition to the Crimean War. Neither the House nor the country would listen. "I went to the House on Monday", wrote Macaulay in March 1854, "and heard Bright say everything I thought." His most memorable speech, the greatest he ever made, was delivered on 23 February 1855. "The angel of death has been abroad throughout the land. You may almost hear the beating of his wings", he said, and concluded with an appeal that moved the House as it had never been moved within living memory. In 1860, Bright won another victory with Cobden in a new Free Trade initiative, the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty, promoting closer interdependence between Britain and France. This campaign was conducted in collaboration with French economist Michel Chevalier, and succeeded despite Parliament's endemic mistrust of the French. MP for Birmingham: 1858–89 In 1857, Bright's unpopular opposition to the Crimean War led to his losing his seat as member for Manchester. Within a few months, he was elected unopposed as one of the two MPs for Birmingham in 1858. He would hold this position for over thirty years though he would later leave the Liberal Party on the issue of Irish Home Rule in 1886. On 27 October 1858, he launched his campaign for parliamentary reform at Birmingham Town Hall. In 1866 he wrote an essay with the title "Speech on Reform". In this speech he demanded the enfranchisement of the working-class people because of their sheer number, and said that one should rejoice in open demonstrations rather than being confronted with "armed rebellion or secret conspiracy". In 1868, Bright entered the cabinet of Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone as President of the Board of Trade, but resigned in 1870 due to ill health. He served twice again in Gladstone cabinets as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1873–74, 1880–82). In 1882, Gladstone ordered the Royal Navy to bombard Alexandria to recover the debts owed by the Egyptians to British investors. Bright scornfully dismissed it as "a jobbers' war" on behalf of a privileged class of capitalists, and resigned from the Gladstone cabinet." For deeply personal reasons, Bright was closely associated with the North Wales tourist resort of Llandudno. In 1864, he holidayed there with his wife and five-year-old son. As they passed through the graveyard, the boy said, "Mamma, when I am dead, I want to be buried here." A week later, he had died of scarlet fever, and his wish was granted. Bright returned to Llandudno at least once a year until his own death. He is still commemorated in Llandudno where the principal secondary school was named after him, and a new school, Ysgol John Bright was built in 2004. Bright had much literary and social recognition in his later years. In 1880 he was elected Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow, although R. W. Dale wrote of his rectorial address: "It was not the old Bright." He was given an honorary degree of the University of Oxford in 1886. He delivered the opening address for the Birmingham Central Library in 1882, and in 1888 the city erected a statue of him. The marble statue, by Albert Joy, was in store until it was recently restored to a prominent position in the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery. Both John Bright Street, close to the Alexandra Theatre in Birmingham, and Morse's Creek in Australia, now known as Bright, Victoria, were renamed in his honour. Opposition to Home Rule When in the wake of the Great Irish Famine, an all-Ireland Tenant Right League was formed, Bright expressed sympathy and support for reform of Irish land tenure. In 1850 he advised the House of Common to "resolutely legislate" on the question. Key for Bright was that "Instead of the [tenant-right] agitation being confined, as heretofore to the Roman Catholics and their clergy, Protestant and Dissenting clergymen seem to be amalgamated with Roman Catholics at present; indeed, there seems an amalgamation of all sects on this question." But once the sectarian division over Ireland's future within the United Kingdom reasserted itself, Bright's position hardened. Supporting Protestant Ulster, he would have no truck with what he described as the "disloyal Ireland". In 1886 when Gladstone proposed Home Rule for Ireland and another Irish Land Act, Bright opposed it, along with Joseph Chamberlain and Lord Hartington. He regarded Charles Stewart Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party as "the rebel party". Bright was repeatedly contacted by Gladstone, Chamberlain and Hartington to solicit his support. He was widely regarded as a force to be reckoned with and his political influence was considerably out of proportion to his activity. In March 1886 Bright went to London, and on 10 March met Hartington, having an hour's talk with him on Ireland. On 12 March Bright met Gladstone for dinner, writing that Gladstone's "chief object is to settle the Land question which I rather think ought now ought be considered as settled. On the question of a Parliament in Dublin, he wishes to get rid of Irish representation at Westminster, in which I entirely agree with him if it be possible". On 17 March he met Chamberlain and thought "his view is in the main correct and that it is not wise in him to support the intended measures". On 20 March he had a two-hour-long meeting with Gladstone: He gave me a long memorandum, historical in character, on the past Irish story, which seemed to be somewhat one-sided, leaving out of view the important minority and the views and feelings of the Protestant and loyal portion of the people. He explained much of his policy as to a Dublin Parliament, and as to Land purchase. I objected to the Land policy as unnecessary—the Act of 1881 had done all that was reasonable for the tenants—why adopt the policy of the rebel party, and get rid of landholders, and thus evict the English garrison as the rebels call them? I denied the value of the security for repayment. Mr G. argued that his finance arrangements would be better than present system of purchase, and that we were bound in honour to succour the landlords, which I contested. Why not go to the help of other interests in Belfast and Dublin? As to Dublin Parliament, I argued that he was making a surrender all along the line—a Dublin Parliament would work with constant friction, and would press against any barrier he might create to keep up the unity of the three Kingdoms. What of a volunteer force, and what of import duties and protection as against British goods? ... I thought he placed far too much confidence in the leaders of the rebel party. I could place none in them, and the general feeling was and is that any terms made with them would not be kept, and that through them I could not hope for reconciliation with discontented and disloyal Ireland. On 8 April Gladstone introduced the Home Rule Bill into the House of Commons, where it passed the first reading without division. Bright did not enter the debates on the Bill and left London at the end of April to attend the funeral of his brother-in-law. He then returned to his home in Rochdale. On 13 May Gladstone sent him a letter, requesting he visit him in London. This date was also the anniversary of the death of Bright's wife's, so he replied that he felt the need to spend it at home. He further wrote: I cannot consent to a measure which is so offensive to the whole Protestant population of Ireland, and to the whole sentiment of the province of Ulster so far as its loyal and Protestant people are concerned. I cannot agree to exclude them from the protection of the Imperial Parliament. I would do much to clear the rebel party from Westminster, and do not sympathise with those who wish to retain them—but admit there is much force in the arguments on this point which are opposed to my views upon it. ... As to the Land Bill, if it comes to a second reading, I fear I must vote against it. It may be that my hostility to the rebel party, looking at their conduct since your Government was formed six years ago, disables me from taking an impartial view of this great question. If I could believe them honorable and truthful men, I could yield much—but I suspect that your policy of surrender to them will only place more power in their hands to war with greater effect against the unity of the 3 Kingdoms with no increase of good to the Irish people. ... Parliament is not ready for it, and the intelligence of the country is not ready for it. If it be possible, I should wish that no Division should be taken upon the Bill. On 14 May Bright came to London and wrote to the Liberal MP Samuel Whitbread that Gladstone should withdraw the Home Rule Bill and that he should not dissolve Parliament if the Bill were put forward for a second reading and were defeated in a vote: "... it would only make the Liberal split the more serious, and make it beyond the power of healing. He would be responsible for the greatest wound the Party has received since it was a Party ... If the Bill were now withdrawn, the whole present difficulty in our Party would be gone". He also predicted the Conservatives would gain in strength if an election were called. At the famous meeting at the Committee Room 15, Liberal MPs who were not outright opponents of the idea of Irish self-government but who disapproved of the Bill, met to decide upon a course of action. Among the attendees were Chamberlain, and Bright wrote to on 31 May: My present intention is to vote against the Second Reading, not having spoken in the debate. I am not willing to have my view of the bill or Bills in doubt. But I am not willing to take the responsibility of advising others as to their course. If they can content themselves with abstaining from the division, I shall be glad. they will render a greater service by preventing the threatened dissolution than by compelling it ... a small majority for the Bill may be almost as good as its defeat and may save the country from the heavy sacrifice of a general election. I wish I could join you, but I cannot now change the path I have taken from the beginning of this unhappy discussion ...P.S.—If you think it of any use you may read this note to your friends. Chamberlain read aloud this letter to the meeting and he later wrote that Bright's "announcement that he intended to vote against the Second Reading undoubtedly affected the decision" and that the meeting ended by unanimously agreeing to vote against the Bill. Bright wrote to Chamberlain on 1 June that he was surprised at the meeting's decision because his letter "was intended to make it more easy for and your friends to abstain from voting in the coming division". On 7 June the Home Rule Bill was defeated by 341 votes to 311, Bright voting against it. Gladstone dissolved Parliament. During the subsequent general election campaign, Bright delivered only one speech, to his constituents on 1 July, in which he opposed Irish Home Rule. He exhorted his countrymen to put the Union above the Liberal Party. This speech was generally viewed by the Gladstonian Liberals as having a decisive effect on their defeat. John Morley wrote that "The heaviest and most telling attack came from Mr. Bright, who had up to now in public been studiously silent. Every word, as they said of Daniel Webster, seemed to weigh a pound. His arguments were mainly those of his letter already given, but they were delivered with a gravity and force that told powerfully upon the large phalanx of doubters all over the kingdom". The chairman of the National Liberal Federation, Sir B. Walter Foster, complained that Bright "probably did more harm in this election to his own party than any other single individual". The Liberal journalist P. W. Clayden was a candidate for Islington North and when canvassing leading dissident Liberals, he would take with him a copy of the Home Rule Bill: Going through the Bill with some of them clause by clause, I was able to answer all their objections, and in many cases to get their promise of support. Mr Bright's speech, however, at once undid all my work. In the whole country it probably kept many thousands of Liberal voters from going to the polls, and did more than all the other influences put together to produce the Liberal abstention which gave the Coalition its decisive victory. Bright was re-elected by his Birmingham constituents and it turned out to be his last Parliament. He sat as a Liberal allied to the Conservative and Liberal Unionist coalition government who had won the election. Bright participated little in this Parliament, however his actions could still decide events. Lord George Hamilton recorded that when the government introduced the Criminal Law Amendment (Ireland) Bill in March 1887, which increased the authorities' coercive powers, the Liberal Party opposed it. Bright did not speak in the debate but Hamilton notes that great importance was attached to how Bright would vote: "If he abstained from voting or voted against the Government, the Unionist coalition would have been practically broken up. On the other hand if he, in order to avert Home Rule, voted for a procedure which was so contrary to his previous professions, the Coalition would receive a fresh source of strength and cohesion. When the Division Bell rang, Mr. Bright, who was sitting close by Gladstone, without a moment's hesitation walked straight into the Government's lobby". From this point until his death, Bright did not meet Gladstone, despite their long political relationship together. MLA for Kennedy, Queensland: 1869–70 The Colony of Queensland achieved separation from New South Wales in 1859 with Brisbane in the south-east corner chosen as its capital. By the 1860s, the perceived dominance of southern Queensland created a strong separatist movement in Central Queensland and North Queensland, seeking to establish yet another independent colony. In the 1867 Queensland colonial election, some separatists decided to nominate John Bright as the candidate for the electoral district of Rockhampton in Central Queensland, arguing that representation in the Queensland Parliament had been ineffective, so they would seek a representative within the British Parliament. However, he polled only 10 votes and was not elected. Subsequently, on 11 June 1869, Thomas Henry Fitzgerald, member for the electoral district of Kennedy in North Queensland, resigned, triggering a by-election. John Bright was again nominated as part of the separatist protest and on this occasion won the resulting by-election on 10 July 1869. When nominating him, one separatist declared: Let us elect a man of some weight at home, who will take our case before the Queen and try for redress. There is no man more eminently qualified for this purpose than the Honourable John Bright—a favourite with the Queen, a favourite with the nation—the representative of trade, commerce, and manufactures in the Government and the champion of liberty, and yet a loyal subject. If we can enlist his sympathies, we are right. I believe he is the man who will break the iron rod of the South and set us free; for he has already fought for the liberty of the subject, and I cannot believe he will turn a deaf ear to our manifold sorrows. In January 1870, the separatists sent a petition to Queen Victoria requesting that North Queensland be made a separate colony to be called "Albertsland" (after the Queen's late husband Albert, Prince Consort). As Bright never visited Queensland or took his seat in the Queensland Legislative Assembly, his failure to attend parliament eventually resulted in his seat being declared vacant on 8 July 1870. North Queensland did not achieve separation and remained part of the Colony of Queensland (now the State of Queensland). It is not known what role John Bright had in these Queensland political activities, or indeed if he was even aware of them. However, it was claimed in 1867 that Bright was an "intimate personal friend" of the then Governor of Queensland George Bowen. Death In late 1888, Bright became seriously ill and he realised the end was near. On 27 November his son Albert wrote a letter to Gladstone in which he said his father "wishes me to write to you and tell you that "he could not forget your unvarying kindness to him and the many services you have rendered the country". He was very weak and did not seem able to say any more, and I saw the tears running down his cheeks". Gladstone replied that "I can assure you that he has been little absent of late from mine, that my feelings towards him are entirely unaltered by any of the occurrences of the last three years and that I have never felt separated from him in spirit. I heartily pray that he may enjoy the peace of God on this side the grave and on the other". Bright received many letters and telegrams of sympathy from the Queen downwards. The Irish Nationalist MP Tim Healy wrote to Bright, wishing him a speedy recovery and "Your great services to our people can never be forgotten, for it was when Ireland had fewest friends that your voice was loudest on her side. I hope you may still be spared to raise it on her behalf according to your conceptions of what is best, for while we go on struggling for our own views, there can be nothing but regrets on our part of the sharpness of division in the past". Bright died at his home One Ash on 27 March 1889 and was buried in the graveyard of the meeting-house of the Religious Society of Friends in Rochdale. The Conservative Prime Minister Lord Salisbury paid tribute to him in the House of Lords the day after his death, and it sums up his character as a public man: In the first place, he was the greatest master of English oratory that this generation has produced, or I may perhaps say several generations back. I have met men who have heard Pitt and Fox, and in whose judgment their eloquence at its best was inferior to the finest efforts of John Bright. At a time when much speaking has depressed and almost exterminated eloquence, he maintained robust and intact that powerful and vigorous style of English which gave fitting expression to the burning and noble thoughts he desired to express. Another characteristic for which I think he will be famous is the singular rectitude of his motives, the singular straightness of his career. He was a keen disputant, a keen combatant; like many eager men, he had little tolerance of opposition. But his action was never guided for a single moment by any consideration of personal or party selfishness. He was inspired by nothing but the purest patriotism and benevolence from the first beginning of his public career to the hour of its close. Memorials In 1868, students of the new Cornell University debated whether to call its first literary society, "The John Bright Brotherhood" or the "Irving Literary Society". New York State's recently deceased native son received the honours, but not before Bright was inducted as its first honorary member. The library at Bootham School is named in his honour. In 1928, the Brooks-Bryce Foundation donated significant funds to the Princeton University Library for a collection of materials on the life and times of John Bright, in honour of the statesman. The Foundation also donated funds for an outdoor pulpit to be added to Princeton Chapel, also in honour of Bright. His name is given to John Bright Street in Birmingham, his statue is in the collection of Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery and to the secondary school Ysgol John Bright in Llandudno, North Wales. The town of Bright in Victoria, Australia, is named in his honour. Legacy Historian A. J. P. Taylor has summarized Bright's achievements: John Bright was the greatest of all parliamentary orators. He had many political successes. Along with Richard Cobden, he conducted the campaign which led to the repeal of the Corn Laws. He did more than any other man to prevent the intervention of this country (Britain) on the side of the South during the American Civil War, and he headed the reform agitation in 1867 which brought the industrial working class within the pale of the constitution. It was Bright who made possible the Liberal party of Gladstone, Asquith and Lloyd George, and the alliance between middle class idealism and trade unionism, which he promoted, still lives in the present-day Labour Party. Bibliography John Bright, Speeches of John Bright, M. P., on the American question (1865) online John Bright, Speeches on Questions of Public Policy, ed. J.E.T. Rogers, 2 vols. (1869). John Bright, Public Addresses, ed. by J.E. Thorold Rogers, 8 vols (1879). John Bright, Public Letters of the Right Hon. John Bright, MP., ed. by H.J. Leech (1885) online John Bright. Selected Speeches Of John Bright On Public Questions (1914 ) online John Bright, The Diaries of John Bright, ed. R.A.J. Walling (1930) online. G. B. Smith (eds.), The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P., 2 vols. 8vo (1881). References Sources Goodlad, Graham D. (1991) "Gladstone and his rivals: popular Liberal perceptions of the party leadership in the political crisis of 1886–1886" in Eugenio F. Biagini and Alastair J. Reid (eds.), Currents of Radicalism. Popular Radicalism, Organised Labour and Party Politics in Britain, 1850–1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 163–83. Taylor, A.J.P. (1993) "John Bright and the Crimean War", in From Napoleon to the Second International: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Europe. Hamish Hamilton. . Trevelyan, George Macaulay (1913) The Life of John Bright. Further reading Andrews, James R. "The rhetorical shaping of national interest: Morality and contextual potency in John Bright's parliamentary speech against recognition of the confederacy." Quarterly Journal of Speech (1993) 79#1 pp: 40–60. Ausubel, Herman. John Bright: Victorian Reformer (1966), a standard scholarly biography; online Baylen, Joseph O. "John Bright as speaker and student of speaking." Quarterly Journal of Speech (1955) 41#2 pp: 159–68. Briggs, Asa. "Cobden and Bright" History Today (Aug 1957) 7#8 pp 496–503. Briggs, Asa. “John Bright and the Creed of Reform," in Briggs, Victorian People (1955) pp. pp. 197–231. online Cash, Bill. John Bright: Statesman, Orator, Agitator (2011). Fisher, Walter R. "John Bright: 'Hawker of holy things,'" Quarterly Journal of Speech (1965) 51#2 pp: 157–63. Gilbert, R. A. "John Bright's contribution to the Anti‐Corn Law League." Western Speech (1970) 34#1 pp: 16–20. McCord, Norman. The Anti-Corn Law League: 1838–1846 (Routledge, 2013) Prentice, Archibald. History of the Anti-Corn Law League (Routledge, 2013) Punch. The Rt. Hon. John Bright, M. P.: cartoons from the collection of "Mr. Punch" (1898), primary sources online Quinault, Roland. "John Bright and Joseph Chamberlain." Historical Journal (1985) 28#3 pp: 623–46. Read, Donald. Cobden and Bright: A Victorian Political Partnership (1967); argues that Cobden was more influential Robbins, Keith. John Bright (1979). Smith, George Barnett. The Life and Speeches of the Right Honourable John Bright, MP (1881) online Sturgis, James L. John Bright and the Empire (1969), focus on Bright's policy toward India & his attacks on the East India Company online Taylor, Miles. The Decline of British Radicalism, 1847–1860 (1995). Taylor, Miles. "Bright, John (1811–1889)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004); online edn, Sept 2013 accessed 31 Aug 2014 Westwood, Shannon Rebecca. "John Bright, Lancashire and the American Civil War". (Diss. Sheffield Hallam University, 2018) online. Historiography Loades, David Michael, ed. Reader's guide to British history (2003) 2: 185–86. External links John Bright (Rochdale) Manchester Art Gallery Decoding Art, John Bright British classical liberals Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies UK MPs 1841–1847 UK MPs 1847–1852 UK MPs 1852–1857 UK MPs 1857–1859 UK MPs 1859–1865 UK MPs 1865–1868 UK MPs 1868–1874 UK MPs 1874–1880 UK MPs 1880–1885 UK MPs 1885–1886 UK MPs 1886–1892 English Quakers People educated at Ackworth School People educated at Bootham School People from Rochdale Rectors of the University of Glasgow 1811 births 1889 deaths Liberal Unionist Party MPs for English constituencies Presidents of the Board of Trade Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Manchester Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for City of Durham Members of the Queensland Legislative Assembly	[ 0.5213911533355713, -0.09280480444431305, -0.8136979937553406, -0.26979702711105347, -0.0964413657784462, 1.0621005296707153, 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251196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twistor%20memory	Twistor memory	Twistor memory is a form of computer memory formed by wrapping magnetic tape around a current-carrying wire. Operationally, twistor was very similar to core memory. Twistor could also be used to make ROM memories, including a re-programmable form known as piggyback twistor. Both forms were able to be manufactured using automated processes, which was expected to lead to much lower production costs than core-based systems. Introduced by Bell Labs in 1957, the first commercial use was in their 1ESS switch which went into operation in 1965. Twistor was used only briefly in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when semiconductor memory devices replaced almost all earlier memory systems. The basic ideas behind twistor also led to the development of bubble memory, although this had a similarly short commercial lifespan. Core memory Construction In core memory, small ring-shaped magnets - the cores - are threaded by two crossed wires, X and Y, to make a matrix known as a plane. When one X and one Y wire are powered, a magnetic field is generated at a 45-degree angle to the wires. The core magnets sit on the wires at a 45-degree angle, so the single core wrapped around the crossing point of the powered X and Y wires will be affected by the induced field. The materials used for the core magnets were specially chosen to have a very "square" magnetic hysteresis pattern. This meant that fields just below a certain threshold will do nothing, but those just above this threshold will cause the core to be affected by that magnetic field. The square pattern and sharp flipping states ensures that a single core can be addressed within a grid; nearby cores will see a slightly different field, and not be affected. Data retrieval The basic operation in a core memory is writing. This is accomplished by powering a selected X and Y wire both to the current level that will, by itself, create ½ the critical magnetic field. This will cause the field at the crossing point to be greater than the core's saturation point, and the core will pick up the external field. Ones and zeros are represented by the direction of the field, which can be set simply by changing the direction of the current flow in one of the two wires. In core memory, a third wire - the sense/inhibit line - is needed to write or read a bit. Reading uses the process of writing; the X and Y lines are powered in the same fashion that they would be to write a "0" to the selected core. If that core held a "1" at that time, a short pulse of electricity is induced into the sense/inhibit line. If no pulse is seen, the core held a "0". This process is destructive; if the core did hold a "1", that pattern is destroyed during the read, and has to be re-set in a subsequent operation. The sense/inhibit line is shared by all of the cores in a particular plane, meaning that only one bit can be read (or written) at once. Core planes were typically stacked in order to store one bit of a word per plane, and a word could be read or written in a single operation by working all of the planes at once. Between reads or writes the data was stored magnetically. This means that core is a non-volatile memory. Manufacturing Manufacturing core was a major issue. The X and Y wires had to be threaded through the cores in a weave pattern, and the sense/inhibit line passed through every core in a plane. In spite of considerable effort, no one successfully automated the production of core, which remained a manual task into the 1970s. To increase memory density one had to use smaller cores, which greatly increased the difficulty of wiring them onto the lines. Although the density of core increased many times over its operational lifetime, the per-bit cost of core remained steady. Twistor An early iteration of the Twistor comprised a twisted ferromagnetic wire threaded through a series of concentric solenoids (see attached photo of a test rig for a single "bit"). The longer solenoid is the SENSE coil, the shorter one the WRITE coil. A single bit was written by pulsing the WRITE coil with a + (1) or - (0) current sufficient to magnetize the helical area beneath the coil in one of two directions. At one end of the stretched wire was the READ solenoid - when pulsed it sent an acoustic wave through the wire. As the acoustic pulse passed under each SENSE coil it induced a small electrical pulse, either + or - depending on the direction of magnetization of the region of the wire. Thus with each pulse a "byte" could be read out serially. Twistor was similar in concept to core memory, but replaced the circular magnets with magnetic tape to store the patterns. The tape was wrapped around one set of the wires, the equivalent of the X line, in such a way that it formed a 45-degree helix. The Y wires were replaced by solenoids wrapping a number of twistor wires. Selection of a particular bit was the same as in core, with one X and Y line being powered, generating a field at 45 degrees. The magnetic tape was specifically selected to only allow magnetization along the length of the tape, so only a single point of the twistor would have the right direction of field to become magnetized. The original twistor system used permalloy tape wrapped around a 3 mil copper wire. For any given length of wire, the tape was wound up over only the first half. The copper wire was then bent at the point where the tape ended, and ran back alongside the portion with the tape, forming a return conductor. This meant all the connections were at one end. Several such twistor lines were laid side-by-side and then laminated into a PET film plastic sheet, with the twistors and their return wires about 1/10th of an inch apart. A typical tape might have five twistor wires and their returns, so the sheet was just over an inch wide. The solenoid was similarly constructed, consisting of a number of 0.15 inch wide copper tapes laminated into a plastic tape of the same basic dimensions as the twistor. Unlike a traditional solenoid with many turns of wire around an open core, this system was essentially nothing more than single wires in a sheet of plastic. To build the complete memory system, a sheet of the solenoid was laid out flat, say along the X direction, and then a sheet of the twistor was laid on top at right angles to it along the Y axis. The solenoid tape was then folded over, so that it wrapped the twistor sheet, producing a series of U-shaped solenoids. Now another layer of the solenoid tape is laid over the first, the twistor tape folded over so it now runs along the negative Y axis across the top of the new solenoid tape, and then the solenoid tape is folded over to form a second set of loops. This process continues until the twistor strip is "used up", forming a compact cube of memory. Along one side of the memory, connected to each of the solenoid loops, was a series of small cores used solely for switching (their original purpose, development as a memory came later). The main reason for Bell's development of twistor is that the process could be highly automated. Although the folding process that completed the twistor might be carried out by hand, the layup and laminating of the sheets was easily handled by machine. Improved versions of twistor also wrapped the section of bare copper initially used solely for the return path, thereby doubling density without any changes to the production techniques. Operation Writing to twistor was effectively identical to core; a particular bit was selected by powering one of the twistor wires and one of the solenoid loops to one half of the required power, such that the required field strength was created only at the intersection of the two. Reading used a different process. Unlike core, twistor did not have a sense/inhibit line. Instead, it used a larger current in the solenoid, large enough to flip all of the bits in that loop, and then used the twistor wires as the read line. Twistor was thus read and written one plane at a time, rather than in core, where only one bit per plane could be used at once. Permanent magnet twistor Twistor could be modified to produce a ROM that could be easily re-programmed. To do this, one-half of each solenoid loop was replaced with an aluminum card into which tiny vicalloy bar magnets were embedded. As the solenoids have to be complete circuits in order for current to flow through them, they were still inserted as folded sheets, but in this case the loop was inserted between the folds of twistor instead of around them. This allowed the single sheet to act as one half of a solenoid loop for two folds of the twistor, above and below. To complete the loop, the card of magnets was placed on the other side of the twistor tape. Reads were performed by powering the solenoid to a point about half of that needed to produce a write. This field was "reflected" by the aluminum sheet, closing the loop, magnetically. The resulting field was greater than the write strength, causing the permalloy state to flip. If the bit was beside an unmagnetized bar magnet in the card, the field was not opposed and the flip caused a current pulse in the twistor wire, reading a "1". However, by magnetizing the bar at that bit, the bar magnet opposed the field being created by the solenoid current, causing it to be below the write strength, and preventing the flip. This read a "0". The permanent magnet twistor (PMT) was re-programmed by removing the plates and placing them over a custom writer. Vicalloy was used because it required much more power to re-magnetize than the permalloy tape, so that the system would never come close to re-setting the permanent magnets while in use in the memory system. The writer system used much larger currents that overcame this resistance. The PMT that was used in the 1ESS system used modules with 128 cards with 2818 magnets (for 64 44-bit words) on each. This produced a module with 8192 words (8 kibiwords). The complete store used 16 modules for a total of 131,072 words (128 kibiwords), equivalent to 720,896 8-bit bytes (704 KiB). Piggyback twistor Another form of twistor ROM replaced the permanent magnet cards with a second magnetic tape wrapped around the first on the twistor lines, in a "piggyback" configuration. This tape was coated with coballoy instead of permalloy, which is much "harder" magnetically, requiring about twice the field in order to flip. To make the system even harder, the coballoy tape was about two and a half times thicker than the permalloy one, so the resulting field strength was five times. The external current required to flip the state of the coballoy tape was about 15 times that of the normal operational current. Read operations in the piggyback are identical to the permanent magnet version. Writes were slightly more complex, due to the fact that piggyback twistors all featured the magnetic tape along the entire length of the X wire. This meant that any one solenoid was wrapping both the bit that is being written as well as the one on the section of return wire. To set the one both and not the other, the solenoid was first powered in one direction and then the other, while the current in the twistor line remained constant. This created two magnetic fields in turn, one aligned with the first section of wire and then the second. All reads and writes were carried out on paired bits in this fashion. Applications Twistor was used in a number of applications. Much of the development funding was supplied by the US Air Force, as twistor was to be used as the main memory in the LIM-49 Nike Zeus project. In the United States the Bell System (American Telephone & Telegraph) also used twistors with permanent magnets as the "Program Store" or main memory in their first electronic telephone switching system, the 1ESS as well as others in the ESS series of electronic telephone switches, and did so up to the 4ESS switch introduced in 1976 and sold into the 1980s. In addition, twistor was used in the Traffic Service Position System (TSPS), Bell's successor to cord telephone switchboards which controlled call handling and coin collection for local and international calls. As of October, 2008 some remaining TSPS and ESS installations continue to provide telephone service in rural areas of the United States, as well as Mexico and Colombia where many U.S. systems were sold and re-installed after being removed from service in the United States. References Citations Bibliography "Telephone exchange will keep calls 'in mind'", New Scientist, 5 November 1964, p. 344 External links Memory Units - a general discussion of computer memory systems written in the late 1960s, which includes a discussion of twistor. 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251202	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaka	Plaka	Pláka () is the old historical neighborhood of Athens, clustered around the northern and eastern slopes of the Acropolis, and incorporating labyrinthine streets and neoclassical architecture. Plaka is built on top of the residential areas of the ancient town of Athens. It is known as the "Neighborhood of the Gods" due to its proximity to the Acropolis and its many archaeological sites. Name The name "Plaka" was not in use until after the Greek War of Independence. Instead, the Athenians of that time referred to the area by various names such as Alikokou, Kontito, Kandili, or by the names of the local churches. The name Plaka became commonly in use in the first years of the rule of King Otto. The origin of the name is uncertain: it has been theorized to come from Arvanite "Pliak Athena", meaning "Old Athens", from Albanian plak 'old', or from the presence of a plaque (Greek: πλάκα; romanized: plaka) which once marked its central intersection. Location Plaka is on the northeast slope of Acropolis, between Syntagma and Monastiraki square. Adrianou Street (running north and south) is the largest and most central street in Plaka and divides it into two areas: the upper level, - Ano Plaka - located right under the Acropolis and the lower level - Kato Plaka - situated between Syntagma and Monastiraki. History Plaka was developed mostly around the ruins of Ancient Agora of Athens in an area that has been continuously inhabited since antiquity. During the years of Ottoman rule, Plaka was known as the "Turkish quarter of Athens", and the seat of the Turkish Voevode (Governor). During the Greek War of Independence, Plaka like the rest of Athens, was temporarily abandoned by its inhabitants because of the severe battles that took place in 1826. The area was repopulated during the first years of King Otto's rule. Plaka had a sizable Arvanite community till the late 19th century, which led some to refer to it as the Arvanite quarter of Athens. At the same period the neighborhood of Anafiotika, featuring traditional Cycladic architecture, was built by settlers from the Aegean island of Anafi. In 1884 a fire burned down a large part of the neighborhood which gave the opportunity for the archaeologists to conduct excavations in the Roman Market and Hadrian’s library. Excavations have been taking place continuously since the 19th century. Modern neighbourhood Plaka is visited by hundreds of thousands of tourists around the year, and is under strict zoning and conservation regulations, as the only neighborhood in Athens where all utilities (water, power, cable television, telephone, internet, and sewage) lie underground in fully accessible, custom-made tunneling. Museums in Plaka include the new Acropolis Museum, the new Jewish Museum of Greece, the Museum of Greek Folk Art, an annex of which is the Old Public Baths building, the Frissiras Museum, the Museum of Popular Music Instruments, the Museum of Pavlos and Alexandra Kanellopoulou and the Athens University Museum. Museums in Plaka Jewish Museum of Greece Museum of Greek Folk Art Frissiras Museum Athens University Museum Museum of Pavlos and Alexandra Kanellopoulou Museum of Popular Music Instruments Cinema Many movies of the Greek cinema were filmed in the area. Some of them include: The Drunkard (film) Woe to the Young And the Wife Shall Revere Her Husband What If..., Christoforos Papakaliatis movie Gallery References Tourist attractions in Athens Neighbourhoods in Athens	[ 0.49567553400993347, 0.2356075644493103, -0.571631908416748, 0.1379498392343521, 0.683712899684906, 0.6751617193222046, -0.15951739251613617, 0.1345016211271286, -0.41878369450569153, -0.5696262121200562, -0.29954829812049866, -0.21819564700126648, -0.5970506072044373, 0.42168208956718445, -0.5932791829109192, 0.14218856394290924, 0.3748530149459839, 0.09826395660638809, 0.5980393290519714, 0.26547175645828247, 0.17431767284870148, -0.022540435194969177, -0.11754108220338821, -0.31281396746635437, -0.29011550545692444, -0.42882129549980164, -0.08505160361528397, 0.027426015585660934, 0.20521360635757446, 0.24457885324954987, -0.34027552604675293, 0.517489492893219, -0.6095737218856812, -0.8501368761062622, -0.012255849316716194, -0.08961174637079239, 0.894404947757721, 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251208	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stony%20Brook%20University	Stony Brook University	Stony Brook University (SBU), officially the State University of New York at Stony Brook, is a public research university in Stony Brook, Long Island, in the metropolitan area of New York City. Along with the University at Buffalo, it is one of the State University of New York system's two flagship institutions. Consisting of 213 buildings over of land in Suffolk County, it is the largest public university (by area) in the state of New York. Opened in 1957 in Oyster Bay as the State University College on Long Island, the institution moved to Stony Brook in 1962. In 2001, Stony Brook was elected to the Association of American Universities, a selective group of major research universities in North America. It is also a member of the larger Universities Research Association. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". Stony Brook University, in partnership with Battelle, manages Brookhaven National Laboratory, a national laboratory of the United States Department of Energy. The university acquired land for a Research & Development Park adjacent to its main campus in 2004, and has four business incubators across the region. The University's impact on the Long Island economy amounts to US$7.23 billion in increased output, and research expenditures have surpassed the US$230 million mark annually. Stony Brook is the largest single-site employer on Long Island; 26,814 students are enrolled at the university, which has over 15,000 employees and over 2,700 faculty. Stony Brook has been affiliated with five Fields Medalists, putting it in a tie for the seventh-most among American universities. Stony Brook's intercollegiate athletic teams have competed in Division I of the NCAA since 1999 as the Seawolves. Stony Brook will join the Colonial Athletic Association on July 1, 2022 after competing as a member of the America East Conference since 2001. History Origins in Oyster Bay The State University of New York at Stony Brook was established in Oyster Bay in 1957, as the State University College on Long Island (SUCOLI) Established almost a decade after the creation of New York's public higher education system, the institution was envisioned as a college for the preparation of secondary school teachers. Leonard K. Olson was appointed as the first dean of the institution and was instrumental in the recruitment of faculty staff and planning of the later Stony Brook campus. SUCOLI opened with an inaugural class of 148 students, on the grounds of the William Robertson Coe Planting Fields estate. These first students were admitted on a tuition-free basis. 1961 was a year of firsts as thirty students were conferred degrees in the first commencement and the university was appointed its first president, John Francis Lee. Lee left later that year due to political and bureaucratic matters regarding the future of the university and the central administration at Albany. Nevertheless, he had fulfilled his primary task of reshaping the university from a technical science and engineering college of limited degree options to a full-scale university featuring liberal arts programs. Move to Stony Brook In 1960 the Heald Report, commissioned by Governor Nelson Rockefeller, recommended a major new public university be built on Long Island to "stand with the finest in the country", a report that would ultimately shape most of the university's growth for years to come. Ward Melville, a philanthropist and businessman from the Three Village area in western Suffolk County donated over of land to the state for the development of a state university and in 1962 the institution relocated to Stony Brook and officially renamed as the State University of New York at Stony Brook. However, the longer name has fallen out of favor; since 2005, it has usually been called simply Stony Brook University (SBU). The campus had 782 students enrolled in 1962, but enrollment had increased more than tenfold by 1969, surpassing the 8,000 mark, fueled by the large funding of public higher education in the Sputnik era. In 1963, only three years after the release of the Heald Report, the Governor commissioned the "Education of Health Professions" (Muir Report) report. The report outlined the need for expansion of the university system to prepare medical professionals for the future needs of the state. The report was particularly important for Stony Brook as it recommended creation of a Health Science Center and academic hospital at the campus to serve the need of the fastest-growing counties (Nassau and Suffolk) in New York at the time. Growth In 1965, the State University appointed John S. Toll, a physicist from the University of Maryland as the second president of Stony Brook. In 1966, the university set forth initial timetables for the development of the Health Science Center, which would house the university's health programs and hospital. Despite the budgetary concerns and challenges from Albany, the university released a formalized plan early in 1968 and funding for recruitment of faculty was provided. At the same time, residential housing was expanded to 3,000, the Stony Brook Union opened in 1970, and in 1971, the massive expansion project for the campus library (named in memory of Frank Melville Jr., father of philanthropist Ward Melville) was completed. Despite the fast-paced growth, campus infrastructure often struggled to keep pace: overcrowding, expansion, landscaping, lighting, and safety were persistent problems at the university, which led to multiple protests and growing tension between the student body and the administration. In January 1968, the infamous "Operation Stony Brook" drug raid resulted in the arrest of twenty nine students and in the fall of 1968, tension climaxed as the administration and students decided on a three-day moratorium to bring together the entire university with the goal of improving communication between the students, faculty, and administration. The 1970s witnessed the growth of the university and its transformation as a major research institution within New York's public school system, with strong graduate programs and scientific breakthroughs like the development of magnetic resonance imaging. But the university lagged significantly in undergraduate education, prioritizing graduate education and research over undergraduate studies and student life. By 1975, enrollment had reached 16,000 and expansion crossed over Nicolls Road with the construction of the Health Science Center, which would be completed in 1980. In 1981, John Marburger was inaugurated as the third presiden, and continued the expansion. By the late 1980s, the administration affirmed the need to improve other areas of the institution, which included undergraduate education, student and residential life, and intercollegiate athletics. The university approved a decision to transition athletics to the Division I of the NCAA and followed with the construction of the Stony Brook Arena and the expansion of the Indoor Sports Complex. Further expansion into the 21st century The 1990s affirmed Stony Brook's success at building a research university with a strong undergraduate education. Under the leadership of its fourth president, Shirley Strum Kenny, the administration sought out to showcase the value of the institution. Kenny was responsible for campus wide improvement projects which included large scale landscaping, renovations of every residence hall, the continued growth of the athletics programs, the improvement of student life, ever increasing research expenditures, a branding/marketing campaign, and the university's increasing ties with private philanthropy. In the mid-1990s, the school began to distance itself from the SUNY system, as Kenny believed that the SUNY name was hurting the school's reputation. In 1998, the university became one of the top 100 of American research universities in the U.S. News & World Report. That same year, the university and Battelle Memorial Institute were chosen by the Department of Energy as joint operators of the Brookhaven National Laboratory, joining a selective group of universities that operated national laboratories across the nation. Enrollment reached the 20,000 mark in 2001, and the administration's improvement efforts climaxed with the invitation to the highly selective Association of American Universities, an organization of sixty-two universities across North America committed to a strong system of research and education. 2002 saw the opening of the $22 million Kenneth P. LaValle Stadium and the inauguration of the massive Charles B. Wang Center dedicated to Asian and American culture, funded by a $50 million donation from Charles B. Wang. At the time, it was the largest private donation to a SUNY institution. In 2003, chemistry professor Paul Lauterbur received a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research and discovery of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, which was instrumental in the development of NMR Imaging (MRI) while at Stony Brook. In 2005, the university bought the Flowerfield property adjacent to campus through eminent domain as land for the development of a Research and Development Park. Plans for a law school were in the talks but scrapped shortly after. In 2009, president Shirley Strum Kenny stepped down, and in May, Dr. Samuel Stanley, Jr. was announced as Stony Brook's fifth president. The late 2000s saw the university receive historic philanthropic donations. Hedge funder Jim Simons made multiple multi-million donations, including a $25 million donation to the Stony Brook Foundation in 2006, a $60 million donation for the development of the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics in 2008, and a landmark $150 million donation to the university in 2011. Other major donations were provided by alumni Joe Nathan, Stuart Goldstein, and Glenn Dubin for major renovation of athletic facilities. In 2010 Dr. Stanley announced Project 50 Forward, a comprehensive plan for the development of the university in the next fifty years with a focus on "operational excellence, academic greatness, and building for the future." In 2012, the $40 million Walter J. Hawrys Campus Recreation Center opened, soon followed by the on-campus Hilton Garden Inn in May 2013. Frey Hall, named after alumnus Dr. Robert Frey, opened in 2013 after undergoing renovations as the former Old Chemistry building. The Stony Brook University Arena underwent a $21 million overhaul, re-opening as the Island Federal Arena in 2014. In July 2015, a new $40.8 million Computer Science building opened, spanning . New dormitories, known as Chavez Hall and Tubman Hall, along with a new East Side Dining hall, opened in the fall of 2016. In January 2019, Stony Brook Medicine opened their $194 million cancer center to the public. In 2018, Stony Brook received its best ranking yet in the U.S. News & World Report, at 80th in the United States. President Stanley left Stony Brook effective August 1, 2019 to become the president of Michigan State University following the Larry Nassar scandal. Provost Michael A. Bernstein was named interim president in his place. On March 26, 2020, Maurie McInnis, the executive vice president and provost of the University of Texas was named the sixth president of Stony Brook, effective July 1, 2020. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the United States Army constructed $50 million temporary field hospitals on the campus of Stony Brook University. However, the beds were dismantled in 2021 without ever being used. A $63.4 million renovation of the Stony Brook Union was completed during the pandemic and opened in 2020. Flagship status era On January 5, 2022, New York governor Kathy Hochul officially designated Stony Brook University and the University at Buffalo as the two flagship universities of the State University of New York system. The announcement came with the dedication of a new $100 million multidisciplinary engineering building. On January 25, 2022, Stony Brook announced its departure from the America East Conference after 21 years to the Colonial Athletic Association, effective July 1, 2022. Campus Main campus The main campus is in the historic north shore hamlet of Stony Brook near the geographic midpoint of Long Island, approximately east of Manhattan and west of Montauk. Bounded to the north by New York State Route 25A (North Country Road) the campus is subdivided into "West Campus" and "East Campus" by the thoroughfare County Road 97 (Nicolls Road). The Ashley Schiff Forest Preserve separates the South Campus from West Campus. The Long Island Rail Road serves the community with the Stony Brook station situated along the northern edge of the campus. West The west campus is the center of the academic life of the university. It houses the majority of academic, athletic, and undergraduate student housing facilities while also being the original site of the university. The modern campus is centered around the Academic Mall, which stretches for more than a quarter of a mile from the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics at the west end to the Administration Building at the east end. The Academic Mall includes the Student Activity Center, Frank Melville Jr. Memorial Library, Staller Center for the Arts, Humanities building, Psychology A & B, Harriman Hall, Frey Hall (previously known as Old Chemistry), the Earth and Space Sciences Building, Math Tower, and Physics building. The Engineering Quad is located near the Academic Mall, and contains the Engineering, Light Engineering, Heavy Engineering, and Computing Center facilities. The Javits Lecture Center, Social and Behavioral Sciences Building, Computer Science building, New Computer Science building and Student Union facilities are also on the west campus. The Life Sciences complex, also on the west campus, consists of the Life Sciences Building, Laufer Center for Physical and Quantitative Biology, Centers for Molecular Medicine, Bioengineering building, and the Institute for Advanced Computational Science. Among the latest additions to the campus are the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics, the new Walter J. Hawrys Campus Recreation Center, the Hilton Garden Inn hotel, Frey Hall, and a new Computer Science building. The Staller Center, which contains the largest movie screen in Long Island's Suffolk County, holds the annual Stony Brook Film Festival. The athletic facilities are in the northwest quadrant of west campus, which include the Stony Brook Sports Complex, Island Federal Credit Union Arena, Kenneth P. LaValle Stadium, Joe Nathan Field, University Track, and University Field. South The South Campus is about half a mile south of the Academic Mall and separated from West Campus by the Ashley Schiff Forest Preserve. It is home to the School of Dental Medicine, the School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences (SoMAS), the Cody Center for Autism and Developmental Disabilities, and the University Police headquarters. Research and development The Research and Development Park is on Stony Brook Road, a mile from the center of campus. On November 3, 2005, the university announced it had formally acquired of the adjacent Flowerfield property, originally owned by the St. James Gyrodyne Company of America, through eminent domain, three years after the university had expressed its desire to acquire the property. Stony Brook is using this property as a Research and Development Park, similar to other university-affiliated science parks around the country. The campus will ultimately house ten new buildings. The first building, the Center of Excellence in Wireless and Information Technology (CEWIT), was completed in October 2008. CEWIT houses the world's first (and currently the largest) immersive gigapixel facility in the world, called the Reality Deck. In 2019, Stony Brook University celebrated the opening of its astonishing new SMART Cluster in CEWIT, a dual use GPU Cluster for both machine learning and visualization. The SMART Cluster is also the first hardware-accelerated ray-tracing cluster for real-time cinematic quality rendering, allowing scientists, engineers and physicians to visualize huge amounts of data in a new way.. Construction for the Advanced Energy Research and Technology Center, designed by Flad Architects, commenced in the Summer of 2008 and is open as of spring 2010. East The East Campus is separated from the main campus by Nicolls Road (County Road 97). It is home to the Stony Brook University Hospital and the Health Science Center. Stony Brook University Hospital, completed in 1980, is Suffolk County's only tertiary hospital and Level 1 Trauma Center, and the only academic medical center in Suffolk County—larger also than any in Nassau County. The hospital is the largest in Suffolk County, and the attached Health Sciences Center (HSC) and Basic Science Tower (BST) houses numerous laboratories, the School of Medicine (1972), the School of Nursing (1970), the School of Health Technology and Management (1970) and the School of Social Welfare (1971). The area also includes the Ambulatory Surgery Center and the Center for Outpatient Services. Construction on the Medical and Research Translation (MART) building began in November 2013, and the 240,000 square foot building opened on November 1, 2018, with its $194 million cost funded by state grants and donations from Jim Simons. The MART building is the home to the Stony Brook Cancer Center. In November 2019, Stony Brook Medicine opened a four-story, $73 million expansion to the Stony Brook Children's Hospital. Also in the east side of campus are the Chapin apartments, which provide housing for graduate students. The Long Island High Technology Incubator, one of the four business incubators of the university, is a short walk north of the hospital. The Long Island State Veterans Home serving the Long Island veteran community is in this part of campus. Manhattan Campus In 2002, the university established a presence in Manhattan with the opening of Stony Brook Manhattan. The original site was at 401 Park Avenue South; a newer operation opened in late 2008 in the adjacent building on the third floor of 387 Park Avenue South. The university consolidated operations in 2011 to just the 3rd floor of 387 Park Avenue South, with a classroom entrance around the corner at 101 East 27th Street. The site allows Stony Brook to offer professional and graduate courses targeted towards students in New York City; undergraduate courses are held primarily during the summer and winter sessions. Conferences and special events take place throughout the year. In February 2017 however, the lease for this campus was terminated, and there are no classes offered at this location. Southampton Campus On March 24, 2006, the university completed the purchase of the Southampton College (on the east end of Long Island) property from Long Island University with the intent to develop it as a full college campus focusing on academic programs related to the environment and sustainability. Stony Brook expanded its original program, started in the fall of 2005, when it offered an undergraduate marine sciences program, with teaching and research facilities at the campus leased from Long Island University. An enrollment of about 2,000 students is expected within the next five years. Professor Martin Schoonen was appointed interim dean of Southampton campus on August 3, 2006, and conservationist Mary Pearl was appointed dean and vice president in March 2009. On April 7, 2010, the university had suspended residential programs and transferred sustainability programs to the main campus. The change was prompted by severe state budget cuts. Although the Marine Sciences and Graduate Writing programs are still in session at Southampton, undergraduates were relocated to the main campus. As a result of the suspension of residential programs, all dining services and retail operations were suspended by the Faculty Student Association. The old LIU radio station and National Public Radio affiliate no longer operate on the campus. In September 2011 Stony Brook Southampton began offering an undergraduate program called Semester by the Sea, where students attend undergraduate classes to study the Ocean or the Arts. Students studying the Ocean are immersed in marine topics that are enhanced with close proximity to the water, a fleet of research vessels and graduate research projects that are ongoing. Students studying the Arts are engaged in studies for filmmaking and creative writing. Both programs offer a Public Lecture Series. As of 2015, the Stony Brook Southampton campus has shown growth, despite almost being closed down in 2010. Programs had been added back and the Board of Trustees of the State University of New York approved a long-awaited partnership agreement between Southampton and Stony Brook University hospitals. Enrollment increased to over 400, after being around 175, three years following the addition of new funding. As of 2019, Stony Brook University operates the Stony Brook Southampton Hospital with plans to take ownership of more eastern Long Island hospitals. South Korea In May 2009, the SUNY board of trustees granted Dr. Stanley authority to conduct negotiation measures towards a partnership campus between Stony Brook and the South Korean government. Stony Brook would be joining other universities in a univerCITY complex, potentially involving other schools such as North Carolina State University, George Mason, Carnegie Mellon, Johns Hopkins, and Boston University. The campus would be a global university with intentions to offer a diverse learning environment while at the same time stimulating the economy of South Korea. In July 2011, Dr. Stanley announced that the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology in South Korea has approved the establishment of SUNY Korea as part of Songdo International Business District in Incheon. The campus was expected to begin academic programs in March 2012 with an enrollment of 200. Art on campus Stony Brook University has four gallery spaces on campus. As was the desire of donor Paul W. Zuccaire, the Paul W. Zuccaire Gallery, formerly known as the University Art Gallery, showcases professional exhibitions as well as annual graduate and undergraduate student works. The Paul W. Zuccaire Gallery is in the Staller Center for the Arts. Also on campus is the Latin American and Caribbean Studies Center's Art Gallery, which features works from Latino and Latin American artists as well as local artists who fall under that category. The SAC Art Gallery is a center for interactive and participatory art projects. The Tabler Center for Arts, Culture, and Humanities includes an art gallery and blackbox theater performance space. The Simons Center for Geometry and Physics includes an art gallery as well. Organization and administration The Stony Brook University consists of a main campus in Stony Brook, and additional satellite campuses in Southampton and South Korea. The university is composed of twelve schools and colleges. By enrollment, the largest college or school is the College of Arts and Science. The university is governed by the State University of New York board of trustees, a body of eighteen members which regulate all the individual units of the SUNY system. The trustees have the authority to appoint the president of each state-operated institution, grant all degree diplomas and certificates for the completion of studies at any state-operated campus, and regulation of admissions, tuition, curricula, and all other matters pertaining to the operation and administration of each state-operated campus. The president of Stony Brook is the principal executive officer of the university. The position was first held by John Francis Lee and is held by the sixth president in the institution's history, Maurie McInnis, who took office on July 1, 2020. Endowment Stony Brook's financial endowment is managed by the Stony Brook Foundation. The foundation was established in 1965 as a not-for-profit corporation under the New York State Education Law. Chartered to collect and manage gifts from private and non-state resources to supplement the funding of the university and managed by a voluntary Board of Trustees. Donations can be made to a wide selection of funds which benefit different areas of the university. In 2012 the endowment was valued at approximately $125 million with total assets amounting to nearly $350 million and has fully recovered from the losses endured in the 2008 economic downturn. After a strong fundraising campaign led by Jim Simon's $150 million donation, the university amounted to more than $180 million in fundraising for the 2011-12 year and raised $200 million by March 2013. It is the second largest endowment among State University of New York university centers behind the University at Buffalo. However, the University's endowment remains far below the average of its Association of American Universities peers. Student government Housed in the Student Activity Center, the Undergraduate Student Government (USG) is the governing body representing the undergraduate students of the university. The main functions of USG involve regulation, funding, and recognizing official clubs and organizations of the university. Undergraduate students are obligated to pay a Student Activity Fee per semester which is then administered by the Undergraduate Student Government. USG manages the yearly Homecoming events, Roth Pond Regatta and the traditional end-of-the year Brookfest concert and a series of concerts and events branded as "Stony Brook Concerts" that occur throughout the academic year while also directly funding undergraduate organizations, clubs, and other student services. USG at Stony Brook has a long history going back to the founding of the Student Polity Association (Polity) in 1959. After the controversial de-certification of Polity by the administration in 2002, USG was founded in 2003. Like USG, the Graduate Student Organization (GSO) is the governing body representing the graduate students of the university. The GSO advocates for graduate student interests to senior university administration, and is part of shared governance at the university. Graduate students pay a per-semester activity fee which is used to fund events and programs for the Graduate community. The GSO provides services for graduate students including funding for conferences, seminars, speaker events, travel to Brookhaven and Coldspring Harbor Laboratories, funding for social events, departmental organizations, and student clubs. The GSO hosts social events, professional development programming, and free legal and tax clinics. Traditional events hosted by the GSO include graduate student orientation, Three Minute Thesis, an annual speaker event, and national conferences. The GSO co-manages the University Cafe. GSO executive board members partake in national advocacy, and work with organizations such as the National Association of Graduate-Professional Students (NAGPS) on advocating for higher education policy issues. Academics Stony Brook was one of ten national universities awarded a National Science Foundation recognition award in 1998 for their integration of research and education. Between 2005 & 2007, two Nobel Prizes were awarded to professors for their work conducted at Stony Brook. The university has an annual $4.65 billion economic impact on the region. Stony Brook co-manages Brookhaven National Laboratory through Brookhaven Science Associates, a 50-50 partnership with Battelle Memorial Institute. Stony Brook is also one of two public schools in New York to have a medical school and a dental school, the other being University at Buffalo, The State University of New York. The university's health science and medical component, collectively referred to as Stony Brook Medicine, includes the Renaissance School of Medicine and the Schools of Dental Medicine, Nursing, Health Technology and Management, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Social Welfare, as well as the Hospital, major centers and institutes, programs, clinics and community-based healthcare settings, and the Long Island State Veterans Home. Tuition For the 2021–22 academic year, annual undergraduate tuition and fees was $10,410 for in-state students and $28,080 for out-of-state students. Tuition alone cost $7,070 and $24,740, respectively, with $3,020 in fees. Average room and board cost is $14,884. 78% of full-time enrolled freshmen received financial aid, with an average of $13,100 per student. 71% of full-time enrolled freshmen received a scholarship or aid from a federal or state government institution. 42% of full-time enrolled freshmen received loan aid from the federal government at an average of $5,000 per student. Student body In fall 2021, the university had an enrollment of 26,782 students: 18,010 undergraduate students and 8,772 graduate students. Of all students, 23,072 (86 percent) are U.S. citizens or permanent residents representing all states of the United States and 3,536 (13 percent) are international students representing over a hundred countries around the world. 21,103 students hail from New York state, accounting for 79 percent of the student body. 12,061 students (45 percent) of the student body reside in Nassau or Suffolk County on Long Island, while 6,766 students (25 percent) reside in New York City. 2,276 students (8.5 percent) reside north of New York City, with Westchester County, Rockland County and Orange County as the three most common. 7.3 percent of students live out of state, most represented by New Jersey, California and Connecticut. Half of Stony Brook's international students hail from China. An additional 18% come from India and 10% from South Korea. In 2021, there were more Asian American undergraduate students than White American students attending Stony Brook for the first time in the university's history. Rankings In 2022, U.S. News & World Report ranked Stony Brook University as tied for 93rd overall among national universities and tied for 38th among public universities. In the same year, the QS US University Rankings ranked Stony Brook University as No. 39 in the US. In 2020, The Wall Street Journal ranked Stony Brook University tied with two others as the second-best public school in the Northeastern United States. In 2015, Kiplinger's Personal Finance ranked Stony Brook 33rd best value among the country's public institutions for in-state students, and 26th for out-of-state students. In 2012, The Wall Street Journal ranked Stony Brook 8th among public universities sending students to elite graduate programs. , U.S. News & World Report has given the following rankings to graduate programs at Stony Brook: The School of Engineering is ranked 67th, the School of Social Work is ranked 71st, the School of Medicine is ranked 59th in Research and a 'Rank Not Published' in Primary Care nationally. Nuclear Physics (categorized as a Physics specialty) ranked 4th; Geometry (categorized as a Mathematics specialty) ranked 4th; Clinical Psychology ranked 4th; Topology (categorized as a Mathematics specialty) ranked 11th; Physician Assistant program ranked 16th; Physics ranked 23rd; Midwifery ranked 23rd; Mathematics ranked 25th; Political Science ranked 29th; Earth Science ranked 34th; Materials Science (categorized as an Engineering specialty) ranked 37th; Psychology ranked 39th; Sociology ranked 40th; Computer Science ranked 40th; Occupational Therapy ranked 44th; Biological Sciences ranked 55th; Chemistry ranked 56th; English ranked 60th; Economics ranked 63rd; History ranked 63rd; Physical Therapy ranked 64th; and Fine Arts ranked 98th. In 2017, the Shanghai Global Rankings of Academic Subjects ranked Stony Brook's Mathematics program 13th best worldwide. College Factuals 2015 survey ranked Stony Brook University's Applied Mathematics program as 3rd best in the United States. The Stony Brook College of Business earned AACSB International Accreditation in 2021. Awards In 2021, a team of students of the Journalism School won the Edward R. Murrow Awards for Excellence in Audio Feature Reporting. Research The School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences (SoMAS) is the SUNY center for marine and atmospheric research, education, and public service. More than 300 graduate and undergraduate students from 16 different nations work and study at SoMAS. The School's students study coastal oceanographic processes and atmospheric sciences. The Marine Sciences Research Center, the original institute for marine studies, was incorporated into the new School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences (SOMAS) on June 15, 2007. The university co-manages Brookhaven National Laboratory, which is affiliated with the United States Department of Energy. In the Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Engineering area, some of the research centers of Stony Brook University are the Institute for Mathematical Sciences, the Institute for Advanced Computational Science, and the C. N. Yang Institute for Theoretical Physics among others. In the biomedical sciences, Stony Brook houses the Center for Biotechnology and the Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, among many others. In March 2008, the university received $60 million endowment from James Simons to establish the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics. The Louis and Beatrice Laufer Center for Physical and Quantitative Biology was established by a generous gift in 2008 from Dr. Henry Laufer. In July 2007 Stony Brook won a grant from the Department of Defense to devise ways to prevent terrorists from corrupting computers, and another from the Department of Homeland Security to design a system to detect radiation without triggering false alarms. The New York Center for Computational Sciences (NYCCS), formed in 2007, is a joint venture of Stony Brook University and Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its centerpiece is an 18-rack Blue Gene /L and 2 rack Blue Gene/P massively parallel supercomputer based on the IBM system-on-chip technology, also known as New York Blue Gene supercomputer. In the June 2008 Top 500 supercomputer rankings New York Blue Gene/L was ranked 17th, and Blue Gene/P was ranked 75th. The total peak performance for both Blue Gene/L and Blue Gene/P consists 103.22 teraflops (trillion floating-point calculations per second). In 2016, Stony Brook University placed second at the Long Island regional round of the New York State Business Plan Competition. New York Institute of Technology placed first with four teams qualifying for the state competition's final round, while Stony Brook University had three teams qualifying for the state competition's final round. Notable research and discoveries There have been many notable research projects and important scientific discoveries at Stony Brook. Admissions In 2018, Stony Brook University accepted 41.8%, or 15,800, of the 37,828 freshman applications it received. Of the 15,800 freshmen applicants accepted, 3,383 chose to enroll, or a rate of 21.4%. Academic Profile of middle 50% of enrolled freshmen (as of 2018) GPA: 91-97 (100-point scale), 3.6-4.0 (4-point scale) 47% in top ten percent of graduating class 80% in top quarter of graduating class 97% in top half of graduating class SAT: 1250-1400 SAT Math: 630-740 SAT Evidence-Based Reading and Writing: 600-680 ACT: 26-31 The average SAT score of 2018 freshmen is 1323 out of 1600. Student life Stony Brook has a wide variety of student-run organizations on campus, which include sororities and fraternities, and a count of almost 300 recognized student clubs and organizations. The Undergraduate Student Government at Stony Brook University is trusted with the responsibility of budgeting the undergraduate student activity fee which funds most student run organizations on campus. The Graduate Student Organization is responsible for budgeting the graduate student activity fee, and supplies a variety of funding opportunities, programming, student services, and funding for departmental and student organizations. The oldest campus newspaper is The Statesman, which was founded in 1957 when the university was in Oyster Bay. Other publications include the Stony Brook Press, Stony Brook Independent, Blackworld, and the Asian American E-Zine. Stony Brook also has a campus-wide public radio station, WUSB, which serves most of Long Island and dedicates programming to Stony Brook athletics and other events on campus. Stony Brook has the greatest number of students who live on campus out of any public school in New York. Once seen as a "suitcase school" of commuters, Stony Brook has undergone efforts to shed that negative label, creating a model that struggling schools such as Central Connecticut State University have tried to emulate. Around 83% of freshmen students are residents. Events and traditions Incoming freshmen are welcomed to the university in August with First Night Out, a night of events taking place on the Friday in which they move in. Organized by Student Engagement and Activities, the night consists of a "Party on the Plaza" as well as various assorted activities. Wolfieland, an annual carnival, began in 2016 and takes place during September. Stony Brook University's annual Homecoming celebration, known as "Wolfstock", takes place in October and features numerous activities throughout the week, including Homecoming Hoopla & Carnival on Wednesday and the Seawolves Showcase talent show on Friday. Wolfstock culminates in Stony Brook's annual Homecoming football game on Saturday, which traditionally draws record-breaking crowds upwards of 12,000 people. The homecoming court is presented during halftime, dating back to 1984. Beginning in 2018, Stony Brook shifted to the gender-neutral title of 'royal' in lieu of 'king' and 'queen'. Academic activity pauses weekly on Wednesdays from 1:00 to 2:30 p.m. in a period known as "Campus Life Time", which was established in February 1991. During Campus Life Time, no classes are scheduled and events take place at the Academic Mall, allowing students to take a break from their studies and come together for social activity. First-year students are assigned a book written by a notable figure, who speaks to the entire freshman class on Commons Day in the fall semester. Commons Day speakers have included Supreme Court associate justice Sonia Sotomayor, author Janet Mock, designer Joshua Davis and journalist Charles M. Blow. The Festival of Lights started in 2000 as an annual Stony Brook tradition that celebrates the numerous cultures and faiths which celebrate during the holiday season. The festival is preceded by "Light the Brook", a tree lighting ceremony at the Academic Mall. Midnight Breakfast takes place during the first Monday of Finals Week in both semesters as the dining halls open late to serve breakfast foods to students. To celebrate Earth Day, Stony Brook holds a week-long Earthstock celebration in the week leading up, culminating in the Earthstock Festival. Numerous environment-themed events take place throughout the week, with the most known tradition being the Rubber Duck Race held at "The Brook" adjacent to the Administration building. Starting in 1993, Strawberry Fest is held on the first Wednesday of May, where students and faculty gather at the Academic Mall to eat an array of strawberry-themed foods with live music and student performances. In 1998, Stony Brook began to hold Diversity Day during the same day as Strawberry Fest, planned and organized by the Office of Multicultural Affairs to highlight the diverse cultures which make up the university. The yearly Roth Pond Regatta, held since 1989, attracts dozens of competitors and thousands of attendees, including students, faculty, staff, and alumni. The competition involves groups making boats out of cardboard and tape, with the challenge to get across the Roth Pond first without sinking. Stony Brook holds two annual concerts – Back to the Brook during the fall semester and Brookfest during the spring semester. The inaugural Back to the Brook took place in 2012 and featured Reel Big Fish at the Staller Steps. Since then, Mac Miller, Lupe Fiasco, Walk the Moon, Fetty Wap and Post Malone have headlined Back to the Brook. 2018's Back to the Brook was infamously cancelled after only 24 tickets were sold for headliner Ashanti a week before the concert. 2019's Back to the Brook was controversially cancelled again. The historic Stony Brook concert series was revived in 2011 with Brookfest hosting headliners Bruno Mars and Janelle Monáe. Brookfest has since been headlined by Wiz Khalifa and Miguel, Ludacris and Grouplove, Childish Gambino and Diplo, Panic! at the Disco and Twenty One Pilots, Future and Cash Cash, DNCE and Joey Badass, 21 Savage and A Boogie wit da Hoodie, and ASAP Ferg and Aminé. In the early 2010s, Stony Brook's Graduate Student Organization sponsored a concert series on the first Thursday of every month titled Stony Brooklyn, focused on exposing the student body to up-and-coming indie rock musicians from the New York area. This concert series included acts like The Antlers, Parquet Courts, Beach Fossils, The Drums, Ra Ra Riot, Das Racist and The Front Bottoms playing concerts on the Stony Brook campus. As interest in this scene declined, the series was shut down by 2017. The Spirit of Stony Brook Marching Band The Spirit of Stony Brook Marching Band was created in 2006 and plays at athletic games and other events. The first public performance was at the September 2006 convocation. The band grew to 70 members the second year and added additional staff. The band first traveled to the America East Men's Basketball Tournament in March 2007 and has done so regularly ever since. By July 2008, the band had reached 100 members, and by the mid-2010s had attracted over 200 members. The Stony Brook marching band first participated in the NYC Columbus Day Parade in 2011, as well as appeared in an episode of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition and a commercial for the New York Lottery. The band performed on ESPN's College GameDay in 2017 when an episode was hosted in New York City's Times Square. In 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic, members of the Stony Brook marching band performed in the virtual halftime show for the College Football Playoff National Championship game between Alabama and Ohio State. Stony Brook's current Director of Athletic Bands is Dr. Justin R. Stolarik, who previously was a director at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the University of Oklahoma. Athletics Stony Brook University's intercollegiate athletics teams, known as the Stony Brook Seawolves, compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) at the Division I level and are members of the Colonial Athletic Association, beginning on July 1, 2022. The school's current Director of Athletics is Shawn Heilbron, who was hired in May 2014 after serving as Senior Associate Athletic Director for Development at Oregon State University. The university's athletics teams were originally known as the Soundmen or the Baymen in the early 1950s when the campus was located in Oyster Bay. Their name was changed to the Warriors in 1960, and again to the Patriots and Lady Patriots in 1966. In 1994, as Stony Brook prepared to become a Division I program, the team nickname was changed again, this time to its current day incarnation, the Seawolves. The team's mascot is named Wolfie. Beginning in 2019, Stony Brook announced a partnership with SNY to broadcast football, basketball and lacrosse games on the channel. Stony Brook games on WUSB were announced by Josh Caray, grandson of famed broadcaster Harry Caray and son of Skip Caray until his departure in 2019. The Stony Brook Patriots participated at the Division III level until 1995, when they moved up to Division II with the ultimate goal of soon reaching Division I. On June 3, 1997, President Shirley Kenny announced that the Seawolves' entire athletics program would play at the Division I level beginning during the 1999–00 season. Stony Brook joined the America East Conference in 2001 until leaving in 2022 and also played women's tennis in the Missouri Valley Conference. Stony Brook garnered national attention during their 2012 College World Series run. The Seawolves upset the LSU Tigers in a three-game series to win the Baton Rouge Super Regional and reach the College World Series in Omaha, the first America East team to do so. Coach Matt Senk was awarded the National College Baseball Writers Association's Coach of the Year award. Outfielder Travis Jankowski was drafted by the San Diego Padres in the first round of the 2012 MLB Draft. After going winless in four consecutive America East Finals in men's basketball, the Seawolves earned their first bid to the NCAA Tournament in 2016 by defeating the Vermont Catamounts 80–74. They lost to Kentucky in the first round of the NCAA Tournament by a score of 85–57. Stony Brook has established itself as a dominant force in women's lacrosse. Since 2013, the Seawolves have finished in first place in the America East for eight straight seasons, making eight consecutive NCAA Division I Women's Lacrosse Championship tournaments. During the 2018 season, the Seawolves were ranked No. 1 nationally in all three major polls (IWLCA Coaches' Poll, Cascade/Inside Lacrosse, Nike/US Lacrosse) for at least ten weeks. In recent years, Stony Brook's athletic facilities have undergone several additions and renovations. The Goldstein Family Student-Athlete Development Center opened in 2006 after a million-dollar donation by alumnus Stuart Goldstein. In 2011, Joe Nathan Field, dedicated to six-time MLB All-Star relief pitcher and Stony Brook alumnus Joe Nathan, opened after renovations to the former University Field were made possible by Nathan's $500,000 donation. Island Federal Arena, formerly known as the Stony Brook University Arena, opened in 2014 after a two-year, $21.1 million renovation. The Pritchard Gymnasium, current home of the volleyball team and former home of the men's and women's basketball teams, underwent a $1.5 million renovation in 2008. Alumnus Glenn Dubin donated $4.3 million to a strength and conditioning facility named the Dubin Family Athletic Performance Center, which opened in 2012. The Dubin family also pledged $5 million for a $10 million for the Dubin Family Indoor Training Center, which opened in 2020. Transportation In 2013, Stony Brook University launched its own bike share system to provide a sustainable transportation alternative for students (Wolf Ride Bike Share). As of 2016, the university provides 8 stations and 63 bikes. Docking stations and bikes are supplied by PBSC Urban Solutions. There is also a system of buses operated by the university. This system is accessible to anyone on the Stony Brook Campus at no charge. The university is located next to the Stony Brook LIRR station on the Port Jefferson Line. The university is served by Suffolk County Transit connection S60/S69 and 3D is available on campus. Notable people Notable alumni Chris Algieri, 2007, professional boxer and former WBO junior welterweight title holder Kim Barnes Arico, current head coach of the Michigan Wolverines women's basketball team (transferred) Joy Behar, 1966, co-host of The View Pat Benatar, musician, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame nominee (dropped out) Mark Bridges, 1983, Academy Award-winning costume designer Adrien Brody, youngest winner of the Academy Award for Best Actor for The Pianist (2002) Steve Cuozzo, 1971, journalist, contributor for the New York Post Dabuz, 2017, a professional Super Smash Bros. player Buck Dharma, lead guitarist and sole constant member of rock band Blue Öyster Cult Diane Farr, 1995, actress on Numbers and Rescue Me Keiko Fujimori, Peruvian politician Steven K. Galson, 1978, former acting Surgeon General of the United States David Gelernter, 1982, computer science professor at Yale and Unabomber victim Richard Gelfond, 1976, CEO of IMAX Corporation John L. Hennessy, 1975, tenth president of Stanford University, 2017 Turing Award winner Scott Higham, 1982, winner of 2002 Pulitzer Prize in investigative journalism Travis Jankowski, 2012, MLB player, first-round draft pick, currently with the Philadelphia Phillies Tom Koehler, 2008, former MLB pitcher Kevin Kwan Loucks, 2013, CEO of Chamber Music America Momina Mustehsan, a Pakistani singer, musician, and social activist. Dianne Morales (born 1967), non-profit executive and political candidate Joe Nathan, 1997, six-time MLB All-Star and Minnesota Twins Hall of Famer Jon Oringer, 1997, founder and CEO of Shutterstock Sandy Pearlman, 1966, music producer and band manager for Blue Öyster Cult, Black Sabbath, etc. Nan Phinney, 1972, accelerator physicist at SLAC, program coordinator for the world's first linear collider Jef Raskin, 1964, Apple manager and creator of the Macintosh Dominick Reyes, 2013, mixed martial artist currently #1 in the UFC light heavyweight rankings Burton Rocks, 1994, sports attorney and current agent of Paul DeJong Howard Saltz, 1983, former publisher and editor-in-chief of the South Florida Sun-Sentinel and Pulitzer Prize-winning editor Laura Schlessinger, 1968, talk radio host Greg Schwartz, 1995, comedian Andrew Sega, 1997, video game music composer Daniel Zamora, 2015, MLB pitcher, currently with the Seattle Mariners Organization Victoria Hart, 2010, YouTube personality, educator, inventor Faculty awards and honors Nobel Prize in Physics Nobel Prize in Medicine Nobel Peace Prize Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences Pulitzer Prize Crafoord Prize Wolf Prize Fields Medal Abel Prize National Medal of Science (5) National Medal of Technology (2) Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers Benjamin Franklin Medal National Book Critics Circle Award Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize Grammy Award NASA Distinguished Service Medal Obie Award Howard Hughes Medical Institute Award Humboldt Research Award for Senior U.S. Scientists Fellows of Academic Societies Fellows of the Royal Society (6) MacArthur Foundation Fellows (3) National Academy of Engineering Fellows (3) National Academy of Sciences Fellows (19) American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellows (19) Guggenheim Fellows (87) Fulbright Association Fellows (54) Sloan Foundation Fellows (46) Rockefeller Foundation Fellows (13) Institute of Medicine Members (3) References External links 1957 establishments in New York (state) Brookhaven, New York Census-designated places in New York (state) Educational institutions established in 1957 Public universities and colleges in New York (state) Universities and colleges on Long Island Universities and colleges in Suffolk County, New York Public universities in the United States Flagship universities in the United States	[ 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251210	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry%20Patmore	Coventry Patmore	Coventry Kersey Dighton Patmore (23 July 1823 – 26 November 1896) was an English poet and literary critic. He is best known for his book of poetry The Angel in the House, a narrative poem about the Victorian ideal of a happy marriage. As a young man, Patmore worked for the British Museum in London. After the publication of his first book of poems in 1844, he became acquainted with members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. After the death of his first wife, his grief over her death became a major theme in his poetry. Patmore is today one of the least-known but best-regarded Victorian poets. Life Youth The eldest son of author Peter George Patmore, Coventry Patmore was born at Woodford in Essex and was privately educated. The boy was very close to his father Peter and showed an early interest in literature. Coventry Patmore's first goal was to become an artist; he earned the silver palette of the Society of Arts in 1838. In 1839, his family sent Patmore to school in France for six months, where he began to write poetry. On his return to England, Peter Patmore planned to publish some of his son's youthful poems; however, Coventry Patmore had become interested in science, and set aside writing poetry. In 1846, with help from Richard Monckton Milnes. Coventry Patmore was appointed as the printed book supernumary assistant at the British Museum. He would hold this position for the next 19 years, while devoting his spare time to writing poetry. In 1847, Patmore married Emily Augusta Andrews, the daughter of Dr. Andrews of Camberwell. By 1851, the couple had two sons: Coventry (born 1848) and Tennyson (born 1850). Three daughters followed – Emily (born 1853), Bertha (born 1855) and Gertrude (born 1857), before their last child, a son (Henry John), was born in 1860. Emily Andrews wrote children's stories. Inspired by the literary success of Alfred Tennyson, Patmore devoted more energy to his writing. In 1844, he published a small volume of Poems, which had limited commercial success. However, Patmore was more upset by a harsh review of his work in Blackwood's Magazine. Discouraged, Patmore bought up the remainder of the edition and destroyed it. His friends encouraged him to keep writing and gave him valuable feedback. Furthermore, the publication of Poems enabled him to network with other literary figures, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Rossetti introduced Patmore to William Holman Hunt, who brought Patmore into the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, contributing his poem "The Seasons" to The Germ. During his time at the British Museum, Patmore was instrumental in starting the Volunteer Movement in 1852. He wrote an important letter to The Times on the subject, and stirred up much enthusiasm among his colleagues. He also introduced academic David Masson to Emily Rosaline Orme, his wife Emily's niece, both of whom were strong supporters for women's suffrage and rights. Major publications In 1853, Patmore republished Tamerton Church Tower, the more successful of his pieces from Poems of 1844. He also added several new poems that showed more sophistication in conception and treatment. In 1854, Patmore published the first part of his best-known poem, The Angel in the House. The Angel in the House is a long narrative and lyric poem, with four parts published between 1854 and 1862: The Betrothed (1854) The Espousals (1856), which eulogize his first wife; Faithful for Ever (1860) The Victories of Love (1862) Patmore published the four works together in 1863. The works have come to symbolise the Victorian feminine ideal – which was not necessarily the ideal amongst feminists of the period. By 1861 Patmore and his family was living in Elm Cottage, North End, Hampstead. On 5 July 1862 Emily Patmore died after a long illness, and shortly afterwards Patmore joined the Roman Catholic Church. In 1864 Patmore married Marianne Byles, daughter of James Byles of Bowden Hall, Gloucester. Patmore Buxted Hall in Surrey in 1865, which he described in How I managed my Estate (1886). In 1877 Patmore published The Unknown Eros, which some commentators believe contains his finest poetic work, and in 1878 Amelia, his own favourite among his poems, together with an essay on English Metrical Law. This departure into criticism continued in 1879 with a volume of papers entitled Principle in Art, and again in 1893 with Religio Poetae. Patmore's second wife Marianne died in 1880, and in 1881 he married Harriet Robson from Bletchingley in Surrey (born 1840), his children's governess. Their son Francis was born in 1882. Patmore also had a deep friendship with the poet Alice Meynell, lasting several years. He ultimately fell in love with her, forcing Meynell to end their relationship. In later years Patmore lived at Lymington, where he died in 1896. He was buried in Lymington churchyard. Evaluation A collected edition of Patmore's poems appeared in two volumes in 1886, with a characteristic preface which might serve as the author's epitaph. "I have written little", it runs; "but it is all my best; I have never spoken when I had nothing to say, nor spared time or labour to make my words true. I have respected posterity; and should there be a posterity which cares for letters, I dare to hope that it will respect me." The sincerity which underlies this statement, combined with a certain lack of humour which peers through its naïveté, points to two of the principal characteristics of Patmore's earlier poetry; characteristics which came to be almost unconsciously merged and harmonized as his style and his intention drew together into unity. As happy love had been his earlier, the grief of loss became, in great measure, his later theme; touching and sublime thoughts upon love, death, and immortality are conveyed through strikingly poetic imagery and unusual form in the odes of The Unknown Eros, his best work. The collection is full not only of passages but entire poems in which exalted thought is expressed in poetry of the richest and most dignified melody. Spirituality informs his inspiration; the poetry is glowing and alive. The magnificent piece in praise of winter, the solemn and beautiful cadences of "Departure", and the homely but elevated pathos of "The Toys", are in their manner unsurpassed in English poetry. His somewhat reactionary political opinions, which also find expression in his odes, find less praise today although they can certainly be said to reflect, as do his essays, a serious and very active mind. Patmore is today one of the least-known but best-regarded Victorian poets. His son Henry John Patmore (1860–83) also became a poet. Works Principles in Art. London: George Bell and Sons, 1889. Courage in Politics and other Essays. London: Oxford University Press, 1921. Articles "William Barnes, the Dorset Poet," The Library Magazine, Vol. II, November 1886/March 1887. “Distinction,” The Eclectic Magazine, Vol. LII, 1890 "Three Essayettes," The Eclectic Magazine, Vol. LVI, July/December 1892. References and sources References Sources Further reading Betham-Edwards, Matilda (1911). "Coventry Patmore." In: Friendly Faces of Three Nationalities. London: Chapman & Hall, pp. 73–85. Bréguy, Katherine (1909–10). "Coventry Patmore," Part II, The Catholic World, Vols. XC/XCI, pp. 796–806, 14–27. Brooks, Michael (1979). "John Ruskin, Coventry Patmore, and the Nature of Gothic", Victorian Periodicals Review, Vol. XII, No. 4, pp. 130–140. . . Cadbury, William (1966). "The Structure of Feeling in a Poem by Patmore: Meter, Phonology, Form", Victorian Poetry, Vol. IV, No. 4, pp. 237–251. Champneys, Basil (1900). Memoirs and Correspondence of Coventry Patmore, Vol. II. London: George Bell & Sons. Crook, J. Mordaunt (1996). "Coventry Patmore and the Aesthetics of Architecture", Victorian Poetry, Vol. XXXIV, No. 4, pp. 519–543. Dunn, John J. (1969). "Love and Eroticism: Coventry Patmore's Mystical Imagery", Victorian Poetry, Vol. VII, No. 3, pp. 203–219. Edmond, Rod (1981). "Death Sequences: Patmore, Hardy, and the New Domestic Elegy", Victorian Poetry, Vol. XIX, No. 2, pp. 151–165. Egan, Maurice Francis (1899). "The Ode Structure of Coventry Patmore." In: Studies in Literature. St. Louis, Missouri.: B. Herder, pp. 82–108. Fisher, Benjamin F. (1996). "The Supernatural in Patmore's Poetry", Victorian Poetry, Vol. XXXIV, No. 4, pp. 544–557. Fontana, Ernest (2003). "Patmore, Pascal, and Astronomy", Victorian Poetry, Vol. XLI, No. 2, pp. 277–286. Forman, H. Buxton (1871). "Coventry Patmore." In: Our Living Poets: An Essay in Criticism. London: Tinsley Brothers, pp. 257–271. . . . . Gelpi, Barbara Charlesworth (1996). "King Cophetua and Coventry Patmore", Victorian Poetry, Vol. 34, No. 4, Coventry Patmore: 1823–1896. In Memoriam. . . Gwynn, Aubrey (1924). "A Daughter of Coventry Patmore", Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, Vol. XIII, No. 51, pp. 443–456. Harris, Frank (1920). "Coventry Patmore." In: Contemporary Portraits. New York: Published by the author, pp. 191–210. Hind, C. Lewis (1922). "Coventry Patmore." In: More Authors and I. London: John Lane the Bodley Head, pp. 240–246. Johnson, Lionel (1911). "Coventry Patmore's Genius." In: Post Liminium: Essays and Critical Papers. London: Elkin Mathews, pp. 238–245. Latham, David (2012). "Coventry Patmore's Fine Line," The Journal of Pre-Raphaelite Studies, Vol. XXI, pp. 5–13. Leslie, Shane (1932). "Coventry Patmore." In: Studies in Sublime Failure. London: Ernest Benn, pp. 113–178. Lubbock, Percy (1908). "Coventry Patmore," Quarterly Review, Vol. CCVIII, pp. 356–376. Maynard, John (1996). "The Unknown Patmore", Victorian Poetry, Vol. XXXIV, No. 4, pp. 443–455. Meynell, Alice (1908). "Mr. Coventry Patmore's Odes." In: The Rhythm of Life and Other Essays. London: John Lane, the Bodley Head, pp. 89–96. Meynell, Alice (1922). "Coventry Patmore." In The Second Person Singular. London: Oxford University Press, pp. 94–109. O'Keefee, Henry E. (1920). "Coventry Patmore." In: Though and Memories. New York: The Paulist Press, pp. 30–54. Oliver, Edward James (1956). Coventry Patmore. New York: Sheed & Ward. . . Patmore, Derek (1949). The Life and Times of Coventry Patmore. London: Constable. Pearce, Brian Louis (1996). "Coventry Patmore (1823–1896)", RSA Journal, Vol. CXLIV, No. 5467, pp. 69–71. Pierson, Robert M. (1996). "Coventry Patmore's Ideas Concerning English Prosody and "The Unknown Eros" Read Accordingly", Victorian Poetry, Vol. XXXIV, No. 4, pp. 493–518. Roberts, Gerald (2012). "Hopkins and Patmore: Tory Politics and Poetry", History Today, Vol. LXII, No. 1, pp. 30–36. Reid, John Cowie (1957). The Mind and Art of Coventry Patmore London: Routledge & Paul. . Russell, Matthew (1877). "Coventry Patmore," The Irish Monthly, Vol. V, pp. 529–537. Symons, Arthur (1920). "Coventry Patmore," The North American Review, Vol. CCXI, No. 771, pp. 266–272. Tovey, Duncan (1897). "Coventry Patmore." In: Reviews and Essays in English Literature. London: George Bell & Sons, pp. 156–168. Weinig, Mary Anthony (1981). Coventry Patmore. Boston: Twayne Publishers. Woodworth, Elizabeth (2006). "Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Coventry Patmore, and Alfred Tennyson on Napoleon III: The Hero-Poet and Carlylean Heroics", Victorian Poetry, Vol. XLIV, No. 4, pp. 543–560. Vere, Audrey de (1889). "Coventry Patmore's Poetry." In: Essays, Chiefly Literary and Ethical. London: Macmillan & Co., pp. 126–150 External links Works by Coventry Patmore, at Hathi Trust Poem of the Week: The Two Deserts by Coventry Patmore Coventry Patmore Collection at John J. Burns Library, Boston College Portrait of Coventry Patmore in original frame by artist John Singer Sargent 1823 births 1896 deaths Converts to Roman Catholicism English Catholic poets 19th-century English poets 19th-century Christian mystics English Roman Catholics People from Woodford, London Roman Catholic writers Victorian poets Roman Catholic mystics English Swedenborgians	[ -0.3031991720199585, 0.24892626702785492, -0.7058910727500916, -0.6894854307174683, -0.20635586977005005, 1.068804383277893, 0.9187079071998596, -0.03761968016624451, -0.28485551476478577, -0.20635035634040833, -0.38231462240219116, 0.1685638725757599, -0.3450049161911011, 0.20656661689281464, -0.2314545214176178, 0.20778489112854004, -0.37027525901794434, -0.19570276141166687, 0.01847965270280838, -0.13578492403030396, -0.08806299418210983, -0.21755774319171906, 0.6221129298210144, -0.2239278256893158, 0.07289861142635345, -0.4280778765678406, 0.46207958459854126, -0.14500455558300018, 0.21387243270874023, 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251212	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuneScape	RuneScape	RuneScape, sometimes referred to as RuneScape 3, is a fantasy massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) developed and published by Jagex, first released in January 2001. RuneScape was originally a browser game built with the Java programming language, but was largely replaced by a standalone C++-coded client in 2016. The game has had over 200 million accounts created and is recognised by the Guinness World Records as the world's largest and most-updated free MMORPG. RuneScape takes place in the world of Gielinor, a medieval fantasy realm divided into different kingdoms, regions, and cities. Players can travel throughout Gielinor via a number of methods including on foot, magical spells, or charter ships. Each region offers different types of monsters, resources, and quests to challenge players. The game's fictional universe has also been explored through a tie-in video game on another of its maker's websites, FunOrb, Armies of Gielinor, and the novels Betrayal at Falador, Return to Canifis, and Legacy of Blood. Players are represented in the game with customisable avatars. RuneScape does not follow a linear storyline; rather, players set their own goals and objectives. Players can choose to fight non-player character (NPC) monsters, complete quests, or increase their experience in the available skills. Players interact with each other through trading, chatting, or by participating in mini-games and activities, some of which are competitive or combative in nature, while others require cooperative or collaborative play. The first public version of RuneScape was released in January 2001 in beta form, with Jagex as its copyright holder being formed later that year. As the game's popularity grew, the game engine was rewritten and released as RuneScape 2, with the original version of the game being renamed RuneScape Classic. The third iteration of the game, known as RuneScape 3, was released in July 2013. Old School RuneScape, a separate, older version of the game dating from August 2007 was released in February 2013, and is maintained alongside the original client. It was announced that mobile ports of both versions of RuneScape would be released for Android and iOS devices in 2018. RuneScape was released on Steam on 14 October 2020. Gameplay Players begin in a secluded area, where they are taken through a tutorial, a set path where they learn the most basic skills in RuneScape. After the tutorial, players have access to tutors and advisors located in the towns they explore, who can give players appropriate information about their respective skills. Players set their own goals and objectives as they play the game. They can train their in-game skills, engage non-player character (NPC) monsters and other players in combat and complete quests at their discretion. Players interact with each other through trading, chatting or by participating in mini-games. Skills There are 28 skills in RuneScape, 17 skills available to free-to-play players and an additional 11 for members, which enable players to perform various activities allowing for interaction with NPCs, the environment and other players. Players gain experience points in a skill when they use it. For example, mining an ore trains the mining skill, and when the player accumulates enough experience points in the skill, their character will "level up". As a skill level rises, the ability to retrieve better raw materials and produce better products increases, as does the experience awarded if the player uses new abilities. The total skill level of a player partly symbolises the player's status in the game and subscribers with a high total level can appear on the high scores. Upon reaching the highest available level in a skill, members may buy a special cape to symbolise their achievement. Some skills, such as woodcutting and fishing, enable the player to collect raw materials that can be processed into usable items for other skills, such as fletching and cooking respectively. The items created can be used by the player or sold to shops and other players. Other skills allow players to kill certain NPCs, build their own houses, move around the map with greater ease, steal from various NPCs, market stalls and chests located in-game, light fires, cook their own food, create their own potions, craft runestones and weapons, plant their own plants, hunt NPC animals, raid dungeons, and summon familiars to assist in combat and training skills. Combat RuneScape features a semi-real-time combat system. Combat is an important aspect of the game, allowing players to defeat monsters to obtain dropped items or to complete quests. A combat level is an indicator of how powerful a player or NPC is in combat. For players, it is determined by applying a mathematical formula to their combat skills. Players engage in combat by clicking on the enemy they want their character to attack and will automatically continue fighting until they kill their opponent, die, or retreat from the fight. Most of the game's weapons are medieval or fantastical in nature, and feature different strengths and weaknesses. Players may also summon a familiar to assist with combat, use special attacks called "abilities" to deal additional damage, and use potions and the Prayer skill to boost their combat prowess. Combat is subdivided into three main categories: melee, magic and ranged. Melee attacks are close range, magic attacks focus on using runestones to cast spells, and ranged attacks use projectile weapons like arrows, darts or throwing knives. These combat types make up a "Combat Triangle", which governs effectiveness of styles in a rock-paper-scissors fashion; melee beats ranged, ranged beats magic, magic beats melee, and each style is neutral to itself. The advantages and disadvantages of the combat triangle apply to both NPCs and player opponents. Players are not required to choose a character class nor are they bound to a specific category of combat. They may freely change between or combine the three styles of combat by switching weapons and armour. Combat is governed by a life points system. Every combatant has a maximum capacity of life points, and dies when their health is depleted to 0. Lost life points can be recovered by consuming certain food or drinks, or casting abilities. Players who die reappear at a respawn point of their choice with their life and skill points restored; however, they drop all but three chosen items, as well as certain common items. Dying spawns a gravestone that will hold all of the player's items and will last for an allotted time; however, there are situations in which all items will be lost upon death. If the player does not return in time, the grave will collapse and their items will disappear. In June 2012 players were invited to beta-test a new combat system named "Evolution of Combat", which included fundamental changes such as re-balancing the Combat Triangle to avoid favouring melee attacks, and replacing special weapon attacks with abilities that produce a range of effects when activated. The system was released on the live game on 20 November 2012. Various polls were also added for players to vote on in game that would determine the result of future content development, some of which would dictate the development of the improved combat system. A beta for a separate combat system dubbed "Legacy Mode" was opened to players on 16 June 2014, before being introduced to the live game on 14 July. Legacy Mode allows players to switch to the combat system and interface from prior to June 2012 instead of the Evolution of Combat system. Player versus player combat Player versus player combat (PvP) can be performed in specific controlled mini-games and in an area known as the Wilderness. The Duel Arena allows players to stake money and items, while other PvP games offer their own rewards. In the Wilderness, players can engage in combat provided that their combat levels fall within a certain range of each other, and if a player kills their opponent they will be able to claim their opponent's items as a reward. Before December 2007, players went to the Wilderness to fight other players within a certain combat level range, hoping to kill them and gain their items. In December 2007, the Wilderness was altered to prevent players from transferring in-game items for real-world currency. PvP combat was removed from the Wilderness and temporarily restricted to new mini-games named Bounty Hunter and Clan Wars. Bounty Hunter was replaced by special Bounty Worlds on 6 May 2009 in which players were confined to the Wilderness and could be assigned specific targets to kill. "PvP Worlds" were introduced on 15 October 2008 where players could fight almost anywhere in Gielinor, but these and "Bounty Worlds" were removed when PvP combat in the Wilderness was restored on 1 February 2011. Non-player interaction NPCs populate the realm of Gielinor. Some NPCs, such as shopkeepers and some characters in quests, are unavailable for combat. However, most NPCs can be attacked and these are generally referred to as monsters. Monsters range from common, low-level creatures, such as chickens and goblins, to unique and often much more powerful monsters, such as the Queen Black Dragon, Telos, and Vorago. Most monsters have their own strengths and weaknesses, notable exceptions being certain bosses, which have no specific weaknesses. Demons, for example, have a weak defence against ranged attacks, while metal dragons have extremely high defence against ranged. The weakness of an individual monster is displayed in an interface above its model, along with its combat level and lifepoints. Monsters may either be aggressive or non-aggressive. Non-aggressive monsters ignore players unless attacked, while aggressive monsters may attack all players or may only attack players with combat levels below a specified level, depending on the circumstances or location. This can make certain areas throughout Gielinor dangerous or inconvenient to players with lower combat levels. Player interaction Players can interact with each other through trading, chatting, or by participating in mini-games and activities, some of which are competitive or combative in nature, while others require cooperative or collaborative play. Players can trade items and gold coins with each other, either through a face-to-face trade, or by using a large automated marketplace known as the Grand Exchange. The chat system enables players to communicate with each other. Public Chat broadcasts text to players in the local area on one server, both by text appearing above the speaker's head and in the message box. Friends Chat broadcasts text in the message box only to certain players tuned into a specific channel, who can be available on any RuneScape world. Each Friends Chat channel has an owner, who can assign different ranks to individual players; players' ranks dictate their ability to perform administrative tasks within the channel. Clan Chat allows members of a clan to communicate with each other through a separate channel. Quick Chat allows players to choose from a list of predetermined messages to send as Public Chat, Clan Chat, or Friends Chat. RuneScape also features independent mini-games, although most are only available to paying members. Mini-games take place in certain areas and normally involve specific in-game skills, and usually require players to cooperate or to compete with each other. Examples of these mini-games include Castle Wars, which is similar to the real-life game Capture the Flag, Pest Control, a highly combat-focused mini-game, and Fist of Guthix, where one player (the hunter) tries to stop another player (the hunted) from collecting charges into a magical stone. Quests Quests are series of tasks with a storyline that players can choose to complete. These often have requirements including minimum levels in certain skills, combat levels, quest points and/or the completion of other quests. Players receive various rewards for completion of quests, including money, unique items, access to new areas, quest points and/or increases in skill experience. Some quests require players to work together, and many require players to engage in challenging combat. Quests are grouped into categories based on requirements and difficulty. Once a player completes all quests in the game, an achievement item known as the "Quest Point Cape" can be claimed. New quests are released periodically. Development Andrew Gower developed RuneScape with the assistance of his brother Paul Gower. It was originally conceived as a text-based MUD, but graphics were incorporated early in development, adding it to the ranks of what were then known as "graphical MUDs". The first public version of the game used a mixture of three-dimensional and two-dimensional sprites. It was released as a beta version on 4 January 2001, and originally operated out of their parents' house in Nottingham. In December 2001, the Gower brothers, along with Constant Tedder, formed Jagex to take over the business aspects of running RuneScape. Among its early innovations Jagex developed an interpreted domain-specific scripting language called RuneScript, which is used by RuneScapes server for event handling. In February 2002, a monthly membership service was introduced, allowing access to additional features including new areas, quests, and items not available to free users. As the game gained more users, Jagex began planning major changes. The developers rewrote the game engine, producing a new version of the game with entirely three-dimensional graphics called RuneScape 2. A beta version of RuneScape 2 was released to paying members for a testing period beginning on 1 December 2003, and ending in March 2004. Upon its official release, RuneScape 2 was renamed simply RuneScape, while the older version of the game was kept online under the name RuneScape Classic. On 12 January 2006, Jagex banned more than 5,000 Classic accounts for cheating. To prevent further cheating, Classic was closed to new accounts and access was restricted to accounts who had played it at least once between 3 August 2005 and 12 January 2006. Additional reopenings took place in November 2009, June 2010 and September 2011. To support RuneScape free content, advertisements appear on a banner above the playing screen on the free-to-play servers. Since computer users may use advertisement blockers, which may discourage advertisers, Jagex introduced a rule that prohibits players from blocking these advertisements. On 13 July 2006, Jagex signed an exclusive marketing and distribution contract with WildTangent Games, which granted WildTangent the right to handle advertising in and around RuneScape in the United States, and to distribute RuneScape through the WildTangent Games Network, reaching over 20 million consumer PCs. On 16 May 2006, Jagex upgraded RuneScapes game engine, improving the game's loading times and reducing its memory requirements. On 1 July 2008, Jagex released a beta of their "High Detail" mode for members, which was extended to free players two weeks later. Before the launch, Jagex stated that it would be revealed at the 2008 E3 trade show. On 14 February 2007, a German translation of RuneScape was introduced, followed by a French translation on 11 December 2008, Brazilian Portuguese on 24 July 2009, and Latin American Spanish on 25 April 2013. In an interview in May 2008, former Jagex CEO Geoff Iddison stated that, "We do plan to go East with it [RuneScape] to the Asian market and the Eastern European market too" [...] "RuneScape is not for Japan, but it could work well in Malaysia for example. And where's India in all this? I think RuneScape is a game that would be adopted in the English-speaking Indian world and the local-speaking Indian world. We're looking at all those markets individually." RuneScape later launched in India through the gaming portal Zapak on 8 October 2009, and in France and Germany through Bigpoint Games on 27 May 2010. On 28 February 2012, an in-game feature was introduced called the "Squeal of Fortune" that allowed players to win items on a daily basis by spinning the wheel. On 2 April 2012, it became possible for players to spend real-world currency in exchange for additional spins, introducing a form of microtransaction to the game. Jagex CEO Mark Gerhard had previously described microtransactions as "a stealth tax", and the update provoked complaints from players who believed they had been "betrayed" by the change. In July 2012, Jagex released Solomon's General Store, making it possible to spend real currency in exchange for "RuneCoins" that could be spent on cosmetic rewards in the game. On 29 August 2012, Gerhard released a response to this controversy, describing these microtransactions as "[having] a significant role in ensuring that we can continue to support, develop and grow the game for many more years to come." He states that while these decisions are "not necessarily popular", they are made with the future of RuneScape in mind. On 4 February 2014, the Squeal of Fortune was replaced with Treasure Hunter. Rather than spinning a wheel for prizes, players are given keys which are used to open a chest of their choosing. On 26 March 2014, Gerhard reiterated his stance on microtransactions and their importance in updating RuneScape, and announced a partnership with Supersonic ads, allowing players to earn RuneCoins by watching advertisements or sampling products. On 30 August 2012, Gerhard announced that an HTML5 version of RuneScape was in development that would allow the game to be played on "your favourite tablets, platforms and even smart TVs." A video released on 22 March 2013 stated that the new version would be called RuneScape 3 and would use WebGL, and would include a fully customisable user interface and improved audio. A closed beta of the HTML5 version went live on 17 April 2013, followed by a separate alpha version of the new interface on 24 April. RuneScape 3 was released on 22 July 2013. At RuneFest 2014 Jagex announced that they were developing a new client to replace the HTML5 version, which had never been released from beta due to performance issues. The new client, named NXT, would include improvements to loading times, new graphical effects and better performance. Closed betas took place on 19–22 February and 18–21 March 2016, followed by a public release on 18 April 2016. On 23 May 2018, it was announced that due to constantly accumulating bugs and a game engine that has become incompatible with modern support tools of the company, RuneScape Classic servers would be permanently closed on 6 August 2018. RuneScape was released on Steam on 14 October 2020. Graphics and audio RuneScape can be run with varying levels of graphical detail. High-detail graphics enhance texture and design, while low-detail graphics provide a cleaner look and can reduce lag on less powerful computers. RuneScape uses a graphics engine called "RuneTek 5", which provides support for multiple graphics platforms such as DirectX, OpenGL and video game consoles, as well as graphical effects such as sky boxes, bloom lighting and Z-buffering. The high-detail version incorporates hardware acceleration and can be rendered using either Java OpenGL or DirectX. RuneScape features a character-customisation system. Player characters are human; however, players may choose the gender, hairstyle, facial hair, skin colour, and clothing options. Appearance is further complemented by wearing or wielding items. Players can express emotions through the use of specialised animations called emotes, some of which are standard and others earned through gameplay or released during holiday events. RuneScape has original music and ambient soundscapes. The music was designed to define the underlying cultures of the various locations accessible, and ambient sounds, such as the cry of seagulls flying over the ocean, occur in logical places. The game also incorporates voice acting in certain areas and situations. The RuneScape 3 update included orchestral music recorded in Bratislava, Slovakia, and was scored by James Hannigan. Servers , there were 139 English RuneScape servers located throughout the world, which are numbered and referred to as "worlds" by players and by Jagex. They are located in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, Australia, Sweden, Finland, Belgium, Ireland, Norway, Denmark, New Zealand, Mexico, France, Lithuania, and India. Servers are moved or added as the need arises. Each RuneScape server allows up to 2,000 players to log in simultaneously, allowing a maximum capacity of more than 278,000 players. The servers are divided into free servers which are available for all players, and servers which are reserved for paying members. Some servers are given activity labels, allowing players performing tasks that require or desire group participation to group together. Old School RuneScape In February 2013, a poll was opened allowing players to decide whether Jagex should open a separate incarnation of RuneScape from August 2007. Old School RuneScape was opened to paying subscribers on 22 February 2013 after the poll received 50,000 votes, and a free-to-play version was later released on 19 February 2015. It was originally created as an exact copy of RuneScape from August 2007 and receives regular content additions. Old School RuneScape is entirely community based; for any proposed update or idea to pass into the game, it needs at least 75% of the community to vote 'Yes' for it, and if it does not pass it will either be dropped or reconstructed and re-polled so that the players may find the update more acceptable. On 17 July 2017, Jagex announced a mobile port of Old School RuneScape, which was released in 2018. DarkScape On 16 September 2015 Jagex released DarkScape, a separate version of RuneScape which featured open-world player versus player combat. DarkScape was originally released with most of RuneScapes content, but received separate content updates. DarkScape was completely free to play, with some additional benefits reserved for paying subscribers. On 29 February 2016 it was announced that DarkScape would close on 28 March due to lack of interest. Community A set of forums are provided by Jagex on the RuneScape website. On the forums, players are able to participate in game discussions, arrange to buy or sell items, post suggestions for game improvements, vote in polls, and otherwise interact with the community. A user can set an avatar, have a separate display name and set an automatic signature. User profiles display the recent posts a user has made along with the option to disable smileys. The privilege of posting on the forums is limited to paying members, as well as free players with a total level exceeding 350. Between 24 September 2002 and 9 December 2004, players could submit questions via e-mail to the RuneScape gods, which were published in the form of letters. On 26 September 2005, a new feature known as Postbag from the Hedge was introduced, where players can submit questions via e-mail to a non-player character in the game. Players can also submit original RuneScape related artwork (such as sculptures, comics, drawings and paintings), some of which is displayed in a gallery on the RuneScape website. During various holidays, including Easter, Halloween and Christmas, Jagex hosts a holiday event in a specific location in Gielinor. Players who successfully complete the required tasks during the event receive a reward such as an item or an emote, allowing the player character to perform a gesture conveying an emotion. Holiday items released prior to 2002 are tradeable among players, and due to their rarity are worth significant amounts of money on the player market. Holiday items after Christmas 2002 are untradeable and limited to one per player and can be retrieved if lost. Various RuneScape fansites have been established by players, which are a source of information about the game. For account security reasons, Jagex discourages the discussion of fansites within the game or the forums – and a rule specifically prohibits sharing web addresses. A major fansite has criticised Jagex for not recognising fansites' contributions to the development of its game. However, as a result of announcements made in 2009, Jagex promised to increase communication with fansites. On 28 July 2014, Twitch functionality was integrated into the game, allowing players to stream their gameplay or view other streams from within the game. Rules and cheating Jagex has employed rules for player conduct, such as rules against offensive language, scamming, and bug abuse. To enforce the rules, an in-game feature exists that allows a player to send a report to Jagex if they notice another player breaking a rule. RuneScape also uses four types of moderators: Jagex Moderators, who are Jagex employees; Local Moderators, who are employees of Jagex's partners in certain territories; Player Moderators, who are trusted players that enforce the rules within the game; and Forum Moderators, who are trusted players who monitor the game forums. Players who repeatedly break the rules may be temporarily or permanently banned from playing the game. There are also rules prohibiting the use of third-party software to play the game, known as "macroing" or "botting", and the sale of game items for real money through real-world trading. In an attempt to stop cheating, Jagex made direct interaction with the client difficult, established rules against the practice, and introduced random events that required player input to complete. In response to continued gold farming, Jagex issued a statement condemning real-world trading, stating that they were seizing billions of gold and banning thousands of accounts every week for cheating, and promising to increase their efforts to prevent real-world trading in the game. From October 2007 to December 2007, Jagex began releasing a series of updates to restrict unbalanced trades. The updates limited the value of items staked in duels, removed player-versus-player combat from the Wilderness, made valuable player drops invisible to other players, introduced gravestones for the items of dead players, instituted systems for assisting players with skills and sharing loot among groups of players, and established the Grand Exchange, a sharemarket-like trade system for RuneScape goods. Collectively, these changes were designed to make it extremely difficult for real-world traders to distribute gold and items to players. These features were restored on 1 February 2011 following a referendum among players in December 2010 on whether or not to do so. On 25 October 2011, Jagex released an anti-bot system code-named the 'ClusterFlutterer', as part of a game update intended to permanently prevent "reflection" bots from working. The release of this was nicknamed the "Bot Nuke", and was estimated to have banned 98% of the accounts that were using bots, eventually resulting in 7.7 million account bans. From 26 September 2012 until its removal on 20 August 2018, accounts that were banned for using bots were sent to an isolated area named "Botany Bay" to be given an ultimate punishment as decided by players. On 25 September 2013, Jagex introduced bonds to the game, in-game items that can be purchased using real currency then traded with other players or exchanged for membership, RuneCoins or additional spins on the game's Squeal of Fortune. Bonds were introduced to allow players to exchange real currency for in-game benefits legitimately, a move described by CEO Mark Gerhard as "essential for the future of RuneScape". One week later, Jagex reported that the amount of in-game coins brought in by gold farmers was down by 81%; real-world trading was down by 61% and the wealth of those trades was down by 63%. Reception PC Gamer UK stated in December 2003, that while the "traditional [role-playing game] values of questing, slaying monsters and developing your character in a familiar medieval setting" will not "have the big boys trembling in their +2 Boots of Subscriber Gathering," this is offset by the game's accessibility through a web browser, "compounded by a version of the game that allows free adventuring player the opportunity to upgrade to a members' account", describing the game as "an unsurprising success". The Yahoo! 2006 Buzz Log stated that, "while it may not be as easy on the eyes as some other popular [MMORPGs], like World of Warcraft, City of Heroes, or EverQuest, RuneScape is still a lot better way to kill time than pushing around cells in a spreadsheet". A 2007 JustRPG review summarised RuneScape as "a fun, addictive game, and while the graphics may not be perfect, for a game written in Java, they aren't bad. The skills are varied, the community is alright, and it'll eat up your time if you aren't careful", giving it a score of 83%. In its 2008 intellectual property profile of the game, Developmag.com stated that whilst Jagex's changes to curtail real world trading resulted in "a wave of user criticism... growth is understood to have resumed since". Its analysis stated that "RuneScapes mass-market appeal lies in its simplicity and accessibility (both financial and technical). It has tapped into the vast market of games players unwilling or unable to spend premium prices on PCs capable of playing the latest, expensive, processor-intensive games. Its core gameplay concepts are very similar to its retail-distributed RPG and MMORPG analogues." In August 2008, RuneScape was recognised by the Guinness World Records as the world's most popular free MMORPG. Jagex was presented with a certificate to commemorate the achievement at the 2008 Leipzig Games Convention. A 2009 Eurogamer article criticised RuneScapes in-game community for being unfriendly to newcomers, although they have stated that the fan-forum community is more approachable. An April 2011 review by MMORPG.com was complimentary of RuneScape, stating that "For anyone looking for that "old-school" experience but with also tons of progression, refinement, and unique ideas, RuneScape is easily recommendable", but criticised the game's combat system and emphasis on grinding. "...the genre feels slightly passed clicking an enemy and watching two swords clunk mercilessly into opposing body forms...RuneScape has grind in abundance and while this is not entirely a bad thing, it will put some players off looking for a slightly easier and more casual experience". The game received the "Role-Playing Game" award at The Independent Game Developers' Association Awards 2018. On 10 December 2007, updates by Jagex removed free player-versus-player combat and unbalanced trading in order to rid the game of activities involving real currency being traded for virtual goods. The updates also affected legitimate players, resulting in many of them actively complaining on the forums. Jagex issued a Customer Support News article admitting the updates may not have been an ideal replacement for what was removed, requesting patience and promising to remedy potential problems with updates in the future. During the changes, subscription numbers fell by 60,000. No figures were given as to how many of those subscriptions belonged to legitimate players and how many to gold farmers. In an interview in February 2008, Jagex's head of content stated that, "we were really afraid we were going to lose our members over this change, because other games had in the past. But we are very, very pleased to say that we have lost practically none of our members." In December 2010, a referendum was opened to decide whether to restore unbalanced trades and player-versus-player combat in the Wilderness, which closed with 1.2 million votes cast and 91% of voters in favour of the proposal, and these features were restored on 1 February 2011. A second referendum was announced in February 2013 to decide whether to run a separate version of the game dating from 2007, closing on 1 March 2013 with almost 450,000 votes. Servers for the 2007 version were opened on 22 February 2013 once 50,000 votes were collected. Revenue In 2018, it was reported that RuneScape had generated over $1 billion in lifetime revenue since its original launch. RuneScape annually generates over £100 million in revenue and over £50 million in profit. References External links Official wiki 2001 video games Active massively multiplayer online games Browser-based multiplayer online games Graphical MUDs Open-world video games Jagex Java platform games Linux games MacOS games Massively multiplayer online role-playing games Miniclip games Video games developed in the United Kingdom Video games scored by James Hannigan Video games set on fictional planets Virtual economies Windows games	[ -0.6636717915534973, -0.04734741896390915, 0.6194684505462646, -0.12687897682189941, -0.6705267429351807, -0.029080728068947792, 0.3803146183490753, -0.13166570663452148, -0.21117059886455536, -0.16292564570903778, -0.005896173417568207, 0.3272435963153839, -0.19572444260120392, -0.41093307733535767, 0.3601551651954651, -0.2124219536781311, 0.4635521471500397, 0.27087461948394775, -0.4692637324333191, -0.34128424525260925, -0.34134232997894287, 0.15160834789276123, 0.4034734070301056, -0.14345131814479828, 0.17121940851211548, 0.24696482717990875, 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251218	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20the%20busiest%20airports	List of the busiest airports	The definition of world's busiest airport has been specified by the Airports Council International in Montreal, Canada. The ACI defines and measures the following three types of airport traffic: Passenger traffic: total passengers emplaned and deplaned, passengers in transit counted once Cargo traffic: loaded and unloaded freight and mail, by mass Traffic movements: landings and take-offs of aircraft Busiest airports The following airports make claims based on objective volume measures that are defined above (as per ACI): Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China Most passengers annually (2020) Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport, Atlanta, Georgia, United States Most passengers annually (1998–2019) Most aircraft movements annually (2015–present) Dubai International Airport, Dubai, United Arab Emirates Most international passengers annually (2014–present) Memphis International Airport, Memphis, Tennessee, United States Most cargo traffic by weight annually (2020–present) Busiest city destination Airports of London combined, London, United Kingdom Most passengers annually in all city airports combined (2010–present) Historical claims Midway International Airport, Chicago, Illinois, United States In the late 1940s, Chicago Midway was the busiest airport in the United States by total aircraft operations – i.e., including every training aircraft practicing take-offs and landings. New York LaGuardia had the most airline operations and passengers until the early 1950s, when Chicago Midway became the busiest airport in the United States by any criterion. Before World War II, Chicago Midway was the origin or destination of one in four U.S. airline flights, although a 1939 Official Aviation Guide shows more airline flights scheduled at Newark than at Chicago. Memphis International Airport, Memphis, Tennessee, United States As the home of Fedex Express, Memphis had the largest cargo operations worldwide from 1993 to 2009. It remains the busiest cargo airport in the United States and the Western Hemisphere. See also List of airports List of busiest airports by passenger traffic List of busiest airports by international passenger traffic List of busiest airports by cargo traffic List of busiest city airport systems by passenger traffic List of the busiest airports in the European Union List of the busiest airports in the Nordic countries List of the busiest airports in the Baltic states List of the busiest airports in the Balkans List of the busiest airports in Central America List of busiest airports in the United Kingdom List of the busiest airports in the Republic of Ireland List of the busiest airports in Turkey List of largest cargo airports in the United States References External links Airports Council International website. 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251220	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20B.%20Kellogg	Frank B. Kellogg	Frank Billings Kellogg (December 22, 1856December 21, 1937) was an American lawyer, politician, and statesman who served in the U.S. Senate and as U.S. Secretary of State. He co-authored the Kellogg–Briand Pact, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1929. Early life and career Kellogg was born in Potsdam, New York, on December 22, 1856, the son of Abigail (Billings) and Asa Farnsworth Kellogg. His family moved to Minnesota in 1865. Kellogg read law and began practicing law in Rochester, Minnesota, in 1877. He served as city attorney of Rochester 1878–1881 and county attorney for Olmsted County, Minnesota, from 1882 to 1887. He moved to St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1886. In 1905, Kellogg joined the federal government when Theodore Roosevelt asked Kellogg to prosecute a federal antitrust case. In 1906, Kellogg was appointed special counsel to the Interstate Commerce Commission for its investigation of E. H. Harriman. In 1908, he was appointed to lead the federal prosecution against Union Pacific Railroad, under the Sherman Antitrust Act. His most important case was Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States, 221 U.S. 1 (1911). Following this successful prosecution, he was elected president of the American Bar Association (1912–1913). In 1907, he was elected as a Compatriot of the Minnesota Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. United States Senate In 1916, Kellogg was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate from Minnesota and served from March 4, 1917, to March 4, 1923, in the 65th, 66th, and 67th Congresses. During the ratification battle for the Treaty of Versailles, he was one of the few Republicans who supported ratification. He lost his re-election bid in 1922 and, in 1923, he was a delegate to the Fifth International Conference of American States at Santiago, Chile. Ambassador to Great Britain In 1924, he was appointed by President Calvin Coolidge as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to Great Britain, serving from January 14, 1924, to February 10, 1925. He succeeded George Brinton McClellan Harvey who served under Warren G. Harding and was succeeded by Alanson B. Houghton so that Kellogg could assume the role of Secretary of State. Secretary of State From 1925 to 1929, he served as the United States Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President Coolidge. In 1928, he was awarded the Freedom of the City in Dublin, Ireland and in 1929 the government of France made him a member of the Legion of Honour. As Secretary of State, he was responsible for improving U.S.–Mexican relations and helping to resolve the long-standing Tacna–Arica controversy between Peru and Chile. His most significant accomplishment, however, was the Kellogg–Briand Pact, signed in 1928. Proposed by its other namesake, French foreign minister Aristide Briand, the treaty intended to provide for "the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy." He was awarded the 1929 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition. He was associate judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice from 1930 to 1935. Kellogg was self-conscious about his lack of academic credentials; he attended a one-room country school and dropped out at age 14. He never attended high school, college or law school. His only advanced training came from clerking in a private lawyer's office. Kellogg grew up in a poor farm in Minnesota, and lacked a commanding presence or the sophistication to deal with the aristocrats who dominated European diplomacy. As Secretary of State, his main focus was Latin America, where he dealt with brutal but unsophisticated strongmen. His staff provided the ideas, and they appreciated that he was always open, candid, and easy to communicate with. He helped end the battle between the Mexican government and the Catholic Church, but failed to resolve the dispute over ownership of the oil reserves. In the Far East, he followed the advice of Nelson Johnson, the new chief of the Division of Far Eastern Affairs. They favored China and protected it from threats from Japan. They successfully negotiated tariff reform with China, thereby giving enhanced status to the Kuomintang and helping get rid of the unequal treaties. As for Europe he was primarily interested with expanding the limitations on naval armaments that been established by the Washington Treaty; he made little progress. Kellogg gained international fame, and the Nobel Peace Prize, with the Kellogg–Briand Pact. It was endorsed by nearly every nation and made starting a war a punishable criminal action. It formed the legal basis for the trial and execution of German and Japanese war leaders after 1945. Personal life In 1886, Kellogg was married to Clara May Cook (1861–1942), the daughter of George Clinton Cook (1828–1901) and Elizabeth (née Burns) Cook (1838–1908). In 1880, he became a member of the Masonic Lodge Rochester No. 21, where he received the degrees of freemasonry on April 1, April 19, and May 3. He died from pneumonia, following a stroke, on the eve of his 81st birthday in St. Paul. He was buried at the Chapel of St. Joseph of Arimathea in Washington National Cathedral, Washington, D.C. Legacy In 1937, he endowed the Kellogg Foundation for Education in International Relations at Carleton College, where he was a trustee. His house in St. Paul, the Frank B. Kellogg House was listed as a National Historic Landmark in 1976. The following were named in his honor: Kellogg Boulevard in downtown Saint Paul. Kellogg Middle School in Shoreline, Washington and Rochester, Minnesota, as was Frank B. Kellogg High School (closed 1986) in Little Canada, Minnesota which had been a part of Roseville School District 623. A Liberty ship, the Papers Frank B. Kellogg's papers are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society. They include correspondence and miscellaneous papers, State Department duplicates, news clippings scrapbooks, awards, floor plans, honorary degrees, maps, memorials and memoranda. See also List of people on the cover of Time magazine: 1920s References Further reading Bryn-Jones, David (1937). Frank B. Kellogg: A Biography. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. (Reprinted in 2007: ) Carroll, Francis M. "Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg Comes to Ireland, 1928". in America and the Making of an Independent Ireland (New York University Press, 2021) pp. 184-198. Ellis, Lewis Ethan (1961). Frank B. Kellogg and American Foreign Relations, 1925-1929. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. Ellis, Lewis Ethan (1968). Republican Foreign Policy, 1921–1933. Ellis, L. Ethan (1961). "Frank B. Kellogg" in An Uncertain Tradition: American Secretaries of State in the 20th Century. ed. Norman A. Graebner. pp. 149–67. Ferrell, Robert H. Frank B. Kellogg & Henry L. Stimson: The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy. Cooper Square Publishers, 1963. online Rhodes, Benjamin D. (2001). United States Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period, 1918–1941: The Golden Age of American Diplomatic and Military Complacency. pp. 57–72. Weber, Eric. "Kellogg, Frank Billings (1856–1937)". MNopedia. Minnesota Historical Society. Primary sources Kellogg, Frank (1925). China's Outstanding Problems. . Kellogg, Frank B. "American Policy and Chinese Affairs". American Bar Association Journal 11.9 (1925): 576-579. online Kellogg, Frank B. "Some Foreign Policies of the United States". Foreign Affairs, vol. 4, no. 2, 1926, pp. i-xvii. online Kellogg, Frank B. "The World Court". Minnesota Law Review 14 (1929): 711+ online. External links \|- \|- \|- 1856 births 1937 deaths People from Potsdam, New York Recipients of the Legion of Honour Minnesota lawyers Nobel Peace Prize laureates American Nobel laureates Presidents of the American Bar Association United States Secretaries of State United States senators from Minnesota Minnesota Republicans Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom Deaths from pneumonia in Minnesota Burials at Washington National Cathedral Permanent Court of International Justice judges Republican Party United States senators Hoover administration cabinet members 20th-century American politicians Coolidge administration cabinet members American Freemasons American judges of international courts and tribunals	[ -0.3053607940673828, 0.6487354040145874, -0.6770066022872925, 0.11052224040031433, 0.45594197511672974, 0.33289703726768494, 0.8371393084526062, -0.1840701401233673, -0.28206947445869446, -0.2597959339618683, 0.43802738189697266, 0.32954809069633484, 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251222	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20Dennerlein	Barbara Dennerlein	Barbara Dennerlein (born 25 September 1964 in Munich) is a German jazz organist. She has achieved particular critical acclaim for using the bass pedalboard on a Hammond organ and for integrating synthesizer sounds onto the instrument, and was described by critic Ron Wynn as "the most interesting jazz organist to emerge during the 1980s". Career Early years Dennerlein was born and grew up in Munich, Germany. She began playing the organ aged 11 after receiving a small Hohner instrument for Christmas. She was encouraged by her grandfather to learn a musical instrument, and her parents were both jazz enthusiasts. She took formal lessons for two years under the instruction of Paul Greisl, who had a Hammond B-3. She immediately became interested in the instrument and that it contained a bass pedalboard, unlike her Hohner. After some searching, since the instrument was then out of production, she acquired her own Hammond aged 13 from her parents. She began to play concerts aged 14, and the following year, she played in a jazz club for the first time. When leading her own bands, Dennerlein was often the youngest musician in the group, and she learned to cooperate with more experienced musicians. Her local reputation as the "Organ tornado from Munich" spread after her first TV appearances in 1982. Recordings When her third LP Bebab was issued, Dennerlein established her own record label in 1985 and assumed her own management duties, because she felt not enough support from either her existing label or from Hammond, who wanted to promote later digital models rather than the B-3 she used. She received two German Record Critics' awards for self-produced albums. Later, she made three recordings for Enja Records and three for Verve Records. On these recordings she worked with Ray Anderson, Randy Brecker, Dennis Chambers, Roy Hargrove, Mitch Watkins, and Jeff "Tain" Watts. Instruments Dennerlein modified a Hammond's pedalboard to trigger samples of an acoustic bass and, impressed with results, decided to modify the manuals to play samplers too. Her performances include solo performances, as well as quintets (e.g. her "Bebab" band). In both, she uses MIDI technology and triggers built into pedals and manuals to trigger synthesizers and samples to her sound. After a variety of projects and after playing with unconventional musicians, such as Friedrich Gulda, Dennerlein started playing the pipe organ in 1994. Since 2003, she has also developed jazz projects with symphonic orchestras, including a collaboration with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra on the Karl Schuke organ. Compositions Dennerlein claims to have been primarily influenced by jazz and was not initially interested in classical or church music, although it was and is popular in Germany. She has never been enthusiastic about formal music theory, preferring to learn things through improvisation. However, she has further said that her main influence from jazz is the ability to mix other musical styles as desired, saying "To me, jazz is a synonym for freedom. Freedom from prejudice and discrimination". Dennerlein's first album included four of her own pieces. Her compositions vary from traditional blues schemes, romantic, melancholic ballads to tempo-driven compositions with elements of swing, bebop, funk and Latin rhythms. The fast tempos and rhythmic figures she uses in her interpretations of well-known standards, and in many of her own compositions, require fast bass pedalboard foot work, though she has used bass players for recordings in order to feature techniques such as slap bass, which cannot be played on pedals. Dennerlein often uses changing meter (e.g., 3/4 to 4/4), as well as unconventional harmonic changes to add expression to her compositions. Awards 1995: "German Record Critics Award" ("Preis der deutschen Schallplattenkritik") for "Take Off" 1995: "Jazz Award" for "Take Off" for holding the number one position in the German Jazz Charts for several months and for being best selling Jazz Album of the year in Germany 1987: "German Record Critics Award" ("Preis der deutschen Schallplattenkritik") for "Tribute to Charlie". Discography 1983: Jazz Live 1984: Orgelspiele 1985: Bebab 1986: Days of Wine and Roses 1987: Tribute to Charlie 1988: Barbara Dennerlein Plays Classics 1989: Straight Ahead! 1989: Live on Tour! 1990: Hot Stuff and Barbara Dennerlein Duo (Bootleg) 1991: (Friedrich Gulda) Mozart No End 1992: That's Me and Solo 1995: Take Off! 1997: Junkanoo 1999: Outhipped 2001: Love Letters 2002: Spiritual Movement No.1 (church organ recording) 2004: In a Silent Mood 2005: It's Magic 2006: The Best of Barbara Dennerlein 2007: Change of Pace (with Philharmonic Orchestra under Bernd Ruf) 2008: Spiritual Movement No. 2 (live at Kaiser William Memorial Church in Berlin) 2010: Bebabaloo 2012: Spiritual Movement No. 3 (live 2008 concert on the Rieger organ at the Stadtpfarrkirche in Fehring, Austria, with guitarist Edi Köhldorfer) 2015: Studiokonzert (live concert in recording studio, direct to two-track analogue tape) 2015: Christmas Soul References Cited sources External links 1964 births Living people 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251223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Toland	John Toland	John Toland (30 November 167011 March 1722) was an Irish rationalist philosopher and freethinker, and occasional satirist, who wrote numerous books and pamphlets on political philosophy and philosophy of religion, which are early expressions of the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment. Born in Ireland, he was educated at the universities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leiden and Oxford and was influenced by the philosophy of John Locke. His first, and best known work, was Christianity Not Mysterious (1696). Biography Very little is known of Toland's early life. He was born in Ardagh on the Inishowen Peninsula, a predominantly Catholic and Irish-speaking region in northwestern Ireland. His parents are unknown. He would later write that he had been baptised Janus Junius, a play on his name that recalled both the Roman two-faced god Janus and Junius Brutus, reputed founder of the Roman Republic. According to his biographer Pierre des Maizeaux, he adopted the name John as a schoolboy with the encouragement of his school teacher. Having formally converted from Catholicism to Protestantism at the age of 16, Toland got a scholarship to study theology at the University of Glasgow. In 1690, at age 19, the University of Edinburgh conferred a master's degree on him. He then got a scholarship to spend two years studying at University of Leiden in Holland, and subsequently nearly two years at Oxford in England (1694–95), where he acquired a reputation for great learning and "little religion." The Leiden scholarship had been provided by wealthy English Dissenters, who hoped Toland would go on to become a minister for Dissenters. In Toland's first book Christianity not Mysterious (1696), begun at Oxford, he argued that the divine revelation of the Bible contains no true mysteries; rather, all the dogmas of the faith can be understood and demonstrated by properly trained reason from natural principles. His argument immediately attracted several rebuttals, and he was prosecuted by a grand jury in London. As he was a subject of the Kingdom of Ireland, members of the Parliament of Ireland proposed that he should be burnt at the stake, and in his absence three copies of the book were burnt by the public hangman in Dublin as the content was contrary to the core doctrines of the Church of Ireland. Toland bitterly compared the Protestant legislators to "Popish Inquisitors who performed that Execution on the Book, when they could not seize the Author, whom they had destined to the Flames". After his departure from Oxford Toland resided in London for most of the rest of his life, but was also a somewhat frequent visitor to the European continent, particularly Germany and the Netherlands. He lived on the Continent from 1707 to 1710. Toland died in Putney on 10 March 1722. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911) says of him that at his death in London at age 51 "he died... as he had lived, in great poverty, in the midst of his books, with his pen in his hand." Just before he died, he composed his own epitaph, part of which reads: "He was an assertor of liberty, a lover of all sorts of learning ... but no man's follower or dependent. Nor could frowns or fortune bend him to decline from the ways he had chosen." Although he himself had written biographies in his career, it concludes, tellingly: "If you would know more of him, search his writings." Very shortly after his death a lengthy biography of Toland was written by Pierre des Maizeaux. Political thought John Toland was the first person called a freethinker (by Bishop Berkeley) and went on to write over a hundred books in various domains but mostly dedicated to criticising ecclesiastical institutions. A great deal of his intellectual activity was dedicated to writing political tracts in support of the Whig cause. Many scholars know him for his role as either the biographer or editor of notable republicans from the mid-17th century such as James Harrington, Algernon Sidney and John Milton. His works Anglia Libera and State Anatomy are prosaic expressions of an English republicanism which reconciles itself with constitutional monarchy. During a brief visit to Hanover in 1701, he was received by the electress Sophia, as Anglia Libera contained a defence of the Hanoverian succession. After Christianity Not Mysterious, Toland's views became gradually more radical. His opposition to hierarchy in the church also led to opposition to hierarchy in the state; bishops and kings, in other words, were as bad as each other, and monarchy had no God-given sanction as a form of government. In his 1704 Letters to Serena—in which he used the expression "pantheism"—he carefully analysed the manner by which truth is arrived at, and why people are prone to forms of "false consciousness." In politics his most radical proposition was that liberty was a defining characteristic of what it means to be human. Political institutions should be designed to guarantee freedom, not simply to establish order. For Toland, reason and tolerance were the twin pillars of the good society. This was Whiggism at its most intellectually refined, the very antithesis of the Tory belief in sacred authority in both church and state. Toland's belief in the need for perfect equality among free-born citizens was extended to the Jewish community, tolerated, but still outsiders in early 18th century England. In his 1714 Reasons for Naturalising the Jews he was the first to advocate full citizenship and equal rights for Jewish people. Toland's world was not all detached intellectual speculation, though. There was also an incendiary element to his political pamphleteering, and he was not beyond whipping up some of the baser anti-Catholic sentiments of the day in his attacks on the Jacobites. Literary hoax "The Treatise of the Three Imposters" He also produced some highly controversial polemics, including the Treatise of the Three Impostors, in which Christianity, Judaism and Islam are all condemned as the three great political frauds. The Treatise of the Three Imposters was rumoured to exist in manuscript form since the Middle Ages and excoriated throughout all of Europe. It is now thought that the work did not exist. Toland claimed to have a personal copy of the manuscript which he passed to the circle of Jean Rousset in France. Rumours that it was then translated into French were taken seriously by some: however, not by Voltaire, who issued a satirical reply. Editions of republican radicals of the 1650s His republican sympathies were also evidenced by his editing of the writings of some of the great radicals of the 1650s, including James Harrington, Algernon Sydney, Edmund Ludlow and John Milton. In his support for the Hanoverian monarchy he somewhat moderated his republican sentiments; though his ideal kingship was one that would work towards achieving civic virtue and social harmony, a 'just liberty' and the 'preservation and improvement of our reason.' But George I and the oligarchy behind Walpole were about as far from Toland's ideal as it is possible to get. Contributions to natural philosophy Toland influenced Baron d'Holbach's ideas about physical motion. In his Letters to Serena, Toland claimed that rest, or absence of motion, is not merely relative. Actually, for Toland, rest is a special case of motion. When there is a conflict of forces, the body that is apparently at rest is influenced by as much activity and passivity as it would be if it were moving. Religious thought The resemblance, both in title and in principles, of Christianity not Mysterious to Locke's 1695 Reasonableness of Christianity, led to a prompt disavowal on Locke's part of the supposed identity of opinions, and subsequently to the controversy between Edward Stillingfieet and Locke. Toland's next work of importance, the Life of Milton (1698) referred to "the numerous supposititious pieces under the name of Christ and His apostles and other great persons," provoked the charge that he had called in question the genuineness of the New Testament writings. Toland replied in his Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton's Life (1699), to which he added a remarkable list of what are now called New Testament apocrypha. In his remarks he really opened up the great question of the history of the Biblical canon. Toland identified himself as a pantheist in his publication Socinianism Truly Stated, by a pantheist in 1705. At the time when he wrote Christianity not Mysterious he was careful to distinguish himself from both sceptical atheists and orthodox theologians. After having formulated a stricter version of Locke's epistemological rationalism, Toland then goes on to show that there are no facts or doctrines from the Bible which are not perfectly plain, intelligible and reasonable, being neither contrary to reason nor incomprehensible to it. All revelation is human revelation; that which is not rendered understandable is to be rejected as gibberish. However, David Berman has argued for an atheistic reading of Toland, demonstrating contradictions between Christianity not Mysterious and Toland's Two Essays (London, 1695). Berman's reading of Toland and Charles Blount attempts to show that Toland deliberately obscured his real atheism so as to avoid prosecution whilst attempting to subliminally influence unknowing readers, specifically by creating contradictions in his work which can only be resolved by reducing Toland's God to a pantheistic one, and realising that such a non-providential God is, for Blount, Toland and Colins, "...no God, or as good as no God...In short, the God of theism is blictri for Toland; only the determined material God of pantheism exists, and he (or it) is really no God." After his Christianity not Mysterious, Toland's "Letters to Serena" constitute his major contribution to philosophy. In the first three letters, he develops a historical account of the rise of superstition arguing that human reason cannot ever fully liberate itself from prejudices. In the last two letters, he founds a metaphysical materialism grounded in a critique of monist substantialism. Later on, we find Toland continuing his critique of church government in Nazarenus which was first more fully developed in his "Primitive Constitution of the Christian Church", a clandestine writing in circulation by 1705. The first book of "Nazarenus" calls attention to the right of the Ebionites to a place in the early church. The thrust of his argument was to push to the very limits the applicability of canonical scripture to establish institutionalised religion. Later works of special importance include Tetradymus wherein can be found Clidophorus, a historical study of the distinction between esoteric and exoteric philosophies. His Pantheisticon, sive formula celebrandae sodalitatis socraticae (Pantheisticon, or the Form of Celebrating the Socratic Society), of which he printed a few copies for private circulation only, gave great offence as a sort of liturgic service made up of passages from pagan authors, in imitation of the Church of England liturgy. The title also was in those days alarming, and still more so the mystery which the author threw around the question how far such societies of pantheists actually existed. The term "pantheism" was used by Toland to describe the philosophy of Spinoza. Toland was famous for distinguishing exoteric philosophy—what one says publicly about religion—from esoteric philosophy—what one confides to trusted friends. In 2007 Fouke's Philosophy and Theology in a Burlesque Mode: John Toland and the Way of Paradox presented an analysis of Toland's 'exoteric strategy' of speaking as others speak, but with a different meaning. He argues that Toland's philosophy and theology had little to do with positive expression of beliefs, and that his philosophical aim was not to develop an epistemology, a true metaphysical system, an ideal form of governance, or the basis of ethical obligation, but to find ways to participate in the discourses of others while undermining those discourses from within. Fouke traces Toland's practices to Shaftesbury's conception of a comic or 'derisory' mode of philosophising aimed at exposing pedantry, imposture, dogmatism, and folly. Influence and legacy Toland was a man not of his time; one who advocated principles of virtue in duty, principles that had little place in the England of Robert Walpole, governed by cynicism and self-interest. His intellectual reputation, moreover, was subsequently eclipsed by the likes of John Locke and David Hume, and still more by Montesquieu and the French radical thinkers. Edmund Burke in his Reflections on the Revolution in France wrote dismissively of Toland and his fellows: "Who, born within the last 40 years, has read one word of Collins, and Toland, and Tindal, and Chubb, and Morgan, and that whole race who called themselves Freethinkers?" Still, in Christianity not Mysterious, the book for which he is best known, Toland laid down a challenge not just to the authority of the established church, but to all inherited and unquestioned authority. It was thus as radical politically and philosophically, as it was theologically. Of his influence, humanities professor Robert Pattison wrote: "Two centuries earlier the establishment would have burned him as a heretic; two centuries later it would have made him a professor of comparative religion in a California university. In the rational Protestant climate of early 18th-century Britain, he was merely ignored to death." However, Toland managed to find success after his death: Thomas Hollis, the great 18th century book collector and editor, commissioned the London bookseller Andrew Millar to publish works advocating republican government - a list of titles which included Toland's work in 1760. Writings This is not an exhaustive list: Christianity Not Mysterious: A Treatise Shewing, That there is nothing in the Gospel Contrary to Reason, Nor Above It: And that no Christian Doctrine can be properly called A Mystery (1696) [book] A Discourse on Coins, by Seignor Bernardo Davanzati, anno 1588, translated out of Italian by John Toland (1696). (Note: Coinage and particularly coin clipping was a hot topic of public concern around 1696). An Apology for Mr. Toland (1697) (concerning Toland's earlier Christianity Not Mysterious). An Argument Shewing, that a Standing Army Is Inconsistent with a Free Government, and absolutely destructive to the Constitution of the English Monarchy (1697) The Militia Reformed: An easy scheme of furnishing England with a constant land force, capable to prevent or to subdue any foreign power, and to maintain perpetual quite at home, without endangering the public liberty. (1698). (Note: The militia question was a hot topic with the British pamphlet-buying public around 1698). The Life of John Milton, containing, besides the history of his works, several extraordinary characters of men, of books, sects, parties and opinions. (1698) [book] Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton's Life [meaning Toland's earlier book] Containing (I) a general apology for all writings of that kind, (II) a catalogue of books attributed in the primitive times to Jesus Christ, his apostles and other eminent persons, with several important remarks relating to the canon of Scripture, (III) a complete history of the book Eikon Basilike proving Dr Gauden and not King Charles I to be the author of it. (1699). Edited James Harrington's Oceana and other Works (1700) The Art of Governing by Parties, particularly in Religion, Politics, Parliament, the Bench, and the Ministry; with the ill effects of Parties. (1701).[book] Anglia Libera; or the limitation and succession of the crown of England explained and asserted. (1701).[pamphlet] Limitations for the next Foreign Successor, or A New Saxon Race: Debated in a Conference betwixt Two Gentlemen; Sent in a Letter to a member of parliament (1701)[pamphlet] Propositions for Uniting the Two East India Companies (1701) Paradoxes of State, relating to the present juncture of affairs in England and the rest of Europe, chiefly grounded on his Majesty's princely, pious and most gracious speech [referring to a recent keynote speech by the king of England]. (1702).[pamphlet] Reasons for inviting the Hanover royals into England.... Together with arguments for making a vigorous war against France. (1702). [pamphlet] Vindicius Liberius. (1702). (This pamphlet was another defence of Christianity Not Mysterious, this time against one specific attack.) Letters to Serena (1704) [book] Hypatia or the History of a most beautiful, most virtuous, most learned and in every way accomplished lady, who was torn to pieces by the clergy of Alexandria to gratify the pride, emulation and cruelty of the archbishop commonly but undeservedly titled St Cyril (1720) The Primitive Constitution of the Christian Church (c. 1705; posthume, 1726) The Account of the Courts of Prussia and Hanover (1705) Socinianism Truly Stated (by "A Pantheist") (1705) Translated Matthäus Schiner's A Philippick Oration to Incite the English Against the French (1707) Adeisidaemon – or the "Man Without Superstition" (1709) Origines Judaicae (1709) The Art of Restoring (1710) The Jacobitism, Perjury, and Popery of High-Church Priests (1710) [pamphlet] An Appeal to Honest People against Wicked Priests (1713) Dunkirk or Dover (1713) The Art of Restoring (1714) (against Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer\|Robert Harley) Reasons for Naturalising the Jews in Great Britain and Ireland on the same foot with all Other Nations (1714) [77 pages] State Anatomy of Great Britain (1717) The Second Part of the State Anatomy (1717) Nazarenus: or Jewish, Gentile and Mahometan Christianity, containing the history of the ancient gospel of Barnabas... Also the Original Plan of Christianity explained in the history of the Nazarens.... with... a summary of ancient Irish Christianity... (1718)[book] The Probability of the Speedy and Final Destruction of the Pope (1718) Tetradymus (1720) (Written in Latin. An English translation was published in 1751) Pantheisticon (1720) (Written in Latin. An English translation was published in 1751) History of the Celtic Religion and Learning Containing an Account of the Druids (1726) A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr John Toland, ed. P. Des Maizeaux, 2 vols. (1726) References Jonathan I. Israel (2001), Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity, 1650–1750 M. C. Jacob, The Radical Enlightenment: Pantheists, Freemasons and Republicans Further reading Pierre des Maizeaux, "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Mr John Toland" (year 1722), prefixed to The Miscellaneous Works of Mr John Toland (London, 1726); John Leland, View of the Principal Deistical Writers (last ed. 1837); G. V. Lechler, Geschichte des englischen Deismus (1841); Isaac Disraeli, Calamities of Authors (new ed., 1881); article on "The English Freethinkers" in Theological Review, No. 5 (November 1864); J. Hunt, in Contemporary Review, No. 6; Margaret Jacob, The Newtonians and the English Revolution (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1976); Philip McGuinness, Alan Harrison, Richard Kearney (Eds) "John Toland's Christianity Not Mysterious: Text, Associated Works and Critical Essays (Lilliput Press, Dublin, 1997); Daniel C. Fouke, Philosophy and Theology in a Burlesque Mode: John Toland and the Way of Paradox (New York: Prometheus Books, 2008). External links 1670 births 1722 deaths Irish Anglicans Enlightenment philosophers Freethought writers Pantheists People from County Donegal Alumni of the University of Glasgow Rationalists Neo-Spinozism Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Leiden University alumni 17th-century Irish philosophers 18th-century Irish philosophers	[ -0.049876291304826736, 0.13749079406261444, -0.4725783169269562, -0.2852481007575989, 0.36022987961769104, 0.7163470983505249, 0.9498371481895447, -0.08210340887308121, -0.1762092560529709, -0.0820029228925705, -0.4290178120136261, 0.37224647402763367, -0.231044739484787, -0.09228192269802094, -0.016450511291623116, -0.14773330092430115, 0.3558863401412964, -0.7039501667022705, -0.05459364131093025, 0.05182308703660965, -0.3292612135410309, 0.11266611516475677, 0.09705926477909088, -0.3929750621318817, -0.19642506539821625, -0.08631458133459091, 0.43271616101264954, -0.5035340785980225, -0.33665189146995544, 0.04378185793757439, -0.018491854891180992, 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251224	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Watchtower	The Watchtower	The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom is an illustrated religious magazine, published monthly by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Jehovah's Witnesses distribute The Watchtower—Public Edition, along with its companion magazine, Awake!. The Watch Tower Society reports an average circulation of approximately 74 million per issue for The Watchtower—Public Edition in 418 languages. The Watchtower—Study Edition, used at congregation meetings, has an average monthly circulation of around 14 million. History The magazine was started by Charles Taze Russell in July 1879 under the title Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence. According to its first issue, the magazine's original purpose was to draw attention to Russell's belief that people of the time were "living 'in the last days' 'the day of the Lord'—'the end' of the Gospel age," and that "the dawn of the 'new' age, are facts not only discernible by the close student of the Word, led by the spirit, but the outward signs recognizable by the world bear the same testimony." In 1909 the name was changed to The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence. In 1920, the Watch Tower Society reprinted all issues from 1879–1919 in seven volumes, known as the Watchtower Reprints, which have since been reprinted by various Bible Student groups. On 15 October 1931, the magazine was renamed The Watchtower and Herald of Christ's Presence; in January 1939, The Watchtower and Herald of Christ's Kingdom; from March 1939 until the present, its full name has been The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom. Content Articles are submitted by writing committees from worldwide branch offices, which are then checked by editors and translated into the languages of publication; all involved are volunteers. Women are permitted to write articles that are not of a doctrinal nature. The names of the authors (except in first-person life stories), and other publishing staff are not provided. The Watchtower is overseen by the Writing Committee of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. The Watchtower is the official means of disseminating Jehovah's Witness beliefs, and includes articles relating to biblical prophecies, Christian conduct and morals, and the history of religion and the Bible. It is intended to draw attention to the kingdom of God, which Jehovah's Witnesses believe is a real government that will soon replace all earthly governments. According to the magazine's mission statement: THIS MAGAZINE, The Watchtower, honors Jehovah God, the Ruler of the universe. It comforts people with the good news that God's heavenly Kingdom will soon end all wickedness and transform the earth into a paradise. It promotes faith in Jesus Christ, who died so that we might gain everlasting life and who is now ruling as King of God's Kingdom. This magazine has been published continuously since 1879 and is nonpolitical. It adheres to the Bible as its authority. Previously, each issue of the Watchtower contained study articles and other regular features and was distributed to the general public. In 2008, content was divided into a Public Edition distributed to non-Witnesses and a Study Edition, which contains "pointed information prepared especially for Jehovah's Witnesses". Public Edition The Public Edition of The Watchtower contains biblical articles relating to a theme shown on the cover. In January 2013, The Watchtower—Public Edition was reduced from 32 to 16 pages, with greater focus on the official Jehovah's Witnesses website. Initially issued monthly, as of January 2016 the Public Edition was published every two months, and was further reduced to three issues per year as of January 2018. Study Edition The Study Edition contains study articles written for the Watchtower Study, as well as other intra-organizational information directed to current and prospective members. Congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide discuss the same article each week at the Watchtower Study. At this meeting, each paragraph is read aloud by a designated reader; the study conductor then asks questions printed at the bottom of the page for each paragraph and calls on members of the congregation to answer the questions based on the printed information. They are encouraged to put the information in their own words and to "draw attention to scripture application, supporting arguments, or practical application of the material." A separate Simplified version of the Study Edition was introduced in July 2011 but was discontinued in 2019. Distribution The magazine is printed in nineteen countries. each issue of the Public Edition has an average circulation of 93,281,789 copies in 369 languages. The monthly production of the Study Edition is not stated in the English edition; in January 2018 the Russian edition stated a circulation of 13,825,000. The Public Edition is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses in the course of their public ministry including door-to-door canvassing, approaching people in public places, given informally to acquaintances and professionals, or left as reading material in waiting areas. The Study Edition is generally distributed only to members but is made available to members of the public attending the study of The Watchtower at congregation meetings. The magazine has been made available in various accessible formats. Selected articles were provided in Braille since 1960 with the full magazine available in 1979. It has also been made available in various audio formats since 1998. Jehovah's Witnesses' official website provides content from The Watchtower in various digital formats. Cost Until March 1990, The Watchtower was available for a small charge that varied over time and in different countries. For example, in the United States, the suggested donation per issue was $0.05 in 1950, gradually increasing to $0.25 in 1989. On January 17, 1990, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled against Jimmy Swaggart that sales of religious literature were subject to taxation, which introduced ambiguity into the formerly tax-free practice of suggesting a specific amount in exchange for the magazines. The Watch Tower Society supported Swaggart in the case, arguing that the perceived sale of religious literature should be exempt from taxation. From March 1, 1990, the magazines were made available at no cost, on a freewill donation basis in the United States, with the stated purpose of simplifying their Bible educational work and distinguishing themselves from those who commercialize religion. An article in the May 1990 issue of Our Kingdom Ministry—a newsletter provided to members—stated that "there are growing pressures against all religious elements" and went on to say that their main concern was to move ahead in the worldwide preaching work, "without hindrance." The sale of Jehovah's Witnesses' literature was gradually phased out in other countries, and The Watchtower has been distributed free of charge worldwide since January 2000, its printing being funded by voluntary donations from Jehovah's Witnesses and members of the public. See also Jehovah's Witnesses publications List of Watch Tower Society publications List of magazines by circulation References External links The Watchtower and Awake! 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251225	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awake%21	Awake!	Awake! is an illustrated religious magazine published every four months by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. It is considered to be a companion magazine of The Watchtower, and is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses. The Watch Tower Society reports worldwide circulation of over 68 million copies per issue in 224 languages. History The magazine was originally published bimonthly from October 1, 1919, under the title The Golden Age. It was founded for use in the Bible Students' new door-to-door ministry, though the founder of the movement, Charles Taze Russell, had indicated in his will that the Watch Tower Society would not publish any periodicals other than The Watch Tower. Clayton J. Woodworth was editor of the magazine, and later went on to serve on the boards of several corporations of Jehovah's Witnesses. On October 6, 1937, the magazine was renamed Consolation and continued to be published biweekly until July 31, 1946. On August 22, 1946, the magazine was renamed Awake!, drawing its new title from Romans 13:11 (ASV): "... it is time for you to awake out of sleep: for now is salvation nearer to us than when we first believed". The magazine's editorship then became anonymous. (Autobiographical articles credited to individual members about their experiences and circumstances occasionally appear.) From 1982 to 1995, each issue of the magazine included a mission statement which stated, "this magazine builds confidence in the Creator's promise of a peaceful and secure new order before the generation that saw 1914 passes away". When Jehovah's Witnesses' belief regarding the "generation" of 1914 was changed to a less literal sense, the aim was restated as, "this magazine builds confidence in the Creator's promise of a peaceful and secure new world that is about to replace the present wicked, lawless system of things". Until 2005, Awake! was published semimonthly in major languages (on the 8th and 22nd), monthly in many languages, and quarterly in a few languages. As of January 2006, the magazine was published monthly, and as of 2016 it was published every second month. As of early 2018, it is published every four months, in March, July, and November of each year. Content The Golden Age outlined its primary aim in its first issue, stating, "we will point the people to the clear and indisputable evidence in the light of present-day events, disclosing the divinely expressed remedy for the reconstruction of human affairs that will bring the desire of all nations, assuring to the people life, liberty and happiness." The magazine also contained articles about "social, political, and economic issue and was not confined to purely religious matters". Georges D. Chryssides notes that some articles "were opposed to orthodox medicine", particularly against vaccinations, theories about germs and the use of aluminum cooking utensils, "and recommended alternative methods of health care and remedies". Awake! contains articles on general interest topics such as nature, geography, family life, and also the Bible and biblical history, and is overseen by the Writing Committee of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. It has presented opinions of various medical conditions, including dementia, stroke, infectious diseases, bipolar disorder, and postpartum depression. Many issues claim that mankind is living in the end times. Distribution The magazine is printed in nineteen countries. Awake! has a worldwide circulation of 41,000,000 copies of each issue and is available, in selected languages, online in various digital formats. The magazine is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses in the course of their public ministry including door-to-door canvassing, approaching people in public places, given informally to acquaintances and professionals, or left as reading material in waiting areas. Cost The Golden Age was initially available for $1.50 () per year on a subscription basis. Until March 1990, Awake! was available for a small charge that varied over time and in different countries. For example, in the United States, the suggested donation per issue was $0.05 in 1950, gradually increasing to $0.25 in 1989. On January 17, 1990, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled against Jimmy Swaggart that sales of religious literature were subject to taxation, which introduced ambiguity into the formerly tax-free practice of suggesting a particular donation in exchange for the magazines. The Watch Tower Society supported Swaggart in the case, arguing that the perceived sale of religious literature should be exempt from taxation. From March 1, 1990, the magazines were made available at no cost, on a freewill donation basis in the United States, with the stated purpose of simplifying their Bible educational work and distinguishing themselves from those who commercialize religion. An article in the May 1990 issue of Our Kingdom Ministry—a newsletter provided to members—stated that "there are growing pressures against all religious elements" and went on to say that their main concern was to move ahead in the worldwide preaching work, "without hindrance". The sale of Jehovah's Witnesses' literature was gradually phased out in other countries, and Awake! has been distributed free of charge worldwide since early 2000, its printing being funded by voluntary donations from Jehovah's Witnesses and members of the public. See also Jehovah's Witnesses publications List of Watch Tower Society publications List of magazines by circulation References Sources External links The Watchtower and Awake! magazines 1919 in Christianity Monthly magazines published in the United States Audio periodicals Downloadable magazines Free magazines Jehovah's Witnesses magazines Magazines established in 1919 Religious magazines published in the United States Magazines published in Pennsylvania Multilingual magazines	[ 0.44286292791366577, 0.48651301860809326, 0.09970163553953171, -0.39521417021751404, -0.14558471739292145, -0.2697814106941223, 0.7125706076622009, 0.12123902887105942, -0.27135708928108215, -0.26422297954559326, -0.6209337115287781, 0.5539000630378723, -0.295529842376709, -0.10737895965576172, -0.2704636752605438, 0.12486734241247177, 0.6677401661872864, 0.33807694911956787, -0.5137093663215637, -0.404885470867157, -0.13424654304981232, -0.7746224999427795, 0.49016156792640686, 0.07548902928829193, 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251226	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom%20Hall	Kingdom Hall	A Kingdom Hall is a place of worship used by Jehovah's Witnesses. The term was first suggested in 1935 by Joseph Franklin Rutherford, then president of the Watch Tower Society, for a building in Hawaii. Rutherford's reasoning was that these buildings would be used for "preaching the good news of the Kingdom". Jehovah's Witnesses use Kingdom Halls for the majority of their worship and Bible instruction. Witnesses prefer the term "Kingdom Hall" over "church", noting that the term often translated "church" in the Bible refers to the congregation of people rather than a structure. Location and presentation Kingdom Halls are typically modest, functional structures with practicality in mind. As Witnesses do not use religious symbols, such are not displayed on or in Kingdom Halls. An annual yeartext, or "theme scripture", which is the same for all congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide, is prominently displayed in each Kingdom Hall. This text can be displayed in several languages if the Hall is used by foreign-language congregations. A Kingdom Hall typically has a library, contribution boxes, and a literature counter, where publications are displayed, stored and dispensed. Some Kingdom Halls have multiple auditoriums to allow more than one congregation to conduct meetings simultaneously. Where there is more than one auditorium, each auditorium or the entire structure may be referred to as "a Kingdom Hall". Larger Assembly Halls or Convention Centers of Jehovah's Witnesses, or any rented arena or stadium used for larger gatherings of Jehovah's Witnesses are also regarded 'as a large Kingdom Hall'; undignified behavior is considered inappropriate during their religious events, even if the facility is an entertainment venue. Uses Meetings for worship Congregations typically meet in their Kingdom Halls two days each week for worship. Meetings usually open and close with song and prayer. Meetings held in the Kingdom Hall include Bible readings and public talks on matters such as the Bible, family life, Christian qualities and prophecy. There are also discussions of specially prepared study articles in The Watchtower magazine and other publications of Jehovah's Witnesses. Witnesses usually meet in Kingdom Halls for preparation and prayer before engaging in their door-to-door ministry. Classes Kingdom Halls may also be used to teach sign language or other foreign language classes. Kingdom Halls are also used for sessions especially developed for particular areas of service, such as the Pioneer Service School for full-time preachers, and the Kingdom Ministry School for elders and ministerial servants. In areas where the literacy rate is low, congregations may arrange to use Kingdom Halls to conduct literacy classes, which non-Witnesses may also attend. Weddings Kingdom Halls may be used for wedding ceremonies of Witness-baptized couples. A couple sends a request in writing to the congregation's "service committee", which assesses whether the couple is "in good standing, living in harmony with Bible principles and Jehovah’s righteous standards" and that they also approve of the members of the couple's wedding party (that is, groomsmen and bridesmaids). Jehovah's Witnesses attach no special significance to a Kingdom Hall wedding over a secular service, and Witness couples may choose to be married elsewhere for personal or practical reasons. Kingdom Halls are not used for wedding receptions or other social events. Funerals Funeral services may be held in a Kingdom Hall if the body of elders considers that "the deceased had a clean reputation and was a member of the congregation or the minor child of a member". The family of the deceased may ask any respected male member of the congregation to conduct the service, which involves a simple Bible-based discourse. Depending on family preference and local custom, a Kingdom Hall funeral may or may not have the casketed deceased present. Disaster relief Disaster relief efforts of Jehovah's Witnesses are typically channeled through permanent local Disaster Relief Committees under the various branch offices, and are staged at Kingdom Halls and Assembly Halls as close as practical to the disaster area. Construction The construction crews of Kingdom Halls and larger Assembly Halls consist of volunteering Jehovah's Witnesses, sometimes from other countries, who have been pre-approved for work on construction sites. Witnesses in many countries use a number of standard designs for construction that can be built in just a few days. The act of constructing a Kingdom Hall in this manner is called a quick-build, although typically the preparation work involving the structural foundation and surrounding surface may take several weeks prior to the scheduled build. For various reasons, not all Kingdom Halls are constructed as quick-builds or using the standard designs. However, a noticeably dominant architectural style of Kingdom Halls is often used based on standardized design concepts and models, depending on needs. A Kingdom Hall or Assembly Hall may originate from the renovation of an existing structure, such as a theater or non-Witness house of worship. In areas of repeated or reputed vandalism, particularly in cities, some Kingdom Halls are built without windows to reduce the risk of property damage. In 2015 it was announced to elders in the United States that new Kingdom Halls worldwide would all be based on one of three similar design plans, depending on the required size. Regional Building Committees Jehovah's Witnesses' branch offices formerly appointed local Regional Building Committees (RBC) to oversee the construction and maintenance of their places of worship. Such committees - which usually consisted of five to seven persons, often with experience in construction trades - aimed to coordinate the efforts of those involved so as to provide attractive and functional facilities that are financially viable. RBCs cooperated with local congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses seeking to build or renovate a place of worship, under the direction of the local branch office. Committees helped in assessing the suitability of a possible construction-site, purchasing the land and materials and coordinating the efforts of volunteers from the wider area. Members of a Regional Building Committee worked voluntarily and received no remuneration for their work. On Saturday, January 31, 2015, in a special meeting with all elders in the United States via live video-feed, it was announced that Regional Building Committees would be replaced by Local Design/Construction Department of the branch office, but with a more defined organizational structure. Funding In 1983, an arrangement was instituted whereby loans from the Watch Tower Society financed Kingdom Halls. In addition to contribution boxes for local congregation expenses and "the worldwide work", each congregation had a contribution box specifically for voluntary donations toward Kingdom-Hall construction. The Watch Tower Society pooled these donations into the Society Kingdom Hall Fund for financing the construction of Kingdom Halls worldwide, particularly in developing nations. When a congregation received local approval to build a new Kingdom Hall, that congregation could apply for a loan from the Society Kingdom Hall Fund. The congregation repaid the loan to the Watch Tower Society, in addition to its continued contributions to the Kingdom Hall Fund. Interest was charged on the loans until September 2008. The way Kingdom Halls are funded changed significantly in 2014. The provision of Kingdom Hall loans from the Society ceased, as did the separate Society Kingdom Hall Fund. Instead, all congregations were directed to contribute an ongoing amount to the branch office each month (in addition to donations for other purposes) into a single World Wide Work fund, and the branch office finances new Kingdom Halls. The stated purpose was so that funding from more affluent areas could supplement funding from areas without the resources for a new hall. The monthly amount was initially based on "a confidential survey of all publishers" indicating how much they could commit each month, with a recommendation that the amount be "at least the same amount as the current monthly loan repayment". As of 2020, the amount is "based on a monthly per-publisher amount suggested by the branch office" and reviewed by local congregation elders. Maintenance Routine maintenance of Kingdom Halls is performed by the members of the congregations that use them, typically according to a scheduled checklist. The "Kingdom Hall operating committee" oversees maintenance of the building; at least one elder or ministerial servant from each congregation is selected to be part of the operating committee. Kingdom Hall maintenance costs are covered by donations to a local fund. Gallery References External links Official Kingdom Hall finder Jehovah's Witnesses' Official Website : What is a Kingdom Hall? 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251233	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Lever	Charles Lever	Charles James Lever (31 August 1806 – 1 June 1872) was an Irish novelist and raconteur, whose novels, according to Anthony Trollope, were just like his conversation. Biography Early life Lever was born in Amiens Street, Dublin, the second son of James Lever, an architect and builder, and was educated in private schools. His escapades at Trinity College, Dublin (1823–1828), where he took the degree in medicine in 1831, are drawn on for the plots of some of his novels. The character Frank Webber in the novel Charles O'Malley was based on a college friend, Robert Boyle, who later became a clergyman. Lever and Boyle earned pocket-money singing ballads of their own composing in the streets of Dublin and played many other pranks which Lever embellished in the novels O'Malley, Con Cregan and Lord Kilgobbin. Before seriously embarking upon his medical studies, Lever visited Canada as an unqualified surgeon on an emigrant ship, and has drawn upon some of his experiences in Con Cregan, Arthur O'Leary and Roland Cashel. Arriving in Canada, he journeyed into the backwoods, where he was affiliated to a tribe of Native Americans but had to flee because his life was in danger, as later his character Bagenal Daly did in his novel The Knight of Gwynne. Back in Europe, he pretended he was a student from the University of Göttingen and travelled to the University of Jena (where he saw Goethe), and then to Vienna. He loved German student life, and several of his songs, such as "The Pope He Loved a Merry Life", are based on student-song models. His medical degree earned him an appointment to the Board of Health in County Clare and then as a dispensary doctor in Portstewart, County Londonderry, but his conduct as a country doctor earned him the censure of the authorities. Career In 1833 he married his first love, Catherine Baker, and in February 1837, after varied experiences, he began publishing The Confessions of Harry Lorrequer in the recently established Dublin University Magazine. During the previous seven years the popular taste had turned toward the "service novel", examples of which are Frank Mildmay (1829) by Frederick Marryat, Tom Cringle's Log (1829) by Michael Scott, The Subaltern (1825) by George Robert Gleig, Cyril Thornton (1827) by Thomas Hamilton, Stories of Waterloo (1833) by William Hamilton Maxwell, Ben Brace (1840) by Frederick Chamier and The Bivouac (1837), also by Maxwell. Lever had met William Hamilton Maxwell, the titular founder of the genre. Before Harry Lorrequer appeared in volume form (1839), Lever had settled on the strength of a slight diplomatic connection as a fashionable physician in Brussels (Hertogstraat 16). Lorrequer was merely a string of Irish and other stories good, bad and indifferent, but mostly rollicking, and Lever, who strung together his anecdotes late at night after the serious business of the day was done, was astonished at its success. "If this sort of thing amuses them, I can go on for ever." Brussels was indeed a superb place for the observation of half-pay officers, such as Major Monsoon (Commissioner Meade), Captain Bubbleton and the like, who terrorised the taverns of the place with their endless peninsular stories, and of English society a little damaged, which it became the speciality of Lever to depict. He sketched with a free hand, wrote, as he lived, from hand to mouth, and the chief difficulty he experienced was that of getting rid of his characters who "hung about him like those tiresome people who never can make up their minds to bid you good night." Lever had never taken part in a battle himself, but his next three books, Charles O'Malley (1841), Jack Hinton and Tom Burke of Ours (1857), written under the spur of the writer's chronic extravagance, contain some splendid military writing and some of the most animated battle-pieces on record. In pages of O'Malley and Tom Burke Lever anticipates not a few of the best effects of Marbot, Thibaut, Lejeune, Griois, Seruzier, Burgoyne and the like. His account of the Douro need hardly fear comparison, it has been said, with Napier's. Condemned by the critics, Lever had completely won the general reader from the Iron Duke himself downwards. In 1842 he returned to Dublin to edit the Dublin University Magazine, and gathered round him a typical coterie of Irish wits (including one or two hornets) such as the O'Suilivans, Archer Butler, William Carleton, Sir William Wilde, Canon Hayman, DF McCarthy, McGlashan, Dr Kencaly and many others. In June 1842 he welcomed at Templeogue, four miles southwest of Dublin, the author of the Snob Papers on his Irish tour (the Sketch Book was, later, dedicated to Lever). Thackeray recognised the fund of Irish sadness beneath the surface merriment. "The author's character is not humour but sentiment. The spirits are mostly artificial, the fond is sadness, as appears to me to be that of most Irish writing and people." The Waterloo episode in Vanity Fair was in part an outcome of the talk between the two novelists. But the "Galway pace," the display he found it necessary to maintain at Templeogue, the stable full of horses, the cards, the friends to entertain, the quarrels to compose and the enormous rapidity with which he had to complete Tom Burke, The O'Donoghue and Arthur O'Leary (1845) made his native land an impossible place for Lever to continue in. Templeogue would soon have proved another Abbotsford. Thackeray suggested London, but Lever required a new field of literary observation and anecdote. His creative inspiration exhausted, he decided to renew it on the continent. In 1845 he resigned his editorship and went back to Brussels, whence he started upon an unlimited tour of central Europe in a family coach. Now and again he halted for a few months, and entertained to the limit of his resources in some ducal castle or other which he hired for an off season. Thus at Riedenburg, near Bregenz, in August 1846, he entertained Charles Dickens and his wife and other well-known people. Dickens would later publish Lever's novel A Day's Ride in serial in his weekly journal All the Year Round, running parallel to Great Expectations for part of its run from 1860 to 1861. Like his own Daltons or Dodd Family Abroad he travelled continentally, from Karlsruhe to Como, from Como to Florence, from Florence to the Baths of Lucca and so on, and his letters home are the litany of the literary remittance man, his ambition now limited to driving a pair of novels abreast without a diminution of his standard price for serial work ("twenty pounds a sheet"). In the Knight of Gwynne, a story of the Union (1847), The Confessions of Con Cregan (1849), Roland Cashel (1850) and Maurice Tiernay (1852) we still have traces of his old manner; but he was beginning to lose his original joy in composition. His innate sadness began to cloud the animal joyousness of his temperament. Formerly he had written for the happy world which is young and curly and merry; now he grew fat and bald and grave. "After 38 or so what has life to offer but one universal declension. Let the crew pump as hard as they like, the leak gains every hour." His son, Charles Sidney Lever, died in 1863 and is buried in Florence's English Cemetery. Later life Depressed in spirit as Lever was, his wit was unextinguished; he was still the delight of the salons with his stories, and in 1867, after a few years' experience of a similar kind at Spezia, he was cheered by a letter from Lord Derby offering him the more lucrative consulship of Trieste. "Here is six hundred a year for doing nothing, and you are just the man to do it." The six hundred could not atone to Lever for the lassitude of prolonged exile. Trieste, at first "all that I could desire", became with characteristic abruptness "detestable and damnable". "Nothing to eat, nothing to drink, no one to speak to." "Of all the dreary places it has been my lot to sojourn in this is the worst" (some references to Trieste will be found in That Boy of Norcott's, 1869). He could never be alone and was almost morbidly dependent upon literary encouragement. Fortunately, like Scott, he had unscrupulous friends who assured him that his last efforts were his best. They include The Fortunes of Glencore (1857), Tony Butler (1865), Luttrell of Arran (1865), Sir Brooke Fosbrooke (1866), Lord Kilgobbin (1872) and the table-talk of Cornelius O'Dowd, originally contributed to Blackwood's. His depression, partly due to incipient heart disease, partly to the growing conviction that he was the victim of literary and critical conspiracy, was confirmed by the death of his wife (23 April 1870), to whom he was tenderly attached. He visited Ireland in the following year and seemed alternately in high and low spirits. Death had already given him one or two runaway knocks, and, after his return to Trieste, he failed gradually, dying suddenly, however, and almost painlessly, from heart failure on 1 June 1872 at his home, Villa Gasteiger. His daughters, one of whom, Sydney, is believed to have been the real author of A Rent in a Cloud (1869), were well provided for. Assessments Trollope praised Lever's novels highly when he said that they were just like his conversation. He was a born raconteur, and had in perfection that easy flow of light description which without tedium or hurry leads up to the point of the good stories of which in earlier days his supply seemed inexhaustible. With little respect for unity of action or conventional novel structure, his brightest books, such as Lorrequer, O'Malley and Tom Burke, are in fact little more than recitals of scenes in the life of a particular "hero", unconnected by any continuous intrigue. The type of character he depicted is for the most part elementary. His women are mostly roués, romps or Xanthippes; his heroes have too much of the Pickle temper about them and fall an easy prey to the serious attacks of Poe or to the more playful gibes of Thackeray in Phil Fogarty or Bret Harte in Terence Deuville. This last is a perfect bit of burlesque. Terence exchanges nineteen shots with the Hon. Captain Henry Somerset in the glen. "At each fire I shot away a button from his uniform. As, my last bullet shot off the last button from his sleeve, I remarked quietly, 'You seem now, my lord, to be almost as ragged as the gentry you sneered at,' and rode haughtily away." And yet these careless sketches contain such haunting creations as Frank Webber, Major Monsoon and Micky Free, "the Sam Weller of Ireland". According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition: A library edition of the novels in 37 volumes appeared from 1897 to 1899 under the superintendence of Lever's daughter, Julie Kate Neville. Henry Hawley Smart is said to have taken Lever's work as one of his models when he set out on his career as a sporting novelist. Eugene O'Neill lists Lever as one of the authors represented on the family bookshelf in Long Day's Journey into Night, along with Shakespeare, Nietzsche, Gibbon, et al. Select bibliography The Confessions of Harry Lorrequer Dublin, W. Curry, (1839) Charles O'Malley, the Irish Dragoon Dublin, William Curry, Jun. and Co. (1841) Jack Hinton, the Guardsman (1843) The O'Donoghue: a tale of Ireland fifty years ago Dublin, W. Curry, (1845) Nuts and Nutcrackers. London, W. S. Orr, (1845) Arthur O'Leary: His wanderings and ponderings in many lands London, H. Colburn, (1845) The Knight of Gwynne; a tale of the time of the union London, Chapman and Hall, (1847) Confessions of Con Cregan: the Irish Gil Blas London, W. S. Orr, (1849) Roland Cashel London, Chapman and Hall, (1850) The Daltons, or, Three roads in life London, Chapman and Hall, (1852) The Dodd Family Abroad London, Chapman and Hall, (1854) The Martins of Cro'Martin London, Chapman and Hall, (1856) Tom Burke of "Ours" Dublin, William Curry, Jun. and Co. (1857) The Fortunes of Glencore London, Chapman and Hall, (1857) Davenport Dunn : a man of our day London, Chapman and Hall, (1859) One of Them London, Chapman and Hall, (1861) Barrington London, Chapman and Hall, (1863) Luttrell of Arran London, Chapman and Hall, (1865) Sir Brook Fossbrooke Edinburgh, W. Blackwood, (1866) The Bramleighs of Bishop's Folly Vol. 1, London Smith, Elder and Co. (1868) A Rent in a Cloud London, Chapman & Hall, (1869) That Boy of Norcott's London, Smith, Elder, (1869) Lord Kilgobbin New York, Harper & Bros., (1872) The Bramleighs of Bishop's Folly London, Chapman and Hall, (1872) See also Stage Irish Further reading Dr Quicksilver, The Life of Charles Lever, Lionel Stevenson, London 1939. Charles Lever: New Evaluations, Edited Tony Bareham, Ulster Editions and Monographs 3. 1991. Charles Lever, The Lost Victorian, S.P Haddelsey, Ulster Editions and Monographs 8. 2000. References Further reading Life, by WJ Fitzpatrick (1879). Letters, ed. in 2 vols. by Edmund Downey (1906). Dublin Univ. Mag. (1880), 465 and 570. Anthony Trollope's Autobiography, p. 218 Hugh Walker's Literature of the Victorian Era (1910), pp. 636–639 The Bookman History of English Literature (1906) p. 467. Bookman (June 1906; portraits). 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251234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Resaca%20de%20la%20Palma	Battle of Resaca de la Palma	The Battle of Resaca de la Palma was one of the early engagements of the Mexican–American War, where the United States Army under General Zachary Taylor engaged the retreating forces of the Mexican Ejército del Norte ("Army of the North") under General Mariano Arista on May 9, 1846. The United States emerged victorious and forced the Mexicans out of Texas. Background Following the Mexican defeat at the Battle of Palo Alto the previous day, Arista on the morning of May 9 moved his forces to a more defensible position along a resaca, known as Resaca de Guerrero to the Mexicans but as Resaca de la Palma to the Americans. Recalling his experiences at the Siege of Fort Texas, he positioned his forces along the twelve foot deep and two hundred foot wide resaca, three miles from the Rio Grande, by 10 a.m. Arista placed most of his infantry in the ravine, thickly forested on either side, to negate the effectiveness of Taylor's artillery, with the 6th and 10th Infantry, Sappers, 2nd Light Infantry and 1st Infantry being placed east of the road, and the 2nd Infantry, Tampico Battalion and 4th Infantry west of the road. Covering the flanks in the rear were the Presidiales, the light cavalry, and the 7th and 8th Regiments, and two artillery batteries on the south bank. Taylor reached the area about 3 p.m. and ordered Captain William W. Mackall's skirmishers and Captain Randolph Ridgely's battery along the road, with the 4th and 5th Infantry to the left and the remaining 4th and 3rd Infantry on the right. Battle Fighting was disorganised and uncoordinated due to the dense chaparral and the intense Mexican artillery fire, although Ridgely did repulse a Mexican cavalry charge. Taylor ordered a charge by Captain Charles A. May's dragoon squadron with the objective of clearing the Mexican battery. May's exchange with Ridgeley supposedly included, "Hello Ridgely, where is that Battery? I am ordered to charge it." "Hold on Charley, 'till I draw their fire and you will see where they are." May's charge however carried them well past the Mexican artillery and although he managed to capture General Romulo Diaz de la Vega, he could not hold the guns. Taylor then ordered William G. Belknap's 5th and 8th Infantry to secure the guns, which they did. The Mexicans forces east of the road then retreated from their positions. West of the road, Captain Robert C. Buchanan and members of the 4th Infantry, found a trail which turned towards the Mexican left flank, enabling them to take and hold the battery located there. They were able to defend the position from General Pedro de Ampudia's counterattacks, and the entire Mexican force panicked and fled across the Rio Grande, with many Mexican soldiers drowning in the attempt. Aftermath The Mexican Army left behind a number of artillery pieces, Arista's writing desk and silver service, the colors of Mexico's lauded Tampico Battalion, and other baggage. Among the several captured Mexican artillery pieces were two 8-pounder bronze guns, two 6-pounder bronze guns, and four 4-pounder bronze guns. Taylor's army settled into their Fort Texas campsite as Taylor considered his next move, although he did exchange prisoners with Arista. Taylor crossed the Rio Grande on 18 May, Arista's army having abandoned their artillery, sick and wounded at Linares, Nuevo Leon during their retreat to Monterrey. Before accepting a prisoner exchange with General Arista, Taylor was noted for his humane treatment of the abandoned Mexican wounded, giving them the same care as was given to the American wounded. After tending to the wounded he performed the last rites for the dead of both the American and Mexican soldiers killed during the battle. The Resaca De La Palma Battlefield is in the city limits of present-day Brownsville, Texas, but is part of the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park. The Battle of Resaca de la Palma inspired the name of Resaca, Georgia, a community that later became the site of the Battle of Resaca. Gallery Further reading Grant, U.S. Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant, Vol. I, pp 65–69, '''Appendix To The Congressional Globe, 29th Cong...1st Session See also Battles of the Mexican–American War 1848 in Mexico List of conflicts in the United States Saint Patrick's Battalion References External links Resaca de la Palma Overview @ Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site NPS website Guns Along the Rio Grande: Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, CMH Pub 73-2, Center of Military History A Continent Divided: The U.S. - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington 1846 in Mexico Battles of the Texas Ranger Division History of Brownsville, Texas Texas Campaign Irish-American history and culture in Texas Zachary Taylor May 1846 events 1846 in the Mexican-American War	[ -0.6716163158416748, -0.19278289377689362, -0.30215078592300415, 0.38042163848876953, 0.4466339647769928, 0.23763507604599, 0.5116803646087646, 0.47271332144737244, 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251235	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Archer%20Butler	William Archer Butler	William Archer Butler (c. 18145 July 1848) was an Irish historian of philosophy. Life He was born at Annerville, near Clonmel in Ireland. His father was a Protestant, his mother a Roman Catholic, and he was brought up as a Catholic. As a boy he was imaginative and poetical, and some of his early verses were remarkable. While yet at Clonmel school he became a Protestant. Later he entered and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. where he had a brilliant career. He specially devoted himself to literature and metaphysics, and was noted for the beauty of his style. In 1834 he gained the ethical moderatorship, newly instituted by Provost Lloyd, and continued in residence at college. In 1837 he decided to enter the Church, and in the same year he was elected to the professorship of moral philosophy, specially founded for him through Lloyd's exertions. About the same time he was presented to the prebend of Clondahorky, Donegal, and resided there when not called by his professorial duties to Dublin. In 1842 he was promoted to the rectory of Raymochy. He died on 5 July 1848. Works His Sermons (2 vols., 1849) were brilliant and forceful. The Lectures on the History of Ancient Philosophy, edited by W. Hepworth Thompson (2 vols., 5856; 2nd ed., 1 vol. 1875) were among the few British works on the history of philosophy. These works include introductory lectures, the early Greek thinkers, and lectures on Plato. Among his other writings were papers in the Dublin University Magazine (1834–1837); and "Letters on Development" (in the Irish Ecclesiastical Journal, 1845), a reply to Newman's famous Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine. References Memoir of W. A. Butler, prefixed by Rev. J Woodward to the first series of Sermons. 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251237	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AGB	ISO 3166-2:GB	ISO 3166-2:GB is the entry for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1. The codes and structures used are provided to the ISO by British Standards and the Office for National Statistics. Currently for the United Kingdom, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for the following subdivisions: 27 two-tier counties, 36 metropolitan districts, 55 unitary authorities, 32 London boroughs and 1 city corporation (England) 11 districts (Northern Ireland) 32 council areas (Scotland) 22 unitary authorities (Wales) Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the United Kingdom. The second part is three letters, which is the British Standard BS 6879 three-letter code of the subdivision. Though is the United Kingdom's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code, is exceptionally reserved for the United Kingdom on the request of the country. Its main usage is the .uk internet ccTLD and, on 28 September 2021, replaced as the official country code on car registration plates. Current codes Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA). BS 6879 gives alternative name forms in Welsh (cy) for some of the Welsh unitary authorities (together with alternative code elements). Since this part of ISO 3166 does not allow for duplicate coding of identical subdivisions, such alternative names in Welsh and code elements are shown for information purposes only in square brackets after the English name of the subdivision. Countries and province Wales was changed from being described as a principality to being described as a country in the December 2011 update to the standard. England and Scotland were maintained as country and Northern Ireland was maintained as province. Included for completeness Second-level subdivisions Notes Changes The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013. The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform: As of 2020 GB-EAW, GB-GBN, and GB-UKM subdivisions are only mentioned in remark part 2 in the ISO website. See also Subdivisions of the United Kingdom Subdivisions of England Subdivisions of Northern Ireland Subdivisions of Scotland Subdivisions of Wales FIPS region codes of the United Kingdom NUTS codes of the United Kingdom Chapman codes References External links ISO Online Browsing Platform: GB Statoids.com: Divisions of the United Kingdom 2:GB Lists of subdivisions of the United Kingdom United Kingdom geography-related lists Metropolitan boroughs Non-metropolitan counties Council areas of Scotland London boroughs Principal areas of Wales Unitary authority districts of England	[ -0.30995890498161316, 0.23179899156093597, 0.015689197927713394, -0.9308453798294067, 0.12038574367761612, 0.42416098713874817, 0.20771273970603943, 0.6731463670730591, -0.67763352394104, 0.25879329442977905, -0.856841504573822, -0.20428398251533508, -0.704522967338562, -0.12960316240787506, -0.23456984758377075, 1.1226134300231934, -0.05862737074494362, 0.5627196431159973, 0.005271999165415764, 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251238	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departments%20of%20the%20Continental%20Army	Departments of the Continental Army	In the American Revolutionary War units of the Continental Army were assigned to any one of seven regional or territorial departments to decentralize their command and administration. This was necessary because the regiment was the largest permanent unit in the Continental Army. A superior headquarters, above regiment, was needed if more than a few regiments were stationed in the same department. Although brigades, divisions, and field armies existed, they were temporary units which did not necessarily include all the units assigned to a department. Nor did field armies include establishments of the staff, such as magazines (supply depots) of the Quartermaster General's Department, or hospitals of the Hospital Department. The militia in a department was usually at the disposal of the department commander. Departmental organization The Continental troops in a department constituted its garrison. If the garrison was sufficiently large, the units might be assembled into a field army. In this case the commander of the territorial department and the commander of the field army would be one and the same officer. Thus, the commanding general of the Northern Department was also commanding general of the Northern Army, and the commanding general of the Southern Department was also commanding general of the Southern Army. Armies did not, however, invariably receive a geographical designation. Because the field army under Washington's personal command contained the majority of Continental Army units it was designated the Main Army. Each department had a semi-autonomous commanding officer, usually a commanding general, under the overall command of Washington as General and Commander-in-Chief. The Continental Congress dealt with and through the department commanders. Appointment of department commanders Throughout the war, the Continental Congress retained exclusive authority to appoint or remove department commanders. In practice, when an urgent need arose, a temporary commander was just as frequently appointed by George Washington or the executive power of one of the states, pending the approval of the Continental Congress. Many of these temporary department commanders were then confirmed and formally appointed by the Congress. This practice, along with control of the Continental Army and Navy through the war and marine committees of the Continental Congress, established the precedent for civil control of military affairs later embodied in the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. Relations between the departments and the states The department commanders and their staffs also worked directly with the governments of the states within their department. At first these were the ad hoc provisional governments developed in 1774 and 1775, but the practice continued after 1776 when the states replaced their Provincial Congresses and Conventions with permanent governments operating under written constitutions. Ordinarily departments were commanded by major generals. Washington as a full general was the ranking general officer in the Continental Army throughout the war. Departments In general there were seven territorial departments, although their boundaries were subject to change and they were not all in existence throughout the war. Canadian Department The establishment of the Canadian Department reflected the aspirations of the Continental Congress and some Americans to annex the British province of Quebec, then often referred to as "Canada", but the effort was ultimately unsuccessful. Although the Americans captured Montreal in November 1775, and established their headquarters at Château Ramezay, the region was never entirely under the control of the Continental Army. The Canadian Department was formally established from the New York Department on January 17, 1776. After the Invasion of Canada failed, all troops were withdrawn to Fort Ticonderoga, New York. The Canadian Department was officially discontinued on July 8, 1776. Eastern Department The Eastern Department was formed around those states that had originally sent troops to support the Siege of Boston, and in that sense it even existed before the Continental Army. This was essentially the New England department, and included the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts (including the present state of Maine), Rhode Island, and Connecticut. For the first year of the war, the field army associated with this department, under the command of General Washington, was variously designated as the Continental Army, Grand Army, or Main Army. The Eastern Department was formally established on April 4, 1776 when the Main Army under Washington moved from Boston to New York City. Important operations in this department included the Siege of Boston in 1775–1776 and the Battle of Rhode Island in 1779. The department was discontinued in November 1779. Northern Department The predecessor of the Northern Department was the New York Department, which was established on June 25, 1775. This department was sometimes described as the Separate Department and the troops stationed in it were known as the Separate Army. The original New York Department was coextensive with the Province of New York. The department's boundaries were extended to include Canada in the initial phase of the Invasion of Canada, but Canada was established as a separate department on January 17, 1776. When the Middle Department was created on February 27, 1776 the New York Department was merged into it. The Middle Department, as originally organized, included all of the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. The inclusion of New York in the Middle Department continued for less than two months, however. In April 1776 the Main Army moved from Boston to New York City and Washington assumed command of the Middle Department. The Northern Department was formally established from the Middle Department on April 14, 1776. The reorganized Northern Department included only that portion of the colony of New York north of the Hudson Highlands, and the present state of Vermont. The field army associated with the Northern Department was known as the Northern Army. Operations in this department did not end with Saratoga. Fighting continued in the Northern Department until the end of the war. The department was discontinued upon the death of its last commander, General Alexander, at Albany on January 15, 1783. Highlands Department The Highlands Department was the smallest in area. Strictly speaking, it was part of the Middle Department, but because of its importance it was virtually a separate department. The Highlands Department was formed around the defenses on the Hudson River about north of New York City, where the Appalachians and the Hudson intersect. After the British occupied New York City in 1776 the defenses just north of there became critically important. The presence of British naval forces at New York emphasized the importance of the Hudson River, and both sides in the war recognized the importance of controlling that waterway. The Americans created fortifications, including West Point with its chain across the river. Washington assigned Continental troops under General Heath to the Highlands on November 12, 1776 and there was a Continental Army garrison in the Highlands from then until the end of the war. Heath's assignment thus created a de facto military department. The British sought to gain control with the Saratoga campaign in 1777, and frequently raided into the southern reaches of the department to interfere with the movement of military goods and personnel. One of the most notable incidents in the history of this department was the defection of Benedict Arnold in September 1780. Middle Department The Middle Department was established on February 27, 1776. Originally it included all of the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. In April 1776, the Main Army moved from Boston to New York, and became the field army associated with the Middle Department for the remainder of the war. On April 14, 1776 that portion of New York north of the Hudson Highlands, and the present state of Vermont were separated from the Middle Department and organized as the Northern Department. The Middle Department then comprised the Hudson Highlands in the state of New York, the rest of New York south of the Highlands, and the states of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. The term Main Army had come into use during the Siege of Boston, because the majority of Continental Army regiments were assigned to it. The term was retained throughout the war. Most units in the Middle Department were assigned to the Main Army, under George Washington, or to the Highlands Department, which was under Washington's close supervision. A few regiments and independent companies were assigned to the Middle Department from time to time, but were not assigned to Washington's army or to the Highlands. These units were simply said to have been assigned to the Middle Department. Some of the Continental Army's most important campaigns were fought in this department. These included the New York campaign and the New Jersey campaign which ended with the battles of Trenton and Princeton. The Philadelphia campaign was fought in this department, after which the Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. In 1778 this department was the scene of the Monmouth campaign. After Monmouth, on June 28, 1778, major military operations in the United States shifted to the Southern Department. The department existed until the close of the war. It was the scene of one of the war's last episodes when the British Army evacuated New York City on November 25, 1783. Western Department The Western Department covered the frontier territories west and northwest of Virginia and Pennsylvania, including the present states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. It extended from Pittsburgh all the way to the Illinois country and as far north as the southern peninsula of Michigan. The department was established in 1777. Its first commander was Edward Hand. George Rogers Clark's Illinois campaign of 1779 was one of the most notable operations in this department. This department was the only one to remain after the war. The last elements of the Continental Army, stationed at Fort Pitt, were kept to guard the western frontier outposts. Southern Department The Southern Department was formally established on February 27, 1776. The department included Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia and the western frontiers of those colonies, from which were created the present states of West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi. The field army associated with this department was known as the Southern Army. The Southern Department was the most independent of the commands due to geography and the need for year-round operations. Most of the territorial departments to the north of this department suspended offensive operations for the winter and early spring. The Southern Department was also the only one in which the troops assigned were destroyed twice. The first time was at the surrender of Charleston on May 12, 1780. The second was at the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780. Despite these two catastrophic defeats, however, this department was the location of the Siege of Yorktown, in 1781, which effectively decided the outcome of the war. Important events in the Southern Department after Yorktown were the evacuation of Savannah and Charleston in July and December 1782. The Southern Department existed until the close of the war. List of department commanders Notes References Berg, Fred Anderson Encyclopedia of Continental Army Units: Battalions, Regiments, and Independent Corps. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1972. Fitzpatrick, John C., Editor. The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources. Available from the University of Virginia website. Wright, Robert K. The Continental Army. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History, 1983. Available online. 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251239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Schwegler	Albert Schwegler	Albert Schwegler (10 February 18195 January 1857) was a German philosopher and Protestant theologian. Biography Schwegler was born at Michelbach in Württemberg, the son of a country pastor. He entered the University of Tübingen in 1836, and was one of the earliest pupils of F. C. Baur, under whose influence he devoted himself to church history. His first work was Der Montanismus und die christliche Kirche des Zweiten Jahrhunderts (1841), in which he pointed out for the first time that Montanism was much more than an isolated outbreak of eccentric fanaticism in the early church, though he himself introduced fresh misconceptions by connecting it with Ebionitism as he conceived the latter. This work, with other essays, brought him into conflict with the authorities of the church, in consequence of which he gave up theology as his professional study and chose that of philosophy. In 1843 he founded the Jahrbücher der Gegenwart, and became privatdozent of philosophy and classical philology at Tübingen University. In 1848 he was made an associate professor of Roman literature and archaeology, and soon afterwards a full professor of history. He died in Tübingen. Work His principal theological work was Das nachapostolische Zeitalter in den Hauptmomenten seiner Entwicklung (The Post-Apostolic Age in the Principal Moments of its Development) (2 volumes, 1846). It was this book which first put before the world, with Schwegler's characteristic boldness and clearness, the results of the critical labours of the earlier representatives of the new Tübingen school in relation to the first development of Christianity. Schwegler published also an edition of the Clementine Homilies (1847), and of Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History (1852). His work on the history of philosophy includes his excellent Geschichte der Philosophie im Umriß (History of Philosophy in Epitome, 1846–1847, 14th ed. 1887; 1st edition of English translation by James Hutchison Stirling titled Handbook of the History of Philosophy, 1867; 5th edition of English translation by Julius Hawley Seelye titled History of Philosophy in Epitome, 1877), his Übersetzung und Erläuterung der aristotelischen Metaphysik (4 volumes, 1847–48), and a posthumous Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie (History of Greek Philosophy; 1859). In history he began a Römische Geschichte (vols. i.–iii., 1853–58, 2nd edition 1867–72), which he brought down only to the laws of Licinius. References External links 1819 births 1857 deaths People from Schwäbisch Hall (district) 19th-century German Protestant theologians German philosophers University of Tübingen alumni University of Tübingen faculty 19th-century German male writers German male non-fiction writers	[ -0.2907992899417877, 0.7927769422531128, -0.5080570578575134, 0.14588946104049683, -0.2500760555267334, 1.1116950511932373, 1.5458855628967285, -0.3010086119174957, -0.23524081707000732, -0.6184314489364624, 0.0234608706086874, 0.12724414467811584, 0.036507390439510345, 0.4616928994655609, 0.01194361224770546, -0.07800228893756866, 0.3738318979740143, -0.5499055981636047, -0.9448710083961487, -0.3170511722564697, -0.15534821152687073, -0.12847445905208588, 0.29998672008514404, -0.22465252876281738, -0.47196757793426514, -0.06050276383757591, 0.19201551377773285, -0.16027365624904633, 0.4369492828845978, -0.13833579421043396, 0.381570965051651, 0.7697375416755676, -0.27372968196868896, 0.15495982766151428, 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251240	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil%20Cioran	Emil Cioran	Emil Mihai Cioran (, ; 8 April 1911 – 20 June 1995) was a Romanian philosopher and essayist, who published works in both Romanian and French. His work has been noted for its pervasive philosophical pessimism, style, and aphorisms. His works frequently engaged with issues of suffering, decay, and nihilism. In 1937, Cioran moved to the Latin Quarter of Paris, which became his permanent residence, wherein he lived in seclusion with his partner, Simone Boué. Early life Cioran was born in Resinár, Szeben County, Kingdom of Hungary (today Rășinari, Sibiu County, Romania). His father, Emilian Cioran, was an Orthodox priest, and his mother, Elvira, was the head of the Christian Women's League. At 10, Cioran moved to Sibiu to attend school, and at 17, he was enrolled in the Faculty of Literature and Philosophy at the University of Bucharest, where he met Eugène Ionesco and Mircea Eliade, who became his friends. Future Romanian philosopher Constantin Noica and future Romanian thinker Petre Țuțea became his closest academic colleagues; all three studied under Tudor Vianu and Nae Ionescu. Cioran, Eliade, and Țuțea became supporters of Ionescu's ideas, known as Trăirism. Cioran had a good command of German, learning the language at an early age, and proceeded to read philosophy that was available in German, but not in Romanian. Notes from Cioran's adolescence indicated a study of Friedrich Nietzsche, Honoré de Balzac, Arthur Schopenhauer and Fyodor Dostoevsky, among others. He became an agnostic, taking as an axiom "the inconvenience of existence". While at the University, he was influenced by Georg Simmel, Ludwig Klages and Martin Heidegger, but also by the Russian philosopher Lev Shestov, whose contribution to Cioran's central system of thought was the belief that life is arbitrary. Cioran's graduation thesis was on Henri Bergson, whom he later rejected, claiming Bergson did not comprehend the tragedy of life. From the age of 20, Cioran began to suffer from insomnia, a condition which he suffered from for the rest of his life, and permeated his writings. Cioran's decision to write about his experiences in his first book, On the Heights of Despair, came from an episode of insomnia. Career Berlin and Romania In 1933, he received a scholarship to the University of Berlin, where he studied Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Hegel, Edmund Husserl, Immanuel Kant, Georg Simmel, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche. Here, he came into contact with Klages and Nicolai Hartmann. While in Berlin, he became interested in the policies of the Nazi regime, contributed a column to Vremea dealing with the topic (in which Cioran confessed that "there is no present-day politician that I see as more sympathetic and admirable than Hitler", while expressing his approval for the Night of the Long Knives—"what has humanity lost if the lives of a few imbeciles were taken"), and, in a letter written to Petru Comarnescu, described himself as "a Hitlerist". He held similar views about Italian fascism, welcoming victories in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, arguing that: "Fascism is a shock, without which Italy is a compromise comparable to today's Romania". Cioran's first book, On the Heights of Despair (literally translated: "On the Summits of Despair"), was published in Romania in 1934. It was awarded the Commission's Prize and the Young Writers Prize for one of the best books written by an unpublished young writer. Regardless, Cioran later spoke negatively of it, saying "it is a very poorly written book, without any style." Successively, The Book of Delusions (1935), The Transfiguration of Romania (1936) and Tears and Saints (1937) were also published in Romania. Tears and Saints was "incredibly poorly received", and after it was published, Cioran's mother wrote him asking him to retract the book because it was causing her public embarrassment. Although Cioran was never a member of the group, it was during this time in Romania that he began taking an interest in the ideas put forth by the Iron Guard—a far right organization whose nationalist ideology he supported until the early years of World War II, despite allegedly disapproving of their violent methods. Cioran would later denounce fascism, describing it in 1970 as "the worst folly of my youth. If I am cured of one sickness, it is surely that one." Cioran revised The Transfiguration of Romania heavily in its second edition released in the 1990s, eliminating numerous passages he considered extremist or "pretentious and stupid". In its original form, the book expressed sympathy for totalitarianism, a view which was also present in various articles Cioran wrote at the time, and which aimed to establish "urbanization and industrialization" as "the two obsessions of a rising people". His early call for modernization was, however, hard to reconcile with the traditionalism of the Iron Guard. In 1934, he wrote, "I find that in Romania the sole fertile, creative, and invigorating nationalism can only be one which does not just dismiss tradition, but also denies and defeats it". Disapproval of what he viewed as specifically Romanian traits had been present in his works ("In any maxim, in any proverb, in any reflection, our people expresses the same shyness in front of life, the same hesitation and resignation... [...] Everyday Romanian [truisms] are dumbfounding."), which led to criticism from the far-right Gândirea (its editor, Nichifor Crainic, had called The Transfiguration of Romania "a bloody, merciless, massacre of today's Romania, without even [the fear] of matricide and sacrilege"), as well as from various Iron Guard papers. France After returning from Berlin in 1936, Cioran taught philosophy at the Andrei Șaguna High School in Brașov for a year. In 1937, he left for Paris with a scholarship from the French Institute branch in Bucharest, which was then prolonged until 1944. After a short stay in his home country (November 1940 – February 1941), Cioran never returned again. This last period in Romania was the one in which he exhibited a closer relationship with the Iron Guard, which by then had taken power (see National Legionary State). On 28 November, for the state-owned Romanian Radio, Cioran recorded a speech centered on the portrait of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, former leader of the movement, praising him and the Guard for, among other things, "having given Romanians a purpose". He later renounced not only his support for the Iron Guard, but also their nationalist ideas, and frequently expressed regret and repentance for his emotional implication in it. For example, in a 1972 interview, he condemned it as "a complex of movements; more than this, a demented sect and a party", saying, "I found out then [...] what it means to be carried by the wave without the faintest trace of conviction. [...] I am now immune to it". Cioran started writing The Passionate Handbook in 1940 and finished it by 1945. It was the last book he wrote in Romanian, though not the last to deal with pessimism and misanthropy through lyrical aphorisms. Cioran published books only in French thereafter. It was at this point that Cioran's apparent contempt for the Romanian people emerged. He told a friend that he "wanted to write a Philosophy of Failure, with the subtitle For the exclusive use of the Romanian People". Furthermore, he described his move to Paris as "by far the most intelligent thing" he'd ever done, and in The Trouble with Being Born he says, "In continual rebellion against my ancestry, I have spent my whole life wanting to be something else: Spanish, Russian, cannibal—anything, except what I was." In 1942, Cioran met Simone Boué, another insomniac, who he lived with for the rest of his life. Cioran kept their relationship entirely private, and never spoke of his relationship with Boué in his writings or interviews. In 1949, his first French book, A Short History of Decay, was published by Gallimard and was awarded the Prix Rivarol in 1950 for the best book written by a non-French author. Cioran later refused every literary prize he was given. The Latin Quarter of Paris became Cioran's permanent residence. He lived most of his life in seclusion, avoiding the public, but still maintained contact with numerous friends, including Mircea Eliade, Eugène Ionesco, Paul Celan, Samuel Beckett, Henri Michaux and Fernando Savater. In 1995, Cioran died of Alzheimer's disease and was buried at the Montparnasse Cemetery. Major themes and style Professing a lack of interest in conventional philosophy in his early youth, Cioran dismissed abstract speculation in favor of personal reflection and passionate lyricism. "I invented nothing. I've been the one and only secretary of my own sensations", he later said. Aphorisms make up a large portion of Cioran's bibliography, and some of his books, such as The Trouble with Being Born, are composed entirely of aphorisms. Speaking about this decision, Cioran said: Pessimism characterizes all of his works, which many critics trace back to events of his childhood (in 1935 his mother is reputed to have told him that if she had known he was going to be so unhappy she would have aborted him). However, Cioran's pessimism (in fact, his skepticism, even nihilism) remains both inexhaustible and, in its own particular manner, joyful; it is not the sort of pessimism which can be traced back to simple origins, single origins themselves being questionable. When Cioran's mother spoke to him of abortion, he confessed that it did not disturb him, but made an extraordinary impression which led to an insight about the nature of existence ("I'm simply an accident. Why take it all so seriously?" is what he later said in reference to the incident). His works often depict an atmosphere of torment, a state that Cioran himself experienced, and came to be dominated by lyricism and, often, the expression of intense and even violent feeling. The books he wrote in Romanian especially display this latter characteristic. Preoccupied with the problems of death and suffering, he was attracted to the idea of suicide, believing it to be an idea that could help one go on living, an idea which he fully explored in On the Heights of Despair. He revisits suicide in depth in The New Gods, which contains a section of aphorisms devoted to the subject. The theme of human alienation, the most prominent existentialist theme, presented by Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, is thus formulated, in 1932, by young Cioran: "Is it possible that existence is our exile and nothingness our home?" in On the Heights of Despair. Cioran's works encompass many other themes as well: original sin, the tragic sense of history, the end of civilization, the refusal of consolation through faith, the obsession with the absolute, life as an expression of man's metaphysical exile, etc. He was a thinker passionate about history; widely reading the writers that were associated with the "Decadent movement". One of these writers was Oswald Spengler who influenced Cioran's political philosophy in that he offered Gnostic reflections on the destiny of man and civilization. According to Cioran, as long as man has kept in touch with his origins and hasn't cut himself off from himself, he has resisted decadence. Today, he is on his way to his own destruction through self-objectification, impeccable production and reproduction, excess of self-analysis and transparency, and artificial triumph. Regarding God, Cioran has noted that "without Bach, God would be a complete second-rate figure" and that "Bach's music is the only argument proving the creation of the Universe cannot be regarded as a complete failure". Cioran went on to say "Bach, Shakespeare, Beethoven, Dostoevsky and Nietzsche are the only arguments against monotheism." William H. Gass called Cioran's work "a philosophical romance on the modern themes of alienation, absurdity, boredom, futility, decay, the tyranny of history, the vulgarities of change, awareness as agony, reason as disease". Cioran became most famous while writing not in Romanian but French, a language with which he had struggled since his youth. During Cioran's lifetime, Saint-John Perse called him "the greatest French writer to honor our language since the death of Paul Valéry." Cioran's tone and usage in his adopted language were seldom as harsh as in Romanian (though his use of Romanian is said to be more original). Legacy After the death of Cioran's long-term companion, Simone Boué, a collection of Cioran's manuscripts (over 30 notebooks) were found in the couple's apartment by a manager who tried to auction them in 2005. A decision taken by the Court of Appeal of Paris stopped the commercial sale of the collection. However, in March 2011, the Court of Appeal ruled that the seller was the legitimate owner of the manuscripts. The manuscripts were purchased by Romanian businessman George Brăiloiu for €405,000. An aged Cioran is the main character in a play by Romanian dramatist-actor Matei Vișniec, Mansardă la Paris cu vedere spre moarte ("A Paris Loft with a View on Death"). The play, depicting an imaginary meeting between Vișniec and Emil Cioran, was first brought to the stage in 2007, under the direction of Radu Afrim and with a cast of Romanian and Luxembourgian actors; Cioran was played by Constantin Cojocaru. Stagings were organized in the Romanian city of Sibiu and in the Luxembourg, at Esch-sur-Alzette (both Sibiu and Luxembourg City were the year's European Capital of Culture). In 2009, the Romanian Academy granted posthumous membership to Cioran. Under the rule of Nicolae Ceaușescu, Cioran's works were banned. In 1974, Francoist Spain banned The Evil Demiurge for being "atheist, blasphemous, and anti-Christian", which Cioran considered "one of the greatest jokes in his absurd existence." Major works Romanian Pe culmile disperării (literally On the Summits of Despair; translated "On the Heights of Despair"), Editura "Fundația pentru Literatură și Artă", Bucharest 1934 Cartea amăgirilor ("The Book of Delusions"), Bucharest 1936 Schimbarea la față a României ("The Transfiguration of Romania"), Bucharest 1936 Lacrimi și Sfinți ("Tears and Saints"), "Editura autorului" 1937 Îndreptar pătimaș ("The Passionate Handbook"), Humanitas, Bucharest 1991 French All of Cioran's major works in French have been translated into English by Richard Howard. Précis de décomposition ("A Short History of Decay"), Gallimard 1949 Syllogismes de l'amertume (tr. "All Gall Is Divided"), Gallimard 1952 La Tentation d'exister ("The Temptation to Exist"), Gallimard 1956 \| English edition: Histoire et utopie ("History and Utopia"), Gallimard 1960 La Chute dans le temps ("The Fall into Time"), Gallimard 1964 Le Mauvais démiurge (literally The Evil Demiurge; tr. "The New Gods"), Gallimard 1969 De l'inconvénient d'être né ("The Trouble with Being Born"), Gallimard 1973 Écartèlement (tr. "Drawn and Quartered"), Gallimard 1979 Exercices d'admiration 1986, and Aveux et anathèmes 1987 (tr. and grouped as "Anathemas and Admirations") Œuvres (Collected works), Gallimard-Quatro 1995 Mon pays/Țara mea ("My country", written in French, the book was first published in Romania in a bilingual volume), Humanitas, Bucharest, 1996 Cahiers 1957–1972 ("Notebooks"), Gallimard 1997 Des larmes et des saints, L'Herne \| English edition: Sur les cimes du désespoir, L'Herne, \| English edition: Le Crépuscule des pensées, L'Herne, Jadis et naguère, L'Herne Valéry face à ses idoles, L'Herne, 1970, 2006 De la France, L'Herne, 2009 Transfiguration de la Roumanie, L'Herne, 2009 Cahier Cioran, L'Herne, 2009 (Several unpublished documents, letters and photographs). See also Antinatalism Diogenes of Sinope French moralists Misanthropy Philosophical pessimism Romanian philosophy Notes References Wampole, Christy. (2012) "Cioran's Providential Bicycle." Revista Transilvania, January, pp. 51–54. ==External links== Cioran.eu – Project Cioran: texts, interviews, multimedia, links. E.M. Cioran on Samuel Beckett The website states that: "Scattered throughout the one thousand pages of Cioran's Cahiers 1957–1972 are many intriguing remarks about Beckett and his work, of which the following are among the more memorable." The Book of Delusions [Cartea amăgirilor] (chapter 5), translated with an introduction by Camelia Elias. Hyperion: On the Future of Aesthetics, Vol. V, Issue 1, MAY 2010. Isabela Vasiliu-Scraba, Ideas- a variable background in Cioran-s writing 1911 births 1995 deaths 20th-century French essayists 20th-century French philosophers Anti-natalists Aphorists Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery Continental philosophers Deaths from Alzheimer's disease Neurological disease deaths in France Epistemologists Existentialists French agnostics French schoolteachers Members of the Romanian Academy elected posthumously Metaphysicians Moral philosophers Nihilists Ontologists People from Sibiu County Philosophers of art Philosophers of culture Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of literature Philosophers of mind Philosophers of nihilism Philosophers of pessimism Philosophers of religion Prix Sainte-Beuve winners Roger Nimier Prize winners Romanian agnostics Romanian Austro-Hungarians Romanian defectors Romanian essayists Romanian emigrants to France Romanian ethicists Romanian philosophers Romanian schoolteachers Simple living advocates Stateless people 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251243	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamla%20Uppsala	Gamla Uppsala	Gamla Uppsala (, Old Uppsala) is a parish and a village outside Uppsala in Sweden. It had 17,973 inhabitants in 2016. As early as the 3rd century AD and the 4th century AD and onwards, it was an important religious, economic and political centre. Early written sources show that already during prehistory, Gamla Uppsala was widely famous in Northern Europe as the residence of Swedish kings of the legendary Yngling dynasty. In fact, the oldest Scandinavian sources, such as Ynglingatal, the Westrogothic law and the Gutasaga talk of the King of the Swedes (Suiones) as the "King at Uppsala". It was the main centre of the Swedes.<ref name="nybelysning">: {\| \|- \| \|Knappast någon ifrågasätter väl längre Gamla Uppsalas särställning som svearnas centrum. \| \|Translation: Hardly anyone is likely to question the unique position of Gamla Uppsala as the centre of the Swedes anymore. \|}</ref> During the Middle Ages, it was the largest village of Uppland, the eastern part of which probably originally formed the core of the complex of properties belonging to the Swedish Crown, the so-called Uppsala öd, of which the western part consisted of the royal estate itself, kungsgården. It was also the location of the Thing of all Swedes which was a thing (general assembly) held from prehistoric times to the Middle Ages, at the end of February or early March. It was held in conjunction with a great fair called Disting, and a Norse religious celebration called Dísablót.The article Disablot, in the encyclopedia Nordisk familjebok. The Law of Uppland says that it was at this assembly that the king proclaimed that the fleet levy would be summoned for warfare during the summer, and all the crews, rowers, commanders and ships were decided. It was not only the Norse cultic centre, it also became Sweden's archbishopric in 1164. Geographical description Gamla Uppsala lies on Fyris Wolds, a cultivated plain in the valley of the River Fyris which is densely populated in its southern part, while the northern part consists of farms. Religious importance Medieval Scandinavians held Gamla Uppsala as one of the oldest and most important locations in Scandinavia. The Danish chronicler Saxo Grammaticus held Odin himself to have resided in Gamla Uppsala far back in the mists of time: At this time there was one Odin, who was credited over all Europe with the honour, which was false, of godhead, but used more continually to sojourn at Uppsala; and in this spot, either from the sloth of the inhabitants or from its own pleasantness, he vouchsafed to dwell with somewhat especial constancy. This tradition was also known by the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson, who, however had Odin reside in nearby Fornsigtuna, whereas the god Freyr lived in Gamla Uppsala. Freyr is also said to have founded two of the central institutions of Iron Age Sweden, the Uppsala öd and the Temple at Uppsala: Frey took the kingdom after Njord, and was called drot by the Swedes, and they paid taxes to him. He was, like his father, fortunate in friends and in good seasons. Frey built a great temple at Uppsala, made it his chief seat, and gave it all his taxes, his land, and goods. Then began the Upsal domains, which have remained ever since. Saxo Grammaticus adds that Freyr began the human sacrifices at Gamla Uppsala: Also Frey, the regent of the gods, took his abode not far from Uppsala, where he exchanged for a ghastly and infamous sin-offering the old custom of prayer by sacrifice, which had been used by so many ages and generations. For he paid to the gods abominable offerings, by beginning to slaughter human victims. The sacrifices at the Temple at Uppsala are described by Adam of Bremen: At this point I shall say a few words about the religious beliefs of the Swedes. That nation has a magnificent temple, which is called Uppsala, located not far from the city of Sigtuna. In this temple, built entirely of gold, the people worship the statues of three gods. A general festival for all the provinces of Sweden is customarily held at Uppsala every nine years. Participation in this festival is required of everyone. Kings and their subjects, collectively and individually, send their gifts to Uppsala; and – a thing more cruel than any punishment – those who have already adopted Christianity buy themselves off from these ceremonies. The sacrifice is as follows: Of every kind of male creature, nine victims are offered. By the blood of these creatures it is the custom to appease the gods. Their bodies, moreover, are hanged in a grove which is adjacent to the temple. This grove is so sacred to the people that the separate trees in it are believed to be holy because of the death or putrefaction of the sacrificial victims. There even dogs and horses hang beside human beings. (A certain Christian told me that he had seen seventy-two of their bodies hanging up together.) The incantations, however, which are usually sung in the performance of a libation of this kind are numerous and disgraceful, and it is better not to speak of them. In the scolia, there is an additional description: Near that temple is a very large tree with widespread branches which are always green both in winter and summer. What kind of tree it is nobody knows. There is also a spring there where the pagan are accustomed to perform sacrifices and to immerse a human being alive. As long as his body is not found, the request of the people will be fulfilled. A golden chain encircles that temple and hangs over the gables of the building. Those who approach see its gleam from afar off because the shrine, which is located on a plain, is encircled by mountains so situated as to give the effect of a theatre. For nine days feasts and sacrifices of this kind are celebrated. Every day they sacrifice one human being in addition to other animals, so that in nine days there are 72 victims which are sacrificed. This sacrifice takes place about the time of the vernal equinox. The 16th century Johannes Magnus, the Archbishop of Uppsala, asserted that the city was anciently founded by, and named for, an early Swedish king named Ubbo (Uppsala = Ubbo's Hall), who would have supposedly reigned . However, in the absence of any corroborating evidence, Magnus' accounts no longer enjoy widespread acceptance among scholars today. It was a symbolic moment when Pope John Paul II visited Scandinavia in 1989 and held an open-air mass at the royal mounds in Gamla Uppsala, as this was a Norse religion cultic centre, which became Sweden's first archbishopric in 1164. In 2000, the Swedish AsatruSociety restarted the tradition of holding blóts at Gamla Uppsala. History It is a testimony to the sanctity of the location in the mindset of followers of medieval Norse religion that Gamla Uppsala was the last stronghold of pre-Christian, Norse Germanic kingship. During the 1070s and 1080 there appears to have been a renaissance of Norse religion with the magnificent Temple at Uppsala described in a contested account through an eye-witness by Adam of Bremen. Adam of Bremen relates of the Uppsala of the 1070s and describes it as a pagan cult centre with the enormous Temple at Uppsala containing wooden statues of Odin, Thor and Freyr. Sometime in the 1080s the Christian king Ingi was exiled for refusing to perform the sacrifices. Instead Blot-Sweyn was elected, but he was killed by Ingi who could then reclaim his throne. Its great importance in Swedish tradition led to the location of Sweden's first Archbishopric in Gamla Uppsala in 1164. In practice, however, it had lost its strategic importance when it gradually lost ready access to navigable waters as the land rose owing to the constant post-glacial rebound. Archaeology People have been buried in Gamla Uppsala for 2,000 years, since the area rose above water. Originally there were between 2,000 and 3,000 mounds in the area but most have become farmland, gardens and quarries. Today only 250 barrows remain. In the parish there are more than 1,000 preserved archaeological remains, but many more have been removed by agriculture. There are cairns of splintered stone that reveal that the area was settled during the Nordic Bronze Age, but most of the grave fields are from the Iron Age and the Viking Age. The great grave field south of the Royal Mounds is from the Roman Iron Age and the Germanic Iron Age. Near the vicarage, a few unburnt graves from the Viking Age have been excavated. Under the present church in Gamla Uppsala have been found the remains of one or several large wooden buildings. Some archaeologists believe that they are the remains of the Temple of Uppsala, while others hold that comes from an early Christian wooden church. Churches were often built on pre-Christian sacred sites, though. Adjacent to the present church there is a plateau of clay, the Plateau of the Royal Estate (Kungsgårdsplatån), on which archaeologists have found the remains of a large hall. The Royal Mounds The Royal Mounds (Swedish: Kungshögarna) is the name of the three large barrows located in Gamla Uppsala. According to folklore, the three gods Thor, Oden and Freyr would be at rest in Kungshögarna or Uppsala högar (from the Old Norse word Haugr meaning mound or barrow; cognate English Howe). In the 19th and 20th centuries, they were speculated to hold the remains of three kings of the semi-legendary House of Ynglings and were thus known as Aun's Mound, Adils's Mound and Egil's Mound. Today their geographical locations are used instead and they are called the Eastern mound, Middle Mound and Western Mound. They are dated to the 5th and 6th centuries. As Sweden's oldest national symbols they are even depicted on the covers of books about the Swedish national identity. In the 6th century, Gamla Uppsala was the location of royal burials. The location was chosen carefully and in order to make them majestic. The tumuli were constructed on top of the ridge. By burning the dead king and his armour, he was moved to Valhalla by the consuming force of the fire. The fire could reach temperatures of 1500 °C. The remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf. Thus he (Odin) established by law that all dead men should be burned, and their belongings laid with them upon the pile, and the ashes be cast into the sea or buried in the earth. Thus, said he, every one will come to Valhalla with the riches he had with him upon the pile; and he would also enjoy whatever he himself had buried in the earth. For men of consequence a mound should be raised to their memory, and for all other warriors who had been distinguished for manhood a standing stone; which custom remained long after Odin's time. [...] It was their faith that the higher the smoke arose in the air, the higher he would be raised whose pile it was; and the richer he would be, the more property that was consumed with him. —Ynglinga saga An old controversy and its solution In the 1830s, some scholars claimed that the mounds were pure natural formations and not barrows. This affront to ancient Swedish national symbols could not be accepted by the future Swedish king Karl XV and in order to remove any doubt, he decided to start an excavation. The task was given to Bror Emil Hildebrand, the director-general of the National Archives. In 1846, he undertook the excavation of the nine-metres-tall (30 ft) Eastern mound with the hope of finding the grave of a Swedish king of old. The eastern mound The excavation was complex and generated a lot of publicity. A 25-metre-long (82 ft) tunnel was dug into the mound, where they found a pot of clay filled with burnt bones and around it there were the remains of the charred grave offerings. Among the most important finds in the eastern mound were many fragments of decorated bronze panels with a dancing warrior carrying a spear. These panels have probably adorned a helmet of the Vendel Age type, common in Uppland (the only foreign examples being the Sutton Hoo and Staffordshire helmets). There were also finds of gold which probably had adorned a scramasax, but according to another interpretation, they were part of a belt. The dead was also given several glass beakers, a tafl game, a comb and a hone. Most scholars agree that the mound was either raised for a woman or for a young man and a woman as the remains of a woman and boy were found. Hildebrand reburied most of the remains, so a new excavation will need to be undertaken before the controversy can be settled. What is quite certain is that the dead belonged to a royal dynasty. The western mound In 1874, Hildebrand started an excavation of the western mound and opened an enormous shaft right into the cairn in the centre of the mound. Under the cobble stones, there were the charred remains of the funeral fire. In the western mound were found the remains of a man and animals, probably for food during the journey. The remains of a warrior's equipment were found. Luxurious weapons and other objects, both domestic and imported, show that the buried man was very powerful. These remains include a Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets and a board game with Roman pawns of ivory. He was dressed in a costly suit made of Frankish cloth with golden threads, and he wore a belt with a sumptuous buckle. There were four cameos from the Middle East which were probably part of a casket. The finds show the distant contacts of the people of Uppland in the 6th century. Gamla Uppsala Church Gamla Uppsala Church (Gamla Uppsala kyrka) was the seat of the Archbishopric of Sweden prior to 1273, when the seat was moved to Östra Aros (Östra Aros was then renamed Uppsala due to a papal request). The old cathedral was probably built in the 11th century, but finished in the 12th century. The stone building may have been preceded by a wooden church and probably by the large Temple at Uppsala. After a fire in 1240, the nave and transepts of the cathedral were removed, leaving only the choir and central tower, and with the addition of the sacristy and the porch gave the church its present outer appearance. In the 15th century, vaults were added as well as chalk paintings. Among the medieval wooden sculptures there are three crucifixes from the 12th, 13th and 15th centuries. Archbishop Valerius was buried here. King Eric IX of Sweden was as well, before being moved to Uppsala Cathedral. Astronomer, physicist and mathematician Anders Celsius (1701–1744) was also buried at Gamla Uppsala Church next to his grandfather Magnus Celsius (1621–1679). Notes References Klingmark, Elisabeth: Gamla Uppsala'', Svenska kulturminnen 59, Riksantikvarieämbetet. Nationalencyklopedin External links Virtual tour of Gamla Uppsala Church Archeological information on Gamla Uppsala, by the Swedish National Heritage Board. Uppsala official site. Historical Reference from Adam of Bremen's Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, Book IV, with Facing Latin and English text. 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251244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Monterrey	Battle of Monterrey	In the Battle of Monterrey (September 21–24, 1846) during the Mexican–American War, General Pedro de Ampudia and the Mexican Army of the North was defeated by the Army of Occupation, a force of United States Regulars, Volunteers and Texas Rangers under the command of General Zachary Taylor. The hard-fought urban combat led to heavy casualties on both sides. The battle ended with both sides negotiating a two-month armistice and the Mexican forces being allowed to make an orderly evacuation in return for the surrender of the city. Background Following the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Taylor crossed the Rio Grande on 18 May, while in early June, Mariano Arista turned over command of what remained of his army, 2,638 men, to Francisco Mejia, who led them to Monterrey. On 8 June, United States Secretary of War William L. Marcy ordered Taylor to continue command of operations in northern Mexico, suggested taking Monterrey, and defined his objective to "dispose the enemy to desire an end to the war." On 8 August, Taylor established the headquarters for his Army of Occupation in Camargo, Tamaulipas and then in Cerralvo on 9 September with 6,640 men. Taylor resumed the march to Monterrey on 11 September, reaching Marin on 15 September and departing on 18 September In early July, General Tomas Requena garrisoned Monterrey with 1,800 men, with the remnants of Arista's army and additional forces from Mexico City arriving by the end of August such that the Mexican forces totaled 7,303 men. General Pedro de Ampudia received orders from Antonio López de Santa Anna to retreat further to the city of Saltillo, where Ampudia was to establish a defensive line, but Ampudia disagreed, sensing glory if he could stop Taylor's advance. Ampudia's forces included reinforcements from Mexico City totaling 3,140 men: 1,080 men of the Garcia-Conde Brigade (Gen. Jose Garcia Conde) (Aguascalientes and Querétaro Battalions, two squadrons of the 3d Line Cavalry, three guns (3-8lbs)), a thousand men of the Azpeitia Brigade (Col. Florencio Azpeitia) (3d Line, two squadrons of the Jalisco lancers, two squadrons of the Guanajuato Cavalry Regiment, six guns (8 and 12lbs.) and an ambulance), 1,060 men of the Simeon Ramirez Brigade (Acting Gen. Ramirez) (3d and 4th Light, three guns (1-8lbs, 2-12 −lbs) and 3 howitzers 7" (Capt. P. Gutierrez and Comdte. A. Nieto)) and an artillery unit, the largely Irish-American volunteers called San Patricios (or the Saint Patrick's Battalion), in their first major engagement against U.S. forces. Battle Taylor's army, with the Texas Division leading under the command of Major General and Texas Governor James Pinckney Henderson, reached the plain in front of Monterrey at 9am on the morning of 19 September, when they were fired upon by Col. Jose Lopez Uraga's 4th Infantry guns, located at San Patricio Battery atop the citadel. Taylor ordered the army to camp at Bosque de San Domingo while engineers under the command of Major Joseph K. Mansfield reconnoitered. Besides the citadel, Mexican strong points within the city included the "Black Fort" (Col. Jose Lopez Uraga, 3d & 4th Line and 9 guns-incl. "San Patricio" Battery); "the Tannery," La Teneria, (2d Ligero under Col. Jose M. Carrasco and part of the Querétaro Battalion, and 2 guns & 1 mountain howitzer - Lt (?) J. Espejo) El Fortin del Rincon del Diablo (Lt. Col. Calisto Bravo and 3 guns- Capt. Ignacio Joaquin del Arenal); La Purisima bridge and tete-de-pont (Activos of Aguascalientes under Col. Jose Ferro and the Querétaro under Comdte. Jose Maria Herrera 3 guns- Capt. P. Gutierez). West of the city atop Independencia stood Ft. Libertad ( 4 guns) and the Obispado (bishop's place) with the Activos of Mexico commanded by Lt. Col. Franciso de Berra and 3 guns and 1 howitzer, and atop Federacion was a redan(2 guns) and Fort Soldado. In reserve at la Plaza was the 3d Ligero under Lt. Col. Juan Castro and 1 gun-Lt. Agustin Espinosa. General Zachary Taylor decided to attack western Monterrey using William J. Worth's Division in a giant north and west "hook" movement while simultaneously attacking with his main body from the east. Worth started at 2pm on 20 September with Col. John Coffee Hays's Texas Mounted Riflemen Regiment screening the advance, but camped for the night three miles from the Saltillo road. By 6am on 21 September, Worth continued his advance, repulsing a Jalisco cavalry charge by Col. Juan Najera, killing the latter and an advance guard consisting of General Manuel Romero's brigade and Lt. Col. Mariano Moret's Guanajuato Regiment. By 8:15am, Worth had severed the Saltillo road from Monterrey and sent Capt. Charles F. Smith with 300 infantry and Texans, plus Capt. Dixon Miles's 7th Infantry and Persifor Smith's 2nd Brigade to take Federacion and Fort Soldado, which they quickly did. In the meantime, Taylor launched a diversion against eastern Monterrey with Col. John Garland's 1st and 3d Infantry plus Lt. Col. William H. Watson's Maryland and District of Columbia Battalion, which quickly grew into an assault. By 8am, Capt. Electus Backus's company of the 1st Infantry had taken the tannery and by noon, with Col. William B. Campbell's 1st Tennessee and Mississippi Rifles, had taken Fort de La Teneria. No attacks or sorties occurred on 22 September. At 3am on 23 September, Worth sent the Texas Rangers and the 4th and 8th Infantry, under Lt. Col. Thomas Childs, to take Fort Libertad on Independencia, which they did by daybreak. With the help of James Duncan's battery, they soon took the Obispado and had control of western Monterrey. By then, the Mexicans had abandoned their outer defenses on the east side of Monterrey, concentrating in the Plaza Mayor, and John A. Quitman's brigade held eastern Monterrey by 11am. During the exchange of fire, a young Mexican woman wandered into the crossfire to tend to the wounds of injured soldiers of both armies. She was struck by a bullet while attending to a wounded American soldier, and was likely killed. Her name was later discovered to be María Josefa Zozaya. By 2pm on 23 September, General Worth advanced into the city from the west, burrowing house to house, supported in the late afternoon by a mortar set up in Plaza de la Capella, and were within a block west of the plaza by 11pm. The Texan volunteers taught the U.S. regulars new techniques for fighting in the city, techniques that they did not employ on 21 September, which led to staggering casualties. Armed with these new urban warfare skills, the U.S. Army, along with Texan, Mississippian, and Tennessee volunteers moved house to house, rooting out Mexican soldiers hiding on rooftops and inside the thick, adobe-walled houses of northern Mexico. By 2pm, Taylor and Quitman were within two blocks east of the plaza when Taylor ordered a withdrawal before nightfall. General Ampudia decided to negotiate on 24 September. Taylor negotiated a two-month armistice, along the line Rinconada Pass-Linares_San Fernando de Parras, in return for the surrender of the city. The Mexican Army was allowed to march from the city from 26 to 28 September, with their personal arms and one field battery of six guns. Aftermath Ampudia had moved beyond the armistice line by 30 September and San Luis Potosi by early November. The resulting armistice signed between Taylor and Ampudia had major effects upon the outcome of the war. Taylor was lambasted by some in the federal government, where President James K. Polk insisted that the U.S. Army had no authority to negotiate truces, only to "kill the enemy." In addition, his terms of armistice, which allowed Ampudia's forces to retreat with battle honors and all of their weapons, were seen as foolish and short-sighted by some U.S. observers. For his part, some have argued that Ampudia had begun the defeat of Mexico. Many Mexican soldiers became disenchanted with the war. In a well-fortified, well-supplied position, an army of ten thousand Mexican soldiers had resisted the U.S. Army for three days, only to be forced into surrender by American urban battle tactics, heavy artillery and possibly further division in the Mexican ranks. The invading army occupied the city and remained until June 18, 1848. As soon as the occupation occurred, the U.S. Army committed several executions of civilians and several women were raped. Among the most memorable massacres is the one reported by the Houston Telegraph and Register on January 4, 1847 when Texas volunteers blamed the Mexicans for the death of several of their companions in Monterrey. Consequently, Americans began to shoot all civilians they encountered. The newspaper, citing military sources reported more than fifty civilians killed in Monterrey in a single event. Similar acts of violence occurred in other surrounding occupied towns such as Marín (which was destroyed and set on fire), Apodaca as well as other towns between the Rio Grande and Monterrey. In most cases those attacks were perpetrated by the Texas Rangers. Several American volunteers condemned the attacks, and blamed the Texas Rangers for committing hate crimes on civilians allegedly for revenge of the former Mexican campaigns in Texas. Before and after the US occupation, a large number of civilians fled the city. In response to the occupation several local guerrilla groups emerged such as those led by Antonio Canales Rosillo and José Urrea, the latter widely repudiated by the Texans because of his leadership participation in the campaigns of the Texas War ten years earlier. Taylor admitted the atrocities committed by his men, but took no action to punish them. Mexican order of battle Army of the North Gen. div. Pedro de Ampudia, Commanding Chief of Staff: Gen. J. Garcia Conde Engineer: Capt. Luis Robles Zapadores Battalion: Lt. Col. Mariano Reyes Artillery: Gen. Tomas Requena Battery: Comdte Luis Nieto (3 howitzers) Battery: Capt. Ignacio J. del Arana (3-8 lbs.) Battery: Capt. Patricio Gutierrez (2-12 lbs & 1-8 lbs.) Battery: Capt.Jacinto Dominquez (?) Battery: "San Patricios" (?) 1st Infantry Brigade: Acting gen. Simeon Ramirez 3d & 4th Ligero (Light) Aguascalientes Activos 2d Infantry Brigade: Act.gen. Francisco Mejia−−− 2d Ligero, 6th & 10th Line, Querétaro Activos 3d Infantry Brigade: Col. Jose Lopez Uraga 3d & 4th Line, Mexico 1st Activos 1st Cavalry Brigade:Act. gen. Anastasio Torrejon 1st, 7th & 8th Cavalry, Mexico Light Mounted 2d Cavalry Brigade: Act.gen. Manuel Romerro 3d Cavalry, Jalisco Lasncers, Guanajauto & San Luis Potosi Activos See also Battles of the Mexican–American War References Further reading Toro, Alfonso "Historia de México", vol. 2, pp. 372–374. Alcaraz, Ramon et al. "Apuntes Para la Historia de la Guerra Entre Mexico y los Estados Unidos" Henderson, Timothy J. (2008). A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States. USA: Macmillan. . Balbotin, Manuel "La Invasion Americana, 1846 a 1848" Grant, U.S. "Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant, Vol I, pp 74-82", Note 1 Alcaraz in "Apuntes..." lists the initial Mex. units on pp 90–91. Note 2 Balbontin in " La Invasion" lists the Mex. reinforcements on pp 10–11. He lists units and artillery at some of the defense points. Annual Reports 1894, War Department list trophy guns as: 1- 12 pounder, 3- 8 pounders, 2- 4 pounders, 2- 4 pounder mountain howitzers & 1- 68 pound howitzer. Dishman, Christopher, ''A Perfect Gibraltar: The Battle for Monterrey, Mexico," University of Oklahoma Press, 2010 External links The Capture of Monterrey - PBS U.S.-Mexican War The Battle of Monterrey - A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, University of Texas at Arlington Nuevo Leon, Historic Sites of the U.S.-Mexican War - Descendants of Mexican War Veterans Battle for Monterrey, Mexico Mexican-American War remains arrive in U.S. for study Monterrey Monterrey History of Monterrey Presidency of James K. 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251245	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum%20brake	Vacuum brake	The vacuum brake is a braking system employed on trains and introduced in the mid-1860s. A variant, the automatic vacuum brake system, became almost universal in British train equipment and in countries influenced by British practice. Vacuum brakes also enjoyed a brief period of adoption in the United States, primarily on narrow-gauge railroads. Their limitations caused them to be progressively superseded by compressed air systems starting in the United Kingdom from the 1970s onward. The vacuum brake system is now obsolete; it is not in large-scale usage anywhere in the world, other than in South Africa, largely supplanted by air brakes. Introduction In the earliest days of railways, trains were slowed or stopped by the application of manually applied brakes on the locomotive and in brake vehicles through the train, and later by steam power brakes on locomotives. This was clearly unsatisfactory, given the slow and unreliable response times (each brake being separately applied by a member of the train crew in response to signals from the driver, which they might miss for any number of reasons, and necessarily in sequence rather than all at once where there were more brakes than crew members, making emergency braking extremely hit-and-miss) and extremely limited braking power that could be exerted (most vehicles in the train being wholly unbraked, and the power of all but the locomotive's own brakes relying on the strength of a particular crewmember's arm on a screw handle), but the existing technology did not offer an improvement. A chain braking system was developed, requiring a chain to be coupled throughout the train, but it was impossible to arrange equal braking effort along the entire train. A major advance was the adoption of a vacuum braking system, in which flexible pipes were connected between all the vehicles of the train, and brakes on each vehicle could be controlled from the locomotive. The earliest scheme was a simple vacuum brake, in which vacuum was created by operation of a valve on the locomotive; the vacuum actuated brake pistons on each vehicle, and the degree of braking could be increased or decreased by the driver. Vacuum, rather than compressed air, was preferred because steam locomotives can be fitted with ejectors; venturi devices that create vacuum without moving parts. The simple vacuum system had the major defect that in the event of one of the hoses connecting the vehicles becoming displaced (by the train accidentally dividing, or by careless coupling of the hoses, or otherwise) the vacuum brake on the entire train was useless. In response to this obvious defect, the automatic vacuum brake was subsequently developed. It was designed to apply fully if the train became divided or if a hose became displaced. Opposition to the fitting of the automatic type of brake on the grounds of cost (particularly by the LNWR and its chairman Richard Moon) meant that it took a serious accident at Armagh in 1889 before legislation compelled the adoption of the automatic system. In this accident at Armagh, a portion of a train was detached from the locomotive on a steep gradient and ran away, killing 80 people. The train was fitted with the simple vacuum brake, which was useless on the disconnected portion of the train. It was clear that if the vehicles had been fitted with an automatic continuous brake, the accident would almost certainly not have happened, and the public concern at the scale of the accident prompted legislation mandating the use of a continuous automatic brake on all passenger trains. In continental Europe, the vacuum brake was sometimes called the Hardy brake, after John George Hardy of the Vacuum Brake Co, 7 Hohenstaufengasse, Vienna. Operation In its simplest form, the automatic vacuum brake consists of a continuous pipe—the train pipe—running throughout the length of the train. In normal running a partial vacuum is maintained in the train pipe, and the brakes are released. When air is admitted to the train pipe, the air at atmospheric pressure acts against pistons in cylinders in each vehicle. A vacuum is sustained on the other face of the pistons, so that a net force is applied. A mechanical linkage transmits this force to brake shoes which act on the treads of the wheels. The fittings to achieve this are: a train pipe: a steel pipe running the length of each vehicle, with flexible vacuum hoses at each end of the vehicles, and coupled between adjacent vehicles; at the end of the train, the final hose is seated on an air-tight plug; an ejector on the locomotive, to create vacuum in the train pipe; controls for the driver to bring the ejector into action, and to admit air to the train pipe; these may be separate controls or a combined brake valve; a brake cylinder on each vehicle containing a piston, connected by rigging to the brake shoes on the vehicle; and a vacuum (pressure) gauge on the locomotive to indicate to the driver the degree of vacuum in the train pipe. The brake cylinder is contained in a larger housing—this gives a reserve of vacuum as the piston operates. The cylinder rocks slightly in operation to maintain alignment with the brake rigging cranks, so it is supported in trunnion bearings, and the vacuum pipe connection to it is flexible. The piston in the brake cylinder has a flexible piston ring that allows air to pass from the upper part of the cylinder to the lower part if necessary. When the vehicles have been at rest, so that the brake is not charged, the brake pistons will have dropped to their lower position in the absence of a pressure differential (as air will have leaked slowly into the upper part of the cylinder, destroying the vacuum). When a locomotive is coupled to the vehicles, the driver moves the brake control to the "release" position and air is exhausted from the train pipe, creating a partial vacuum. Air in the upper part of the brake cylinders is also exhausted from the train pipe, through a non-return valve. If the driver now moves his control to the "brake" position, air is admitted to the train pipe. According to the driver's manipulation of the control, some or all of the vacuum will be destroyed in the process. The ball valve closes and there is a higher air pressure under the brake pistons than above it, and the pressure differential forces the piston upwards, applying the brakes. The driver can control the amount of braking effort by admitting more or less air to the train pipe. Practical considerations The automatic vacuum brake as described represented a considerable technical advance in train braking. In practice steam locomotives had two ejectors, a small ejector for running purposes (to maintain the partial vacuum at the correct level against inevitable slight air leaks in the train pipe and its connections) and a large ejector to release brake applications. The small ejector used much less steam than the large ejector but could not generate vacuum in the train pipe sufficiently quickly for operational purposes, especially in a long train. Later Great Western Railway practice was to use a vacuum pump instead of the small ejector – the pump was fitted to one of the engine crossheads and so did not use any steam, with the disadvantage that it only operated when the locomotive was in motion. The GWR favoured this due to the use of braking systems working on a vacuum level higher than other railways (see below) which would have required a relatively large and steam-hungry "small" ejector. Most steam locomotives of the period used straightforward live steam brakes on their own wheels (where steam pressure was let into the brake cylinders to apply the brakes), with the vacuum brake being solely used on the train. In such a case the two systems were usually operated proportionately by a single control, whereby the reduction in vacuum in the train brake system would open the valve feeding steam to the engine brake. It was unusual for any form of dedicated control to be provided solely for the steam brake – even when running with no train the driver controlled the engine's steam brakes by adjusting the vacuum brake system using the ejectors on the engine and the "head end" of the train pipe. This allowed the driver of the lead engine direct control over the brakes on any trailing locomotive (as well as the train itself) when double heading. With the introduction of diesel and electric locomotives by British Railways from the early 1950s, this same basic arrangement was carried over. BR's Modernisation Plan of 1955 called for, amongst other things, a long-term aim to switch to air brakes for both passenger and freight stock. The standard Mark 1 coaching stock had been designed and procured before the decision to switch to modern traction and air brakes had been taken, so the majority of the stock was fitted with traditional vacuum brakes. Air-braked goods wagons were introduced steadily from the mid-1960s (starting with the HAA-type hoppers for the new 'merry-go-round' trains) and the Mark 2a coaching stock with air brakes was built from 1967. Diesel and electric locomotives naturally could not use the traditional steam-driven ejector to generate vacuum. Smaller locomotives had exhausters or vacuum pumps driven directly by their prime mover while larger ones had similar machines mounted separately and driven by dedicated electric motors. It was normal practice on mainline locomotives to fit two exhausters (and two air compressors for the air brake system) for redundancy. Just as steam locomotives had a small and large ejector, the diesels and electrics (most of which had braking equipment supplied by either British Westinghouse or Davies and Metcalfe had their brake controls set up to run one exhauster continuously to generate and maintain the vacuum in the system (analogous to the small ejector), with the second one being started when the brake handle was set to its 'Release' position to provide a quicker response (the same function as the large ejector). A switch in the locomotive cab allowed the driver to choose which exhauster would serve each function. Release valves are provided on the brake cylinders; when operated, usually by manually pulling a cord near the cylinder, air is admitted to the upper part of the brake cylinder on that vehicle. This is necessary to release the brake on a vehicle that has been uncoupled from a train and now requires to be moved without having a brake connection to another locomotive, for example if it is to be shunted. In the UK the pre-nationalisation railway companies standardised around systems operating on a vacuum of , with the exception of the Great Western Railway, which used . An absolute vacuum is about , depending on atmospheric conditions. This difference in standards could cause problems on long-distance cross-country services when a GWR locomotive was replaced with another company's engine, as the new engine's large ejector would sometimes not be able to fully release the brakes on the train. In this case the release valves on each vehicle in the train would have to be released by hand, before the brake was recharged at 21 inches. This time-consuming process was frequently seen at large GWR stations such as Bristol Temple Meads. The provision of a train pipe running throughout the train enabled the automatic vacuum brake to be operated in emergency from any position in the train. Every guard's compartment had a brake valve, and the passenger communication apparatus (usually called "the communication cord" in lay terminology) also admitted air into the train pipe at the end of coaches so equipped. When a locomotive is first coupled to a train, or if a vehicle is detached or added, a brake continuity test is carried out, to ensure that the brake pipes are connected throughout the entire length of the train. Limitations The progress represented by the automatic vacuum brake nonetheless carried some limitations; chief among these were: the practical limit on the degree of vacuum attainable means that a very large brake piston and cylinder are required to generate the force necessary on the brake blocks; when a proportion of the British ordinary wagon fleet was fitted with vacuum brakes in the 1950s, the physical dimensions of the brake cylinder prevented the wagons from operating in some private sidings that had tight clearances; for the same reason, on a very long train, a considerable volume of air has to be admitted to the train pipe to make a full brake application, and a considerable volume has to be exhausted to release the brake (if for example a signal at danger is suddenly cleared and the driver requires to resume speed); while the air is traveling along the train pipe, the brake pistons at the head of the train have responded to the brake application or release, but those at the tail will respond much later, leading to undesirable longitudinal forces in the train. In extreme cases this has led to breaking couplings and causing the train to divide. the existence of vacuum in the train pipe can cause debris to be sucked in. An accident took place near Ilford in the 1950s, due to inadequate braking effort in the train. A rolled newspaper was discovered in the train pipe, effectively isolating the rear part of the train from the driver's control. The blockage should have been detected if a proper brake continuity test had been carried out before the train started its journey. A development introduced in the 1950s was the direct admission valve, fitted to every brake cylinder. These valves responded to a rise in train pipe pressure as the brake was applied, and admitted atmospheric air directly to the underside of the brake cylinder. American and continental European practice had long favoured compressed air brake systems, the leading pattern being a proprietary Westinghouse system. This has a number of advantages, including smaller brake cylinders (because higher air pressure could be used) and a somewhat more responsive braking effort. However, the system requires an air pump. On steam engines this was usually a reciprocating steam-driven compressor, which was quite bulky and much more complicated and maintenance-intensive than the vacuum ejector, which was compact and had no moving parts. The compressor's distinctive shape and the characteristic puffing sound when the brake is released (as the train pipe has to be recharged with air) make steam locomotives fitted with the Westinghouse brake unmistakable. Another disadvantage of the earlier air brake systems (although later overcome) was that it was impossible to make a partial release. The vacuum brake can very simply be partially released by restoring some (but not all) of the vacuum, without having to fully release the brakes. The original air brake systems, on the other hand, did not allow this, the only way of partially releasing the brake being to fully release it, then re-apply it to the desired setting. A corollary of this was that the standard vacuum brake system, as used between the 1860s and the 1940s, could not easily maintain a constant level of application. The driver could remove air from the train pipe using the ejector(s) or admit air using the brake valve but there was no way of setting the brake to a fixed level of vacuum between 'zero' (atmospheric pressure) and the maximum vacuum-generating capabilities of the ejector (21-25inHg, see above). The only way to do so was to carefully balance the setting of the brake valve and the small ejector, which was difficult to achieve in practice and was not even possible on some systems which combined both into a single control. This meant that braking occurred through a series of controlled applications and releases – perfectly adequate to safely bring a train to a halt but requiring constant management to maintain a speed on a downhill gradient. By contrast even the earliest Westinghouse air brake systems could be 'lapped' – the system would maintain the brakes at a constant level as set by the driver. Later vacuum brake systems as fitted to British Railways diesel and electric locomotives and multiple units in the 1950s used mechanically-driven exhausters or vacuum pumps which included regulator valves allowing the driver to set a desired vacuum in the train pipe which would then be maintained by the system admitted or exhausting air as required. In the UK, the Great Eastern Railway, the North Eastern Railway, the London, Chatham and Dover Railway, the London Brighton and South Coast Railway and the Caledonian Railway adopted the Westinghouse compressed air system. It was also standard on the Isle of Wight rail system. This led to compatibility problems in exchanging traffic with other lines. It was possible to provide through pipes for the braking system not fitted to any particular vehicle so that it could run in a train using the "other" system, allowing through control of the fitted vehicles behind it, but with no braking effort of its own; or to fit vehicles with both braking systems. The Big Four companies formed in 1923 all chose to adopt the vacuum brake as the new standard for most rolling stock, with the same 21 InHg operating vacuum with the continuing exception of the GWR (and many electric multiple units introduced in this period used variations on the automatic air brake). A large proportion of the inherited air-braked stock had been retired or converted to vacuum operation by the outbreak of the Second World War and with the formation of British Railways in 1948 the 21 InHg vacuum brake system became the new standard. However, air-braked steam-hauled stock remained in service on the former Great Eastern Railway suburban lines from London Liverpool Street until the end of steam on the GE in 1962. Producing the vacuum Ejectors Vacuum brakes were initially favoured over air brakes because of the ease of producing the vacuum. A vacuum ejector was a simpler and reliable device, compared to the reciprocating pump. Typically two ejectors are fitted, large and small. The large ejector is used to 'blow off' the brakes, by producing the vacuum, and is then shut off. The small ejector is left running continuously in order to maintain it. The Gresham & Craven 'Dreadnought' ejector was a combination ejector, with both large and small ejectors within the same body. The vacuum produced depended on the total number of vehicles in the train and the sum of their various minor leaks. A train of stock due for maintenance could make it difficult to maintain a vacuum, even requiring intermittent use of the large ejector when running. The widely used Super-Dreadnought ejector combined a large ejector with two small ejectors in one. If needed, two of the smaller nozzles could produce more vacuum, yet were more efficient in their use of steam then a single larger nozzle. The Great Western Railway was noted for its idiosyncrasies, including the use of a higher brake vacuum than other lines. To maintain this without excessive steam consumption in an ejector, they also favoured the use of a crosshead-driven mechanical pump. Exhausters Diesel locomotives were introduced at a time when vacuum brakes were still widespread. Ejectors are not practical and so mechanical pumps or 'exhausters' are used instead. These are a small rotary vane pump, similar to some forms of vacuum pump. The body is a cylindrical metal casting with a cylindrical rotor within it, but the two axes are offset. The rotor contains a number of sliding vanes, typically six. As the rotor is rotated, the vanes are held against the walls of the cylindrical body. Entry and exit ports at the top and bottom of the cylinder, where the rotor is furthest from and nearest to the wall, provide a vacuum pumping effect. The vanes are held against the cylinder by an internal cam ring or by springs. They are lubricated by an oil feed into the exhauster. As the exhauster is oil-lubricated, the exhaust air is full of oil droplets and so passes through an oil separator before being exhausted to the atmosphere. A simple check valve on the inlet prevents backflow leakage, if the exhauster stops. Compared to the compressor of an air brake, the exhauster is a simpler and more reliable device. It has no valves, so fewer moving parts. There is no pressure control, as vacuum pumping is self-limiting. The exhauster runs cooler as there is little compression of the pumped air. The pump seals are simpler, owing to the lower pressure, and there are no piston rings with a risk of sticking. Exhausters are typically engine-driven, and run continuously. If there are two engines in a locomotive or railcar, two exhausters are usually fitted. They are cheap devices, extra pumping capacity can help to release the brakes more quickly and their redundancy reduces the risk of a failure causing a failed train. On electric locomotives, the exhausters are electrically driven. Some of the first diesel-engined buses and coaches between the 1930s and 1950s also used engine-driven exhausters. They were designed with vacuum braking systems or servo-assisted brakes, based on earlier models with petrol engines. As petrol engines produce a manifold vacuum, vacuum systems are easily added. Diesel engines have no throttle or manifold venturi, thus do not provide a usable vacuum source. Trucks and later buses used compressor-driven air brakes instead. Dual brakes Vehicles can be fitted with dual brakes, vacuum and air, provided that there is room to fit the duplicated equipment. In a dual fitted vehicle, there would be both a vacuum cylinder and one or more air brake cylinders, all operating on the same set of rigging to apply the brakes at the vehicle wheels. Some of BR's Mk1 coaches were built with dual brakes (all had vacuum as standard) and much of the rest of the fleet was dual fitted by the 1980s, so they could be worked by air or vacuum fitted locomotives as the changeover from vacuum to air took place between 1970 and the early 1990s. On a smaller vehicle such as a traditional four-wheeled goods wagon, it is much easier to fit just one kind of brake with a pipe for continuity of the other. Train crew need to take note that the wrong-fitted wagons do not contribute to the braking effort and make allowances on down grades to suit. Many of the earlier classes of diesel locomotive used on British Railways (and electric locos up to and including the Class 86) were fitted with dual systems to enable full usage of BR's rolling stock inherited from the private companies which had different systems depending on which company the stock originated from. Air brakes need a tap to seal the hose at the ends of the train. If these taps are incorrectly closed, a loss of brake force may occur, leading to a dangerous runaway. With vacuum brakes, the end of the hose can be plugged into a stopper which seals the hose by suction. It is much harder to block the hose pipe compared to air brakes. Twin pipe systems Vacuum brakes can be operated in a twin pipe mode to speed up applications and release. Twin pipe vacuum systems were standard on the first generation British Rail Diesel Multiple Units which replaced steam locomotive hauled passenger trains on many branch and secondary lines in the 1960s. The second "high Vacuum " pipe and associated reservoirs and valves were used as a means to increase the speed of the release of the brake. The vacuum exhausters on these units were mechanically driven by the engine; as the engine would normally only be idling when a brake release was required, release would have been extremely slow if the conventional single-pipe system had been employed. This problem did not occur on BR's diesel locomotives, as their exhausters were electrically driven, and so could be run at high speed to release the brake irrespective of engine speed. Present-day use of vacuum brakes Today's largest operators of trains equipped with vacuum brakes are the Indian Railways and Spoornet (South Africa), however there are also trains with air brakes and dual brakes in use. South African Railways (Spoornet) operates more than 1 000 electric multiple unit cars, which are fitted with air compressed brakes. The electro-vacuum system uses a train pipe and basic automatic vacuum brake system, with the addition of electrically controlled application and release valves in each vehicle. The application and release valves greatly increase the rate of train pipe vacuum destruction and creation. This, in turn, greatly increases the speed of brake application and release. The performance of electro-vacuum brakes on SAR EMUs is equivalent to electro-pneumatic braked EMUs of a similar age. Other African railways are believed to continue to use the vacuum brake. Other operators of vacuum brakes are narrow-gauge railways in Europe, the largest of which is the Rhaetian Railway. Vacuum brakes have been entirely superseded on the National Rail system in the UK (with the British Rail Class 121 "bubble cars" being the last mainline trains to have vacuum brakes-they finished service in 2017), although they are still in use on most standard gauge heritage railways. They are also to be found on a diminishing number of main line vintage special trains. Iarnród Éireann (the national rail operator in the Republic of Ireland) ran vacuum-braked British Railways Mark 2 stock on passenger trains until the end of March 2008 and still operates vacuum-braked revenue freight (at least in the case of Tara Mines ore traffic). All mainline heritage trains are run with vacuum brakes – the whole of Iarnród Éireann's current locomotive fleet has both air and vacuum train brakes fitted. The Isle of Man Railway uses vacuum brakes fitted to all its coaching and wagon stock, as do the Ffestiniog and Welsh Highland Railways. Most other British narrow gauge lines use the air brake: this is because these railways were not required to fit continuous braking until the last quarter of the 20th century, by which time vacuum brake equipment was no longer being produced and was difficult to obtain. High altitude Vacuum brakes are less effective at high altitude. This is because they depend upon the creation of a pressure differential; atmospheric pressure is lower at high altitudes, and so the maximum differential is also lower. See also Brake (railway) Gladhand connector Eames Vacuum Brake Railway air brake Vacuum Brake Company References British Transport Commission, London (1957:142). Handbook for Railway Steam Locomotive Enginemen. Further reading External links illustrated description of the vacuum automatic brake Railway brakes	[ -0.2465747743844986, 0.11005830764770508, 0.23078171908855438, 0.21054776012897491, 0.07631596177816391, 0.2442673146724701, 0.29905784130096436, -0.15064100921154022, 0.08243206143379211, -0.19616833329200745, -0.2619442343711853, 0.8128198981285095, -0.12425658851861954, 0.5306692123413086, -0.3045581877231598, -0.005728923249989748, 0.1710117906332016, 0.014125584624707699, 0.37455642223358154, -0.14915062487125397, -0.002514240797609091, 0.11935070157051086, 0.5087394118309021, 0.0875278189778328, -0.11040087789297104, -0.28153979778289795, 0.021344872191548347, -0.11844325065612793, 0.11426404118537903, 0.3273085355758667, 0.3376448154449463, 0.6938304901123047, 0.09431849420070648, 0.0481562502682209, -0.0169991422444582, 0.3380752205848694, -0.2722228765487671, -0.21467891335487366, -0.11352487653493881, -0.2845495939254761, -0.09569612145423889, 0.4084765911102295, 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251246	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Carleton	William Carleton	William Carleton (4 March 1794, Prolusk (often spelt as Prillisk as on his gravestone), Clogher, County Tyrone – 30 January 1869, Sandford Road, Ranelagh, Dublin) was an Irish writer and novelist. He is best known for his Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, a collection of ethnic sketches of the stereotypical Irishman. Childhood Carleton's father was a Roman Catholic tenant farmer, who supported fourteen children on as many acres, and young Carleton passed his early life among scenes similar to those he later described in his books. Carleton was steeped in folklore from an early age. His father, who had an extraordinary memory (he knew the bible by heart) and as a native Irish speaker, a thorough acquaintance with Irish folklore, told stories by the fireside. His mother, a noted singer, sang in Irish. The character of Honor, the miser's wife, in Fardorougha, is said to be based on her. Carleton received a basic education. As his father moved from one small farm to another, he attended various hedge schools, which used to be a notable feature of Irish life. A picture of one of these schools occurs in the sketch called "The Hedge School" included in Traits and Stories of Irish Peasantry. Most of his learning was gained from a curate, Father Keenan, who taught a classical school at Glennan (near Glaslough) in the parish of Donagh (County Monaghan) which Carleton attended from 1814 to 1816. He studied for the priesthood at Maynooth, but left after two years. Carleton had hoped to obtain an education as a poor scholar at Munster, with a view to entering the church; but he was shaken by an ominous dream, the story of which is told in the Poor Scholar, and he returned home. An amusing account of this period is given in the sketch, "Denis O'Shaughnessy". Aged about nineteen, he undertook one of the religious pilgrimages then common in Ireland. His experiences as a pilgrim, narrated in "The Lough Derg Pilgrim," made him give up the thought of entering the church, and he eventually became a Protestant. Career His vacillating ideas as to a mode of life were determined by reading the picaresque novel Gil Blas (by Alain-René Lesage, 1668–1747). He decided to try what fortune had in store for him. He went to Killanny, County Louth. For six months he served as tutor to the family of a farmer named Piers Murphy. After some other experiments he set out for Dublin, arriving with two shillings and sixpence in his pocket. He first sought occupation as a bird-stuffer, but a proposal to use potatoes and meal as stuffing failed to recommend him. He then tried to become a soldier, but the colonel of the regiment dissuaded him—Carleton had applied in Latin. After staying in a number of cheap lodgings, he eventually found a place in a house on Francis St., which contained a circulating library. The landlady allowed him to read from 12 to 16 hours a day. He obtained some teaching and a clerkship in a Sunday School office, began to contribute to journals, and "The Pilgrimage to Lough Derg," which was published in the Christian Examiner, attracted great attention. In 1830 he published his first full-length book, Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry (2 vols.), which made his name and is considered his best achievement. In it he stereotyped the Irish "Paddy" in sketches such as "Phil Purcel The Pig Driver". A second series (3 vols.), containing, among other stories, "Tubber Derg, or the Red Well", appeared in 1833, and Tales of Ireland in 1834. From that time till within a few years of his death he wrote constantly. "Fardorougha the Miser, or the Convicts of Lisnamona" appeared in 1837–1838 in the Dublin University Magazine. Carleton remained active publishing in Dublin magazines through the 1830s and 40s writing many ethnic stories often drawn from the south Tyrone locality. He also wrote a lot of fiction but, as John Sutherland (1989) says, it was inferior to his ethnic sketches of the Irish type. During the last months of his life Carleton began an autobiography which he brought down to the beginning of his literary career. This forms the first part of The Life of William Carleton ... (2 vols., 1896), by David James O'Donoghue, which contains full information about his life, and a list of his scattered writings. A selection from his stories (1889), in the "Camelot Series", has an introduction by William Butler Yeats. The author's later years were characterised by drunkenness and poverty, as one commentator said: "he succeeded in offending everybody during the course of his life. In spite of his considerable literary production, Carleton remained poor, but received a pension in 1848 of £200 a year granted by Lord John Russell in response to a memorial on Carleton's behalf signed by numbers of distinguished persons in Ireland. He died at his home (now demolished) at Woodville, Sandford Road, in (Cullenswood) Ranelagh, Dublin, and is interred at Mount Jerome Cemetery, Harold's Cross, Dublin. The house was close to the entrance to the Jesuit residence at Milltown Park. Despite his conversion to Protestantism, Carleton remained on friendly terms with one of the priests there, Reverend Robert Carbery SJ, who offered to give him the Last Rites of the Catholic Church. Carleton, in the final weeks before his death in January 1869, politely declined the offer, stating he had not been a Roman Catholic "for half a century & more". Controversial reputation Carleton alienated the sympathies of many Catholic Irishmen by his accusations of gang violence, sectarian violence, and alcoholism among the Irish tenant class. He was in his own words the "historian of their habits and manners, their feelings, their prejudices, their superstitions and their crimes" (Preface to Tales of Ireland). Some of his later stories, The Squanders of Castle Squander (1852) for instance, are spoiled by the mass of political matter in them. Anti-Catholicism Another factor that alienated Carleton from his countrymen was his hatred of the Roman Catholic Church to which the majority of his Irish countrymen belonged. It has been argued (for example by Brian Donnelly) that Carleton's conversion to Anglicanism may have been a pragmatic move, as it would have been difficult for an aspiring young Catholic author to receive the patronage necessary to achieve success in early 19th-century Ireland. However, Donnelly's arguments fail when compared to Carleton's own statements in an 1826 letter to the Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel. Carleton urged Peel to violently suppress Daniel O'Connell's activism for Catholic Emancipation, and claimed to have proof of O'Connell's involvement in fomenting anti-Protestant and anti-Landlord violence, while also accusing every Roman Catholic priest and schoolmaster of the same crimes. Shortly afterwards, Carleton befriended a Church of Ireland minister named Caesar Otway. According to W. B. Yeats, Reverend Otway was an, "anti-papal controversialist," who encouraged Carleton to write stories to "highlight...the corrupt practices of an ignorant clergy." Frank O'Connor expressed a belief that Carleton debased his talents by taking sides in Ireland's religious divide. O'Connor admits, however, that Carleton could not win either way. In Victorian Ireland, Protestant readers were demanding stories which unconditionally demonised Catholicism and its adherents, while Catholic readers were willing to tolerate nothing about themselves which, "wasn't treacle". Influence Carleton figures as a precursor of the Celtic revival. Carleton is featured in the long poem Station Island by Séamus Heaney. Bibliography Ned M'Keown ; The Three Tasks ; Shane Fadh's Wedding ; Larry M'Farland's Wake ; The Battle of the Factions The Funeral and the Party Fight ; The Hedge School, and the Abduction of May Kavanagh ; The Station The Midnight Mass ; The Donagh, or the Horse-Stealers ; Phil Purcel, the Pig-Driver ; The Geography of an Irish Oath ; An Essay on Irish Swearing The Lianhan Shee ; The Poor Scholar ; Wildgoose Lodge ; Tubber Derg, or, the Red Well ; Denis O'Shaughnessy Going to Maynooth ; Phelim O'Tooles Courtship The Death of a Devotee ; The Priest's Funeral ; Neal Malone ; The Brothers ; The Illicit Distiller ; The Dream of a Broken Heart ; Lachlin Murray and the Blemished Candle Published in the US as Neil Malone and other Tales of Ireland (1839) Jane Sinclair, or, the Fawn of Spring Vale ; Lha Dhu, or, the Dark Day The Clarionet ; The Dead Boxer The Misfortunes of Barney Branagan ; The Resurrections of Barney Bradley Mickey M'Roney, the Irish Fiddler ; Buckramback, the Country Dancing-Master ; Mary Murray, the Irish Match-Maker ; Bob Pentland, or, The Gauger Outwitted ; The Fate of Frank M'Kenna ; The Rival Kempers ; Frank Martin and the Faires ; A Legend of Knockmany ; Rose Moan, the Irish Midwife ; Talbot and Gaynor, Irish Pipers ; Frank Finnigan, the Foster-Brother ; Tom Gressiey, the Irish Senachie ; The Castle of Aughentain .. ; Barney M'Haigney ; Moll Roe's Marriage ; Barney Brady's Goose ; Condy Cullen ; A Record of the Heart ; The Three Wishes ; The Irish Rake; Stories of Second-Sight and Apparition , later republished as The Black Baronet; or, The Chronicles of BallyTrain, 3 vols , 2 vols Biography Posthumous compilations ; Willy Reilly ; Fardorougha the Miser ; The Black Baronet ; The Evil Eye ; ; Jane Sinclair ; The Dead Boxer ; Elle Duncan ; The Proctor's Daughter ; Valentine M'Clutchy, the Irish Agent ; The Tithe Proctor ; The Emigrants of Ahadarra ; Traits and Stories.. ; The Black Prophet ; Wild Goose Lodge ; Tubber Derg ; Neal Malone ; Art Maguire References Sources External links William Carleton Society and Summer School, Co.Tyrone 1794 births 1869 deaths Burials at Mount Jerome Cemetery and Crematorium Converts to Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism Former Roman Catholics Irish Anglicans Irish male short story writers 19th-century Irish short story writers Irish folklorists People from County Tyrone Irish male novelists 19th-century Irish novelists 19th-century Irish male writers Victorian novelists	[ -0.422380268573761, 0.21026797592639923, -1.1148320436477661, -0.20665673911571503, 0.332914799451828, 1.289150595664978, 0.9200094938278198, 0.1295289546251297, -0.13477405905723572, -0.8079779148101807, -0.23903097212314606, -0.01963561773300171, 0.15840858221054077, 0.13038185238838196, -0.0002724482328630984, 0.12104067206382751, -0.1783076822757721, -0.42558398842811584, 0.127937451004982, -0.2786250710487366, -0.1962376981973648, -0.1258021891117096, 0.024501243606209755, 0.1710449457168579, 0.13599763810634613, 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251247	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20chess%20problems	Glossary of chess problems	This page explains commonly used terms in chess problems in alphabetical order. For a list of unorthodox pieces used in chess problems, see Fairy chess piece; for a list of terms used in chess is general, see Glossary of chess; for a list of chess-related games, see List of chess variants. A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P R S T U V W . Z Notes References External links Problemesis contains a glossary and list of themes Problems	[ -0.8514394164085388, 0.564832329750061, -0.5510352253913879, 0.06801459938287735, -0.45546016097068787, -0.003947233781218529, 0.4519498944282532, 0.4370630383491516, -0.4675809442996979, -0.517609715461731, -0.28717994689941406, -0.24413977563381195, -0.46159228682518005, -0.19849766790866852, 0.25016024708747864, 0.2621336877346039, 0.6108468770980835, 0.10694070160388947, -0.060837555676698685, -0.26874300837516785, 0.34306642413139343, 0.5009429454803467, 0.18532110750675201, -0.5426703691482544, 0.07673215866088867, -0.15294981002807617, -0.1849323809146881, 0.11059248447418213, -0.4349203109741211, 0.17116859555244446, -0.36057066917419434, 0.9308950901031494, -0.04323200881481171, -0.2131134420633316, 0.1721336841583252, -0.3272402286529541, 0.15898548066616058, 0.040506213903427124, 0.4794677495956421, -0.2522519826889038, 0.0733809769153595, -0.2040473371744156, 0.299908310174942, 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251250	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monodromy	Monodromy	In mathematics, monodromy is the study of how objects from mathematical analysis, algebraic topology, algebraic geometry and differential geometry behave as they "run round" a singularity. As the name implies, the fundamental meaning of monodromy comes from "running round singly". It is closely associated with covering maps and their degeneration into ramification; the aspect giving rise to monodromy phenomena is that certain functions we may wish to define fail to be single-valued as we "run round" a path encircling a singularity. The failure of monodromy can be measured by defining a monodromy group: a group of transformations acting on the data that encodes what does happen as we "run round" in one dimension. Lack of monodromy is sometimes called polydromy. Definition Let be a connected and locally connected based topological space with base point , and let be a covering with fiber . For a loop based at , denote a lift under the covering map, starting at a point , by . Finally, we denote by the endpoint , which is generally different from . There are theorems which state that this construction gives a well-defined group action of the fundamental group on , and that the stabilizer of is exactly , that is, an element fixes a point in if and only if it is represented by the image of a loop in based at . This action is called the monodromy action and the corresponding homomorphism into the automorphism group on is the algebraic monodromy. The image of this homomorphism is the monodromy group. There is another map whose image is called the topological monodromy group. Example These ideas were first made explicit in complex analysis. In the process of analytic continuation, a function that is an analytic function in some open subset of the punctured complex plane may be continued back into , but with different values. For example, take then analytic continuation anti-clockwise round the circle will result in the return, not to but In this case the monodromy group is infinite cyclic and the covering space is the universal cover of the punctured complex plane. This cover can be visualized as the helicoid (as defined in the helicoid article) restricted to . The covering map is a vertical projection, in a sense collapsing the spiral in the obvious way to get a punctured plane. Differential equations in the complex domain One important application is to differential equations, where a single solution may give further linearly independent solutions by analytic continuation. Linear differential equations defined in an open, connected set S in the complex plane have a monodromy group, which (more precisely) is a linear representation of the fundamental group of S, summarising all the analytic continuations round loops within S. The inverse problem, of constructing the equation (with regular singularities), given a representation, is called the Riemann–Hilbert problem. For a regular (and in particular Fuchsian) linear system one usually chooses as generators of the monodromy group the operators Mj corresponding to loops each of which circumvents just one of the poles of the system counterclockwise. If the indices j are chosen in such a way that they increase from 1 to p + 1 when one circumvents the base point clockwise, then the only relation between the generators is the equality . The Deligne–Simpson problem is the following realisation problem: For which tuples of conjugacy classes in GL(n, C) do there exist irreducible tuples of matrices Mj from these classes satisfying the above relation? The problem has been formulated by Pierre Deligne and Carlos Simpson was the first to obtain results towards its resolution. An additive version of the problem about residua of Fuchsian systems has been formulated and explored by Vladimir Kostov. The problem has been considered by other authors for matrix groups other than GL(n, C) as well. Topological and geometric aspects In the case of a covering map, we look at it as a special case of a fibration, and use the homotopy lifting property to "follow" paths on the base space X (we assume it path-connected for simplicity) as they are lifted up into the cover C. If we follow round a loop based at x in X, which we lift to start at c above x, we'll end at some c* again above x; it is quite possible that c ≠ c*, and to code this one considers the action of the fundamental group 1(X, x) as a permutation group on the set of all c, as a monodromy group in this context. In differential geometry, an analogous role is played by parallel transport. In a principal bundle B over a smooth manifold M, a connection allows "horizontal" movement from fibers above m in M to adjacent ones. The effect when applied to loops based at m is to define a holonomy group of translations of the fiber at m; if the structure group of B is G, it is a subgroup of G that measures the deviation of B from the product bundle M × G. Monodromy groupoid and foliations Analogous to the fundamental groupoid it is possible to get rid of the choice of a base point and to define a monodromy groupoid. Here we consider (homotopy classes of) lifts of paths in the base space X of a fibration . The result has the structure of a groupoid over the base space X. The advantage is that we can drop the condition of connectedness of X. Moreover the construction can also be generalized to foliations: Consider a (possibly singular) foliation of M. Then for every path in a leaf of we can consider its induced diffeomorphism on local transversal sections through the endpoints. Within a simply connected chart this diffeomorphism becomes unique and especially canonical between different transversal sections if we go over to the germ of the diffeomorphism around the endpoints. In this way it also becomes independent of the path (between fixed endpoints) within a simply connected chart and is therefore invariant under homotopy. Definition via Galois theory Let F(x) denote the field of the rational functions in the variable x over the field F, which is the field of fractions of the polynomial ring F[x]. An element y = f(x) of F(x) determines a finite field extension [F(x) : F(y)]. This extension is generally not Galois but has Galois closure L(f). The associated Galois group of the extension [L(f) : F(y)] is called the monodromy group of f. In the case of F = C Riemann surface theory enters and allows for the geometric interpretation given above. In the case that the extension [C(x) : C(y)] is already Galois, the associated monodromy group is sometimes called a group of deck transformations. This has connections with the Galois theory of covering spaces leading to the Riemann existence theorem. See also Braid group Monodromy theorem Mapping class group (of a punctured disk) Notes References "Group-groupoids and monodromy groupoids", O. Mucuk, B. Kılıçarslan, T. ¸Sahan, N. Alemdar, Topology and its Applications 158 (2011) 2034–2042 doi:10.1016/j.topol.2011.06.048 R. Brown Topology and Groupoids (2006). P.J. Higgins, "Categories and groupoids", van Nostrand (1971) TAC Reprint Mathematical analysis Complex analysis Differential geometry Algebraic topology Homotopy theory	[ -0.04281087592244148, 0.4028913378715515, -0.4667806327342987, 0.20762810111045837, -0.6398991346359253, -0.2717483341693878, 0.1524622142314911, -0.08747658878564835, -0.11252083629369736, -0.0009026844636537135, -0.9316375255584717, 0.36478468775749207, -0.3573877811431885, 0.32946574687957764, 0.23431125283241272, 0.49410244822502136, 0.5615968108177185, 0.3657333254814148, -0.31235048174858093, -0.10348793864250183, 0.25263914465904236, -0.12991921603679657, -0.1621716022491455, -0.616469144821167, 0.17469480633735657, -0.13205066323280334, 0.3272210359573364, 0.38733986020088196, 0.04249471426010132, 0.2938268780708313, -0.018391981720924377, 0.6395267844200134, -0.18466350436210632, 0.12248124927282333, 0.43366938829421997, 0.24579448997974396, 0.4692378044128418, -0.4908105731010437, -0.26564157009124756, 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251253	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globus%20%28company%29	Globus (company)	Globus is a Swiss department store company, with 13 department stores in Switzerland. The group, which includes the Herren Globus chain of menswear stores and the Office World chain of office supplies stores, was previously owned by Switzerland's largest retailer, Migros. It is now owned by Central Group and Signa Holding. Its main branches are located in the three principal cities of Switzerland, i.e. Zürich, Geneva and Basel. It has been a member of the International Association of Department Stores from 1931 to 2020, with various CEOs acting as presidents of the Association over time. History Globus was founded in 1907 in Zürich, and now has stores in all major Swiss cities. The chain sells mostly upscale goods, including clothing, cosmetics, jewelry and household supplies. The stores are noted for their extensive delicatessen section, called Globus Delicatessa, and their former mascot, Globi, the comic books about whom have been a fixture in the childhood of many Swiss. In 2020, Migros sold its ownership in Globus to KaDeWe Group, which is co-owned by Austrian conglomerate Signa Holding and Thailand's Central Group. Department stores There are Globus department stores in: See also Migros Globi References External links Official Web site Retail companies established in 1907 Swiss companies established in 1907 Retail companies of Switzerland Department stores of Switzerland Companies based in Zürich Food halls Migros	[ 0.1587696075439453, 0.10215676575899124, 0.4670369029045105, -0.291583776473999, 0.16030897200107574, 0.43031370639801025, -0.11812341213226318, 1.2354594469070435, -0.6170209646224976, -0.42124369740486145, -0.1930634081363678, 0.12050709873437881, -0.4737640619277954, 0.49222907423973083, -0.08340058475732803, 0.3682468831539154, 0.2642068564891815, 0.5834171175956726, -0.22062325477600098, -0.9440661072731018, -0.02880420908331871, -0.38955503702163696, 0.488413006067276, -0.003800520207732916, -0.2200629562139511, -0.141776904463768, 0.18448837101459503, 1.075923204421997, 0.3965953290462494, 0.42316755652427673, 0.5591933727264404, 0.8698890805244446, 0.10909251123666763, 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251257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Crysler%27s%20Farm	Battle of Crysler's Farm	The Battle of Crysler's Farm, also known as the Battle of Crysler's Field, was fought on 11 November 1813, during the War of 1812 (the name Chrysler's Farm is sometimes used for the engagement, but Crysler is the proper spelling). A British and Canadian force won a victory over a US force which greatly outnumbered them. The US defeat prompted them to abandon the St. Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort in the autumn of 1813. Saint Lawrence Campaign American plan The battle arose from a United States military campaign which was intended to capture Montreal. The resulting military actions, including the Battle of the Chateauguay, the Battle of Crysler's Farm and a number of skirmishes, are collectively known as the St. Lawrence Campaign. The US plan was devised by United States Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr., who originally intended to take the field himself. Because it was difficult to concentrate the necessary force in one place due to the initially scattered disposition of the troops and inadequate lines of communication, it involved two forces which were to combine for the final assault. Major General James Wilkinson's division of 8,000 was to concentrate at Sackett's Harbor on Lake Ontario, and proceed down the Saint Lawrence River in gunboats, batteaux and other small craft. At some point, they would rendezvous with a division of 4,000 under Major General Wade Hampton advancing north from Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain, to make the final attack on Montreal. Even as preparations proceeded, it was apparent that the plan had several shortcomings. Until the last minute, it was uncertain that Montreal was to be the objective, as Armstrong originally intended to attack Kingston, where the British naval squadron on Lake Ontario was based. However, Commodore Isaac Chauncey, commanding the US Navy squadron on the lake, refused to risk his ships in any attack against Kingston. There was mistrust between the US Army officers concerned; Wilkinson had an unsavoury reputation as a scoundrel, and Hampton originally refused to serve in any capacity in the same army as Wilkinson. The troops lacked training and uniforms, sickness was rife and there were too few experienced officers. Chiefly though, it appeared that neither force could carry sufficient supplies to sustain itself before Montreal, making a siege or any prolonged blockade impossible. American preliminary moves Hampton began his part of the campaign on 19 September with an advance down the Richelieu River, which flows north from Lake Champlain. He decided that the defences on this obvious route were too strong and instead shifted westward to Four Corners, on the Chateauguay River near the border with Canada. He was forced to wait there for several weeks as Wilkinson's force was not ready, which cost him some of his initial advantage in numbers as Canadian troops were moved to the Chateauguay, and reduced his supplies. Armstrong had intended that Wilkinson's force would set out on 15 September. On 2 September, Wilkinson himself had gone to Fort George, which the Americans had captured in May, to arrange the movement of Brigadier General John Parker Boyd's division from Fort George to rendezvous with the troops from Sackett's Harbor. Possibly because he was ill, he delayed around Fort George for nearly a month. He returned to Sackett's Harbor, and Boyd's division began its movement, only in the first week in October. The poor prospects for success (and possibly his own illness) led Armstrong to abandon his intention of leading the final assault himself. He handed overall command of the expedition to Wilkinson and departed Sackett's Harbor on his way to Washington on 16 October, just before Wilkinson's part of the campaign was at last launched. Armstrong's letter to Hampton, notifying him of the change in command and also throwing much of the burden of supplying the combined force onto him, arrived the evening before Hampton's army fought the Battle of the Chateauguay. Although Hampton nevertheless attacked, as part of his force was already committed to an outflanking move, he immediately sent his resignation, and fell back when his first attack was repulsed. Wilkinson's moves Wilkinson's force left Sackett's Harbor in 300 batteaux and other small craft on 17 October, bound at first for Grenadier Island at the head of the St. Lawrence. Mid-October was very late in the year for serious campaigning in the Canadas and the American force was hampered by bad weather, losing several boats and suffering from sickness and exposure. It took several days for the last stragglers to reach Grenadier Island. On 1 November, the first boats set out from the island, and reached French Creek (near present-day Clayton, New York) on 4 November. Here, the first shots of the campaign were fired. British brigs and gunboats under Commander William Mulcaster had left Kingston to rendezvous with and escort batteaux and canoes carrying supplies up the Saint Lawrence. The aggressive Mulcaster bombarded the American anchorages and encampments during the evening. The next morning, American artillerymen under Lieutenant Colonel Moses Porter drove him away, using hastily heated "hot shot". (The red-hot American cannonballs set fire to the brig Earl of Moira, and the crew intentionally scuttled the brig to extinguish the fire. The brig was later salvaged and returned to service.) From French Creek, Wilkinson proceeded down the river. On 6 November, while at the settlement of Hoags, he received the news that Hampton had been repulsed at the Chateauguay River on 26 October. He sent fresh instructions to Hampton to march westward from his present position at Four Corners, New York and meet him at Cornwall. Wilkinson's force successfully bypassed the British post at Prescott late on 7 November. The troops and ammunition were disembarked and marched around Ogdensburg on the south bank of the river, while the lightened boats ran past the British batteries under cover of darkness and poor visibility. Only one boat was lost, with two killed and three wounded. The next day, while the main body re-embarked, an advance guard battalion commanded by colonels Alexander Macomb and Winfield Scott, followed by a battalion of riflemen under Major Benjamin Forsyth were landed on the Canadian side of the river to clear the river bank of harassing Canadian militia, who were reported to have turned "every narrow stretch of the waterway" from Leeds to Glengarry into "a shooting gallery". On the following day (9 November), Wilkinson held a council of war. All his senior officers appeared to be determined to proceed with the expedition, regardless of the difficulties and alarming reports of enemy strength. The advance guard was reinforced with the 2nd Brigade (6th, 15th and 22nd U.S. infantry) under Brigadier General Jacob Brown, who took command of the force which numbered 2.500. Brown's force marched eastward along the northern bank of the river, clearing a small British garrison from Fort Matilda, at the river's narrowest point. Before the main body could follow by water, Wilkinson learned that a British force was pursuing him. He landed almost all the other troops as a rearguard, under Brigadier General John Parker Boyd. Late on 10 November, after a day spent marching under intermittent fire from British gunboats and field guns, Wilkinson set up his headquarters in Cook's Tavern, with Boyd's troops bivouacked in the surrounding woods. British counter-moves The British had been aware of the American concentration at Sackett's Harbor, but for a long time they had believed, with good reason, that their own main naval base at Kingston was the intended target of Wilkinson's force. Major General Francis de Rottenburg, the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, had massed his available troops there. When Mulcaster returned from French Creek late on 5 November with news that the Americans were heading down the Saint Lawrence, de Rottenburg dispatched a Corps of Observation after them, in accordance with orders previously issued by Governor General Sir George Prevost. The corps initially numbered 650 men, and was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Wanton Morrison, the commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion, the 89th Regiment. They were embarked in the schooners Beresford and Sir Sydney Smith, accompanied by seven gunboats and several small craft, all commanded by Mulcaster. They departed from Kingston in thick weather late on 7 November and evaded the ships of Commodore Isaac Chauncey, which were blockading the base, among the Thousand Islands at the head of the Saint Lawrence River. On 9 November, they reached Prescott, where the troops disembarked as the schooners could proceed no farther (although Mulcaster continued to accompany them with three gunboats and some batteaux). Morrison was reinforced by a detachment of 240 men from the garrison of Prescott, for a total strength of about 900 men. Marching rapidly, they caught up with Boyd's rearguard on 10 November. That evening they encamped near Crysler's Farm, two miles upstream from the American positions. The terrain was mainly open fields, which gave full scope to British tactics and musketry, while the muddy ground (planted with fall wheat) and the marshy nature of the woods surrounding the farm would hamper the American manoeuvres. Morrison was keen to accept battle here if offered. Battle As dawn broke on 11 November, it was cold and raining, though the rain later eased. Firing broke out in two places. On the river, Mulcaster's gunboats began shooting at the American boats clustered around Cook's Point, while a Mohawk fired a shot at an American party scouting near their encampment, who replied with a volley. Half a dozen Canadian Militia dragoons bolted back to the main British force, calling that the Americans were attacking. The British force dropped its half-cooked breakfast and formed up, which caused American sentries to report that the "British" were attacking, and forced the Americans in turn to form up and stand to arms. At about 10:30 a.m., Wilkinson received a message from Jacob Brown, who reported that the previous evening he had defeated 500 Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders militia at Hoople's Creek and the way ahead was clear. To proceed, however, the American boats would next have to face the Long Sault rapids and Wilkinson determined to drive Morrison off before attempting them. He himself had been ill for some time, and could not command the attack himself. His second-in-command, Major General Morgan Lewis, was also "indisposed". This left Brigadier General Boyd in command. He had immediately available the 3rd Brigade under Brigadier General Leonard Covington (9th, 16th and 25th U.S. Infantry) and the 4th Brigade under Brigadier General Robert Swartwout (11th, 14th and 21st U.S. Infantry), with two 6-pounder guns. Some distance down-river were part of Boyd's own 1st Brigade under the brigade's second-in-command, Colonel Isaac Coles, (12th and 13th U.S. Infantry), four more 6-pounder guns and a squadron of the 2nd U.S. Dragoons. In all, Boyd commanded perhaps 2,500 men (though some sources put the figure at 4,000). British dispositions The British were disposed in echelon, with their right wing thrown forward: Lining a ravine close to the American positions and in the woods on the left was the skirmish line under Major Frederick Heriot of the Canadian Voltigeurs, consisting of three companies of the Voltigeurs and around two dozen Mohawks from Tyendinaga under Interpreter-Lieutenant Charles Anderson. (A small rifle company of the Leeds Militia may also have been present.) The right wing was part of the detachment from Prescott under its commandant, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Pearson. It consisted of the flank (i.e. light and grenadier) companies of the 49th Regiment and a detachment of the Canadian Fencibles (perhaps 150 men in total) with a six-pounder gun of the Canadian Provincial Artillery. They occupied some buildings on the river bank near the Americans, with a small gully protecting their front. Behind their left flank were three companies (150 men) of the 2/89th under Captain G. W. Barnes. Behind Barnes's left flank, in turn, was the British main body; the centre companies of the 49th (160 men) under Lieutenant Colonel Charles Plenderleath on the right and six companies (300 men) of the 2/89th on the left under Morrison himself. Morrison stated that he disposed one each of his three 6-pounder guns to support each of his three detachments (Pearson, Barnes and the main body). However, various sources state that while the militia gun was posted with Pearson, the two 6-pounder guns of the Royal Artillery under Captain H. G. Jackson occupied a small hillock behind the 49th, and fired over their heads during the engagement. Action Boyd did not order an assault until the middle of the afternoon. On the American right, the 21st U.S. Infantry under Colonel Eleazer Wheelock Ripley advanced and drove the British skirmish line back through the woods, for almost a mile. Here they paused, and were joined by the 12th and 13th U.S. Infantry from Coles' brigade. (Where Swartwout's other two regiments were at this point is unclear.) Ripley and Coles resumed their advance along the edge of the woods, but were startled to see a line of redcoats (the 2nd/89th, on Morrison's left flank) rise up out of concealment and open fire. The American soldiers dived behind tree stumps and bushes to return fire, and their attack lost all order and momentum. As ammunition ran short, they began to retreat out of line. Meanwhile, Covington's brigade struggled across the ravine and deployed into line, under musket and shrapnel fire. Legend has it that at this point, Covington mistook the battle-hardened 49th Regiment in their grey greatcoats for Canadian Militia and called out to his men, "Come on, my lads! Let us see how you will deal with these militiamen!" A moment later, he was mortally wounded. His second-in-command took over, only to be killed almost immediately. The brigade quickly lost order and began to retreat. Boyd could not bring all his six guns into action until his infantry were already falling back. When they did open fire from the road along the river bank, they were quite effective. Morrison's second-in-command, Lieutenant Colonel John Harvey, ordered the 49th to capture them. The 49th made a charge in awkward echelon formation, suffering heavy casualties from the American guns as they struggled across several rail fences. The United States Dragoons (under Wilkinson's adjutant general, Colonel John Walbach) now intervened, charging the exposed right flank of the 49th. The 49th halted their own advance, reformed line from echelon formation and wheeled back their right. Under heavy fire from the 49th, Pearson's detachment and Jackson's two guns, the dragoons renewed their charge twice but eventually fell back, leaving 18 killed and 12 wounded (out of 130). They had bought time for all but one of the American guns to be removed. Barnes's companies of the 2/89th overtook the 49th and captured the one gun which had become bogged down and been abandoned. It was now about half past four. Almost all of the American army was in full retreat. The 25th U.S. Infantry under Colonel Edmund P. Gaines and the collected boat guards under Lieutenant Colonel Timothy Upham held the ravine for a while, but Pearson threatened to get around their left flank, and they, too, fell back. As it was growing dark and the weather was turning stormy, the British halted their advance. The American army meanwhile retreated in great confusion to their boats and crossed to the south (American) bank of the river, although the British did not stand down from battle stations for some time, wary of the Americans renewing the attack. An American witness stated that 1,000 American stragglers had made their way across the river during the battle itself. Casualties Although the British casualties were reported in Morrison's despatches as 22 killed, 148 wounded and 9 missing, it has been demonstrated that a further nine men were killed and an additional four men were missing, giving a revised total of 31 killed, 148 wounded and 13 missing. The American casualties, from the official return, were 102 killed, and 237 wounded including Brigadier General Covington. No figures were given for men missing or captured but the official return notes that three of the sixteen officers listed as wounded were also captured. The number of American prisoners taken was initially reported as "upwards of 100" by Morrison but he wrote that more were still being brought in. The final tally was 120. Most of these were severely wounded men who had been left on the field but fourteen unwounded enlisted men were captured after trying to hide in a swamp. A Canadian who rode across the battlefield on the morning of 12 November remembered it being "covered with Americans killed and wounded". Aftermath On 12 November, the sullen American flotilla successfully navigated the Long Sault rapids. That evening, they reached a settlement known as Barnhardt's, above Cornwall, where they rendezvoused with Brown's detachment. There was no sign of Hampton's force, but Colonel Henry Atkinson, one of Hampton's staff officers, brought Hampton's reply to Wilkinson's letter of 6 November. Hampton stated that a shortage of supplies had forced him to retire to Plattsburgh. Wilkinson used this as pretext to call another council of war, which unanimously opted to end the campaign. The defeat of the American forces at the Battle of Crysler's Farm and, on 26 October, at the Battle of the Chateauguay, ended the American threat to Montreal in the late fall of 1813, and with it the risk that Canada would be cut into two parts. The army went into winter quarters at French Mills, from the Saint Lawrence, but the roads were almost impassable in this season, and Wilkinson was also forced by a lack of supplies and sickness among his army to retreat to Plattsburg. He was later dismissed from command shortly after a failed attack on a British outpost at Lacolle Mills. He subsequently faced a court martial on various charges of negligence and misconduct during the St. Lawrence Campaign, but was exonerated. Lewis was retired, while Boyd was sidelined into rear-area commands. Brown, Macomb, Ripley and Gaines were subsequently promoted. On the British side, Mulcaster was promoted to post-captain to take command of a frigate but lost a leg in 1814 during the Raid on Fort Oswego, ending his active career. Morrison also was severely wounded later in 1814 at the Battle of Lundy's Lane. Morrison, Harvey and Pearson all eventually became generals, as did Major James B. Dennis, who commanded the militia which fought Brown at Hoople's Creek. Twelve rank and file survived to claim Military General Service Medals in 1847 for serving at the battle, although others may not have bothered to do so. Legacy In 1895, the Canadian Department of Militia and Defence erected a monument on the site. The battle site was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1920 and a plaque was placed to mark the site in 1921. The area of Crysler's Farm was permanently submerged in 1958 as a result of the construction of the Moses-Saunders Power Dam for the St. Lawrence Seaway. The monument erected in 1895 commemorating the battle was moved from Crysler's Farm to Crysler’s Farm Battlefield Park in Morrisburg. Ten active regular battalions of the United States Army (1–2 Inf, 2-2 Inf, 1–4 Inf, 2–4 Inf, 3–4 Inf, 1–5 Inf, 2–5 Inf, 1–6 Inf, 2–6 Inf and 4–6 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of a number of American infantry regiments (the old 9th, 11th, 13th, 14th, 16th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd and 25th infantry regiments) that took part in the battle. The British Army did not award a battle honour for Crysler's Farm. The 49th Regiment of Foot is perpetuated in the British Army by the Rifles Regiment, while the 89th is perpetuated by the Royal Irish Regiment (1992). Three regiments of the Canadian Army (the Royal 22e Régiment, the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders and Les Voltigeurs de Québec) do carry the Battle Honour "Crysler's Farm", awarded by the Canadian government in 2012 to Canadian Army regiments that are the successor units of regular and militia units that took part in the battle. The honour commemorates both the significance of the battle for the defence of Canada as well as the sacrifices made by regular and militia units during the engagement. On the occasion of the bicentennial of the battle (11 November 2013) Prime Minister Stephen Harper visited the Crysler's Farm Battlefield Park on Remembrance Day and laid a wreath at the cenotaph in the presence of contingents from the Royal 22e Régiment, the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders and Les Voltigeurs de Québec as well as representatives from First Nations who fought there. American and British diplomatic representatives also attended the ceremony and laid wreaths. Notes Sources External links Animated Stages of the Battle of Crysler's Farm Animated Maps of the Battle of Crysler's Farm Conflicts in 1813 Battles involving Canada Crysler's Farm Crysler's Farm National Historic Sites in Ontario War of 1812 National Historic Sites of Canada 1813 in Upper Canada November 1813 events	[ -0.5759912729263306, 0.43315982818603516, -0.5733499526977539, -0.04726599529385567, 0.027723614126443863, 0.6818397641181946, 0.6028962731361389, -0.060894012451171875, 0.163924902677536, -0.6827352046966553, 0.23315711319446564, 0.04789295047521591, 0.021023191511631012, 0.8419109582901001, -0.9965706467628479, 1.2490125894546509, -0.22310949862003326, -0.0005380138754844666, 0.17562979459762573, -0.49882668256759644, 0.2857021987438202, -1.0419363975524902, 0.5617364048957825, 0.8955410718917847, 0.8009147644042969, -0.135461688041687, 0.8756730556488037, -0.42925524711608887, 0.273148775100708, 0.3813624978065491, -0.5425081849098206, 0.1507234126329422, 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251259	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool%2C%20Nova%20Scotia	Liverpool, Nova Scotia	Liverpool is a Canadian community and former town located along the Atlantic Ocean of the Province of Nova Scotia's South Shore. It is situated within the Region of Queens Municipality which is the local governmental unit that comprises all of Queens County, Nova Scotia. History Liverpool's harbour was an ancient seasonal camp of Nova Scotia's native Mi'kmaq and was known as Ogomkigeak meaning "dry sandy place" and Ogukegeok, meaning "place of departure". Samuel de Champlain originally named the harbour Port Rossignol, in honour of Captain Rossignol, an early 17th-century founder of New France in North America who used the harbour for trading. Later Nicolas Denys, a pioneering 17th-century French explorer and trader of Nova Scotia, was granted land here by the leader of Acadia, Isaac de Razilly (c. 1632). Following the Expulsion of the Acadians (1755) during the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War), Liverpool was founded by New England Planters (commercially organized settlers) as a fishing port in 1759, originally named Lingley after Admiral Charles Lingley, and then renamed after Liverpool in England – which also lies along its own Mersey River. Silvanus Cobb was an original proprietor of the town. In 1759 Capt. Cobb became a proprietor of the new township of Liverpool. Liverpool township was to run from Cape Sable Island to Port Medway and continuing 14 miles inland from the shore. Sylvanus transported many of the other original residents to the new settlement. On July 1, 1760, at the first meeting of the proprietors, Capt. Cobb made a petition to be granted a piece of land to build a house and a wharf. The land was granted and the house was built at the foot of present-day Wolfe Street. There is a park and monument to Cobb at the site of his original home which was built from materials he transported from New England. American Revolution Liverpool's struggle for identity during the revolutionary war has been the subject of considerable study by historians. The town was at first sympathetic to the cause of the American Revolution, with outlying outports like Port Medway and Port Mouton almost continuously visited by American privateers, but after repeated attacks by American privateers on local shipping interests and one direct attack on the town itself, Liverpool citizens turned against the rebellion. The defence of the town and the outfitting of privateers was led by Colonel Simeon Perkins. Raid on Liverpool (1778) On April24, 1778, in the Battle off Liverpool, Nova Scotia (1778), the Royal Navy warship HMS Blonde under the command of Captain Milligan ran aground the French ship Duc de Choiseul under the command of Captain Pattier in Liverpool Harbour. There was an exchange of cannon fire lasting over three hours. A number of the French crew were killed, drowned and wounded. The 100 remaining French crew were taken prisoner. The arms that were on the wrecked ship continued to attract American privateers over the following month. Consequently, on May 1, American privateers raided Liverpool, ravaging and pillaging a number of the houses and stores, including the store of Simeon Perkins, a significant town leader. Three weeks later, on May 21, the same privateers returned and tried to tow the wreck of the Duc de Choiseul out to sea. Perkins mustered ten men at the shore. Cannon fire was exchanged by the British militia and the American privateers. The privateers continued to fire at the town for almost an hour. Perkins marched his men along the shore, closer to the privateers. One of the militia was wounded in the ensuing exchanges. The privateers stayed off shore for a number of days. Perkins kept a sergeant and six men on guard duty twenty four hours a day until the privateers left the area. After suffering three years of similar sporadic raids, the people of Liverpool, on June 2, 1779 built a battery for the artillery, rebuilt Fort Morris (Nova Scotia) and on October 31 launched their own privateer vessel named Lucy to bring battle to their adversaries. As well, Perkins wrote a successful appeal to the authorities in Halifax, and on December 13, 1778 Capt. John Howard's company of the King's Orange Rangers arrived aboard the transport Hannah. The company consisted of Howard, 2 lieutenants, 1 ensign, 3 sergeants, 2 or 3 corporals, 48 privates, and several camp followers, both women and children. In March 1780, Colonel Perkins ordered the seizure of the Dolphin. Raid on Liverpool (1780) The most dramatic privateer raid occurred on September 13, 1780. Two American privateers, the Surprize under Cpt. Benjamin Cole, and the Delight, under Cpt. Lane, unloaded nearly 70 men at Ballast Cove shortly after midnight. By 4am they had captured the fort and taken Howard, two other officers, and all but six of the KOR garrison as prisoners. Perkins called out the militia, engineered the capture of Cole, and negotiated with Lane for the recovery of the fort and the release of the prisoners. Within a few hours "every thing [was] restored to its former Situation without any Blood Shed." Liverpool was not bothered by privateers for the remainder of the war. The town grew following the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) with the arrival of American colonial refugees known as Loyalists. War of 1812 During the American Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, Liverpool financed and manned many privateer vessels which primarily targeted French vessels in the West Indies and American shipping off the Nova Scotia and New England coasts. The port was notable for such privateer vessels as the brig Rover and the schooner Liverpool Packet, mariners such as Joseph Barss, and ships' chandlers and merchants such as Enos Collins and Simeon Perkins. Significantly, an exciting eye-witness account of this turbulent period can be found in the published diaries of Simeon Perkins (1735–1812), an important businessman and leader in early Liverpool, having arrived from Connecticut in 1762 with the early settlers, and remaining an active member of the town for 50 years until his death in 1812. Nineteenth century During the nineteenth century, the town became a major seaport as the fishing and ship building industries grew. The town also became a leading exporter of timber which was floated down the Mersey River (or as initially called the Rivière Rossignol by the original Acadians) from the inland forests of the Lake Rossignol watershed. For a time after the War of 1812, Liverpool was second only to Halifax as the major port in the province, but was later eclipsed by western ports on the north shore of the province such as Pictou and New Glasgow on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The mid-nineteenth century move toward steam-powered vessels which were built with steel, ruined the area's vibrant wooden-ship building industry, and the further financial dislocation caused by the collapse of the local Bank of Liverpool in 1871 combined to severely hurt the town's economy and it went into a slow decline. Twentieth century Liverpool's fortunes were temporarily revived in the 1920s when it became a centre for rum-runners shipping alcohol to the United States during its period of prohibition. More significant growth took place in 1929 when the Mersey Pulp and Paper Mill was completed in the adjoining village of Brooklyn. The paper company also founded its own shipping line, the Markland Shipping Company based in Liverpool. World War II bolstered the economy further as the town's shipyard, Thompson Bros. Machinery Co. Ltd. became a major player in refitting Royal Canadian Navy corvettes and minesweepers. In 1996, Liverpool disincorporated as a town and merged with the Municipality of the County of Queens to form the Region of Queens Municipality. The Bowater Mersey Pulp and Paper plant closed in 2012. Geography Liverpool is situated on the Atlantic coast along Nova Scotia's South Shore. The community primarily occupies the west bank of the mouth of the Mersey River and along its harbour front faces opposite the smaller community of Brooklyn which is situated on the east bank of the River. Beyond Liverpool, the river widens to become an estuary called Liverpool Bay, which is partially sheltered by Coffin Island, and there melds into the Atlantic Ocean. The Gulf Stream which passes just to the east of Nova Scotia in the Atlantic Ocean provides Liverpool with a year-round temperate northern climate. Liverpool is located along Trunk Route 3 ("The Lighthouse Route") and at the junction of major Highway 103 (at Exit 19) and Trunk Route 8 ("The Kejimkujik Scenic Drive") which leads to the Bay of Fundy. Climate In spite of its seaside location beside the large Atlantic Ocean; Liverpool has a relatively mild humid continental climate typical of the province. Frequently prevailing inland winds ensure a lack of maritime moderation, resulting in large temperature differences between the warm summers averaging around and the generally cold winter night time temperatures approaching on average. Annual precipitation is quite high with frequent rain and snow storms in the fall, winter and spring. Summers are much drier, pleasant and warm. The highest temperature ever recorded in Liverpool was on 22 August 1976. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 18 February 1922. Economy As the largest population centre in the fairhaven of Queens County, Liverpool has a diverse business community. Many large business franchises provide modern convenience, while the community's quaint small shops still thrive in the original business district on Main Street. Commercial and recreational fishing still play an important role in the local economy. Liverpool's largest employer was once the Bowater Mersey Paper Company Limited, which operated a pulp mill and newsprint mill situated in nearby Brooklyn. The mill closed in June 2012. Queens Place Emera Centre is a major, modern recreation centre that serves the entire Regional Municipality of Queens. The NHL-sized ice surface has double-sided permanent seating for 1000 spectators. The centre was built along with a large Best Western hotel complex to facilitate large tournaments and thus draw visitors to the area. Queens place is home for many hockey teams: local minor hockey team, the Cougars; major hockey team, Western Hurricanes; and a Junior B team, the Liverpool Privateers. Tourism Tourism has become increasingly important to Liverpool and the South Shore region in recent decades, particularly as tourists travel the "Lighthouse Route" (a scenic drive between Halifax and Yarmouth). Liverpool has a large number of museums for a small community. They include the Queens County Museum and the adjacent Perkins House the 1766 built residence of Simeon Perkins and now part of the Nova Scotia Museum system. Perkins house was closed to the public in 2015 after the province, citing shifting floor beams deemed the building a safety hazard and that the provincial budget cannot afford the cost of repairs. Other museums include the Museum of Justice located in the former courthouse, the Hank Snow Home Town Museum located in the former Liverpool train station, and two private museums run by Nova Scotian photographer Sherman Hines. Facing Liverpool Harbour is the Fort Point Lighthouse, the third oldest lighthouse in Nova Scotia which contains a lighthouse museum and is surrounded by a public park. In late June of each year, history comes alive in Liverpool during "Privateer Days" when over a long weekend members of the community conduct a parade, provide various entertainment venues, re-enact a Loyalist military and privateer encampment, shoot fireworks, and conduct guided graveyard tours. Liverpool has also become a summer break destination for residents of Halifax due to its warm weather and nearby sandy beaches. Beach Meadows is a 1 km long beach to the east of Liverpool. Notable residents Hank Snow: 1914 - 1999, Canadian-American country music artist. Thomas Head Raddall: 13 November 1903 - 1 April 1994, author. Notes References Bibliography A History of Queens County (1873) James F. 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251266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paisley	Paisley	Paisley may refer to: Fashion and design Paisley (design), an ornamental Persian pattern or motif commonly identified with the town of Paisley, Renfrewshire, in west Scotland People Paisley (name), including a list of people with the name Lord Paisley, in the peerage of Scotland Places Paisley, Renfrewshire, Scotland, where the Paisley pattern was popularized Paisley, Florida, United States Paisley, Oregon, city in the United States Paisley, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community Paisley, Ontario, Canada Paisley, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Paisley, South Australia Diocese of Paisley, an ecclesiastical territory of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland Paisley Caves, Oregon, United States Paisley Islet, an islet off Kangaroo Island, South Australia. Animals Paisley Terrier, a breed of dog, ancestor of the Yorkshire Terrier Art, entertainment, and media Paisley Park, a record label owned by the musician Prince; also the name of his estate Paisley Underground, a style of 1960s influenced music, usually associated with the Los Angeles music scene of the 1980s Education Paisley Grammar School, a royal chartered Secondary School in Paisley, Renfrewshire Politics Paisley (UK Parliament constituency), corresponding to the Scottish town See also Pasley (disambiguation)	[ 0.37840256094932556, -0.1022457554936409, 0.038640912622213364, -0.33353590965270996, 0.32357603311538696, 0.41308677196502686, 0.5132498741149902, 0.4994959831237793, -0.60637366771698, -0.3552778363227844, -0.4986352324485779, 0.13813431560993195, -0.2876589894294739, 0.94037926197052, 0.15586498379707336, 0.6248325705528259, 0.06531381607055664, 1.0275781154632568, 0.1913260668516159, 0.09532662481069565, -0.38085412979125977, -0.2589622437953949, 0.08551973104476929, 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251267	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebes	Cebes	Cebes of Thebes (, gen.: Κέβητος; c. 430 – 350 BCE) was an Ancient Greek philosopher from Thebes remembered as a disciple of Socrates. One work, known as the Pinax (Πίναξ) or Tabula, attributed to Cebes still survives, but it is believed to be a composition by a pseudonymous author of the 1st or 2nd century CE. Life Cebes was a disciple of Socrates and Philolaus, and a friend of Simmias of Thebes. He is one of the speakers in the Phaedo of Plato, in which he is represented as an earnest seeker after virtue and truth, keen in argument and cautious in decision. Xenophon says he was a member of Socrates' inner circle, and a frequent visitor to the hetaera, Theodote, in Athens. He is also mentioned by Plato in the Crito and Epistle XIII. Three dialogues, the Hebdome, the Phrynichus, and the Pinax or Tabula, are attributed to him by the Suda and Diogenes Laërtius. The two former are lost, and most scholars deny the authenticity of the Tabula on the ground of material and verbal anachronisms. The Tablet of Cebes The Tablet of Cebes is probably by a pseudonymous author of the 1st or 2nd century. The work professes to be an interpretation of an allegorical picture of a tablet on which the whole of human life with its dangers and temptations was symbolically represented, and which is said to have been dedicated by someone in the temple of Cronus at Athens or Thebes. The author introduces some youths contemplating the tablet, and an old man who steps among them undertakes to explain its meaning. It is intended to show that only the proper development of our mind and the possession of real virtues can make us truly happy. The author develops the Platonic theory of pre-existence, and shows that true education consists not in mere erudition, but rather in the formation of character. Parallels are often drawn between this work and John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. The Tabula has been widely translated both into European languages and into Arabic (the latter version published with the Greek text and Latin translation by Claudius Salmasius in 1640). It has often been printed together with the Enchiridion of Epictetus. Separate editions have been issued by CS Jerram (with introduction and notes, 1878), Karl Praechter (1893), and many others. An English translation and commentary by John T. Fitzgerald and L. Michael White was published in 1983. See also List of speakers in Plato's dialogues References External links The Greek Pilgrim's progress. Generally known as the Picture, by Kebes. Translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie, 1910, at the Internet Archive. Cebes' tablet, with introduction, notes, vocabulary, and grammatical questions. Greek, by Richard Parsons, 1904, at the Internet Archive. The Table of Cebes, or, The Picture of Human Life. 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251269	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%20Department	Bolívar Department	Bolívar () is a department of Colombia. It was named after one of the original nine states of the United States of Colombia. It is located to the north of the country, extending roughly north–south from the Caribbean coast at Cartagena near the mouth of the Magdalena River, then south along the river to a border with Antioquia Department. The departments of Sucre and Córdoba are located to the west, and Atlántico Department is to the north and east (most of the border formed by the Canal del Dique). Across the Magdalena River to the east is Magdalena Department. The flag of the department bears a resemblance to the flag of Lithuania. Its capital is Cartagena. Other important cities include Magangué and Turbaco. Provinces and Municipalities Depresión Momposina Cicuco Hatillo de Loba Margarita Santa Cruz de Mompox San Fernando Talaiga Nuevo Dique Arjona Arroyo Hondo Calamar Cartagena Clemencia Mahates San Cristobal San Estanislao Santa Catalina Santa Rosa Turbaco Turbana Villanueva Loba Altos del Rosario Barranco de Loba Brazuelo de Papayal El Peñón Regidor Rio Viejo San Martín de Loba Magdalena Medio Arenal del Sur Cantagallo, Bolívar Morales Norosí San Pablo Santa Rosa del Sur Simití Mojana Achí Magangué Montecristo Pinillos San Jacinto del Cauca Tiquisio Montes de Maria El Carmen de Bolívar Córdoba El Guamo María La Baja San Jacinto San Juan Nepomuceno Soplaviento Zambrano History In today's villages of Maria La Baja, Sincerín, El Viso, and Mahates and Rotinet, excavations have uncovered the remains of maloka-type buildings, directly related to the early Puerto Hormiga settlements. Miscellaneous Postage stamps of Bolívar List of Caribbean islands#Bolívar Department References External links View a boundary-overlaid version of Bolívar on Google Maps: http://www.maplandia.com/colombia/bolivar/turbana/ Departments of Colombia Caribbean region of Colombia States and territories established in 1857 1857 establishments in the Republic of New Granada	[ -0.16185490787029266, 0.4581064283847809, -0.3231939673423767, -0.12898629903793335, -0.3046761155128479, 0.29793283343315125, -0.004353086464107037, 1.5765509605407715, -0.5284349918365479, -0.29150182008743286, 0.01773080974817276, 0.753891110420227, -0.22910690307617188, 0.6554268598556519, -0.004607549402862787, 0.838225781917572, 0.6401804685592651, 0.7952483892440796, 0.17316469550132751, -0.6909394860267639, -0.6465102434158325, -0.5586849451065063, 0.23116569221019745, 0.2429526448249817, 0.5508756637573242, -0.25385668873786926, -0.3791039288043976, 0.5911585688591003, 0.7270163893699646, 0.203693225979805, 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251272	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20who%20survived%20assassination%20attempts	List of people who survived assassination attempts	This is a list of survivors of assassination attempts, listed chronologically. It does not include those who were heads of state or government at the time of the assassination attempt since there is a a separate list for them. List Gallery See also List of assassinations List of heads of state and government who survived assassination attempts Notes and references Assassination attempts Assassination attempts, survived Survivors	[ -0.17842426896095276, 0.5524562001228333, -0.6895302534103394, -0.02580013871192932, -0.5954654216766357, 0.40532130002975464, 0.9305263757705688, 0.10013783723115921, -0.7810980677604675, -0.16827251017093658, -0.1449093222618103, -0.0235267486423254, -0.24371200799942017, 0.3167676329612732, 0.0016332773957401514, -0.07977750152349472, -0.11730087548494339, 0.542086124420166, -0.05130566284060478, -0.1042342334985733, 0.20515747368335724, -0.012302661314606667, 0.25880974531173706, -0.49225226044654846, -0.5015549063682556, 0.34138497710227966, 0.16413573920726776, -0.4000874161720276, -0.4530203938484192, -0.007647911552339792, -0.0672285407781601, 0.566234827041626, 0.2914648950099945, -0.19860367476940155, -0.017783908173441887, -0.3513830006122589, 0.4026601016521454, 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251277	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grelling%E2%80%93Nelson%20paradox	Grelling–Nelson paradox	The Grelling–Nelson paradox is an antinomy, or a semantic self-referential paradox, concerning the applicability to itself of the word "heterological", meaning "inapplicable to itself". It was formulated in 1908 by Kurt Grelling and Leonard Nelson, and is sometimes mistakenly attributed to the German philosopher and mathematician Hermann Weyl. It is thus occasionally called Weyl's paradox and Grelling's paradox. It is closely related to several other well-known paradoxes, in particular, the barber paradox and Russell's paradox. The paradox Suppose one interprets the adjectives "autological" and "heterological" as follows: An adjective is autological (sometimes homological) if it describes itself. For example, the English word "English" is autological, as are "unhyphenated" and "pentasyllabic". An adjective is heterological if it does not describe itself. Hence "long" is a heterological word (because it is not a long word), as are "hyphenated" (because it has no hyphen) and "monosyllabic" (because it has more than one syllable). All adjectives, it would seem, must be either autological or heterological, for each adjective either describes itself, or it does not. Problems arise in a number of instances, however. Paradoxical cases The Grelling–Nelson paradox arises when we consider the adjective "heterological". One can ask: Is "heterological" a heterological word? If the answer is "no", then "heterological" is autological. This leads to a contradiction, for in this case "heterological" does not describe itself: it must be a heterological word. But if the answer is "yes", then "heterological" is heterological. This again leads to a contradiction, because if the word "heterological" describes itself, it is autological. Is "heterological" a heterological word? no → "heterological" is autological → "heterological" describes itself → "heterological" is heterological, contradiction yes → "heterological" is heterological → "heterological" does not describe itself → "heterological" is not heterological, contradiction The paradox can be eliminated, without changing the meaning of "heterological" where it was previously well-defined, by modifying the definition of "heterological" slightly to hold all nonautological words except "heterological". But "nonautological" is subject to the same paradox, for which this evasion is not applicable because the rules of English uniquely determine its meaning from that of "autological". A similar slight modification to the definition of "autological" (such as declaring it false of "nonautological" and its synonyms) might seem to correct that, but the paradox still remains for synonyms of "autological" and "heterological" such as "selfdescriptive" and "nonselfdescriptive", whose meanings also would need adjusting, and the consequences of those adjustments would then need to be pursued, and so on. Freeing English of the Grelling–Nelson paradox entails considerably more modification to the language than mere refinements of the definitions of "autological" and "heterological", which need not even be in the language for the paradox to arise. The scope of these obstacles for English is comparable to that of Russell's paradox for mathematics founded on sets. Arbitrary cases One may also ask whether "autological" is autological. It can be chosen consistently to be either: if we say that "autological" is autological and then ask whether it applies to itself, then yes, it does, and thus is autological; if we say that "autological" is not autological and then ask whether it applies to itself, then no, it does not, and thus is not autological. This is the opposite of the situation for heterological: while "heterological" logically cannot be autological or heterological, "autological" can be either. (It cannot be both, as the category of autological and heterological cannot overlap.) In logical terms, the situation for "autological" is: while the situation for "heterological" is: Ambiguous cases One may also ask whether "loud" is autological or heterological. If said loudly, "loud" is autological; otherwise, it is heterological. This shows that some adjectives cannot be unambiguously classified as autological or heterological. Newhard sought to eliminate this problem by taking Grelling's Paradox to deal specifically with word types as opposed to word tokens. Similarities with Russell's paradox The Grelling–Nelson paradox can be translated into Bertrand Russell's famous paradox in the following way. First, one must identify each adjective with the set of objects to which that adjective applies. So, for example, the adjective "red" is equated with the set of all red objects. In this way, the adjective "pronounceable" is equated with the set of all pronounceable things, one of which is the word "pronounceable" itself. Thus, an autological word is understood as a set, one of whose elements is the set itself. The question of whether the word "heterological" is heterological becomes the question of whether the set of all sets which do not contain themselves contains itself. 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251281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological%20jealousy	Pathological jealousy	Pathological jealousy, also known as morbid jealousy, Othello syndrome or delusional jealousy, is a psychological disorder in which a person is preoccupied with the thought that their spouse or sexual partner is being unfaithful without having any real proof, along with socially unacceptable or abnormal behaviour related to these thoughts. The most common cited forms of psychopathology in morbid jealousy are delusions and obsessions. It is considered a subtype of delusional disorder. Overvaluing an idea, which is defined as “an acceptable, comprehensible idea pursued by the patient beyond the bounds of reason. The idea is not resisted and, although it is not a delusion, the patient characteristically attaches utmost importance to investigating and maintaining the partner’s fidelity at great personal disadvantage and to the distress of the partner”. Overvalued ideas are characterized by being existent in the individual's own thoughts, being egosyntonic; meaning that the ideas project the behaviors, values, and feelings that are aligned with the desires and aims of the individual's ego, or consistent with the individual's ideal self-image, the ideas are also amenable to reason but are not resisted. Definition This disorder occurs when a person typically makes repeated accusations that their spouse or sexual partner is being unfaithful, based on insignificant, minimal, or no evidence, often citing seemingly normal or everyday events or material to back up their claims. Unlike other delusional disorders, people who suffer from this disorder have a strong association with stalking, cyberstalking, sabotage, or even violence. It can be found in the context of schizophrenia and delusional disorder, such as bipolar disorder, but is also associated with alcoholism and sexual dysfunction and has been reported after neurological illness (i.e. Parkinson's). The name "Othello Syndrome" comes from the character in Shakespeare's play Othello, who murders his wife as a result of a false belief that she has been unfaithful. Recently, some psychologists and psychiatrists have asserted that Othello was deceived rather than deluded about Desdemona's alleged infidelity and thus did not have ‘the Othello Syndrome’. Psychiatric history Presenting difficulties: neurotic or psychotic jealousy Past psychiatric history: neurotic or psychotic disorders, deliberate self-harm and attempted suicide Family history: mental illness including pathological jealousy Relationship history: incorporating both the current and previous relationship and taking account of the quality of the relationships and the difficulties experienced Forensic history: previous and pending charges and convictions as well as deviant behavior which was not reported or did not result in a charge or conviction (including aggressive behavior and stalking) Medical history: organic causes which may be responsible for the morbid jealousy (i.e. Parkinson's) Forms Obsessions: the individual's own thoughts are egodystonic; they are acknowledged to be senseless, and usually resisted. Jealous thoughts are experienced as intrusive and excessive, and compulsive behavior such as checking up on their partner may follow. Egodystonicity (the distress caused by thoughts that are unwanted and viewed as contrary to conscious wishes) generally varies a large amount between patients and “a continuum from obsessional to delusional, which morbid jealousy has been suggested” (Insel & Akiskal 1986). Extreme obsessions: much time is taken up by jealous concerns, and there is a great difficulty in putting the concerns out of the mind. Impairment of the relationship, limitation of the partner's freedom and checking on the partner's behavior may occur. Although a distinction was occasionally difficult to make, the categories of ‘psychotic’ (delusional) and ‘neurotic’ jealousy contained similar proportions (each between one-third and one-half). Delusions: the individual's own thoughts are egosyntonic; they are regarded as true, and not resisted. Some authors compare morbid jealousy to a delusional state (e.g. Enoch & Trethowan, 1979). Beliefs may include the morbidly jealous subjects' suspicion that: 1. he or she is being poisoned or given some substance(s) to decrease sexual potency by the partner, 2. that the partner has contracted a sexually transmitted disease from a third party 3. is engaging in sexual intercourse with a third party while the subject sleeps. Causes Psychological There are many psychological causes that go along with morbid jealousy. Some people equate morbid jealousy with a delusional state. “Delusions of infidelity exist without any other psychopathology and may be considered to be morbid jealousy in its ‘purest’ form” (Kingham and Gordon). For morbid jealousy to occur one's memories are subconsciously changed and their partner's actions are misinterpreted as well to the extent that the person is absolutely convinced of betrayal from the partner. It is thought that even some brain disorders might eventually lead to delusions of betrayal. It has also been recorded by Cobb (1979) “that morbid jealousy may be present with all types of cerebral insult or injury.” "It has been suggested that morbid jealousy may potentially arise in response to reduced sexual function”. Cobb (1979) drew attention to the elderly man whose waning sexual powers were insufficient to satisfy a younger wife. Mullen (1990) considered morbid jealousy to be associated with four features: An underlying mental disorder emerges before or with the jealousy The features of the underlying disorder coexist with the jealousy The course of morbid jealousy closely relates to that of the underlying disorder The jealousy has no basis in reality Personality People who are very insecure, or even fearful, are more likely to become anxious, or question their partner's commitment to them. “Insecure attachment style correlates strongly with borderline personality disorder” (Kingham and Gordon). Environmental Some people even believe that someone who is morbidly jealous might suspect that he or she is being drugged or given some kind of substance that might decrease their sexual potency, or they might even be under the impression that their significant other has somehow received a sexually transmitted disease from another person while the subject is unaware. Epidemiology There is no known prevalence of morbid jealousy; currently there is no community survey tracking its existence in individuals. As of late, it is considered to be a rare occurrence. Still, many counselors encounter cases of morbid jealousy. Some clinicians may never be able to treat this condition due to other dominating psychopathologies present within the jealous person that call for more attention. Men and women differ dramatically when it comes to morbid jealousy. Men who suffer from morbid jealousy are more likely than women to use violence and also are more likely to harm or kill with their hands rather than a blunt object. Women on the other hand, when using violence, tend to use a blunt object or knife. Men focus on the rival's status and resources when it comes to the threat of jealousy they fear. Women tend to become more jealous of a potential threat on their rival's youth and physical attractiveness. Triggers For men the strongest trigger is sexual infidelity and with women the strongest trigger is emotional infidelity. If partner-related violence does not stop infidelity from happening, the male mate will sometimes resort to suicide instead. The final resort to stopping infidelity inside of morbid jealousy is to commit partner murder. Women are much less likely to kill their partner, unless it is in self-defense. Morbid jealousy can occur in a number of conditions such as chronic alcoholism, addiction to substances other than alcohol (i.e. cocaine, amphetamines, marijuana.), organic brain disorders (i.e. Parkinson's, Huntington's), schizophrenia, neurosis, affective disturbances or personality disorders. Associated drug and alcohol use Alcohol and drug misuse has a well-recognized association with morbid jealousy. “In two studies, morbid jealousy was present in 27% and 34% respectively of men recruited from alcohol treatment services” (Shrestha et al., 1985; Michael et al., 1995). Amphetamine and cocaine increase the possibility of a delusion of infidelity that can continue after intoxication stops. (Shepherd, 1961). Assessment In an attempt to counsel or treat the morbid jealousy of an individual, proper and thorough assessment must be employed. This approach is broad in nature, but necessary so as to provide adequate information that will aid in the possible reparation of a dynamic containing a morbidly jealous person. To begin, a careful history should be taken of both partners if possible; separate and together. It is imperative that a full and detailed psychiatric history and mental state examination be recorded for the jealous partner; doing so may enable one to distinguish whether the jealousy is obsessional or delusional in nature. It is also possible that the jealousy may be the result of a thought that has been given too much importance. Considering that jealousy is a very delicate issue, any reference made to it should be approached carefully and with tact. It must be kept in mind that the jealous individual may be displacing blame for their issues onto their partner and their alleged infidelity as opposed to their own behavior. If there is any history of relevant or related mental illness and substance misuse it should be noted as it may possibly be a contributing or aiding factor. In order to get the best grasp on the issues and begin positive progression, multiple interviews should be held to assess the marital relationship. After completing the assessment, it is best to deliver information about risk with both individuals in the relationship. Due to confidentiality, the patient should give consent for this information to be shared unless there is a risk to another individual and it is serious and immediate. This is the only case in which confidentiality is invalid. The professional should ensure that all necessary steps are taken to guarantee the safety of a potential victim, keeping in mind that it is possible that authorities may have to be alerted regarding the matter. If the professional has reason to believe that there is a high risk of harm to themselves or another person, the individual who is morbidly jealous should be admitted to hospital as soon as possible to prevent any negative outcomes for any parties involved. Management Morbid jealousy encompasses various psychiatric states and the best way to approach treatment depends on the symptoms that are observed in the individual. Therefore, prognosis and outcomes vary from person to person and depends on the situation and the complexities of the interpersonal relationships being observed. Also, other issues that may exacerbate the negative aspects of the environment created by jealous behavior need to be addressed in order to begin reparations. For example, if alcoholism plays a role in the behavior of the morbidly jealous individual, treatment of their addiction can positively affect their progress in trying to change their jealous nature. While psychotherapy can be an effective method of treating morbidly jealous persons, it is not sufficient when the nature of their illness is more serious. It is not possible to say that there is one form of treatment that is superior over all those that are currently available. Even though this may be true, cognitive behavioral therapy is the treatment that has proven to be most effective. Medical Treatment of the primary psychiatric condition Antipsychotic medication Antidepressant medication Psychological Psycho education for the affected person and the partner Behavioral therapy Cognitive therapy Individual psychotherapy Insight oriented psychotherapies Family therapy Couple therapy Social Geographical separation of the partners Social work involvement for child protection issues Alcohol and substance misuse treatment Risks associated Confirmatory behaviors When suspicions of the partner's fidelity arise, they quickly become all that is thought about. Certain behaviors, such as interrogation of the partner, repeated telephone calls to work and surprise visits, stalking behavior, setting up recording devices in the home or work, or hiring a private detective to follow the partner, are all common in trying to determine if there is truly infidelity or if it is just perceived. Individuals that are jealous may take drastic measures, such as searching the partner's clothing and belongings, look through diaries and other communication methods (email, text messaging), or examining bed sheets, undergarments and even genitalia for evidence of sexual activity. Harm to self Suicidal thoughts are common in morbid jealousy, especially because of its association with depression and substance abuse. Risk to others Violence can occur in any relationship tainted with jealousy, either normal or morbid jealousy. In a recent study of jealousy by Mullen & Martin in 1994, 15% of both men and women reported that at some time they had been “subjected to physical violence at the hands of a jealous partner.” Culturally, jealousy may be even used to “justify violence towards partners.” Victims in a homicide case are most likely to be current or ex-partners in both female and male perpetrators. When a partner repeatedly denies infidelity, this may provoke anger and extreme violence. On the other hand, the partner that is suffering may give up and give a false confession, which in turn most likely will provoke rage in the jealous individual. In the U.S. a sample was taken of 20 participants with delusional jealousy. 19 were male and Silva (1998) found that 13 had threatened to kill their spouse because of their perceived infidelity. Of the 13 males, nine actually attacked their spouse. Out of the 20, a weapon was used by three of them, and 12 had harmed their spouse. A presence of paranoid delusions and hallucinations of injury to the spouse were most often associated with violence. This suggests that individuals that suffer from delusional jealousy that partake in violence may be solely driven by psychotic phenomena. A higher risk of assault was associated with alcohol consumption. Risk to children Children that live in a household with a parent that suffers from morbid jealousy may suffer emotional and/or physical abuse as a direct result of the actions made by the parent. Children may also accidentally overhear arguments or witness physical violence between their parents. They could even be potentially accidentally injured during assaults. The morbidly jealous parent may employ a child or more than one to spy on the other parent. It is not out of the question for a child to witness a homicide or suicide where their parent is the victim. See also References Sources Enoch, D. & Ball, H. (2001) The Othello Syndrome. In Enoch, D. & Ball, H. Uncommon psychiatric syndromes (fourth edition) pp50–73. London: Arnold. 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251291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qixi%20Festival	Qixi Festival	The Qixi Festival (), also known as the Qiqiao Festival (), is a Chinese festival celebrating the annual meeting of the cowherd and weaver girl in mythology. The festival is celebrated on the seventh day of the seventh lunisolar month on the Chinese calendar. The festival was derived from worship of the natural astrology. It is the birthday of the seventh elder sister in the traditional significance. It is called "Qixi Festival" because of the worship of the seventh elder sister held on the seventh night of the seventh lunar month. Gradually, people celebrated for the romantic legend of two lovers, Zhinü and Niulang, who were the weaver girl and the cowherd, respectively. The tale of The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl has been celebrated in the Qixi Festival since the Han dynasty. The earliest-known reference to this famous myth dates back to over 2600 years ago, which was told in a poem from the Classic of Poetry. The Qixi festival inspired the Tanabata festival in Japan, Chilseok festival in Korea, and Thất Tịch festival in Vietnam. The festival has variously been called the Double Seventh Festival, the Chinese Valentine's Day, the Night of Sevens, or the Magpie Festival. Origin The general tale is a love story between Zhinü (, the weaver girl, symbolizing Vega) and Niulang (, the cowherd, symbolizing Altair). Niulang was an orphan who lived with his brother and sister-in-law. He was often abused by his sister-in-law. They eventually kicked him out of the house, and gave him nothing but an old cow. One day, the old cow suddenly spoke out, telling Niulang that a fairy will come, and that she is the heavenly weaver. It said the fairy will stay here if she fails to go back to heaven before morning. In accordance with what the old cow said, Niulang saw the beautiful fairy and fell in love with her, then they got married. The emperor of heaven (, ) found out about this and was furious, so he sent minions to escort the heavenly weaver back to heaven. Niulang was heartbroken and decided to chase after them. However, the Queen Mother of the West drew a Silver River (The Milky Way) in the sky and blocked his way. Meanwhile, the love between Niulang and the weaver moved the magpie, and they built a bridge of magpies over the Silver River for them to meet. The Emperor of Heaven was also moved by the sight, and allowed this couple to meet on the Magpie Bridge once a year on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. That was the origin of the Qixi Festival. Traditions During the Han dynasty, the practices were conducted in accordance with formal ceremonial state rituals. Over time, the festival activities also included customs that the common people partook in. Girls take part in worshiping the celestials () during rituals. They go to the local temple to pray to Zhinü for wisdom. Paper items are usually burned as offerings. Girls may recite traditional prayers for dexterity in needlework, which symbolizes the traditional talents of a good spouse. Divination could take place to determine the possible dexterity in needlework. They make wishes for marrying someone who would be a good and loving husband. During the festival, girls make a display of their domestic skills. Traditionally, there would be contests amongst those who attempted to be the best in threading needles under low-light conditions, like the glow of an ember or of a half moon. Today, girls sometimes gather toiletries in honour of the seven maidens. The festival also held an importance for newlywed couples. Traditionally, they would worship the celestial couple for the last time and bid farewell to them (). The celebration stood as a symbol for a happy marriage and showed that the married woman was treasured by her new family. On this day, the Chinese gaze up at the sky to look for Vega and Altair shining in the Milky Way, while Deneb, a third star, forms a symbolic bridge between the two stars. It was said that if it rains on this day, that it was caused by a river sweeping away the magpie bridge or that the rain is the tears of the separated couple. Based on the legend of a flock of magpies forming a bridge to reunite the couple, a pair of magpies came to symbolize conjugal happiness and faithfulness. The eating customs of Qixi Festival vary from place to place, and it is called eating Qiao food. The most famous traditional food people eat on Qixi Festival is Qiao Guo. The main material is flour, oil and honey, sometimes adding sesame, peanuts, kernels, roses and other different ingredients. After mixing those ingredients, they are then deep-fried. Qiao Guo has a history of more than one thousand years since it became popular during the Song Dynasty. Beyond that, people would eat crunchy candy, refreshments and fruits together, expressing the people's pursuit of ingenuity, family health, happy life wishes. In some places people gather together and build a four meter long bridge () with big incense sticks and decorate them with colourful flowers. They burn the bridge at night and wish to bring happiness in life. Literature Due to the romance, elegance, and beautiful symbolic meaning of the festival, many pieces of literature, such as poems, popular songs and operas, have been written for this festival since the Zhou Dynasty. Many describe the atmosphere of the festival or narrate related stories. This has left a valuable literary legacy which helps modern scholars better understand ancient Chinese customs, feelings, and opinions relating to the festival. Far, Far Away, the Cowherd – Anonymous（Han Dynasty) 迢迢牽牛星， Far, far away, the Cowherd, 皎皎河漢女。 Fair, fair, the Weaving Maid, 纖纖擢素手， Nimbly move her slender white finger, 札札弄機杼。 Click-clack goes her weaving-loom. 終日不成章， All day she weaves, yet her web is still not done. 泣涕零如雨。 And her tears fall like rain. 河漢清且淺， Clear and shallow the Milky Way, 相去復幾許？ They are not far apart! 盈盈–水間， But the stream brims always between. 脈脈不得語。 And, gazing at each other, they cannot speak. （翻譯：楊憲益，戴乃迭） (Translated by Yang Xianyi, Dai Naidie) An Autumn Night – Du Mu (Tang Dynasty) 銀燭秋光冷畫屏， A candle flame flickers against a dull painted screen on a cool autumn night, 輕羅小扇撲流螢。 She holds a small silk fan to flap away dashing fireflies. 天階夜色涼如水， Above her hang celestial bodies as frigid as deep water, 坐看牽牛織女星。 She sat there watching Altair of Aquila and Vega of Lyra pining for each other in the sky. （翻譯：曾培慈 (Translated by Betty Tseng]) Immortals at the Magpie Bridge – Qin Guan (Song Dynasty) 纖雲弄巧， Clouds float like works of art, 飛星傳恨， Stars shoot with grief at heart. 銀漢迢迢暗渡。 Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid. 金風玉露一相逢， When Autumn’s Golden Wind embraces Dew of Jade, 便勝却人間無數。 All the love scenes on earth, however many, fade. 柔情似水， Their tender love flows like a stream; 佳期如夢， Their happy date seems but a dream. 忍顧鶴橋歸路。 How can they bear a separate homeward way? 兩情若是久長時， If love between both sides can last for aye, 又豈在朝朝暮暮。 Why need they stay together night and day? （翻譯：許淵沖） (Translated by Xu Yuanchong) Gallery Other Interactive Google doodles have been launched since the 2009 Qixi Festival to mark the occasion. The latest was launched for the 2021 Qixi Festival. See also Qixi Tribute Seven Sisters' Fruit Qingming Festival Shangsi Festival Tanabata References Bibliography Hard copy Online Ladies on the ‘Night of Sevens’ Pleading for Skills. Dublin: Chester Beatty Library. 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251297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther%20Dyson	Esther Dyson	Esther Dyson (born 14 July 1951) is a Swiss-born American investor, journalist, author, commentator and philanthropist. She is the executive founder of Wellville, a nonprofit project focused on improving equitable wellbeing. Dyson is a leading angel investor focused on health care, open government, digital technology, biotechnology, and outer space. Dyson's career now focuses on health and she continues to invest in health and technology startups. Education and early life Esther Dyson's father was English-born, American-naturalized physicist Freeman Dyson, and her mother was mathematician Verena Huber-Dyson, of Swiss parentage; her brother is science historian George Dyson. She was educated at Harvard University where she studied economics and wrote for The Harvard Crimson. Career After graduating she joined Forbes as a fact-checker and quickly rose to reporter. In 1977, she joined New Court Securities following Federal Express and other start-ups. After a stint at Oppenheimer Holdings covering software companies, she moved to Rosen Research in 1982. In 1983, when she bought the company from her employer Ben Rosen, Dyson renamed the company EDventure Holdings and his Rosen Electronic Letter newsletter Release 1.0. She and business partner Daphne Kis sold EDventure Holdings to CNET Networks in 2004 and left CNET in January 2007. On 7 October 2008, Space Adventures announced that Dyson had paid to train as a back-up spaceflight participant for Charles Simonyi's trip to the International Space Station aboard the Soyuz TMA-14 mission which took place in 2009. In 1997, Dyson wrote that as of that time she had never voted. The tagline of her email signature block reads “Always make new mistakes”. Publications and business ventures Currently, Dyson is a board member and active investor in a variety of start-ups, mostly in online services, health care, logistics, artificial intelligence, emerging markets, and space travel. Previously, Dyson and her company EDventure Holdings specialized in analyzing the effect of emerging technologies and markets on economies and societies. She produced the following publications on technology: Release 1.0, her monthly technology-industry newsletter (started by Ben Rosen), published by EDventure Holdings. Until 2006, Dyson wrote most issues herself and edited the others. When she left CNET, the newsletter was picked up by O'Reilly Media, which appointed Jimmy Guterman to edit it and renamed the newsletter Release 2.0. Rel-EAST, a sister newsletter focused on the technology industry in Eastern Europe. Release 2.0, her 1997 book on how the Internet affects individuals' lives. Its full title is Release 2.0: A design for living in the digital age. The revision Release 2.1 was published in 1998. Philanthropy Dyson is an active member of a number of non-profit and advisory organizations. From 1998 to 2000, she was the founding chairman of ICANN, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. As of 2004, she sat on its "reform" committee (the At-Large Advisory Committee), dedicated to defining a role for individuals in ICANN's decision-making and governance structures. She opposed ICANN's 2012 expansion of generic top-level domains (gTLDs). She has followed closely the post-Soviet transition of Eastern Europe, from 2002 to 2012 was a member of the Bulgarian President's IT Advisory Council, along with Vint Cerf, George Sadowsky, and Veni Markovski, among others. She has served as a trustee of, and helped fund, emerging organizations such as Glasses for Humanity, Bridges.org, the National Endowment for Democracy, the Eurasia Foundation, StopBadware, and the Sunlight Foundation. Currently, she is a trustee of Charity Navigator, ExpandED Schools (outside-of-class services for kids), the Long Now Foundation, Open Corporates, and The Commons Project, where she chairs the comp and culture committee. Other pursuits Dyson was one of the first ten volunteers for George Church’s Personal Genome Project where you can find her complete genome. Dyson has served as a judge for Mayor Michael Bloomberg's NYC BigApps competition in New York. References External links EDventure.com official website Column archive at Project Syndicate by Allan Gregg for TVOntario (1997) (See also programme information) Esther Dyson profile at Space Angels Network 1951 births Living people American expatriates in Switzerland American financial commentators American investors American people of English descent American philanthropists American reporters and correspondents American technology chief executives American technology journalists American technology writers American venture capitalists American women chief executives American women journalists Freeman Dyson Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni Naturalized citizens of the United States People from Zürich Swiss emigrants to the United States Wired (magazine) people Women business and financial journalists The Harvard Crimson people	[ 0.09404081106185913, 0.311902791261673, -0.5768289566040039, -0.1329583376646042, 0.4615832269191742, 0.6423646211624146, 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251300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Revival	Tony Award for Best Revival	The Tony Award for Best Revival was given to the best play, musical or non-musical, which had already appeared on Broadway in a previous production. It was presented from 1977, where it was called Most Innovative Production of a Revival and later Reproduction (Play or Musical) in 1980, until 1994, when it was split into the Best Revival of a Musical and the Best Revival of a Play. If there are not enough revivals, it is possible under the current Tony rules for this category to return. Any time there are three play revivals and three musical revivals, the categories are automatically separated; if there are fewer, the Tony Awards Administration Committee may still choose to split up the categories. Winners and nominees 1970s 1980s 1990s See also Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play External links Tony Awards Official site Tony Awards at Internet Broadway database Listing Tony Awards at broadwayworld.com Tony Awards Awards established in 1977 1977 establishments in New York City Awards disestablished in 1993 1993 disestablishments in the United States 1994 disestablishments in New York (state)	[ -1.1159470081329346, -0.3084350824356079, -0.04640578106045723, 0.11362127959728241, -0.4704345464706421, -0.023135315626859665, 0.8991566300392151, 0.7621069550514221, -0.6312224864959717, 0.00028030594694428146, -0.42249780893325806, 0.2430610954761505, 0.11683966219425201, 0.42134007811546326, -0.5411438941955566, 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251301	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germania	Germania	Germania ( , ), also called Magna Germania (English: Great Germania), Germania Libera (English: Free Germania), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman province of the same name, was a large historical region in north-central Europe during the Roman era, which was associated by Roman authors with the Germanic peoples. The region stretched roughly from the Middle and Lower Rhine in the west to the Vistula in the east. It also extended as far south as the Upper and Middle Danube and Pannonia, and to the known parts of Scandinavia in the north. Archaeologically, these peoples correspond roughly to the Roman Iron Age of those regions. While apparently dominated by Germanic peoples, Magna Germania was also inhabited by Celts. The Latin name Germania means "land of the Germani", but the etymology of the name Germani itself is uncertain. During the Gallic Wars of the 1st century BC, the Roman general Julius Caesar encountered peoples originating from beyond the Rhine. He referred to these people as Germani and their lands beyond the Rhine as Germania. In subsequent years, the Roman emperor Augustus sought to expand across the Rhine towards the Elbe, but these efforts were hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. The prosperous Roman provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as Roman Germania, were subsequently established in northeast Roman Gaul, while territories east of the Rhine remained independent of Roman control. From the 3rd century AD, Germanic peoples moving out of Magna Germania began encroaching upon and occupying parts of Roman Germania. This contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, after which territories of Roman Germania were captured and settled by migrating Germanic peoples. Large parts of Germania subsequently became part of the Frankish Empire and the later Kingdom of Germany. The name of Germany in English and many other languages is derived from the name Germania. Etymology In Latin, the name Germania means "lands where people called Germani live". Modern scholars do not agree on the etymology of the name Germani. Celtic, Germanic, Illyrian and Latin etymologies have been suggested. The main source on the origin of the names Germania and Germani is the book Germania (98 AD) by Tacitus. Tacitus writes that the name Germania was "modern and newly introduced". According to Tacitus, the name Germani had once been applied only to the Tungri, west of the Rhine, but became an "artificial name" (invento nomine) for supposedly related peoples east of the Rhine. Many modern scholars consider Tacitus' story plausible, although it is doubted whether the name was commonly used by Germani to refer to themselves. Geography The boundaries of Germania are not clearly defined, particularly at its northern and eastern fringes. Magna Germania stretched approximately from the Rhine in the west to beyond the Vistula river in the east, and from the Danube in the south and northwards along the North and Baltic seas, including Scandinavia. Germania Superior encompassed parts of modern-day Switzerland, southwest Germany and eastern France, while Germania Inferior encompassed much of modern-day Belgium and Netherlands. In his Geography (150 AD), the Roman geographer Ptolemy provides descriptions of the geography of Germania. Modern scholars have been able to localize many of the place names mentioned by Ptolemy, and associated them with place names of the present day. Germania was inhabited by a large number of peoples, and there was not much unity among them. It appears that Germania was not entirely inhabited by Germanic peoples. Hydronymy provides evidence for the presence of another Indo-European group, which probably lived under Germanic domination. History During the Gallic Wars of the 1st century BC, the Roman general Julius Caesar came into contact with peoples originating east of the Rhine. In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Caesar refers to these peoples as the Germani, and the lands from where they originated as Germania. The Romans appear to have borrowed the name from the Gauls. Having defeated the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus in Gaul, Caesar built bridges across the Rhine and conducted punitive expeditions in Germania. He writes the area was composed of numerous Germanic states, which were not entirely united. According to Caesar, the Gallic Volcae Tectosages had once crossed the Rhine and colonized parts of Germania, but had since become militarily inferior to the Germani. He also writes that Germani had once crossed the Rhine into northeast Gaul and driven away its Gallic inhabitants, and that the Belgae claimed to be largely descended from these Germanic invaders. In the late 1st century BC, the Roman emperor Augustus launched campaigns across the Rhine, and incorporated areas of Germania as far east as the Elbe into the Roman Empire, creating the short-lived Roman province of Germania Antiqua in 7 BC, with further aims of establishing a greater province of Magna Germania, with headquarters at Colonia (modern-day Cologne, Germany). The Roman campaign was severely hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. The Rhine eventually became the border between the Roman Empire and Magna Germania. Areas of northeast Gaul bordering the Rhine remained under Roman control, and are often referred to as Roman Germania. Four Roman legions were stationed there, and a Roman fleet, the Classis Germanica, was also established. The area was effectively governed as Roman provinces. Areas of Germania independent of Roman control were referred to as Magna Germania. Modern scholars sometimes refer to the Magna Germania as Free Germania (Latin: Germania Libera) or Germanic Barbaricum. As parts of Roman social engineering efforts, large numbers of Germani, including Ubii and Sicambri, were settled within Roman Germania in order to prevent revolts by resident Gauls. Roman Germania became characterized by a mixed Celtic, Germanic and Roman population, which became progressively Romanized. By the mid 1st century AD, between eight and ten Roman legions were stationed in Roman Germania to protect the frontiers. From 69–70 AD, Roman Germania was heavily affected by the Revolt of the Batavi. Tacitus writes that the leader of the revolt, Gaius Julius Civilis, recruited a vast amount of warriors from his self-described "kinsmen" all over Germania, and hailed Arminius for having liberated Germania from slavery. Civilis' rebels seized Colonia, capital of Roman Germania and home of the Germanic Ubii, who according to Tacitus were considered traitors by other Germani for having "forsworn its native country". After initially seeking to raze all of Colonia to the ground, the forces of Civilis declared the city returned "into the unity of the German nation and name" and "an open city for all Germans". Although initially declaring the rebels and "other Germans" their "kinsmen by blood", the Ubii eventually assisted the Romans in recapturing the Colonia. In the late 1st century AD, under the leadership of the Flavian dynasty, the provinces of Germania Inferior (headquartered at Colonia) and Germania Superior (headquartered at Mogontiacum) were created out of Roman Germania and other eastern parts of Roman Gaul. They hosted a large military force and carried out lucrative trade with Magna Germania, which greatly contributed to the wealth of Roman Gaul. Germania (98 AD) by Tacitus provided vivid descriptions of the peoples of Magna Germania. In the late 1st and early 2nd century AD, the Romans reoccupied areas lying between the Rhine, Main and Danube rivers. This area became known as the Agri Decumates. Additional numbers of Germani were settled by the Romans within this area. The Roman fortifications on the border with Magna Germania were known as the Limes Germanicus. The 3rd century AD saw the emergence of several powerful Germanic confederations in Magna Germania, such as the Alemanni and Franks. The Crisis of the Third Century included raids on Roman Germania by Alemanni and Franks, and the area briefly became part of the Gallic Empire established by the usurper Postumus. Around 280 AD, the Agri Decumates were evacuated by the Romans and occupied by Alemanni. Under Diocletian (3rd century AD), Germania Superior was renamed Germania Secunda, while Germania Inferior was renamed Maxima Sequanorum. Both provinces were under the Diocese of Gaul. The provinces of Roman Germania continued to be subjected to repeated Alemannic and Frankish attacks. In the late 4th century AD and early 5th century AD, Gothic Wars in the Balkans forced the Romans to withdraw troops from Roman Germania. In 406, a large number of people fleeing the Huns crossed the Rhine from Magna Germania into Roman Germania and Gaul, leading to the eventually collapse of Roman rule there, and the emigration of large numbers of Romans, particularly Roman elites. Roman Germania was subsequently occupied by Alemanni and Franks. During subsequent centuries, peoples of Germania played a major role in dismembering what was left of the Western Roman Empire. Large parts of Germania, including all of Roman Germania, were eventually incorporated into the Frankish Empire. Archaeology From the 1st to the 4th century AD, Magna Germania corresponds archaeologically to the Roman Iron Age. In recent years, progress in archaeology has contributed greatly to the understanding of Germania. Areas of Magna Germania were largely agrarian, and display archaeological commonalities with each other, while being strongly differentiated from that of Roman Germania, largely due to the absence of cities and independent coinage. Archaeological discoveries testify to flourishing trade between Magna Germania and the Roman Empire. Amber was a primary export out of Magna Germania, while Roman luxury goods were imported on a large scale. Such goods have been found as far as Scandinavia and Western Russia. Legacy The name Germania is attested in Old English translations of Bede and Orosius. Since the 17th century, the most common name of Germany in English has been derived from the name Germania. See also Scythia Illyria Thrace Gaul Dacia Scandza Hibernia Thule Germania (city) Citations and sources Citations Ancient sources Modern sources Further reading External links Germania (Roman provinces) Historical regions Historical regions in Germany Germany in the Roman era Netherlands in the Roman era Prehistoric Poland	[ -0.26667287945747375, -0.6672962307929993, -0.0479319766163826, -0.20542937517166138, -0.2921272814273834, 0.5751458406448364, 0.4698449373245239, 0.523871898651123, -0.06538628041744232, -0.63191819190979, -0.10041510313749313, -0.5295600295066833, -0.13245759904384613, 0.6273834705352783, -0.369112104177475, 0.5274705290794373, -0.12878432869911194, 0.10753580927848816, -0.030000586062669754, 0.011843844316899776, -0.15833055973052979, -0.07891470193862915, 0.6084213852882385, 0.5768190026283264, 0.2266337275505066, -0.9033686518669128, 0.8616467118263245, 0.11092329770326614, -0.536200225353241, -0.41206470131874084, -0.5189565420150757, 0.09630709886550903, 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