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251549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deming%20regression | Deming regression | In statistics, Deming regression, named after W. Edwards Deming, is an errors-in-variables model which tries to find the line of best fit for a two-dimensional dataset. It differs from the simple linear regression in that it accounts for errors in observations on both the x- and the y- axis. It is a special case of total least squares, which allows for any number of predictors and a more complicated error structure.
Deming regression is equivalent to the maximum likelihood estimation of an errors-in-variables model in which the errors for the two variables are assumed to be independent and normally distributed, and the ratio of their variances, denoted δ, is known. In practice, this ratio might be estimated from related data-sources; however the regression procedure takes no account for possible errors in estimating this ratio.
The Deming regression is only slightly more difficult to compute than the simple linear regression. Most statistical software packages used in clinical chemistry offer Deming regression.
The model was originally introduced by who considered the case δ = 1, and then more generally by with arbitrary δ. However their ideas remained largely unnoticed for more than 50 years, until they were revived by and later propagated even more by . The latter book became so popular in clinical chemistry and related fields that the method was even dubbed Deming regression in those fields.
Specification
Assume that the available data (yi, xi) are measured observations of the "true" values (yi*, xi*), which lie on the regression line:
where errors ε and η are independent and the ratio of their variances is assumed to be known:
In practice, the variances of the and parameters are often unknown, which complicates the estimate of . Note that when the measurement method for and is the same, these variances are likely to be equal, so for this case.
We seek to find the line of "best fit"
such that the weighted sum of squared residuals of the model is minimized:
See for a full derivation.
Solution
The solution can be expressed in terms of the second-degree sample moments. That is, we first calculate the following quantities (all sums go from i = 1 to n):
Finally, the least-squares estimates of model's parameters will be
Orthogonal regression
For the case of equal error variances, i.e., when , Deming regression becomes orthogonal regression: it minimizes the sum of squared perpendicular distances from the data points to the regression line. In this case, denote each observation as a point zj in the complex plane (i.e., the point (xj, yj) is written as zj = xj + iyj where i is the imaginary unit). Denote as Z the sum of the squared differences of the data points from the centroid (also denoted in complex coordinates), which is the point whose horizontal and vertical locations are the averages of those of the data points. Then:
If Z = 0, then every line through the centroid is a line of best orthogonal fit.
If Z ≠ 0, the orthogonal regression line goes through the centroid and is parallel to the vector from the origin to .
A trigonometric representation of the orthogonal regression line was given by Coolidge in 1913.
Application
In the case of three non-collinear points in the plane, the triangle with these points as its vertices has a unique Steiner inellipse that is tangent to the triangle's sides at their midpoints. The major axis of this ellipse falls on the orthogonal regression line for the three vertices. The quantification of a biological cell's intrinsic cellular noise can be quantified upon applying Deming regression to the observed behavior of a two reporter synthetic biological circuit.
See also
Line fitting
References
Notes
Bibliography
Regression analysis | [
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251550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/They%20think%20it%27s%20all%20over | They think it's all over | "They think it's all over" is a quote from Kenneth Wolstenholme's BBC TV commentary in the closing moments of the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final, when England beat West Germany 4–2 after extra time to win the FIFA World Cup. In the final few seconds of the match, Wolstenholme said:
And here comes Hurst! He's got...
(Wolstenholme is distracted by some of the crowd spilling onto the pitch)
Some people are on the pitch! They think it's all over!
(Geoff Hurst scores to put England two goals ahead)
It is now, it's four!
Soon after the 1966 victory, Wolstenholme's quote became a widely used expression.
In popular culture
The phrase, along with other calls from English football matches, appears in New Order's song "World In Motion", although in that case Wolstenholme re-recorded it with the slightly different words "Well, some of the crowd are on the pitch. They think it's all over. Well it is now". The British band The Dentists called their first album Some People Are on the Pitch They Think It's All Over It Is Now in Wolstenholme's honour; the LP begins with a sample of Wolstenholme's original commentary. Track #3 on British folk metal act Skyclad's EP Jig-a-Jig is called "They Think It's All Over". The song contains the phrase "They think it's all over. Well is it now?" in its chorus and includes several references to the 1966 FIFA World Cup.
In Neil Marshall's Dog Soldiers the last words that the character Cooper says are, "You think it's all over? It is now."
The quotation was also used as the title of the BBC's satirical sports quiz show They Think It's All Over, which appeared on BBC One from 1995 to 2006. The show has heightened the popularity of the phrase in recent years, though Kenneth Wolstenholme was reportedly unhappy with the use of the phrase for the title of the show.
An alternative mix for The Beatles song "Glass Onion", which appeared on Anthology 3, contained a portion of Kenneth Wolstenholme's commentary. At the end of the track he can be heard shouting "It's a goal!" repeating for several seconds until the track fades.
In the Discworld book Unseen Academicals the book has two false endings, each followed by "You think it's all over?" and at the actual end "It is Now!"
BBC parodist Dave Henson used the line to refer to the 1966 winning team during his parody of "I'll Be Missing You" by Puff Daddy and the Family/The Police.
Boys of '66 hey take a bow..
They think it's all over, it is now!
The video game Kinect Sports, which has football as one of the six sports represented, has two achievements that refer to the quote: "They Think It's All Over..." is awarded when the players wins their first football match, and "...It Is Now!" is obtained when the player wins with a goal scored in the final 10 seconds.
See also
"Your boys took one hell of a beating!"
References
England at the 1966 FIFA World Cup
Sports television in the United Kingdom
English phrases
Quotations from sports
Quotations from television
1966 neologisms | [
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251555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vita%20Sackville-West | Vita Sackville-West | Victoria Mary Sackville-West, Lady Nicolson, CH (9 March 1892 – 2 June 1962), usually known as Vita Sackville-West, was an English author and garden designer.
Sackville-West was a successful novelist, poet, and journalist, as well as a prolific letter writer and diarist. She published more than a dozen collections of poetry and 13 novels during her lifetime. She was twice awarded the Hawthornden Prize for Imaginative Literature: in 1927 for her pastoral epic, The Land, and in 1933 for her Collected Poems. She was the inspiration for the protagonist of Orlando: A Biography, by her famous friend and lover, Virginia Woolf.
She had a longstanding column in The Observer (1946–1961) and is remembered for the celebrated garden at Sissinghurst created with her husband, Sir Harold Nicolson.
Biography
Antecedents
Knole, the home of Sackville-West's aristocratic ancestors in Kent, was given to Thomas Sackville by Elizabeth I in the sixteenth century. Vita was born there, the only child of cousins Victoria Sackville-West and Lionel Sackville-West, 3rd Baron Sackville. Vita's mother was also named Victoria Sackville-West and was raised in a Parisian convent. She was the illegitimate daughter of Lionel Sackville-West, 2nd Baron Sackville and a Spanish dancer, Josefa de Oliva (née Durán y Ortega), known as Pepita. Pepita's mother was an acrobat who had married a barber.
Although the marriage of Sackville-West's parents was initially happy, shortly after her birth, the couple drifted apart and Lionel took an opera singer for a mistress who came to live with them at Knole.
Christened Victoria Mary Sackville-West, the girl was known as "Vita" throughout her life to distinguish her from her mother, also called Victoria. The usual English aristocratic inheritance customs were followed by the Sackville-West family, preventing Vita from inheriting Knole on the death of her father, a source of life-long bitterness to Vita. The house followed the title, and was bequeathed instead by her father to his brother Charles, who became the 4th Baron.
Early life
Sackville-West was initially taught at home by governesses and later attended Helen Wolff's school for girls, an exclusive day school in Mayfair, where she met first loves Violet Keppel and Rosamund Grosvenor. She did not befriend local children and found it hard to make friends at school. Her biographers characterise her childhood as one filled by loneliness and isolation. She wrote prolifically at Knole, penning eight full-length (unpublished) novels between 1906 and 1910, ballads, and many plays, some in French. Her lack of formal education led to later shyness with her peers, such as those in the Bloomsbury Group. She felt herself to be sluggish of mind and she was never at the intellectual heart of her social group.
Sackville-West's apparently Roma lineage introduced a passion for "gypsy" ways, a culture she perceived to be hot-blooded, heart-led, dark and romantic. It informed the stormy nature of many of her later love affairs and was a strong theme in her writing. Sackville-West visited Roma camps and felt herself to be at one with them.
Vita's mother had a wide array of famous lovers, including financier J. P. Morgan and Sir John Murray Scott (from 1897 until his death in 1912). Scott, secretary to the couple who inherited and developed the Wallace Collection, was a devoted companion and Lady Sackville and he were rarely apart during their years together. During her childhood, Vita spent a great deal of time in Scott's apartments in Paris, perfecting her already fluent French.
First loves
Sackville-West debuted in 1910, shortly after the death of Edward VII. She was wooed by Orazio Pucci, son of a distinguished Florentine family; by Lord Granby (later 9th Duke of Rutland); and by Lord Lascelles (later 6th Earl of Harewood), among others. In 1924 she had a passionate affair with historian Geoffrey Scott. Scott's marriage collapsed shortly thereafter, as was often the fallout with Sackville-West's affairs, all with women after this point (as most of them had been beforehand).
Sackville-West fell in love with Rosamund Grosvenor (1888–1944), who was four years her senior. In her journal, Vita wrote "Oh, I dare say I realized vaguely that I had no business to sleep with Rosamund, and I should certainly never have allowed anyone to find it out," but she saw no real conflict. Lady Sackville, Vita's mother, invited Rosamund to visit the family at their villa in Monte Carlo (1910). Rosamund also stayed with Vita at Knole House, at Murray Scott's pied-à-terre on the Rue Laffitte in Paris, and at Sluie, Scott's shooting lodge in the Scottish Highlands, near Banchory. Their secret relationship ended in 1913 when Vita married.
Sackville-West was more deeply involved with Violet Keppel, daughter of the Hon. George Keppel and his wife, Alice Keppel. The sexual relationship began when they were both in their teens and strongly influenced them for years. Both later married and became writers.
Harold
Sackville-West was courted for 18 months by young diplomat Harold Nicolson, whom she found to be a secretive character. She writes that the wooing was entirely chaste and throughout they did not so much as kiss. In 1913, at age 21, Vita married him in the private chapel at Knole. Vita's parents were opposed to the marriage on the grounds that "penniless" Nicolson had an annual income of only £250. He was the third secretary at the British Embassy in Constantinople and his father had been made a peer only under Queen Victoria. Another of Sackville-West's suitors, Lord Granby, had an annual income of £100,000, owned vast acres of land and was heir to an old title, the Duchy of Rutland.
The couple had an open marriage. Both Sackville-West and her husband had same-sex relationships before and during their marriage, as did some of the Bloomsbury Group of writers and artists, with whom they had connections. Sackville-West saw herself as psychologically divided into two: one side of her personality was more feminine, soft, submissive and attracted to men while the other side was more masculine, hard, aggressive and attracted to women. Harold had a series of relationships with men who were his intellectual equals, but the physical element in them was very secondary. He was never a passionate lover. To him sex was as incidental, and about as pleasurable as a quick visit to a picture-gallery between trains.
Following the pattern of his father's career, Harold Nicolson was at various times a diplomat, journalist, broadcaster, Member of Parliament, and author of biographies and novels. After the wedding the couple lived in Cihangir, a suburb of Constantinople (now Istanbul), the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Sackville-West loved Constantinople, but the duties of a diplomat's wife did not appeal to her. It was only during this time that she attempted to don, with good grace, the part of a "correct and adoring wife of the brilliant young diplomat", as she sarcastically wrote. When she became pregnant, in the summer of 1914, the couple returned to England to ensure that she could give birth in a British hospital.
The family lived at 182 Ebury Street, Belgravia and bought Long Barn in Kent as a country house (1915–1930). They employed the architect Edwin Lutyens to make improvements to the house. The British declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, following Ottoman naval attacks on Russia, precluded any return to Constantinople.
The couple had two children: Benedict (1914–1978), an art historian, and Nigel (1917–2004), a well-known editor, politician, and writer. Another son was stillborn in 1915.
Violet
Sackville-West continued to receive devoted letters from her lover Violet Keppel. She was deeply upset to read of Keppel's engagement to Major Denys Trefusis. Her response was to travel to Paris to see Keppel and persuade her to honour their commitment. Keppel, depressed and suicidal, did eventually marry her fiancé, under pressure from her mother, though Keppel made it clear that she did not love her husband. Sackville-West called the marriage her own greatest failure.
Sackville-West and Keppel disappeared together several times from 1918 on, mostly to France. One day in 1918 Vita writes that she experienced a radical 'liberation', where her male aspect was unexpectedly freed. She writes: "I went into wild spirits; I ran, I shouted, I jumped, I climbed, I vaulted over gates, I felt like a schoolboy let out on a holiday ... that wild irresponsible day".
The mothers of both women joined forces to sabotage the relationship and force their daughters back to their husbands. But they were unsuccessful. Sackville-West often dressed as a man, styled as Keppel's husband. The two women made a bond to remain faithful to one another, pledging that neither would engage in sexual relations with their husband.
Keppel continued to pursue her lover to great lengths, until Sackville-West's affairs with other women finally took their toll. In November 1919, while staying at Monte Carlo, Sackville-West wrote that she felt very low, entertaining thoughts of suicide, believing that Nicolson would be better off without her. In 1920 the lovers ran off again to France together and their husbands chased after them in a small two-seater aeroplane. Sackville-West heard allegations that Keppel and her husband Trefusis had been involved sexually, and she broke off the relationship as the lesbian oath of fidelity had been broken. Despite the rift, the two women stayed devoted to one another.
Persia
From 1925 to 1927, Nicolson lived in Tehran where Sackville-West often visited him. Sackville-West's book A Passenger to Tehran recounts her time there. The couple were involved in planning the coronation of Rezā Khan and got to know the six-year old Crown Prince Mohammad Reza well. She also visited and wrote about the former capital of Isfahan to see the Safavid palaces.
Virginia Woolf
Sackville-West's relationship with the prominent writer Virginia Woolf began in 1925 and ended in 1935, reaching its height between 1925 and 1928. The American scholar Louise DeSalvo wrote that the ten years while they were together were the artistic peak of both women's careers, owing to the positive influence they had on one another: "neither had ever written so much so well, and neither would ever again reach this peak of accomplishment".
In December 1922, Sackville-West first met Virginia Woolf at a dinner party in London. Though Sackville-West came from an aristocratic family that was far richer than Woolf's own, the women bonded over their confined childhoods and emotionally absent parents. Woolf knew about Sackville-West's relationship with Keppel and was impressed by her free spirit.
Sackville-West greatly admired Woolf's writings, considering her to be the better author. She told Woolf in one letter: "I contrast my illiterate writing with your scholarly one, and I am ashamed". Though Woolf envied Sackville-West's ability to write quickly, she was inclined to believe that the volumes were written too much in haste: "Vita's prose is too fluent".
As the two grew close, Woolf disclosed how she had been abused by her step-brother as a child. It was largely due to Sackville-West's support that Woolf began to heal from the trauma, allowing her for the first time to have a satisfying erotic relationship. Woolf purchased a mirror during a trip to France with Sackville-West, saying she felt she could look in a mirror for the first time in her life. Sackville-West's support gave Woolf greater confidence and helped her cast off her self-image of a sickly semi-recluse. She persuaded Woolf that her nervous ailments had been misdiagnosed, and that she should focus on her own varied intellectual projects; that she must learn to rest.
To help the Woolfs, Sackville-West chose their Hogarth Press to be her publisher. Seducers in Ecuador, the first Sackville-West novel to be published by Hogarth, sold only 1,500 copies in its first year. The Edwardians, published next, sold 30,000 copies in its first six months. The boost helped Hogarth financially, though Woolf did not always value the books' romantic themes. The increased security of the Press's fortunes allowed Woolf to write more experimental novels such as The Waves Though contemporary critics consider Woolf a better writer, critics in the 1920s viewed Sackville-West as more accomplished, with her books outselling Woolf's by a large margin.
Sackville-West loved to travel, frequently going to France, Spain and to visit Nicolson in Persia. These trips were emotionally draining for Woolf, who missed Sackville-West intensely. Woolf's novel To the Lighthouse, noteworthy for its theme of longing for someone absent, was partly inspired by Sackville-West's frequent absences. Sackville-West inspired Woolf to write one of her most famous novels, Orlando, featuring a protagonist who changes sex over the centuries. This work was described by Sackville-West's son Nigel Nicolson as "the longest and most charming love-letter in literature."
There were, however, tensions in the relationship. Woolf was often bothered by what she viewed as Sackville-West's promiscuity, charging that Sackville-West's great need for sex led her to take up with anyone who struck her fancy. In A Room Of One's Own (1929), Woolf attacks patriarchal inheritance laws. This was an implicit criticism of Sackville-West, who never questioned the leading social and political position of the aristocracy to which she belonged. She felt that Sackville-West was unable to critique the system she was both a part of and, to a certain extent, a victim of. In the 1930s they clashed over Nicolson's "unfortunate" involvement with Oswald Mosley and the New Party (later renamed the British Union of Fascists), and they were at odds over the imminent war. Sackville-West supported rearmament while Woolf remained loyal to her pacifism, leading to the end of their relationship in 1935.
Other lovers
One of Sackville-West's male suitors, Henry Lascelles, would later marry the Princess Royal and become the 6th Earl of Harewood.
In 1927, Sackville-West had an affair with Mary Garman, a member of the Bloomsbury Group; between 1929 and 1931, she maintained a relationship with Hilda Matheson, head of the BBC Talks Department. In 1931, Sackville-West was in a ménage à trois with journalist Evelyn Irons and Irons's lover, Olive Rinder. Irons had interviewed Sackville-West after her novel The Edwardians had become a best-seller.
Sissinghurst
In 1930 the family acquired and moved to Sissinghurst Castle, near Cranbrook, Kent. It had once been owned by Vita's ancestors. This gave it a dynastic attraction as she was excluded from inheriting Knole and a title. Sissinghurst was an Elizabethan ruin and the creation of the gardens would be a joint labour of love that would last many decades, first entailing years of clearing debris from the land. Nicolson provided the architectural structure, with strong classical lines, which would frame his wife's innovative informal planting schemes. She created a new and experimental system of enclosures or rooms, such as the White Garden, Rose Garden, Orchard, Cottage Garden and Nuttery. She also innovated single colour-themed gardens and design principles orientating the visitors' experience to discovery and exploration. Her first garden at Long Barn (Kent, 1915–1930) was experimental, a place of learning by trial and error and she carried over her ideas and projects to Sissinghurst, utilising her hard won experience. Sissinghurst was first opened to the public in 1938.
Sackville-West took up writing again in 1930 after a six-year break as she needed money to pay for Sissinghurst. Nicolson, having left the Foreign Office, no longer had a diplomat's salary to draw upon. She also had to pay tuition for her two sons to attend Eton College. She felt she had become a better writer thanks to the mentorship of Woolf. In 1947 she began a weekly column in The Observer called "In your Garden", although she was not a trained horticulturalist or designer. She continued the very popular column until a year before her death, and writing helped to make Sissinghust one of the most famous and visited gardens in England. In 1948 she became a founder member of the National Trust's garden committee. The grounds are now run by the National Trust. She was awarded the Veitch Memorial Medal from the Royal Horticultural Society.
Writing
Portrait of a Marriage
In the early 1920s Sackville-West wrote a memoir of her relationships. In it she sought to explain both why she had chosen to stay with Nicolson and why she had fallen in love with Violet Keppel. The work, titled Portrait of a Marriage, was not published until 1973. In the book she uses metaphors from nature to present her account as truthful and honest, describing her life as a "bog" and a "swamp", suggesting that her personal life was naturally unappealing and unpleasant. Sackville-West stated that she wanted to explain her sexuality, which she presented as being at the core of her personality. She wrote that in the future "it will be recognized that many more people of my type do exist than under the present-day system of hypocrisy is commonly admitted".
Reflecting a certain ambivalence about her sexuality, Sackville-West presented her sexual desires for Keppel as both "deviant" and "natural", as if she herself was uncertain of whether her sexuality was normal or not, though the American scholar Georgia Johnston has argued that Sackville-West's confusion on this point was due to her wish to have this memoir published one day. In this regard, Sackville-West wrote of her deep desire and love for Keppel while at same time declaring her "shame" about this "duality with which I was too weak and too self-indulgent to struggle". At various times, Sackville-West called herself a "pariah" with a "perverted nature" and "unnatural" feelings for Keppel, who was portrayed as a tempting, if degrading, object of her desire. Sackville-West called for a "spirit of candor" in society that would allow for tolerance of gay and bisexual people. Much influenced by the theories promoted by sexologists like Magnus Hirschfeld, Edward Carpenter, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud, Sackville-West sometimes wrote of her sexuality as abnormal and wrong and due to some psychological flaw she was born with, portraying heterosexuality as the norm that she wanted, but failed to live up to.
Several times, Sackville-West stated that she wrote Portrait of a Marriage for scientific purposes so people would be able to understand bisexual people, which would thus allow her, despite her self-condemnation, to present her sexuality as in some way normal. Several of the sexologists Sackville-West cited, most notably Carpenter and Ellis, had argued that homosexuality and bisexuality were in fact normal, and despite her condemning herself, her use of a "scientific" approach backed up with quotes from Ellis and Carpenter allowed her to present her bisexuality as implicitly normal. Writing in the third person, Sackville-West declared "she regrets that the person Harold married wasn't entirely and wholly what he had thought of her, and that the person who loves and owns Violet isn't a second person, because each suits each other". Sackville-West presented her sexuality as part of the personality she had been born with, portraying herself as an accursed woman who should be the object of sympathy, not condemnation.
In 1973, when her son Nigel Nicolson published Portrait of a Marriage, he was uncertain if he was going to be charged with obscenity, going to considerable lengths to stress the legitimacy of a love for a person of the same sex in his introduction. Despite portraying herself as in some way "deviant" because of her feelings for women, Sackville-West also wrote in Portrait of a Marriage of the discovery and acceptance of her bisexuality as a teenager as the joyous "liberation of half my personality", suggesting that she did not really see herself as a woman with "deviant" sexuality, as this statement contradicted what she had written at the beginning of the book about her "perverted" sexuality. Johnson wrote that Sackville-West, in presenting the lesbian side of herself in terms that depicted Keppel as evil and Nicolson as good, was the only way possible at the time to express this side of her personality, writing "even if annihilating herself seemed the only way she could present any type of acceptable self."
The memoir was dramatised by the BBC (and PBS in North America) in 1990, starring Janet McTeer as Vita, and Cathryn Harrison as Violet. The series won four BAFTAs.
Challenge
Sackville-West's novel Challenge (1923) also bears witness to her affair with Keppel: Sackville-West and Keppel had started writing this book as a collaborative endeavour. It was published in America but banned in the UK until 1974.
The male character's name, Julian, had been Sackville-West's nickname when passing as a man. Challenge (first entitled Rebellion, then Enchantment, then Vanity and at some point Foam), is a roman à clef with the character of Julian being a male version of Sackville-West and Eve, the woman he desires so passionately is Keppel. Notably, Sackville-West in Challenge defends Keppel against several of the insults Nicolson had applied to her in his letters to her; for example Nicolson often called Keppel a "swine" and a "pig", and in the book Julian goes out of his way to say that Eve is neither a swine nor a pig. In the book, Julian says that "Eve is not a 'little swine', she just has the weaknesses and faults of femininity carried to the 9th degree, but is also redeemed by a self-sacrifice, which is very feminine".
Reflecting her obsession with the Romany people, Eve is portrayed as a seductive Romany woman with an "insinuating femininity" that Julian cannot resist, calling him away from his political mission of winning independence on a fictional Greek island during the Greek war of independence. Nicolson wrote in a letter to his wife: "Don't please dedicate it to Violet, it would kill me if you did". When Challenge was published in 1924, the dedication was written in Romany reading: "This book is yours, honoured witch. If you read it, you will find your tormented soul changed and free". Throughout their relationship, Keppel was given to threatening suicide if Sackville-West left her, a character trait shared by Eve, who finally attempts to drown herself in the sea while Julian tries to come to her rescue. As Eve changes her mind about taking her life and tries to swim ashore as Julian swims out to her, it is too late and she is swept away by the tide to drown. The book's ending reflected Sackville-West's guilt about breaking her relationship with Keppel.
Her mother, Lady Sackville, found the portrayal obvious enough to refuse to allow publication of the novel in England; but Vita's son Nigel Nicolson praises his mother: "She fought for the right to love, men and women, rejecting the conventions that marriage demands exclusive love, and that women should love only men, and men only women. For this she was prepared to give up everything ... How could she regret that the knowledge of it should now reach the ears of a new generation, one so infinitely more compassionate than her own?"
Sackville-West was fascinated with and often wrote about the Roma people. As the British scholar Kirstie Blair noted, for her: "Gypsies represent liberation, excitement, danger and the free expression of sexuality". In particular, the Roma women, especially Spanish Romany women, served as a symbol for lesbianism in her writings. As with many other women writers in this period, for Sackville-West, the Romany represented a social element both familiar and strange; a people perceived and admired as flamboyant romantics while at the same time viewed and hated as shifty, dishonest types; a rootless people who belonged nowhere yet could be found everywhere in Europe, serving as a symbol for a sort of unconventional femininity. The picture Sackville-West held of the Romany was much influenced by "Orientalism", as the Romany were believed to have originated from India. The idea of a people who belonged nowhere, existing outside of the values of "civilization", held genuine appeal to her as it offered up the possibility of gender roles different from those held in the West. Sackville-West was English, but she invented Romany ancestry for herself on the Spanish side of her family, explaining her bohemian behavior as due to her alleged "Gypsy" descent.
Orlando
Woolf was inspired by Sackville-West to write her most famous novel, Orlando (1928), featuring a protagonist who changes sex over the centuries. Reflecting Sackville-West's interest in the Romany, when Orlando goes to bed as a man and mysteriously wakes up as a woman in Constantinople (which is implied might have been the result of a spell cast by a Romany witch whom he married), it is at a Romany camp in the Balkans that Orlando is first welcomed and accepted as a woman, as the Romany in the novel make no distinctions between the sexes. Ultimately Woolf satirizes Sackville-West's Romany fetish, as Orlando, an English aristocrat, prefers not to live in poverty as part of wandering Romany caravan in the Balkans, because the call of a settled life of the aristocracy at a country house in England proves too strong for her, just as in real life Sackville-West fantasised about living the nomadic life of a Romany, but in reality preferred the settled life in the English countryside. Orlando, which was intended as a fantasy where the character of Orlando (a stand-in for Sackville-West) inherits an estate, not unlike Knole (which Sackville-West would have inherited as the eldest child if she had been a man), ironically marked the beginning of a tension between the two women. Sackville-West often complained in her letters that Woolf was more interested in writing a fantasy about her than in returning her gestures of affection in the real world.
Family History
Sackville-West's 1932 novel Family History tells the story of Evelyn Jarrold, a rich widow who married into a family which owes its recent wealth and social position to the ownership of coal mines, and her ill-fated love affair with Miles Vane-Merrick, a much younger man with progressive social ideas. Evelyn Jarrold's husband, Tommy, died in the Great War, and she has nothing to occupy her apart from her son Dan (the Jarrolds' heir, who is away at Eton), social events, and visits to her dressmaker. Vane-Merrick is a farming landowner and Member of Parliament, and is writing a book on economics. He represents new, progressive values and the male world of work and economic activity, and Evelyn Jarrold represents traditional values and the female world of family ties and social engagements.
The characters of Viola and Leonard Anquetil in Family History are socialists, pacifists and feminists, thinly veiled versions of Virginia and Leonard Woolf. In Orlando, Woolf allowed Vita to finally "own" Knole, and in Family History, Vita returns the gesture, as the Anquetils have children who turned out to be intelligent and decent people. Woolf had never had children and was afraid that she would have been a bad mother. In casting her fictional alter-ego as an excellent mother she was offering a "gift" to Woolf.
Other work and achievements
Most of the novels were an immediate success (except Dark Island, Grand Canyon and La Grande Mademoiselle). All Passion Spent (1931) and Seducers in Ecuador (1924) sold especially well. Somewhat Ironically Seducers overtook her mentor's novel Mrs Dalloway at the top of the sales charts.
The Edwardians (1930) and All Passion Spent are perhaps her best-known novels today. In the latter, the elderly Lady Slane courageously embraces a long suppressed sense of freedom and whimsy after a lifetime of following convention. This novel was dramatised by the BBC in 1986 starring Dame Wendy Hiller. All Passion Spent appears to reflect Woolf's influence. The character of Lady Slane begins to truly live only after the death of her husband, a former prime minister. She befriends the servants of her estate, discovering the lives of people she had previously ignored. At the end of the novel Lady Slane persuades her granddaughter to break off an arranged marriage in order to pursue her career as a musician.
Grand Canyon (1942) is a science fiction "cautionary tale" (as she termed it) about a Nazi invasion of an unprepared United States. The book takes an unsuspected twist, however, that makes it something more than a typical invasion yarn.
A recently re-discovered work from 1922 "A Note of Explanation" was written specifically to be a part of the miniature collection of books within the doll's House, and tells the story of a sprite that inhabits the doll's house and re-tells several fairy tales from the point of view of the sprite, indicating how they had influenced the story.
The book was adapted for the stage by Emily Ingram under the title "A Sprite in the Doll's House" in 2019 and was performed in Edinburgh, at the Palace of Holyrood House as part of their Christmas festivities.
The poetry remains the least known of Sackville-West's work. It encompassed epics and translations of volumes such as Rilke's Duino Elegies. Her epic poems The Land (1926) and The Garden (1946) reflect an enduring passion for the earth and family tradition.The Land may have been written in response to the central work of Modernist poetry The Waste Land (also published by Hogarth Press). She dedicated her poem to her lover Dorothy Wellesley. A recording of Sackville-West reading it was released by the British Columbia label.
Her poem won the Hawthornden Prize in 1927. She won it again in 1933 with her Collected Poems, becoming the only writer to do so twice. The Garden won the Heinemann Award for literature.
Her epic poem Solitude, published by the Hogarth Press in October 1938 contains references to the Bible, Paracelsus, Ixion, Catullus, Andromeda, the Iliad and a Sabine bride, all of which were quite acceptable in the early 20th century, but were seen as anachronistic by 1938. The narrator of Solitude has an ardent love of the English countryside. Though the sex of the narrator is left ambiguous, implied at various points to be a man or a woman, it is made clear the narrator loved intensely a woman who is no longer present and who is deeply missed. At one point, the narrator's horror and disgust at Ixion, a brutal rapist, implies that she is a woman. At another point in the poem, her desire to free Andromeda from her chains and to make love suggests that she is a lesbian. The narrator compares the love of nature to the love of books, as both cultivate her mind. She thinks of herself as superior to the farmers who merely work the land without the time or the interest for poetry, all of which make it possible for her to have a deeper appreciation of nature.
She is not well known as a biographer. The most famous of those works is her biography of Saint Joan of Arc in the work of the same name. Additionally, she composed a dual biography of Saint Teresa of Ávila and Thérèse of Lisieux entitled The Eagle and the Dove, a biography of the author Aphra Behn, and a biography of her maternal grandmother, the Spanish dancer known as Pepita.
Despite being a shy woman, Sackville-West often forced herself to participate in literary readings before book clubs and on the BBC in order to feel a sense of belonging. Her love of the classical traditions in literature put her out of favour with modernist critics and by the 1940s, she was often dismissed as a dated writer, much to her chagrin. In 1947 Sackville-West was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature and Companion of Honour.
Death and legacy
Vita Sackville-West died at Sissinghurst in June 1962, aged 70, from abdominal cancer. She was cremated and ashes buried in the family crypt within the church at Withyham, eastern Sussex.
Sissinghurst Castle is owned by the National Trust. Her son Nigel Nicolson lived there after her death, and following his death in 2004 his own son Adam Nicolson, Baron Carnock, came to live there with his family. With his wife, the horticulturalist Sarah Raven, they committed to restore the mixed working farm and growing food on the property for residents and visitors, a function that had withered under the aegis of the Trust.
The film Vita and Virginia, with Gemma Arterton as Vita and Elizabeth Debicki as Virginia, had its world premiere at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival. It is directed by Chanya Button and based on a play by Eileen Atkins, created from the love letters between Sackville-West and Woolf. The play was first performed in London in October 1993 and off Broadway in November 1994.
Works
Poetry collections
Chatterton (1909)
A Dancing Elf (1912)
Constantinople: Eight Poems (1915)
Poems of West and East (1917)
Orchard and Vineyard (1921)
The Land (1926)
King's Daughter (1929)
Sissinghurst (1931)
Invitation to Cast out Care (1931)
Collected Poems: Volume 1 (1933)
Solitude (1938)
The Garden (1946)
Novels
Heritage (1919)
The Dragon in Shallow Waters (1921)
The Heir (1922)
Challenge (1923)
Grey Wethers (1923)
Seducers in Ecuador (1924)
Passenger to Teheran (1926)
The Edwardians (1930)
All Passion Spent (1931)
The Death of Noble Godavary and Gottfried Künstler (1932)
Thirty Clocks Strike the Hour (1932) - short stories
Family History (1932)
The Dark Island (1934)
Grand Canyon (1942)
Devil at Westease (1947)
The Easter Party (1953)
No Signposts in the Sea (1961)
Children's Books
A Note of Explanation (written for Queen Mary's Dolls' House in 1924, published posthumously in 2017)
Translations
Duineser Elegien: Elegies from the Castle of Duino, by Rainer Maria Rilke trns. V. Sackville-West (Hogarth Press, London, 1931)
Biographies and non-fiction
"Aphra Behn: the Incomparable Astrea" (Gerald Howe 1927)
Passenger to Teheran (Hogarth Press 1926, reprinted Tauris Parke Paperbacks 2007, )
Knole and the Sackvilles (1922)
Saint Joan of Arc (Doubleday 1936, reprinted M. Joseph 1969)
English Country Houses (William Collins, 1941, illustrated)
Pepita (Doubleday, 1937, reprinted Hogarth Press 1970)
The Eagle and The Dove (M. Joseph 1943)
Twelve Days: an account of a journey across the Bakhtiari Mountains of South-western Persia (first published UK 1927; Doubleday Doran 1928; M. Haag 1987, reprinted Tauris Parke Paperbacks 2009 as Twelve Days in Persia)
Country Notes in Wartime, 1940, (The Hogarth Press)
The Women's Land Army (M. Joseph / Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries : 1944)
Faces: Profiles of Dogs (Harvill Press, 1961, photographs by Laelia Goehr)
See also
List of Bloomsbury Group people
Notes
References
Sources
Carney, Michael: Stoker: The Life of Hilda Matheson, privately published, Llangynog, 1999
Ghanī, Sīrūs & Ghani, Cyrus: Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power, London: .B.Tauris, 2000
Glendinning, Victoria: Vita. A Biography of Vita Sackville-West, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1983
Glendinning, Victoria: Vita: The Life of V. Sackville-West, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1983
Lord, Tony (2000). Gardening at Sissinghurst. Frances Lincoln & National Trust.
Nicolson, Nigel: "Introduction" from A Passenger to Tehran, London: I.B Tauris, 2007
Sackville-West, Vita: Vita Sackville-West: Selected Writings, Preface by Nigel Nicolson, St. Martin's Press, 2015
Further reading
Robert Cross and Ann Ravenscroft-Hulme: Vita Sackville-West: A Bibliography (Oak Knoll Press, 1999);
Eberle, Iwona: Eve with a Spade: Women, Gardens, and Literature in the Nineteenth Century (Grin, 2011);
Peggy Wolf: Sternenlieder und Grabgesänge. Vita Sackville-West: Eine kommentierte Bibliographie der deutschsprachigen Veröffentlichungen von ihr und über sie 1930–2005. (Daphne-Verlag, Göttingen, 2006);
External links
Fuller list of Vita Sackville-West's publications
Sackville-West family tree on the National Portrait Gallery, London website
Vita Sackville-West Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
1892 births
1962 deaths
English people of Spanish descent
Bisexual writers
Bisexual women
Daughters of barons
English gardeners
English landscape and garden designers
English landscape architects
Veitch Memorial Medal recipients
20th-century English poets
20th-century English non-fiction writers
English women poets
English garden writers
LGBT writers from England
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
People from Sissinghurst
People from Sevenoaks
20th-century pseudonymous writers
Pseudonymous women writers
Vita
Vita Sackville-West
Female-to-male cross-dressers
LGBT memoirists
Deaths from cancer in England
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251558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine%20approximation | Diophantine approximation | In number theory, the study of Diophantine approximation deals with the approximation of real numbers by rational numbers. It is named after Diophantus of Alexandria.
The first problem was to know how well a real number can be approximated by rational numbers. For this problem, a rational number a/b is a "good" approximation of a real number α if the absolute value of the difference between a/b and α may not decrease if a/b is replaced by another rational number with a smaller denominator. This problem was solved during the 18th century by means of continued fractions.
Knowing the "best" approximations of a given number, the main problem of the field is to find sharp upper and lower bounds of the above difference, expressed as a function of the denominator. It appears that these bounds depend on the nature of the real numbers to be approximated: the lower bound for the approximation of a rational number by another rational number is larger than the lower bound for algebraic numbers, which is itself larger than the lower bound for all real numbers. Thus a real number that may be better approximated than the bound for algebraic numbers is certainly a transcendental number.
This knowledge enabled Liouville, in 1844, to produce the first explicit transcendental number. Later, the proofs that and e are transcendental were obtained by a similar method.
Diophantine approximations and transcendental number theory are very close areas that share many theorems and methods. Diophantine approximations also have important applications in the study of Diophantine equations.
Best Diophantine approximations of a real number
Given a real number , there are two ways to define a best Diophantine approximation of . For the first definition, the rational number is a best Diophantine approximation of if
for every rational number {{math|p/q' }} different from such that .
For the second definition, the above inequality is replaced by
A best approximation for the second definition is also a best approximation for the first one, but the converse is false.
The theory of continued fractions allows us to compute the best approximations of a real number: for the second definition, they are the convergents of its expression as a regular continued fraction. For the first definition, one has to consider also the semiconvergents.
For example, the constant e = 2.718281828459045235... has the (regular) continued fraction representation
Its best approximations for the second definition are
while, for the first definition, they are
Measure of the accuracy of approximations
The obvious measure of the accuracy of a Diophantine approximation of a real number by a rational number is However, this quantity can always be made arbitrarily small by increasing the absolute values of and ; thus the accuracy of the approximation is usually estimated by comparing this quantity to some function of the denominator , typically a negative power of it.
For such a comparison, one may want upper bounds or lower bounds of the accuracy. A lower bound is typically described by a theorem like "for every element of some subset of the real numbers and every rational number , we have ". In some cases, "every rational number" may be replaced by "all rational numbers except a finite number of them", which amounts to multiplying by some constant depending on .
For upper bounds, one has to take into account that not all the "best" Diophantine approximations provided by the convergents may have the desired accuracy. Therefore, the theorems take the form "for every element of some subset of the real numbers, there are infinitely many rational numbers such that ".
Badly approximable numbers
A badly approximable number is an x for which there is a positive constant c such that for all rational p/q we have
The badly approximable numbers are precisely those with bounded partial quotients.
Equivalently, a number is badly approximable if and only if its Markov constant is bounded.
Lower bounds for Diophantine approximations
Approximation of a rational by other rationals
A rational number may be obviously and perfectly approximated by for every positive integer i.
If we have
because is a positive integer and is thus not lower than 1. Thus the accuracy of the approximation is bad relative to irrational numbers (see next sections).
It may be remarked that the preceding proof uses a variant of the pigeon hole principle: a non-negative integer that is not 0 is not smaller than 1. This apparently trivial remark is used in almost every proof of lower bounds for Diophantine approximations, even the most sophisticated ones.
In summary, a rational number is perfectly approximated by itself, but is badly approximated by any other rational number.
Approximation of algebraic numbers, Liouville's result
In the 1840s, Joseph Liouville obtained the first lower bound for the approximation of algebraic numbers: If x is an irrational algebraic number of degree n over the rational numbers, then there exists a constant such that
holds for all integers p and q where .
This result allowed him to produce the first proven example of a transcendental number, the Liouville constant
which does not satisfy Liouville's theorem, whichever degree n is chosen.
This link between Diophantine approximations and transcendental number theory continues to the present day. Many of the proof techniques are shared between the two areas.
Approximation of algebraic numbers, Thue–Siegel–Roth theorem
Over more than a century, there were many efforts to improve Liouville's theorem: every improvement of the bound enables us to prove that more numbers are transcendental. The main improvements are due to , , , and , leading finally to the Thue–Siegel–Roth theorem: If is an irrational algebraic number and a (small) positive real number, then there exists a positive constant such that
holds for every integer and such that .
In some sense, this result is optimal, as the theorem would be false with ε=0. This is an immediate consequence of the upper bounds described below.
Simultaneous approximations of algebraic numbers
Subsequently, Wolfgang M. Schmidt generalized this to the case of simultaneous approximations, proving that: If are algebraic numbers such that are linearly independent over the rational numbers and is any given positive real number, then there are only finitely many rational -tuples such that
Again, this result is optimal in the sense that one may not remove from the exponent.
Effective bounds
All preceding lower bounds are not effective, in the sense that the proofs do not provide any way to compute the constant implied in the statements. This means that one cannot use the results or their proofs to obtain bounds on the size of solutions of related Diophantine equations. However, these techniques and results can often be used to bound the number of solutions of such equations.
Nevertheless, a refinement of Baker's theorem by Feldman provides an effective bound: if x is an algebraic number of degree n over the rational numbers, then there exist effectively computable constants c(x) > 0 and 0 < d(x) < n such that
holds for all rational integers.
However, as for every effective version of Baker's theorem, the constants d and 1/c are so large that this effective result cannot be used in practice.
Upper bounds for Diophantine approximations
General upper bound
The first important result about upper bounds for Diophantine approximations is Dirichlet's approximation theorem, which implies that, for every irrational number , there are infinitely many fractions such that
This implies immediately that one cannot suppress the in the statement of Thue-Siegel-Roth theorem.
Over the years, this theorem has been improved until the following theorem of Émile Borel (1903). For every irrational number , there are infinitely many fractions such that
Therefore, is an upper bound for the Diophantine approximations of any irrational number.
The constant in this result may not be further improved without excluding some irrational numbers (see below).
Equivalent real numbers Definition: Two real numbers are called equivalent if there are integers with such that:
So equivalence is defined by an integer Möbius transformation on the real numbers, or by a member of the Modular group , the set of invertible 2 × 2 matrices over the integers. Each rational number is equivalent to 0; thus the rational numbers are an equivalence class for this relation.
The equivalence may be read on the regular continued fraction representation, as shown by the following theorem of Serret:Theorem''': Two irrational numbers x and y are equivalent if and only if there exist two positive integers h and k such that the regular continued fraction representations of x and yverify
for every non negative integer i.
Thus, except for a finite initial sequence, equivalent numbers have the same continued fraction representation.
Equivalent numbers are approximable to the same degree, in the sense that they have the same Markov constant.
Lagrange spectrum
As said above, the constant in Borel's theorem may not be improved, as shown by Adolf Hurwitz in 1891.
Let be the golden ratio.
Then for any real constant c with there are only a finite number of rational numbers such that
Hence an improvement can only be achieved, if the numbers which are equivalent to are excluded. More precisely:
For every irrational number , which is not equivalent to , there are infinite many fractions such that
By successive exclusions — next one must exclude the numbers equivalent to — of more and more classes of equivalence, the lower bound can be further enlarged.
The values which may be generated in this way are Lagrange numbers, which are part of the Lagrange spectrum.
They converge to the number 3 and are related to the Markov numbers.See Michel Waldschmidt: Introduction to Diophantine methods irrationality and transcendence, pp 24–26.
Khinchin's theorem on metric Diophantine approximation and extensions
Let be a positive real-valued function on positive integers (i.e., a positive sequence) such that is non-increasing. A real number x (not necessarily algebraic) is called -approximable if there exist infinitely many rational numbers p/q such that
Aleksandr Khinchin proved in 1926 that if the series diverges, then almost every real number (in the sense of Lebesgue measure) is -approximable, and if the series converges, then almost every real number is not -approximable. The circle of ideas surrounding this theorem and its relatives is known as metric Diophantine approximation or the metric theory of Diophantine approximation (not to be confused with height "metrics" in Diophantine geometry) or metric number theory.
proved a generalization of Khinchin's result, and posed what is now known as the Duffin–Schaeffer conjecture on the analogue of Khinchin's dichotomy for general, not necessarily decreasing, sequences . proved that a Hausdorff measure analogue of the Duffin–Schaeffer conjecture is equivalent to the original Duffin–Schaeffer conjecture, which is a priori weaker.
In July 2019, Dimitris Koukoulopoulos and James Maynard announced a proof of the conjecture.
Hausdorff dimension of exceptional sets
An important example of a function to which Khinchin's theorem can be applied is the function , where c > 1 is a real number. For this function, the relevant series converges and so Khinchin's theorem tells us that almost every point is not -approximable. Thus, the set of numbers which are -approximable forms a subset of the real line of Lebesgue measure zero. The Jarník-Besicovitch theorem, due to V. Jarník and A. S. Besicovitch, states that the Hausdorff dimension of this set is equal to . In particular, the set of numbers which are -approximable for some (known as the set of very well approximable numbers) has Hausdorff dimension one, while the set of numbers which are -approximable for all (known as the set of Liouville numbers) has Hausdorff dimension zero.
Another important example is the function , where is a real number. For this function, the relevant series diverges and so Khinchin's theorem tells us that almost every number is -approximable. This is the same as saying that every such number is well approximable, where a number is called well approximable if it is not badly approximable. So an appropriate analogue of the Jarník-Besicovitch theorem should concern the Hausdorff dimension of the set of badly approximable numbers. And indeed, V. Jarník proved that the Hausdorff dimension of this set is equal to one. This result was improved by W. M. Schmidt, who showed that the set of badly approximable numbers is incompressible, meaning that if is a sequence of bi-Lipschitz maps, then the set of numbers x for which are all badly approximable has Hausdorff dimension one. Schmidt also generalized Jarník's theorem to higher dimensions, a significant achievement because Jarník's argument is essentially one-dimensional, depending on the apparatus of continued fractions.
Uniform distribution
Another topic that has seen a thorough development is the theory of uniform distribution mod 1. Take a sequence a1, a2, ... of real numbers and consider their fractional parts. That is, more abstractly, look at the sequence in R/Z, which is a circle. For any interval I on the circle we look at the proportion of the sequence's elements that lie in it, up to some integer N, and compare it to the proportion of the circumference occupied by I. Uniform distribution means that in the limit, as N grows, the proportion of hits on the interval tends to the 'expected' value. Hermann Weyl proved a basic result showing that this was equivalent to bounds for exponential sums formed from the sequence. This showed that Diophantine approximation results were closely related to the general problem of cancellation in exponential sums, which occurs throughout analytic number theory in the bounding of error terms.
Related to uniform distribution is the topic of irregularities of distribution, which is of a combinatorial nature.
Unsolved problems
There are still simply-stated unsolved problems remaining in Diophantine approximation, for example the Littlewood conjecture and the lonely runner conjecture.
It is also unknown if there are algebraic numbers with unbounded coefficients in their continued fraction expansion.
Recent developments
In his plenary address at the International Mathematical Congress in Kyoto (1990), Grigory Margulis outlined a broad program rooted in ergodic theory that allows one to prove number-theoretic results using the dynamical and ergodic properties of actions of subgroups of semisimple Lie groups. The work of D. Kleinbock, G. Margulis and their collaborators demonstrated the power of this novel approach to classical problems in Diophantine approximation. Among its notable successes are the proof of the decades-old Oppenheim conjecture by Margulis, with later extensions by Dani and Margulis and Eskin–Margulis–Mozes, and the proof of Baker and Sprindzhuk conjectures in the Diophantine approximations on manifolds by Kleinbock and Margulis. Various generalizations of the above results of Aleksandr Khinchin in metric Diophantine approximation have also been obtained within this framework.
See also
Davenport–Schmidt theorem
Duffin–Schaeffer conjecture
Heilbronn set
Low-discrepancy sequence
Notes
References
External links
Diophantine Approximation: historical survey. From Introduction to Diophantine methods'' course by Michel Waldschmidt. | [
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251560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellant | Flagellant | Flagellants are practitioners of a form of mortification of the flesh by whipping their skin with various instruments of penance. Many Christian confraternities of penitents have flagellants, who beat themselves, both in the privacy of their dwellings and in public processions, in order to repent of sins and share in the Passion of Jesus.
In the 14th century, a movement within Western Christianity known as Flagellantism became popular and adherents "began beating their flesh in a public penitential ritual in response to war, famine, plague and fear engendered by millenarianism." Though this movement withered away, the practices of public repentance and promoting peace were adopted by the flagellants in Christian, especially Roman Catholic, confraternities of penitents that exist to the present-day.
History
Flagellation (from Latin flagellare, to whip) was quite a common practice amongst the more fervently religious throughout antiquity.
Christianity has formed a permanent tradition surrounding the doctrine of mortification of the flesh, ranging from self-denial, wearing hairshirts and chains, fasting and self-flagellation using the discipline. Those who practice self-flagellation claim that St. Paul’s statement in the Bible ‘I chastise my body’ refers to self-inflicted bodily scourging (). There are prominent Christians who have practiced self-flagellation. Martin Luther, the Protestant Reformer, regularly practiced self-flagellation as a means of mortification of the flesh. Likewise, the Congregationalist writer Sarah Osborn also practiced self-flagellation in order "to remind her of her continued sin, depravity, and vileness in the eyes of God". It became "quite common" for members of the Tractarian movement within the Anglican Communion to practice self-flagellation using a discipline.
Historically speaking, in the 11th century, Peter Damian, a Benedictine Christian monk in the Roman Catholic tradition, taught that spirituality should manifest itself in physical discipline; he admonished those who sought to follow Christ to practice self-flagellation for the duration of the time it takes one to recite forty Psalms, increasing the number of flagellations on holy days of the liturgical calendar. For Damian, only those who shared in the sufferings of Christ could be saved. Throughout Christian history, the mortification of the flesh, wherein one denies themselves physical pleasures, has been commonly followed by members of the clergy, especially in Christian monasteries and convents; the 11th-century Dominicus Loricatus repeated the entire Psalter twenty times in one week, accompanying each psalm with a hundred lash-strokes to his back. The distinction of the Flagellants was to take this self-mortification into the cities and other public spaces as a demonstration of piety.
Flagellantism
Flagellantism was a 14th-century movement, consisting of penitents in the Catholic Church. It began as a Christian pilgrimage and was later condemned by the Catholic Church as heretical. The followers were noted for including public flagellation in their rituals. This was a common practice during the Black Death, or the Great Plague.
Spread in the 14th century
The first recorded incident was in Central Italy in Perugia, in 1259, the year after severe crop damage and famine throughout Europe. From Perugia the phenomenon seemed to spread across Northern Italy and into Austria. Other incidents are recorded in 1296, 1333-34 (the Doves), notably at the time of the Black Death (1349), and 1399. The practice peaked during the Black Death. Spontaneously Flagellant groups arose across Northern and Central Europe in 1349, including in England. However, enthusiasm for the movement diminished as suddenly as it arose. When they preached that mere participation in their processions cleaned sins, the Pope banned the movement in January 1261.
Initially the Catholic Church tolerated the Flagellants and individual monks and priests joined in the early movements. By the 14th century, the Church was less tolerant and the rapid spread of the movement was alarming. Clement VI officially condemned them in a bull of October 20, 1349 and instructed Church leaders to suppress the Flagellants. This position was reinforced in 1372 by Gregory XI who associated the Flagellants with other heretical groups, notably the Beghards, and instructed inquisitors to eradicate them. They were accused of heresies including doubting the need for the sacraments, denying ordinary ecclesiastical jurisdiction and claiming to work miracles. In 1392, a sect of Flagellants and Beghards, consisting of peasants, were found throughout Swabia and Wurzburg. The papal inquisitor imposed the penance of preaching and joining a crusade against the Ottoman Turks.
The Inquisition was active against any revival of the movement in the 15th century, but action against the flagellants was often taken by the local princes. In 1414, 80–90 followers of Konrad Schmid were burned in Thuringia, in Germany, even though they had recanted. Three hundred were burnt in one day in 1416, also in Thuringia. Other trials where the accused were condemned as Flagellants were recorded as late as the 1480s. The practice of flagellation within the bounds of the Catholic Church continued as an accepted form of penance.
Rulers like Catherine de' Medici and France's King Henry III supported Flagellants but Henry IV banned them. Flagellant orders like Hermanos Penitentes (Spanish 'Penitential Brothers') also appeared in colonial Spanish America, even against the specific orders of Church authorities.
In Italy
The first recorded cases of mass popular flagellation occurred in Perugia, in 1259. The prime cause of the Perugia episode is unclear, but it followed an outbreak of an epidemic and chroniclers report how mania spread throughout almost all the people of the city. Thousands of citizens gathered in great processions, singing and with crosses and banners, they marched throughout the city whipping themselves. It is reported that surprising acts of charity and repentance accompanied the marchers. However, one chronicler noted that anyone who did not join in the flagellation was accused of being in league with the devil. They also killed Jews and priests who opposed them. Marvin Harris links them to the Messianic preaching of Gioacchino da Fiore.
Similar processions occurred across Northern Italy, with groups up to 10,000 strong processing in Modena, Bologna, Reggio and Parma. Although certain city authorities refused the Flagellant processions entry.
A similar movement arose again in 1399, again in Northern Italy in the form of the White Penitents or Bianchi movement. This rising is said to have been started by a peasant who saw a vision. The movement became known as the laudesi from their constant hymn singing. At its peak, a group of over 15,000 adherents gathered in Modena and marched to Rome, but the movement rapidly faded when one of its leaders was burned at the stake by order of Boniface IX.
In Germany
The German and Low Countries movement, the Brothers of the Cross, is particularly well documented - they wore white robes and marched across Germany in 33.5 day campaigns (each day referred to a year of Jesus's earthly life) of penance, only stopping in any one place for no more than a day. They established their camps in fields near towns and held their rituals twice a day. The ritual began with the reading of a letter, claimed to have been delivered by an angel and justifying the Flagellants' activities. Next, the followers would fall to their knees and scourge themselves, gesturing with their free hands to indicate their sin and striking themselves rhythmically to songs, known as Geisslerlieder, until blood flowed. Sometimes the blood was soaked up in rags and treated as a holy relic. Originally members were required to receive permission to join from their spouses and to prove that they could pay for their food. However, some towns began to notice that sometimes Flagellants brought plague to towns where it had not yet surfaced. Therefore, later they were denied entry. They responded with increased physical penance.
Modern flagellants
Christianity
Roman Catholicism
Modern processions of hooded Flagellants are still a feature of various Mediterranean Christian countries, mainly in Spain, Italy and some former colonies, usually every year during Lent. They also occur in the Philippines during Holy Week.
For example, in the comune of Guardia Sanframondi in Campania, Italy, such parades are organized once every seven years. In Italy, members of the Flagellant movement were called disciplinati, while laudesi never practiced flagellation, but met together in their own chapel to sing laudi (canticles) in honour of the Blessed Virgin, but which gradually assumed a dramatic form and grew into a theatrical form known as rappresentazioni sacre. A play in the Roman dialect of the 14th century, edited by Vattasso (Studi e Testi, no. 4, p. 53), explicitly bears the title lauda.
Some Roman Catholics in Philippines practice flagellation as a form of devout worship, sometimes in addition to self-crucifixion.
Los hermanos penitentes
In English, "the penitent brothers." This is a semi-secret society of flagellants among the Hispanic Roman Catholics of Colorado and New Mexico.
Other religions
Unrelated practices exist in non-Christian traditions, including actual flagellation amongst some Shiites (commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali AS).
See also
Algolagnia
Ashura, Tatbir
Dancing mania
Flagellation
Monty Python and the Holy Grail, which includes a scene of monks striking themselves on the forehead repeatedly with boards while chanting the missal passage Pie Jesu.
Khlysts (Imperial Russia)
Penitentes (New Mexico)
Self-harm
The Seventh Seal
Redemptive suffering
La Cercha
Nine Emperor Gods Festival. Also referred to as the Phuket Vegetarian Festival, it is famous for its ritualised acts of flagellation, self-wounding, and trance-like ecstasies, as well as its vegetarian food-based fasting.
References
Sources
External links
Christian worship and liturgy
13th-century Christianity
14th-century Christianity
Confraternities
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251561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20Communist%20Party | Italian Communist Party | The Italian Communist Party (, PCI) was a communist political party in Italy.
The PCI was founded as Communist Party of Italy on 21 January 1921 in Livorno by seceding from the Italian Socialist Party (PSI). Amadeo Bordiga and Antonio Gramsci led the split. Outlawed during the Fascist regime, the party played a major role in the Italian resistance movement. It changed its name in 1943 to PCI and became the second largest political party of Italy after World War II, attracting the support of about a third of the vote share during the 1970s. At the time, it was the largest communist party in the West, with peak support reaching 2.3 million members, in 1947, and peak share being 34.4% of the vote (12.6 million votes) in the 1976 general election.
The PCI transitioned from doctrinaire communism to democratic socialism by the 1970s or the 1980s and adhered to the Eurocommunist trend. In 1991, it was dissolved and re-launched as the Democratic Party of the Left (PDS), which joined the Socialist International and the Party of European Socialists. The more radical members of the organization formally seceded to establish the Communist Refoundation Party (PRC).
History
Early years
The roots of the Italian Communist Party date back to 1921, when the Communist Party of Italy (Partito Comunista d'Italia, PCdI) was founded in Livorno on 21 January, following a split in the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) on their 17th Congress. The split occurred after the socialist Congress of Livorno refused to expel the reformist group as required by the Comintern. The main factions of the new party were L'Ordine Nuovo, based in Turin and led by Antonio Gramsci, and the "maximalist" faction led by Nicola Bombacci. Amedeo Bordiga was elected Secretary of the new party.
The party was officially founded with as Communist Party of Italy – Section of the Communist International (Partito Comunista d'Italia – Sezione dell'Internazionale Comunista), since the Comintern was structured as a single world party according to Vladimir Lenin's vision.
In 1921, PCdI participated to its first general election, obtaining 4.6% of the vote and 15 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. At the time, it was an active yet small faction within the Italian political left, which was strongly led by the Socialist Party, while on the international plane it was part of Soviet-led.
During its 2nd Congress in 1922, the new party registered 43,000 members. This was in part due to the entrance of almost the whole Socialist Youth Federation (Federazione Giovanile Socialista). The party adopted a slim structure headed by a Central Committee of 15 members, five of whom were in the Executive Committee as well, namely Ambrogio Belloni, Nicola Bombacci, Amadeo Bordiga (EC), Bruno Fortichiari (EC), Egidio Gennari, Antonio Gramsci, Ruggero Grieco (EC), Anselmo Marabini, Francesco Misiano, Giovanni Parodi, Luigi Polano, Luigi Repossi (EC), Cesare Sessa, Ludovico Tarsia, Umberto Terracini (EC).
Since its formation, the party strived to organize itself on some bases which were not a mere reproduction of the traditional parties' bases, but then it took again some arguments that distinguished the battle within the PSI, namely the idea that it is necessary to form an environment fiercely hostile to bourgeois society and that is an anticipation of the future socialist society. The purpose of this is not utopian because already in this society, especially in production, some structures are born on future results. In the first years of the PCdI, there was no official leader, but the accepted leader, first of the faction/tendency and then of the party, was Amadeo Bordiga of the Left current. Leaders of the minority currents were Angelo Tasca (Right) and Antonio Gramsci (Center).
The conflict between factions
As a territorial section of Comintern, the PCdI adopted the same program, the same conception of the party and the same tactics adopted by the II Congress in Moscow of 1920. The official program, drawn up in ten points, began with the intrinsically catastrophic nature of the capitalist system and terminated with the extinction of the state. It follows in a synthetic way the model outlined by Lenin for the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPUS). For a while, this identity resisted, but the fast progress of the reaction in Europe produced a change of tactics in a democratic direction within the PCUS and consequently within the Comintern. This happened in particular regarding the possibility, previously opposed, of an alliance with the social democratic and bourgeois parties. This provoked a tension in the party between the majority (Left) and the minority factions (the Right and the Center) supported by the Comintern. The proposals of the Left were no longer accepted and the conflict between the factions became irremediable.
Bolshevisation
In 1923, some members of the party were arrested and put on trial for "conspiracy against the State". This allowed the intense activity of the Communist International to deprive the party's left-wing of authority and give control to the minority centre which had aligned with Moscow.
In 1924–1925, the Comintern began a campaign of "Bolshevisation" which forced each party to conform to the discipline and orders of Moscow. During the clandestine conference held in Como to ratify the party leadership in May 1924, 35 of the 45 federation secretaries, plus the secretary of the youth federation, voted for Bordiga's Left, four for Gramsci's Centre and five for Tasca's Right.
Before the Lyon Congress in 1926, the Centre won almost all the votes in the absence of much of the Left, who were unable to attend as a result of fascist controls and lack of Comintern support. Recourse to the Comintern against this evident manoeuvre had little effect.
The PCdI as conceived by the Left terminated. The organisation continued with the support of the Comintern and a new structure and leadership. In 1922, the newspaper L'Ordine Nuovo was closed and in 1924 a new Centre newspaper, l'Unità, edited by Gramsci, was founded. The Left continued as a faction, principally functioning in exile. It published the newspaper Bilan, a monthly theoretical bulletin.
In 1926, Bordiga and Gramsci were arrested and imprisoned on the island of Ustica. In 1927, Palmiro Togliatti was elected secretary in place of Gramsci. In 1930, Bordiga was expelled from the Comintern and accused of Trotskyism.
In 1943, Joseph Stalin dissolved the Communist International and on 15 May the exiled members of the PCdI in Moscow changed the party's name to the PCI. Under this name, it reorganised in Italy and became a parliamentary party after the fall of Fascism.
Name change
On 15 May 1943, the party changed its official name in Italian Communist Party (Partito Comunista Italiano), often shortened to PCI.
This change was not surprising as PCI started being used as the party's acronym around 1924–1925. This name change also reflected a change in the Comintern's role—it increasingly became a federation of national communist parties. This trend accelerated after Lenin's death and its new name emphasized the party's shift from an international focus to an Italian one. At the time, it was a hotly contested issue for the two major factions of the party. On one side, the Leninist preferred the single world party as it was internationalist and strongly centralized while on the other side the Italians wanted a party more tailored to their nation's peculiarities and more autonomy.
World War II
After the fall of Mussolini's regime on 25 July 1943, the Communist Party returned to a formally legal status, playing a major role during the national liberation, known in Italy as Resistenza ("Resistance") and forming many partisan groups.
In the April 1944 after the so-called svolta di Salerno (Salerno's turn), Togliatti agreed to cooperate with King Victor Emmanuel III and his Prime Minister, the Marshal Pietro Badoglio. After the turn, Communists took part in every government during the national liberation and constitutional period from June 1944 to May 1947. The Communists' contribution to the new Italian democratic constitution was decisive. The so-called "Gullo decrees" of 1944, for instance, sought to improve social and economic conditions in the countryside. During Badoglio and Ferruccio Parri's cabinets, Togliatti served as Deputy Prime Minister.
During the Resistance, the PCI became increasingly popular, as the majority of partisans were communists. The Garibaldi Brigades, promoted by the PCI, were among the more numerous partisan forces.
Post-war years
The PCI took part in the 1946 Italian general election and referendum, campaigning for the "republic". In the election, the Communists arrived third, behind the Christian Democracy (DC) and the Socialist Party, gaining almost 19% of votes and electing 104 members of the Constituent Assembly. While the popular referendum resulted in the replacement of the monarchy with a republic, with the 54% of votes in favour and 46% against.
In May 1947, the PCI was excluded from the government. The Christian democratic Prime Minister, Alcide De Gasperi, was losing popularity, and feared that the leftist coalition would take power. While the PCI was growing particularly fast due to its organizing efforts supporting sharecroppers in Sicily, Tuscany and Umbria, movements which were also bolstered by the reforms of Fausto Gullo, the Communist Minister of Agriculture. On 1 May, the nation was thrown into crisis by the murder of eleven leftist peasants (including four children) at an International Workers' Day parade in Palermo by Salvatore Giuliano and his gang. In the political chaos which ensued, the president engineered the expulsion of all left-wing ministers from the cabinet on 31 May. The PCI would not have a national position in government again. De Gasperi did this under pressure from US Secretary of State George Marshall, who'd informed him that anti-communism was a pre-condition for receiving American aid, and Ambassador James C. Dunn who had directly asked de Gasperi to dissolve the parliament and remove the PCI.
In the general election of 1948, the party joined the PSI in the Popular Democratic Front (FDP), but it was defeated by the Christian Democracy party. The United States spent over $10 million to support anti-PCI groups in the election. Fearful of the possible FDP's electoral victory, the British and American governments also undermined their campaign for legal justice by tolerating the efforts made by Italy's top authorities to prevent any of the alleged Italian war criminals from being extradited and taken to court. The denial of Italian war crimes was backed up by the Italian state, academe, and media, re-inventing Italy as only a victim of the German Nazism and the post-war Foibe massacres.
The party gained considerable electoral success during the following years and occasionally supplied external support to centre-left governments, although it never directly joined a government. It successfully lobbied Fiat to set up the AvtoVAZ (Lada) car factory in the Soviet Union (1966). The party did best in Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany and Umbria, where it regularly won the local administrative elections; and in some of the industrialized cities of Northern Italy. At the city government level during the course of the post-war period, the PCI demonstrated (in cities like Bologna and Florence) their capacity for uncorrupt, efficient and clean government. After the elections of 1975, the PCI was the strongest force in nearly all of the municipal councils of the great cities.
From the 1950s to 1960s
The Soviet Union's brutal suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 created a split within the PCI. The party leadership, including Palmiro Togliatti and Giorgio Napolitano (who in 2006 became President of the Italian Republic), regarded the Hungarian insurgents as counter-revolutionaries as reported at the time in l'Unità, the official PCI newspaper. However, Giuseppe Di Vittorio, chief of the communist trade union Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGIL), repudiated the leadership position as did prominent party member Antonio Giolitti and Italian Socialist Party national secretary Pietro Nenni, a close ally of the PCI. Napolitano later hinted at doubts over the propriety of his decision. He would eventually write in From the Communist Party to European Socialism. A Political Autobiography (Dal Pci al socialismo europeo. Un'autobiografia politica) that he regretted his justification of the Soviet intervention, but quieted his concerns at the time for the sake of party unity and the international leadership of Soviet Communism. Giolitti and Nenni went on to split with the PCI over this issue. Napolitano became a leading member of the miglioristi faction within the PCI which promoted a social-democratic direction in party policy.
In the mid-1960s, the United States State Department estimated the party membership to be approximately 1,350,000 (4.2% of the working age population, making it the largest communist party in per capita terms in the capitalist world at the time and the largest party at all in the whole of Western Europe with the German Social Democratic Party). United States government sources have claimed that the party was receiving $40–50 million per year from the Soviets while the United States investment in Italy was $5–6 million. However, declassified information shows this to be exaggerated, although the PCI relied on Soviet financial assistance more than any other communist party supported by Moscow.
According to the former KGB archivist Vasili Mitrokhin, Longo and other PCI leaders became alarmed at the possibility of a coup in Italy after the Athens Colonel Coup in April 1967. These fears were not completely unfounded as there had been two attempted coups in Italy, Piano Solo in 1964 and Golpe Borghese in 1970, by military and neo-fascist groups. The PCI’s Giorgio Amendola formally requested Soviet assistance to prepare the party in case of such an event. The KGB drew up and implemented a plan to provide the PCI with its own intelligence and clandestine signal corps. From 1967 through 1973, PCI members were sent to East Germany and Moscow to receive training in clandestine warfare and information gathering techniques by both the Stasi and the KGB. Shortly before the May 1972 elections, Longo personally wrote to Leonid Brezhnev asking for and receiving an additional $5.7 million in funding. This was on top of the $3.5 million that the Soviet Union gave the PCI in 1971. The Soviets also provided additional funding through the use of front companies providing generous contracts to PCI members.
Leadership of Enrico Berlinguer
In 1969, Enrico Berlinguer, PCI deputy national secretary and later secretary general, took part in the international conference of the Communist parties in Moscow, where his delegation disagreed with the "official" political line and refused to support the final report. Unexpectedly to his hosts, his speech challenged the Communist leadership in Moscow. He refused to "excommunicate" the Chinese Communists and directly told Leonid Brezhnev that the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Warsaw Pact countries (which he called the "tragedy in Prague") had made clear the considerable differences within the communist movement on fundamental questions such as national sovereignty, socialist democracy and the freedom of culture. At the time the PCI, which had absorbed the PSI's left-wing, the Italian Socialist Party of Proletarian Unity, so strengthening its leadership over the Italian left, was the largest communist party in a capitalist state, garnering 34.4% of the vote in the 1976 general election.
Relationships between the PCI and the Soviet Union gradually fell apart as the party moved away from Soviet obedience and Marxist–Leninist orthodoxy in the 1970s and 1980s and toward Eurocommunism and the Socialist International. The PCI sought a collaboration with Socialist and Christian Democracy parties (the Historic Compromise). However, Christian Democrat party leader Aldo Moro's kidnapping and murder by the Red Brigades in May 1978 put an end to any hopes of such a compromise. The compromise was largely abandoned as a PCI policy in 1981. The Proletarian Unity Party merged into the PCI in 1984.
During the Years of Lead, the PCI strongly opposed the terrorism and the Red Brigades, who in turn murdered or wounded many PCI members or trade unionists close to the PCI. According to Mitrokhin, the party asked the Soviets to pressure the Czechoslovakian State Security (StB) to withdraw their support to the group, which Moscow was unable or unwilling to do. This as well as the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to a complete break with Moscow in 1979. In 1980, the PCI refused to participate in the international conference of communist parties in Paris although cash payments to the PCI continued until 1984.
Dissolution
Achille Occhetto became general secretary of the PCI in 1988. At a 1989 conference in a working-class section of Bologna, Occhetto stunned the party faithful with a speech heralding the end of Communism, a move now referred to in Italian politics as the svolta della Bolognina (Bolognina turning point). The collapse of the Communist governments in the Eastern Europe led Occhetto to conclude that the era of Eurocommunism was over. Under his leadership, the PCI dissolved and refounded itself as the Democratic Party of the Left, which branded itself as a progressive left-wing and democratic socialist party. A third of the PCI membership, led by Armando Cossutta, refused to join the PDS and instead seceded to form the Communist Refoundation Party.
Popular support
In all its history, the PCI was particularly strong in Central Italy, in the so-called "Red Regions" of Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Umbria and Marche, as well as in the industrialized cities of Northern Italy. However, Communists' municipal showcase was Bologna, which was held continuously by the PCI from 1945 onwards. Amongst other measures, the local PCI administration tackled urban problems with successful programmes of health for the elderly, nursery education and traffic reform while also undertaking initiatives in housing and school meal provisions. From 1946 to 1956, the Communist city council built 31 nursery schools, 896 flats and 9 schools. Health care improved substantially, street lighting was installed, new drains and municipal launderettes were built and 8,000 children received subsidised school meals. In 1972, the then-mayor of Bologna, Renato Zangheri, introduced a new and innovative traffic plan with strict limitations for private vehicles and a renewed concentration on cheap public transport. Bologna's social services continued to expand throughout the early and mid-1970s. The city centre was restored, centres for the mentally sick were instituted to help those who had been released from recently closed psychiatric hospitals, handicapped persons were offered training and found suitable jobs, afternoon activities for schoolchildren were made less mindless than the traditional doposcuola (after-school activities) and school programming for the whole day helped working parents. Communists administrations at a local level also helped to aid new businesses while also introducing innovative social reforms.
The electoral results of the PCI in general (Chamber of Deputies) and European Parliament elections since 1946 are shown in the chart below.
Election results
Italian Parliament
European Parliament
Leadership
Secretary: Antonio Gramsci (1926), Camilla Ravera (1927–1930), Palmiro Togliatti (1930–1934), Ruggero Grieco (1934–1938), Palmiro Togliatti (1938–1964), Luigi Longo (1964–1972), Enrico Berlinguer (1972–1984), Alessandro Natta (1984–1988), Achille Occhetto (1988–1991)
President: Luigi Longo (1972–1980), Alessandro Natta (1989–1990), Aldo Tortorella (1990–1991)
Leader in the Chamber of Deputies: Luigi Longo (1946–1947), Palmiro Togliatti (1947–1964), Pietro Ingrao (1964–1972), Alessandro Natta (1972–1979), Fernando Di Giulio (1979–1981), Giorgio Napolitano (1981–1986), Renato Zangheri (1986–1990), Giulio Quercini (1990–1991)
Leader in the Senate: Mauro Scoccimarro (1948–1958), Umberto Terracini (1958–1973), Edoardo Pema (1973–1986), Gerardo Chiaromonte (1983–1986), Ugo Pecchioli (1986–1991)
Leader in the European Parliament: Giorgio Amendola (1979–1980), Guido Fanti (1980–1984), Giovanni Cervetti (1984–1989), Luigi Alberto Colajanni (1989–1991)
Symbols
Further reading
Aldo Agosti, "The Comintern and the Italian Communist Party in Light of New Documents," in Tim Rees and Andrew Thorpe (eds.), International Communism and the Communist International, 1919-43. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998.
Luigi Cortesi, Le origini del PCI. Laterza, 1972.
Franco Livorsi, Amadeo Bordiga. Editori Riuniti, 1976.
Paolo Spriano, Storia del Partito Comunista Italiano, vol. I Da Bordiga a Gramsci, Einaudi, 1967.
La nascita del Partito Comunista d'Italia (Livorno 1921), ed. L'Internazionale, Milano 1981.
La liquidazione della sinistra del P.C.d'It. (1925), L'Internazionale, Milano 1991.
La lotta del Partito Comunista d'Italia (Strategia e tattica della rivoluzione, 1921–1922), ed. L'Internazionale, Milano 1984.
Il partito decapitato (La sostituzione del gruppo dirigente del P.C.d'It., 1923–24), L'Internazionale, Milano 1988.
Partito Comunista d'Italia, Secondo Congresso Nazionale - Relazione del CC, Reprint Feltrinelli, 1922.
References
External links
Historical Archive of the Communist Left with hundreds of documents of PCd'I
sinistra.net Online Archive of the Communist Left
Arrigo Cervetto, Class Struggles and the Revolutionary Party, 1964
Biography of Arrigo Cervetto
1921 establishments in Italy
1991 disestablishments in Italy
Antonio Gramsci
Comintern sections
Defunct communist parties in Italy
Democratic socialist parties in Europe
Italy–Soviet Union relations
Political parties disestablished in 1991
Political parties established in 1921
Formerly banned communist parties | [
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251567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahi%20Hawass | Zahi Hawass | Zahi Abass Hawass (; born May 28, 1947) is an Egyptian archaeologist, Egyptologist, and former Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, serving twice. He has also worked at archaeological sites in the Nile Delta, the Western Desert, and the Upper Nile Valley.
Early life
Hawass was born in a small village near Damietta, Egypt. Although he originally dreamed of becoming an attorney, he obtained a bachelor of arts degree in Greek and Roman Archaeology from Alexandria University in 1967. In 1979, Hawass earned a diploma in Egyptology from Cairo University. He then worked at the Great Pyramids as an inspector—a combination of administrator and archaeologist.
When he was 33 years old, Hawass was awarded a Fulbright Fellowship to attend the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia to study Egyptology, earning a Master of Arts degree in the subject and also one in Syro-Palestinian Archaeology in 1983, and his PhD in Egyptology in 1987 from the Graduate Group in the Art and Archaeology of the Mediterranean World (AAMW), concentrating on "The Funerary Establishments of Khufu, Khafra and Menkaura During the Old Kingdom."
He is often mistaken for being a Christian because of his name, even though he is a Muslim.
Career
Archaeology and early government career
Hawass was Associate Director of Excavation at Hermopolis in 1968 and Tarrana 1970–74. Since 1975 he has been Excavation Director and Restoration Director at various sites throughout Egypt, predominantly Giza.
From 1969 to 1975, Hawass was Inspector of Antiquities for a multitude of archaeological expeditions, for instance the Yale Expedition at Abydos, Egypt in 1969, and Abu Simbel between 1972 and 74.
He sporadically taught Egyptian archaeology, history and culture at universities in Egypt and the USA between 1988 and 2001, most notably at the American University in Cairo, the University of California, Los Angeles and Alexandria University. Hawass has described his efforts as trying to help institute a systematic program for the preservation and restoration of historical monuments, while training Egyptians to improve their expertise on methods of excavation, retrieval and preservation.
Giza
Hawass was Inspector of Antiquities for Giza 1972–74, First Inspector until 1979 and Chief Inspector in 1980.
Starting in 1987 he held the position of "Director General of the Giza monuments", which includes the sites of Giza, Saqqara, Memphis, Dahshur, Abusir and Bahariya Oasis.
After the discovery of Gantenbrink's Door in 1993, he left the position – according to Hawass, a resignation – but was reinstated several month later, following a change in leadership and the transformation of the "Egyptian Antiquities Organization" into the Supreme Council of Antiquities.
He was promoted to "Undersecretary of the State for the Giza Monuments" in 1998.
Hawass continues to be involved in archaeological projects at Giza and other sites in Egypt. Currently, he heads the science committee overseeing the Scanpyramids project.
Politics
In 2002 Hawass was appointed as the Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. When US President Barack Obama visited Cairo in June 2009, Hawass gave him personal tours of ancient Egyptian archaeological. Facing mandatory retirement, he was promoted by President Hosni Mubarak to the post of Vice Minister of Culture at the end of 2009.
2011 protest vandalism
On January 29, 2011, in the midst of the Egyptian protests of that year, Hawass arrived at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo to find that a number of cases had been broken into and a number of antiquities damaged, so police were brought in to secure the museum. According to Andrew Lawler, reporting for Science, Hawass said that he "faxed a colleague in Italy that 13 cases were destroyed. My heart is broken and my blood is boiling".
Hawass later told The New York Times that thieves looking for gold broke 70 objects, including two sculptures of the pharaoh Tutankhamun, and took two skulls from a research lab, before being stopped as they left the museum.
Minister of Antiquities
Hawass was appointed to the position of Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, a newly created cabinet post, by Mubarak on January 31, 2011, as part of a cabinet shake-up during the 2011 protests. A press release including a statement from Hawass stated that he "will continue excavating, writing books, and representing his country," ensuring that archaeological sites in Egypt were being safeguarded and looted objects returned. Regarding the Egyptian Museum looting, he said that "The museum was dark and the nine robbers did not recognise the value of what was in the vitrines. They opened thirteen cases, threw the seventy objects on the ground and broke them, including one Tutankhamun case, from which they broke the statue of the king on a panther. However, the broken objects can all be restored, and we will begin the restoration process this week." Hawass rejected comparisons with the looting of antiquities in Iraq and Afghanistan.
On February 13, Mahmoud Kassem of Bloomberg reported Hawass as saying that "18 artifacts, including statues of King Tutankhamun," were stolen from the Egyptian Museum in January; Kassem, paraphrasing Hawass, continues, "The missing objects include 11 wooden shabti statuettes from Yuya, a gilded wooden statue of Tutankhamun carried by a goddess and a statue of Nefertiti making offerings."
Egyptian state television reported that Hawass called upon Egyptians not to believe the “lies and fabrications” of the Al Jazeera and Al Arabiya satellite television channels. Hawass later said “They should give us the opportunity to change things, and if nothing happens they can march again. But you can’t bring in a new president now, in this time. We need Mubarak to stay and make the transition.” On March 3, 2011, he resigned after a list was posted on his personal website of dozens of sites across Egypt that were looted during the 2011 protests.
Hawass was reappointed Minister of Antiquities by then-Prime Minister Essam Sharaf, On March 30, 2011, a tweet was posted stating "I am very happy to be the Minister of Antiquities once again!" but resigned on July 17, 2011, after Sharaf informed him he would not be continuing in the position. According to opinion report from an Egyptian commentator in The Guardian, Hawass was "sacked".
Post-ministerial positions
Hawass has since begun working as a lecturer in Egypt and all around the world, and promoting Egypt's tourism globally in cooperation with the country's Ministry of Tourism. He also writes weekly articles in various newspapers and magazines, and continues working as an archaeologist and consultant.
Claimed discoveries
As his biography at the National Geographic Explorers webpage notes, he states that he is
Works
Hawass has written and co-written many books relating to Egyptology, including The Curse of the Pharaohs: My Adventures with Mummies, and King Tutankhamun: The Treasures from the Tomb, the latter published to coincide with a major exhibition in the UK. He has also written on Tutankhamun for the bi-monthly, UK-based magazine Ancient Egypt.
Hawass is a regular columnist for Egypt Today magazine, and the online historical community Heritage Key. He has narrated several videos on Egyptology, including a series on Tutankhamun.
Appearances
Hawass has appeared on television specials on channels such as the National Geographic Channel, the History Channel and the Discovery Channel. Hawass has also appeared in several episodes of the U.S. television show Digging for the Truth, discussing mummies, the pyramids, Tutankhamun, Cleopatra, and Ramesses II. He also appeared on Unsolved Mysteries during a segment on the curse of Tutankhamun's tomb. In 2010, Hawass appeared on a reality-based television show on The History Channel called Chasing Mummies.
Hawass also worked alongside Egyptologist Otto Schaden during the opening of Tomb KV63 in February 2006 – the first intact tomb to be found in the Valley of the Kings since 1922.
In June 2007 Hawass announced that he and a team of experts may have identified the mummy of Hatshepsut, in KV60, a small tomb in the Valley of the Kings. The opening of the sealed tomb was described in 2006 as "one of the most important events in the Valley of the Kings for almost a hundred years."
Hawass hosted and played further creative roles in the documentary Egypt's Ten Greatest Discoveries.
Views
Return of artifacts to Egypt
Hawass spearheaded a movement to return many prominent unique and/or irregularly taken Ancient Egyptian artifacts, such as the Rosetta Stone, the bust of Nefertiti, the Dendera zodiac ceiling painting from the Dendera Temple, the bust of Ankhhaf (the architect of the Khafre Pyramid), the faces of Amenhotep III's tomb at the Louvre Museum, the Luxor Temple's obelisk at the Place de la Concorde and the statue of Hemiunu, nephew of the Pharaoh Khufu, builder of the largest pyramid, to Egypt from collections in various other countries. In July 2003 the Egyptians requested the return of the Rosetta Stone from the British Museum. Hawass, then serving as Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo, spoke at a press conference saying: "If the British want to be remembered, if they want to restore their reputation, they should volunteer to return the Rosetta Stone because it is the icon of our Egyptian identity." Referring to Egyptian antiquities at the British Museum, Hawass said "These are Egyptian monuments. I will make life miserable for anyone who keeps them."
Alex Joffe of the Wall Street Journal expressed the opinion that the looting of antiquities during the 2011 civil unrest in Egypt made Hawass' campaign to return Egyptian antiquities to Egypt "misguided or at least poorly timed."
DNA testing of Egyptian mummies
Hawass has been skeptical of the DNA testing of Egyptian mummies; "From what I understand," he has said, "it is not always accurate and it cannot always be done with complete success when dealing with mummies. Until we know for sure that it is accurate, we will not use it in our research."
In December 2000, a joint team from Waseda University in Japan and Cairo's Ain Shams University tried to get permission for DNA testing of Egyptian mummies, but was denied by the Egyptian Government. Hawass stated at the time that DNA analysis was out of the question because it would not lead to anything.
In February 2010, Hawass and his team announced that they had analyzed the mummies of Tutankhamun and ten other mummies and said that the king could have died from a malaria infection that followed a leg fracture. German researchers Christian Timmann and Christian Meyer have cast doubt on this theory, suggesting other possible alternatives for Tutankhamun's cause of death.
In 2012, a study signed by Hawass disclosed that Ramses III may have had a haplogroup that is associated with the Bantu expansion and is the most dominant in Sub-Saharan Africa, E1b1a.
Controversies
Relationships with other archaeologists
Hawass has been accused of domineering behaviour, forbidding archaeologists to announce their own findings, and courting the media for his own gain after they were denied access to archaeological sites because, according to Hawass, they were too amateurish. A few, however, have said in interviews that some of what Hawass has done for the field was long overdue. Hawass has typically ignored or dismissed his critics, and when asked about it he indicated that what he does is for the sake of Egypt and the preservation of its antiquities.
Views on Jews and Israel
Hawass has been a long-standing opponent of normalised relations between Israel and Egypt. In January 2009 Hawass wrote in Asharq Al-Awsat that "The concept of killing women, children, and elderly people ... seems to run in the blood of the Jews of Palestine" and that "the only thing that the Jews have learned from history is methods of tyranny and torment—so much so that they have become artists in this field." He explained that he was not referring to the Jews' "[original] faith" but rather "the faith that they forged and contaminated with their poison, which is aimed against all of mankind." In an interview on Egyptian television in April 2009 Hawass stated that "although Jews are few in number, they control the entire world" and commented on the "control they have" of the American economy and the media. He later wrote that he was using rhetoric to explain political fragmentation among the Arabs and that he does not believe in a "Jewish conspiracy to control the world".
Aftermath of 2011 protests
Criticism of Hawass, in Egypt and more broadly, increased following the protests in Egypt in 2011. On July 12, 2011, The New York Times reported on a story on page A1 that Hawass receives an honorarium each year "of as much as $200,000 from National Geographic to be an explorer-in-residence even as he controls access to the ancient sites it often features in its reports." The Times also reported that he has relationships with two American companies that do business in Egypt.
On April 17, 2011, Hawass was sentenced to jail for one year for refusing to obey a court ruling relating to a contract for the gift shop at the Egyptian Museum to a company with links to Hawass. The ruling was appealed and this specific sentence was suspended pending appeal. The following day, the National Council of Egypt's Administrative Court issued a decree to overturn the court's original ruling, specifying that he would serve no jail time, and would instead remain in his position as Minister of Antiquities. The jail sentence was lifted after a new contract was solicited for the running of the gift shop.
Association with Mubarak
As Minister of Antiquities, Hawass has been closely associated with the government of former President Hosni Mubarak. His resignation as minister on March 3, 2011, and his re-appointment to the Ministry on March 30, 2011, have been seen as part of the overall events surrounding Mubarak's resignation. It was reported that his re-appointment angered numerous factions, who opposed the appointment of any of the old guard under Mubarak to new positions in the government. The 2011 Egyptian protests resulted in increased criticism of Hawass. Demonstrators called for his resignation, and the upheaval has increased attention on his relationship with the Mubarak family and the way in which he has increased his public profile in recent years.
Commercial endeavours
Hawass has lent his name to a line of men's apparel, described by The New York Times as "a line of rugged khakis, denim shirts and carefully worn leather jackets that are meant, according to the catalog copy, to hark "back to Egypt’s golden age of discovery in the early 20th century"; the clothing was first sold at Harrods department store in London, in April 2011. Critics say the Hawass clothing commercializes Egyptian history, and objected to their understanding that "models had sat on or scuffed priceless ancient artifacts during the photo shoot," an accusation that was denied by Hawass and the clothing manufacturers. Hawass already sells a line of Stetson hats reproducing the ones he wears, which "very much resemble" the ones worn by Harrison Ford in the Indiana Jones movies.
Honorary degrees
Hawass has received many honorary degrees. From outside Egypt, he has received honorary doctorates from the University of Pennsylvania (2000), the University of Lisbon (2011), the Chandrakasem Rajabhat University (2011), the New Bulgarian University (2016), the Universidad Católica Santo Domingo (2016), the Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola (2017) and the Russian State University for the Humanities (2021).
Recognition and awards
Hawass is the recipient of the Egyptian state award of the first degree for his work in the Sphinx restoration project. In 2001, he was silver medallist offered by the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences. In 2002, he was awarded the American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate and the glass obelisk from US scholars for his efforts to the protection and preservation of Ancient Egyptian monuments. In 2003, Hawass was given international membership in the Russian Academy for Natural Sciences (RANS), and in 2006, he was chosen as one of the world's 100 most influential people by Time magazine. In 2015, He awarded the Golden Memorial Medal of Charles University. En 2018, he was awarded by the Academia Brasileira de Letras for being the only archaeologist who wrote more than 30 books. In the same year, he received the Presidential Medal of the Republic of Kosovo in recognition for his entire academic output. Also in 2018, he receives the grand prize of the Saudi Arabia Ministry of Culture.
Honours
: Second Class of the National Order of Merit (Algeria)
: Grand Decoration of Honour in Silver with Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
: Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit (Egypt)
: Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
: Commander of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
: Gold and Silver Star of the Order of the Rising Sun
: Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru
: Silver Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis
: Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters of Spain
Main publications
See Zahi Hawass bibliography for a comprehensive list.
The Great Book of Ancient Egypt: In the Realm of the Pharaohs, London, ed. White Star, 2018
Giza and the pyramids, London, ed. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2017
Scanning the pharaohs: CT imaging of the New Kingdom royal mummies, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2016
Newly : Discovered statues from Giza (1990-2009), Cairo, ed. Ministry of Culture, 2011
Highlights of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, ed. The American University in Cairo Press, 2011
Inside the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, ed. he American University in Cairo Press, 2010
Life in Paradise: the Noble Tombs of Thebes, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2009
Old Kingdom Pottery from Giza, Cairo, ed. Ministry of Culture, 2008
Mountains of the Pharaohs: A History of the Pyramids of Egypt, New York, ed. Doubleday Books, 2006
Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs: A Souvenir Book, London, ed. National Geographic Society, 2005
Tutankhamun : The Mystery of the Boy King, London, ed. National Geographic Society, 2005
The Island of Kalabsha, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2005
How The Great Pyramid Was Built, Washington, D.C., ed. Smithsonian Books, 2004
Curse of the Pharaohs: My Adventures With Mummies, London, ed. National Geographic Society, 2004
Hidden Treasures of Ancient Egypt: Unearthing the Masterpieces of Egyptian History, London, ed. National Geographic Society, Londres, 2004
The Golden Age of Tutankhamun: Divine Might and Splendor in the New Kingdom, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2004
Cradle & Crucible: History and Faith in the Middle East, avec David Fromkin et Milton Viorst, London, ed. National Geographic Society, 2004
Tesoros de las Piramides, Washington, D.C., ed. Grupo Oceano, 2004
The Treasures of the Pyramids, London, ed. White Star, 2003
Egyptian Museum Collections Around the World: Studies for the Centennial of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2003
Secrets from the Sand: My Search for Egypt's Past, New York, ed. Harry N. Abrams, 2003
Bibliotheca Alexandrina: The Archaeology Museum, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2003
Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century: History, Religion : Proceedings of the Eighth International, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2003
Hidden Treasures of the Egyptian Museum: One Hundred Masterpieces Form the Centennial Exhibition, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2003
Fantasy Literature for Children and Young Adults (with Pamela S. Gates), Washington, D.C., ed. Scarecrow Press, 2003
The Mysteries of Abu Simbel: Ramesses II and the Temples of the Rising Sun, Cairo, ed. American University in Cairo Press, 2001
Valley of the Golden Mummies: The Greatest Egyptian Discovery Since Tutankhamun, London, ed. Virgin Books, 2000
The Egyptian Monuments: Problems and Solutions, Berlin, ed. Gruyter, 1995
The funerary establishments of Khufu, Khafra and Menkaura during the Old Kingdom, Pennsylvania, ed. University of Pennsylvania, 1987
Further reading
References
External links
Biography at the Minnesota State University
The king of the pharaohs, Tim Radford, The Guardian, November 27, 2003
Interview with Dr. Zahi Hawass, Director of the Pyramids, Pyramid on PBS NOVA
Egypt's man from the past who insists he has a future, Jack Shenker in Cairo, The Guardian, May 19, 2011
Art Zulu Zahi Hawass page
The Rise and Fall and Rise of Zahi Hawass, Joshua Hammer, Smithsonian magazine, June 2013
1947 births
Living people
Alexandria University alumni
Cairo University alumni
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Egyptian archaeologists
Egyptian Egyptologists
Government ministers of Egypt
The American University in Cairo faculty
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
Art and cultural repatriation
Order of Arts and Letters of Spain recipients
People of the Egyptian revolution of 2011
Egyptian Museum
Egyptian Muslims | [
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251569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beckmann%20rearrangement | Beckmann rearrangement | The Beckmann rearrangement, named after the German chemist Ernst Otto Beckmann (1853–1923), is a rearrangement of an oxime functional group to substituted amides. The rearrangement has also been successfully performed on haloimines and nitrones. Cyclic oximes and haloimines yield lactams.
The Beckmann rearrangement is often catalyzed by acid; however, other reagents have been known to promote the rearrangement. These include tosyl chloride, thionyl chloride, phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorus pentoxide, triethylamine, sodium hydroxide, trimethylsilyl iodide among others. The Beckmann fragmentation is another reaction that often competes with the rearrangement, though careful selection of promoting reagent and solvent conditions can favor the formation of one over the other, sometimes giving almost exclusively one product. The rearrangement occurs stereospecifically for ketoximes and N-chloro/N-fluoro imines, with the migrating group being anti-periplanar to the leaving group on the nitrogen. Certain conditions have been known to racemize the oxime geometry, leading to the formation of both regioisomers. The rearrangement of aldoximes occurs with stereospecificity in the gas phase and without stereospecificity in the solution phase. A few methodologies allow for the rearrangement of aldoximes to primary amides, but fragmentation commonly competes in these systems. Nitrone rearrangement also occurs without stereospecificity; the regioisomer formed has the amide nitrogen substituted with the group possessing the greatest migratory aptitude.
The archetypal Beckmann rearrangement is the conversion of cyclohexanone to caprolactam via the oxime. Caprolactam is the feedstock in the production of Nylon 6.
The Beckmann solution consists of acetic acid, hydrochloric acid and acetic anhydride, and was widely used to catalyze the rearrangement. Other acids, such as sulfuric acid, polyphosphoric acid, and hydrogen fluoride have all been used. Sulfuric acid is the most commonly used acid for commercial lactam production due to its formation of an ammonium sulfate by-product when neutralized with ammonia. Ammonium sulfate is a common agricultural fertilizer providing nitrogen and sulfur.
Reaction mechanism
The most common reaction mechanism of the Beckmann rearrangement consists generally of an alkyl migration anti-periplanar to the expulsion of a leaving group to form a nitrilium ion. This is followed by solvolysis to an imidate and then tautomerization to the amide:
This nitrilium ion has been known to be intercepted by other nucleophiles, including the leaving group from the oxime.
Presumably after the phenyl group migrates and expels the cyanate, the latter then attacks the nitrillium ion formed. In carbon tetrachloride the isocyanate can be isolated, whereas in ethanol the urethane is formed after solvolysis of the isocyanate.
One computational study has established the mechanism accounting for solvent molecules and substituents. The rearrangement of acetone oxime in the Beckmann solution involved three acetic acid molecules and one proton (present as an oxonium ion). In the transition state leading to the iminium ion (σ-complex), the methyl group migrates to the nitrogen atom in a concerted reaction as the hydroxyl group is expelled. The oxygen atom in the hydroxyl group is stabilized by three acetic acid molecules. In the next step the electrophilic carbon atom in the nitrilium ion is attacked by water and a proton is donated back to acetic acid. In the transition state leading to the imidate, the water oxygen atom is coordinated to 4 other atoms. In the third step, an isomerization step protonates the nitrogen atom leading to the amide.
The same computation with a hydroxonium ion and 6 molecules of water has the same result, but when the migrating substituent is a phenyl group, the mechanism favors the formation of an intermediate three-membered π-complex. This π-complex is not found in the H3O+(H2O)6.
With the cyclohexanone-oxime, the relief of ring strain results in a third reaction mechanism, leading directly to the protonated caprolactam in a single concerted step without the intermediate formation of a π-complex or σ-complex.
Cyanuric chloride assisted Beckmann reaction
Beckmann rearrangement can be rendered catalytic using cyanuric chloride and zinc chloride as a co-catalyst. For example, cyclododecanone can be converted to the corresponding lactam, the monomer used in the production of Nylon 12.
The reaction mechanism for this reaction is based on a catalytic cycle with cyanuric chloride activating the hydroxyl group via a nucleophilic aromatic substitution. The reaction product is dislodged and replaced by new reactant via an intermediate Meisenheimer complex.
Beckmann fragmentation
The Beckmann fragmentation is a reaction that frequently competes with the Beckmann rearrangement. When the group α to the oxime is capable of stabilizing carbocation formation, the fragmentation becomes a viable reaction pathway. The reaction generates a nitrile and a carbocation, which is quickly intercepted to form a variety of products. The nitrile can also be hydrolyzed under reaction conditions to give carboxylic acids. Different reaction conditions can favor the fragmentation over the rearrangement.
Quaternary carbon centers promote fragmentation by stabilizing carbocation formation through hyperconjugation. As shown in the above picture, the "stable" carbocation is formed, which then loses a hydrogen to give a site of unsaturation. Oxygen and nitrogen atoms also promote fragmentation through the formation of ketones and imines respectively.
Sulfur is also capable of promoting fragmentation, albeit at a longer range than oxygen or nitrogen.
Silicon is capable of directing the fragmentation through the beta-silicon effect.
The carbocation intermediate in this reaction is intercepted by nucleophilic fluoride from diethylaminosulfur trifluoride (DAST):
Semmler–Wolff reaction
The oxime of cyclohexenone with acid forms aniline in a dehydration – aromatization reaction called the Semmler–Wolff reaction or Wolff aromatization
The mechanism can be shown as below:
The reaction is intrinsically a special case of Beckmann rearrangement combined with neighbouring group participation.
Applications in drug synthesis
An industrial synthesis of paracetamol developed by Hoechst–Celanese involves the conversion of a methyl ketone to an acetanilide via a Beckmann rearrangement.
The thermal rearrangement that occurs in the synthesis of ketamine was claimed to be a Beckmann rearrangement according to: url.
See also
Curtius rearrangement
Dakin reaction
Schmidt reaction
Stieglitz rearrangement
Lossen rearrangement
References
External links
Animation of the Beckmann rearrangement
Animation of the Beckmann rearrangement (caprolactam)
Rearrangement reactions
Nitrogen heterocycle forming reactions
Ring expansion reactions
Name reactions
Amide synthesis reactions | [
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251572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garganey | Garganey | The garganey (Spatula querquedula) is a small dabbling duck. It breeds in much of Europe and across the Palearctic, but is strictly migratory, with the entire population moving to southern Africa, India (in particular Santragachi), Bangladesh (in the natural reservoirs of Sylhet district) and Australasia in winter, where large flocks can occur. This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. Like other small ducks such as the common teal, this species rises easily from the water with a fast twisting wader-like flight.
Their breeding habitat is grassland adjacent to shallow marshes and steppe lakes.
Taxonomy
The first formal description of the garganey was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He introduced the binomial name Anas querquedula. A molecular phylogentic study comparing mitochondrial DNA sequences published in 2009 found that the genus Anas, as then defined, was non-monophyletic. The genus was subsequently split into four monophyletic genera with ten species including the garganey moved into the resurrected genus Spatula. This genus had been originally proposed by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1822. The name Spatula is the Latin for a "spoon" or "spatula". The specific epithet is derived from Latin querquedula, a word believed to represent to its call.
The common English name dates from the 17th century and comes from Lombard language gargenei, the plural of garganell, which ultimately comes from the Late Latin gargala "tracheal artery". The English usage owes its origins to Conrad Gesner who used the Italian name in the third volume of his Historiae Animalium (History of Animals) of 1555.
Description
The adult male is unmistakable, with its brown head and breast with a broad white crescent over the eye. The rest of the plumage is grey, with loose grey scapular feathers It has a grey bill and legs. In flight it shows a pale blue speculum with a white border. When swimming it will show prominent white edges on its tertials. His crown (anatomy) is dark and face is reddish brown.
Some care is needed in separating the brown female from the similar common teal, but the stronger face markings and more frequent head-shaking when dabbling are good indicators. Confusion with the female of the blue-winged teal is also possible, but the head and bill shape is different, and the latter species has yellow legs. Pale eyebrow, dark eye line, pale lore spot bordered by a second dark line.
Measurements:
Size: 41 cm
Wingspan: 58 - 69 cm.
Weight: 300- 440 g
These birds feed mainly by skimming rather than upending.
The male has a distinctive crackling mating call; the female is rather silent for a female duck, but can manage a feeble quack.
Garganey are rare breeding birds in the British Isles, with most breeding in quiet marshes in Norfolk and Suffolk. In Ireland a few pairs breed in County Wexford, with occasional breeding elsewhere.
The garganey is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. The status of the garganey on the IUCN Red List is least concern.
References
External links
RSPB Birds by Name: Garganey
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 1.1 MB) by Gerd-Michael Heinze & Javier Blasco-Zumeta
Spatula (genus)
Ducks
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Africa
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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251573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can%20%28band%29 | Can (band) | Can (stylised as CAN) was a German experimental rock band formed in Cologne in 1968 by the core quartet of Holger Czukay (bass, tape editing), Irmin Schmidt (keyboards), Michael Karoli (guitar), and Jaki Liebezeit (drums). The group cycled through several vocalists, most prominently the American-born Malcolm Mooney (1968–70) and the Japanese-born Damo Suzuki (1970–73), as well as various temporary members. They have been widely hailed as pioneers of the German krautrock scene.
Coming from backgrounds in the avant-garde and jazz, the members of Can blended elements of psychedelic rock, funk, and noise on influential albums such as Tago Mago (1971), Ege Bamyasi (1972) and Future Days (1973). Can also had occasional commercial success, with singles such as "Spoon" and "I Want More" reaching national singles charts. Their work would have a considerable influence on subsequent rock, post-punk, ambient, and electronic music.
History
Origins: 1966–68
The roots of Can can be traced back to Irmin Schmidt and a trip that he made to New York City in 1966. While Schmidt initially spent his time with avant-garde musicians such as Steve Reich, La Monte Young and Terry Riley, he was also eventually exposed to the world of Andy Warhol and Hotel Chelsea. In his own words, the trip "corrupted" him, sparking a fascination with the possibilities of rock music. Upon his return to Cologne later that year, an inspired Schmidt formed a group with American avant-garde composer and flautist David C. Johnson and music teacher Holger Czukay with the intention of exploring his newly broadened horizons.
Up to that point, the inclinations of all three musicians had been exclusively avant-garde classical. In fact, both Schmidt and Czukay had directly studied under the influential composer Karlheinz Stockhausen. Schmidt chose to play organ and piano, while Czukay played bass and was able to record their music with a basic two-track tape machine. The group was soon fleshed out by guitarist Michael Karoli, a 19-year-old pupil of Czukay, and drummer Jaki Liebezeit, who had grown disenchanted with his work in free jazz groups. As the group developed a more rock-oriented sound, a disappointed Johnson left the group at the end of 1968.
Band name
The band used the names "Inner Space" and "The Can" before finally settling on "CAN". Liebezeit later suggested the back-formation acronym "Communism, Anarchism, Nihilism" for the band's name, after an English music magazine claimed this was the intended meaning. But Mooney had originally suggested the name due to its positive meanings in various languages. For example, in Turkish, a language much heard in Germany, "can" may mean, depending on the context, "life, soul, heart, spirit, beloved and vitality".
Early years: 1968–70
Around September 1968, the band enlisted the creative, highly rhythmic, but unstable and often confrontational American vocalist Malcolm Mooney, a New York-based sculptor, with whom it recorded the material for an album, Prepared to Meet Thy Pnoom. As "Inner Space", and with both Johnson and Mooney present, the band appeared briefly in the 1969 film Kamasutra: Vollendung der Liebe backing singer Margarete Juvan. Unable to find a recording company willing to release the album, the group continued its studio work until it had material for what became its first release, Monster Movie (1969). This album contained new versions of two songs previously recorded for Prepared to Meet Thy Pnoom, "Father Cannot Yell" and "Outside My Door". Other material recorded around the same time was released in 1981 as Delay 1968. Mooney's ranting vocals emphasized the music's sheer strangeness and hypnotic quality, which was influenced particularly by garage rock, psychedelic rock and funk. Repetition was stressed on bass and drums, particularly on the track "Yoo Doo Right", which had been edited down from a six-hour improvisation to take up a mere single side of vinyl. Liebezeit's tight but multifarious drumming was crucial in carrying the music.
Mooney made his last recordings with Can in December 1969 before returning to America around the end of the year on a psychiatrist's advice, having been told that getting away from Can's chaotic music would be good for his mental health. The liner notes of the CD reissue of Monster Movie say that he suffered a nervous breakdown ("caught in a Can groove"), shouting "upstairs, downstairs" repeatedly. He was replaced in May 1970 by the more understated Kenji "Damo" Suzuki, a young Japanese traveler Czukay and Liebezeit found busking outside a Munich café. Though he knew only a handful of guitar chords and improvised most of his lyrics (as opposed to committing them to paper), he was asked to perform with the band that night. The band's first record with Suzuki was Soundtracks (1970), a compilation of music made for films that also contained two earlier tracks recorded with Mooney. Suzuki's lyrics were usually in English and sometimes in Japanese (for example, in "Oh Yeah" and "Doko E").
Middle years: 1971–73
The next few years saw Can release its most acclaimed works. While its earlier recordings tended to be at least loosely based on traditional song structures, on its mid-career albums the band reverted to an extremely fluid improvisational style. The double album Tago Mago (1971) is often seen as groundbreaking, influential and deeply unconventional, based on intensely rhythmic jazz-inspired drumming, improvised guitar and keyboard soloing (frequently intertwining), tape edits as composition, and Suzuki's idiosyncratic vocalisms. Czukay said it "was an attempt in achieving a mystery musical world from light to darkness and return."
In 1971 the band composed the music for the three-part German-language television crime miniseries Das Messer ("The Knife"), directed by Rolf von Sydow. The track "Spoon" was used as the theme song and, released as a single, reached number 6 in the German singles chart.
Tago Mago was followed in 1972 by Ege Bamyasi, a more accessible but still avant-garde record which featured "Spoon" and the catchy "Vitamin C". Czukay said, "We could achieve an excellent dry and ambient sound... [Ege Bamyasi] reflects the group being in a lighter mood."
It was followed by Future Days in 1973, an early example of ambient music that also includes the pop song "Moonshake". Czukay said, "'Bel Air' [the 20-minute track that takes up all of side two on the original Future Days LP] showed Can in a state of being an electric symphony group performing a peaceful though sometimes dramatic landscape painting."
Suzuki left soon after the recording of Future Days to marry his German girlfriend, and become a Jehovah's Witness. Vocals were taken over by Karoli and Schmidt, but after Suzuki's departure, fewer of Can's tracks featured vocals, as the band experimented with the ambient music it had begun with Future Days.
Later years: 1974–79
Soon Over Babaluma from 1974 continued in the ambient style of Future Days, but with some of the abrasive edge of Tago Mago and Ege Bamyasi. In 1975, Can signed with Virgin Records in the UK and EMI/Harvest in Germany, appearing the same year on BBC's Old Grey Whistle Test in a memorable performance of Vernal Equinox in which Schmidt played one keyboard section with a series of rapid karate chops. Shortly after the appearance Schmidt suffered a broken leg which led to cancellation of the band's UK tour.
{{Listen
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The later albums Landed (1975) and Flow Motion (1976) saw Can moving toward a somewhat more conventional style as its recording technology improved. The disco single "I Want More" from Flow Motion became its only hit record outside Germany. Co-written by live sound mixer Peter Gilmour, it reached No 26 in the UK charts in October 1976, which prompted an appearance on Top of the Pops, where Czukay performed with a double bass. In 1977 Can was joined by former Traffic bassist Rosko Gee and percussionist Rebop Kwaku Baah, both of whom provided vocals, appearing on the albums Saw Delight (1977), Out of Reach (1978) and Can (1979).
During this period Czukay was pushed to the fringes of the group's activity due to disagreements about the band's creative direction and his failure as a bass guitarist to keep up with the growth of the other musicians. Bass guitar was something Czukay had "taken up almost by default" and he readily admitted his limitations on the instrument. After Gee joined Can, Czukay made sounds using shortwave radios, Morse code keys, tape recorders and other sundry objects. He left Can in late 1977 and did not appear on the albums Out of Reach or Can, although he was involved with production work for the latter album. The band seemed to be in a hiatus shortly afterwards, but reunions have taken place on several occasions since.
After the split and reunion
Since the split, all the former members have been involved in musical projects, often as session musicians for other artists. In 1986 they briefly reformed, with original vocalist Mooney, to record Rite Time (released in 1989). There was a further reunion in 1991 by Karoli, Liebezeit, Mooney and Schmidt to record a track for the Wim Wenders film Until the End of the World and in August 1999 by Karoli, Liebezeit and Schmidt with Jono Podmore to record a cover of "The Third Man Theme" for Grönland Records' compilation album Pop 2000. In 1999 the four core members of Can, Karoli, Liebezeit, Schmidt and Czukay, performed live at the same show, although playing separately with their current solo projects (Sofortkontakt, Club Off Chaos, Kumo and U-She respectively). Can have since been the subject of numerous compilations, live albums and samples. In 2004, the band began a series of Super Audio CD remasters of its back catalog, which were finished in 2006.
Michael Karoli died of cancer on 17 November 2001; Jaki Liebezeit died of pneumonia on 22 January 2017, and Holger Czukay died of natural causes on 5 September 2017, thus leaving Irmin Schmidt as the sole surviving consistent member of the group.
Solo works
Holger Czukay recorded several ambient albums and collaborated with David Sylvian among others. Jaki Liebezeit played extensively with bassists Jah Wobble and Bill Laswell, with a drum ensemble called Drums off Chaos and in 2005 with Datenverarbeiter on the online album Givt. Michael Karoli recorded a reggae album with Polly Eltes before his death, and Irmin Schmidt has begun working with the acclaimed drummer Martin Atkins, producing a remix for the industrial band The Damage Manual and a cover of "Banging the Door" for a Public Image Ltd tribute album, both released on Atkins' label, Invisible Records. Karoli formed Sofortkontakt! for the Can reunion shows in 1999 with Mark Spybey, who had previously been associated with Dead Voices on Air, Zoviet France, Reformed Faction and Download. The band also featured Alexander Schoenert, Felix Guttierez of Jelly Planet, Thomas Hopf and Mandjao Fati. Karoli also performed on numerous occasions with Damo Suzuki's Network. Damo Suzuki returned to music in 1983 and since then he has been playing live improvisational shows around the world with local musicians and members of touring bands at various points, sometimes issuing live albums. Malcolm Mooney recorded an album as singer for the band Tenth Planet in 1998. Rosko Gee has been the bassist in the live band on Harald Schmidt's TV show in Germany since 1995. Rebop Kwaku Baah died in 1983 following a brain hemorrhage.
Archive releases
Can released a compilation album Limited Edition in 1974, and expanded it to a double album Unlimited Edition in 1976 from their unreleased studio recordings. Delay 1968, released in 1981, was a compilation of unreleased 1968–1969 recordings. Cannibalism 2, a compilation album of album and single material, also included one unreleased song, "Melting Away", from the 1960s.
In 1995 The Peel Sessions was released, a compilation of Can recordings at the BBC. In 1999 Can Box was released, with a Can video documentary, a concert recording from 1972 and a double live CD compiled by Michael Karoli and later released separately as Can Live Music (Live 1971–1977). Unreleased live music of Can have been also released on the 40th Anniversary Edition of Tago Mago in 2011 and 17 LP collection box Can in 2014.The Lost Tapes, released in 2012, was overseen by Irmin Schmidt and Daniel Miller, compiled by Schmidt and Jono Podmore, and edited by Podmore.
Music
Style
Holger Czukay and Irmin Schmidt were both pupils of Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Can inherited a strong grounding in his musical theory; the latter was trained as a classical pianist, while Michael Karoli was a pupil of Holger Czukay and brought the influence of gypsy music through his esoteric studies. Drummer Jaki Liebezeit had strong jazz leanings. The band's sound was originally intended to be based on the sound of ethnic music, so when the band decided to pick up the garage rock sound, original member David Johnson left. This world music trend was later exemplified on albums such as Ege Bamyasi (the name meaning "Aegean okra" in Turkish), Future Days and Saw Delight, and by incorporating new band members with different nationalities. A series of tracks on Can albums, known as "Ethnological Forgery Series", abbreviated to "E.F.S", demonstrated the band's ability to successfully recreate ethnic-sounding music. They constructed their music largely through collective spontaneous composition, sampling themselves in the studio and editing down the results; bassist and chief engineer Czukay referred to Can's live and studio performances as "instant compositions".
The band's early rock influences include The Beatles and The Velvet Underground as well as Jimi Hendrix, Sly Stone and Frank Zappa. The band have admitted that the beginning of Can's "Father Cannot Yell" was inspired by the Velvet Underground's "European Son". Malcolm Mooney's voice has been compared to that of James Brown (an acknowledged hero of the band members) and their early style, rooted in psychedelic music, drew comparisons with Pink Floyd. Czukay's extensive editing has occasionally been compared to the late-'60s music of trumpeter Miles Davis (such as In a Silent Way and Bitches Brew): Can and Davis both would record long groove-intensive improvisations, then edit the best bits together for their albums. Czukay and Teo Macero (Davis's producer and editor) both had roots in the musique concrète of the 1940s and '50s. Irmin Schmidt stated in a discussion with Michael Karoli in 1996 concerning the various citations of influences upon their music: "You know, it's funny that in spite of all the supposed influences on us that have been written about, the one overriding influence has never been mentioned: Michael von Biel."
Damo Suzuki was a very different singer from Mooney, with a multilingual (he claimed to sing in "the language of the Stone Age") and often inscrutable vocal style. With Suzuki, the band made their most critically and commercially successful albums. The rhythm section's work on Tago Mago has been especially praised: one critic writes that much of the album is based on "long improvisations built around hypnotic rhythm patterns"; another writes that "Halleluhwah" finds them "pounding out a monster trance/funk beat".
Legacy and influence
The Lumerians and Happy Mondays have cited Can as an influence. Critic Simon Reynolds wrote that "Can's pan-global avant-funk anticipated many of the moves made by sampladelic dance genres like trip hop, ethnotechno and ambient jungle." Brian Eno made a short film in tribute to Can, while John Frusciante of the Red Hot Chili Peppers appeared at the Echo Awards ceremony, at which Can were awarded the most prestigious music award in Germany, to pay tribute to guitarist Michael Karoli. Radiohead covered Can's song "The Thief" frequently in the early 2000s, and claimed the band as an influence during this time. Mark E. Smith of The Fall pays tribute to Damo Suzuki with the track "I Am Damo Suzuki" on the 1985 album This Nation's Saving Grace. The Jesus and Mary Chain used to cover "Mushroom" live in the mid-1980s.
At least five notable bands have named themselves in tribute to Can: The Mooney Suzuki for Malcolm Mooney and Damo Suzuki; the indie rock band Spoon after the hit "Spoon"; the electronic band Egebamyasi, formed by Scottish musician Mr Egg in 1984, after Can's album Ege Bamyasi; Hunters & Collectors after a song on the Landed album; and Moonshake, named for a track on Future Days, and formed by ex-Wolfhounds frontman David Callahan. The Scottish writer Alan Warner has written two novels in tribute to two different Can members (Morvern Callar to Holger Czukay and The Man Who Walks to Michael Karoli respectively). The Sacrilege remix album features remixes of Can tracks by artists who were influenced by Can, including Sonic Youth and U.N.K.L.E. Their ethnomusicological tendencies pre-date the craze for world music in the 1980s. While not nearly as influential on electronic music as Kraftwerk, they were important early pioneers of ambient music, along with Tangerine Dream and the aforementioned band. Many groups working in the post-rock genre can look to Can as an influence as part of the larger krautrock scene, as can New Prog bands such as The Mars Volta. Rolling Stone called the group a "pioneering space rock band". Kanye West has sampled "Sing Swan Song" on his song "Drunk & Hot Girls" from his 2007 album Graduation. The UK band Loop was deeply influenced by Can for their repetitive polyrhythmic style, covering Can's "Mother Sky" on their Fade Out album. The Yugoslav progressive/psychedelic rock band Igra Staklenih Perli, heavily influenced by Can, on their self-titled debut album released the song "Pečurka" ("Mushroom") as a tribute to Can.
The band is name-checked as a formative influence in LCD Soundsystem's debut single "Losing My Edge". Oasis' 2008 single "The Shock of the Lightning" was inspired by Can and Neu!.
Improvisation, recording and live shows
Much of Can's music was based on free improvisation and then edited for the studio albums. For example, when preparing a soundtrack, only Irmin Schmidt would view the film and then give the rest of the band a general description of the scenes they would be scoring. This assisted in the improvised soundtrack being successful both inside and outside the film's context.
Can's live shows often melded spontaneous improvisation of this kind with songs appearing on their albums. The track "Colchester Finale", appearing on the Can Live album, incorporates portions of "Halleluhwah" into a composition lasting over half an hour. Early concerts found Mooney and Suzuki often able to shock audiences. The actor David Niven was asked by Czukay what he had thought of a concert, Niven replied: "It was great, but I didn't know it was music." After the departure of Suzuki, the music grew in intensity without a vocal centre. The band maintained their ability to collectively improvise with or without central themes for hours at a time (their longest performance, in Berlin, lasted over six hours), resulting in a large archive of performances.
Can made attempts to find a new vocalist after the departure of Damo Suzuki, although no one quite fit the position. In 1975, folk singer Tim Hardin took the lead vocal spot and played guitar with Can for one song, at two gigs, performing his own "The Lady Came From Baltimore". Malaysian vocalist Thaiga Raj Raja Ratnam played six dates with the band between January and March 1976. Another temporary vocalist, Englishman Michael Cousins, toured with Can from March (France) to April (Germany) 1976.
Band members
Michael Karoli – guitar, vocals, violin (1968–1979, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1999; died 2001)
Jaki Liebezeit – drums, percussion (1968–1979, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1999; died 2017)
Irmin Schmidt – keyboards, vocals (1968–1979, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1999)
Holger Czukay – bass, sound engineer, electronics, vocals, French horn (1968–1977, 1986, 1988; died 2017)
David C. Johnson – reeds, winds, electronics and tape manipulation (1968)
Malcolm Mooney – vocals (1968–1970, 1986-1988, 1991)
Damo Suzuki – vocals (1970–1973)
Rosko Gee – bass, vocals (1977–1979)
Rebop Kwaku Baah – percussion, vocals (1977–1979; died 1983)
Additional collaborators
Manni Löhe – vocals, percussion and flute (1968)
Duncan Fallowell – lyrics (1974)
René Tinner – recording engineer (1973–1979, 1986, 1991)
Olaf Kübler of Amon Düül – tenor saxophone (1975)
Tim Hardin – vocals & guitar (November 1975) (died 1980)
Thaiga Raj Raja Ratnam – vocals (January–March 1976)
Michael Cousins – vocals (March–April 1976)
Peter Gilmour – lyrics, live sound mixing (later 1970s)
Jono Podmore – recording engineer, bass (1999), soundprocessing and editing engineer (1999, 2003, 2011–2012)
Timeline
DiscographyMonster Movie (1969)Tago Mago (1971)Ege Bamyasi (1972)Future Days (1973)Soon Over Babaluma (1974)Landed (1975)Flow Motion (1976)Saw Delight (1977)Out of Reach (1978)Can (1979)Rite Time (1989)
VideographyRomantic Warriors IV: Krautrock (2019)
References
Works cited
Bibliography
Bussy, Pascal and Andy Hall. The Can Book. Saf Publishing, 1989.
Bussy, Pascal. Kraftwerk: Man, Machine and Music. SAF Publishing, 2005.
The New Musical Express Book of Rock, Star Books, 1975, .
Rock: The Rough Guide (2nd edition). Penguin, 1999.
Strong, Martin C. Great Rock Discography. (5th edition), MOJO Books, 2000.
Stubbs, David. Future Days: Krautrock and the Building of Modern Germany''. Faber & Faber Rock Music, 2014.
External links
Official website (Spoonrecords.com)
Biography at Mute Records
Full discography including solo albums and a breakdown of every gig played
Krautrock musical groups
Free improvisation ensembles
Ambient music groups
German art rock groups
German experimental rock groups
Mute Records artists
Musical groups established in 1968
Musical groups from Cologne
German progressive rock groups
German experimental musical groups
German psychedelic rock music groups
Liberty Records artists
United Artists Records artists
Virgin Records artists
Harvest Records artists
Restless Records artists | [
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251574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuttlingen%20%28district%29 | Tuttlingen (district) | Tuttlingen is a Landkreis (district) in the south of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Rottweil, Zollernalbkreis, Sigmaringen, Constance and Schwarzwald-Baar.
History
The district dates back to the Oberamt Tuttlingen, which was created in 1806. After several minor changes it was merged with the Oberamt Spaichingen and converted into the district in 1938. In 1973 it was enlarged by some municipalities from the dissolved districts Donaueschingen and Stockach.
Mining
From an old 3.5 km mine in a Doggererzflöz in Weilheim is wood in the Tuttlinger Fruchtkasten .
Steel was produced in Tuttlingen by the Schwäbische Hüttenwerke in Ludwigshal. The furnace in Harras was closed in 1832. By building railways new calculations make the ironore of the area unprofitable. After the Franco-Prussian War mining was stopped.
Geography
The landscape of the district are the hills of the Swabian Alb, with the Danube as the main river.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms show a deer antler in the top part, the symbol of the state of Württemberg. The area of the district became part of Württemberg in the 14th century. The half wheel in the bottom is the symbol of the Lords of Hohenberg, representing an Austrian possession in the district.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Freiburg (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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251577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking%20into%20Clarksdale | Walking into Clarksdale | Walking into Clarksdale is the only studio album by Jimmy Page and Robert Plant, both formerly of English rock band Led Zeppelin. It was released by Atlantic Records on 21 April 1998. The album was recorded and mixed by Steve Albini at Abbey Road Studios.
The album debuted on the Billboard's Billboard 200 album chart at No. 8, while reaching No. 3 on the UK Album Chart. The single "Most High" was awarded a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1999, and reached No. 1 on Billboard's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and No. 26 in the UK.
Plant re-recorded the song "Please Read the Letter" with Alison Krauss for their 2007 collaboration album Raising Sand. This re-recording won the Record of the Year award at the 2009 Grammy Awards. "House of Love" was later re-recorded with different lyrics by Robert Plant and the Sensational Space Shifters for their 2014 studio album Lullaby and the Ceaseless Roar.
The title of the album refers to Clarksdale, Mississippi, a town in the Mississippi Delta considered to be the birthplace of blues music.
Background and recording
Following their successful No Quarter tour and subsequent live album release, Jimmy Page and Robert Plant began writing Walking into Clarksdale. For the new record, Page and Plant pursued a more stripped-down sound, eschewing the heavy orchestration of their live performances in favor of a more traditional four-piece band. The initial demos for the album were written by Page on a Harmony H1260 Sovereign guitar, first used during the recording of Led Zeppelin III.
The band met at RAK Studios in August 1997 where they recorded "Burning Up" and "Shining in the Light". Shortly after, the band left RAK for Abbey Road's EMI Number Two Studio, where they recorded the rest of the album over the course of 35 days in August and September. Page characterized the band's approach as "minimalistic", stating that the band wanted to avoid "embellishments for the sake of it" and that "every note was played in its place to mean something."
The album was recorded and mixed by Steve Albini, known for producing Nirvana's final album In Utero. With the exception of guitar layering on the title track and string and keyboard overdubs on "Upon a Golden Horse" and "Most High", each track was recorded in a single take.
Release and reception
Walking into Clarksdale was released internationally on 20 April 1998, and in North America on 21 April. The album's launch was preceded by the release of "Most High" as the album's first single on 30 March 1998. "Most High" debuted at No. 10 on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart.
"Shining in the Light" was released as the album's second single on 30 May 1998.
Atlantic Records promoted the album extensively, with advertising on major U.S. cable channels and national print publications like Rolling Stone, interviews booked on nearly every major talk show, and a "substantial radio buy" in the top 20 radio markets. In addition to more traditional promotional channels, Atlantic signed a deal with Ticketmaster – a first for the label – to upsell the album directly to customers who ordered tickets to the 1998 tour.
The album cover, designed by Martin Callomon, features photography by Anton Corbijn, best known for his work with U2 and Depeche Mode.
Track listing
All songs by Jimmy Page, Robert Plant, Charlie Jones, and Michael Lee.
"Shining in the Light" – 4:01
"When the World Was Young" – 6:13
"Upon a Golden Horse" – 3:52
"Blue Train" – 6:45
"Please Read the Letter" – 4:21
"Most High" – 5:36
"Heart in Your Hand" – 3:50
"Walking into Clarksdale" – 5:18
"Burning Up" – 5:21
"When I Was a Child" – 5:45
"House of Love" – 5:35
"Sons of Freedom" – 4:08
Japanese bonus track
"Whiskey from the Glass" – 3:01
Note
"Most High" and "Shining in the Light" were released as singles, with a music video for the former. "Most High" was also featured as a CD single with the B-side "The Window".
Walking into Everywhere tour
To promote Walking into Clarksdale, Page and Plant kicked off 1998's "Walking into Everywhere" Tour. The tour, consisting of three tours of Eastern Europe, North America, and Western Europe, consisted of 97 tour dates and featured a mix of both new material and Led Zeppelin classics. The band's concert in Bucharest, Romania was professionally filmed for a cancelled home video release, and parts of the concert were broadcast live on the MTV special “Live from the 10 Spot” to promote the album.
Three additional tour legs in Japan, Australia, and South America were planned for 1999. However, following a final appearance in Paris on 10 December 1998 at the Amnesty International “The Struggle Continues…” concert, Robert Plant dissolved the partnership and the planned 1999 tour was cancelled.
Personnel
Band members
Jimmy Page – acoustic and electric guitars, mandolin, co-production
Robert Plant – vocals, co-production
Charlie Jones – bass guitar, percussion, mixing on "Upon a Golden Horse"
Michael Lee – drums, percussion
Additional personnel
Steve Albini – engineering, mixing, recording technician
Anton Corbijn – photography
Martin "Cally" Callomon – design
Paul Hicks – assistant engineering
Lynton Naiff – string arrangements on "Upon a Golden Horse"
Phil Andrews – mixing on "Upon a Golden Horse"
Ed Shearmur – programming and string pads on "Most High"
Tim Whelan – keyboards on "Most High"
Charts
Album
Year-end
Certifications
References
1998 debut albums
Albums produced by Jimmy Page
Page and Plant albums
Atlantic Records albums
Mercury Records albums
Clarksdale, Mississippi | [
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251579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Dow | Charles Dow | Charles Henry Dow (; November 6, 1851 – December 4, 1902) was an American journalist who co-founded Dow Jones & Company with Edward Jones and Charles Bergstresser.
Dow also co-founded The Wall Street Journal, which has become one of the most respected financial publications in the world. He also invented the Dow Jones Industrial Average as part of his research into market movements. He developed a series of principles for understanding and analyzing market behavior which later became known as Dow theory, the groundwork for technical analysis.
Early life
Charles Henry Dow was born in Sterling, Connecticut, on November 6, 1851. When he was six years old his father, who was a farmer, died. The family lived in the hills of eastern Connecticut, not far from Rhode Island. Dow did not have much education or training, but he managed to find work at the age of 21 with the Springfield Daily Republican, in Massachusetts. He worked there from 1872 until 1875 as a city reporter for Samuel Bowles, who taught his reporters to write crisp, detailed articles. Dow then moved on to Rhode Island, joining the Providence Star, where he worked for two years as a night editor. He also reported for the Providence Evening Press. In 1877, Dow joined the staff of the prominent Providence Journal. George W. Danielson, the editor there, had not wanted to hire the 26-year-old, but Dow would not take no for an answer. Upon learning that Dow had worked for Bowles for three years, Danielson reconsidered and gave Dow a job writing business stories.
Dow specialized in articles on regional history, some of which were later published in pamphlet form. Dow made history come alive in his writing by explaining the development of various industries and their future prospects. In 1877, he published a History of Steam Navigation between New York and Providence. Three years later, he published Newport: The City by the Sea. It was an account of Newport, Rhode Island's settlement, rise, decline, and rebirth as a summer vacation spot and the location of a naval academy, training station, and war college. Dow reported on Newport real estate investments, recording the money earned and lost during the city's history. He also wrote histories of public education and the prison system in the state. Danielson was so impressed with Dow's careful research that he assigned him to accompany a group of bankers and reporters to Leadville, Colorado, to report on silver mining. The bankers wanted the publicity in order to gain investors in the mines.
In 1879, Dow and various tycoons, geologists, lawmakers, and investors set out on a four-day train trip to reach Colorado. Dow learned a great deal about the world of money on that journey as the men smoked cigars, played cards, and swapped stories. He interviewed many highly successful financiers and heard what sort of information the investors on Wall Street needed to make money. The businessmen seemed to like and trust Dow, knowing that he would quote them accurately and keep a confidence. Dow wrote nine "Leadville Letters" based on his experiences there. He described the Rocky Mountains, the mining companies, and the boomtown's gambling, saloons, and dance halls. He also wrote of raw capitalism and the information that drove investments, turning people into millionaires in a moment. He described the disappearance of the individual mine-owners and the financiers who underwrote shares in large mining consortiums. In his last letter, Dow warned, "Mining securities are not the thing for widows and orphans or country clergymen, or unworldly people of any kind to own. But for a businessman, who must take risks in order to make money; who will buy nothing without careful, thorough investigation; and who will not risk more than he is able to lose, there is no other investment in the market today as tempting as mining stock."
Working on Wall Street
In 1880, Dow left Providence for New York City, realizing that the ideal location for business and financial reporting was there. The 29-year-old found work at the Kiernan Wall Street Financial News Bureau, which delivered by messenger hand written financial news to banks and brokerages. When John J. Kiernan asked Dow to find another reporter for the Bureau, Dow invited Edward Davis Jones to work with him. Jones and Dow had met when they worked together at the Providence Evening Press. Jones, a Brown University dropout, could skillfully and quickly analyze a financial report. He, like Dow, was committed to reporting on Wall Street without bias. Other reporters could be bribed into reporting favorably on a company to drive up stock prices. Dow and Jones refused to manipulate the stock market.
The two young men believed that Wall Street needed another financial news bureau. In November 1882, they started their own agency, Dow, Jones & Company. The business' headquarters was located in the basement of a candy store. Charles Bergstresser was the chief financier of the fledgling company, but chose to be a silent partner. Bergstresser's strength lay in his interviewing skills. Jones once remarked that he could make a wooden Indian talk and tell the truth.
In November 1883, the company started putting out an afternoon two-page summary of the day's financial news called the Customers' Afternoon Letter. It soon achieved a circulation of over 1,000 subscribers and was considered an important news source for investors. It included the Dow Jones stock average, an index that included nine railroad issues, one steamship line, and Western Union.
Simultaneously to his work in publishing, in 1885 Dow also served as a Partner in the NYSE brokerage house of Goodbody, Glynn and Dow where he remained until its dissolution six years later. His Partner, Robert Goodbody, was an Irish citizen and thus at that time ineligible to own a seat. By 1891, both men would part ways. Robert would start his own firm entitled Robert Goodbody & Co, which would become the fifth largest brokerage firm in the United States, before being bought by Merrill Lynch in 1971.
Birth of the Wall Street Journal
In 1889, the company had 50 employees. The partners realized that the time was right to transform their two-page news summary into a real newspaper. The first issue of The Wall Street Journal appeared on July 8, 1889. It cost two cents per issue or five dollars for a one-year subscription. Dow was the editor and Jones managed the deskwork. The paper gave its readers a policy statement: "Its object is to give fully and fairly the daily news attending the fluctuations in prices of stocks, bonds, and some classes of commodities. It will aim steadily at being a paper of news and not a paper of opinions." The paper's motto was "The truth in its proper use." Its editors promised to put out a paper that could not be controlled by advertisers. The paper had a private wire to Boston and telegraph connections to Washington, Philadelphia, and Chicago. It also had correspondents in several cities, including London.
Dow often warned his reporters about exchanging slanted stories for stock tips or free stock. Crusading for honesty in financial reporting, Dow would publish the names of companies that hesitated to give information about profit and loss. Soon after that, the newspaper gained power and respect from the reading public. Vermont Royster, a later editor of the Wall Street Journal, said Dow always believed business information was not the "private province of brokers and tycoons".
In 1898, the Wall Street Journal put out its first morning edition. The paper now covered more than just financial news. It also covered war, which it reported without rhetoric, unlike many other papers. Dow also added an editorial column called "Review and Outlook" and "Answers to Inquirers," in which readers sent investment questions to be answered. Edward Jones retired in 1899, but Dow and Bergstresser continued working. Dow still wrote editorials, now focusing on the place that government held in American business. The Wall Street Journal set a precedent in reporting during the election of 1900 by endorsing a political candidate, the incumbent president William McKinley.
Dow Jones Averages
The stock price average was created on July 3, 1884, by Charles Dow as part of the "Customer's Afternoon Letter". At its inception, it consisted of 11 companies—9 railroads and 2 non-rail companies, Pacific Mail Steamship and Western Union Telegraph.
On September 23, 1889, the “20 Active Stock” index was introduced. It included 18 railroad and 2 non-rail stocks.
In the 1890s, Dow saw that the recession was ending. In 1893, many mergers began taking place, resulting in the formation of huge corporations. These corporations sought markets for their stock shares. The wildly speculative market meant investors needed information about stock activity. Dow took this opportunity to devise the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) in 1896. By tracking the closing stock prices of twelve companies, adding up their stock prices, and dividing by twelve, Dow came up with his average. The first such average appeared in the Wall Street Journal on May 26, 1896. Nowadays, the DJIA remains one of the oldest and popular stock indices in the world.
On October 25, 1896, Dow replaced the 2 non-rail stocks in the “20 Active Stock” index with 2 rail stocks and the index became the Dow Jones Railroad Average (DJRA). The DJRA remained a rail average of 20 stocks until January 2, 1970, when the average was changed to the Dow Jones Transportation Average (DJTA)—9 railroad stocks were replaced by 9 airline and trucking stocks.
Theory of stock price movements
In 1899, Dow started an editorial column in his newspaper in order to educate the general reader until his death in 1902. The column dealt mainly with stock market activities and economic matters. It was in this column that he often put forward his ideas of stock price movements, which were the foundation of what was later called the Dow Theory.
Unfortunately, his complete editorial writings are not available to the general reader. However, most of his writings can be found in the following books:
Samuel Armstrong Nelson, [https://archive.org/details/abcofstockspecul00nelsiala?q=The+A+B+C+of+Stock+Speculation The A B C of Stock Speculation']', 1902
George W. Bishop, Charles H. Dow and The Dow Theory'', 1960
Laura Sether ed., Dow Theory Unplugged: Charles Dow's Original Editorials & Their Relevance Today, 2009
The basic idea of Dow is that the stock price is affected by various factors interacting at the same time, leading to distinct patterns of stock price movement. The first step is to establish from past data the relationship between these patterns and each important factor. Thereafter, by identifying the main factors which are presently working, we can predict the probable future movement of stock price. One of the most important contributions to stock market thought was his theory of the three movements in the market.
Personal
At age 30, having moved to New York City the prior year to accept a job offer, Dow married his wife Lucy, who had a daughter from a previous marriage. The couple had no children of their own. It was in NYC that Dow met Jones.
Death
In 1902, Dow began to have health problems and Bergstresser wanted to retire. The two sold their shares of the company to Clarence Barron, their Boston correspondent. Dow wrote his last editorial in April 1902. About eight months later, on December 4, 1902, he died at his home at 161 Lefferts Place, Brooklyn, New York, at the age of 51 after suffering a heart attack. Charles Dow is interred in North Burial Ground in Providence, Rhode Island.
See also
Dow Jones Indexes
References
External links
Dow Jones History
Dow Jones Indexes home page
Dow Jones Averages historical, research and trivia page
American National Biography
The Motley Fool
1851 births
1902 deaths
People from Sterling, Connecticut
Massachusetts Republicans
American male journalists
Dow Jones & Company
19th-century American businesspeople
Burials at North Burying Ground (Providence)
The Providence Journal people
People from Clinton Hill, Brooklyn | [
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251582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant%20shrew | Elephant shrew | Elephant shrews, also called jumping shrews or sengis, are small insectivorous mammals native to Africa, belonging to the family Macroscelididae, in the order Macroscelidea. Their traditional common English name "elephant shrew" comes from a perceived resemblance between their long noses and the trunk of an elephant, and their superficial similarity with shrews (family Soricidae) in the order Eulipotyphla. However, phylogenetic analysis revealed that elephant shrews are not classified with true shrews, but are in fact more closely related to elephants than shrews. In 1997, the biologist Jonathan Kingdon proposed that they instead be called "sengis" (singular sengi), a term derived from the Bantu languages of Africa, and in 1998, they were classified into the new clade Afrotheria.
They are widely distributed across the southern part of Africa, and although common nowhere, can be found in almost any type of habitat, from the Namib Desert to boulder-strewn outcrops in South Africa to thick forest. One species, the North African elephant shrew, remains in the semi-arid, mountainous country in the far northwest of Africa. The Somali elephant shrew went unobserved from 1968 to 2020 but was rediscovered by a group of scientists in Djibouti.
Characteristics
The creature is one of the fastest small mammals, having been recorded to reach speeds of . Compared to other mammalian insectivores, sengis have relatively large brains.
Elephant shrews are small, quadrupedal, insectivorous mammals resembling rodents or opossums, with scaly tails, long snouts, and legs quite long for their size, which are used to move from one place to another like rabbits. They vary in size from about , from .The body weight of the new species is about 700 g, which is 25–50% greater than any other giant sengi. The new Rhynchocyon is only known from two populations that cover about 300 km2 of montane forest. It has an estimated density of 50–80 individuals km−2 The short-eared elephant shrew has an average size of . Although the size of the trunk varies among species, all are able to twist it about in search of food. Their lifespans are about two and a half to four years in the wild. They have large canine teeth, and also high-crowned cheek teeth similar to those of ungulates. Their dental formula is G
Although mostly diurnal and very active, they are difficult to trap and very seldom seen; elephant shrews are wary, well camouflaged, and adept at dashing away from threats. Several species make a series of cleared pathways through the undergrowth and spend their day patrolling them for insect life. If the animal is disturbed, the pathway provides an obstacle-free escape route.
Elephant shrews are not highly social animals, but many live in monogamous pairs, which share and defend their home territory, marked using scent glands. Rhynchocyon species also dig small conical holes in the soil, bandicoot-style, but others may make use of natural crevices, or make leaf nests.
Short-eared elephant shrews inhabit the dry steppes and stone deserts of southwestern Africa. They can even be found in the Namib Desert, one of the driest regions of the earth. Females drive away other females, while males try to ward off other males. Although they live in pairs, the partners do not care much for each other and their sole purpose of even associating with the opposite sex is for reproduction. Social behaviors are not very common and they even have separate nests. The one or two young are well developed at birth; they are able to run within a few hours.
Female elephant shrews undergo a menstrual cycle similar to that of human females and the species is one of the few nonprimate mammals to do so. Elephant shrews were used in the 1940s to study the human menstruation cycle. The elephant shrew mating period lasts for several days. After mating, the pair will return to their solitary habits. After a gestation period varying from 45 to 60 days, the female will bear litters of one to three young several times a year. The young are born relatively well developed, but remain in the nest for several days before venturing outside.
After five days, the young's milk diet is supplemented with mashed insects, which are collected and transported in the cheek pouches of the female. The young then slowly start to explore their environment and hunt for insects. After about 15 days, the young will begin the migratory phase of their lives, which lessens their dependency on their mother. The young will then establish their own home ranges (about ) and will become sexually active within 41–46 days.
The thermal characteristics of elephant shrews with similar body size, habitat and distribution are very close in most of the classifications. They can maintain homeothermy in different ambient temperatures where most of the species regulate their body temperature at 35 °C and neither become hyperthermic but they balance the heat offload by increasing the EWL (evaporative water loss).
Feeding habits
Elephant shrews mainly eat insects, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, and earthworms. An elephant shrew uses its nose to find prey and uses its tongue to flick small food into its mouth, much like an anteater. Eating large prey can pose a challenge; an elephant shrew struggling with an earthworm must first pin its prey to the ground with a forefoot. Then, turning its head to one side, it chews pieces off with its cheek teeth, much like a dog chewing a bone. This is a sloppy process, and many small pieces of worm drop to the ground; these are simply flicked up with the tongue. Some elephant shrews also feed on small amounts of plant matter, especially new leaves, seeds, and small fruits.
Evolution
A number of fossil species are known, all from Africa. They were separate from the similar-appearing order Leptictida. A considerable diversification of macroscelids occurred in the Paleogene period. Some, such as Myohyrax, were so similar to hyraxes that they were initially included with that group, while others, such as Mylomygale, were relatively rodent-like. These unusual forms all died out by the Pleistocene. Although macroscelids were classified in the past with many groups, often on the basis of superficial characteristics, considerable morphological and molecular evidence places them within Afrotheria, at the base of Afroinsectivora.
In terms of timing, the divergence between macroscelids and afrosoricidans is thought to have occurred roughly 57.5 million years (Ma) ago, in the late Paleocene, while the diversification of extant macroscelids apparently began when the Rhynchocyon lineage split off about 33 Ma ago, in the early Oligocene. Elephantulus is considered to have separated from Macroscelidini later in the Oligocene, about 28.5 Ma ago.
Phylogeny
Classification
The 20 species of elephant shrew are placed in six genera, three of which are monotypic:
ORDER MACROSCELIDEA
Family Macroscelididae
Genus Elephantulus
Short-snouted elephant shrew, E. brachyrhynchus
Cape elephant shrew, E. edwardii
Dusky-footed elephant shrew, E. fuscipes
Dusky elephant shrew, E. fuscus
Bushveld elephant shrew, E. intufi
Eastern rock elephant shrew, E. myurus
Karoo rock elephant shrew, E. pilicaudus
Western rock elephant shrew, E. rupestris
Genus Galegeeska
Somali elephant shrew, G. revoilii
Rufous elephant shrew, G. rufescens
Genus Macroscelides
Namib round-eared sengi, M. flavicaudatus
Etendeka round-eared sengi, M. micus
Round-eared elephant shrew, M. proboscideus
Genus Petrodromus
Four-toed elephant shrew, P. tetradactylus
Genus Petrosaltator
North African elephant shrew, P. rozeti
Genus Rhynchocyon
Golden-rumped elephant shrew, R. chrysopygus
Checkered elephant shrew, R. cirnei
Black and rufous elephant shrew, R. petersi
Stuhlmann's elephant shrew, R. stuhlmanni
Grey-faced sengi, R. udzungwensis
References
External links
Mammals of Africa
Extant Lutetian first appearances
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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251591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartic%20equation | Quartic equation | In mathematics, a quartic equation is one which can be expressed as a quartic function equaling zero. The general form of a quartic equation is
where a ≠ 0.
The quartic is the highest order polynomial equation that can be solved by radicals in the general case (i.e., one where the coefficients can take any value).
History
Lodovico Ferrari is attributed with the discovery of the solution to the quartic in 1540, but since this solution, like all algebraic solutions of the quartic, requires the solution of a cubic to be found, it couldn't be published immediately. The solution of the quartic was published together with that of the cubic by Ferrari's mentor Gerolamo Cardano in the book Ars Magna (1545).
The proof that this was the highest order general polynomial for which such solutions could be found was first given in the Abel–Ruffini theorem in 1824, proving that all attempts at solving the higher order polynomials would be futile. The notes left by Évariste Galois prior to dying in a duel in 1832 later led to an elegant complete theory of the roots of polynomials, of which this theorem was one result.
Solving a quartic equation
General formula
There exists a general formula for finding the roots to quartic equations, provided the coefficient of the leading term is non-zero.
Special cases
Consider a quartic equation expressed in the form :
Degenerate case
If the constant term a4 = 0, then one of the roots is x = 0, and the other roots can be found by dividing by x, and solving the resulting cubic equation,
Evident roots: 1 and −1 and −k
Call our quartic polynomial Q(x). Since 1 raised to any power is 1, . Thus if , Q(1) = 0 and so x = 1 is a root of Q(x). It can similarly be shown that if , x = −1 is a root.
In either case the full quartic can then be divided by the factor (x − 1) or (x + 1) respectively yielding a new cubic polynomial, which can be solved to find the quartic's other roots.
If , and , then x = −k is a root of the equation. The full quartic can then be factorized this way:
If , and , x = 0 and x = −k are two known roots. Q(x) divided by x(x + k) is a quadratic polynomial.
Biquadratic equations
A quartic equation where a3 and a1 are equal to 0 takes the form
and thus is a biquadratic equation, which is easy to solve: let , so our equation turns to
which is a simple quadratic equation, whose solutions are easily found using the quadratic formula:
When we've solved it (i.e. found these two z values), we can extract x from them
If either of the z solutions were negative or complex numbers, then some of the x solutions are complex numbers.
Quasi-symmetric equations
Steps:
Divide by x 2.
Use variable change z = x + m/x.
The general case, along Ferrari's lines
To begin, the quartic must first be converted to a depressed quartic.
Converting to a depressed quartic
Let
be the general quartic equation which it is desired to solve. Divide both sides by A,
The first step should be to eliminate the x3 term. To do this, change variables from x to u, such that
Then
Expanding the powers of the binomials produces
Collecting the same powers of u yields
Now rename the coefficients of u. Let
The resulting equation is
which is a depressed quartic equation.
If then we have a biquadratic equation, which (as explained above) is easily solved; using reverse substitution we can find our values for .
If then one of the roots is and the other roots can be found by dividing by , and solving the resulting depressed cubic equation,
Using reverse substitution we can find our values for .
Ferrari's solution
Otherwise, the depressed quartic can be solved by means of a method discovered by Lodovico Ferrari. Once the depressed quartic has been obtained, the next step is to add the valid identity
to equation (), yielding
The effect has been to fold up the u4 term into a perfect square: (u2 + α)2. The second term, αu2 did not disappear, but its sign has changed and it has been moved to the right side.
The next step is to insert a variable y into the perfect square on the left side of equation (), and a corresponding 2y into the coefficient of u2 in the right side. To accomplish these insertions, the following valid formulas will be added to equation (),
and
These two formulas, added together, produce
which added to equation () produces
This is equivalent to
The objective now is to choose a value for y such that the right side of equation () becomes a perfect square. This can be done by letting the discriminant of the quadratic function become zero. To explain this, first expand a perfect square so that it equals a quadratic function:
The quadratic function on the right side has three coefficients. It can be verified that squaring the second coefficient and then subtracting four times the product of the first and third coefficients yields zero:
Therefore to make the right side of equation () into a perfect square, the following equation must be solved:
Multiply the binomial with the polynomial,
Divide both sides by −4, and move the −β2/4 to the right,
Divide both sides by 2,
This is a cubic equation in y. Solve for y using any method for solving such equations (e.g. conversion to a reduced cubic and application of Cardano's formula). Any of the three possible roots will do.
Folding the second perfect square
With the value for y so selected, it is now known that the right side of equation () is a perfect square of the form
(This is correct for both signs of square root, as long as the same sign is taken for both square roots. A ± is redundant, as it would be absorbed by another ± a few equations further down this page.)
so that it can be folded:
Note: If β ≠ 0 then α + 2y ≠ 0. If β = 0 then this would be a biquadratic equation, which we solved earlier.
Therefore equation () becomes
Equation () has a pair of folded perfect squares, one on each side of the equation. The two perfect squares balance each other.
If two squares are equal, then the sides of the two squares are also equal, as shown by:
Collecting like powers of u produces
Note: The subscript s of and is to note that they are dependent.
Equation () is a quadratic equation for u. Its solution is
Simplifying, one gets
This is the solution of the depressed quartic, therefore the solutions of the original quartic equation are
Remember: The two come from the same place in equation (), and should both have the same sign, while the sign of is independent.
Summary of Ferrari's method
Given the quartic equation
its solution can be found by means of the following calculations:
If then
Otherwise, continue with
(either sign of the square root will do)
(there are 3 complex roots, any one of them will do)
The two ±s must have the same sign, the ±t is independent. To get all roots, compute x for ±s,±t = +,+ and for +,−; and for −,+ and for −,−. This formula handles repeated roots without problem.
Ferrari was the first to discover one of these labyrinthine solutions. The equation which he solved was
which was already in depressed form. It has a pair of solutions which can be found with the set of formulas shown above.
Ferrari's solution in the special case of real coefficients
If the coefficients of the quartic equation are real then the nested depressed cubic equation () also has real coefficients, thus it has at least one real root.
Furthermore the cubic function
where P and Q are given by () has the properties that
and
where α and β are given by ().
This means that () has a real root greater than ,
and therefore that () has a real root greater than .
Using this root the term in () is always real,
which ensures that the two quadratic equations () have real coefficients.
Obtaining alternative solutions the hard way
It could happen that one only obtained one solution through the formulae above, because not all four sign patterns are tried for four solutions, and the solution obtained is complex. It may also be the case that one is only looking for a real solution. Let x1 denote the complex solution. If all the original coefficients A, B, C, D and E are real—which should be the case when one desires only real solutions – then there is another complex solution x2 which is the complex conjugate of x1. If the other two roots are denoted as x3 and x4 then the quartic equation can be expressed as
but this quartic equation is equivalent to the product of two quadratic equations:
and
Since
then
Let
so that equation () becomes
Also let there be (unknown) variables w and v such that equation () becomes
Multiplying equations () and () produces
Comparing equation () to the original quartic equation, it can be seen that
and
Therefore
Equation () can be solved for x yielding
One of these two solutions should be the desired real solution.
Alternative methods
Quick and memorable solution from first principles
Most textbook solutions of the quartic equation require a magic substitution that is almost impossible to memorize. Here is a way to approach it that makes it easy to understand.
The job is done if we can factor the quartic equation into a product of two quadratics. Let
By equating coefficients, this results in the following set of simultaneous equations:
This is harder to solve than it looks, but if we start again with a depressed quartic where , which can be obtained by substituting for , then , and:
It's now easy to eliminate both and by doing the following:
If we set , then this equation turns into the cubic equation:
which is solved elsewhere. Once you have , then:
The symmetries in this solution are easy to see. There are three roots of the cubic, corresponding to the three ways that a quartic can be factored into two quadratics, and choosing positive or negative values of for the square root of merely exchanges the two quadratics with one another.
Galois theory and factorization
The symmetric group S4 on four elements has the Klein four-group as a normal subgroup. This suggests using a resolvent whose roots may be variously described as a discrete Fourier transform or a Hadamard matrix transform of the roots.
Suppose ri for i from 0 to 3 are roots of
If we now set
then since the transformation is an involution, we may express the roots in terms of the four si in exactly the same way. Since we know the value s0 = −b/2, we really only need the values for s1, s2 and s3. These we may find by expanding the polynomial
which if we make the simplifying assumption that b = 0, is equal to
This polynomial is of degree six, but only of degree three in z2, and so the corresponding equation is solvable. By trial we can determine which three roots are the correct ones, and hence find the solutions of the quartic.
We can remove any requirement for trial by using a root of the same resolvent polynomial for factoring; if w is any root of (3), and if
then
We therefore can solve the quartic by solving for w and then solving for the roots of the two factors using the quadratic formula.
See also
Linear equation
Quadratic equation
Cubic equation
Quintic equation
Polynomial
Newton's method
References
Ferrari's achievement
Notes
External links
Calculator for solving Quartics (also solves Cubics and Quadratics)
Elementary algebra
Equations
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251592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges%20Pompidou | Georges Pompidou | Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou ( , ; 5 July 19112 April 1974) was a French politician who served as President of France from 1969 until his death in 1974. He previously was Prime Minister of France from 1962 to 1968—the longest tenure in the position's history. He had long been a top aide to President Charles de Gaulle.
Pompidou was elected President of France in 1969. As head of state, he was a moderate conservative who repaired France's relationship with the United States and maintained positive relations with the newly independent former colonies in Africa. He strengthened his political party, the Union of Democrats for the Republic ("Union des démocrates pour la République" or UDR), to make it a bastion of the Gaullist movement. Pompidou died in office in 1974. His presidency is generally held in high esteem by French political commentators.
Biography
The family of Georges Pompidou was of very modest origins: he was the grandson of farmers of modest means in Cantal on both his father's and his mother's side. His parents were teachers. Thus his case is often cited as a typical example of social mobility in the Third Republic, thanks to public schooling.
Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou was born on 5 July 1911 in the commune of Montboudif, in the department of Cantal in central France. After his khâgne at Lycée Louis-le-Grand, where he befriended future Senegalese poet and statesman Léopold Sédar Senghor, he attended the École Normale Supérieure, from which he graduated with a degree of agrégation in literature.
He first taught literature at the lycée Henri IV in Paris until hired in 1953 by Guy de Rothschild to work at Rothschild. In 1956, he was appointed the bank's general manager, a position he held until 1962. Later, he was hired by Charles de Gaulle to manage the Anne de Gaulle Foundation for Down syndrome (de Gaulle's youngest daughter Anne had Down syndrome).
Prime Minister
Jacques Chirac served as an aide to Prime Minister Pompidou and recalled:
{{quote|The man gave the appearance of being secretive, wily, a little cunning – which he was, to a degree. However, it was primarily his intelligence, culture, and competence that conferred indisputable authority on him and commanded respect.... I remember his untamed eyebrows, his penetrating, very kindly gaze, his perceptive smile, full of humour and mischievousness, his voice with its wonderful low, warm, gravelly tone, and a figure that was both powerful and elegant. Naturally reserved, little given to emotional outbursts, Pompidou did not forge very close ties with his colleagues.<ref>Jacques Chirac, M Life and Politics" (2011) p 24</ref>}}
He served as prime minister of France under de Gaulle after Michel Debré resigned, from 14 April 1962 to 10 July 1968, and to this day is the longest serving French prime minister under the Fifth Republic. His nomination was controversial because he was not a member of the National Assembly. In October 1962, he was defeated in a vote of no-confidence, but de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly. The Gaullists won the legislative election and Pompidou was reappointed as Prime Minister. In 1964, he was faced with a miners' strike. He led the 1967 legislative campaign of the Union of Democrats for the Fifth Republic to a narrow victory. Pompidou was widely regarded as being responsible for the peaceful resolution of the student uprising of May 1968. His strategy was to break the coalition of students and workers by negotiating with the trade-unions and employers (Grenelle conference).
However, during the events of May 1968, disagreements arose between Pompidou and de Gaulle. Pompidou did not understand why the President did not inform him of his departure to Baden-Baden on 29 May. Their relationship, until then very good, would be strained from then on. Pompidou led and won the 1968 legislative campaign, overseeing a tremendous victory of the Gaullist Party. He then resigned. Nevertheless, in part due to his actions during the May 1968 crisis, he appeared as the natural successor to de Gaulle. Pompidou announced his candidature for the Presidency in January 1969. Some weeks later, his wife's name was mentioned in the Marković affair, thus appearing to confirm her husband's status as a cuckold. Pompidou was certain that de Gaulle's inner circle was responsible for this smear.
In social policy, Pompidou's tenure as prime minister witnessed the establishment of the National Employment Fund in 1963 to counter the negative effects on employment caused by industrial restructuring.
Presidency
After the failure of the 1969 constitutional referendum, de Gaulle resigned and Pompidou was elected president of France. In the general election of 15 June 1969, he defeated the centrist President of the Senate and Acting President Alain Poher by a wide margin (57%–42%). Though a Gaullist, Pompidou was more pragmatic than de Gaulle, notably facilitating the accession of the United Kingdom to the European Community on 1 January 1973. He embarked on an industrialisation plan and initiated the Arianespace project, as well as the TGV project, and furthered the French civilian nuclear programme. He was sceptical about the "New Society" programme of his prime minister, Jacques Chaban-Delmas. In 1972, he replaced Chaban-Delmas with Pierre Messmer, a more conservative Gaullist. While the left-wing opposition organised itself and proposed a Common Programme before the 1973 legislative election, Pompidou widened his presidential majority by including Centrist pro-European parties. In addition, he paid special attention to regional and local needs in order to strengthen his political party, the UDR (Union des Democrates pour la Ve République), which he made a central and lasting force in the Gaullist movement.
Foreign affairs
The United States was eager to restore positive relations with France after de Gaulle's departure from office. New US President Richard Nixon and his top adviser Henry Kissinger admired Pompidou; the politicians were in agreement on most major policy issues. The United States offered to help the French nuclear programme. Economic difficulties, however, arose following the Nixon Shock and the 1973–75 recession, particularly over the role of the American dollar as the medium for world trade.
Pompidou sought to maintain good relations with the newly independent former French colonies in Africa. In 1971, he visited Mauritania, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, and Gabon. He brought a message of cooperation and financial assistance, but without the traditional paternalism.
More broadly, he made an effort to foster closer relations with North African and Middle Eastern countries in order to develop a hinterland including all nations bordering the Mediterranean.
Modernising Paris
Pompidou's time in office was marked by constant efforts to modernise France's capital city. He spearheaded construction of a modern art museum, the Centre Beaubourg (renamed Centre Pompidou after his death), on the edge of the Marais area of Paris. Other attempts at modernisation included tearing down the open air markets at Les Halles and replacing them with the shopping mall of the same name, building the Montparnasse Tower, and constructing an expressway on the right bank of the Seine.
Death in office
While still in office, Pompidou died on 2 April 1974, at 9 PM, while in his apartment, from Waldenström macroglobulinemia. His body was buried on 4 April, in the churchyard of Orvilliers, where he had bought an old baker's house which he turned into a weekend home. The official memorial service for him was held at Notre-Dame de Paris with 3000 dignitaries in attendance (including 28 heads of state and representatives from 82 countries).
Attendees included :
Secretary General Kurt Waldheim
Director General René Maheu
President of the European Commission Jean Rey
Secretary General Joseph Luns
(Interim) President Alain Poher
President Richard Nixon
Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau
Prime Minister Harold Wilson and predecessor Edward Heath
Chancellor Willy Brandt
President Manfred Gerlach
Chancellor Bruno Kreisky
President Hans-Peter Tschudi
King Hassan II
King Baudouin
Queen Juliana
Emperor Haile Selassie
President Habib Bourguiba
President Giovanni Leone
Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit
President Urho Kekkonen
President Nikolai Podgorny
Prime Minister Petar Stambolić
President Gustáv Husák
Prime Minister Poul Hartling
Prime Minister Olof Palme
President of Portugal Americo Tomas
Crown Prince Juan Carlos I of Spain
Prince Rainier III
Grand Duke Jean
Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka
Prime Minister Kim Jong-pil
Foreign Minister Nguyễn Duy Trinh
President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu
A controversy arose surrounding the secrecy kept over Pompidou's illness, and the political class "agreed" that future presidents of the Republic will have to provide reports on the state of their health. However, President François Mitterrand, who had pledged during his 1981 campaign to publish regular health bulletins, would also conceal, after his accession to power, the severity of the cancer from which he was suffering.
Pompidou's wife Claude Pompidou would outlive him by more than thirty years. The couple had one (adopted) son, Alain Pompidou, who went on to serve as president of the European Patent Office.
France withdrew from the Eurovision Song Contest 1974, which took place just four days after Pompidou's death, as a mark of respect.
Works
Anthologie de la Poésie Française, Livre de Poche/Hachette, 1961
Le Nœud gordien, éd. Plon, 1974
Entretiens et discours, deux vol., éd. Plon, 1975
Pour rétablir une vérité, éd. Flammarion, 1982
Medal
Legion of Honour :
Chevalier de la Legion of Honour : (France) (1948);
Officier de la Legion of Honour : (France) (1957);
Grand-croix de la Legion of Honour : 1969, grand-maître de l'ordre (France) (1969-1974, as president of the republic);
Grand-croix de l'Ordre national du Mérite (France);
Grand Cross of Order of St. Olav (Norway) (1962);
Grand Cordon of Order of Leopold (Belgium).
Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (United Kingdom) (1972)
Knight Grand Cross with Collar of Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1973).
See also
Centre Georges Pompidou
Lycée Français International Georges Pompidou - A French school in Dubai and Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
References
Further reading
Bell, David et al. eds. Biographical Dictionary of French Political Leaders Since 1870 (1990) pp 346–349.
Bell, David. Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France (2000) pp 105–26.
Demossier, Marion, et al., eds. The Routledge Handbook of French Politics and Culture'' (Routledge, 2019).
Offices and titles
1911 births
1974 deaths
20th-century presidents of France
20th-century Princes of Andorra
Deaths from cancer in France
Deaths from lymphoma
École Normale Supérieure alumni
Gaullism
French Army personnel of World War II
French Roman Catholics
Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni
People from Cantal
People of the Cold War
Princes of Andorra
Sciences Po alumni
Lycée Henri-IV teachers
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
French Army officers | [
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251598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waikato | Waikato | The Waikato ( or ) is a local government region of the upper North Island of New Zealand. It covers the Waikato District, Waipa District, Matamata-Piako District, South Waikato District and Hamilton City, as well as Hauraki, Coromandel Peninsula, the northern King Country, much of the Taupō District, and parts of Rotorua District. It is governed by the Waikato Regional Council.
The region stretches from Coromandel Peninsula in the north, to the north-eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu in the south, and spans the North Island from the west coast, through the Waikato and Hauraki to Coromandel Peninsula on the east coast. Broadly, the extent of the region is the Waikato River catchment. Other major catchments are those of the Waihou, Piako, Awakino and Mokau rivers. The region is bounded by Auckland on the north, Bay of Plenty on the east, Hawke's Bay on the south-east, and Manawatū-Whanganui and Taranaki on the south. Waikato Region is the fourth largest region in the country in area and population: It has a land area of and a population of
The region encompasses all or part of eleven territorial authorities, the most of any region of New Zealand. It is centred on the Waikato which consists of Waikato District, Matamata-Piako District, Waipa District, South Waikato District and Hamilton City. In descending order of land area the eleven territorial authorities are Taupō District (part), Waikato District, Waitomo District (part), Thames-Coromandel District, Ōtorohanga District, South Waikato District, Matamata-Piako District, Waipa District, Hauraki District, Rotorua District (part), and Hamilton City.
The name for the region is taken from the Waikato River; waikato is a Māori word traditionally translated as "flowing water" (specifically, wai = "water" and kato = "the pull of the river current in the sea").
When Waikato is used in spoken language it takes the definite article: the Waikato. But this usually refers to a smaller region than the Waikato local government region. Two definitions that would meet with wide acceptance are those of the Waikato rugby football union and of Hamilton Waikato tourism. The former takes in the local government areas of Hamilton City, the southern part of Waikato district, Waipa district, most of Matamata-Piako district and the South Waikato district. Hamilton Waikato tourism takes in additionally the northern part of Waikato district (Tuakau and other centres), the northern King Country (Waitomo and Ōtorohanga districts), and the Te Aroha district.
The parts of Waikato region beyond these limits are usually identified as Thames Valley and/or Hauraki/Coromandel (for the north-eastern part of Waikato region) and Taupō, on the Volcanic or Central Plateau (for the south-eastern part of the region).
Geography
To the west, the region is bounded by the Tasman Sea. The coastal region is largely rough hill country, known locally as the Hakarimata Range, though it is more gently undulating in the north, closer to the mouth of the Waikato River. The coast is punctured by three large natural harbours: Raglan Harbour, Aotea Harbour, and Kawhia Harbour. The area around Raglan is noted for its volcanic black sand beaches and for its fine surfing conditions at Manu Bay and Ruapuke beach.
To the east of the coastal hills lies the broad alluvial plain of the Waikato River. This region has a wet temperate climate, and the land is largely pastoral farmland created by European settlers draining the extensive natural swamps, although it also contains undrained peat swamp such as the peat dome south of Ngatea. It is in the broad undulating Waikato Plains that most of the region's population resides, and the land is intensively farmed with both livestock, mainly dairy cattle but with sheep farming on the hillier west margins, and crops such as maize. The area around Cambridge has many thoroughbred stables.
The north of the region around Te Kauwhata produces some of New Zealand's best wines. Dozens of small shallow lakes lie in this area, the largest of which is Lake Waikare.
To the east, the land rises towards the forested slopes of the Kaimai and Mamaku Ranges. The upper reaches of the Waikato River are used for hydroelectricity, helped by several large artificial lakes in the region's south-east. The lowest and earliest-created such lake is Lake Karapiro, now developed as a world-class rowing centre, where the world championships were held in 2010. The river flows out of the country's largest lake, Lake Taupō, which is served by several important fishing rivers such as the Tongariro, on the Central Plateau, draining the eastern side of Mount Ruapehu and its neighbours.
The climate is mild and temperate with moderate rainfall of 1200–1600mm per annum, with the higher western hills having the most rain. Summers are drier with typical maximum temperatures of 22–28 degrees Celsius and overnight lows of 12-16 degrees. Summer droughts occur one year in ten. Typical winter maxima are 10–16 degrees Celsius, with lows generally ranging from 0-8 degrees. Depressions experience regular morning fog, under anticyclonic conditions, which burns off by late morning to produce many still, clear sunny days. Morning frosts are also common during winter anticyclones. Another distinctive feature is the low average wind speed in the interior basin due to the sheltering influence of the hills and mountains to the west and south-west. The prevailing winter wind is from the south-west. The Waikato has very high sunshine hours by world standards, averaging 2200 hours per year or about 40% higher than in the UK. This results in rapid growth of grass, crops and ornamental plants.
Demographics
Waikato Region covers and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km2.
Waikato Region had a population of 458,202 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 54,561 people (13.5%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 77,379 people (20.3%) since the 2006 census. There were 162,927 households. There were 226,386 males and 231,816 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.98 males per female. The median age was 37.4 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 96,765 people (21.1%) aged under 15 years, 90,342 (19.7%) aged 15 to 29, 198,063 (43.2%) aged 30 to 64, and 73,032 (15.9%) aged 65 or older.
Ethnicities were 74.4% European/Pākehā, 23.9% Māori, 4.5% Pacific peoples, 9.5% Asian, and 2.3% other ethnicities (totals add to more than 100% since people could identify with multiple ethnicities).
The proportion of people born overseas was 19.5%, compared with 27.1% nationally.
Although some people objected to giving their religion, 50.6% had no religion, 34.8% were Christian, 1.7% were Hindu, 0.9% were Muslim, 0.8% were Buddhist and 4.1% had other religions.
Of those at least 15 years old, 67,560 (18.7%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 71,901 (19.9%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $30,400, compared with $31,800 nationally. 55,953 people (15.5%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 176,901 (48.9%) people were employed full-time, 53,970 (14.9%) were part-time, and 15,660 (4.3%) were unemployed.
Cities and towns
The largest city in the Waikato Region is Hamilton, with an urban population of . It is home to the University of Waikato and the Waikato Institute of Technology (Wintec).
Other major towns in the region are Tokoroa, Te Awamutu, Cambridge and Taupō with respective populations of , , and . (These populations include the urban and peri-urban areas). The region also includes the smaller towns of Huntly, Matamata, Morrinsville, Ngāruawāhia, Otorohanga, Paeroa, Putaruru, Raglan, Te Aroha, Te Kauwhata, Te Kuiti, Thames, Tīrau, Tuakau, Turangi, Whangamatā and Whitianga.
Economy
The subnational gross domestic product (GDP) of the Waikato region was estimated at NZ$25.84 billion in the year to March 2019, 8.5% of New Zealand's national GDP. The subnational GDP per capita was estimated at $54,128 in the same period. In the year to March 2018, primary industries contributed $3.14 billion (13.0%) to the regional GDP, goods-producing industries contributed $5.70 billion (23.5%), service industries contributed $13.35 billion (55.0%), and taxes and duties contributed $2.08 billion (8.6%).
Between 2000 and 2004, Waikato economic growth was lower than the national average. But from 2004 to 2007, real gross regional product for the Waikato Region increased by 5 per cent per year compared with 3.2 per cent for the national average. This faster growth can be attributed to rapidly growing dairy and business services industries, facilitated by proximity to the Auckland city, the main international gateway for New Zealand.
Agriculture
Given the suitable geography and climate, the Waikato economy is strongly based on agriculture, especially dairy. Dairy farming has been the main agricultural activity since the late nineteenth century. Within the Waikato region, small co-operative dairy companies were widespread during the 20th century. Towards the end of the 20th century, frequent mergers of co-operative dairy companies occurred, which ultimately ended in the formation of New Zealand wide dairy co-operative Fonterra in 2001. In 2007, dairy farming and dairy processing combined contributed $2 billion (13%) to GRP, which had risen to $2.4bn by 2014, but only 13,683 (7.6%) of jobs in 2016.
Dairy farms are mainly family owned (2,608 of 4,020 farms in 2016) with owners employing sharemilkers in many cases (1,412 sharemilkers). The size of the average dairy herd in the Waikato has progressively increased. It was about 320 cows in 2012 and in 2016 was about 351 (total Waikato herd 1.41m cows), milked in either a herringbone or automated rotary cowshed so a large herd can be milked in under two hours. The cows are kept on grassland pasture all year due to the mild climate. In the Waikato the original English grasses used by earlier settlers – browntop, fescue and Yorkshire Fog – have been replaced with higher producing Italian ryegrass and nitrogen-fixing white clover. Farmers use a variety of supplementary feeds in winter or during the infrequent summer droughts. Main feeds are hay, grass silage and chopped corn feed. The later is often fed out on a concrete pad to save transportation and wastage by trampling.
Manufacturing
The manufacturing sector in Waikato contributed $2,688 million in GDP in the year to March 2018, 11.1% of the regional GDP. According to the 2013 New Zealand census, the sector employed 18,519 people, or 9.9% of the region's employed population.
With a large dairy farming industry, the Waikato also has a large dairy processing industry. Fonterra operates dairy processing plants at Te Rapa, Te Awamutu, Hautapu, Waitoa, Tirau and Lichfield. Other dairy processing plants include Tatua Dairy Company's plant at Tatuanui, and Open Country Dairy's plant at Horotiu and Waharoa.
The Waikato region has eight major freezing works: AFFCO at Horotiu, Greenlea at Hamilton and Morrinsville, Silver Fern Farms at Te Aroha and Waitoa, Te Kuiti Meat Processors and Universal Beef Packers at Te Kuiti, and Crusader Meats at Benneydale.
The Kinleith Mill south of Tokoroa processes wood from the surrounding forests into pulp and paper.
History
Before the arrival of Europeans, the Waikato contained the third most densely populated part of New Zealand, after Northland/Auckland and the Bay of Plenty. The Waikato rohe (area) was inhabited by iwi (tribes) such as those of the Tainui confederation, including Waikato and Ngāti Toa who conquered the native inhabitants about 1450 according to Tainui historians, finally destroying them at a battle at Aratiatia. Between about 1750 and 1842 the area was subject to a large number of invasions by other Māori iwi and hapu confederations and large scale population migrations took place by a number of hapu and iwi. The largest battle ever fought in New Zealand took place near Ohaupo about 1790–1805, between two competing alliances of hapu. During the latter stages of this volatile period, known as the Musket Wars (1807–1845), conflict led to a migration south to Taranaki and eventually Kapiti Island.
In 1840 44 Waikato chiefs travelled north to the Manukau Heads and Manukau Harbour to sign the Treaty of Waitangi, officially making the Waikato area part of New Zealand. Three Ngati Maniapoto chiefs signed, as did three Ngati Haua chiefs but most signatories were Waikato. Chief Te Whero whero did not sign, "probably due to the lack of dignity compared to the Waitangi event". Unusually, the copy signed was in English. Between 1840 and 1860 the CMS missionaries of the Anglican church assisted Waikato Maori in revolutionizing their economy in the Kihikihi area by the introduction of such crops as peaches, maize and wheat.
Missionaries brought in millers and helped Maori establish eight flour mills. These flourished until 1857, as they provided flour for the growing Auckland market in the 1850s and for a brief while were exporting to Australia. There were mills at Aotea, Kaitotehe, Karakariki, Kihikihi, Kirikiriroa, Kohanga, Kopatauaki, Mahoe, Mangaharakeke, Mangapapa, Mangarewarewa, Mangatawhiri, Matamata pā, Maungakawa, Maungatautari, Mohoaonui, Otawhao, Patetere, Rangataiki, Rangiaowhia, Taupō, Te Kopua, Te Rore, Tireke, Tuakau, Waitetuna, Whaingaroa and Whatawhata.
The route used to travel to and from Auckland was by dray to the Puniu stream, along the Waipa River to its junction with the Waikato. Near the Waikato Heads travellers entered the small Awaroa River. During summer it was necessary to push or pull the waka through to the Manukau Harbour at Waiuku. By the 1850s a small bullock track had been established to Auckland via the settlements of Mauku, Drury, Papakura and Otahuhu, or waka could take the sea route across the Manukau to Ihumatao (where Auckland International Airport is now). The main tribe to use this route and the main traders were the Maniapoto tribe. They occupied an area of fertile land south of Te Awamutu at Kihikihi and Rangiaowhia. Maniapoto sold wheat, peaches, potatoes and other food to Auckland and bought back shirts, sugar, tobacco and rum. The boom time ended in 1856–1857 with the end of the Australian gold rush, allowing importing of cheaper food, especially flour, from Australia. Even in the boom time of 1854–55, food grown by Waikato Maori, such as Ngati Maniapoto, was taken to the Auckland market in very small amounts compared to food from the Waiheke Island -Thames area. In early 1855 Ngati Maniapoto took only 3 canoes of potatoes to Auckland compared to 279 canoes containing a much wider variety of food from the Thames area. Missionaries had also established schools for Maori. Benjamin and Harriet Ashwell ran a school for 50 Maori girls aged 6–17 at Taupiri in 1853. The girls had been at the school for up to 3 years and could read and write in English and do mental arithmetic.
At the time of the Waikato campaign of 1863 against the rebel Māori King Movement forces, the population was estimated by the government at about 3,500 Māori.
During the late 1850s Maniapoto in particular become disgruntled in their dealings with Pakeha. They complained about the way they were treated in Auckland by traders but their chief complaint was that the government was underpaying them for land they were selling. The average price paid by government was 6d per acre but it was sold to settlers for 10/- per acre. The government argued that it had to pay for surveying and administration costs but to Maori it seemed unfair. Before the elevation of the first Maori king there was a wide range of opinions among influential Maori with some such as Wirimu Tamihana's father advocating supporting the Crown while Te Heuheu of Tuwharetoa advocated all out war against the government. This view was initially unpopular as the king movement hoped to work alongside the crown. Maori were upset at the number of children that had been fathered by Pakeha, who had then disappeared. The children were left to be raised by their mothers with general hapu support. John Gorst, a well-educated government agent, reported significant numbers of half-caste children in the Waikato in the late 1850s. However, in the Ngati Maniapoto iwi at least 7 Pakeha integrated successfully with the tribe from 1842, marrying Maori women. The best known are William Searancke, who became an important government agent, and Frenchman Louis Hetet, who became a successful trader. Their half-caste children lived with the iwi, and some became leading figures.
What tipped the balance was conflict and criminal activity within the Waikato region. Influential chiefs said the treaty had promised the government would help maintain peace. They asked for government magistrates and courts. The government attempted to fulfill these requests but many of the young men who put themselves forward for the positions simply saw that they had an opportunity to get wealthy at the government's expense. This upset the older chiefs, who wanted the strong Maori leader Te Wherowhero to return from Mangere to his lands at Tamahere (South Hamilton) to rein in the out-of-control young chief magistrates.
The Waikato has a prominent history, particularly regarding relationships between Māori and European in early colonial New Zealand. The Waikato was within the defined boundaries of the colonial provinces of New Ulster (1841–1853) and Auckland (1853–1876) but was principally Māori. During the land wars of the 1860s, the Waikato was the scene of five battles in what is referred to as the Invasion of the Waikato. In retaliation for the help Waikato Māori (mainly Ngāti Maniapoto) gave Taranaki Māori in their conflict over land in the earlier First Taranaki War, and the decision by some Waikato hapu to form a separate kingdom – the King Movement or Kingitanga – in opposition to the government, the colonial government, with the help of troops brought from Britain and Queenite Māori loyal to the Crown, pushed south from the main settlement of Auckland, fighting against Waikato raiders in Auckland before venturing into the Waikato to attack the combined hapu of the King Movement. During 1863 and 1864 fighting occurred at Pukekohe East, Titi hill, Burtts Farm, Galloway Redoubt, Kiri Kiri, Martyn's Farm, Patumahoe, Rhodes Clearing, Williamson's Clearing, Otau, Camerontown, Kakaramea and Wairoa ranges (all Auckland), Meremere, Rangiriri, Ngāruawāhia, Rangiaowhia (southwest of Cambridge), Hairini Ridge and Ōrākau (near Kihikihi), all resulting in defeat for the Kingitanga forces. Eventually the rebel King Movement forces pulled back to positions in the area to the south of the Punui River in South Waikato, still known as the King Country, after 19 defeats by the British. Rewi's Last Stand, one of New Zealand's first motion pictures, in 1925, portrayed an entertaining, fictionalized version of the Ōrākau siege.
The headquarters of the Māori King Movement are now at Turangawaewae Marae at Ngāruawāhia.
After the end of the war and the withdrawal of British and Australian troops, the region experienced a long period of economic recession after 1866. Most Maori had moved to the King Country and European settlers were more attracted to the South Island with its large gold discovery in Otago and the more easily farmed Canterbury Plains. The Waikato had poor land access and was not suitable for sheep farming which dominated livestock production in New Zealand until the 1890s invention of refrigeration. Dairying and the completion of the main trunk railway line at the turn of the century lead to a small, steady increase in population. After 1900, dairy production in the Waikato continued to grow, exporting butter and cheese mainly to Britain.
Local government history
Following major floods in 1907, a Waikato River Board was formed in 1911. However, it was reported as ineffective in 1921 and ceased to operate, though the need for a replacement was considered in 1933.
Hauraki Catchment Board was set up in 1946.
Major floods also occurred in 1953 and 1956. Waikato Valley Authority was established by the Waikato Valley Authority Act on 26 October 1956. The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 extended it to become a Catchment/Regional Water Board. The Ministry of Works and Development Abolition Act 1988, left WVA with that work and it became the Waikato Catchment Board.
The Waikato United Council, was formulated under the Local Government Act 1974, but due to objections excluded Thames/Coromandel district, though otherwise covered the present extent of the region. It was set up under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 and the Waikato Region Constitution Order 1980. WUC covered Hamilton City, Huntly, Ngāruawāhia, Cambridge, Te Awamutu, Matamata, Putaruru and Tokoroa boroughs, Matamata, Raglan, Waikato, and Waipa counties, Ōtorohanga and Waitomo districts. It took over the Hamilton Regional Planning Authority and mainly dealt with regional planning and civil defence. By 1989, WUC had committees for regional planning, civil defence, regional government, and the Waikato Regional Development Board. From 1987 it also included Thames-Coromandel District, Great Barrier Island, Hauraki Plains, Ohinemuri and Piako counties, and Morrinsville, Paeroa, Te Aroha and Waihi boroughs.
On 1 November 1989, Waikato Regional Council was established by the Local Government (Waikato Region) Reorganisation Order 1989. from 40 former authorities:- 2 catchment boards (Hauraki and Waikato), 3 united councils (Waikato, Thames Valley and part of Tongariro), 12 noxious plants authorities, 11 pest destruction boards and 12 drainage boards. The Land Transport Act 1998 added transport to WRC's responsibilities. From 1 November 2010 Environment Waikato took over the southern parts of Franklin District. That seems to be the only legislation naming it 'Environment Waikato', which had been its operating name until 2011, shortly after the 'Rates Control Team' won about half the seats in the 2010 election.
Politics
In the 2010 local government elections, the Waikato Region had the country's lowest rate of returned votes. Since then the percentage turnout has declined further -
People
The people of the Waikato use the nickname Mooloo to apply to themselves or to their region, particularly in relation to sporting endeavours. The word was likely first applied to the Waikato provincial rugby team. Its origin is related to the mascot of a pantomime-like milking cow used in parades, public events and sports matches — particularly rugby, reflecting the importance of the dairy industry to the region. Waikato hosts the Chiefs Super Rugby team and Waikato Mitre 10 Cup rugby team at Waikato Stadium and the Northern Districts Knights in domestic cricket at Seddon Park, both in Hamilton.
Notable people
Jim Bolger — former Prime Minister of New Zealand
Roy Calvert — WWII pilot
Helen Clark — former Prime Minister of New Zealand
Don Clarke — rugby international
The Datsuns — rock band
Tim and Neil Finn — songwriters and musicians (Split Enz, Crowded House)
Rob Hamill — champion rower and author.
Te Puea Herangi — Māori princess and leader
Rangimarie Hetet — of Oparure Marae. Died aged 103 years; regarded as living treasure of Māori handcrafts, with honorary degrees.
Kimbra — notable New Zealand singer-songwriter/guitarist
Dame Malvina Major — acclaimed international singer
Bruce McLaren — motor racing driver and team founder
Colin Meads — rugby international
Anjali Thakker — New Zealand ice and inline hockey player
Tawera Nikau — rugby league footballer and sports broadcaster
Tuheitia Paki — Māori King 2006–present
Simon Poelman — New Zealand decathlete
Eva Rickard — of Tainui descent; leader and defender of Māori land rights
Hilda Ross — humanitarian, first woman elected to the Hamilton Borough Council, MP
Frank Sargeson — celebrated NZ writer.
Maurice Shadbolt — celebrated New Zealand writer
Peter Snell, gold medal-winning distance runner at the 1960 Summer Olympics and the 1964 Olympics
Te Atairangikaahu — Māori Queen 1966-2006
Te Rauparaha — Māori chieftain and warrior
Wiremu Tamihana Tarapipipi Te Waharoa — Māori King kingmaker
Dame Catherine Tizard (née Mclean) — former Mayor of Auckland and first woman Governor-General of New Zealand
Mark Todd — Olympic equestrian, "Horseman of the Century"
Jools and Lynda Topp — comedy duo
Daniel Vettori — former New Zealand cricket captain
Morgan Harper NRL player
References
External links
Waikato Regional Council
Hamilton & Waikato Tourism
Te Ara Waikato region | [
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251600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waikato%20River | Waikato River | The Waikato River is the longest river in New Zealand, running for through the North Island. It rises in the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu, joining the Tongariro River system and flowing through Lake Taupō, New Zealand's largest lake. It then drains Taupō at the lake's northeastern edge, creates the Huka Falls, and flows northwest through the Waikato Plains. It empties into the Tasman Sea south of Auckland, at Port Waikato. It gives its name to the Waikato region that surrounds the Waikato Plains. The present course of the river was largely formed about 17,000 years ago. Contributing factors were climate warming, forest being reestablished in the river headwaters and the deepening, rather than widening, of the existing river channel. The channel was gradually eroded as far up river as Piarere, leaving the old Hinuera channel through the Hinuera Gap high and dry. The remains of the old river path can be clearly seen at Hinuera where the cliffs mark the ancient river edges. The river's main tributary is the Waipa River, which has its confluence with the Waikato at Ngāruawāhia.
The name Waikato comes from the Māori language and translates as flowing water. The Waikato River has spiritual meaning for various local Māori tribes, including the large Tainui, who regard it as a source of their mana, or pride. The widely respected marae of Tūrangawaewae is close to its banks at Ngāruawāhia.
For many years Tainui tribe have sought to re-establish their links to the river after the New Zealand Wars (see Invasion of the Waikato) and the subsequent confiscations of the 1860s, and are continuing negotiations with the New Zealand government. The Tainui iwi was advised not to bring a case for the river before the Waitangi Tribunal as they would not win. An out of court settlement was arranged and the deed of settlement signed by the Crown and Waikato-Tainui in August 2008 settled the raupatu claim to the Waikato River, although other claims for land blocks and harbours are still outstanding. Waikato-Tainui now have joint management of the river with the Waikato Regional Council.
Origin
The ancestral Waikato River flowed from an ancient lake (Lake Huka) in the centre of the North Island through deep gorges of welded ignimbrite and rhyolite, northward through the Hinuera Valley and Hauraki Basin into the Thames Estuary. It is possible that the river flowed through the Waikato Basin about a million years ago before returning to its Hinuera course. After the huge Oruanui eruption 27,000 years ago ignimbrite was showered all over the North Island to a thickness of . A new lake was formed - Lake Taupō. The water built up until a new outlet was forced above the present level near Waihora Bay. Over the next few thousand years the bed of the river was raised by large amounts of eruption debris. Then the original blocked entry suddenly gave way; the lake level fell as about of water and debris poured out in a catastrophic breakthrough flood causing the river to change course near Piarere. The Hinuera Gap and Waitoa River are evidence of the river's former course. The water level dropped quickly and the river stayed in this new course through the Maungatautari gorge and Hamilton Basin. Deposits show that the Waikato River was already in the Waikato Basin 21,800 years ago.
Course
The river starts in the form of many small streams on the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu. The Mangatoetoenui Glacier (once also called the Waikato Glacier) is one of the principal sources. The southernmost tributary is called the Upper Waikato Stream. The Waipakihi River joins the Waikato from the Kaimanawa Mountains to the west. From the point where the river meets the Waihohonu Stream, down to Lake Taupō, it has been formally named the Tongariro River since 1945.
The Poutu Stream joins from Lake Rotoaira to the east, as a tributary of the Tongariro, which flows northward, with State Highway 1 in parallel, through the town of Tūrangi, and into the southern side of Lake Taupō. Extensive engineering of lakes, tunnels and canals are used to generate hydroelectric power in the Tongariro Power Scheme.
The Waikato River flows out of Lake Taupō at the town of Taupō in Tapuaeharuru Bay at the northeast end of the lake. It flows northeast past the town, alongside State Highway 1, to the Huka Falls. State Highway 5 runs more or less parallel to the river as it flows further northeast. About from the lake, the river flows west and into the southern end of Lake Ohakuri. It exits from the northwest end of that lake and flows west through the small Lake Atiamuri and into the long east–west oriented Lake Whakamaru, with State Highway 30 following its course. It passes northwest through Lake Maraetai and Lake Waipapa, where it is joined by the Waipapa River, then north through Lake Arapuni and into Lake Karapiro. Pokaiwhenua Stream joins the river in Lake Karapiro. Nine hydroelectric power stations at eight dams extract energy from the river between Taupō and Karapiro. All the lakes in this stretch of the river (apart from Lake Taupō) are artificial.
The river leaves the Volcanic Plateau at Karapiro, where it emerges from the Maungatautari Gorge, and flows northwest into the Waikato Basin, flowing through the towns of Cambridge, Hamilton, and Ngāruawāhia. It is joined by its largest tributary, the Waipa River, at Ngāruawāhia. It then flows north through the Taupiri Gorge to enter the lower Waikato region. Further north is Huntly and then Meremere, where the Whangamarino and Maramarua Rivers join it. From Mercer, where the Mangatawhiri River joins it, the Waikato flows west and southwest. Just before its mouth at Port Waikato, the Araroa River joins from the north. Numerous small islands lie in the long, thin delta of the river as it passes through low-lying swampy land between Meremere and the coast, the largest of which is Motutieke Island.
There are also over 40 islands between Ngāruawāhia and Tuakau, depending on the level of the river. Maurea Islands, just south of Rangiriri were subject to a restoration trial to test comparative weed treatments, the main weeds being alder and yellow flag iris.
In prehistoric times, the Waikato's course has occasionally shifted to flow north through the Hinuera Gap into the Firth of Thames and from there into the Hauraki Gulf / Tīkapa Moana. The most recent occasion this is known to have occurred ended some 20,000 years ago, although it is possible that it also flowed north more recently, until about 1800 years ago. A remnant of this former course can be seen as a spur on Lake Karapiro to the south of the settlement of Piarere. The river's current course is largely the result of the massive Hatepe (Taupō) volcanic eruption of 180 AD.
The mean discharge of the Waikato River is , with the highest flows typically occurring in July and August. Specific mean annual floods are low (60–70 L s-1 km-2), and the frequency of events with greater than 3 times the median flow is 0.4 events / year, due to flow regulation and groundwater storage in pumice.
Human use
As well as being a water and recreation resource, the river was historically a critical communications and transport link for the communities along it. It took about 3 days to paddle a waka from Waiuku to the Cambridge/Te Awamutu area. Taupō, Mangakino, Cambridge, Hamilton, Horotiu, Ngāruawāhia, Huntly, Hampton Downs, Meremere, Waiuku and Port Waikato are on or close to it. The Waikato River in Hamilton is frequently used by rowers, kayakers and powered pleasure craft. Water-skiers and jet skis have zones outside the city limits where they can be used.
The river was of military importance in the land wars between New Zealand settler and Kingitanga forces during 1863–64 and significant battles were fought. Three shallow draft gunboats were designed in New Zealand and built in Sydney in kitset form; the hulk of the paddle steamer Rangiriri is preserved at Hamilton. In addition locally sourced barges were rebuilt with steel plating to carry troops and supplies. In support of these invasions, New Zealand developed its first "navy", the Waikato Flotilla, run by an Australian Francis Cadell who was presented with a gold watch and diamonds by the New Zealand government in recognition of his service. A cemetery containing the graves of the British military dead can be found at Rangiriri opposite the hotel, shops and cafe.
Electricity generation
The Waikato's first hydro-electric power station was the Horahora Power Station, now located under the Horahora bridge deep beneath the surface of Lake Karapiro. Horahora was built to supply electricity for the Martha gold mines at Waihi.
The river has a series of eight dams and nine hydro-electric power stations that generate electricity for the national grid. These were constructed between 1929 and 1971 to meet growing demand for electricity.
The power scheme begins at Lake Taupō, which has control gates to regulate the flow of water into the river. Once released through the gates it takes over 18 hours for the water to flow to the last power station at Karapiro. On its journey downstream it passes through power stations at Aratiatia, Ohakuri, Atiamuri, Whakamaru, Maraetai, Waipapa, Arapuni and Karapiro.
Approximately 4000 gigawatt hours (GWh) of electricity is generated annually by the scheme, which is around 13% of New Zealand's total electrical generating capacity.
The river also provides cooling water for the coal/natural gas fired thermal power station at Huntly. The power station uses river water as a cooling medium for the old steam units, which means that large quantities of warm water is returned to the river. To limit environmental impacts, conditions are imposed by its resource consent, specifying the quantity of water that can be removed by the station along with the maximum temperature of the water when returned to the river, . These conditions mean that output of the older steam units can be restricted, especially on very hot summer days. In 2006, a cooling tower was installed. This allows one 250 MW unit to run at full load even during such times.
Drinking water
After widescale droughts in 1994, the use of the Waikato River to supply drinking water for Auckland was first considered. In July 2002, a water treatment plant was opened at Tuakau, which was expanded in 2021 after major droughts in 2020.
Recreation
The lower Waikato is popular amongst duck shooters.
Boating
The Waikato is renowned among whitewater kayaking enthusiasts, specifically for the Full James rapid located north of Taupō. The Full James was the site of the 1999 World Whitewater Championships, as well as the pre-World event the year before.
Lake Karapiro (an artificial lake) is regarded as one of New Zealand's best rowing venues. The World Rowing Championships in 1978 and 2010, and the 1950 British Empire Games were hosted at Karapiro.
The section of the river that flows through Hamilton has the most diverse river traffic with many schools and clubs using rowing skiffs. Rowing races are also held on the river. Jet skis are confined to the city margins because of their noise. Power boats regularly use the river, including manufacturers and boating shops testing and demonstrating boats, especially in summer. In addition there are numerous kayaks and a few waka.
There are council boat ramps, run by Waikato District, Hamilton City, South Waikato District and Taupō District, at Port Waikato Rd; Hoods Landing Rd, Otaua; Elbow Rd, Aka aka; River Rd, Tuakau; Riverbank Rd, Mercer; Churchill East Rd, Rangiriri; Ohinewai Landing Rd; Boatie Reserve SH1, Parry St and Riverview Rd, Huntly; SH1 Taupiri; Waikato Esplanade, Ngāruawāhia; Farm and Braithwaite Parks, Pukete; Swarbricks Landing, Hamilton Pde, Pine Beach, Ferrybank, Memorial Park, Roose Commerce Park, Hayes Paddock, Hamilton Gardens; Narrows Lane, Tamahere; Karapiro (6 ramps); Arapuni (4); Maraetai; Whakamaru (3); Ohakuri and Mangakino.
Public cruises
A ferry service along part of its length was for years conducted by Caesar Roose, several of whose descendants still live beside it. He brought the 1894 400-passenger steamer, Manuwai, from the Whanganui in 1920. In 1924 a Cambridge to Port Waikato excursion was being run 2 or 3 times a year, taking 12 to 14 hours downstream and a few hours longer upstream. Manuwai sank at her moorings in 1938, but was taken to Mercer for repair in 1939, where she was converted to a barge. Several of the old steamers remain under, or beside the river, including the Manuwai, Rawhiti (built 1925) and Freetrader on the west bank just south of Mercer. A 1928 article listed 14 boats which had provided river services. To improve navigation, rocks in the Narrows at Tamahere were removed in 1919.
Public cruises operate from Aratiatia to Huka Falls, across the river to Orakei Korako, from Hamilton Gardens to Mystery Creek and Fairfield Bridge and, since 2009, from Tuakau to Port Waikato.
On 19 July 2021 a ferry service began on the river in Hamilton, linking Swarbrick's Landing and Braithwaite Park with the museum and gardens.
Cycle and walk trails
Three trails follow parts of the river.
Boosted by New Zealand Cycle Trail funding, the Waikato River Trails, a series of connected river cycling trails in the South Waikato. The River Trail has five sections, open to both walkers or bikes, between Lake Karapiro and Aratiatia. It opened in 2011.
Te Awa River Ride follows over of the river from Horahora, near the end of the Waikato River Trails, via Cambridge and Hamilton to Ngāruawāhia. Completion was planned for 2017, but the Cambridge-Hamilton section opening is now expected in 2021. North of AFFCO at Horotiu, the route includes the second longest cycle bridge in the country (after the Timber Trail), a long cable network arch bridge, budgeted to cost $2.6m and to open in August, but opened in November 2017. The section from the Avantidrome through St Peter's School of Cambridge and Tamahere is being constructed in 2019/2020, including an underpass at SH21 to Tamahere Park.
Te Araroa (the river walkway linking the far north with the far south of the country) follows the Waikato for most of its between Mercer and Hamilton.
Ecology
Species
The Waikato River and its hydro lakes are home to at least 19 types of native fish and 10 types of introduced fish. The introduced species include rainbow and brown trout providing what has been called "the finest fly-fishing in the world". Other introduced species, like the carp and mosquitofish, have become major pests.
Environmental issues
The large catchment area of the Waikato River is highly fertile farmland, so intensive agriculture is present. Due to the agricultural activity within the catchment significant agricultural pollution is leached into groundwater and contained in the runoff. The mismanagement of nitrogen fertilizer and effluent spreading practices in dairy farming is seen as the major causes of this pollution. Since 2000 Environment Waikato has joined with conservation minded farmers to bring about more efficient and scientific use of fertilizers.
The removal of the native vegetation throughout the catchment to accommodate the increasing demand for farmland has contributed to the silting-up of the river with loose soils from eroded farmland, although most of the silting is due to the construction of the many hydrodams. In its pre-1930s wild state, the silt was flushed from the river every winter by flood surges. The remnants of these can be seen in the silt channels carved out of what is now St Andrews golf course, adjacent to the river in Hamilton.
Arsenic enters the river at concentrations that reach 0.035 grams of arsenic per cubic metre in places, exceeding the WHO provisional guideline of 0.01 grams of arsenic per cubic metre and making the water unsuitable for drinking water unless treated. The majority of arsenic in the Waikato River comes from the Wairakei Geothermal Power Station. The amount of arsenic gradually declines as the river flows northwards and is at its lowest at the Waikato River Heads.
Since 2002, around of water a day has been drawn from the river at Tuakau, treated and pumped along a pipe north to Auckland, where it is mixed with local water. This met 8% of Auckland's water needs in 2010/11. In December 2012 capacity was increased to , and in 2013 work started to increase it to . The treatment plant meets New Zealand's 2000 drinking water standards according to Water Care NZ. This is equal to or better than the A standard for Auckland's other water supplies.
Slightly-modified human wastes are pumped into the river downriver of several towns. Hamilton city has one of the most modern water treatment systems in the world following a 2003 report by GHB water consultants. In 2007 $22 million was spent upgrading the existing intake station south of the city at Riverlea. This will meet the cities demand until 2016. Waste water in its untreated state is 99.9% water and 0.1% other matter. A series of sophisticated machines produce clean water of a high standard getting rid of bad tastes odours and toxins to meet the upgraded NZ water standards. The Pukete 2 project which started in 2002 will upgrade the plant in a series of stages costing $24 million.
A further issue is industrial and metropolitan waste from early-established landfills and waste-emitting factories on the banks of the river. These include an unlined waste dump at Horotiu, just downriver from Hamilton, whose leachates include persistent organic pollutants such as dieldrin in quantities toxic to freshwater marine life. The 2002 GHD report saw new regulations put in place to make industries comply with a new bylaw which stops hazardous substances entering the water system at all according to the HCC website.
See also
List of rivers of New Zealand
List of rivers of New Zealand by length
References
External links
Waikato River Basin Flow Rates and Rainfall.
Hamilton City Council's Waikato River webcam
1938 photo of Manuwai part sunken beside Hamilton traffic bridge
Rivers of Waikato
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] |
251601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DFT | DFT | DFT may refer to:
Discrete Fourier transform
Decision field theory, a cognitive human decision making model
Density functional theory, a computational quantum mechanical modelling method
Demand flow technology
Department for Transport in the United Kingdom
Design for testing (design for testability)
Deaereating feed tank
Digital Film Technology, maker of the Spirit DataCine
DuPont Fabros Technology, US data center company, NYSE symbol | [
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251608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Brooke | Edward Brooke | Edward William Brooke III (October 26, 1919 – January 3, 2015) was an American politician of the Republican Party, who represented Massachusetts in the United States Senate from 1967 until 1979. Prior to serving in the senate, he served as the Attorney General of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts from 1963 until 1967. Following his election in 1966, he became the first African American popularly elected to the United States Senate.
Born to a middle-class black family, Brooke was raised in Washington, D.C.. He graduated from the Boston University School of Law in 1948, after serving in the United States Army during World War II. Beginning in 1950, he became involved in politics, when he ran for a seat in the Massachusetts House of Representatives. After serving as chairman of the Finance Commission of Boston, Brooke was elected attorney general in 1962, becoming the first African-American to be elected attorney general of any state. He served as attorney general for four years, before running for senate in 1966. In the election, he defeated Democratic Governor Endicott Peabody in a landslide, and was seated on January 3, 1967.
In the Senate, Brooke aligned with the liberal faction in the Republican party. He co-wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which prohibited housing discrimination, and was re-elected to a second term in 1972, after defeating attorney John Droney. Brooke became a prominent critic of Republican President Richard Nixon, and was the first Senate Republican to call for Nixon's resignation in light of the Watergate scandal. In 1978, he ran for a third term, but was defeated by Democrat Paul Tsongas. After leaving the Senate, Brooke practiced law in Washington, D.C. and was affiliated with various businesses and nonprofit organizations. Brooke died on January 3, 2015, at his home in Coral Gables, Florida, at the age of 95.
Early years
Edward William Brooke III was born on October 26, 1919, in Washington, D.C., to Edward William Brooke Jr. and Helen (Seldon) Brooke. He was the second of three children. He was raised in a middle-class section of the city, and attended Dunbar High School, then one of the most prestigious academic high schools for African Americans. After graduating in 1936, he enrolled in Howard University, where he first considered medicine, but ended up studying social studies and political science. Brooke graduated in 1941, and enlisted in the United States Army immediately after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
Brooke was commissioned as an officer, served five years in the Army, saw combat in Italy during World War II as a member of the segregated 366th Infantry Regiment, and earned a Bronze Star Medal. In Italy Brooke met his future wife Remigia Ferrari-Scacco, with whom he had two daughters, Remi and Edwina. Following his discharge, Brooke graduated from the Boston University School of Law in 1948. "I never studied much at Howard," he reflected, "but at Boston University, I didn't do much else but study." His papers are stored at Boston University's Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center.
Political career
In 1950 he ran for a seat in the Massachusetts House of Representatives in both the Democratic and Republican primaries. Brooke won the Republican nomination, but lost the general election. Brooke made two more tries for office, including one for secretary of state, but lost both races. The loss in the secretary's race (to Kevin White, a future mayor of Boston) was particularly close. Republican leaders took notice of Brooke's potential.
Governor John Volpe sought to reward Brooke for his effort, and offered him a number of jobs, most judicial in nature. Seeking a position with a higher political profile, Brooke eventually accepted the position of chairman of the Finance Commission of Boston, where he investigated financial irregularities and uncovered evidence of corruption in city affairs. He was described in the press as having "the tenacity of a terrier", and it was reported that he "restore[d] to vigorous life an agency which many had thought moribund." He parlayed his achievements there into a successful election as Attorney General of Massachusetts in 1962; he was the first African-American to be elected attorney general of any state. In this position, Brooke gained a reputation as a vigorous prosecutor of organized crime and corruption, securing convictions against a number of members of the Furcolo administration; an indictment against Furcolo was dismissed due to lack of evidence. He also coordinated with local police departments on the Boston Strangler case, although the press mocked him for permitting an alleged psychic to participate in the investigation. Brooke was portrayed in the 1968 film dramatizing the case by William Marshall.
U.S. Senator
In 1966, Brooke defeated former Governor Endicott Peabody with 1,213,473 votes to 744,761, and served as a United States Senator for two terms, from January 3, 1967, to January 3, 1979. The black vote had, Time wrote, "no measurable bearing" on the election as less than 3% of the state's population was black, and Peabody also supported civil rights for blacks. Brooke said, "I do not intend to be a national leader of the Negro people", and the magazine said that he "condemned both Stokely Carmichael and Georgia's Lester Maddox" as extremists; his historic election nonetheless gave Brooke "a 50-state constituency", the magazine wrote, "a power base that no other Senator can claim". A member of the moderate-to-liberal Northeastern wing of the Republican Party, Brooke organized the Senate's "Wednesday Club" of progressive Republicans who met for Wednesday lunches and strategy discussions. Brooke, who supported Michigan Governor George W. Romney and New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller's bids for the 1968 GOP presidential nomination against Richard Nixon's, often differed with President Nixon on matters of social policy and civil rights. In 1967, Brooke was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP.
In 1967, Brooke went to Vietnam on a three-week trip as a fact-finding mission. During his first formal speech in the Senate following the trip, he reversed his previous position on Vietnam War that increased negotiations with the North Vietnamese rather than an escalation of the fighting were needed. He began to favor President Johnson's "patient" approach to Vietnam as he had been convinced that "the enemy is not disposed to participate in any meaningful negotiations".
By his second year in the Senate, Brooke had taken his place as a leading advocate against discrimination in housing and on behalf of affordable housing. With Walter Mondale, a Minnesota Democrat and fellow member of the Senate Banking Committee, he co-authored the 1968 Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing. The Act also created HUD's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity as the primary enforcer of the law. President Johnson signed the Fair Housing Act into law on April 11, one week after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Dissatisfied with the weakened enforcement provisions that emerged from the legislative process, Brooke repeatedly proposed stronger provisions during his Senate career. In 1969, Congress enacted the "Brooke Amendment" to the federal publicly assisted housing program which limited the tenants' out-of-pocket rent expenditure to 25 percent of their income. Additionally, Brooke voted in favor of the confirmation of Thurgood Marshall to the U.S. Supreme Court.
During the Nixon presidency, Brooke opposed repeated Administration attempts to close down the Job Corps and the Office of Economic Opportunity and to weaken the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission—all foundational elements of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society.
In 1969, Brooke spoke at Wellesley College's commencement against "coercive protest" and was understood by some students as calling protesters "elite ne'er-do-wells" Then student government president Hillary Rodham departed from her planned speech to rebut Brooke's words, affirming the "indispensable task of criticizing and constructive protest," for which she was featured in Life magazine.
On June 9, 1969, Brooke voted in favor of President Nixon's nomination of Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice of the United States following the retirement of Earl Warren. Brooke was a leader of the bipartisan coalition that defeated the Senate confirmation of Clement Haynsworth, President Nixon's nominee to the Supreme Court on November 21, 1969. A few months later, he again organized sufficient Republican support to defeat Nixon's third Supreme Court nominee Harrold Carswell on April 8, 1970. The following month, Nixon nominee Harry Blackmun (who later wrote the Roe v. Wade opinion) was confirmed on May 12, 1970 with Brooke voting in favor. On December 6, 1971, Brooke voted in favor of Nixon's nomination of Lewis F. Powell Jr., while on December 10, Brooke voted against Nixon's nomination of William Rehnquist as Associate Justice. On December 17, 1975, Brooke voted in favor of President Gerald Ford's nomination of John Paul Stevens to the Supreme Court.
Despite Brooke's disagreements with Nixon, the president reportedly respected the senator's abilities; after Nixon's election he had offered to make Brooke a member of his cabinet, or appoint him as ambassador to the UN. The press discussed Brooke as a possible replacement for Spiro Agnew as Nixon's running mate in the 1972 presidential election. While Nixon retained Agnew, Brooke was re-elected in 1972, defeating Democrat John J. Droney by a vote of 64%–35%.
Before the first year of his second term ended, Brooke became the first Republican to call on President Nixon to resign, on November 4, 1973, shortly after the Watergate-related "Saturday night massacre". He had risen to become the ranking Republican on the Senate Banking Committee and on two powerful Appropriations subcommittees, Labor, Health and Human Services (HHS) and Foreign Operations. From these positions, Brooke defended and strengthened the programs he supported; for example, he was a leader in enactment of the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, which ensured married women the right to establish credit in their own name.
In 1974, with Indiana senator Birch Bayh, Brooke led the fight to retain Title IX, a 1972 amendment to the Higher Education Act of 1965, which guarantees equal educational opportunity (including athletic participation) to girls and women.
In 1975, with the extension and expansion of the Voting Rights Act at stake, Brooke faced senator John C. Stennis (D-Mississippi) in "extended debate" and won the Senate's support for the extension. In 1976, he also took on the role of supporter of wide-scale, legalized abortion. The Appropriations bill for HHS became the battleground over this issue because it funds Medicaid. The Anti-abortion movement fought, eventually successfully, to prohibit funding for abortions of low-income women insured by Medicaid. Brooke led the fight against restrictions in the Senate Appropriations Committee and in the House–Senate Conference until his defeat. The press again speculated on his possible candidacy for the Vice Presidency as Gerald Ford's running mate in 1976, with Time calling him an "able legislator and a staunch party loyalist".
In Massachusetts, Brooke's support among Catholics weakened due to his stance on abortion. During the 1978 re-election campaign, the state's bishops spoke in opposition to his leading role.
Brooke had an affair with broadcast journalist Barbara Walters in the 1970s. Walters stated that the affair was ended to protect their careers from scandal.
Brooke went through a divorce late in his second term. His finances were investigated by the Senate, and John Kerry, then a prosecutor in Middlesex County, announced an investigation into statements Brooke made in the divorce case. Prosecutors eventually determined that Brooke had made false statements about his finances during the divorce, and that they were pertinent, but not material enough to have affected the outcome. Brooke was not charged with a crime, but the negative publicity cost him some support in his 1978 reelection campaign, and he lost to Paul Tsongas.
Post-Senate life
After leaving the Senate, Brooke practiced law in Washington, D.C., first as a partner at the Washington firm of O'Connor & Hannan; later of counsel to Csaplar & Bok in Boston. He also served as chairman of the board of the National Low Income Housing Coalition. In 1984 he was selected as chairman of the Boston Bank of Commerce, and one year later he was named to the board of directors of Grumman.
In 1992, a Brooke assistant stated in a plea agreement as part of an investigation into corruption at the Department of Housing and Urban Development that Brooke had falsely answered questions about whether he or the assistant had tried to improperly influence HUD officials on behalf of housing and real estate developers who had paid large consulting fees to Brooke. The HUD investigation ended with no charges being brought against Brooke.
In 1996, Brooke became the first chairman of the World Policy Council, a think tank of Alpha Phi Alpha, an African-American fraternity. The Council's purpose is to expand the fraternity's involvement in politics, and social and current policy to encompass international concerns. In 2006 Brooke served as the council's chairman emeritus and was honorary chairman at the Centennial Convention of Alpha Phi Alpha held in Washington, D.C.<ref name=alphavideo>{{cite video |people=Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity |title=Alpha Phi Alpha Men: "A Century of Leadership |medium=Video |publisher=Rubicon Productions |date=2005}}</ref>
On June 20, 2000, a newly constructed Boston courthouse was dedicated in his honor. The Edward W. Brooke Courthouse is part of the Massachusetts Trial Court system, and houses the Central Division of the Boston Municipal Court, Boston Juvenile Court, Family Court, and Boston Housing Court, among others.
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Edward Brooke on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.
In September 2002, he was diagnosed with breast cancer and assumed a national role in raising awareness of the disease among men.
On June 23, 2004, President George W. Bush awarded Brooke the Presidential Medal of Freedom. That same year he received the Jeremy Nicholson Negro Achievement Award, acknowledging his outstanding contributions to the African-American community.
On October 28, 2009, two days after his 90th birthday, Brooke was presented with the Congressional Gold Medal.
On January 3, 2015, Brooke died at his home in Coral Gables, Florida, at the age of 95. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Brooke was the oldest living U.S. senator until his death in January 2015, and the last living U.S. senator born in the 1910s.
Political positions
Edward Brooke was a self-described moderate or liberal Republican, generally referred to as Rockefeller Republicans. On social issues he was a liberal who supported civil rights, women's rights, and civil liberties. On economic issues he was fiscally conservative, but was pragmatic about it; he still allowed that "There are things that people can't do for themselves and therefore government must do it for them". He was against huge government or bureaucracy.
Awards and honors
Presidential Medal of Freedom
Congressional Gold Medal. At his 2009 Congressional Gold Medal Acceptance speech, Brooke scolded policymakers for excessive partisan bickering.
Bronze Star Medal
See also
List of African-American firsts
List of African-American Republicans
List of African-American United States senators
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Judson L. Jeffries, U.S. Senator Edward W. Brooke and Governor L. Douglas Wilder Tell Political Scientists How Blacks Can Win High-Profile Statewide Office, American Political Science Association, 1999.
Timothy N. Thurber, Virginia Commonwealth University, "Goldwaterism Triumphant?: Race and the Debate Among Republicans over the Direction of the GOP, 1964–1968." Paper presented at the 2006 Conference of the Historical Society, Chapel Hill, NC.
Barbara Walters (2008), Audition: A Memoir. Random House. .
Edward Brooke (1966), The Challenge of Change: Crisis in our Two-Party System''. Little, Brown, Boston.
External links
Edward Brooke's oral history video excerpts at The National Visionary Leadership Project
|-
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|-
1919 births
2015 deaths
African-American military personnel
African-American people in Massachusetts politics
African-American United States senators
African-American Episcopalians
United States Army personnel of World War II
Boston University School of Law alumni
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Howard University alumni
Massachusetts Attorneys General
Massachusetts Republicans
Military personnel from Washington, D.C.
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Republican Party United States senators
Spingarn Medal winners
United States Army officers
United States senators from Massachusetts
Dunbar High School (Washington, D.C.) alumni
20th-century American Episcopalians
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American people
African Americans in World War II | [
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] |
251609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuji%20Hyakutake | Yuji Hyakutake | was a Japanese amateur astronomer who discovered Comet C/1996 B2, also known as Comet Hyakutake on January 31, 1996, while using 25×150 binoculars.
Hyakutake graduated from the Kyushu Sangyo University as a photography major and started working at a newspaper in Fukuoka. He first became interested in astronomy after seeing Comet Ikeya–Seki in 1965. He began searching for comets in 1989. In 1993, he moved to Hayato for because “the skies were much clearer there” and so he could better continue his search for comets. His first discovery was Comet C/1995 Y1, on December 26, 1995.
Hyakutake discovered C/1996 B2 while looking for C/1995 Y1, a comet he had discovered a few weeks before.
He died in Kokubu, Kagoshima, in 2002 at age 51 of an aneurysm which had led to internal bleeding.
Asteroid 7291 Hyakutake is named after him.
References
External links
Sky and Telescope obituary
Discoverers of comets
1950 births
2002 deaths
20th-century Japanese astronomers
Amateur astronomers | [
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251611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet%20Ikeya%E2%80%93Seki | Comet Ikeya–Seki | There are two comets named Ikeya–Seki: C/1965 S1 (this one), and C/1967 Y1, a.k.a. 1968 I, 1967n.
Comet Ikeya–Seki, formally designated C/1965 S1, 1965 VIII, and 1965f, was a long-period comet discovered independently by Kaoru Ikeya and Tsutomu Seki. First observed as a faint telescopic object on September 18, 1965, the first calculations of its orbit suggested that on October 21, it would pass just 450,000 km above the Sun's surface, and would probably become extremely bright.
Comets can defy such predictions, but Ikeya–Seki performed as expected. As it approached perihelion observers reported that it was clearly visible in the daytime sky next to the Sun. In Japan, where it reached perihelion at local noon, it was seen shining at magnitude −10. It proved to be one of the brightest comets seen in the last thousand years, and is sometimes known as the Great Comet of 1965.
The comet was seen to break into three pieces just before its perihelion passage. The three pieces continued in almost identical orbits, and the comet re-appeared in the morning sky in late October, showing a very bright tail. By early 1966, it had faded from view as it receded into the outer Solar System.
Ikeya–Seki is a member of the Kreutz sungrazers, which are suggested to be fragments of a large comet which broke up in 1106.
Gallery
Notes
References
External links
Non-periodic comets
Kreutz Sungrazers
Destroyed comets
Science and technology in Japan
19650918
Discoveries by amateur astronomers
Great comets | [
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251613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker | Baker | A baker is a tradesperson who bakes and sometimes sells breads and other products made of flour by using an oven or other concentrated heat source. The place where a baker works is called a bakery.
History
Ancient history
Since grains have been a staple food for millennia, the activity of baking is a very old one. Control of yeast, however, is relatively recent. By the fifth and sixth centuries BCE, the ancient Greeks used enclosed ovens heated by wood fires; communities usually baked bread in a large communal oven. Greeks baked dozens and possibly hundreds of types of bread; Athenaeus described seventy-two varieties.
In ancient Rome several centuries later, the first mass production of breads occurred, and "the baking profession can be said to have started at that time." Ancient Roman bakers used honey and oil in their products, creating pastries rather than breads. In ancient Rome, bakers (Latin, pistor) were sometimes slaves, who were (like other slave-artisans) sometimes manumitted. Large households in Rome normally had their own bakers. During those times, most of the people used to bake their own bread but bakeries (pistrina) were popular all over the town.
The Gauls are credited with discovering that the addition of beer froth to bread dough made well-leavened bread, marking the use of controlled yeast for bread dough.
Medieval Europe
In Medieval Europe, baking ovens were often separated from other buildings (and sometimes located outside city walls) to mitigate the risk of fire. Because bread was an important staple food, bakers' production factors (such as bolting yields, ingredients, and loaf sizes) were heavily regulated. For example, Henry III of England promulgated the Assize of Bread and Ale in 1267, subjecting all commercial bakers and brewers to various fees in order to practice their trade and imposing various regulations, such as inspection and verification of weights and measures, quality control, and price controls. Soon after the enactment of the Assize, "baking became a very stable industry, and was executed much more professionally than brewing, resulting in towns and villages having fewer bakers than brewers." Because ovens were expensive capital investments and required careful operation, specialized bakeries opened.
Bakers were often part of the guild system, which was well-established by the sixteenth century: master bakers instructed apprentices and were assisted by journeymen. In Amsterdam in 1694, for example, the cake-bakers, pie-bakers, and rusk-bakers separated from an earlier Bread Bakers Guild and formed their own guild, regulating the trade. A fraternity of bakers in London existed as early as 1155, according to records of payments to the Exchequer; the Worshipful Company of Bakers was formed by charters dated 1486, 1569, and 1685. The guild still exists today, with mostly ceremonial and charitable functions. Five bakers have served as lord mayor of London.
A group of bakers is called a "tabernacle".
Ming dynasty China
In Ming dynasty China, bakers were divided into different social statuses according to their customers. Bakers were among the thousands of servants who served in the Ming Palace, including recruited cooks, imperial eunuchs, and trained serving-women (Shangshiju). Bakers often joined the occupation through apprenticeship, or by being born into a family of bakers.
In addition to the secular aspect of baking, Ming bakers also were responsible for providing pastries for use in various rituals, festivals and ceremonies, such as zongzi. In "Shi Fu Meets a Friend at Tanque" buns were provided for the construction ceremony.
Within bakeries, traditional patriarchal hierarchy controlled. For the family-owned bakery, the eldest male figure (usually the father) in the highest position of the hierarchy. For example, in Feng Menglong's story, when Mr. Bo went out looking for the family's lost silver, his wife was ordered to take care of the bakery.
Ming fiction and art records examples of various bakers; for example, in Feng Menglong's story, the Bo couple owns a bakery to sell the cakes and snacks while in Water Margin, the character Wu Dalang does not have a settled store and sells pancakes on the shoulder pole along the street The Ming-era painter Qiu Ying's work Along the River During the Qingming Festival shows food stores alongside the street and peddlers who are selling food along the streets.
The Ming work Ming Dai Tong Su Ri Yong Lei Shu, which records techniques and items needed in Ming daily life, devotes a full chapter to culinary skills, including the preparation of pancakes and other types of cakes.
The work The Plum in the Golden Vase mentions baozi (steam bun).
Columbian Exchange
The Columbian Exchange, which began in 1492, had a profound influence on the baking occupation. Access to sugar greatly increased as a result of new cultivation in the Caribbean, and ingredients such as cocoa and chocolate became available in the Old World. In the eighteenth century, processors learned how to refine sugar from sugar beets, allowing Europeans to grow sugar locally. These developments led to an increase in the sophistication of baking and pastries, and the development of new products such as puff pastries and Danish dough.
18th century
Two important books on bread-baking were published in the 1770s: Paul-Jacques Malaouin published L'art du meinier, du boulanger et du vermicellier (The Art of the Miller, the Bread-Baker, and the Pasta-Maker) in 1762, and Antoine-Augustin Parmentier published Le parfair boulanger (The Perfect Bread-Baker) in 1778.
A study of the English city of Manchester from 1824–85, during the Industrial Revolution, determined that "baker and shopkeeper" was the third-most common occupation, with 178 male bakers, 19 female bakers, and 8 bakers of unknown sex in the city at that time. This occupation was less common that cloth manufacturer and tavern/public house worker, but more common than cotton spinner, merchant, calico printer, or grocer.
In 1895, the New York State Assembly passed a reformist "bakeshop law" which included protections for bakery workers; the law "banned employees from sleeping in the bakeries; specified the drainage, plumbing and maintenance necessary to keep the bakeries sanitary (cats were specifically allowed to stay on the premise—presumably to deal with the rats); limited the daily and weekly maximum of hours worked; and established an inspectorate to make sure these conditions were met." The legislation was soon replicated in other states. Joseph Lochner, a bakery owner in Utica, New York, was subsequently convicted of violating the law for forcing his employees to work more than sixty hours a week. He appealed his case to the U.S. Supreme Court, which decided, in the highly influential case of Lochner v. New York (1905), over a dissent from Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, that the labor law violated a constitutional right to "freedom of contract". This case marked the beginning of a "pro-employer, laissez-faire" era, later known as the Lochner era, which "would cast a long shadow over American law, society, and politics" until the late 1930s, when Lochner was repudiated. Frustrated with the rapid deterioration of working conditions, bakery workers in New York went on strike in August 1905.
In religion
Christianity
The first bakeries emerged in Jerusalem, after contact with the Egyptians, from whom the Hebrews learned better manufacturing techniques and obtained the recipe. A short time later, there was already a famous bakers' street in the city.
The prophet Elisha, then Jesus, performed the miracle of the multiplication of the loaves.
The bread is at the center of the Christian Eucharist; it is "sacramental bread," "singing bread," or "angel's bread." Jesus defines himself as "the bread of life" (John 6:35). Divine "grace" is called "the bread of the strong" and preaching, religious teaching, "the bread of the word of God." In Hebrew, Bethlehem means "house of bread," and Jesus was born in a city called Bread.
Roman Catholic patron saints
In Roman Catholic tradition, the patron saint of bakers and pastry chefs is Honoratus of Amiens (Honoré), a sixth-century bishop of Amiens in northern France for whom the St. Honoré cake is named. Lazarus of Bethany (Lazare) was originally a competitor to Honoré for the title of patron saint of bakers, but in the 17th century the French bakers' guild settled in favor of Honoré.
As a surname
Baker is an easily recognizable English surname of medieval occupational origin; Baxster is the female form. Equivalent family names of occupational origin meaning "baker" exist in other languages: Boulanger, Bulinger, Dufour, and Fournier in French, Bäcker in German, and Piekarz in Polish.
Duties and occupational hazards
According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor,
Bakers encounter a number of occupational hazards. OOH reports that bakeries, "especially large manufacturing facilities, are filled with potential dangers such as hot ovens, mixing machines, and dough cutters. As a result, bakers have a higher rate of injuries and illnesses than the national average. Although their work is generally safe, bakers may endure back strains caused by lifting or moving heavy bags of flour or other products. Other common risks include cuts, scrapes, and burns. To reduce these risks, bakers often wear back supports, aprons, and gloves."
Baker's asthma—commonly caused by flour allergens and the microbial enzymes (often Aspergillus-derived) used to facilitate breadmaking—is one of the common causes of occupational asthma worldwide.
Comparison with pastry chef
Both bakers and pastry chefs make desserts and breads. In some restaurants and shops, a single individual serves in both roles. In other environments, there is a distinction between the two positions, with bakers making breads, rolls, and muffins, and pastry chefs making desserts, such as cakes, pies, tarts, and cookies. Even when both bakers and pastry chefs work in the same place, however, there may be overlap.
Equipment
A variety of equipment is used by bakers, including:
Baker's peel – A large, flat paddle, either wood or metal, used to slide loaves into and out of an oven
Rolling pin – A tool used to roll and flatten dough
Flour scoops – A tool used to add, remove, or measure flour
Brushes – A tool used to brush off excess flour from dough, and for glazing
Flour mills – A tool used to mill grains; may be either hand-cranked or mechanical
Employment statistics
United States
According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor, there were 185,300 bakers in the U.S. in 2014, with median pay of $23,600 per year or $11.35 per hour. About 28% of U.S. bakers work in stand-alone bakeries or in tortilla manufacturing; 26% work in grocery stores; 15% work in restaurants and other eating places; and 5% were self-employed. About 30% of U.S. bakers worked part-time in 2014.
Gallery
See also
Bagel Bakers Local 338
Baker's percentage
Baker's yeast, what bakers commonly use to make doughs rise
Bakers, Food and Allied Workers' Union
Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers' International Union
Bread machine, a home appliance to make single, basic loaves of bread
Cake shop
Chorleywood bread process, a process developed to make bread dough from the lower protein wheats of England
Coffee cake, simple cakes made for everyday use such as for breakfast or as snacks
List of baked goods
List of bakers
List of bakeries
List of restaurant terminology
Pastry chef, someone who specializes in the making and baking of pastries, desserts, and other elaborate sweets
Pâtisserie, a bakery that specializes in pastries and sweets, in some countries this is a legal distinction
Proofing (baking technique)
Sliced bread, involves the industrial development of bread slicing machines
Vienna bread, developed with processes that were early steps in the modernization of bread production
White bread
August Zang, Austrian soldier who started a bakery in Paris and introduced Viennese steam ovens and pastries there
References
Artisans
Baking
Chefs
Culinary terminology
Food services occupations
Restaurant terminology | [
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251615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken | Spoken | Spoken is the past participle form of "to speak".
Spoken may also refer to:
Spoken (band), a Christian rock group from Arkansas
Spoken (album), an album by Spoken
See also
Speak (disambiguation) | [
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251618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20George | Lake George | Lake George or George Lake may refer to:
Inhabited places
Australia
Lake George, New South Wales, a locality in the Queanbeyan–Palerang Regional Council and Yass Valley Council
Canada
Lake George, Kings County, Nova Scotia
Lake George, Yarmouth County, Nova Scotia
Lake George, New Brunswick
United States
Lake George, Colorado, a town in Park County, Colorado
Lake George, Michigan, a village
Lake George Township, Hubbard County, Minnesota
Lake George, Minnesota, an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Lake George Township, Hubbard County
Lake George Township, Stearns County, Minnesota
Lake George (town), New York, a town in Warren County, New York
Lake George (village), New York, a village in Warren County, New York
Lakes
Australia
Lake George (New South Wales), a shallow lake in south-eastern New South Wales
Lake George (South Australia)
Canada
Lake George (New Brunswick), a lake near Fredericton, New Brunswick
Lake George (Kings County, Nova Scotia), a lake in Kings County, Nova Scotia
George Lake (Nunavut), the location of George Lake Aerodrome, Nunavut
Lake George (Michigan–Ontario), a small lake near Sault Ste. Marie, between Sugar Island and mainland Ontario
Uganda
Lake George (Uganda), a major lake that is part of the African Great Lakes system
United States
Lake George (Alaska), a United States National Natural Landmark
Lake George (Arkansas), a lake in Conway County, Arkansas
Lake George (Colorado), a lake in Colorado
Lake George (Florida), on the St. Johns River in Volusia County, Florida
Lake George (Indiana) (disambiguation), several lakes in northern Indiana
Lake George (Anoka County, Minnesota), a lake in Anoka County, Minnesota
Lake George (Cass County, Minnesota)
Lake George (Hubbard County, Minnesota)
George Lake (Missoula County, Montana), a lake in Missoula County, Montana
George Lake (Park County, Montana), a lake in Park County, Montana
Lake George (New York), a major lake in northern New York State, draining into Lake Champlain, and then into the St. Lawrence River, Canada
See also
George Hingston Lake (1847–1900), politician in the early days of colonial South Australia
George Lake (footballer) (1889–1918), English footballer
George Lake Aerodrome, a privately owned ice runway located on George Lake, Nunavut, Canada
St. George Lake, a lake in Waldo County, Maine | [
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] |
251619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FSA | FSA | FSA may refer to:
Organizations
Government
Federal Security Agency, a US government entity from 1939 to 1953
Family Support Administration, now part of the US Department of Health and Human Services
Farm Security Administration, now the Farmers Home Administration in the US
Farm Service Agency, part of the US Department of Agriculture
Food Science Australia, now known as the CSIRO Division of Food and Nutritional Science
Food Standards Agency, a British regulator
Federal Student Aid, an office of the US Department of Education
Federation of South Arabia, now part of Yemen
Financial regulators
Financial Services Agency, for Japan
Financial Services Authority, formerly for the UK
Financial Services Authority (Isle of Man)
Financial Supervisory Authority (Sweden)
Education
Flint Southwestern Academy, in Michigan, US
Florida Student Association
Foreign Service Academy, in Pakistan
Professional titles and associations
Fellow of the Society of Actuaries, in North America
Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, normally given as "FSA Scot"
Florida Sheriffs Association, a non-profit professional association
Fire & Security Association, in London
Sport
FC FSA Voronezh, a Russian football club
Federation of Sports Arenas, the former name of the Premier Arena Soccer League
Football Supporters' Association, the national organisation for football supporters in England and Wales
Salvadorian Athletics Federation (Spanish: )
Saxony-Anhalt Football Association (German: )
Other organizations
Financial Security Assurance, an American insurance company
FSA Corporation, now part of the Canadian computer company McAfee Associates
Free Spirit Alliance, an American non-profit organization serving the Pagan and Pantheist communities
Free Syrian Army, an opposition army group
Finance
Financial statement analysis
Financial Services Act (disambiguation)
Flexible spending account
Science and technology
Fast statistical alignment
Finite-state automaton
Forward scattering alignment
Other uses
Fire Services Act (disambiguation)
Flying Saucer Attack, an English rock band
Forward Sortation Area, part of a Canadian postal code
See also
Financial Supervisory Authority (disambiguation) | [
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251620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20Bulgaria | Culture of Bulgaria | A number of ancient civilizations, including the Thracians, ancient Greeks, Scythians, Celts, ancient Romans, Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Slavs (East and West Slavs), Varangians and the Bulgars have left their mark on the culture, history and heritage of Bulgaria. Due to this great variety of influences, Bulgaria has adopted many unusual traditions. Thracian artifacts include numerous temples, tombs, golden treasures and ancient rites and rituals, while ancient Bulgars have left traces of their heritage in statehood, early architecture, music and dances. Thracian rituals such as the Tryphon Zarezan which is dedicated to Saint Tryphon of Campsada, Kukeri and Martenitza are to this day kept alive in the modern Bulgarian culture.
The oldest treasure of worked gold in the world, dating back to the 5th millennium BC, comes from the site of the Varna Necropolis.
Bulgaria functioned as the hub of Slavic Europe during much of the Middle Ages, exerting considerable literary and cultural influence over the Eastern Orthodox Slavic world by means of the Preslav and Ohrid Literary Schools. Bulgaria also gave the world the Cyrillic script, the second most widely used alphabet and sixth writing system in the world, which originated in these two schools in the tenth century.
Bulgaria's contribution to humanity continued throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with individuals such as John Atanasoff — a United States citizen of Bulgarian and British descent, regarded as the father of the digital computer. A number of noted opera-singers (Nicolai Ghiaurov, Boris Christoff, Raina Kabaivanska, Ghena Dimitrova, Anna Tomowa-Sintow, Vesselina Kasarova), pianist Alexis Weissenberg, and successful artists (Christo, Pascin, Vladimir Dimitrov) popularized the culture of Bulgaria abroad.
Music
Bulgaria has a long-standing musical tradition dating to the early Middle ages. One of the earliest known composers of Medieval Europe, Yoan Kukuzel (ca. 1280–1360), became famous for his work Polieleion of the Bulgarian Woman. About 90 of his works have survived. Kukuzel also reformed the Byzantine musical writing system, and became known as The Angel-voiced for his singing abilities.
The tradition of church singing in Bulgaria is more than thousand years old. In the Bulgarian Orthodox Church there are two traditions of church singing - Eastern monodic (one-voice) singing and choral (polyphonic). The Eastern monodic singing observes the tradition of Greek and Byzantine music as well as the requirements of the eight-voices polyphonic canon of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The second tradition is the choral church music, established during the nineteenth century, when in Bulgaria enters the influence of Russian polyphonic choral church music. Many Bulgarian composers (Dobri Hristov, Petar Dinev, etc.) create their works in the spirit of Russian polyphony. Today Orthodox music is alive and is performed both during church worship services and at concerts by secular choirs and soloists. Contemporary Bulgarian worldwide recognized choirs and singers in whose repertoire permanently takes place the orthodox music are: Yoan Kukuzel Choir, Plovdiv Boys' Choir 'Stefka Blagoeva', Sofia Boys' Choir, Madrigal Sofia Choir, Sofia Orthodox Choir, Sofia Priest Choir, etc., worldwide famous opera singers Boris Christoff and Nicola Ghiuselev.
The distinctive sound of Bulgarian folk music comes partly from the asymmetric rhythms, harmony and polyphony, such as the use of close intervals like the major second and the singing of a drone accompaniment underneath the melody, especially common in songs from the Shopluk region in Western Bulgaria and the Pirin region.
Bulgarian folk music is unique in its complex harmonies and highly irregular rhythms. These kinds of rhythms, also called uneven beats or asymmetric measures, were introduced to musicologists only in 1886 when music teacher Anastas Stoyan published Bulgarian folk melodies for the first time. Examples of such beats are , , , and , or composite ones like , and . Each area of Bulgaria has a characteristic music and dance style. Bulgarian folk music inspired and was used by musicians like Kate Bush and George Harrison.
Bulgarian vocal style has a unique throat quality, while the singers themselves are renowned for their range. Their voices are low and soprano and the children love singing as well as anything artistic. Diatonic scales predominate but in the Rhodope Mountains, for example, pentatonic scales occur, while in Thrace chromatic scales with augmented intervals (similar to the music of Classical Greece). Also, the intonation varies, and is quite different from the modern Western equal temperament. Depending on whether the melody moves up or down, an interval can augment or decrease by a quarter tone.
Musical instruments (also characteristic of the whole Balkan region) include gaida (bagpipe), kaval (rim-blown flute), zurna or zurla (another woodwind, similar to oboe typical among Roma), tambura (long-necked lute), gadulka (bowed instrument held upright).
The gaida of Bulgaria is worthy of its own subsection. In Bulgaria the gaida has been a long symbol of the country and its heritage, and is one of the more well-known instruments of the country. The gaida most widely used is the Thracian gaida. There is in the Rhodope Mountains the deep-sounding kaba gaida. In the north, common of Dubrudzha and the Vlachs there is the dzhura gaida. Also in the Strandzha region near the border with Turkey there is the Strandzha gaida. The bag itself is made of a goat skin turned inside out, and most often the rims of the different parts of the instrument - chanter and drone pipe - have a piece of horn on it.
Dances have complex steps matching the rhythms, and are often fast. Most are circle-dances or line dances called horo; but some are done singly or in pairs.
Although traditional music and dance are not popular among Bulgarian city youth, they are often performed at weddings, and generally in countryside festivals. They are also performed in Bulgaria and abroad by amateur and professional performing artists and choirs.
Regional folk musical styles abound in Bulgaria. Dobruja, Shopluk, Rhodopes, Macedonia, Thrace and Northern Bulgaria all have distinctive sounds. Much of traditional folk music revolved around holidays like Christmas, New Year's Day, midsummer, and the Feast of St. Lazarus, as well as the Strandzha region's unusual Nestinarstvo rites on May 21.
Several world-renowned troupes perform Bulgarian folk music, including the State Ensemble for Folk Songs and Dances, founded by Philip Koutev (1903-1982), Trio Bulgarka and the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir, who are featured, among others, on the anthologies titled Le Mystère des Voix Bulgares, volume 2 of which received a Grammy Award in 1989.
One internationally known artist, Valya Balkanska, sang the song Izlel e Delyu Haydutin, which was chosen to be part of the Voyager Golden Record selection of music sent into space in the two Voyager spacecraft launched in 1977. The Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir also known as Mystery of Bulgarian voices has also attained a considerable degree of fame.
Customs and rites
Bulgarians often give each other a martenitsa () — an adornment made of white and red yarn and worn on the wrist or pinned on the clothes — from March 1 until the end of the month. Alternatively, one can take off the martenitsa earlier if one sees a stork (considered a harbinger of spring). One can then tie the martenitsa to the blossoming branch of a tree. Family-members and friends in Bulgaria customarily exchange martenitsas, which they regard as symbols of health and longevity. The white thread represents peace and tranquility, while the red one stands for the cycles of life. Bulgarians may also refer to the holiday of 1 March as Baba Marta (), meaning Grandmother March. It preserves an ancient pagan tradition. Many legends exist regarding the birth of this custom, some of them dating back to the 7th century and the time of Khan Kubrat, the ruler of Old Great Bulgaria. Other tales relate the martenitsa to Thracian and Zoroastrian beliefs. Romania and some parts of Greece also have a similar custom.
The ancient Bulgarian ritual of kukeri (), performed by costumed men, seeks to scare away evil spirits and bring good harvest and health to the community. The costumes, made of animal furs and fleeces, cover the whole of the body. A mask, adorned with horns and decoration, covers the head of each kuker, who also have bells attached to his waist. The kukeri dance, jump and shout in an attempt to banish all evil from the village. Some of the performers impersonate royalty, field-workers and craftsmen. The adornments on the costumes vary from one region to another.
Another characteristic custom called Nestinarstvo (), or firedancing, is found in the Strandzha region. This ancient custom involves dancing into fire or over live embers. Women dance into the fire with their bare feet without suffering any injury or pain.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Bulgaria has nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which are part of the national route tourist map of 100 national tourist sites
of the Bulgarian Tourist Union:
The early medieval large rock relief Madara Rider
Two Thracian tombs (one in Sveshtari and one in Kazanlak)
Three monuments of medieval Bulgarian culture (the Boyana Church, the Rila Monastery and the Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo)
Two examples of natural beauty: the Fisherman Momerioland the Sreburna Nature Reserve
The ancient city of Nessebur — a unique combination of European cultural interaction, as well as, historically, one of the most important centres of seaborne trade in the Black Sea
"Surva"- International Kukeri Festival in Pernik, Bulgaria. One of the biggest masquerade festival on the Balkans and Eastern Europe. Conducted in the last three days of January. Kukeri or Surva Festival (Mummer's games) in the town of Pernik, is the most spectacular "Kukeri" event in Bulgaria. At the end of January thousands of "kukeri" participants from different regions of Bulgaria, as well as from all around the world gather in Pernik for the three-day event. The festival held in Pernik is the oldest festival of the masquerade games in Bulgaria. The first edition was opened on January 16, 1966. In 1995 the International Federation of Carnival Cities accepted the town of Pernik as its full member. In 2009 Pernik was proclaimed as the European capital of Surva's and Mummer's. The news that the Kukeri tradition and the Surva Festival in Pernik will be included in UNESCO's list of protected non-material cultural heritage, was announced before the inaugural ceremony of the 20th edition of the mummery fest in 2015.
Local archaeologists assume that the number of archaeological sites is the third-largest in Europe after Italy and Greece.
Theatres
According to the Bulgarian Statistical Institute as of 2005 there were 75 theatres in Bulgaria including National Opera and Ballet of Bulgaria with around 30,000 seats altogether.
The first theatrical events in Bulgaria are related to community centers which were the center of the spiritual and social life of the country in the middle of the 19th century.
The first theatrical production was presented in Shumen in 1856. This is the comedy Mihal Mouseoed by Sava Dobroplodni, who at that time was a teacher in Shumen.
The name of Dobri Voynikov means the beginning of the Bulgarian theater. They call it the father of the Bulgarian drama and theater. According to the fact - an inaccurate definition, because the first dramaturgic work in Bulgaria is the comedy of Theodosius Ikonomov, "The Lovecycle Wanderer or Bella of the hunting poet Sahatchiya", published in 1863 but compiled as early as 1857. The first theatrical performances on the Bulgarian stage are also not Soldiers. These are the comedy "Mihal", translated by Greek and adapted for the Bulgarian audience by Sava Dobroplodni, who organized her performance in Shumen, and the dramas "Multitudes Genoveva" and "Belisarius", placed by Krastyu Pishurka in Lom. All three titles were first played in 1856.
Vazov tells of theater in the 1870s. Until then, dozens of theatrical and pre-theatrical performances have been performed. The first of them began to be organized in the 1940s and 1950s. Even then there are traces of scenographic attempts in our country.
A more important theatrical fact during the Renaissance was the creation of the Svishtov People's Theater. The Bulgarian performances in the town began in the 1870s, when the two enthusiastic theaters - Dimitar Shishmanov and Nikolay Pavlovich - returned in their home country. The first is a director, the second is a local theater painter. The Svishtov performances are played on a specially built stage, whose artistic layout is entrusted to N. Pavlovich. And he probably managed to overcome the level of the then Bulgarian theater.
During the period 1900–1917, the Bulgarian theater entered a new stage of its development - a stage of real professionalisation of the acting art, the Europeanization of the appearance of the spectacle and the permanent establishment of the National Theater as a nationally representative cultural institution.
The Bulgarian Theater in the years to 1989 has ideological-party orientation. It is in the service of socialist realism.
The arts are called "the means of education", and "socialist realism - the only method of artistic creativity". Changes in society, culture, the arts, the theater are ubiquitous. The imposition of socialist realism takes place through the repertoire, the new Bulgarian drama, as well as the staging practice.
The dynamic development of the Bulgarian theater after 1989 typifies theater phenomena for a long period of nearly 25 years and highlights by them trends, essential characteristics and innovative movements.
Famous Bulgarian theatrical actors are: Georgi Kaloyanchev, Stoyanka Mutafova, Georgi Partsalev, Velko Kanev, Pavel Poppandov, Maria Sapundjieva, Yosif Surchadzhiev and others.
Famous Bulgarian playwrights - Peyo Yavorov, Nedyalko Yrdanov, Stoslav Stratiev, Rangel Ignatov and others.
Visual art
Bulgaria has a rich heritage in the visual arts, especially in frescoes, murals and icons. The Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak offers fine examples of excellently preserved ancient Thracian art. Tomb art provides one of the most important sources of information about Thracian lifestyle and culture. Visual arts in the Bulgarian lands experienced an upsurge during the entire period of the Middle ages. The crypt of the Alexander Nevski cathedral features an exhibition of a large collection of medieval icons. The earliest of those dates from around the 9th century. The Tarnovo Artistic School, the mainstream of the Bulgarian fine arts and architecture between 13th and 14th centuries, takes its name from the capital and main cultural center of the Second Bulgarian Empire, Tarnovo. Although it shows the influence of some tendencies of the Palaeologan Renaissance in the Byzantine Empire, the Tarnovo painting had its own unique features which makes it a separate artistic school.
Art historians classify its products into two types:
mural painting: mural decoration of churches
iconography: easel painting
The works of the school show some degree of realism, portrait individualism and psychology.
The unique and realistic portraits in the Boyana Church class as forerunners of the Renaissance.
The wall piers and the arches often featured medallion-shaped bust images of saints. Magnificent examples of those survive in Church of Saints Peter and Paul Church in Tarnovo. Along with traditional scenes such as "Christ's passions" and "Feast cycle" in the second layer; "Christ Pantokrator" in the dome and the Madonna with the infant Christ in the apse, specific images and scenes also appear. During the period of Ottoman rule (1396-1878) the authorities suppressed Bulgarian art. Many churches suffered destruction, and newly built ones remained somewhat modest. In the end of the 18th century the Islamic Ottoman Empire began to decay slowly, thus permitting the Bulgarian National Revival of the 18th and 19th centuries to occur. Bulgaria experienced a revival in every area of culture. Following the Liberation in 1878, fine arts rapidly recovered and came under the influence of European artistic currents such as late Romanticism.
After 1878 until the middle of the 20th century, there was an extremely intensive process of incorporating the Bulgarian art into the contemporary European artistic culture. The development of Bulgarian art follows the path of the ethnographic and descriptive genre scenes, painted by the artists after the Liberation, such as Ivan Markvichka, Anton Mitov, Ivan Angelov, Yaroslav Veshin in the exquisite landscapes and elegant portraits typical of the beginning of the 20th century by Nikola Petrov, Nikola Marinov, Stefan Ivanov, Elena Karamihailova together with the expressive decoration of the 1920s (Ivan Milev, Ivan Penkov, Pencho Georgiev ... ) to the extremely wealthy creative talents and various plastic quests in the 1930s and 1940s by Vladimir Dimitrov - The Master, Zlatyu Boyadzhiev, Dechko Uzunov, Nenko Balkanski, Sirak Skitnik, Vera Nedkova, Ivan Nenov, Bencho Obreshkov, with many different artists from different parts of the country.
The cartoon, the illustration and the layout of the book with the three great ones first appear as they are called Alexander Bozhinov, Ilia Beshkov, Raiko Aleksiev, Kiril Buyukliiski, Alexander Zhendov, Stoyan Venev, Sirak Skitnik. The Bulgarian sculpture is also developing: Boris Shaz and Zheko Spiridonov, Andrey Nikolov and Ivan Lazarov, Lyubomir Dalchev, Vaska Emanouilova, Marko Markov, Ivan Funev give it its foundation. But the development of Bulgarian art continues to develop vigorously and independently in our time also.
Cuisine
The relatively warm climate and diverse geography afford excellent growing conditions for a variety of vegetables, herbs and fruits, Bulgarian cuisine (, bulgarska kuhnya) offers great diversity.
Famous for its rich salads required at every meal, Bulgarian cuisine also features diverse quality dairy products and a variety of wines and local alcoholic drinks such as rakia (), mastika () and menta (). Bulgarian cuisine also features a variety of hot and cold soups, for example tarator. Many different Bulgarian pastries exist as well, such as banitsa, a traditional pastry prepared by layering a mixture of whisked eggs and pieces of Bulgarian cheese with filo pastry and then baking it in an oven.
Traditionally, Bulgarian cooks put lucky charms into their pastry on certain occasions, particularly on Christmas Eve, the first day of Christmas, or New Year's Eve. Such charms may include coins or small symbolic objects (such as a small piece of a dogwood branch with a bud, symbolizing health or longevity). , people have started writing happy wishes on small pieces of paper and wrapping them in tin foil. Messages may include wishes for happiness, health, long life or success throughout the new year.
Bulgarians eat banitsa — hot or cold — for breakfast with plain yogurt, ayran, or boza. Some varieties include banitsa with spinach (, spanachena banitsa) or the sweet version, banitsa with milk (, mlechna banitsa) or pumpkin (, tikvenik).
The Bulgarian lyutenitsa () is a spicy mixture of mashed and cooked tomatoes, aubergines, garlic, hot peppers and vegetable oil, seasoned with salt, pepper and parsley. Variations of lyutenitsa exist in the national cuisines of most Balkan states.
Tripe soup (, skhembe chorba) takes as its basis the thick lining of the cleaned stomach of cattle, prepared with milk and seasoned with vinegar, garlic and hot peppers. Under Ottoman rule, the sultans allegedly preferred tripe soup made by Bulgarian cooks, whose mastery in preparing the dish remained unmatched in the Balkans. In addition, Bulgaria is included in the Michelin catalog because of its rich cuisine and traditional dishes.
Exports of Bulgarian wine go worldwide; and until 1990 the country exported the world's second-largest total of bottled wine. The rich soil, perfect climate and the millennia-old tradition of wine-making, which dates back to the time of the Thracians, contribute to the wide variety of fine Bulgarian wines. As of 2007, Bulgaria produced 200,000 tonnes of wine annually, ranking 20th in the world.
Media
Bulgaria's media are generally deemed unbiased, although the state still dominates the field through the Bulgarian National Television (BNT), the Bulgarian National Radio (BNR), and the Bulgarian Telegraph Agency. Bulgarian media have a record of unbiased reporting, although they are deemed potentially at risk of political influence due to the lack of legislation to protect them. The written media have no legal restrictions and newspaper publishing is entirely liberal. The extensive freedom of the press means that no exact number of publications can be established, although some research put an estimate of around 900 print media outlets for 2006. The largest-circulation daily newspapers include Dneven Trud and 24 Chasa.
Non-printed media sources, such as television and radio, are overseen by the Council for Electronic Media (CEM), an independent body with the authority to issue broadcasting licenses. Apart from a state-operated national television channel, radio station and the Bulgarian News Agency, a large number of private television and radio stations exist. However, most Bulgarian media experience a number of negative trends, such as general degradation of media products, self-censorship and economic or political pressure. Slavi's Show and Gospodari Na Efira are among the most popular TV programs, both having more than 1,000,000 views per show.
Internet media are growing in popularity due to the wide range of available opinions and viewpoints, lack of censorship and diverse content.
Religion
Bulgaria is officially a secular nation and the Constitution guarantees the free exercise of religion but designates Orthodoxy as a "traditional" religion. In the 2001 census, 82.6% Bulgarians declared themselves Orthodox Christians, 12.2% Muslim, 1.2% other Christian denominations, 4% other religions (Buddhism, Taoism, Hinduism, Judaism) and zero percent atheists. Most citizens of Bulgaria have associations — at least nominally — with the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Founded in 870 AD under the Patriarchate of Constantinople (from which it obtained its first primate, its clergy and theological texts), the Bulgarian Orthodox Church had autocephalous status since 927 AD. The Church became subordinate within the Patriarchate of Constantinople, twice during the periods of Byzantine (1018 – 1185) and Ottoman (1396 – 1878) domination. It was re-established first in 1870 in the form of the Bulgarian Exarchate, and then in the 1950s as the Bulgarian Patriarchate.
Islam came to Bulgaria at the end of the fourteenth century after the conquest of the country by the Ottomans. It gradually gained ground throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries through the introduction of Turkish colonists. One Islamic sect, Ahmadiyya, faces problems in Bulgaria. Some officials have moved against Ahmadis
on the grounds that other countries also attack the religious rights of Ahmadis, who many Muslims regard as heretical.
In the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, missionaries from Rome converted Bulgarian Paulicians in the districts of Plovdiv and Svishtov to Roman Catholicism. their descendants form the bulk of Bulgarian Catholics, whose number stood at 44,000 in 2001.
Missionaries from the United States introduced Protestantism into Bulgarian territory in 1857. Missionary work continued throughout the second half of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century. In 2001 Bulgaria had some 42,000 Protestants.
Buddhism, Hinduism and Taoism became popular among Bulgarians in the time of perestroika and especially after the fall of communist regime and are usually a co-religion or co-belief to Bulgarians who otherwise are Christians (Roman Catholicism or Orthodoxy). Among these Eastern (Asian) religions Buddhist centres are officially registered in Bulgaria as religious denominations. The number of followers of Buddhism has increased gradually in recent years also due to the influx of Vietnamese citizens (predominantly Buddhist) to Bulgaria.
According to the most recent Eurostat "Eurobarometer" poll, in 2005,
40% of Bulgarian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 40% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force", 13% that "they do not believe there is a God, spirit, nor life force", and 6% did not answer.
Clothing
Bulgarian traditional clothing is diverse, and every ethnographic area in Bulgaria has its distinct styles.
Bulgarians call their traditional clothing 'носия' (nosiya).
See also
Golden Age of medieval Bulgarian culture
Art School of Tarnovo
Tarnovo Literary School
Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School
Bulgarian language
Public holidays in Bulgaria
References
Sources
External links
Center for Traditional Music and Dance
Nikolov, A. The Perception of the Bulgarian Past in the Court of Preslav around 900 AD. - In: State and Church: Studies in Medieval Bulgaria and Byzantium. Ed. by V. Gjuzelev and K. Petkov. American Research Center in Sofia: Sofia, 2011, 157-171 | [
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251626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnie%20Ewing | Winnie Ewing | Winifred Margaret Ewing ( Woodburn; born 10 July 1929) is a Scottish nationalist, lawyer and prominent Scottish National Party (SNP) politician who was a Member of Parliament (Hamilton 1967–70; Moray and Nairn 1974–79), Member of the European Parliament (Highlands and Islands 1975–99) and Member of the Scottish Parliament (Highlands and Islands 1999–2003). Her election victory in 1967 was a significant by-election in Scottish political history and began a surge of support for the SNP. She is known for saying "stop the world, Scotland wants to get on" when elected to UK parliament in 1967, and at the European Parliament was named ('Mrs Scotland'). Ewing was the Scottish National Party President from 1987 to 2005.
Early life
Ewing was born in July 1929 in Glasgow to Christina Bell Anderson and George Woodburn, a small business owner. She was educated at Battlefield School and Queen's Park Secondary School. In 1946 she matriculated at the University of Glasgow where she graduated with an MA and LLB. Although relatively inactive in politics at that time, she joined the Student Nationalists. Following her graduation, she qualified and practised as a solicitor and notary public. She was Secretary of the Glasgow Bar Association from 1962 to 1967.
Political biography
Ewing became active in campaigning for Scottish independence through her membership of the Glasgow University Scottish Nationalist Association, and came to prominence in 1967 when she won the Hamilton by-election as the Scottish National Party (SNP) candidate. She was elected with the help of a team including her election agent, John McAteer. On 16 November, she made her first appearance at Westminster, with her husband and children accompanying her on the journey. She arrived at the parliament in a Scottish-built Hillman Imp and was greeted by a crowd and a pipe band.
Ewing said at the time "stop the world, Scotland wants to get on", and her presence at Westminster led to a significant rise in membership for the SNP. It was speculated that Ewing's electoral gain led to the establishment of the Kilbrandon Commission by the Labour government of Harold Wilson to look into the viability of a devolved Scottish Assembly. In hindsight it could be said to mark the start of modern politics in Scotland, according to Professor Richard Finlay, Strathclyde University, bringing young people and women from non-political backgrounds into politics for the first time, whilst Labour and Tory party organisation and branch numbers were declining.
Despite her high profile, Ewing was unsuccessful in retaining the Hamilton seat at the 1970 general election. At the following February 1974 election she stood for Moray and Nairn and was returned to Westminster, although another election followed in October of the same year when her already marginal majority declined. Following the October election she was announced as the SNP's spokesperson on external affairs and EEC. She first became an MEP in 1975, at a time when the European Parliament was still composed of representative delegations from national parliaments. She lost her Westminster seat at the May 1979 election, but within weeks had gained a seat in the European Parliament at the first direct elections to the Parliament. Ewing was unsuccessful at seeking to return to Westminster as the SNP candidate for Orkney and Shetland in 1983, coming third.
She was elected the SNP Party President in 1987. It was during her time as an MEP that she acquired the nickname (French for 'Mrs Scotland') because of her strong advocacy of Scottish interests in Strasbourg and Brussels. That sobriquet was first used by Le Monde and with Ewing using the term as a badge of pride, it stuck. By 1995 she had become Britain's longest serving MEP. She had been a former Vice President of the European Radical Alliance which included French, Guyanese, Flemish, Luxembourg, Italian, Corsican and Spanish (Canary Islands) MEPs.
In 1999, she did not stand for the European Parliament, instead becoming a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) in the first session of the Scottish Parliament, representing the Highlands and Islands. As the oldest qualified member, it was her duty to preside over the opening of the Scottish Parliament, a session she opened with the statement: "The Scottish Parliament, adjourned on the 25th day of March in the year 1707, is hereby reconvened". She sat as a member on the European Committee, then the Public Petitions Committee.
During the controversy that arose in the early years of the Scottish Parliament surrounding proposals to repeal Clause 28 (a law banning the active promotion of homosexuality in schools) she joined her son Fergus Ewing in abstaining, although her daughter in law Margaret Ewing supported repeal as did the majority of her party's MSPs.
In June 2001, having turned 72 years old, she announced that she would retire from Parliament at the end of the session. In January 2003, her husband, Stewart Ewing, died in a fire accident. He had been active with her in politics for many years, and had himself served as an SNP councillor for the Summerston area in Glasgow. Later that year she stood down from being an MSP, although she continued to serve as the SNP's President, a position she held for many years.
On 15 July 2005, she announced she would be stepping down as President of the Scottish National Party at its September Conference, bringing to an end her 38-year career in representative politics. Her son Fergus Ewing serves as SNP MSP, as did his wife Margaret Ewing, and her daughter Annabelle Ewing, who was also an MP between 2001 and 2005.
First Minister of Scotland, Nicola Sturgeon said that Ewing had given her "hugely valuable advice" on public speaking, and that Ewing had given her some important advice as a young woman in politics, namely "Stand your ground and believe in yourself" and "a more vibrant, colourful, dynamic, passionate, committed person, you would struggle to meet."
Outside Parliament
Ewing is a vice president of equal rights charity Parity. On April 2009, BBC Alba broadcast a biographical documentary Madame Ecosse, produced by Madmac Productions. It was rebroadcast on BBC Scotland to mark her 80th birthday. Nicola Sturgeon named Ewing as her Political Hero on BBC News in 2018.
Awards and honours
In 1990 she was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Arts. She was conferred with honorary LLD degrees from the University of Glasgow in 1995 and University of Aberdeen in 2004, She was conferred with Doctor of the University degrees from the Open University in 1993 and University of Stirling in 2012. In 2009, a portrait of her painted by David Donaldson in 1970 was loaned to the Scottish Parliament and put on display.
References
Further reading
External links
Mother Scotland (22 February 2007 ) The Scotsman
Portrait of Winnie Ewing, by Norman Edgar, at the Scottish National Portrait Gallery
1929 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Scottish constituencies
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Highland constituencies
Members of the Scottish Parliament 1999–2003
MEPs for the United Kingdom 1973–1979
MEPs for Scotland 1979–1984
MEPs for Scotland 1984–1989
MEPs for Scotland 1989–1994
MEPs for Scotland 1994–1999
20th-century women MEPs for Scotland
21st-century women MEPs for Scotland
Politicians from Glasgow
Politics of Moray
Presidents of the Scottish National Party
Scottish autobiographers
Lawyers from Glasgow
Scottish National Party MEPs
Scottish National Party MSPs
Scottish National Party MPs
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
Female members of the Scottish Parliament
Scottish women lawyers
20th-century Scottish lawyers
Women autobiographers
People educated at Queen's Park Secondary School
20th-century women lawyers | [
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251635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert%20Hofstede | Geert Hofstede | Gerard Hendrik (Geert) Hofstede (2 October 1928 – 12 February 2020) was a Dutch social psychologist, IBM employee, and Professor Emeritus of Organizational Anthropology and International Management at Maastricht University in the Netherlands, well known for his pioneering research on cross-cultural groups and organizations.
He is best known for developing one of the earliest and most popular frameworks for measuring cultural dimensions in a global perspective. Here he described national cultures along six dimensions: Power Distance, Individualism, Uncertainty avoidance, Masculinity, Long Term Orientation, and Indulgence vs. restraint. He was known for his books Culture's Consequences and Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, co-authored with his son Gert Jan Hofstede. The latter book deals with organizational culture, which is a different structure from national culture, but also has measurable dimensions, and the same research methodology is used for both.
Biography
Born to Gerrit and Evertine Geessine (Veenhoven) Hofstede, Geert Hofstede attended schools in The Hague and Apeldoorn, and received his high school diploma (Gymnasium Beta) in 1945. In 1953, Hofstede graduated from Delft Technical University with an MSc in Mechanical Engineering. After working in the industry for ten years, Hofstede entered part-time doctoral study at Groningen University in The Netherlands, and received his PhD in social psychology cum laude in 1967. His thesis was titled "The Game of Budget Control".
Upon his graduation from Delft in 1953, Hofstede joined the Dutch military, working as a technical officer in the Dutch army for two years. After leaving the military he worked in industry from 1955 to 1965, starting as a factory hand in Amsterdam. In 1965 he started his graduate study in Groningen and joined IBM International, working as a management trainer and manager of personnel research. He founded and managed the Personnel Research Department. During a two-year sabbatical from IBM from 1971 to 1973 he was a visiting lecturer at IMEDE (now the International Institute for Management Development). In 1980, Hofstede co-founded and became the first Director for the IRIC, the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation, located at Tilburg University since 1998.
Since his retirement in 1993, Hofstede visited numerous universities worldwide to educate students on his theoretical approaches and to continue his research in this field. He was Professor Emeritus of Organizational Anthropology and International Management at Maastricht University in the Netherlands, and served as an extramural fellow of the Center of Economic Research at Tilburg University in Tilburg, Netherlands.
Hofstede received many honorary awards, and in 2011 was made a Knight in the Order of the Netherlands Lion (Orde van de Nederlandse Leeuw). He held honorary doctorates from seven universities in Europe, Nyenrode Business University, New Bulgarian University, Athens University of Economics and Business, University of Gothenburg, University of Liège, ISM University of Management and Economics, University of Pécs in 2009, and University of Tartu in 2012. He also received honorary professorships at The University of Hong Kong 1992–2000; the Beijing University of International Business and Economics (UIBE), Beijing, China; and the Renmin University of China, Beijing, China.
In 1955, Hofstede married Maaike A. van den Hoek. Together, they had four sons: Gert-Jan Hofstede, who is a population biologist and social scientist in information management; Rokus Hofstede, who works as a translator; Bart Hofstede, a Cultural Counselor for the Kingdom of the Netherlands who has served in Berlin, Paris and is now serving in Beijing, and Gideon Hofstede, who works as an international marketeer. He also had ten grandchildren. Gert-Jan has worked extensively with his father and co-authored several works in the realm of culture study.
In 2014, a movie was released about Geert Hofstede's life and work titled An Engineer's Odyssey.
In 2016, he received his 9th honorary doctorate in Prague, at the age of 88. He died in Velp, Gelderland.
Work
Hofstede was a researcher in the fields of organizational studies and more concretely organizational culture, also cultural economics and management. He was a well-known pioneer in his research of cross-cultural groups and organizations and played a major role in developing a systematic framework for assessing and differentiating national cultures and organizational cultures. His studies demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groups that influence the behavior of societies and organizations.
Early inspiration
When World War II ended, Geert Hofstede was seventeen and had always lived in the Netherlands under rather difficult circumstances, so he decided that it was time for him to explore the world. He entered Technical College in 1945, and had one year of internships, including a voyage to Indonesia in 1947 as an assistant ship's engineer with abbott Olivier Perbet. It was his first time out of his country, immersed in a foreign culture, and was an early influence in his career to study cross-cultures. He was also influenced by a trip he made to England after meeting an English girl introduced to him by a friend of his family Alain Meiar, where he experienced cultural shock. He was struck by the cultural differences he noticed between England and the Netherlands, two very close European countries. These early experiences helped translate into a lifelong career in cross-cultural research.
A second important period in Geert's life was working in industry between 1955 and 1965, when he held professional and managerial jobs in three different Dutch industrial companies. By experiencing management, he had a chance to see the organization from the bottom up working as a mechanic. This training and background as an engineer shaped his research and his approach to social situations. He claims that his description of social situations appeals to a number of people because, "I still have the mind of an engineer to the extent that I try to be specific...and be clear about what I am saying". This was important in his development of quantifying cultures on different dimensions.
IBM research
At IBM International, Hofstede started working as a management trainer and manager of personnel research, and founded and managed the Personnel Research Department. This was his transition from the field of engineering and into psychology. In this role, he played an active role in the introduction and application of employee opinion surveys in over 70 national subsidiaries of IBM around the world. He traveled across Europe and the Middle East to interview people and conduct surveys regarding people's behavior in large organizations and how they collaborated. He collected large amounts of data, but due to the pressures of his daily job, was unable to conduct a significant amount of research. When he took a two-year sabbatical from IBM in 1971, he delved deeper into the data he had collected from his job, and discovered that there were significant differences between cultures in other organizations, but got the same ranking of answers by country. At the time, the results of the IBM's surveys, with over 100,000 questionnaires, were one of the largest cross-national databases in existence.
He became a visiting lecturer at IMEDE (now the International Institute for Management Development) in Lausanne, Switzerland. At IMEDE, he administered a selection of IBM questionnaire items to his course participants, who were international managers from over 30 countries and from a variety of different private and public organizations unrelated to IBM. Hofstede found that the same results that he discovered in the IBM surveys had reproduced themselves significantly in the sample of his students. This was the first hard piece of evidence that the differences among countries was not specific to IBM, but, instead, were due to a generalized set of shared socialization skills that were specific to people having grown up in the same country, and not necessarily the same organization.
Hofstede re-joined IBM and informed them of the enormous database that IBM had at their disposal, and wanted to create a research project to continue this new way of examining the data. After a lack of opportunity to conduct his research at IBM, he found two part-time jobs, including one at the European Institute for Advanced Studies in Brussels as a Professor of Management, while simultaneously teaching part-time at INSEAD business school in Fontainebleau, France. Between 1973 and 1979, he worked on the data, and analyzed it in a variety of ways. He used existing literature in psychology, sociology, political science, and anthropology to relate his findings in a larger scope of study. In 1980, he published his book Culture's Consequences, where the results of his analysis were presented.
Research on national cultures and critiques
Research on national cultures
Hofstede's analysis defined four initial dimensions of national culture that were positioned against analysis of 40 initial countries. As a trained psychologist, he began his analysis of the survey data he had collected at IBM at the individual respondent level. At the end of two years, he realized he needed an "ecological" analysis, in which respondents were contextualized by their countries. By aggregating individuals as societal units, he could examine national cultures rather than individual personalities.
Hofstede's model explaining national cultural differences and their consequences, when introduced in 1980, came at a time when cultural differences between societies had become increasingly relevant for both economic and political reasons. The analysis of his survey data and his claims led many management practitioners to embrace the model, especially after the publication of his 1991 book, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind.
In 1980, Hofstede co-founded and became the first Director for the IRIC, the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation, located at Tilburg University since 1998. Much of Hofstede's research on the basic dimensions of nations came through the IRIC. In 2001, Hofstede published an entirely re-written second edition of Culture's Consequences. In 2010, a third edition of Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind was published with Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov as co-authors. In this book, there were two new dimensions that were added, and the number of countries covered was between 76 and 93. This book also introduced the topic of organizational cultures as a separate and different phenomenon.
Critiques
Despite the popularity of Hofstede's model, some critics have argued that his conceptualization of culture and its impact on people's behavior might be incorrect. The most cited criticism of his work is by Professor Brendan McSweeney (Royal Holloway, University of London and Stockholm University), who argues that Hofstede's claims about the role of national culture indicates too much determinism that might be linked to fundamental flaws in his methodology. Hofstede replied to this critique, arguing that the second edition of his book had responded to many of McSweeney's concerns and that he viewed the resistance to his ideas as a sign that he was shifting the prevalent paradigm in cross-cultural studies. McSweeney has rejected Hofstede's reply, arguing that the same profound methodological flaws that characterize the original analysis of the IBM data remain in the second edition.
Another key critique, which largely focuses on level of analysis, is by Professor Barry Gerhart (University of Wisconsin-Madison) and Professor Meiyu Fang (National Central University, Taiwan), who point out that among other problems with Hofstede's research (and the way it is widely interpreted) is that his results actually only show that around 2 to 4 percent of variance in individual values is explained by national differences – in other words 96 percent, and perhaps more, is not explained. And that there is nothing in Hofstede's work that pertains to individual-level behaviours or actions.
In a 2008 article in the Academy of Management's journal, The Academy of Management Review, Galit Ailon deconstructs Culture's Consequences by mirroring it against its own assumptions and logic. Ailon finds several inconsistencies at the level of both theory and methodology, and cautions against an uncritical reading of Hofstede's cultural dimensions.
Philippe d'Iribarne, director of research at the CNRS (Centre national de la recherche scientifique) in Paris expressed concern that "a theory of culture that considers culture to be 'shared meaning' does not allow for representation of the forms of unity and continuity." Part of d'Iribarne's objections have been with the weaknesses of Hofstede's terminology in general and category names specifically (e.g., power distance as a culture as whole versus a culture's acceptance of hierarchy only within organizational settings). More pointedly, d'Iribarne questions the generalized conclusions that Hofstede draws from the data, imposing Hofstede's own value system on what the data show. For instance, d'Iribarne questioned Hofstede's conclusions from the uncertainty avoidance statistics, arguing that Hofstede superimposes his own view that data. For d'Iribarne, Hostede simply presumes that showing high stress at work correlates with weak uncertainty avoidance, while d'Iribarne asserts that the presence of high stress could just as readily indicate high stress results from high uncertainty avoidance, since no external control exists in low uncertainty avoidance cultures. Finally, d'Iribarne questions Hofstede's implicit assumption of uniformity in complex organizations, let alone entire national cultures. Such assumptions of uniformity are useful, d'Iribarne writes only "if one thinks of a culture specific to a close-knit community." Instead, though, d'Iribarne notes that in most situations, "society is split into more or less antagonistic groups" and in any case, "meaning is not only received but produced"; in short, Hofstede does not allow for the fact that people do not remain static in how they interact with one another. Philippe d'Iribarne fills out the bare bones of Hofstede's simplified structure, a point with which Hofstede himself acknowledged when he wrote that, "The two approaches are complementary -- mine is more quantitative, d'Iribarne's more qualitative. I provided a skeleton for the countries he studied, and he provided the flesh. The skeleton I proposed is a worldwide structure in cultural differences among cultures."
Other academics also point to a fundamental flaw in the common application of Hofstede's culture dimensions. Hofstede's culture dimensions and scores are national or "ecological" in nature and do not apply to individual people living in the sampled countries: In Hofstede's analysis, the correlations of his culture variables are significant when aggregated to the national level but not significant at the individual level. This means that no cultural implications can be drawn about individual people living in a certain country; to do so is to commit an “ecological fallacy”. To avoid this fallacy and resulting confusion Brewer and Venaik recommend avoiding the use of the Hofstede dimension scores in management research and training. The same authors compare the Hofstede culture dimension scores with equivalent dimension scores from the GLOBE culture model and show severe problems in face, discriminant and convergent validity across the two models.
In a re-analysis of the cross-national value data, based on Hofstede, Shalom Schwartz and Ronald Inglehart and his own factor analysis of recent World Values Survey data, Arno Tausch Corvinus University Budapest found however a large-scale confirmation of Hofstede's value scales with other value survey research results. Especially the dimensions Power Distance, Individualism vs. Collectivism, Long-Term Orientation and Indulgence versus Restraint are closely correlated with value dimensions reported by Inglehart, Schwartz and the current data from the World Values Survey.
Reception of his work
Hofstede's books have appeared in 23 languages. His publications have been cited several ten thousand times, which makes him one of the currently most cited European social scientist.
He received much recognition for his work in cross-cultural analysis. In 2004, the Hanze University Groningen, the Netherlands established the Geert Hofstede Lecture, a bi-annual conference in the area of intercultural communication. In 2006, Maastricht University, the Netherlands inaugurated a Geert Hofstede Chair in cultural diversity.
In 2008, six European universities united to create the Master in International Communication (MIC), and named themselves the Geert Hofstede Consortium.
In 2009, Reputation Institute, which "recognizes individuals who have greatly contributed to the field of reputation through both scholarship and practice", nominated Hofstede as the Best Scholar of the year.
In October 2010, Maastricht University School of Business and Economics launched the Geert Hofstede Fund, aiming at encouraging activities around multicultural interactions and research about the impact of cultural differences.
Archives
The Archives of Geert Hofstede at the Library of the University of Groningen are opened to the public as of February 2020.
Publications
Hofstede authored and co-authored numerous publications in the field of social psychology and sociocultural anthropology.
References
External links
Geert Hofstede's academic website
Geert Hofstede Friends (group of International professionals continuing Geert's work (lead by Prof. Gert Jan Hofstede)
1928 births
2020 deaths
Dutch psychologists
Researchers in organizational studies
Delft University of Technology alumni
IBM employees
Tilburg University faculty
Maastricht University faculty
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251636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%20materials | Earth materials | Earth materials include minerals, rocks, soil and water. These are the naturally occurring materials found on Earth that constitute the raw materials upon which our global society exists. Earth materials are vital resources that provide the basic components for life, agriculture and industry. Earth materials can also include metals and precious rocks.
Definitions
The type of materials available locally will of course vary depending upon the conditions in the area of the building site. Take considerations of what is explained below.
In many areas, indigenous stone is available from the local region, such as limestone, marble, granite, and sandstone. It may be cut in quarries or removed from the surface of the ground (flag and fieldstone). Ideally, stone from the building site can be utilized. Depending on the stone type, it can be used for structural block, facing block, pavers, and crushed stone.
Most brick plants are located near the clay source they use to make brick. Bricks are molded and baked blocks of clay. Brick products come in many forms, including structural brick, face brick, roof tile, structural tile, paving brick, and floor tile.
Caliche is a soft limestone material which is mined from areas with calcium-carbonate soils and limestone bedrock. It is best known as a road bed material, but it can be processed into an unfired building block, stabilized with an additive such as cement. Other earth materials include soil blocks typically stabilized with a cement additive and produced with forms or compression.
Rammed Earth consists of walls made from moist, sandy soil, or stabilized soil, which is tamped into form work. Walls are a minimum of 12″ thick. Soils should contain about 30% clay and 70% sand.
Considerations
The use of locally available and indigenous earth materials has several advantages in terms of sustainability. They are:
Reduction of energy costs related to transportation.
Reduction of material costs due to reduced transportation costs, especially for well-established industries.
Support of local businesses and resource bases.
Care must be taken to ensure that non-renewable earth materials are not over-extracted. Ecological balance within the region needs to be maintained while efficiently utilizing its resources. Many local suppliers carry materials that have been shipped in from out of the area, so it is important to ask for locally produced/quarried materials.
Both brick and stone materials are aesthetically pleasing, durable, and low maintenance. Exterior walls weather well, eliminating the need for constant refinishing and sealing. Interior use of brick and stone can also provide excellent thermal mass, or be used to provide radiant heat. Some stone and brick makes an ideal flooring or exterior paving material, cool in summer and possessing good thermal properties for passive solar heating. Caliche block has been produced for applications similar to stone and brick mentioned above. Caliche or earth material block has special structural and finishing characteristics.
Rammed earth is more often considered for use in walls, although it can also be used for floors. Rammed earth and caliche block can be used for structural walls, and offer great potential as low-cost material alternatives with low embodied energy. In addition, such materials are fireproof.
Caliche block and rammed earth can be produced on-site. It is very important to have soils tested for construction material use. Some soils, such as highly expansive or bentonite soils, are not suitable for structural use. Testing labs are available in most areas to determine material suitability for structural use and meeting codes.
Soils for traditional adobe construction are not found in some areas, but other soils for earth building options are available. Many areas have a high percentage of soils suitable for ramming.
(Official areas are approximately 19,610 acres in the Austin, TX area, according to the US. Department of Agriculture).
Caliche is also abundant in many areas (covering 14% of the Austin geographic area, for instance) and is readily available locally.
See also
Earth structure
References
External links
BGS Open Data Earth Materials Ontologies
Economic geology | [
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251637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fons%20Trompenaars | Fons Trompenaars | Alfonsus (Fons) Trompenaars (born 1953, Amsterdam) is a Dutch
organizational theorist, management consultant, and author in the field of cross-cultural communication. known for the development of Trompenaars' model of national culture differences.
Biography
In 1979, Trompenaars received his MA in Economics at the Vrije Universiteit and in 1983 his PhD from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania for the thesis The Organization of Meaning and the Meaning of Organization.
In 1981 Trompenaars started his career at the Royal Dutch Shell Personnel Division, working on job classification and management development. In 1989 together with Charles Hampden-Turner he founded and directed the consultancy firm Centre for International Business Studies, working for such companies as BP, Philips, IBM, Heineken, AMD, Mars, Motorola, General Motors, Merrill Lynch, Johnson & Johnson, Pfizer, ABN AMRO, ING, PepsiCo, Honeywell. In 1998 the company was bought by KPMG and renamed "'Trompenaars Hampden-Turner.
Trompenaars was awarded the International Professional Practice Area Research Award by the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) in 1991. Subsequently, in 1999 Business magazine ranked him as one of the top 5 management consultants next to Michael Porter, Tom Peters and Edward de Bono. In 2011, he was voted one of the top 20 HR Most Influential International Thinkers by HR Magazine. In 2015, he was once again ranked in the Thinkers50 of the most influential management thinkers alive and in 2017 inducted into the Thinkers50 Hall of Fame.
Trompenaars wrote Riding the Waves of Culture, Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business. This book (in its third edition) sold over 120,000 copies and was translated into 16 languages amongst them, French, German, Dutch, Korean, Danish, Turkish, Chinese, Hungarian and Portuguese. He is co-author amongst others of Nine Visions of Capitalism: Unlocking the Meanings of Wealth Creation and Rewarding Performance Globally.
Positions
- Co-Director at the Servant-Leadership Centre for Research and Education (SERVUS) at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam.
- Member of Advisory Board Webster University Leiden.
- Distinguished Advisor of Centre for TransCultural Studies at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore.
- International Director at the International Society for Organisational Development.
- Faculty member at the Global Institute for Leadership Development (GILD).
- Judge of the Fons Trompenaars award for Cross Cultural Management (AHRI).
Work
Trompenaars' model of national culture differences
Trompenaars' model of national culture differences is a framework for cross-cultural communication applied to general business and management, developed by Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner. This model of national culture differences has seven dimensions.
Universalism vs. particularism (What is more important, rules or relationships?)
Individualism vs. collectivism (communitarianism) (Do we function in a group or as individuals?)
Neutral vs. emotional (Do we display our emotions?)
Specific vs. diffuse (How separate we keep our private and working lives)
Achievement vs. ascription (Do we have to prove ourselves to receive status or is it given to us?)
Sequential vs. synchronic (Do we do things one at a time or several things at once?)
Internal vs. external control (Do we control our environment or are we controlled by it?)
There are five orientations covering the ways in which human beings deal with each other.
Publications
Books, a selection:
1997. Riding The Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business with Charles Hampden-Turner
2004. Business Across Cultures (Culture for Business Series) with Peter Woolliams
2004. Managing People Across Cultures (Culture for Business Series) with Charles Hampden-Turner
2012. Cross-cultural management textbook: Lessons from the world leading experts, Introd. by Edgar H. Schein, Ed. by Jerome Dumetz, with Charles Hampden-Turner, Meredith Belbin, Jerome Dumetz, Juliette Tournand, Peter Woolliams, Olga Saginova, Stephen M. R. Covey, Dean Foster, Craig Storti, Joerg Schmitz
2015. Nine Visions of Capitalism: Unlocking the Meanings of Wealth Creation, with Charles Hampden-Turner
Articles, a selection:
Smith, Peter B., Shaun Dugan, and Fons Trompenaars. "National culture and the values of organizational employees a dimensional analysis across 43 nations." Journal of cross-cultural psychology 27.2 (1996): 231-264.
Smith, Peter B., Fons Trompenaars, and Shaun Dugan. "The Rotter locus of control scale in 43 countries: A test of cultural relativity." International Journal of Psychology 30.3 (1995): 377-400.
References
External links
Trompenaars at Hampden-Turner Consulting
Riding the Waves of Culture Talk video recording at TEDxAmsterdam, 6 November 2013
1953 births
Living people
Dutch anthropologists
Dutch business theorists
Cultural academics
Cross-cultural psychology
University of Amsterdam alumni
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni
Shell plc people
Writers from Amsterdam | [
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] |
251642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiniquodontidae | Chiniquodontidae | Chiniquodontidae is an extinct family of basal probainognathian cynodonts that lived in what is now Africa and South America during the Middle and Late Triassic. It is currently thought to include two valid genera: Aleodon and Chiniquodon. Two additional genera (Belesodon and Probelesodon) are usually regarded as junior synonyms of Chiniquodon.
References
Prehistoric probainognathians
Prehistoric therapsid families
Taxa named by Friedrich von Huene | [
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251646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rammelsberg | Rammelsberg | The Rammelsberg is a mountain, high, on the northern edge of the Harz range, south of the historic town of Goslar in the North German state of Lower Saxony. The mountain is the location of an important silver, copper, and lead mine, the only mine which had been working continuously for over 1,000 years when it finally closed in 1988. Since 1992, the visitor mine of Rammelsberg has become a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Name
According to legend, the mountain was named after a knight called "Ramm", who was a henchman of Emperor Otto the Great. In 968, whilst out hunting, the knight tied his horse to a tree, in order to pursue some deer through almost impassable terrain. His charger impatiently pawed the ground with its hooves whilst waiting for his master to return and so exposed a vein of silver ore. According to another explanation, the name may be derived from the widespread ramsons () found on the slopes. It is most probably however, that "ram" is a very old word-explanation for "ore with copper". In Italian today "rame" means "copper".
Ore formation
Unlike the mineral deposits of the Upper Harz, the ore deposits at the Rammelsberg were caused by the escape of hot, metal-bearing, thermal springs on the sea floor in the Devonian period. This formation is referred to as a sedimentary exhalative deposit. At the bottom of the Devonian sea, two large massive sulfide lenses formed that were later caught up in the folding of rocks during the Carboniferous period and so lie overturned at an angle in the mountain.
Ore mining started in the "Old Bed" or "Old Orebody" (Altes Lager), exposed on the surface by erosion, during the Bronze Age. The "New Bed" (Neues Lager) was only discovered in the 19th century as a result of specific exploration. The mines were exhausted only in the 1980s, and were shut down in 1988. The ore contained an average of 14% of zinc, 6% lead, 2% copper, 1 g/t gold and 140 g/t silver.
Mining history
The mining history of the Rammelsberg occurred as a continuous process in different phases. Initially the main product was copper ore, then, (much) later lead, and with lead, silver.
The analysis of written sources and archaeological finds of unsmelted pieces of ore and slag found during archaeological excavations between 1981 and 1985 at Düna (near Osterode) in the South Harz indicates that the earliest mining activity at the Rammelsberg occurred in the late 7th century AD (968AD). Anglo-Saxon burial objects made of Harz ore were also excavated in England.
Middle Ages
Mining on the Rammelsberg was first mentioned in the records around 968 by the Saxon chronicler, Widukind of Corvey. According to his Res gestae saxonicae, Emperor Otto the Great had silver ore deposits () opened and extracted. The mining settlement of Goslar was not mentioned until 979. In 1005, attracted by the presence of silver, King Henry II of Germany had the Imperial Palace of Goslar (Kaiserpfalz Goslar) built at the foot of Mt. Rammelsberg, which, extended by his Salian successors Conrad II and Henry III, gradually replaced the former Royal palace of Werla.
The profitable mines remained a Reichsgut directly belonging to the Holy Roman Emperor. When in 1175 Emperor Frederick Barbarossa called for support on his campaign against the Italian cities of the Lombard League, the Welf duke Henry the Lion demanded his enfeoffment with the Goslar mines in return, which Frederick denied. Duke Henry laid siege to the town and had the mining installations demolished. Restored after his deposition in 1180, the Rammelberg mines were again contested in 1198/99 during the Welf-Hohenstaufen throne quarrel between his son Otto IV and Frederick's son Philip of Swabia.
After Imperial influence waned, the mines were held in pledge by the council of the Imperial city of Goslar, who officially purchased the entitlement to the rights and royalties from mining (Bergregal) in 1359. A mining accident is documented in 1376, when more than 100 miners were buried and killed. The main ores mined at Rammelsberg were lead-zinc ore, copper ore, sulphur ore, mixed ore (Melierterz), brown spar (Braunerz), barite ore (Grauerz), banding ore (Banderz) and kniest along with the important minerals of galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, baryte and vitriols. The chief metals extracted from these ores included silver, lead, copper and zinc, on which the wealth of Goslar was based.
Modern era
The Goslar mines for centuries had been a thorn in the side of the Dukes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel ruling over the adjacent Harz estates. In 1552 - after decades of legal proceedings, feuds and skirmishing - Duke Henry V took the occasion of the city's weakened position upon the Schmalkaldic War and seized ownership of the mines from the citizens. Mining operations were further promoted by Henry's son and successor Duke Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel from 1568. During the Thirty Years' War the Goslar citizens once again tried to regain the Rammelsberg mines distinguishing themselves as loyal supporters of the Imperial forces against the Protestant commander Christian the Younger of Brunswick; however, to no avail as his nephew Duke Augustus the Younger reconciled with Emperor Ferdinand in 1642. Under the Welf dukes, gold was also won from the 18th century onwards.
With Goslar the Rammelsberg mines passed to the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814 and to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866. Under the 1936/37 Rammelsbergprojekt, the mine was greatly expanded at the behest of the Nazi authorities as part of the Four-year plan. The Nazis saw the Rammelsberg with its metal ores as vital to their war efforts and the difficulty of mineral dressing the ore had been technically solved (using froth flotation). This led to the construction of the present-day surface installations including the hillside processing plant and Rammelsberg shaft. The architects were Fritz Schupp and Martin Kremmer, who designed other important industrial buildings (including the Zeche Zollverein in the Ruhr area, now also a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
Prospecting in 2009
In February 2009, the company, Scandinavian Highlands Holding A/S, published the results of geophysical investigations by its subsidiary, Harz Minerals GmbH, according to which hitherto unknown mineral deposits of the size of those at the Rammelsberg may be present, two kilometres west of the Rammelsberg ore deposits. In autumn 2009 several exploratory bores were sunk in the area of the Hessenkopf and Gosetal to a depth of 500–600 metres. At the end of January 2010, after a news blackout of several months, the company announced that they would soon be drilling to a depth of 800 metres, where they suspected there would be rich mineral deposits.
World Heritage Site
After more than 1000 years during which almost 30 million tonnes of ore were extracted, the mine was finally closed by the Preussag company on 30 June 1988 as the mineral deposits had been largely exhausted. A citizens' association argued forcefully against plans to demolish the surface installations and fill in the historic underground mine workings. Consequently, the disused mine was developed into a museum to preserve its heritage and display the history of the mine and its industrial equipment.
In 1992 the museum became a UNESCO World Heritage project together with Goslar's Old Town. In 2010 this World Heritage Site was expanded to include the Upper Harz Water Regale, Walkenried Abbey and the historic Samson Pit. The Rammelsberg Museum and Visitor Mine is an anchor point on the European Route of Industrial Heritage (ERIH).
The historic mine has a number of special attractions including:
the Roeder Gallery (with a flatrod system and several water wheels that support the drainage of the pit and the hoisting of ore; there is a replica in the Deutsches Museum in Munich)
the Feuergezäher Vault (the oldest "nogged" (ausgemauert) underground mining space in Central Europe)
the Rathstiefste Gallery (medieval drainage adit; decorated with coloured vitriol encrustations)
the headframe (18th century)
the Master Malter's Tower (Maltermeisterturm) (oldest above-ground mining building in Germany)
old pithead dumps (the oldest being from the 11th and 12th centuries).
Mine installations
Master Malter's Tower
The Master Malter's Tower (Maltermeisterturm) is the oldest surviving above-ground mine building on the Rammelsberg and, probably, in Germany as well. It was built around 1500 on a slagheap on the side of the Rammelsberg. Initially the tower was used to oversee the pits; from 1578 it was used as a bell tower (Anläuteturm).
Since the mid-18th century the master malter (Maltermeister) lived in the tower. He managed the wood needed for the mine, which was measured in malters, hence the name.
Herzberg Pond
In order to have enough water to drive water wheels during times of drought the Herzberg Pond was created in 1561. Since 1926, this has been used as a woodland swimming pool. Until the closure of the mine, water was used for cooling and the warm water was pumped back into the pond where it heated the swimming basin of the woodland pool.
Low-grade ore dressing on the Bollrich
Due to the German Wirtschaftswunder ("economic miracle") after the Second World War and sharply rising lead and zinc prices in 1950, investigations were undertaken into the deposits of banding ore (Banderz). After successful trials into the processing of this low-grade ore (recoverable metal content of about 25%), the dressing of banding ore was begun in 1953 on the Bollrich above the village of Oker. Once again the mine architect, Fritz Schupp, was responsible for planning the facilities.
The site was linked to the Rammelsberg mine via the pit railway through the Gelenbeek Gallery. The removal of concentrates to the lead smelter at Oker and the Harlingerode zinc works was facilitated by a standard gauge railway line.
Commemorative coin
In 2008 Goslar's "Old Town" and the Rammelsberg Mine formed the motif for the annually issued 100 Euro gold coins from the series of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Harzer Wandernadel
The Rammelsberg Museum is No. 91 in the system of checkpoints forming the Harzer Wandernadel hiking network.
References
Sources
External links
UNESCO Official Website
Gold Mining in Germany : History and Future Potential pdf, in German
Mining in the Harz
Mining museums in Germany
Museums in Lower Saxony
Underground mines in Germany
Copper mines in Germany
Lead mines in Germany
Zinc mines in Germany
Silver mines in Germany
Show mines
European Route of Industrial Heritage Anchor Points
Goslar
Landmarks in Germany
Upper Harz Water Regale
World Heritage Sites in Germany | [
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251647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut%20%28fruit%29 | Nut (fruit) | A nut is a fruit consisting of a hard or tough nutshell protecting a kernel which is usually edible. In general usage and in a culinary sense, a wide variety of dry seeds are called nuts, but in a botanical context "nut" implies that the shell does not open to release the seed (indehiscent).
Most seeds come from fruits that naturally free themselves from the shell, but this is not the case in nuts such as hazelnuts, chestnuts, and acorns, which have hard shell walls and originate from a compound ovary. The general and original usage of the term is less restrictive, and many nuts (in the culinary sense), such as almonds, pecans, pistachios, walnuts, and Brazil nuts, are not nuts in a botanical sense. Common usage of the term often refers to any hard-walled, edible kernel as a nut. Nuts are an energy-dense and nutrient-rich food source.
Botanical definition
A seed is the mature fertilised ovule of a plant; it consists of three parts, the embryo which will develop into a new plant, the endosperm which contains nutrients, and a protective seed coat. Botanically, a nut is a seed which has a large proportion of endosperm and a tough seed coat which becomes increasingly hard as the nut matures. One or a few nuts may be contained in an involucre, a cup-shaped structure formed from the flower bracts. The involucre may be scaly, spiny, leafy or tubular, depending on the species of nut. Most nuts come from the pistils with inferior ovaries (see flower) and all are indehiscent (not opening at maturity). True nuts are produced, for example, by some plant families of the order Fagales. These include beech (Fagus), chestnut (Castanea), oak (Quercus), Stone-oak,(Lithocarpus) and tanoak (Notholithocarpus) in the family Fagaceae, as well as hazel, filbert (Corylus) and hornbeam (Carpinus) in the family Betulaceae.
Also widely known as nuts are dry drupes, which include pecans (Carya illinoensis), almonds (Prunus amygdalus), macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia), candlenut (Aleurites moluccanus), water caltrop (Trapa bicornis) and walnuts (Juglans regia). A drupe is an indehiscent fruit which has an outer fleshy part consisting of the exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh, which surround a single pit or stone, the endocarp with a seed (kernel) inside. In a dry drupe, the outer parts dry up and the remaining husk is part of the ovary wall or pericarp, and the hard inner wall surrounding the seed represents the inner part of the pericarp.
A small nut may be called a "nutlet" (or nucule, a term otherwise referring to the oogonium of stoneworts). In botany, the term "nutlet" specifically refers to a pyrena or pyrene, which is a seed covered by a stony layer, such as the kernel of a drupe. Walnuts and hickories (Juglandaceae) have fruits that are difficult to classify. They are considered to be nuts under some definitions but are also referred to as drupaceous nuts.
In common use, a "tree nut" is, as the name implies, any nut coming from a tree. This most often comes up regarding food allergies; a person may be allergic specifically to peanuts (which are not tree nuts but legumes), whereas others may be allergic to the wider range of nuts that grow on trees.
Production
In the 21st century, some dozen nuts comprise most of worldwide production, shown in the table below for major commercial nuts.
Food and health effects
Nuts contain the diverse nutrients that are needed for the growth of a new plant. Composition varies, but they tend to have a low water and carbohydrate content, with high levels of fats, protein, dietary minerals, and vitamins. The digestibility of the protein at about 90% is slightly lower than that of meat and fish, but can be improved by thorough chewing. The fats are largely unsaturated and nuts are a source of essential omega-3 fatty acids. As part of a healthy human diet, long-term consumption of diverse nutrients in nuts may contribute to a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, reduced levels of blood cholesterol, and lower all-cause mortality. For vegetarians and vegans, nuts provide many of the essential nutrients which may be in short supply in other plant foods.
Nuts supply nutrients for humans and wildlife. Because nuts generally have a high oil content, they are a significant energy source. Many seeds are edible by humans and used in cooking, eaten raw, sprouted, or roasted as a Snack food, ground to make nut butters, or pressed for oil that is used in cooking and cosmetics. Moderate nut consumption about per week may benefit weight control and contribute to lowering body weight in humans.
Nuts used for food are a common source of food allergens. Reactions can range from mild symptoms to severe ones, a condition known as anaphylaxis, which can be life-threatening. The reaction is due to the release of histamine by the body in response to an allergen in the nuts, causing skin and other possible reactions. Many experts suggest that a person with an allergy to peanuts should avoid eating tree nuts, and vice versa.
Nutrition
Constituents
Nuts are the source of energy and nutrients for the new plant. They contain a relatively large quantity of calories, essential unsaturated and monounsaturated fats including linoleic acid and linolenic acid, vitamins, and essential amino acids. Many nuts are good sources of vitamin E, vitamin B2, folate, fiber, and essential minerals, such as magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, copper, and selenium.
This table lists the percentage of various nutrients in four unroasted seeds.
Research
Nuts are under preliminary research to assess whether their consumption may lower risk for some diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer. A 2014 review indicated that consuming one or more servings of nuts or peanut butter per day could lower the risk of ischemic heart disease, overall cardiovascular disease, stroke in women, and all-cause mortality.
See also
List of culinary nuts
List of edible seeds
List of foods
Nutmeg
Achene
Notes
References
Further reading
Albala, Ken (2014) Nuts A Global History. The Edible Series.
External links
Fruit morphology
Snack foods
Vegan cuisine
Vegetarian cuisine
Christmas food
Staple foods
Types of food | [
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251649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimshaw%20%28chess%29 | Grimshaw (chess) | A Grimshaw is a device found in chess problems in which two black pieces arriving on a particular square mutually interfere with each other. It is named after the 19th-century problem composer Walter Grimshaw. The Grimshaw is one of the most common devices found in directmates.
The theme can be understood by reference to the displayed example by A. G. Corrias (published in Good Companion, 1917). The problem is a mate in two (White must move first and checkmate Black in two moves against any defence). The key is 1.Qb1, which threatens 2.Qb7#. Black has three ways to defend against this.
One is to play 1...c3, giving his king a new flight square at c4, but this unguards d3, allowing White to mate with 2.Qd3#.
It is the other two black defences, however, which show the Grimshaw theme.
Black can play 1...Bb2, thus cutting off the white queen's path to b7. However, the bishop on b2 interferes with the a2 rook and stops it moving along the rank - this allows White to play 2.Qh1# (after a different black move, this would not be possible because of 2...Rg2, blocking the check).
Black can instead play 1...Rb2, cutting off the white queen with the rook rather than the bishop. However, just as the bishop on b2 interferes with the rook, so the rook on b2 interferes with the bishop, allowing White to play 2.Qf5# (a mate not otherwise possible, because of 2...Be5, blocking the check).
It is this mutual interference between two black pieces on the one square (in this case, a rook and a bishop on b2) that constitutes a Grimshaw.
The key in the puzzle on the right is 1. Qd2. If 1. Qb2? then 1... Bc7 defends. This move has no threat, but it leaves black in zugzwang: Black must either take the queen and allow 2. Nd8# or move one of his bishops or rooks. However, any bishop or rook move must unguard one of the squares of d5, d6, d7 or d8, allowing White to mate on d5, d6 or d7 with the queen, and d8 with the knight. The lines are:
1. Qd2!
1... Bxd2 2. Nd8# (2... Bxd8 not possible)
1... Rb7 2. Qd5# (2... Bxd5 not possible)
1... Rc6 2. Qd5# (2... Bxd5 not possible)
1... Bb6 2. Qd6# (2... Rxd6 not possible; 2... exd6 not possible due to pin)
1... Bc6 2. Qd6# (2... Rxd6 not possible; 2... exd6 not possible due to pin)
1... Bb7 2. Qd7# (2... Rxd7 not possible)
1... Bc7 2. Qd7# (2... Rxd7 not possible)
1... Rb6 2. Nd8# (2... Bxd8 not possible)
1... Rc7 2. Nd8# (2... Bxd8 not possible)
By: Geometrist in Chess.com, comment #50
Grimshaws involving pawns
The pieces involved in Grimshaws are usually rook and bishop, as in the previous example, although Grimshaws involving pawns are also seen, as in this mate in two example by Frank Janet (published in the St.Louis Globe Democrat, 1916):
The key is 1.Qd7, threatening 2.Qf5#. As in the previous example, Black can defend by cutting White's queen off from its intended destination square, but two of these defences have fatal flaws in that they interfere with other pieces: 1...Be6 interferes with the pawn on e7, allowing 2.Qxc7# (2...e5 would be possible were the bishop not on e6) and 1...e6 interferes with the bishop, allowing 2.Qxa4# (2...Bc4 would be possible were the pawn not on e6). It is this mutual interference between bishop and pawn on e6 which constitutes the pawn Grimshaw. There are several other non-thematic black defences in this problem — see below for them all.
1.Qd7 (threatening 2.Qf5#)
1...Be6 2.Qxc7#
1...e6 2.Qxa4#
1...Ne6 2.Nd5#
1...Ra5 2.Qd4#
1...Nxe3 2.fxe3#
1...Ng3 2.fxg3#
Multiple Grimshaws
Sometimes, multiple Grimshaws can be combined in one problem. Here are two examples by Lev Ilych Loshinsky each with three Grimshaws:
This was first published in L'Italia Scacchistica, 1930. It is a mate in two. The key is 1.Rb1, with the threat 2.d4#. Each of Black's defences produces a Grimshaw interference which stops him from capturing White's mating piece. Black's defences, with White's replies, are:
1...Re6 2.Nd7# (2...Bxd7 not possible)
1...Be6 2.Bd6# (2...Rxd6 not possible)
1...Rg4 2.Ne6# (2...Bxe6 not possible)
1...Bg4 2.Bg1# (2...Rxg1 not possible)
1...Rb2 2.Qxc3# (2...Bxc3 not possible)
1...Bb2 2.Qf2# (2...Rxf2 not possible)
There is one other black defence: 1...Rd6 leading to the simple recapture 2.Bxd6# (this is essentially the same mate as that which follows 1...Be6).
This second Loshinsky example, also a mate in two, is from Tijdschrift v.d. Nederlandse Schaakbond, 1930, and is one of the most famous of all chess problems. It is a complete block (if White could pass his first move, then he could reply to every black move with a mate), and White's key, 1.Bb3, holds this block, making no threat, but putting Black in zugzwang. Black has six defences leading to three Grimshaws, one of them a pawn Grimshaw:
1...Rb7 2.Rc6# (2...Bxc6 not possible)
1...Bb7 2.Re7# (2...Rxe7 not possible)
1...Rg7 2.Qe5# (2...Bxe5 not possible)
1...Bg7 2.Qxf7# (2...Rxf7 not possible)
1...Bf6 2.Qg4# (2...f5 not possible)
1...f6 2.Qe4# (2...Be5 not possible)
After other black moves, White can play one of the above moves to mate; the three exceptions are 1...f5, taking away that square from the king and allowed 2.Qd6# and two recaptures: 1...Rxc7 2.Nxc7# and 1...Bxd4 2.Nxd4#.
Novotny
A close relative of the Grimshaw is the Novotny, which is essentially a Grimshaw brought about by a white sacrifice on a square where it can be captured by two different black pieces – whichever black piece captures the white piece, it interferes with the other.
References
External links
A selection of Grimshaw problems, including many fairy problems
Chess problems | [
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251650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinx | Jinx | A jinx (also jynx), in popular superstition and folklore, is a curse or the attribute of attracting bad or negative luck.
The word "jynx" meaning the bird wryneck and sometimes a charm or spell has been in use in English since the seventeenth century. The modern spelling and connotations developed late in the nineteenth century. In the 21st-century press, the suggestion a ship might be "jinxed" was made in connection with two cruise liners after misfortunes, MS Queen Victoria and the Emerald Princess. In the 20th century, the Australian aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne was sometimes said to be jinxed, having twice struck a friendly ship, with considerable loss of life.
The term "jinx" also arises when one does not want to say something positive about an incomplete or inconclusive situation out of fear of "jinxing it". The superstition goes that speaking positively about one's current situation will cause it to be "jinxed", and things will start to go wrong.
Jinx is also the name given to a game between friends (especially children) when two people say the same word or phrase at the same time and they then call "jinx".
Etymology
The Online Etymology Dictionary states that "jynx", meaning a charm or spell, was in usage in English as early as the 1690s. The same source states that "jinx", with that specific spelling, is first attested in American English in 1911. Jynx/jinx is traced to the 17th-century word jyng, meaning "a spell", and ultimately to the Latin word minx, also spelled jynx, as 'j' and 'i' are the same letter in Latin. The Latin iynx came from the Greek name of the wryneck bird, iunx, associated with sorcery; not only was the bird used in the casting of spells and in divination, but the Ancient Romans and Greeks traced the bird's mythological origins to a sorceress named Iynx, who was transformed into this bird to punish her for a spell cast on the god Zeus.
History
A "Mr Jinx" appeared in Ballou's monthly magazine – Volume 6, page 276, in 1857.
Barry Popik of the American Dialect Society suggests that the word should be traced back to an American folksong called Captain Jinks of the Horse Marines written by William Lingard in 1868.
In 1887, the character Jinks Hoodoo, described as "a curse to everybody, including himself" appeared in the musical comedy Little Puck, and the name was quickly picked up by the press.
In sports
One of the uses of the word "jinx" has been in the context of baseball; in the short story The Jinx (1910) – later collected in the book The Jinx: Stories of the Diamond (1911) – Allen Sangree wrote:
By th' bones of Mike Kelly, I'll do it! Yes, sir, I'll hoodoo th' whole darned club, I will. I'll put a jinx on 'em or my name ain't Dasher, an' that goes!
And again
and later referenced in Pitching at a Pinch (1912), Christy Mathewson explained that "a jinx is something which brings bad luck to a ball player." Baseball's most common "jinx" belief is that talking about a pitcher's ongoing no-hitter will cause it to be ended. See also Curse of the Bambino.
See also
Hex (disambiguation)
Jinks (disambiguation)
References
Luck
Curses | [
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251654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculum | Speculum | The term speculum, Latin for "mirror", and its plural specula, may refer to:
Speculum (butterfly), a skipper butterfly genus in the tribe Erynnini
Speculum (journal), a journal of medieval studies published by the Medieval Academy of America
Speculum (medical), a medical tool used for examining body cavities
Speculum feathers, the secondary feathers on the inner part of a duck's wing which are often brightly coloured
Speculum literature, a medieval genre
Speculum metal, an alloy containing copper and tin used for making all-metal mirrors
"Speculum", a song by Adema from Adema (album)
Ophrys speculum, a species of ground orchid in the genus Ophrys
See also
Specula (disambiguation)
Spiculum, a Roman weapon | [
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251657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karleen%20Bradford | Karleen Bradford | Karleen Bradford (born December 16, 1936) is a Canadian children's author.
Bradford's novel Dear Canada: With Nothing But Our Courage is a historical novel about a Loyalist family in the United States after the American Revolution.
Personal
Born in Toronto, Ontario, Bradford moved to Argentina as a child. She returned to Canada to attend university, and after graduation, she spent 34 years in different parts of the world as a wife of a Foreign Service Officer. She currently resides in Owen Sound, Ontario.
Published Books
A Year for Growing (1977) - republished as Wrong Again Robby in 1983
The Other Elizabeth (1982)
I Wish There Were Unicorns (1983)
The Stone in the Meadow (1983)
The Haunting at Cliff House (1985)
The Nine Days Queen (1986)
Windward Island (1989) - winner of the 1990 Max and Greta Ebel Award
There Will be Wolves (1992) - winner of the 1993 Canadian Library Association Young Adult Book Award
Thirteenth Child (1994)
Animal Heroes (1995)
Write Now! (1996)
Shadows on a Sword (1996)
More Animal Heroes (1996)
Dragonfire (1997)
A different Kind of Companion (1998)
Lionheart's Scribe (1999)
Whisperings of Magic (2001)
Dear Canada: With Nothing But Our Courage: The Loyalist Diary of Mary MacDonald, Johnstown, Quebec, 1783 (2002)
Angeline (2004)
You Can't Rush a Cat (2004)
The Scarlet Cross (2006)
Dragonmaster (2009)
References
External links
1936 births
Canadian children's writers
Canadian fantasy writers
Writers from Toronto
Living people
Canadian historical novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period
Canadian women novelists | [
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251662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20mole | Golden mole | Golden moles are small insectivorous burrowing mammals endemic to Southern Africa. They comprise the family Chrysochloridae and as such they are taxonomically distinct from the true moles, family Talpidae, and other mole-like families, all of which, to various degrees, they resemble as a result of evolutionary convergence.
Characteristics and affinities
Like most burrowing mammals with similar habits, the Chrysochloridae have short legs with powerful digging claws, very dense fur that repels dirt and moisture, and toughened skin, particularly on the head. Their eyes are non-functional and covered with furred skin. The external ears are just tiny openings. In particular, golden moles bear a remarkable resemblance to the marsupial moles of Australia, family Notoryctidae, which they resemble so suggestively that at one time, the marsupial/placental divide notwithstanding, some argued that they were related. Considerations that influenced the debate might have included the view that the Chrysochloridae are very primitive placentals and the fact that they have many mole-like specializations similar to specializations in marsupial moles. The rhinarium is a greatly enlarged, dry leathery pad that protects their nostrils while the animal digs. In this respect, too, they resemble the marsupial moles. Some authors claim their primary sense is of touch, and they are particularly sensitive to vibrations, which may indicate approaching danger. Note below, however, the observations on the malleus in the middle ear.
The species range in size from about to about . They have muscular shoulders and the forelimbs are radically adapted for digging; all the toes on the forefeet have been reduced, except for a large, pick-like third claw on the third toe. The fifth digit is absent and the first and fourth digits are vestigial. The adaptations of the hind feet are less dramatic: They retain all five toes and are webbed as an adaptation to efficient backward shovelling of soil loosened by the front claws.
At one time, the Chrysochloridae were regarded as primitive. Supporting arguments of this included that they were thought to have originated in Gondwana, that they had a low resting metabolic rate, and that they could switch off thermoregulation when inactive. Like the tenrecs, they possess a cloaca, and males lack a scrotum. However, these points are no longer regarded as strongly suggestive of golden moles as undeveloped "reptilian mammals"; some are seen rather as adaptations to regional climatic conditions. Going into a torpor when resting or during cold weather enables them to conserve energy and reduce urgent requirements for food. Similarly, they have developed particularly efficient kidneys, and most species do not need to drink water at all; in fact, they tend to drown easily if they fall into water.
Habits and ecology
Most species of Chrysochloridae live almost exclusively underground in their respectively preferred environments, beneath either grassveld, forest, swamps, deserts, or mountainous terrain. However, Chrysospalax species tend to forage above ground in leaf litter in forests or in meadows. Eremitalpa species such as Grant's golden mole live in the sandy Namib desert, where they cannot form tunnels because the sand collapses. Instead during the day, when they must seek shelter, they "swim" through the loose sand, using their broad claws to paddle, and dive down some 50 cm to where it is bearably cool. There they enter a state of torpor, thus conserving energy. At night they emerge to forage on the surface rather than wasting energy shifting sand. Their main prey are termites that live under isolated grass clumps, and they might travel for 6 kilometres a night in search of food. They seek promising clumps by listening for wind-rustled grass-root stresses and termites' head-banging alarm signals, neither of which can be heard easily above ground, so they stop periodically and dip their heads under the sand to listen.
Most other species construct both foraging superficial burrows and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Residential burrows are relatively complex in form, and may penetrate as far as a metre below ground and include deep chambers for use as bolt-holes, and other chambers as latrines. They push excavated soil up to the surface as mole-hills, or compact it into the tunnel walls.
They feed on small insects and earthworms or small vertebrates such as lizards or burrowing snakes. They depend on their sense of hearing to locate much of their prey, and the cochleas of a number of golden mole species have been found to be long and highly coiled, which may indicate a greater ecological dependence on low frequency auditory cues than we see in Talpid moles.
Some species also have hypertrophied middle ear ossicles, in particular the malleus, which apparently is adapted towards the detection of seismic vibrations.
In this respect there is some apparent convergent evolution to burrowing reptiles in the family Amphisbaenidae.
Reproduction
Females give birth to one to three hairless young in a grass-lined nest within the burrow system. Breeding occurs throughout the year. The adults are solitary, and their burrowing territory may be aggressively defended from intruders, especially where resources are relatively scarce.
Status
Of the 21 species of golden mole, no fewer than 11 are threatened with extinction. The primary causes are sand mining, poor agricultural practices, increasing urbanisation, and predation by domestic cats and dogs.
Classification
The taxonomy of the Chrysochloridae is undergoing a review in the light of new genetic information. They have traditionally been listed with the shrews, hedgehogs and a grab-bag of small, difficult-to-place creatures as part of the order Insectivora. Some authorities retain this classification, at least for the time being. Others group the golden moles with the tenrecs in a new order, which is sometimes known as Tenrecomorpha, while others call it Afrosoricida and reserve Tenrecomorpha for the family Tenrecidae.
ORDER AFROSORICIDA
Suborder Tenrecomorpha
Family Tenrecidae: tenrecs, 34 species in 10 genera
Suborder Chrysochloridea
Family Chrysochloridae
Subfamily Chrysochlorinae
Genus Carpitalpa
Arends's golden mole (Carpitalpa arendsi)
Genus Chlorotalpa
Duthie's golden mole (Chlorotalpa duthieae)
Sclater's golden mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri)
Genus Chrysochloris
Subgenus Chrysochloris
Cape golden mole (Chrysochloris asiatica)
Visagie's golden mole (Chrysochloris visagiei)
Subgenus Kilimatalpa
Stuhlmann's golden mole (Chrysochloris stuhlmanni)
Genus Chrysospalax
Giant golden mole (Chrysospalax trevelyani)
Rough-haired golden mole (Chrysospalax villosus)
Genus Cryptochloris
De Winton's golden mole (Cryptochloris wintoni)
Van Zyl's golden mole (Cryptochloris zyli)
Genus Eremitalpa
Grant's golden mole (Eremitalpa granti)
Subfamily Amblysominae
Genus Amblysomus
Fynbos golden mole (Amblysomus corriae)
Hottentot golden mole (Amblysomus hottentotus)
Marley's golden mole (Amblysomus marleyi)
Robust golden mole (Amblysomus robustus)
Highveld golden mole (Amblysomus septentrionalis)
Genus Calcochloris
Subgenus Huetia
Congo golden mole (Calcochloris leucorhinus)
Subgenus Calcochloris
Yellow golden mole (Calcochloris obtusirostris)
Subgenus incertae sedis
Somali golden mole (Calcochloris tytonis)
Genus Neamblysomus
Juliana's golden mole (Neamblysomus julianae)
Gunning's golden mole (Neamblysomus gunningi)
References
Afrosoricida
Extant Lutetian first appearances
Taxa named by John Edward Gray | [
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251663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CodedColor%20PhotoStudio%20Pro | CodedColor PhotoStudio Pro | CodedColor is a bitmap graphics editor and image organizer for computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system, and is published by 1STEIN.
CodedColor contains different tools for image editing and viewing. Additionally, it has other features such as web album export, annotations, database and keyword searching, contact sheets, screen shows, batch conversion, photo finishing, red eye correction, screen capture and TWAIN import.
Details
CodedColor PhotoStudio is a photo organizer and image editing software for digital camera users. The software comes with a handbook and a database to store Exif / IPTC data and color informationen.
The interface includes features like photo editing & printing, web album galleries, slide shows, photo management & cataloging, custom sorting, IPTC & Exif editor, thumbnail generation, resize & resample images, jp2000, batch conversion, database keyword searching, red eye removal, color / sharpness / brightness & contrast correction, artefacts removal, clone brush, scanner & TWAIN import, screen capture, lossless JPEG rotation, gamma correction, print ordering and screenshows with many transition effects, watermark text, image annotations, panorama stitch & animation, video capture, PDF album export, photo layouts, collages, frames, shadows, histograms, automatic white balance, and Skype photo sharing.
You can also rename multiple images, remove scratches, create panorama pictures (stitch), convert RAW photos (from Canon, Nikon, Olympus, etc. cameras), send images via Skype, send photo SMS, burn digital watermarks, correct colors, run a screenshow, convert and correct JPEG images in a batch process, rename fields, open pictures and image folders from the Explorer, generate a webalbum in HTML and compress and resize images.
It opens and converts all common image formats: BMP, WMF, GIF, JPEG, JPEG2000, TIFF, PCX, PNG, PSP, PSD, PCD, and all current RAW formats. The software package includes Pixpedia Publisher, a photo layout and desktop publishing tool, from which you can create and order individual photobooks.
Media
CodedColor PhotoStudio has received numerous awards and magazine articles, for example from CNET
See also
List of raster graphics editors
Comparison of raster graphics editors
References
External links
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251665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculum%20feathers | Speculum feathers | The speculum is a patch, often distinctly coloured, on the secondary wing feathers, or remiges, of some birds.
Examples of the colour(s) of the speculum in a number of ducks are:
Common teal and green-winged teal: Iridescent green edged with buff.
Blue-winged teal: Iridescent green. The species' common name comes from the sky-blue wing coverts.
Crested duck and bronze-winged duck: Iridescent purple-bronze, edged white.
Pacific black duck: Iridescent green, edged light buff.
Mallard: Iridescent purple-blue with white edges.
American black duck: Iridescent violet bordered in black and may have a thin white trailing edge.
Northern pintail: Iridescent green in male and brown in female, both are white on trailing edge.
Gadwall: Both sexes have white inner secondaries.
Yellow-billed duck: Iridescent green or blue, bordered white.
Bright wing speculums are also known from a number of other birds; among them are several parrots from the genus Amazona with red or orange speculums, though in this case the colors are pigmentary and non-iridescent.
References
Feathers
Ducks | [
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251667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Thomas%20Christians | Saint Thomas Christians | The Saint Thomas Christians, also called Syrian Christians of India, Marthoma Suriyani Nasrani, Malankara Nasrani, or Nasrani Mappila, are an ethno-religious community of Indian Christians in the state of Kerala (Malabar region), who currently employ the East Syriac and West Syriac liturgical rites of Syriac Christianity. They trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. The Saint Thomas Christians had been historically a part of the hierarchy of the Church of the East but are now divided into several different Eastern Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, Protestant, and independent bodies, each with their own liturgies and traditions. They are Malayalis and speak Malayalam. Nasrani or Nazarene is a Syriac term for Christians, who were among the first converts to Christianity in the Near East.
Historically, this community was organised as the Province of India of the Church of the East by Patriarch Timothy I (780–823 AD) in the eighth century, served by bishops and a local dynastic archdeacon. In the 14th century, the Church of the East declined due to persecution by Tamerlane, and Portuguese colonial overtures to bring St Thomas Christians into the Latin Catholic Church, administered by their Padroado system in the 16th century, lead to the first of several rifts (schisms) in the community. The attempts of the Portuguese culminated in the Synod of Diamper, formally subjugating them and their whole Archdiocese of Angamaly as a suffragan see to the Archdiocese of Goa, which was under the Portuguese Padroado and celebrated the Latin Rite of worship. Portuguese oppression provoked a violent resistance among the Thomasine Christians, that took expression in the Coonan Cross Oath protest in 1653. This led to the permanent schism among the Thomas' Christians of India, leading to the formation of Puthenkūr (New allegiance, pronounced Pùttènkūṟ) and Pazhayakūr (Old allegiance, pronounced Paḻayakūṟ) factions. The Pazhayakūr comprise the present day Syro-Malabar Church and Chaldean Syrian Church which continue to employ the original East Syriac Rite (Babylonian Rite /Persian Rite) liturgy. The other group, who resisted the Portuguese, under the leadership of archdeacon Thoma I, entered into a new communion with the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch, an Oriental Orthodox church, forming the Malankara Jacobite Church and they inherited from the Syriac Orthodox Church the West Syriac Rite, which employs the Liturgy of Saint James, an ancient rite of the Church of Antioch, replacing the old East Syriac Rite liturgy.
The Eastern Catholic faction is in full communion with the Holy See in Rome. This includes the aforementioned Syro-Malabar Church as well as the Malankara Syrian Catholic Church, the latter arising from an Oriental Orthodox faction that entered into communion with Rome in 1930 under Bishop Geevarghese Ivanios (d. ). As such the Malankara Catholic Church employs the West Syriac liturgy of the Syriac Orthodox Church, while the Syro-Malabar Church employs the East Syriac liturgy of the historic Church of the East.
The Oriental Orthodox faction includes the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, resulting from a split within the Malankara Church (Puthenkūr faction) in 1912 over whether the church should be autocephalous or rather under the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch. As such, the Malankara Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox Church independent of the Patriarch of Antioch, whereas the Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church is an integral part of the Syriac Orthodox Church and is headed by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch.
The Iraq-based Assyrian Church of the East's archdiocese includes the Chaldean Syrian Church based in Thrissur. They were a minority faction within the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, which split off and joined with the Church of the East Bishop during the 1870s. The Assyrian Church is one of the descendant churches of the Church of the East.
Oriental Protestant denominations include the Mar Thoma Syrian Church and the St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India. The Marthoma Syrian Church were a part of the Malankara Church that went through a reformation movement under Abraham Malpan due to influence of British Anglican missionaries in the 1800s. The Mar Thoma Church employs a reformed variant of the liturgical West Syriac Rite. The St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India is an evangelical faction that split off from the Marthoma Church in 1961.
CSI Syrian Christians are a minority faction of Malankara Syrian Christians, who joined the Anglican Church in 1836, and eventually became part of the Church of South India in 1947, after Indian independence. The C.S.I. is in full communion with the Mar Thoma Syrian Church. By the 20th century, various Syrian Christians joined Pentecostal and other evangelical denominations like the Kerala Brethren, Indian Pentecostal Church of God, Assemblies of God etc.
Terminology
The Saint Thomas Christians have also been nicknamed such due to their reverence for Saint Thomas the Apostle, who is said to have brought Christianity to India. The name dates back to the period of Portuguese colonisation. They are also known, especially locally, as Nasrani or Nasrani Mappila. The former means Christian; it appears to have been derived from the Hebrew word Netzer or the Aramaic Nasraya from Isaiah 11:1. Nasrani is evolved from the Syriac term for "Christian" that emerges from the Greek word Nazōraioi, Nazarene in English. Mappila is an honorific applied to members of non-Indian faiths and descendants of immigrants from the middle east who had intermarried with the local population, including Muslims (Jonaka Mappila) and Jews (Yuda Mappila). Some Syrian Christians of Travancore continue to attach this honorific title to their names. The Government of India designates members of the community as Syrian Christians, a term originating with the Dutch colonial authority that distinguishes the Saint Thomas Christians, who used Syriac (within East Syriac Rite or West Syriac Rite) as their liturgical language, from newly evangelised Christians who followed the Roman Rite. The terms Syrian or Syriac relate not to their ethnicity but to their historical, religious and liturgical connection to the Church of the East, or East Syriac Church.
History
Tradition of origin
According to tradition, Thomas the Apostle came to Muziris on the Kerala coast in AD 52 which is in present-day Pattanam, Kerala.
The Cochin Jews are known to have existed in Kerala in the 1st century AD, and it was possible for an Aramaic-speaking Jew, such as St. Thomas from Galilee, to make a trip to Kerala then. The earliest known source connecting the Apostle to India is the Acts of Thomas, likely written in the early 3rd century, perhaps in Edessa.
A number of 3rd and 4th century Roman writers also mention Thomas' trip to India, including Ambrose of Milan, Gregory of Nazianzus, Jerome, and Ephrem the Syrian, while Eusebius of Caesarea records that St. Clement of Alexandria's teacher Pantaenus from Alexandria visited a Christian community in India using the Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew language in the 2nd century.
The tradition of origin of the Christians in Kerala is found in a version of the Songs of Thomas or Thomma Parvam, written in 1601 and believed to be a summary of a larger and older work. Thomas is described as arriving in or around Maliankara and founding Ēḻarappaḷḷikaḷ (Seven great churches): Kodungallur, Kottakavu , Palayoor, Kokkamangalam, Nilackal, Niranam and Kollam. Some other churches, namely Thiruvithamcode Arappally (a "half church"), Malayattoor and Aruvithura are often called Arappallikal. The Thomma Parvam also narrates the conversion of Jews, natives, and the local King at Kodungallur by St Thomas. It is possible that the Jews who became Christians at that time were absorbed by what became the Nasrani Community in Kerala. The Thomma Parvam further narrates St Thomas's mission in the rest of South India and his martyrdom at Mylapore in present-day Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
According to legend, the community began with Thomas's conversion of Brahmin families, namely Pakalomattom, Sankarapuri, Kalli, Kaliyankal, Koikara, Madapoor, Muttodal, Kottakara, Nedumpilly, Palackal,
Panakkamattom, Kunnappilly, Vazhappilly, Payyappilly, Maliakkal, Pattamukku and Thaiyil. Of these families, Sankarapuri and Palamattam (Pakalomattom) were ordained and set apart for sacred orders and bishops. The priesthood has been practically hereditary in the two families, Sankarapuri and Palamattam, for several centuries with the inheritance in the female line
While there is much doubt on the cultural background of early Christians, there is evidence that some members of the St Thomas Christian community observed Brahmin customs in the Middle Ages, such as the wearing of the Upanayana (sacred thread) and having a kudumi. The medieval historian Pius Malekandathil believes these were customs adopted and privileges won during the beginning of the Brahmin dominance of medieval Kerala. He argues that the Syrian Christians in Kerala, integrated with Persian Christian migrant merchants, in the 9th century to become a powerful trading community and were granted the privileges by the local rulers to promote revenue generation and to undermine Buddhist and Jain traders who rivaled the Brahmins for religious and political hegemony in Kerala at the time.
An organized Christian presence in India dates to the arrival of East Syriac settlers and missionaries from Persia, members of what would become the Church of the East, in around the 3rd century. Saint Thomas Christians trace the further growth of their community to the arrival of Jewish-Christians (early East Syriac Christians) from the region of Mesopotamia led by Knāi Thoma (anglicized as Thomas of Cana), which is said to have occurred either in the 4th or 8th century.The subgroup of the Saint Thomas Christians known as the Knanaya or Southists trace their lineage to Thomas of Cana, while the group known as the Northists claim descent from the early Christians evangelized by Thomas the Apostle. The traditional histories of the Thomas Christians note that the immigration of the Knanites reinvigorated the church of India, which was at the moment of their arrival deprived of ecclesial leadership. The arrival of the migrants is also associated with connecting the native Church of St. Thomas with the Syriac Christian tradition of the Church of the East. St. Thomas Christian scholar Dr. Benedict Vadakkekara notes the following about the arrival and acceptance of the East Syriac tradition by the Church of St. Thomas in India:
"Related with East Syriac Church: The spatial separateness of the St Thomas Christians from Christian centres in other lands was not in every way absolute, as at an early stage of their history they found themselves in rapport with the East Syriac Church. Neither their traditions nor their posterior documents exhibit any sign of constraint or bad blood occasioned by such a relationship. On the other hand everything goes to show that it was a happy working arrangement. Their being in dire straits early on in their history and the arrival on the scene of the progenitors of the present-day "Southists" as benefactors, appears to coincide with the Community's acceptance of fellowship with the East Syriac Church." - Dr. Benedict Vadakkekara
During this time period Thomas of Cana received copper plates of socio-economic and religious rights for his relations, his party, and all people of his religion. The granting of these plates are noted to have enhanced the social position of all the ancient Christians of India and secured for them royal protection from the Chera Dynasty. The Thomas of Cana copper plates were extant in Kerala until the 17th century after which point they were lost.
Classical period
As the community grew and immigration by East Syriac Christians increased, the connection with the Church of the East, centred in the Persian capital of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, strengthened. From the early 4th century the Patriarch of the Church of the East provided India with clergy, holy texts, and ecclesiastical infrastructure, and around 650 Patriarch Ishoyahb III solidified the Church of the East's jurisdiction over the Saint Thomas Christian community. In the 8th century Patriarch Timothy I organised the community as the Ecclesiastical Province of India, one of the church's Provinces of the Exterior. After this point the Province of India was headed by a metropolitan bishop, dispatched from Persia, the "Metropolitan-Bishop of the Seat of Saint Thomas and the Whole Christian Church of India". His metropolitan see was probably in Cranganore, or (perhaps nominally) in Mylapore, where the shrine of Thomas was located. Under him were a varying number of bishops, as well as a native Archdeacon, who had authority over the clergy and who wielded a great amount of secular power.
Some contact and transmission of knowledge of the Saint Thomas Christians managed to reach the Christian West, even after the rise of the Islamic empires. Byzantine traveller Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote of Syrian Christians he met in India and Sri Lanka in the 6th century. In 883 the English king Alfred the Great reportedly sent a mission and gifts to Saint Thomas' tomb in India. During the Crusades, distorted accounts of the Saint Thomas Christians and the Nestorian Church gave rise to the European legend of Prester John.
The port at Kollam, then known as Quilon, was founded in 825 by Maruvān Sapir Iso, a Persian Christian merchant, with sanction from Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal, the king of the independent Venad or the State of Quilon, a feudatory under Sthanu Ravi Varma Perumal of the Chera kingdom. Sapir Iso is usually identified either as the East Syriac Christian merchant who led the East Syriac bishops Mar Sabor and Mar Proth to the Christians of Malabar or as the first of those two bishops. This accompanied the second Assyrian migration into the Malabar coast other than the Knanaya migration. The two bishops were instrumental in founding many Christian churches with Syrian liturgy along the Malabar coast and were venerated as Qandishangal (saints) since then by the Thomas Christians. It is believed that Sapir Iso also proposed that the Chera king create a new seaport near Kollam in lieu of his request that he rebuild the almost vanished inland seaport at Kollam (kore-ke-ni) near Backare (Thevalakara), also known as Nelcynda and Tyndis to the Romans and Greeks and as Thondi to the Tamils, which had been without trade for several centuries because the Cheras were overrun by the Pallavas in the 6th century, ending the spice trade from the Malabar coast. The Tharisapalli plates presented to Maruvan Sapor Iso by Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal granted the Christians the privilege of overseeing foreign trade in the city as well as control over its weights and measures in a move designed to increase Quilon's trade and wealth.
Thus began the Malayalam Era, known as Kollavarsham after the city, indicating the importance of Kollam in the 9th century.
The great distances involved and the geopolitical turmoil of the period caused India to be cut off from the church's heartland in Mesopotamia at several points. In the 11th century the province was suppressed by the church entirely, as it had become impossible to reach, but effective relations were restored by 1301. However, following the collapse of the Church of the East's hierarchy in most of Asia later in the 14th century, India was effectively cut off from the church, and formal contact was severed. By the late 15th century India had had no metropolitan for several generations, and the authority traditionally associated with him had been vested in the archdeacon.
MS Vatican Syriac 22 is the oldest known Syriac manuscript copied in India. It is a lectionary of Pauline Epistles copied on AD 1301 ( 1612 AG) in Kodungallūr (Cranganore, ) at the Church dedicated to Mar Quriaqos.
{{Quote box
|title = MS Vatican Syriac 22 has the following passage about the "Catholicos-Patriarch of the East" and the "Metropolitan of India" in folio 93r- 94v:
|quote = This holy book has been copied in the royal, renowned and famous town Shengala, which is in Malabar in the land of India, in the holy Church dedicated to the Mar Quriaqos, the glorious martyr... whilst our blessed and holy father Mar Yahballaha the fifth, the Turk, qatoliqa Patriakis of the East, the head of all the countries, was great governor, holding the offices of the Catholic Church of East, the shining lamp which illuminates its regions, the head of the pastors and Pontiff of the pontiffs, Head of great high priests, Father of the fathers... The Lord may make long his life and protect his days in order that he may govern her, a long time, for her glory and for the exaltation of her sons. Amen...And when Mar Jacob, Metropolitan Bishop was the overseer and governor of the holy see of Saint Thomas the Apostle, that is to say governor of us and of all the holy Church of the Christian India. May God grant him strength and help that he may govern us with zeal and direct us according to the will of his Lord, and that he may teach us His commandments and make us walk in His ways, till the end of time, through the intercession of the holy Apostle St. Thomas and all his colleagues ! Amen!.. |source = MS Vatican Syriac 22
|fontsize = 18
|bgcolor =Cornsilk
|title_bg =BlanchedAlmond
|title_fnt = SaddleBrown
}}
This manuscript is written in Estrangela script by a very young deacon named Zakharya bar Joseph bar Zakharya who was just 14 at the time of writing. The scribe refers Catholicos-Patriarch of the East Yahballaha III as Yahaballaha the fifth. Johannes P. M. van der Ploeg comments that this may indicate that the patriarch was not well-known among the Indian Christians.
In 1490, a delegation from the Saint Thomas Christians visited the Patriarch of the East, Shemon IV, to bring a bishop for India. One among them was Joseph the Indian, who later became famous for his visit to Rome and the account of Malabar in Book VI of Paesi novamente retrovati (1507) by Fracanzano da Montalboddo. The patriarch responded positively to the request of Saint Thomas Christians, and appointed two bishops, Mar Thoma and Mar Yohannan, dispatching them to India. These bishops, and three more (Mar Yahballaha, Mar Dinkha and Mar Yaqov) who followed them in 1503–1504, reaffirmed and strengthened traditional ties between India and the Patriarchate. They were later followed by another bishop, Mar Abraham, who died in 1597. By that time, Christians of the Malabar Coast were facing new challenges, caused by the establishment of Portuguese presence in India.
Portuguese contact
The Saint Thomas Christians first encountered the Portuguese in 1498, during the expedition of Vasco da Gama. At the time the community was in a tenuous position: though thriving in the spice trade and protected by their own militia, the local political sphere was volatile and the Saint Thomas Christians found themselves under pressure from the rajas of Calicut and Cochin and other small kingdoms in the area. The Saint Thomas Christians and the Portuguese newcomers quickly formed an alliance.
The Portuguese had a keen interest in implanting themselves in the spice trade and in spreading their version of Christianity, which had been forged during several centuries of warfare in the Reconquista. Facilitating their goals was the Padroado Real, a series of treaties and decrees in which the Pope conferred upon the Portuguese government certain authority in ecclesiastical matters in the foreign territories they conquered. They set up in Goa, forming a colonial government and a Latin church hierarchy under the Archbishop of Goa, and quickly set to bringing the Saint Thomas Christians under his authority.
The Portuguese subjection of the Saint Thomas Christians was relatively measured at first, but they became more aggressive after 1552, the year of the death of Metropolitan Mar Jacob and of a schism in the Church of the East, which resulted in there being two rival Patriarchs—one of whom entered communion with the Catholic Church. Both patriarchs sent bishops to India, but the Portuguese consistently managed to outmaneuver them, and effectively cut off the Saint Thomas Christians from their hierarchy in 1575, when the Padroado legislated that neither patriarch could send representatives to India without Portuguese approval.
By 1599 the last Metropolitan, Abraham, had died, and the Archbishop of Goa, Aleixo de Menezes, had secured the submission of the young Archdeacon Givargis, the highest remaining representative of the native church hierarchy. The Archbishop convened the Synod of Diamper, which implemented various liturgical and structural reforms in the Indian church. The Synod brought the parishes directly under the Archbishop's purview; anathematised certain "superstitious" social customs characteristic of their Hindu neighbors, including untouchability and a caste hierarchy; and purged the liturgy, the East Syriac Rite, of elements deemed unacceptable according to the Latin protocol. A number of Syriac texts were condemned and ordered burnt, including the Peshitta, the Syriac version of the Bible. Some of the reforms, especially the elimination of caste status, reduced the Saint Thomas Christians' standing with their socially stratified Hindu neighbors. The Synod formally brought the Saint Thomas Christians into the Catholic Church but the actions of the Portuguese over the ensuing years fueled resentment in segments of the community, and ultimately led to open resistance to their power.
Division and defiance
Over the next several decades, tensions seethed between the Portuguese and the remaining native hierarchy, and after 1641 Archdeacon Thomas, the nephew and successor to Archdeacon George, was often at odds with the Latin prelates. In 1652, the escalating situation was further complicated by the appearance in Mylapore of a mysterious figure named Ahatallah, who claimed to have been sent by the Pope, from the Church of Antioch to serve as "Patriarch of the Whole of India and of China".
Ahatallah made a strong impression on the native clergy, but the Portuguese quickly decided he was an impostor, and put him on a ship bound for Europe by way of Goa. Archdeacon Thomas, desperate for a new ecclesiastical leader to free his people from the Padroado, travelled to Cochin and demanded to meet Ahatallah and examine his credentials. The Portuguese refused, stating the ship had already left for Goa. Ahatallah was never heard from in India again, inspiring false rumours that the Portuguese had murdered him and inflaming anti-Portuguese sentiments even more.
This was the last straw for the Saint Thomas Christians; in 1653, Thomas and community representatives met at the Church of Our Lady in Mattancherry to take bold action. In a great ceremony before a crucifix and lighted candles, they swore a solemn oath that they would never obey Padroado Archbishop Francisco Garcia or the Portuguese again, and that they accepted only the Archdeacon as their shepherd. The situation is explained by Stephen Neill (an Anglican Protestant missionary, from Scotland) in his book A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707.
"In January 1653 priests and people assembled in the church of Our Lady at Mattanceri, and standing in front of a cross and lighted candles swore upon the holy Gospel that they would no longer obey Garcia, and that they would have nothing further to do with the jesuits they would recognise the archdeacon as the governor of their church. This is the famous oath of the 'Koonen Cross' (the open-air Cross which stands outside the church at Mattnchery)... The Thomas Christians did not at any point suggest that they wished to separate themselves from the pope. They could no longer tolerate the arrogance of Garcia. And their detestation of the jesuits, to whose overbearing attitude and lack of sympathy they attributed all their troubles, breathes through all the documents of the time. But let the pope send them a true bishop not a jesuit, and they will be pleased to receive and obey him."
The Puthenkūttukar and all its non-Catholic successor Churches regard this declaration, the Coonan Cross Oath, as the moment their Church regained its independence from the Catholic Church, which they lost during the Synod of Diamper. The Syro Malabar Church (Pazhayakūttukar) and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church deny this argument and regard the Coonan Cross Oath as an explosion against decades long suppression and overbearing attitude of Padroado Latin prelates. After the events of the Leaning Cross Oath, the Knanaya priest Anjilimoottil Itty Thommen Kathanar of Kallissery is noted to have solidified the schism of the Thomas Christians from the Padroado. Being a skilled Syriac writer, it is noted that Anjilimootill forged two letters from Ahatallah which stated Parambil Thomas could be ordained bishop with the laying of hands. The letters were read with enthusiasm in the churches of the Thomas Christians and Thomas was later consecrated in a ceremony in which twelve priests laid hands on him, and he thus became the Metropolitan of Malankara. Since this Episcopal consecration was in the absence of laying of hands of bishops, this is held unorthodox by Syro-Malabar Church.
After the Coonan Cross Oath, the Portuguese missionaries attempted reconciliation with Saint Thomas Christians but were not successful. Later, Pope Alexander VII sent the Italian bishop Joseph Sebastiani as the head of a Carmelite to regain the trust of the St. Thomas Christians. During Sebastiani's first visit in 1657, the Thomas Christians remained in rebellion, hoping to have Thoma I consecrated by the Holy See or a Non-Jesuit bishop. Four out of the five Knanaya Churches however had remained staunchly faithful to Rome and worked closely with Sebastiani to consecrate a native bishop as hierarch of the St. Thomas Christians. Pachikara Punnose of Chunkom, a tax-collector and communal head of the Knanaya met with Sebastiani in 1663 and pledged the support of nearly his entire community to Palliveettil Chandy Kathanar of Kuravilangad cousin and rival of Thoma I. Sebastiani notes the Knanaya's staunch support of Chandy Kathanar in the following report from 1663:
"On this last day a very serious man from Chunkom (Thodupuzha), a Chief man and head of the Christians of Thekumbagam alias of the South, intervened. And although these are found only in four or five places, nevertheless, they are the noblest, but very opposed to all the others without ever being married to them. These, however, have helped very much in the matter of giving a bishop to that Christianity. To them belonged almost all of those few people who did not follow the Intruder (Mar Thomas); and the first ones who, discovering the deceit, abandoned him. The said chief from Thodupuzha told me several times on the same day that in God he was hoping that soon the whole of Malabar (Church) would subject itself to the new bishop, all of them knowing that he is the rightful (bishop), their own national, and so virtuous; And as far as the Christians and the Churches of the Southists were concerned he promised and took on the obligation to hold them always obedient, even if all the others would abandon him, and that without any consideration of his being a non-Southist. To welcome this offer in his presence I warmly recommended him and his Christians and Churches to the Monsignor of Megara (Mar Alexander Parambil), who said that he was acknowledging their zeal and fervor, and that he would always protect, help and conserve them with his very life, much more than the others called Vadakumbhagam"
Chandy would be elevated as Catholic hierarch of the St. Thomas Christians at Kaduthuruthy Knanaya Valiypally on 1 February, 1663. With this act Sebastiani regained the support of most of the Saint Thomas Christians, including other major leaders such as Kadavil Chandy Kathanar and Vengūr Givargis Kathanar.
After the Coonan Cross Oath, between 1661 and 1665, the Syrian Catholics claimed 84 of the 116 churches, while Archdeacon Thoma I and the independent Syrians claimed 32. The 84 Catholic churches are the body from which the modern Syro-Malabar Church and Chaldean Syrian Church descend. The other 32 churches are the body from which the Malankara Syrian Church (Jacobites and Orthodox), Malabar Independent Syrian Church (1772), Mar Thoma Syrian Church (1874), and Syro-Malankara Catholic Church originate.
Thoma I, meanwhile sent requests to various Oriental Churches to receive canonical consecration as bishop. In 1665, Gregorios Abdal Jaleel, a bishop sent by the Syrian Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch Ignatius ʿAbdulmasīḥ I, arrived in India and the faction under the leadership of Thoma I welcomed him. The bishop was sent in correspondence to the letter sent by Thoma I to the Oriental Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch. Bishop Abdul Jaleel consecrated Thoma I canonically as a bishop and regularised his Episcopal succession. This visit gradually introduced the West Syriac liturgy, customs and script to the Malabar Coast. The visits of prelates from the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch continued since then and this led to gradual replacement of the East Syriac Rite liturgy with the West Syriac Rite and the faction affiliated to the Miaphysite Christology of the Oriental Orthodox Communion.
The Syrian Catholics continued with their East Syriac traditions and stayed within the Catholic Church with Diophysite creed.
This led to the first lasting formal schism in the Saint Thomas Christian community. Thereafter, the faction affiliated with the Catholic Church under Bishop Palliveettil Chandy was designated the Pazhayakuttukar (or "Old Allegiance"), while the branch affiliated with Thoma I was called the Puthenkūttukār (or "New Allegiance"). These appellations have been somewhat controversial, though, as both parties used the official name ("Malankara Church"), considered themselves the true heirs to the Saint Thomas tradition, and saw the other party as schismatic.
Furthermore, ʿAbdulmasīḥ I sent Maphrian Baselios Yaldo in 1685, along with Bishop Ivanios Hidayattullah who vehemently propagated the West Syriac Rite and solidified the association of the Puthenkūttukar with the Syriac Orthodox Church.
The main body of the Pazhayakūttukar came to be known as the Syro-Malabar Church. They had to remain under the foreign latin bishops, with the only exception of Palliveettil Chandy and Kariattil Ousep. Their Indian East Syriac Catholic hierarchy was restored on 21 December 1923, with Augustine Kandathil as the first Metropolitan and Head.
Failed attempts for reunification and solidification of the schism
A minority within the community of Saint Thomas Christians tried to preserve the use of the East Syriac Rite and re-establishing ties with Patriarchs of the Church of the East, who occasionally sent envoys to India. At the beginning of the 18th century, Bishop Shemʿon of ʿAda (d. 1720) and in ( 1708), Bishop Gabriel of Ardishai (d. 1733) arrived to India, sent by the Chaldean Patriarch. Bishop Gabriel temporarily succeeded in reviving the traditionalist community, but was faced with prolonged rivalry, both from West Syriac (Jacobite) and Latin Catholic (Propaganda Fide and Padroado) leadership.
In 1751, Jacobite Maphrian Baselios Shakrallah Qasabgi came to Kerala. He was highly instrumental in replacing the East Syriac Rite with West Syriac Rite among the Puthenkūr faction. He was accompanied by Gregorios Hanna Bakhudaidi, the Jacobite Archbishop of Jerusalem, and Yukhannon (Ivanios) Christophoros of Mosul, whom the Maphrian consecrated as a bishop during his tenure in Kerala. The delegation was sent from the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate to firmly establish West Syriac Rite among the Puthenkūttukār and regularise the orders of their leader, Thoma V. However, Thoma V died without having reconsecrated, but having himself consecrated his successor as Thoma VI. Thoma VI strongly resisted the efforts of the delegation. Very often the Syriac Orthodox delegates selected their own candidates and ordained them as priests, without consulting Thoma VI. Meanwhile, the Pazhayakūttukār were being increasingly subjugated by their colonial latin ecclesiastical administrators.
Thoma VI, therefore, initiated efforts to reunify both the factions. However, the Carmelite missionaries working among the Pazhayakūr were reluctant to reciprocate to his efforts fearing that the indigenous bishop would take away their authority and influence over the faction after the proposed reunification of the Saint Thomas Christians was fulfilled. On the other hand, the Syriac Orthodox delegates were extending their influence upon the Puthenkūr, insisting the faction to shift to the West Syriac Rite. Shakrallah, immediately prior to his death, consecrated Kurian Kattumangat as Bishop Abraham Koorilose in 1764. By 1770, Gregorios and Ivanios had Thoma VI reconsecrated as 'Dionysios I'. Thoma VI had to receive all orders of priesthood from the tonsure to the episcopal consecration. Thoma VI received support from Pazhayakūr leaders, who informed him of the ill-treatment and discrimination that they faced from the missionaries. Consequently, two priestly leaders among them: Kariattil Iousep Malpan and Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar decided to meet the Pope to convey the message of Thoma VI. The Jacobite delegates were soon at odds with Thoma VI and hence in 1772 they raised Abraham Koorilose to the Metropolitan rank at the new Mattancherry Church in Cochin, constructed by Shakrallah. Abraham Koorilose received recognition from the Rajah of Cochin. Kariyattil Iousep, accompanied by Paremmakkal Thoma and two other deacons, made the trip from Kerala in 1778 and he was consecrated as the Archbishop of Cranganore in 1782. However, the efforts drastically failed because of the unexpected death of Iousep while in Goa. Varthamanappusthakam, written by Thoma Kathanar in 1785, provides the detail of this journey until the death of the archbishop. Following this in 1787, representatives from the eighty-four Pazhayakūr churches assembled at Angamaly and drew up the Angamāly Padiyōla against the colonial latin hegemony, declaring their allegiance to the Paremmakkal Thoma and urged for the reinstatement of their native East Syriac hierarchy. Meanwhile, Dionysios I (Thoma VI) managed to imprison his rival, Abraham Koorilose who finally escaped from the states of Travancore and Cochin where the majority of Saint Thomas Christians lived to Anjoor in the territory of the Samuthiri (Zamorin of Calicut). There Koorilose spent his days in prayer and meditation in a hut. A few relatives and friends joined him there. This group, originally known as the Thozhiyur Church, was later confirmed as an independent Syrian Church in Malabar by the Madras High Court, through a verdict in 1862. Subsequently, they took the name Malabar Independent Syrian Church.
British period
In 1795, the kings of Travancore and Cochin entered into tributary alliance with the British East Indian Company to repel the attacks from Tipu Sultan. The states soon became client regimes of the company: both were forced to disband their military. The political order of the states also began to collapse. Saint Thomas Christians were hit hard by the loss of their privileged military role, their kalari network was dissolved and many families lost their livelihood. The trading class, as well as the office bearers, also suffered the setback and many Europeans who visited the states between 1801 and 1820 noted the poor and depressed condition of Saint Thomas Christians of the Puthenkuttukar. Some partisan fund allocation for the churches by the British officials triggered a breakdown in the relationship between Saint Thomas Christians and prominent Hindu castes, at least temporarily. In 1815, the British Resident, Colonel John Munro, founded a seminary in Kottayam, for the theological education of Jacobite Christian priests and invited the Anglican missionaries to teach there. This could be regarded as the beginning of the relationship between the CMS (Church Mission Society) and the Saint Thomas Christians of the Puthenkuttukar.
Further divisions
As a protest against the interference of the Anglican Church in the affairs of the Puthenkūttukār faction of the Malankara Church, the Metropolitan, Cheppad Dionysios, convened a Synod at Mavelikara on 16 January 1836. There it was declared that Malankara Church would be subject to the Syrian traditions and Patriarch of Antioch. The declaration resulted in the separation of the CMS missionaries from the communion with the Malankara Church (Puthenkūttukār faction). Cheppad Dionysios, abdicated during the tenure of an Antiochian prelate named Yuyakim Koorilose (arrived , d. ). During his stay in among the Puthenkoor, Koorilose completed the transition to West Syriac ritual practices. However, a minority from the Malankara Church, who were in favour of the Reformed ideologies of the missionaries, stood along with them and joined the Anglican Church. These Saint Thomas Anglicans, were the first Reformed group to emerge from the Saint Thomas Christian community and they worked along with the missionaries in their evangelical, educational and reformative activities. By 1879, the Diocese of Travancore and Cochin of the Church of England was established in Kottayam. On 27 September 1947, the Anglican dioceses in South India, merged with other Protestant churches in the region and formed the Church of South India (CSI); an independent United Church in full communion with all its predecessor denominations. Since then, Anglican Syrian Christians have been members of the Church of South India and also came to be known as CSI Syrian Christians.
In 1860, tired of their Latin subjugation, the Pazhayakūttukar sent a delegation headed by Antony Thondanatt (d. ) to Mosul to make a plea to the Chaldean Catholic patriarch to consecrate a bishop of their own rite for them. In response, Patriarch Joseph VI Audo consecrated Thomas Rokos, titular archbishop of Basra, and dispatched him to visit the alienated Malabar Christian flock in 1861. However, the mission failed due to the protests of the apostolic delegate at Mosul, Henri Amanton, and the vicar apostolic of Verapoly. As a result, the Pope forced the Patriarch to call back the bishop. There was yet another incident on 5 June 1864. Patriarch Joseph VI consecrated Elias Mellus, bishop of Aqra, and sent him to India. But this effort too was met with the same fate as before and Mellus was called back in 1882. Meanwhile, in 1862, an attempt was made to reestablish direct ties between traditionalist Christian communities in India and the Assyrian Patriarch Shimun XVIII consecrated the aforementioned Thondanatt as Abdisho, the Metropolitan of India, but his task proved to be very difficult and challenging. He intensified his activity after 1882, fulfilling the aspirations of local Christians of the East Syriac Rite for the full re-establishment of traditional ecclesiastical structure. Until his death in 1900, he partially succeeded in organizing the local church, that was named the Chaldean Syrian Church. After his death, local Christians appealed to Shimun XIX, Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East in Qochanis who was forthcoming, and in December 1907 consecrated Abimalek Timotheus as metropolitan bishop for India. He reached his diocese in February 1908, and took over the administration. He organized ecclesiastical structures, and continued with revitalisation of the East Syriac Rite.
By June 1875, there were two factions among the Puthenkuttukar: Patriarch (Bava) and Reform (Methran) Party. Mathews Athanasius was the Malankara Metropolitan approved by the Governments of Travancore and of Cochin and the group with him was also known as "Reform Party" since Mathews Athanasius was supportive to the reforming of the Jacobite church with evangelistic ideologies. The patriarch faction, under the leadership of Metropolitan Pulikkottil Joseph Dionysious II, opposed the attempts to do away with the age-old traditions of the church, which resulted in a stir in the community. Being invited by this faction, the Antiochene Patriarch Ignatius Peter III arrived in Kerala. In June 1876, at the synod of Mulanthuruthy, presided over by the Patriarch, the Syrian faction formally came under the Antiochene Patriarchate. The synod condemned Mathews Athanasius for abstaining from it, but his followers stayed firm with him. His successor Thomas Athanasius and the bishop's faction lost the lawsuit to the Patriarchal faction in the Royal Court of Travancore on 12 July 1889. Nonetheless, the Reform Party continued as an independent, Malankara Church and thereafter a series of suits arose on the rights over churches and associated properties. Later they chose the name Mar Thoma Syrian Church.
In 1911, Patriarch Ignatius ʿAbdullāh II excommunicated Vattasseril Geevarghese Dionysios (Dionysios VI), the Malankara Metropolitan, due to dispute of authority over the properties of the Malankara Church. This led to the division of the Church into two groups, with one group accepting the supreme authority of the patriarch and the other supporting Dionysios VI. The group led by Dionysios VI invited Patriarch Ignatius ʿAbdulmasīḥ II, who was deposed from Patriarchate by the Turkish authorities. In 1912, ʿAbdulmasīḥ II arrived in India and he consecrated Baselios Paulose I (d. ) as Maphrian (Syriac Orthodox Catholicos). This was not recognised by the Syriac Orthodox Church. Previously ʿAbdulmasīḥ II himself had declined the request for the installation of a Maphrianate for India in 1902 during his patriarchate. The independent group under Metropolitan Dionysios VI, known as the 'Metropolitan's Party', started endorsing the claims for autocephaly. The other group, known as the 'Patriarch's Party', remained loyal to the Patriarch and was led by Coorilos Paulose, succeeded by Athanasius Paulose. The two sides filed a series of lawsuits in the civil courts and some parallel attempts to reconcile both the parties also took place. In 1958, bishops of both the parties sealed their reconciliation and signed a treaty which in turn recognised the autonomy of reunited factions, with its own synod of bishops under the presidency of the Catholicos. The verdict of the Supreme Court of India in 1958, legitimizing the autonomy of Kerala church, was instrumental in this formal reconciliation between the two sides. In 1964, Patriarch Ignatius Yaʿqub III consecrated Baselios Augen I (d. ) as the Catholicos. Nonetheless, in 1975, both the parties split again with the decision of the Universal Syrian Synod, held in Damascus, to depose the Catholicos in Kerala. Baselios Paulose II was consecrated as the Catholicos for the 'Patriarch faction'. Today the West Syriac Oriental Orthodox community in India is divided between the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church) and the Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church (an autonomous church under the Antiochene Patriarchate).
In 1930, a section of the Puthenkuttukar under the leadership of Archbishop Geevarghese Ivanios and Jacob Theophilos left the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and came into communion with the Catholic Church. They are known as Syro-Malankara Catholic Church. On 11 June 1932, Trivandrum was recognised as a Metropolitan See sui juris, with Thiruvalla as its suffragan. On 10 February 2005, the church was raised to the status of a Major archiepiscopal church. The canonical installation of Cyril Baselios as the first Major Archbishop took place on 14 May 2005 and simultaneously the title 'Catholicos' was legitimized. The St. Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute (SEERI), inaugurated on 14 September 1985, comes under the Syro-Malankara Catholic Archbishop of Thiruvalla. According to Sebastian P. Brock: "SEERI is by far the most active promoter of Syriac language and tradition in Kerala, providing, among other things, MA and Doctoral programs."
In 1961, there was a split in the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church which resulted in the formation of St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India.Thomas, K.T. & Rev. T.N. Koshy. Faith on Trial. Ernakulam. 1965.
Pentecostalism began to spread among Saint Thomas Christians from 1911, due to American missionary work. The first Syrian Pentecostals came from Kerala Brethren, who were in turn mostly ex-Marthomites. As the movement gained momentum, groups of people from all traditional St. Thomas Christian denominations became part of various emerging Pentecostal and evangelical fellowships. Pentecostals from Syrian Christian background spearheaded the movement in Kerala and to a lesser extent in India, by providing the necessary leadership for establishing denominations like Indian Pentecostal Church of God, Assemblies of God in India, Church of God (Full Gospel) in India, The Pentecostal Mission and many other Neo-charismatic churches. The Syro-Malabar Church too has a very active Charismatic ministry, operated through establishments such as the Divine Retreat Centre, Muringoor.
Involvement in politics
Participation based on caste and community divisions and sympathies has been a feature of politics in the present day state of Kerala and its predecessor entities. Until the mid-20th century the primary cause of the divisions between the various communities was competition for rights and resources.
Like other communities, Saint Thomas Christians have been involved in regional politics on a community basis. In 1888, Travancore became the first princely state in India to establish a Legislative Council, which was reformed as the Sree Moolam Popular Assembly in 1904. A few Saint Thomas Christian leaders were elected to the Legislative Council but there was resentment that their share of the available seats was proportionately less than that of other prominent castes. This resentment led to a series of campaigns for equal representation both in the legislature and in government positions. Jatiaikya Sangham, an organization formed with an objective of reuniting the Pazhayakoor and Puthenkoor communities, came up with the idea of a newspaper that resulted in the establishment of Nasrani Deepika by Nidhirikkal Manikkathanar in 1887. Newspapers such as the Nasrani Deepika and Malayala Manorama disseminated their grievances.
In 1918, Saint Thomas Christians formed the League for Equal Civic Rights, which sought the opening of all branches of government service to Christians, Muslims and avarna Hindus, as well as an end to the practice of untouchability. Their demands were partially met in 1922 when the Revenue Department was separated from the Devaswom, a semi-government organization that managed the Hindu temples, thus removing the restriction on non-Hindus and avarnas in the executive service. In the 1920s, Saint Thomas Christian leaders such as George Joseph were advised by Mahatma Gandhi to detach from Vaikom Satyagraha, an agitation for the temple entry rights of avarna Hindus, as he considered the issue to be one of concern to Hindus alone. Titus Theverthundiyil was one of the 78 marchers selected by Gandhi to take part in the 1930 Dandi March, to break the British salt monopoly.
With the institution in 1932 of a bicameral legislature in Travancore, four Saint Thomas Christians found a place in among the 24 seats of the lower house, but not comparable with other forward castes. The 1931 census recorded over 31 per cent of the population as being Christian, compared to around 4 per cent in 1820. Some restrictions were imposed on Saint Thomas Christian parishes to start new schools and later on the Diwan attempted to take over the schools owned by the community. There followed a period of fierce confrontation between the Diwan and Saint Thomas Christians—many leaders were arrested, prominent news papers were banned and large banks owned by the community members were liquidated.Donald Eugene Smith et al.- South Asian politics and religion, Princeton University Press, 1966, p.190 In 1937, general elections were held and Joint Political Congress played a significant role to attain much better representation for allied communities. T.M. Varghese was elected as the Deputy President of the Assembly where C. P. Ramaswami Iyer was the ex officio President. On the collapse of Joint Political Congress due to internal conflicts, Saint Thomas Christian leaders allied with Nairs in a common platform- Travancore State Congress where they fought together for responsible government and also to oust Iyer. Abraham Marthoma mobilised Syrian Christians against the divan's move not to unite with free India. In the three-member Cabinet of Travancore formed after the first general elections in 1948, Varghese was a Cabinet Minister. However the first Saint Thomas Christian to become a minister in the central government of India was Padma Vibhushan John Mathai, who served as India's first Railway Minister and subsequently as India's Finance Minister, taking office shortly after the presentation of India's first Budget, in 1948.
On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed and the Communist Party formed the first government of the state in 1957 on winning the assembly elections. Though the government initiated the legislation process for reforming the land and the education sectors, these were considered as infringements over the rights by the school managements and landowners, who were predominantly Saint Thomas Christians and Nairs. The disagreements of the Saint Thomas Christians further widened and they allied with Nair Service Society to mobilize against the government, which culminated in a violent struggle, called the Liberation Struggle, in 1958. The Communist government was dismissed on 31 July 1959 and the President's rule was imposed in the state under Article 356 of the Constitution of India.
Socio-cultural and religious identity
St. Thomas Christians are a distinct community, both in terms of culture and religion. Though their liturgy and theology remained that of East-Syrian Christians of Persia, their life-style customs and traditions were basically Indian. It is oft-quoted: "Nazranis are Indian in culture, Christian in faith and Syrian in liturgy".
At present, Saint Thomas Christians represent a multi-cultural group. Their culture is largely derived from East Syriac, West Syriac, Hindu, Jewish, and Latin Rite influences, blended with local customs and later elements derived from indigenous Indian and European colonial contacts. Their language is Malayalam, the language of Kerala, and Syriac is used for liturgical purposes.
Jewish influence has been observed in Malabar Nasrani liturgy and traditions. The community maintained some of the original Jewish rituals, such as covering their heads while in worship. Their ritual services were and still are called the Qurbana, which is derived from the Aramaic term Qurbana (ܩܘܪܒܢܐ), meaning "sacrifice". Nasrani Qurbana used to be held in Syriac.
Saint Thomas Christians typically followed the social customs of their Hindu neighbors, and the vestiges of Hindu symbolism could be seen in their devotional practices. Social sins like Untouchability entered their practices and the Synod of Diamper abolished it. The rituals related to birth, marriage, pregnancy, death etc. were also largely adapted from Hindu religious practices. Now also, tying Thaali, a Hindu symbol of marriage is the most important rite in the Christian marriages too. In 1519, a Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa on his visit to Malabar commented on the practice of Saint Thomas Christian priests using Kudumi similar to that of Hindus, in his manuscript "Book of Duarte Barbosa".
In the social stratification of medieval Malabar, Saint Thomas Christians succeeded in relating their social status with that of upper-caste Hindus on account of their numerical strength and influence and observance of many Brahmin and upper caste customs. In the 13th and 14th centuries, many Saint Thomas Christians were involved in the pepper trade for the local rulers and many were appointed as port revenue officers. The local rulers rewarded them with grants of land and many other privileges. With growing numerical strength, a large number of Saint Thomas Christians settled in the inland pepper-growing regions. They had the right to recruit and train soldiers and Christian trainers were given with the honorary title "Panikkar" like their Nair counterparts. They were also entitled with the privilege to collect the tax, and the tax-collectors were honored with the title "Tharakan".
Like Brahmins they had the right to sit before the Kings and also to ride on horse or elephant, like the royals. They were protectors of seventeen underprivileged castes and communities and hence they were called Lords of Seventeen Castes. They did not allow the lower-castes to join their community for fear that it could imperil their upper-caste status. But this regal period ended when the community fell under the power of the Rajas of Cochin and Travancore. They owned a large number of Kalaripayattu training centers and the Rajas of Travancore and Cochin, including the renowned Marthanda Varma, recruited trained Christian warriors to defend their kingdom.
The upper-caste Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians took part in one another's festival celebrations and in some places in Kerala, the Hindu Temples and Saint Thomas Christian Churches were built on adjoining sites by the Hindu Kings. Until the 19th century, Saint Thomas Christians had the right of access to Hindu temples and some leading Saint Thomas Christians held the status of sponsors at Hindu shrines and temple festivals. But in the 19th century, Saint Thomas Christian integration with the Hindu caste system was disrupted: their clean-caste status was questioned in some localities and they were denied access to many Hindu temples. They tried to retaliate by denouncing Hindu festivals as heathen idolatry. Clashes between upper-caste Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians occurred from the late 1880s, especially when festivals coincided. Internecine violence among various Saint Thomas Christian denominations aggravated their problems.
Existing traditions, music, rituals and social life
Saint Thomas Christians still retain many of their ancient traditions and rituals, both in their social and religious life. Saint Thomas Christian services have many unique characteristics compared to others. Prior to the 1970s, the Nasrani Qurbana was completely sung in Syriac. Many of the tunes of the Saint Thomas Christian worship in Kerala, especially those in the East Syriac tradition, are remnants of ancient Syriac tunes of antiquity.
Saint Thomas Christians observe Holy Thursday with high reverence. This day is referred to as Pesaha, a Malayalam word derived from the Aramaic or Hebrew word for Passover—Pasha or Pesah—commemorating the Last Supper of Jesus Christ during Passover in Jerusalem. The tradition of consuming Pesaha Appam after the church service is observed by the entire community under the leadership of the head of the family. Special long services followed by the Holy Qurbana are conducted during the Pesaha eve in the churches.Weil, S. (1982)"Symmetry between Christians and Jews in India: The Cananite Christians and Cochin Jews in Kerala. in Contributions to Indian Sociology,16.
The community observes Lent, locally called Anpathu noyambu (the fifty days' fast) or the Valiya noyambu (Sawma Rabba, the Great Fast), from Clean Monday or the preceding Sunday (called the Pētūrttà (meaning "looking back"), this is the original practice and it still prevails among the Chaldean Syrian Church) to the day before Easter, abjuring all meat, fish and egg. They also traditionally observe the 25 days' fast which ends on the day of Christmas.
Generally, footwear is removed before entering the church and women cover their heads during worship.
On the day of Palm Sunday known as Oshana or Hoshana Sunday, flowers are strewn about the sanctuary, loaned from the Hindu ritual of offering flowers, and the crowd shouts "Oshana" ( (ʾōshaʿnā) meaning 'save, rescue, savior' in Aramaic). Then palm leaves are blessed and distributed after the Qurbana (Holy Mass).
The ritual service (liturgy) is commonly called the Holy Qurbana, regardless of whether it is the East Syriac Holy Qurbana or West Syriac Holy Qurobo. The Holy Qurbana is mostly conducted and prayers recited in Malayalam. However, significant parts of the Holy Qurbana are sung in Syriac. During the 20th century, the 'Qurbana-kramam' i.e. the 'book containing the order of worship', was translated into English, for the benefit of worshipers who lived outside Kerala, and did not know to read or write Malayalam.
Saint Thomas Christians use East Syriac term Māràn Īshoʿ Mîshîħa (Jesus' name in Aramaic) to denote Jesus Christ.
The Saint Thomas Christians, particularly of the West Syriac Rite, pray the canonical hours of the Shehimo seven times a day.
Another surviving tradition is the use of muthukoda (ornamental umbrella) for church celebrations, marriages and other festivals. Traditional drums, arch decorations and ornamental umbrellas and Panchavadyam are part of the church celebrations. Their use has become popular all over Kerala.
The rituals and ceremonies of Saint Thomas Christians related to house building, astrology, birth and marriage have close similarity with those of Hindus in Kerala.Syrian Christians also follow the Jathaka system like their Hindu counterparts. Death rituals express Christian canonical themes very distantly and the influence of Hindu culture is quite noticeable. Much stress is given to ideas concerning life after death and the anticipation of final judgment.
Saint Thomas Christians do not marry close relatives. The rule is that the bride and groom must not be related for at least five or seven generations.
Saint Thomas Christians generally prefer arranged marriages and the prospective partners see each other in the Pennukanal (Bride Viewing) ceremony at bride's home.
Saint Thomas Christian marriage customs are uniquely different from Western Christian marriage and local Hindu marriage customs. For example, engagement and marriage are usually performed together in the same service. Unlike Western Christian traditions, there is no direct ring exchange between groom and bride during engagement, rather it is offered and mediated by the Kathanar who represents Jesus Christ, symbolizing that it is God who brings the couple together into marriage. The tying of the Thaali (Mangalasutra) and the giving of the "Manthrakodi" or "Pudava" to the bride are the major wedding rituals loaned from Hinduism. Manthrakodi, a silk saree with a golden zari border is blessed by the priest and is placed by the bridegroom by covering the hair of the bride, it symbolises the "Pudavakodukkal" ceremony of the Nambudiri Brahmins, where similarly the bridegroom places a silk cloth by covering the head of the bride.
Saint Thomas Christians widely use Nilavilakku (a lighted metal lamp), Kindi, Kalasha and other bronze articles in their houses and churches.
The night before the marriage a ceremony known as "Madhuram Veppu" , is conducted. The ceremony is conducted separately for the bride and the bridegroom. It includes serving the bride and the bridegroom sweets by the maternal uncle. It has been loaned from the Knānāya (Southist) community's tradition called as "Chantham Charthal", where similarly the couple are served sweets. Chantham Charthal for the bride includes applying of Henna, Sandal and turmeric over the palms and legs as a symbolism of purity. The face of the bridegroom is cleanly shaved as a ritual. All the traditions are accompanied by the Panan Pattu performed by the Panan caste, who sings the grants and privileges given to the Syrian Christians.
The traditional dress of a Saint Thomas Christian woman is the Chatta and Mundu, a seamless white garment, which is now limited to older female adherents. Following the general trend, the Sari and Churidar have become predominant among the younger generations.Anthropologica Vol 46, 2004, Canadian Anthropology Society, p. 262
Church architecture
The earliest documentary evidence is Tharisapally Copper Plate, which refers to the construction of the church of Tharisapally in Quilon between 823 and 849 AD. Antonio Gouvea, Portuguese envoy to Malabar, mentions in his 16th-century work Jornada that almost all the churches of Saint Thomas Christians followed the models of Hindu temples of that period, but were distinguished by the huge granite cross in the front yard of the church. Despite the external similarity with temples, the structuring of the interior space of the church always followed the East Syriac architectural theology. Thus the contemporary style is formed as an amalgamation of Indian architecture and Assyrian liturgical concepts. The church is arranged east-to-west, with the interior structured into three levels: the madbaha (sanctuary), the qestroma (choir) and the haykla (nave).
The madbaha, arranged in the topmost platform at the eastern side of the building, represents Heaven. The primary altar is attached to the eastern wall. To the north of the madbaha is the diaqonikon (sacristry); to the south is the baptistery.The madbaha is protected with rails and is veiled by a red curtain most of the time; this is opened during the Holy Qurbana (Eucharist). An oil lamp within the sanctuary is kept glowing at all times to represent the presence of God. The madbaha is connected to the qestroma and haykla by a low-walled path called the sqaqona. The qestroma contains seats for the choir and lower clergy. The haykla contains an elevated platform or bema, which includes an altar, two lecterns for reading, and chairs for higher clergy. Worshipers stand before the altar, with separate seating for men and women.
The main entrance is on the western side of the building; a vestibule, pillars, pilasters, and other architectural ornaments adorn the front end, and a flag mast stands in the front yard. One or two bells are installed in the back yard to signal the timing of ritual services, the death of a church member, or to inform the public of calamities.
The Persian Crosses
The East Syriac Churches of the St. Thomas Christians have accepted the Persian cross as their symbol. They call it the Nasrani Menorah or Mar Thoma Sleeva (St. Thomas' Cross). There are several interpretations for the St. Thomas Christian Symbol. The interpretation based on Christian Jewish tradition assumes that its design was based on Jewish menorah, an ancient symbol of the Hebrews, which consists of seven branched lamp stand (candelabra). The St. Thomas' Cross also appears on the official emblem of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church.
The interpretation based on local culture states that the Cross without the figure of Jesus and with flowery arms symbolising "joyfulness" points to the resurrection theology of St. Paul, the downward-facing bird (most likely a dove) on the top represents the role of the Holy Spirit in the resurrection of Jesus Christ. The Cross indicates Christ. The lotus symbolizing God the Father, who has begotten the Son. The three steps indicate Calvary and symbolise the Church, the channel of grace flowing from the Cross. The lotus may also symbolise the cultural association with Buddhism and the Cross over it shows that Christianity was established in the land of Buddha.
Saint Thomas Christians today
Writing in 2010, Devika and Varghese noted that "[The St. Thomas Christians] are at present a substantial minority, a powerful presence in all fields of life in Kerala."
Socioeconomic status
Even though the Saint Thomas Christians had to compromise their social and religious privileges in the aftermath of Portuguese subjugation, they started reemerging as a powerful community from the 19th century onward. They played a pioneering role in many spheres such as Banking, Commerce, Cash crops etc. Around 2003, among Saint Thomas Christians, 17.4% of the adult population are self-employed – the highest rate statistically among all the communities in the state of Kerala. Saint Thomas Christians lead all others with respect to per capita ownership of land, with many of them owning large estates. With changing conditions, they have shifted from the agriculture of rice and coconut to plantation based agriculture and the trading of rubber, spices and cash crops. They also take a prominent role in the educational institutions of Kerala and throughout India. The educational accomplishments of the community have helped its members to attain a good proportion of the Central and State Government jobs. With their level of education and limited employment opportunities within the state of Kerala, they became the community with the highest rate of migration. Their resultant foreign remittances have also helped the socioeconomic progress of the community. According to the Kerala Migration Survey (1998) by the Center for Developmental Studies, Kerala, Saint Thomas Christians top all other communities in Kerala with respect to the Socioeconomic Development Index which is based on parameters such as the possession of land, housing & consumer durables, education and employment status.
Demographics
The Saint Thomas Syrian Christians form 12.5% of the total population of Kerala and 70.73% of the Christians in the state.
K. C. Zachariah notes that the 20th century was period of significant transition for the Saint Thomas Christians in terms of its demographic and socioeconomic status. Around 1900, the community was concentrated in a few areas, was geographically static and "... was characterised by very high death rate, very high birth rate, very early age at marriage, and 10 to 12 children per married woman". The population had increased eight-fold during the preceding century, from a base figure of about 100,000, and comprised nearly 50 per cent children. But, the population growth of Saint Thomas Christians came down drastically after the 1960s, with the lowest birth rate, highest age at marriage, highest family planning user rate, and lowest fertility rate compared to other communities in Kerala. The proportion of children has come down to less than 25%. The absolute and relative size of the community is in a diminishing trend and is approaching a zero population growth regime.
Source: Religious Denominations of Kerala, in Kerala, more than 85 per cent of the Saint Thomas Christian population live in the seven southern districts of the state – Kollam, Pathanamthitta, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Idukki, Ernakulam and Trissur. They have also migrated to other cities in India like Ooty, Mangalore, Bangalore, Chennai, Pune, Delhi, Mumbai, Coimbatore, Hyderabad and Kolkata. Migration steeply increased in the post-independence period and major destinations were United States of America, Canada, Western Europe, Australia and the Middle East. According to a rough estimate, 20–25% of the Saint Thomas Christians live outside the state of Kerala.
Social status
Despite the sectarian differences, Saint Thomas Christians share a common social status within the Caste system of Kerala and is considered as Forward Caste.
In historic kingdoms of Kerala such as those of Cochin and Travancore, Saint Thomas Christians were granted caste privileges that put them on the same level as Upper caste Hindus. Anthropologist, L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer recorded that they were given privileges in addition to those granted to groups such as Nairs, such as the right to have enclosures in front of their houses, which was otherwise only granted to the Brahmins, and were placed "almost on par with the Sovereigns". They followed the same rules of caste and pollution as did Hindus, and sometimes they were considered to be pollution neutralisers. Decree II of Action IX of the Synod of Diamper enforced by the Portuguese Inquisition in 1599 prohibited the practice of untouchability by the Saint Thomas Christians except in practical circumstances when required by law and when it was necessary to ensure social contact with the Varna Hindus.
They tend to be endogamous, and tend not to intermarry even with other Christian groupings. Internal division of Saint Thomas Christians into Northists and Southists and also into a number of sects based on the ecclesiastical orientation makes the pattern of segmentation an exceedingly complex. Forrester suggests that the Northist-Southist division forms two groups within the Saint Thomas Christian community which are closely analogous to sub-castes.
Christian conventions
The Maramon Convention is one of the largest annual Christian gatherings in Asia. It takes place in Maramon, near Kozhencherry, during February on the vast sand-bed of the Pamba River next to the Kozhencherry Bridge. The first convention was held in March 1895 for 10 days.
See also
Suriyani Malayalam
Indo-Persian ecclesiastical relations
India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)
List of Saint Thomas Christians
Saint Thomas Christian denominations
Parichamuttukali
Ezharappallikal
Caste system among South Asian Christians
Suriyani Malayalam
Rock crosses of Kerala
Ancient Churches of Kerala
Nestorianism and the church in India
Persia (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)
Church of the East in China
Jordanus Catalani
Prester John
Joseph Sulaqa
Archdeacon Givargis of Christ
Jacob of Muttuchira
Antonio de Gouvea
Kadavil Chandy
Christianity in Kerala
Christianity in India
Churches of Kerala
Kuriakose Elias Chavara
Thachil Matthoo Tharakan
Kayamkulam Philipose Ramban
Abel Periyappuram
Curien Kaniamparambil
Holy Qurobo
Assyrians
Latin Catholics of Malabar
Thoma of Villarvattom
Caste system among South Asian Christians
Sources
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Iyer, K.V. Krishna, Kerala's Relations with the Outside World, pp. 70, 71 in "The Cochin Synagogue Quatercentenary Celebrations Commemoration Volume", Kerala History Association, Cochin, 1971.
Landstrom, Bjorn (1964) "The Quest for India", Doubleday English Edition, Stockholm.
Mariamma Joseph (1994).Marriage Among Indian Christians. Jaipur: Rawat Publications
Mathew, N. M. St. Thomas Christians of Malabar Through Ages. CSS Tiruvalla. 2003.
Menachery, Professor George. (2000) Kodungallur – The Cradle of Christianity in India, Thrissur: Marthoma Pontifical Shrine.
Menachery, Professor George (Ed.). (1982) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, VOL.I, Thrissur.
Menachery, Professor George (Ed.). (1973) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, VOL.II, Thrissur.
Menachery, Professor George (Ed.). (2010) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, VOL.III, Ollur, Thrissur.
Menachery, Professor George (Ed.with Ponnumuthan, Aerath). (2006) Indian Christians and Nation Building, CBCI-KCBC Kochi-Alwaye.
Menachery, Professor George (Ed.with Snaitang). (2011) India's Christian Heritage, Church History Assn. of India, Bangalore (DVK).
Menachery George & Chakkalakal Werner (1987) "Kodungallur: City of St. Thomas", Azhikode
Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. .
Podipara, Placid J. (1970) "The Thomas Christians". London: Darton, Longman and Tidd, 1970. (is a readable and exhaustive study of the St. Thomas Christians.)
Poomangalam C.A (1998) The Antiquities of the Knanaya Syrian Christians; Kottayam, Kerala.
Puthur, B. (ed.) (2002): The Life and Nature of the St Thomas Christian Church in the Pre-Diamper Period (Cochi, Kerala).
Fr. Dr. V.C. Samuel. (1992) The Growing Church: An Introduction to Indian Church History, Kottayam. The-Growing-Church.
Tamcke, M. (ed.) (2001) : Orientalische Christen zwischen Repression und Migration (Studien zur Orientalischen Kirchengeschichte 13; Münster: LIT).
Thayil, Thomas (2003). The Latin Christians of Kerala: A Study on Their Origin''. Kristu Jyoti Publications.
Tisserant, E. (1957) Eastern Christianity in India: A History of the Syro-Malabar Church from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Trans. and ed. by E. R. Hambye. Westminster, MD: Newman Press.
Vellian Jacob (2001) Knanite community: History and culture; Syrian church series; vol. XVII; Jyothi Book House, Kottayam
Veluthat, K. (1978). Brahmin settlements in Kerala: Historical studies. Calicut: Calicut University, Sandhya Publications.
Susan Visvanathan (1993) The Christians of Kerala: History, Belief and Ritual Among the Yakoba. New Delhi/Madras/New York: Oxford University Press
Susan Visvanathan (1989) "Marriage, Birth and Death-Property Rights and Domestic Relationships of the Orthodox Jacobite Syrian Christians of Kerala", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol – XXIV No. 24, 17 June 1989.
Susan Visvanathan (1986) "Reconstructions of the Past among the Syrian Christians of Kerala", Contributions to Indian Sociology (Sage Publishers), July 1986; vol. 20, 2: pp. 241–260.
Susan Visvanathan (2010)."The Status of Christian Women in Kerala", in 'World Christianity: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies', edited by Elizabeth Koepping, London: Routledge, 2010.
Susan Visvanathan (2011) "The Eucharist in a Syrian Christian Church", in T.N.Madan (edited) 'India's Religions : Perspectives from Sociology and History'. New Delhi: Oxford University Press
External links
Jacobite Syrian Christian Church
The Syro Malabar Church
Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (Indian Orthodox Church)
Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church
Population of Christians in India and Kerala based on 2001 report of Indian census
The Nasrani Syrian Christian Network
Project for preserving the manuscripts of the Syrian Christians of Kerala
Ethnic groups in India
Kerala society
Malayali people
Eastern Christianity in India
Social groups of Kerala
Christian communities of India
Ethnoreligious groups in India | [
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251668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Alechinsky | Pierre Alechinsky | Pierre Alechinsky (born 19 October 1927) is a Belgian artist. He has lived and worked in France since 1951. His work is related to tachisme, abstract expressionism, and lyrical abstraction.
Life
Alechinsky was born in Schaerbeek. In 1944 he attended the l'École nationale supérieure d'Architecture et des Arts décoratifs de La Cambre, Brussels where he studied illustration techniques, printing and photography. In 1945 he discovered the work of Henri Michaux, Jean Dubuffet and developed a friendship with the art critic Jacques Putman.
Art career
In 1949 he joined Christian Dotremont, Karel Appel, Constant, Jan Nieuwenhuys and Asger Jorn to form the art group COBRA. He participated both with the COBRA exhibitions and went to Paris to study engraving at Atelier 17 under the guidance of Stanley William Hayter in 1951.
In 1954 he had his first exhibition in Paris and started to become interested in Chinese and Japanese calligraphy. In the early 1950s he was the Paris correspondent for the Japanese journal Bokubi (the Beauty of Ink) published by Morita Shiryu of the Bokujinkai group. In 1955, encouraged by Henri Storck and Luc de Heusch, he left for Japan with his wife. He exhibited Night, 1952 (Ohara Museum of Art, Kurashiki) and made a film: Japanese Calligraphy – Christian Dotremont would write the commentary with music by André Souris.
By 1960 he had exhibited in London, Bern and at the Venice Biennial, and then in Pittsburgh, New York City, Amsterdam and Silkeborg as his international reputation grew.
He worked with Walasse Ting and continued to be close to Christian Dotremont. He also developed links with André Breton.
His international career continued throughout the seventies and by 1983 he became Professor of painting at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, Paris. For the season 2018/2019 at the Vienna State Opera Pierre Alechinsky designed the large-scale picture (176 sqm) Loin d'ici as part of the exhibition series Safety Curtain, conceived by museum in progress.
Awards
In 1994 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Free University of Brussels, and in 1995 one of his designs was used on a Belgian stamp.
Collections
His works are held in the collections of the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, the Tate, Museum Ludwig in Cologne, the New York Museum of Modern Art, the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis, the Art Museum of Southeast Texas in Beaumont, Texas, the Museum of Art Fort Lauderdale, Nova Southeastern University in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The main-belt asteroid 14832 Alechinsky was named in his honour in October 2000.
References
Mueller-Yao, Marguerite: Der Einfluss der Kunst der chinesischen Kalligraphie auf die westliche informelle Malerei, Diss Bonn, Koeln Koenig 1985, (pbk) http://www.expo-alechinsky.be/EN/Tentoonstelling.aspx
External links
Galerie Lelong, Paris
1927 births
Living people
People from Schaerbeek
Belgian Jews
Belgian people of Russian-Jewish descent
Jewish painters
Art Informel and Tachisme painters
Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
Belgian artists
Modern artists
Belgian painters
Abstract painters
Belgian watercolourists
School of Paris
École des Beaux-Arts faculty
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Atelier 17 alumni
Belgian emigrants to France | [
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251671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacophony%20%28band%29 | Cacophony (band) | Cacophony was an American heavy metal band formed in 1986 by guitarists Marty Friedman and Jason Becker, and signed to Shrapnel Records. They released two studio albums and remained active until 1989, after which both guitarists forged their own solo careers and joined other bands.
History
The two albums released by Cacophony, Speed Metal Symphony (1987) and Go Off! (1988), were showpieces of the kind of highly technical playing typical of the 1980s shred era, with songs featuring fast tempos, melodic solos, exotic neoclassical scales and dual guitar harmonizations. Several of the tracks were entirely instrumental, which prominently demonstrated Friedman and Becker's renowned technical skills. In a 2009 article by Guitar World magazine, Speed Metal Symphony was ranked ninth in a list of all-time top ten shred albums.
Both Friedman and Becker released their own solo albums—Dragon's Kiss and Perpetual Burn, respectively—in 1988, before the release of Go Off! Friedman later joined the thrash metal band Megadeth in 1990, remaining with them for nine years as well as releasing several more solo albums, while Becker enjoyed a short stint in David Lee Roth's solo band from 1989 to 1991. Becker's time with Roth was abruptly cut short due to an onset of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a degenerative disease that rendered him completely unable to play and, soon afterwards, move or speak.
Band members
Peter Marrino – vocals
Dan Bryant – vocals (last tour only)
Marty Friedman – guitar
Jason Becker – guitar
Atma Anur – drums
Deen Castronovo – drums
Kenny Stavropoulos – drums (live only)
Jimmy O'Shea – bass, backing vocals
Craig Swain – bass, backing vocals (live only)
Discography
1987: Speed Metal Symphony
1988: Go Off!
References
External links
Shrapnel Records official website
Musical groups established in 1986
Musical groups disestablished in 1989
Heavy metal musical groups from California
1986 establishments in California
Shrapnel Records artists | [
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251678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Zero%20Hour%20%28Japanese%20radio%20series%29 | The Zero Hour (Japanese radio series) | was the first of over a dozen live radio programs broadcast by Japan during the Pacific War. To reach a large geographical area these transmissions included shortwave radio frequencies in the 31 m band. The program featured Allied prisoners of war (POW) reading current news and playing prerecorded music, and sending messages from POWs to their families back home and to Allied soldiers and sailors serving in the Pacific theater. These messages were interlaced with demoralizing commentary and appeals to surrender or sabotage the Allied war effort. The Zero Hour also featured the female announcer dubbed Tokyo Rose.
The Zero Hour was the brainchild of Major Shigetsugu Tsuneishi, who joined the Japanese Imperial Army's 8th Section G-2 (Psychological Warfare) unit as the Army representative to the Information Liaison Confidential Committee, which oversaw the coordination of the nationalized news agencies, in November 1941. His first effort was a propagandistic photographic magazine called Front, based on the format of the American magazine Life.
Major Tsuneishi established an office at Radio Tokyo (NHK) and issued orders to the NHK Overseas Bureau's American, European, Asian, Editorial and Administration Divisions through Bureau Chief Yoshio Muto. Thereafter, all news broadcasts became official announcements of the Japanese Imperial Army General Headquarters (GHQ). The American Division radio announcers section was headed by Yuichi Hirakawa, a native Japanese with a degree in Dramatics from the University of Washington.
Tsuneishi acquired a veteran radio announcer with the capture of Australian Army Major Charles Cousens, who had been a popular and highly regarded news commentor in Sydney before the War. During an interrogation at the General Staff HQ in Tokyo on August 1, 1942, Tsuneishi made it clear to Cousens that he had to broadcast for the Japanese or face execution before putting him to work at 6 p.m. that same evening. Cousens was subsequently tasked with writing and broadcasting "radio essays" on the need to have high ideals as a human being, collections of platitudes with no propaganda value.
References
External links
Broadcasts of The Zero Hour
The Zero Hour show 8-14-1944, music with "Ann the Orphan," Iva Toguri D'Aquino, a Japanese-American dubbed "Tokyo Rose" by the American military
Propaganda radio broadcasts | [
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251683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionne%20Brand | Dionne Brand | Dionne Brand (born 7 January 1953) is a Canadian poet, novelist, essayist and documentarian. She was Toronto's third Poet Laureate from September 2009 to November 2012. She was admitted to the Order of Canada in 2017 and has won the Governor General's Award for Poetry, the Trillium Prize for Literature, the Pat Lowther Award for Poetry, the Harbourfront Writers' Prize, and the Toronto Book Award.
Biography
Dionne Brand was born in Guayaguayare, Trinidad and Tobago. She graduated from Naparima Girls' High School in San Fernando, Trinidad, in 1970, and emigrated to Canada. She attended the University of Toronto and earned a BA degree (English and Philosophy) in 1975 and later attained an MA (1989) from the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE). Brand currently resides in Toronto.
She identifies openly as a lesbian.
Career
Her first book, Fore Day Morning: Poems, came out in 1978, since then Brand has published numerous works of poetry, fiction and non-fiction, as well as editing anthologies and working on documentary films with the National Film Board of Canada.
She has held a number of academic positions, including:
Assistant Professor of English, University of Guelph (1992–94)
Ruth Wynn Woodward Professor in Women's Studies, Simon Fraser University
Distinguished Visiting Scholar and Writer-in-Residence, St. Lawrence University, Canton, New York (2004–05)
Distinguished Poet for the Ralph Gustafson Poetry Chair, Vancouver Island University (2006)
She is currently Professor of English at the School of English and Theatre Studies at the University of Guelph where she also holds a University Research Chair.
In 2017 she was appointed as poetry editor of McClelland & Stewart, an imprint of Penguin Random House Canada. Brand is also a co-editor of Toronto-based literary journal Brick.
Writing
Brand explores themes of gender, race, sexuality and feminism, white male domination, injustices and "the moral hypocrisies of Canada" Despite being often characterized as a Caribbean writer, Brand identifies as a "black Canadian".
She has contributed to many anthologies opposing the violent killings of Black men and women, the massacre of 14 women in Montreal, and racism and inequality as experienced by Aboriginal women of Canada, particularly Helen Betty Osborne's death in the Pas.
A Map to the Door of No Return
In Dionne Brand's piece, A Map to A Door of No Return, she explores intergenerational trauma and post memory. Brand, using a variety of different elements, explores her own experiences through an autobiographical perspective as well as diving into explain a concept she calls "The Door of No Return." The Door is the space in which the history of black people is lost, specifically when slaves from Africa were transported through the Atlantic slave trade. Brand defines the Door of No Return as "that place where our ancestors departed one world for another; the Old World for the New." It is a place that is as metaphorical as it is psychological, as imaginary as it is real. It is not a physical door, in the sense that it be found at a single location, but rather a collection of locations. At the same time, however, the Door can bring profound grief and pain to many in the Diaspora when they visit it—for example, at the slave caves in Ghana or Gorée Island—or encounter it, as Brand does when she flies over it and feels overwhelmed, tense, consumed with thoughts and feelings and images. The Door is a site of traceable beginnings that are left at the doorsteps, eventually forgotten and lost in historical and familial memory, as demonstrated when Brand's grandfather can no longer remember the name of the ancestral people they belong to. When passing through The Door, people lost their history, their humanity, and their ancestry. This trauma is still felt by black people today, which is the perspective from which Brand explores the concept. She gives examples of this through sports. she writes: "I hear my neighbour downstairs enter Shaquille O'Neal's body every night of the NBA Championships this year" Brand also describes how her interactions with her grandfather eventually became "mutually disappointing" and led to estrangement, as he could not remember the name of their tribe, the people they came from, and could not, thus, remember their family history. Essentially, Brand's short anecdote is about the insufficiency of memory and how incredibly limiting that is. The "fissure" that developed between her grandfather and herself parallels the "fissure between the past and the present," that gap in memory, as represented by the Door of No Return. There's a sort of historical, intergenerational trauma that's associated with this loss of memory, as those in the Diaspora can feel profound grief and pain from their interactions with the Door of No Return ("one does not return to the Diaspora with good news from the door" ).
Brand begins A Map to the Door of No Return by recounting her long standing struggle with her Grandfather to remember where their ancestors were from. She marks this as being the first time she felt a burning desire to know her ancestry, stating that "a small space opened in [her]" (Brand 4) and that not knowing was "profoundly disturbing" (Brand 5). She describes this moment of recognition as reaching the door of no return; a place where our ancestors departed one world for another (Brand 5). In this moment, she is confronted with the reality that her life will consist of a never ending battle to complete her identity. Brand is intentional to note that her desire only came into full effect when she was denied knowledge of her ancestry. Contrary to Franz Fanon's theory that the pivotal moment in a Black child's life is the moment when they come in contact with the white world and are confronted with the full weight of their blackness, Brand's awakening was not dependent on the white world. The onset of her inner struggle to find belonging and self-assuredness occurred in an entirely black space. This feeling of being incomplete is common amongst Black people throughout the diaspora and, as Brand demonstrates, and is one of the driving forces in her desire to know her ancestry.
Like Dionne Brand's struggle to remember her ancestors, she suggests that black individuals experience the sort of "double consciousness" that DuBois discusses in "The Souls of Black Folk." This idea of having to understand to different approaches as they go through life.
Another theme that Brand explores in A Map to the Door of No Return is the theory and praxis of geography. In the text, Brand references several maps, geographers, and ideas related to geography and navigation (e.g. the Babylonian map, David Turnbull and "way-finding," Charles Bricker, the North Star and the Big Dipper, etc.) Juxtaposing these references to her analyses and reflections, she begins to deconstruct and challenge the systems of logic that constitute geography and borders, the way geography has been constructed and hailed as truth, and the emphasis we place on origins when we shouldn't, as origins are not only arbitrary, but they also reproduce the violence of the nation-state. As seen in her explanation, analysis, and subsequent application of Charles Bricker's notes on Ludolf and how asinine he (Ludolf) was, it's apparent that geography and the knowledge that is produced from this discipline is flawed.
Brand uses figurative language in the text. Water, doors, the radio and memory figure boldly and lyrically. Through this figurative language, Brand links form and content where the figurativeness of her language, mimics the literal images of slavery that Brand witnessed on her journey to Africa. Her metaphors also help elaborate and emphasize her thoughts, and the understanding of the door. As she puts it, "The door casts a haunting spell on personal and collective consciousness in the Diaspora."
Rivers Have Sources, Trees Have Roots
In Rivers Have Sources, Trees Have Roots (1986), Brand and co-author Krisantha Sri Bhaggiyadatta interviewed a hundred people from the Canadian Native, Black, Chinese, and South Asian communities about their perceptions of racism and its impact on their lives. The authors critiqued the existence and ubiquity of racism, disparities and resistance, arguing that two themes exist where racism prevails in their interviewees' lives: through "the culture of racism" and through structural and institutional ways.
Rivers gives each individual an opportunity to speak about his or her personal and migration story. The interviewees speak of their anger, resentments, and complaints of being treated as different and inferior. Brand sees racism as a powerful tool to censor oppositional voices and disagrees with the conception of racism as isolated or unusual.
No Language Is Neutral
No Language is Neutral was originally published in 1990 by Coach House Press. It is a 50-page tour-de-force which tackles issues of immigration, environmentalism, slavery, lesbian love, identity, place and the female body, all from a no-holds-barred Black feminist perspective. The title of the book indicates that Brand is in conversation with writers of the Black Diaspora, namely Derek Walcott. Susan Gingell goes as far as to call him her "antithetical literary ancestor" whose views Brand fights against and rewrites in No Language is Neutral. She is calling out Walcott, who in her opinion plays to the belief that "colonization brought civilization, brought culture." She confidently posits herself as the antidote to Walcott: he is the "Black colonial" who through literature dances with oppression instead of fighting it. In the Caribbean context, Brand's literary forbearers had almost been exclusively male so her take in No Language is Neutral is of utmost importance and her calling out of Walcott even more revolutionary.
Coach House Press contracted Grace Channer to do the cover art of the book. Cohesive with Brand's vision, Channer produced a cover which depicts the bare breasts of a woman caressed by a hardened fist. The cover plays with the softness of themes such as love and desire but the hardened fist is there as a reminder of the difficult politics Brand is confronting in this volume. In her acknowledgements Brand thanks Ted Chamberlin, Michael Ondaatje and The Sisterhood to the Toronto Black Women's Collective. No Language is Neutral is blurbed by Michelle Cliff, Dorothy Livesay, Nicole Brossard and Betsy Warland.
Critics such as Winfried Siemerling have hailed No Language is Neutral as a "breakthrough volume" for its uninhibitedness. In 1991, however, critics such as Ronald B. Hatch sung a different tune. He claimed that the "highly provocative material" in No Language Is Neutral coupled with "the Trinidadian English" was "monotonous" and lacked "imagistic representation". He claimed that the fault in No Language is Neutral was that it was "highly formal" and "highly rationalist" as if expecting Brand to write the opposite because of her 'other'/ 'exotic' status. Brand, however, did not conform to any of these expectations as can be seen in her later work too. Her incorporation of Patois in her prose-like poems for example continued way past No Language is Neutral.
"No Language Is Neutral, sold over 6,000 copies, a remarkable number, even with a Governor General's Award nomination." Today, it has been adopted into school curricula Canada-wide.
"St. Mary Estate"
Personal experience and ancestral memory inform her short story "St. Mary Estate", from Sans Souci and Other Stories, pp. 360–366. The narrator, accompanied by her sister, revisits the cocoa estate of their birth and childhood, recalling past experiences of racism and shame. She focuses on the summer beach house belonging to "rich whites" that was cleaned by their father, the overseer slave. Her anger over discrimination and poverty is triggered by the recollection of living quarters made of thin cardboard with newspapers walls - barracks that depict the physical, social and psychological degradation endured by the slaves who were denied the basic human rights and freedom.
"This Body For Itself"
In "This Body For Itself" (1994), in Bread Out of Stone, Brand discusses the way the black feminine body is represented. She asserts that in male authored texts, the black feminine body is often portrayed as motherly or virginal. In female authored texts, the black female body is often portrayed as protector and/or resistor to rape. Brand states that it is understandable why this happens. The avoidance of portraying black feminine bodies as sexual is out of self-preservation, as black female bodies are often overly sexualized in their portrayal. However, Brand argues that this self-preservation is a trap, because desire and sexuality can be a great source of power, and suppressing this only further suppresses female power to own their own desire. She writes, "The most radical strategy of the female body for itself is the lesbians confessing all the desire and fascination for itself" (p. 108).
Chronicles of the Hostile Sun
Brand wrote many of the poems in her fifth book of poetry, Chronicles of the Hostile Sun, in response to the United States military occupation of Grenada. Brand had been living in Grenada and working for a Canadian non-profit organization when the United States invasion of the island took place. The Reagan Administration sanctioned the military invasion in response to the Marxist-Leninist revolutionary political party, the New Jewel Movement, led by Maurice Bishop, who became Prime Minister of the island after a coup in 1979. He was arrested and assassinated in the days leading up to the invasion in 1983. Brand's Chronicles of the Hostile Sun, published one year later in 1984, is divided into three sections: Languages, Sieges, and Military Occupations. Poems in the lattermost section refer directly to Grenada, including mentions of Bishop and other prominent political leaders, the island's socio-political landscape, and scenes during and after the harrowing invasion. Titles in this section are often dates of significant events during the occupation, including "October 19th, 1983," the day Bishop was assassinated and "October 25th, 1983," the day the U.S. military began the invasion. The poem "On American numeracy and literacy in the war against Grenada" places the occupation in the broader context of revolution and U.S. military action in Cuba and El Salvador.
Other themes
Other topics addressed in Brand's writing include the sexual exploitation of African women. Brand says, "We are born thinking of travelling back." She writes: "Listen, I am a Black woman whose ancestors were brought to a new world laying tightly packed in ships. Fifteen million of them survived the voyage, five million of them women; millions among them died, were killed, committed suicide in the middle passage."
Brand has received numerous awards. Writer Myriam Chancy says Brand found "it possible ...to engage in personal/critical work which uncovers the connections between us as Black women at the same time as re-discovering that which has been kept from us: our cultural heritage, the language of our grandmothers, ourselves."
Filmmaking
Dionne Brand made a number of documentaries with NFB's feminist-film production unit, Studio D, from 1989 to 1996. When Studio D was criticized for its lack of diversity, Rina Fraticelli, the executive producer at the time, created a program called New Initiatives in Film (NIF). It was out of this program that Brand partnered with Ginny Stikeman to create the award-winning Sisters in the Struggle (1991), a "look at Black women in community, labour and feminist organizing". This was part of the Women at the Well trilogy that also included Older, Stronger, Wiser (1989) and Long Time Comin (1991). Brand's collaboration with producer Stikeman also became the "model for the Internship Component of NIF", which offered production experience at various regional studios across Canada and at Studio D in Montreal. Brand's film, Older, Stronger, Wiser (1989), which "features five black women talking about their lives in urban and rural Canada between the 1920s and 1950s", and Sisters in the Struggle, were both distinct films in that they broke away from the mid-1980s survey films and instead focused on local issues to Canadian women.
Brand did not have pointed interest in filmmaking until an opportunity arose to consult on a documentary about racism at Studio D. A white filmmaker was the lead on the project and after meeting with her for several days, Brand decided she did not want to be a part of the film. She told the Studio that she would be willing to "do something about Black women from their point of view," which resulted in Long Time Comin'''.
Brand directed Listening for Something… Adrienne Rich and Dionne Brand in Conversation (1996), a filmic reading and discussion between herself and the American elder lesbian writer. Listening for Something was being made during turbulent times as Studio D was being dismantled. Brand has also written the script and text for Under One Sky… Arab Women in North America Talk About the Hijab.
Brand's documentary work frequently focuses on multiculturalism and sexual pluralism in Canada. She warns against state-sponsored images of multiculturalism, stating that true diversity means people having "equal access to equal justice, equal jobs, equal education". Having critiqued the concept of 'nation' as the notion of "leaving out" Black women, Brand has focused much of her work on representation for her communities.
Critical reception
Critics of Brand's early work focused on Caribbean national and cultural identity and Caribbean literary theory. Barbadian poet and scholar Edward Kamau Brathwaite referred to Brand as "our first major exile female poet." Academic J. Edward Chamberlain called her "a final witness to the experience of migration and exile" whose "literary inheritance is in some genuine measure West Indian, a legacy of [Derek] Walcott, Brathwaite and others." They cite her own and others' shifting locations, both literal and theoretical.
Peter Dickinson argues that "Brand 'reterritorializes' … boundaries in her writing, (dis)placing or (dis)locating the national narrative of subjectivity … into the diaspora of cross-cultural, -racial, -gender, -class, and –erotic identifications." Dickinson calls these shifts in her conceptualization of national and personal affiliations "the politics of location [which] cannot be separated from the politics of 'production and reception.'" Critic Leslie Sanders argues that, in Brand's ongoing exploration of the notions of "here" and "there" she uses her own "statelessness" as a vehicle for entering "'other people's experience'" and "'other places.'" In Sanders' words, "by becoming a Canadian writer, Brand is extending the Canadian identity in a way [Marshall] McLuhan would recognize and applaud." But, Dickinson says, "Because Brand's 'here' is necessarily mediated, provisional, evanescent – in a word 'unlocatable' – her work remains marginal/marginalizable in academic discussions of Canadian literary canons."
In Redefining the Subject: Sites of Play in Canadian Women's Writing, Charlotte Sturgess suggests that Brand employs a language "through which identity emerges as a mobile, thus discursive, construct." Sturgess argues that Brand's "work uses language strategically, as a wedge to split European traditions, forms and aesthetics apart; to drive them onto their own borders and contradictions." Sturgess says Brand's work is at least two-pronged: it "underline[s] the enduring ties of colonialism within contemporary society;" and it "investigates the very possibilities of Black, female self-representation in Canadian cultural space."
Italian academic and theorist Franca Bernabei writes in the preamble to Luce ostinata/Tenacious Light (2007), the Italian-English selected anthology of Brand's poetry, that "Brand's poetic production reveals a remarkable variety of formal-stylistic strategies and semantic richness as well as the ongoing pursuit of a voice and a language that embody her political, affective, and aesthetic engagement with the human condition of the black woman—and, more exactly, all those oppressed by the hegemonic program of modernity." The editor and critic Constance Rooke calls Brand "one of the very best [poets] in the world today", and "compare[s] her to Pablo Neruda or—in fiction—to José Saramago."
The Thames Art Gallery in Chatham called Brand's documentary Sisters in the Struggle "radical in its amplifications of the voices of black Canadian women, who reflect on the legacy of the intersection of racism and sexism, alongside their personal battles in community, labour and feminist organizing".
Activism
In addition to being a writer, Brand is a social activist. She is a founder of the newspaper Our Lives, is past chair of the Women's Issues Committee of the Ontario Coalition of Black Trade Unionists, and does work with immigrant organizations around Toronto.
Awards and honours
Brand's awards include:
1997: Governor General's Award for Poetry and the Trillium Book Award for Land to Light On (1997)
2003: Pat Lowther Award for thirsty (2002)
2006: City of Toronto Book Award for What We All Long For (2005)
2006: Harbourfront Festival Prize in recognition of her important contribution to literature
2006: Fellow of the Academies for Arts, Humanities, and Sciences of Canada (formerly the Royal Society of Canada)
2009: Poet Laureate of Toronto
2011: Griffin Poetry Prize for OssuariesMark Medley, "Dionne Brand, Gjertrud Schnackenberg win Griffin Poetry Prize" , Afterword, 1 June 2011.
2015: Honorary Doctorate from Thorneloe University
2017: Honorary degree from the University of Windsor
2017: Member of the Order of Canada (Invested on 6 September 2018)
2019: Blue Metropolis Violet Prize
2021: Windham-Campbell Literature Prize (fiction)
Bibliography
Poetry
1978: Fore Day Morning: Poems. Toronto: Khoisan Artists,
1979: Earth Magic. Toronto: Kids Can Press,
1982: Primitive Offensive. Toronto: Williams-Wallace International Inc.,
1983: Winter Epigrams and Epigrams to Ernesto Cardenal in Defense of Claudia. Toronto: Williams-Wallace International Inc.,
1984: Chronicles of the Hostile Sun. Toronto: Williams-Wallace,
1990: No Language is Neutral. Toronto: Coach House Press, ; McClelland & Stewart, 1998,
1997: Land to Light On. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart,
2002: thirsty. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, (shortlisted for the 2003 Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize)
Excerpt from thirsty, online at CBC Words at Large
2006: Inventory. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart,
Excerpt from Inventory, online at CBC Words at Large
2010: Ossuaries - 2010 (McClelland & Stewart, ) (winner of the 2011 Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize and Pat Lowther Award)
2018: The Blue Clerk - 2018 (McClelland & Stewart, ) (shortlisted for the 2019 Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize, longlisted for the Pat Lowther Award, Governor General's Awards finalist)
Fiction
1988: Sans Souci and Other Stories. Stratford, ON: Williams-Wallace, and
1996: In Another Place, Not Here. Toronto: Knopf Canada,
1999: At the Full and Change of the Moon. Toronto: Knopf Canada,
2005: What We All Long For. Toronto: Knopf Canada,
2014: Love Enough. Toronto: Knopf Canada,
2018: Theory, Toronto: Knopf Canada,
Non-fiction
1986: Rivers have sources, trees have roots: speaking of racism (with Krisantha Sri Bhaggiyadatta). Toronto: Cross Cultural Communications Centre,
1991: No Burden to Carry: Narratives of Black Working Women in Ontario, 1920s-1950s (with Lois De Shield). Toronto: Women's Press,
1994: Imagination, Representation, and Culture1994: We're Rooted Here and They Can't Pull Us Up: Essays in African Canadian Women's History (with Peggy Bristow, Linda Carty, Afua P. Cooper, Sylvia Hamilton, and Adrienne Shadd). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, and
1994: Bread Out of Stone: Recollections on Sex, Recognitions, Race, Dreaming and Politics. Toronto: Coach House Press, ; Toronto: Vintage, 1998,
2001: A Map to the Door of No Return: Notes to Belonging. Toronto: Random House Canada, and
2008: A Kind of Perfect Speech: The Ralph Gustafson Lecture Malaspina University-College 19 October 2006. Nanaimo, BC: Institute for Coastal Research Publishing,
2020: An Autobiography of the Autobiography of Reading. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press,
DocumentariesOlder, Stronger, Wiser. Dir. Claire Prieto. Assoc. Dir. Dionne Brand (Part I, Women at the Well trilogy). National Film Board of Canada, Studio D, 1989Sisters in the Struggle. Dirs. Dionne Brand and Ginny Stikeman (Part II, Women at the Well trilogy). National Film Board of Canada, Studio D, 1991Long Time Comin. Dir. Dionne Brand. Perf. Faith Nolan and Grace Channer (Part III, Women at the Well trilogy). National Film Board of Canada, Studio D, 1991Listening for Something: Adrienne Rich and Dionne Brand in Conversation. Dir. Dionne Brand. National Film Board of Canada, Studio D, 1996Beyond Borders: Arab Feminists Talk About Their Lives ... East and West. Dir. Jennifer Kawaja. Narr. Dionne Brand. National Film Board of Canada, 1999Under One Sky: Arab Women in North America Talk About the Hijab. Dir. Jennifer Kawaja. Narr. Dionne Brand. National Film Board of Canada, 1999Borderless: A Docu-Drama About the Lives of Undocumented Workers. Dir. Min Sook Lee. Narr. Dionne Brand. KAIROS Canadian Ecumenical Justice Initiatives, 2006.
Anthologies edited
2007: The Journey Prize Stories: The Best of Canada's New Stories (with Caroline Adderson and David Bezmozqis, comps. and eds). Toronto: McClelland & Stewart,
2017: The Unpublished City, BookThug,
Archives
There is a Dionne Brand fond at Library and Archives Canada, containing multiple media including 4.89 meters of textual records, 78 audio cassettes and 2 posters.
Sources
Amin, Nuzhat et al. Canadian Woman Studies: An Introductory Reader. Toronto: Inanna Publications and Education Inc. 1999.
Brand, Dionne. "Bread out of Stone", in Libby Scheier, Sarah Sheard and Eleanor Wachtel (eds), Language In Her Eye. Toronto: Coach House Press. 1990.
Brand, Dionne. No Language is Neutral. Toronto: Coach House Press. 1990.
Brand, Dionne. Rivers Have Sources, Trees Have Roots: Speaking of Racism (1986) with Krisantha Sri Bhaggiyadatta. Toronto: Cross Communication Centre 1986.
Brand, Dionne. "St. Mary Estate," in Eva C. Karpinski and Ian Lea (eds), Pens of Many Colours: A Canadian Reader (1993), Toronto: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Canada Inc. 1993.
Brand, Dionne. "Just Rain, Bacolet". In Constance Rooke (ed.), Writing Away: the PEN Canada Travel Anthology, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Inc. 1994.
Kamboureli, Smaro. Making A Difference: Canadian Multicultual Literature. Toronto: Oxford University Press. 1996.
Further reading
Birkett, Mary F. Review of Earth Magic, by Dionne Brand. School Library Journal 27.3 (1980): 83.
Dalleo, Raphael. "Post-Grenada, Post-Cuba, Postcolonial: Rethinking Revolutionary Discourse in Dionne Brand's In Another Place, Not Here". Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 12.1 (2010): 64–73.
Dickinson, Peter. "'In Another Place, Not Here': Dionne Brand's Politics of (Dis) Location", in Veronica Strong-Bong, Sherrill Grace, Avigail Eisenberg, and Joan Anderson (eds), Painting the Maple: Essays on Race, Gender, and the Construction of Canada, Vancouver, BC: U of British Columbia Press, 1998. 113–29.
Fraser, Kaya. "Language to Light On: Dionne Brand and the Rebellious Word." Studies in Canadian Literature 30.1 (2005): 291–308.
.
McCallum, Pamela, and Christian Olbey. "Written in the Scars: History, Genre and Materiality in Dionne Brand's In Another Place, Not Here." Essays on Caribbean Writing 68 (1999): 159–83.
Quigley, Ellen. "Picking the Deadlock of Legitimacy: Dionne Brand's 'Noise Like the World Cracking'". Canadian Literature 186 (2005): 48–67.
Russell, Catherine. Review of Primitive Offensive, by Dionne Brand. Quill and Quire 49.9 (1983): 76.
Saul, Joanne. "'In the Middle of Becoming': Dionne Brand's Historical Vision". Canadian Woman Studies 23.2 (2004): 59–63.
Thorpe, Michael. Review of In Another Place, Not Here, by Dionne Brand. World Literature Today, 22 March 1997.
Knight, Chelene. "Does the world need this line?" Conversation with Dionne Brand. Rungh Magazine
References
External links
Canadian Poetry Online: Dionne Brand - Biography and two poems (I from Thirsty and II from Inventory)
Dionne Brand's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia''
Griffin Poetry Prize biography
Griffin Poetry Prize readings, including video clips
Archives of Dionne Brand (Dionne Brand fonds, R11754) are held at Library and Archives Canada
Canadian feminist writers
Canadian women poets
Canadian women novelists
Trinidad and Tobago feminists
Trinidad and Tobago women poets
Trinidad and Tobago poets
Trinidad and Tobago women novelists
Trinidad and Tobago novelists
1953 births
Living people
Black Canadian writers
Trinidad and Tobago emigrants to Canada
University of Toronto alumni
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Governor General's Award-winning poets
Harbourfront Festival Prize winners
20th-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian poets
21st-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian women writers
Black Canadian women
Canadian lesbian writers
Black Canadian LGBT people
African-Canadian feminism
Poets Laureate of Toronto
21st-century LGBT people | [
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251684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda | Agenda | Agenda may refer to:
Information management
Agenda (meeting), points to be discussed and acted upon, displayed as a list
Political agenda, the set of goals of an ideological group
Lotus Agenda, a DOS-based personal information manager
Personal organizer or agenda, a small notebook for organizing personal information
Music
Agenda (EP), by Pet Shop Boys, 2019
The Agenda (album), by Cold Blank, 2012
Organizations
Agenda (charity), a UK-based charity that campaigns for women and girls at risk
Agenda (think tank), a Norwegian think tank focused on politics and international affairs
Periodicals and books
Agenda (feminist journal), an African academic journal of feminism
Agenda (poetry journal), a UK literary periodical
Agenda (liturgy), a book used in Lutheran worship
The Agenda, a 1994 book by Bob Woodward
Places
Agenda, Kansas, U.S.
Agenda, Wisconsin, U.S.
Television
Agenda (Australian TV program), a series of programs since 2010
Agenda (British TV programme), a 1980s current affairs programme
Agenda (Irish TV programme), a 1999–2004 current events programme
Agenda (New Zealand TV programme), a 1999–2009 current events programme
Agenda (Swedish TV program), a 2001 current events programme
The Agenda, an Ontario, Canada, current affairs program since 2006
The Agenda with Tom Bradby, a 2012–2016 British chat show | [
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251686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20South%20Dakota | List of governors of South Dakota | The governor of South Dakota is the head of government of the U.S. state of South Dakota. The current Governor is Republican Kristi Noem, serving since 2019. The Governor has the power to sign or veto laws, and to call the Legislative Assembly into emergency session. They have an ex officio South Dakota Governor's Residence. The governor may only serve two terms consecutively, and becomes eligible for reelection after four years out of office. South Dakota is a strongly Republican state; only six Governors have not been members of that party and the governorship has been held by Republicans since 1979, the longest Republican streak and the longest overall streak of one party control in the country.
Governors of Dakota Territory
Governors of South Dakota
Political party
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented South Dakota except where noted. * denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
Notes
See also
South Dakota
Governor of South Dakota
Timeline of South Dakota
South Dakota
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251687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tevet | Tevet | Tevet (, Tevet; ; Ṭeveth; Teves; from Akkadian ) is the fourth month of the civil year and the tenth month of the ecclesiastical year on the Hebrew calendar. It follows Kislev and precedes Shevat. It is a month of 29 days. Tevet usually occurs in December–January on the Gregorian calendar. In the Babylonian calendar its name was Araḫ Ṭebētum, the "muddy month".
Gregorian new year
The Gregorian New Year's Day (1 January) nearly always occurs in this month. Only rarely will it occur in either of the two neighbouring months (Kislev or Shevat).
Holidays in Tevet
25 Kislev – 2 Tevet – Hanukkah (or 3 Tevet if Kislev is short)
10 Tevet – Tenth of Tevet (Asara beTevet), a fast day
Community holidays
5 Tevet is celebrated as a holiday by Chabad Hasidim, commemorating the 1987 verdict concerning an inheritance claim on the books of Rabbi Joseph Isaac Schneersohn.
Tevet in Jewish history and tradition
1 Tevet (circa 479 BC) – Esther was taken to King Achashverosh's palace, leading to her becoming queen (Book of Esther 2:16-17).
10 Tevet (588 BC) – Nebuchadnezzar II's armies besiege Jerusalem; now commemorated as a fast day.
10 Tevet (479 BC) – Esther appears before Achashverosh for the first time and is chosen by him to be the queen.
11 Tevet (1668) – Jews were expelled from Vienna, Austria, during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold the First.
17 Tevet (1728) – Shearith Israel, the first New York synagogue, erects its first building in Lower Manhattan.
20 Tevet (1483) – The first volume of the Babylonian Talmud, the tractate Berachot, is printed in Soncino, Italy.
22 Tevet (1496) – Expulsion of Jews from Portugal, four years after the expulsion from Spain.
24 Tevet (3rd century BC) – Jewish elders procure the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek (Septuagint) for Ptolemy II Philadelphus.
24 Tevet (1812) - Death of the Alter Rebbe founder of the Chabad philosophy and author of the Tanya and Shulchan Aruch HaRav.
25 Tevet (1559) – Chovot HaLevavot published
Alexander the Great met the high priest after the Samaritans said the Jews intended to betray him
28 Tevet (81 BC) – Shimon ben Shetach ejects the Sadducees from the Sanhedrin, replacing them with his Pharisaic disciples loyal to the Mishnah.
See also
Jewish astrology
References
External links
This Month in Jewish History
Resources on the Month of Tevet
Months of the Hebrew calendar | [
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251704 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Iowa | List of governors of Iowa | The governor of Iowa is the head of government of the U.S. state of Iowa. The governor is the head of the executive branch of the state government and is charged with enforcing state laws. The officeholder has the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Iowa General Assembly, to convene the legislature, as well as to grant pardons, except in cases of treason and impeachment. The Governor of Iowa is also the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces.
There have been 41 individuals who held the position of Iowa governor, with two of those serving multiple distinct terms, Samuel J. Kirkwood and Terry Branstad. The current governor, Kim Reynolds, is the first woman to hold the position and was sworn in on May 24, 2017. The longest-serving is Terry Branstad, who served from 1983 to 1999 and then again from 2011 to 2017. He is the longest-serving governor in U.S. history, surpassing the previous record of 21 years set by George Clinton of New York. The shortest-serving was Robert D. Fulton, who served 16 days.
Governors of the Territory of Iowa
Iowa Territory was formed on July 4, 1838, from Wisconsin Territory. It had three governors appointed by the President of the United States. The first governor did not arrive for six weeks after the territory had been created; in the interim, territorial secretary William B. Conway acted as governor.
Governors of the State of Iowa
The southeast portion of Iowa Territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Iowa on December 28, 1846. The first Constitution of Iowa, adopted in 1846, created the office of governor with a four-year term, with no specific start date. The 1857 constitution reduced this term to two years, but an amendment in 1972 increased this back to four years. The 1857 constitution also set the start of the term to the second Monday in the January following the election, which was moved one day later by a 1988 amendment.
The office of lieutenant governor was created in the 1857 constitution, elected for the same term as the governor. An amendment in 1988 specified that the lieutenant governor would be elected on the same ticket as the governor. If the office becomes vacant, it devolves upon the lieutenant governor for the remainder of the term or vacancy. Prior to 1857, if the office became vacant, the Secretary of State of Iowa would act as governor. There is no term limit on the number of terms a governor may serve.
Succession
Living former governors of Iowa
As of January 2022, four former U.S. governors of Iowa are currently living, the oldest being Robert D. Fulton (served 1969-1969, born 1929). The most recent and most recently serving U.S. governor of Iowa to die was Robert D. Ray (served 1969-1983), on July 8, 2018.
Notes
References
General
Constitutions
Specific
External links
Governor of Iowa
Lists of state governors of the United States
List of Governors
Governors | [
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251705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargaining | Bargaining | In the social sciences, bargaining or haggling is a type of negotiation in which the buyer and seller of a good or service debate the price or nature of a transaction. If the bargaining produces agreement on terms, the transaction takes place.
Although the most apparent aspect of bargaining in markets is as an alternative pricing strategy to fixed prices, it can also include making arrangements for credit or bulk purchasing, as well as serving as an important method of clienteling.
Bargaining has largely disappeared in parts of the world where retail stores with fixed prices are the most common place to purchase goods. However, for expensive goods such as homes, antiques and collectibles, jewellery and automobiles, bargaining can remain commonplace.
Dickering and Haggling refers to the same process, albeit with a slight negative (petty) connotation.
Where it takes place
Haggling is associated commonly with bazaars and other markets where centralized regulation is difficult or impossible. Both religious beliefs and regional custom may determine whether or not the sellers or buyers are willing to bargain.
Regional differences
In North America and Europe, bargaining is restricted to expensive or one-of-a-kind items (automobiles, antiques, jewelry, art, real estate, trade sales of businesses) and informal sales settings such as flea markets and garage sales. In other regions of the world, bargaining may be the norm, even for small commercial transactions.
In Indonesia and elsewhere in Asia, locals haggle for goods and services everywhere from street markets to hotels. Even children learn to haggle from a young age. Participating in that tradition can make foreigners feel accepted. On the other hand, in Thailand, haggling seems to be softer than the other countries due to Thai culture, in which people tend to be humble and avoiding of arguments. However, haggling for food items is strongly discouraged in Southeast Asia and is considered an insult, because food is seen as a common necessity that is not to be treated as a tradable good.
In almost all large complex business negotiations, a certain amount of bargaining takes place. One simplified 'western' way to decide when it's time to bargain is to break negotiation into two stages: creating value and claiming value. Claiming value is another phrase for bargaining. Many cultures take offense when they perceive the other side as having started bargaining too soon. This offense is usually as a result of their wanting to first create value for longer before they bargain together. The Chinese culture, by contrast, places a much higher value on taking time to build a business relationship before starting to create value or bargain. Not understanding when to start bargaining has ruined many an otherwise positive business negotiation.
In areas where bargaining at the retail level is common, the option to bargain often depends on the presence of the store's owner. A chain store managed by clerks is more likely to use fixed pricing than an independent store managed by an owner or one of the owner's trusted employees.
The store's ambiance may also be used to signal whether or not bargaining is appropriate. For instance, a comfortable and air-conditioned store with posted prices usually does not allow bargaining, but a stall in a bazaar or marketplace may. Supermarkets and other chain stores almost never allow bargaining. However, the importance of ambiance may depend on the cultural commitment to bargaining. In Israel, prices on day-to-day items (clothing, toiletries) may be negotiable even in a Western-style store manned by a clerk.
Theories
Behavioral theory
The personality theory in bargaining emphasizes that the type of personalities determine the bargaining process and its outcome. A popular behavioral theory deals with a distinction between hard-liners and soft-liners. Various research papers refer to hard-liners as warriors, while soft-liners are shopkeepers. It varies from region to region. Bargaining may take place more in rural and semi-urban areas than in a metro city.
Game theory
Bargaining games refer to situations where two or more players must reach an agreement regarding how to distribute an object or monetary amount. Each player prefers to reach an agreement in these games, rather than abstain from doing so. However, each prefers that the agreement favor their interests. Examples of such situations include the bargaining involved in a labor union and the directors of a company negotiating wage increases, the dispute between two communities about the distribution of a common territory, or the conditions under which two countries agree on nuclear disarmament. Analyzing these kinds of problems looks for a solution that specifies which component in dispute corresponds to each party involved.
Players in a bargaining problem can bargain for the objective as a whole at a precise moment in time. The problem can also be divided so that parts of the whole objective become subject to bargaining during different stages.
In a classical bargaining problem, the result is an agreement reached between all interested parties or the status quo of the problem. It is clear that studying how individual parties make their decisions is insufficient for predicting what agreement will be reached. However, classical bargaining theory assumes that each participant in a bargaining process will choose between possible agreements, following the conduct predicted by the rational choice model. It is particularly assumed that each player's preferences regarding the possible agreements can be represented by a von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem function.
Nash [1950] defines a classical bargaining problem as being a set of joint allocations of utility, some of which correspond to what the players would obtain if they reach an agreement, and another that represents what they would get if they failed to do so.
A bargaining game for two players is defined as a pair (F,d) where F is the set of possible joint utility allocations (possible agreements), and d is the disagreement point.
For the definition of a specific bargaining solution, it is usual to follow Nash's proposal, setting out the axioms this solution should satisfy. Some of the most frequent axioms used in the building of bargaining solutions are efficiency, symmetry, independence of irrelevant alternatives, scalar invariance, monotonicity, etc.
The Nash bargaining solution is the bargaining solution that maximizes the product of an agent's utilities on the bargaining set.
The Nash bargaining solution, however, only deals with the simplest structure of bargaining. It is not dynamic (failing to deal with how pareto outcomes are achieved). Instead, for situations where the structure of the bargaining game is important, a more mainstream game-theoretic approach is useful. This can allow players' preferences over time and risk to be incorporated into the solution of bargaining games. It can also show how the details can matter. For example, the Nash bargaining solution for Prisoners' Dilemma is different from the Nash equilibrium.
For a comprehensive discussion of the Nash bargaining solution and the huge literature on the theory and application of bargaining - including a discussion of the classic Rubinstein bargaining model - see Abhinay Muthoo's book Bargaining Theory and Application.
Bargaining and posted prices in retail markets
Retailers can choose to sell at posted prices or allow bargaining: selling at a public posted price commits the retailer not to exploit buyers once they enter the retail store, making the store more attractive to potential customers, while a bargaining strategy has the advantage that it allows the retailer to price discriminate between different types of customer. In some markets, such as those for automobiles and expensive electronic goods, firms post prices but are open to haggling with consumers. When the proportion of haggling consumers goes up, prices tend to rise.
Processual theory
This theory isolates distinctive elements of the bargaining chronology in order to better understand the complexity of the negotiating process. Several key features of the processual theory include:
Bargaining range
Critical risk
Security point
Integrative theory
Integrative bargaining (also called "interest-based bargaining," "win-win bargaining") is a negotiation strategy in which parties collaborate to find a "win-win" solution to their dispute. This strategy focuses on developing mutually beneficial agreements based on the interests of the disputants. Interests include the needs, desires, concerns, and fears important to each side. They are the underlying reasons why people become involved in a conflict.
"Integrative refers to the potential for the parties' interests to be [combined] in ways that create joint value or enlarge the pie." Potential for integration only exists when there are multiple issues involved in the negotiation. This is because the parties must be able to make trade-offs across issues in order for both sides to be satisfied with the outcome.
Narrative theory
A very different approach to conceptualizing bargaining is as co-construction of a social narrative, where narrative, rather than economic logic drives the outcome.
Automated bargaining
When a bargaining situation is complex, finding Nash equilibrium is difficult using game theory. Evolutionary computation methods have been designed for automated bargaining, and demonstrated efficient and effective for approximating Nash equilibrium.
Anchor Pricing
The anchor price is the first offer made during the bargaining procedure. The first offer sets the first conditions for the pricing, thereby 'anchoring' the resulting outcome of the transaction.
See also
Alternating offers protocol
Discounts and allowances
Group buy
Retailing
Intra-household bargaining
Golden Balls - a TV game where bargaining takes place.
References
An explanation of the narrative theory of bargaining Ribbonfarm.com
Further reading
Uchendu, Victor. "Some Principles of Haggling in Peasant Markets." in Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Oct. 1967), pp. 37–50.
Definitions: Bargaining, and Bargaining Zone.
Psychological perspective of when we bargain in desperation.
Ethnographic analysis of tourists haggling for souvenirs: Gillespie, A. (2007). In the other, we trust Buying souvenirs in Ladakh, North India, Academia.edu.
On bargaining theory: Abhinay Muthoo. "Bargaining Theory with Applications", Cambridge University Press, 1999.
On automated bargaining: Tim Gosling, Nanlin Jin & Edward Tsang, Games, supply chains and automatic strategy discovery using evolutionary computation, in J-P. Rennard (Eds.), Handbook of research on nature-inspired computing for economics and management, Vol II, Chapter XXXVIII, Idea Group Reference, 2007, 572-588
Bargaining theory
Cooperative games
Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics) | [
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251712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin%20Mounds | Darwin Mounds | Darwin Mounds is a large field of undersea sand mounds situated off the north west coast of Scotland that were first discovered in May 1998. They provide a unique habitat for ancient deep water coral reefs and were found using remote sensing techniques during surveys funded by the oil industry and steered by the joint industry and United Kingdom government group the Atlantic Frontier Environment Network (AFEN) (Masson and Jacobs 1998). The mounds were named after the research vessel, itself named for the eminent naturalist and evolutionary theorist Charles Darwin.
The mounds are about below the surface of the North Atlantic ocean, approximately north-west of Cape Wrath, the north-west tip of mainland Scotland. There are hundreds of mounds in the field, which in total cover approximately . Individual mounds are typically circular, up to high and wide. Most of the mounds are also distinguished by the presence of an additional feature referred to as a 'tail'. The tails are of a variable extent and may merge with others, but are generally a teardrop shape and are orientated south-west of the mound. The mound-tail feature of the Darwin Mounds is apparently unique globally.
Composition
The mounds are mostly sand, currently interpreted as "sand volcanoes". These features are caused when fluidised sand "de-waters" and the fluid bubbles up through the sand, pushing the sediment up into a cone shape. Sand volcanoes are common in the Devonian fossil record in UK, and in seismically active areas of the planet. In this case, tectonic activity is unlikely; some form of slumping on the south-west side of the undersea (Wyville-Thomson) Ridge being a more likely cause. The tops of the mounds have living stands of Lophelia and blocky rubble (interpreted as coral debris). The mounds provide one of the largest known northerly cold-water habitats for coral species. The mounds are also unusual in that Lophelia pertusa, a cold water coral, appears to be growing on sand rather than a hard substratum. Prior to research on the mounds in 2000, it was thought that Lophelia required a hard substratum for attachment.
The deep-water coral systems on the mounds are especially fragile. Unlike shallow-water coral reefs, they are not adapted to cope with minor disturbances such as wave action. The mounds also support significant populations of the xenophyophore Syringammina fragilissima. This is a giant single-celled organism (a protozoan) that is widespread in deep waters, but occurs in particularly high densities on the mounds and the tails. Individual xenophyophores can grow to be larger than and are often very fragile. The corals themselves provide a habitat for a wide diversity of other marine life including sponges, worms, crustaceans and molluscs. Among these starfish, sea urchins and crabs. Various fish have been observed, including blue ling, roundnose grenadier, and the orange roughy.
Conservation efforts
On 23 October 2001, UK Minister Margaret Beckett made a commitment at WWF's Oceans Recovery Summit in Edinburgh to protect the Darwin Mounds. The summit launched the Edinburgh Declaration, targeting politicians and marine stakeholders alike to sign up to action to safeguard the seas. Deep water bottom trawling had been occurring in the area, with nets as heavy as one tonne dragged across the sea floor. Researcher Jason Hall-Spencer of the University of Glasgow had found pieces of coral at least 4,500 years old in the nets of trawlers operating off the coast of Ireland and Scotland. Pieces of coral up to were found in the nets of French trawling vessels that had been scraping the seabed down. It is known that much coral was destroyed by these nets and the mounds themselves in some areas were found to be scraped and flattened. The mounds are ancient structures, and this damage is permanent.
After the discovery of the mounds, three well-documented surveys of the area were undertaken, one in June 1998 (Bett 1999), August 1999 (Bett & Jacobs 2000,) and twice during summer 2000 (B. Bett, pers. comm.). Instruments deployed during the studies included side-scan sonar, stills and video cameras and piston corers. However, the entirety of what was lost to heavy-netted fishing trawlers remains unknown. On 22 March 2004 EU Fisheries Ministers in Brussels agreed to give permanent protection to the United Kingdom's unique cold-water coral reefs, recognising the Darwin Mounds as an important habitat. In 2004 deep-water bottom trawling in the area was made illegal.
See also
List of reefs
References
External links
"Biogenic reefs - cold water corals", Joint Nature Conservation Committee, U.K. government, retrieved 8 December 2007
"Trawler ban to protect reefs, BBC News, 20 August 2003
1998 in science
1998 in Scotland
Coral reefs
Landforms of Highland (council area)
Physical oceanography
Reefs of the Atlantic Ocean
Reefs of Scotland
Scottish coast | [
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251713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla | Qibla | The qibla () is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in various religious contexts, particularly the direction of prayer for the salah. In Islam the Kaaba is believed to be a sacred site built by the prophets Abraham and Ishmael, and that its use as the qibla was ordained by God in several verses of the Quran revealed to Muhammad in the second Hijri year. Prior to this revelation, Muhammad and his followers in Medina faced Jerusalem for prayers. Most mosques contain a mihrab (a wall niche) that indicates the direction of the qibla.
The qibla is also the direction for entering the ihram (sacred state for the hajj pilgrimage); the direction to which animals are turned during dhabihah (Islamic slaughter); the recommended direction to make dua (supplications); the direction to avoid when relieving oneself or spitting; and the direction to which the deceased are aligned when buried. The qibla may be observed facing the Kaaba accurately (ayn al-ka'bah) or facing in the general direction (jihat al-ka'bah). Most Islamic scholars consider that jihat al-ka'bah is acceptable if the more precise ayn al-ka'bah cannot be ascertained.
The most common technical definition used by Muslim astronomers for a location is the direction of the great circle—in the Earth's sphere—passing through the location and the Kaaba. This is the direction of the shortest possible path from a place to the Kaaba, and allows the exact calculation (hisab) of the qibla using a spherical trigonometric formula that takes the coordinates of a location and of the Kaaba as inputs (see formula below). The method is applied to develop mobile applications and websites for Muslims, and to compile qibla tables used in instruments such as the qibla compass. The qibla can also be determined at a location by observing the shadow of a vertical rod on the twice-yearly occasions when the sun is directly overhead in Mecca—on 27 and 28 May at 12:18 Saudi Arabia Standard Time (09:18 UTC), and on 15 and 16 July at 12:27 SAST (09:27 UTC).
Before the development of astronomy in the Islamic world, Muslims used traditional methods to determine the qibla. These methods included facing the direction that the companions of Muhammad had used when in the same place; using the setting and rising points of celestial objects; using the direction of the wind; or using due south, which was Muhammad's qibla in Medina. Early Islamic astronomy was built on its Indian and Greek counterparts, especially the works of Ptolemy, and soon Muslim astronomers developed methods to calculate the approximate directions of the qibla, starting from the mid-9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, Muslim astronomers developed methods to find the exact direction of the qibla which are equivalent to the modern formula. Initially, this "qibla of the astronomers" was used alongside various traditionally determined qiblas, resulting in much diversity in medieval Muslim cities. In addition, the accurate geographic data necessary for the astronomical methods to yield an accurate result were not available before the 18th and 19th centuries, resulting in further diversity of the qibla. Historical mosques with differing qiblas still stand today throughout the Islamic world. The spaceflight of a devout Muslim, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2007 generated a discussion with regard to the qibla direction from low Earth orbit, prompting the Islamic authority of his home country, Malaysia, to recommend determining the qibla "based on what is possible" for the astronaut.
Location
The qibla is the direction of the Kaaba, a cube-like building at the centre of the Sacred Mosque (al-Masjid al-Haram) in Mecca, in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia. Other than its role as qibla, it is also the holiest site for Muslims, also known as the House of God (Bait Allah) and where the (the circumambulation ritual) is performed during the Hajj and umrah pilgrimages. The Kaaba has an approximately rectangular ground plan with its four corners pointing close to the four cardinal directions. According to the Quran, it was built by Abraham and Ishmael, both of whom are prophets in Islam. Few historical records remain detailing the history of the Kaaba before the rise of Islam, but in the generations prior to Muhammad, the Kaaba had been used as a shrine of the pre-Islamic Arabic religion.
The qibla status of the Kaaba (or the Sacred Mosque in which it is located) is based on the verses 144, 149, and 150 of the al-Baqarah chapter of the Quran, each of which contains a command to "turn your face toward the Sacred Mosque" (fawalli wajhaka shatr al-Masjid il-Haram). According to Islamic traditions, these verses were revealed in the month of Rajab or Shaban in the second Hijri year (624 CE), or about 15 or 16 months after Muhammad's migration to Medina. Prior to these revelations, Muhammad and the Muslims in Medina had prayed towards Jerusalem as the qibla, the same direction as the prayer direction—the mizrah—used by the Jews of Medina. Islamic tradition says that these verses were revealed during a prayer congregation; Muhammad and his followers immediately changed their direction from Jerusalem to Mecca in the middle of the prayer ritual. The location of this event became the Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("The Mosque of the Two Qiblas").
There are different reports of the qibla direction when Muhammad was in Mecca (before his migration to Medina). According to a report cited by historian al-Tabari and exegete (textual interpreter) al-Baydawi, Muhammad prayed towards the Kaaba. Another report, cited by al-Baladhuri and also by al-Tabari, says that Muhammad prayed towards Jerusalem while in Mecca. Another report, mentioned in Ibn Hisham's biography of Muhammad, says that Muhammad prayed in such a way as to face the Kaaba and Jerusalem simultaneously. Today Muslims of all branches, including the Sunni and the Shia, all pray towards the Kaaba. Historically, one major exception was the Qarmatians, a now-defunct syncretic Shia sect which rejected the Kaaba as the qibla; in 930, they sacked Mecca and for a time took the Kaaba's Black Stone to their centre of power in Al-Ahsa, with the intention of starting a new era in Islam.
Religious significance
Etymologically, the Arabic word qibla () means "direction". In Islamic ritual and law, it refers to a special direction faced by Muslims during prayers and other religious contexts. Islamic religious scholars agree that facing the qibla is a necessary condition for the validity of salah—the Islamic ritual prayer—in normal conditions; exceptions include prayers during a state of fear or war, as well as non-obligatory prayers during travel. The (Muhammad's tradition) also prescribes that Muslims face the qibla when entering the ihram (sacred state for hajj), after the middle (stone-throwing ritual) during the pilgrimage. Islamic etiquette (adab) calls for Muslims to turn the head of an animal when it is slaughtered, and the faces of the dead when they are buried, toward the qibla. The qibla is the preferred direction when making a supplication and is to be avoided when defecating, urinating, and spitting.
Inside a mosque, the qibla is usually indicated by a mihrab, a niche in its qibla-facing wall. In a congregational prayer, the imam stands in it or close to it, in front of the rest of the congregation. The mihrab became a part of the mosque during the Umayyad period and its form was standardised during the Abbasid period; before that, the qibla of a mosque was known from the orientation of one of its walls, called the qibla wall. The term mihrab itself is attested only once in the Quran, but it refers to a place of prayer of the Israelites rather than a part of a mosque. The Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in Fustat, Egypt, one of the oldest mosques, is known to have been built originally without a mihrab, though one has since been added.
Ayn al-ka'bah and jihat al-ka'bah
Ayn al-ka'bah ("standing so as to face the Kaaba head-on") is a position facing the qibla so that an imaginary line extending from the person's line of sight would pass through the Kaaba. This manner of observing the qibla is easily done inside the Great Mosque of Mecca and its surroundings, but given that the Kaaba is less than wide, this is virtually impossible from distant locations. For example, from Medina, with a straight-line distance from the Kaaba, a one-degree deviation from the precise imaginary line—an error hardly noticeable when setting one's prayer mat or assuming one's posture—results in a shift from the site of the Kaaba. This effect is amplified when further than Mecca: from Jakarta, Indonesia—some away, a one-degree deviation causes more than a shift, and even an arc second's deviation——causes a more than shift from the location of the Kaaba. In comparison, the construction process of a mosque can easily introduce an error of up to five degrees from the calculated qibla, and the installation of prayer rugs inside the mosque as indicators for worshipers can add another deviation of five degrees from the mosque's orientation.
A minority of Islamic religious scholars—for example Ibn Arabi (d. 1240)—consider ayn al-ka'bah to be obligatory during the ritual prayer, while others consider it obligatory only when one is able. For locations further than Mecca, scholars such as Abu Hanifa (d. 699) and Al-Qurtubi (d. 1214) argue that it is permissible to assume jihat al-ka'bah, facing only the general direction of the Kaaba. Others argue that the ritual condition of facing the qibla is already fulfilled when the imaginary line to the Kaaba is within one's field of vision. For instance, there are legal opinions that accept the entire southeastern quadrant in Al-Andalus (Islamic Iberian Peninsula), and the southwestern quadrant in Central Asia, to be valid qibla. Arguments for the validity of jihat al-ka'bah include the wording of the Quran, which commands Muslims only to "turn [one's] face" toward the Great Mosque, and to avoid imposing requirements that would be impossible to fulfill if ayn al-ka'bah were to be obligatory in all places. The Shafi'i school of Islamic law, as codified in Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi's 11th-century Kitab al-Tanbih fi'l-Fiqh, argues that one must follow the qibla indicated by the local mosque when one is not near Mecca or, when not near a mosque, to ask a trustworthy person. When this is not possible, one is to make one's own determination—to exercise ijtihad—by the means at one's disposal.
Determination
Theoretical basis: the great circle
A great circle, also called the orthodrome, is any circle on a sphere whose centre is identical to the centre of the sphere. For example, all lines of longitude are great circles of the Earth, while the equator is the only line of latitude that is also a great circle (other lines of latitude are centered north or south of the centre of the Earth). The great circle is the theoretical basis in most models that seek to mathematically determine the direction of the qibla from a locality. In such models, the qibla is defined as the direction of the great circle passing through the locality and the Kaaba. One of the properties of a great circle is that it indicates the shortest path connecting any pair of points along the circle—this is the basis of its use to determine the qibla. The great circle is similarly used to find the shortest flight path connecting the two locations—therefore the qibla calculated using the great circle method is generally close to the direction of the locality to Mecca. As the ellipsoid is a more accurate figure of the Earth than a perfect sphere, modern researchers have looked into using ellipsoidal models to calculate the qibla, replacing the great circle by the geodesics on an ellipsoid. This results in more complicated calculations, while the improvement in accuracy falls well within the typical precision of the setting out of a mosque or the placement of a mat. For example, calculations using the GRS 80 ellipsoidal model yields the qibla of 18°47′06″ for a location in San Francisco, while the great circle method yields 18°51′05″.
Calculations with spherical trigonometry
The great circle model is applied to calculate the qibla using spherical trigonometry—a branch of geometry that deals with the mathematical relations between the sides and angles of triangles formed by three great circles of a sphere (as opposed to the conventional trigonometry which deals with those of a two-dimensional triangle). In the accompanying figure (captioned "Calculating the qibla"), a location , the Kaaba , and the north pole form a triangle on the sphere of the earth. The qibla is indicated by , which is the direction of the great circle passing through both and . The qibla can also be expressed as an angle, (or ), of the qibla with respect to the north, also called the inhiraf al-qibla. This angle can be calculated as a mathematical function of the local latitude , the latitude of the Kaaba , and the longitude difference between the locality and the Kaaba . This function is derived from the cotangent rule which applies to any spherical triangle with angles , , and sides , , :
Applying this formula in the spherical triangle (substituting ) and applying trigonometric identities obtain:
, or
For example, the qibla from the city of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, can be calculated as follows. The city's coordinates, , are 7.801389°S, 110.364444°E, while the Kaaba's coordinates, , are 21.422478°N, 39.825183°E. The longitude difference is (110.364444 minus 39.825183) 70.539261. Substituting the values into the formula obtains:
. which gives:
. The calculated qibla for the city of Yogyakarta is therefore 295°, or 25° north of west.
This formula was derived by modern scholars, but equivalent methods have been known to Muslim astronomers since the 9th century (3rd century ), developed by various scholars, including Habash al-Hasib (active in Damascus and Baghdad ), Al-Nayrizi (Baghdad, ), Ibn Yunus (10th–11th century), Ibn al-Haytham (11th century), and Al-Biruni (11th century). Today spherical trigonometry also underlies nearly all applications or websites which calculate the qibla.
When the qibla angle with respect to the north, , is known, true north needs to be known to find the qibla in practice. Common practical methods to find it include the observation of the shadow at the culmination of the sun—when the sun crosses exactly the local meridian. At this point, any vertical object would cast a shadow oriented in the north–south direction. The result of this observation is very accurate, but it requires an accurate determination of the local time of culmination as well as making the correct observation at that exact moment. Another common method is using the compass, which is more practical because it can be done at any time; the disadvantage is that the north indicated by a magnetic compass differs from true north. This magnetic declination can measure up to 20°, which can vary in different places on Earth and changes over time.
Shadow observation
As observed from Earth, the sun appears to "shift" between the Northern and Southern Tropics seasonally; additionally, it appears to move from east to west daily as a consequence of the earth's rotation. The combination of these two apparent motions means that every day the sun crosses the meridian once, usually not precisely overhead but to the north or to the south of the observer. In locations between the two tropics—latitudes lower than 23.5° north or south—at certain moments of the year (usually twice a year) the sun passes almost directly overhead. This happens when the sun crosses the meridian while being at the local latitude at the same time.
The city of Mecca is among the places where this occurs, due to its location at 21°25′ N. It occurs twice a year, firstly on 27/28 May at about 12:18 Saudi Arabia Standard Time (SAST) or 09:18 UTC, and secondly on 15/16 July at 12:27 SAST (09:27 UTC). As the sun reaches the zenith of the Kaaba, any vertical object on earth that receives sunlight cast a shadow that indicates the qibla (see picture). This method of finding the qibla is called rasd al-qiblat ("observing the qibla"). Since night falls on the hemisphere opposite of the Kaaba, half the locations on Earth (including Australia as well as most of the Americas and the Pacific Ocean) cannot observe this directly. Instead, such places observe the opposite phenomenon when the sun passes above the antipodal point of the Kaaba (in other words, the sun passes directly underneath the Kaaba), causing shadows in the opposite direction from those observed during rasd al-qiblat. This occurs twice a year, on 14 January 00:30 SAST (21:30 UTC the previous day) and 29 November 00:09 SAST (21:09 UTC the previous day). Observations made within five minutes of the rasd al-qiblat moments or its antipodal counterparts, or at the same time of the day two days before or after each event, still show accurate directions with negligible difference.
On the world map
Spherical trigonometry provides the shortest path from any point on earth to the Kaaba, even though the indicated direction might seem counterintuitive when imagined on a flat world map. For example, the qibla from Alaska obtained through spherical trigonometry is almost due north. This apparent counter-intuitiveness is caused by projections used by world maps, which by necessity distort the surface of the Earth. A straight line shown by the world map in using the Mercator projection is called the rhumb line or the loxodrome, which is used to indicate the qibla by a minority of Muslims. It can result in a dramatic difference in some places; for example, in some parts of North America the flat map shows Mecca in the southeast while the great circle calculation shows it to the northeast. In Japan the map shows it to the southwest, while the great circle shows it to the northwest. The majority of Muslims, however, follow the great circle method.
A retroazimuthal projection is any map projection which preserves the angular direction (the azimuth) of the great circle path from any point of the map to a point selected as the center of the map. The initial purpose of its development was to help finding the qibla, by choosing the Kaaba as the center point. The earliest surviving works using this projection were two astrolabe-shaped brass instruments created in 18th-century Iran. They contain grids covering locations between Spain and China, label the locations of major cities along with their names, but do not show any coastline. The first of the two was discovered in 1989; its diameter is and it has a ruler with which one can read the direction of Mecca from the markings on the instrument's circumference, and the distance to Mecca from the markings on the ruler. Only the second one is signed by its creator, Muhammad Husayn. The first formal design of a retroazimuthal projection in the Western literature is the Craig projection or the Mecca projection, created by the Scottish mathematician James Ireland Craig, who worked at the Survey Department of Egypt, in 1910. His map is centered in Mecca and its range is limited to show the predominantly Muslim lands. Extending the map further than 90° in longitude from the center will result in crowding and overlaps.
Traditional methods
Historical records and surviving old mosques show that throughout history the qibla was often determined by simple methods based on tradition or "folk science" not based on mathematical astronomy. Some early Muslims used due south everywhere as the qibla, literally following Muhammad's instruction to face south while he was in Medina (Mecca is due south of Medina). Some mosques as far away as al-Andalus to the west and Central Asia to the east face south, even though Mecca is nowhere near that direction. In various places, there are also the "qiblas of the companions" (qiblat al-sahaba), those which were used there by the Companions of the Prophet—the first generation of Muslims, who are considered role models in Islam. Such directions were used by some Muslims in the following centuries, side by side with other directions, even after Muslim astronomers used calculations to find more accurate directions to Mecca. Among the directions described as the qiblas of the companions are due south in Syria and Palestine, the direction of the winter sunrise in Egypt, and the direction of the winter sunset in Iraq. The direction of the winter sunrise and sunset are also traditionally favoured because they are parallel to the walls of the Kaaba.
Development of methods
Pre-astronomy
The determination of qibla has been an important problem for Muslim communities throughout history. Muslims are required to know the qibla to perform their daily prayers, and it is also needed to determine the orientation of mosques. When Muhammad lived among the Muslims in Medina (which, like Mecca, is also in the Hejaz region), he prayed due south, according to the known direction of Mecca. Within the few generations after Muhammad's death in 632, Muslims had reached places far away from Mecca, presenting the problem of determining the qibla in new locations. Mathematical methods based on astronomy would develop only at the end of the 8th century or the beginning of the 9th, and even then they were not initially popular. Therefore, early Muslims relied on non-astronomical methods.
There was a wide range of traditional methods in determining the qibla during the early Islamic period, resulting in different directions even from the same place. In addition to due south and the qiblas of the companions, the Arabs also knew a form of "folk" astronomy—called so by the historian of astronomy David A. King to distinguish it from conventional astronomy, which is an exact science—originating from pre-Islamic traditions. It used natural phenomenon, including the observation of the Sun, the Moon, the stars, and wind, without any basis in mathematics. These methods yield specific directions in individual localities, often using the fixed setting and rising points of a specific star, the sunrise or sunset at the equinoxes, or at the summer or the winter solstices. Historical sources record several such qiblas, for example: sunrise at the equinoxes (due east) in the Maghreb, sunset at the equinoxes (due west) in India, the origin of the north wind or the fixed location of the North Star in Yemen, the rising point of the star Suhayl (Canopus) in Syria, and the midwinter sunset in Iraq. Such directions appear in texts of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and texts of folk astronomy. Astronomers (aside from folk astronomers) typically do not comment on these methods, but they were not opposed by Islamic legal scholars. The traditional directions were still in use when methods were developed to calculate the qibla more accurately, and they still appear in some surviving medieval mosques today.
With astronomy
The study of astronomy—known as ilm al-falak () in the Islamic intellectual tradition—began to appear in the Islamic World in the second half of the 8th century, centred in Baghdad, the principal city of the Abbasid Caliphate. Initially, the science was introduced through the works of Indian authors, but after the 9th century the works of Greek astronomers such as Ptolemy were translated into Arabic and became the main references in the field. Muslim astronomers preferred Greek astronomy because they considered it to be better supported by theoretical explanations and therefore it could be developed as an exact science; however, the influence of Indian astronomy survives especially in the compilation of astronomical tables. This new science was applied to develop new methods of determining the qibla, making use of the concept of latitude and longitude taken from Ptolemy's Geography as well as trigonometric formulae developed by Muslim scholars. Most textbooks of astronomy written in the medieval Islamic World contain a chapter on the determination of the qibla, considered one of the many things connecting astronomy with Islamic law (sharia). According to David A. King, various medieval solutions for the determination of the qibla "bear witness to the development of mathematical methods from the 3rd/9th to the 8th/14th centuries and to the level of sophistication in trigonometry and computational techniques attained by these scholars".
The first mathematical methods developed in the early 9th century were approximate solutions to the mathematical problem, usually using a flat map or two-dimensional geometry. Since in reality the earth is spherical, the directions found were inexact, but they were sufficient for locations relatively close to Mecca (including as far away as Egypt and Iran) because the errors were less than 2°.
Exact solutions, based on three-dimensional geometry and spherical trigonometry, began to appear in the mid-9th century. Habash al-Hasib wrote an early example, using an orthographic projection. Another group of solutions uses trigonometric formulas, for example Al-Nayrizi's four-step application of Menelaus's theorem. Subsequent scholars, including Ibn Yunus, Abu al-Wafa, Ibn al-Haitham and Al-Biruni, proposed other methods which are confirmed to be accurate from the viewpoint of modern astronomy.
Muslim astronomers subsequently used these methods to compile tables showing the qibla from a list of locations, grouped by their latitude and longitude differences from Mecca. The oldest known example, from Baghdad, contained entries for each degree and arc minute up to 20°. In the 14th century, Shams al-Din al-Khalili, an astronomer who served as a muwaqqit (timekeeper) in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, compiled a qibla table for 2,880 coordinates with longitude differences of up to 60° from Mecca, and with latitudes ranging from 10° to 50°. King opines that among the medieval qibla tables, al-Khalili's work is "the most impressive from the view of its scope and its accuracy".
The accuracy of applying these methods to actual locations depend on the accuracy of its input parameters—the local latitude and the latitude of Mecca, and the longitude difference. At the time of the development of these methods, the latitude of a location could be determined to several arc minutes' accuracy, but there was no accurate method to determine a location's longitude. Common methods used to estimate the longitude difference included comparing the local timing of a lunar eclipse versus the timing in Mecca, or measuring the distance of caravan routes; the Central Asian scholar Al-Biruni made his estimate by averaging various approximate methods. Because of longitudinal inaccuracy, medieval qibla calculations (including those using mathematically accurate methods) differ from the modern values. For example, while the Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo was built using the "qibla of the astronomers", but the mosque's qibla (127°) differs somewhat from the results of modern calculations (135°) because the longitude difference used was off by three degrees.
Accurate longitude values in the Islamic world were available only after the application of cartographic surveys in the 18th and 19th centuries. Modern coordinates, along with new technologies such as GPS satellites and electronic instruments, resulted in the development of practical instruments to calculate the qibla. The qibla found using modern instruments might differ from the direction of mosques, because a mosque might be built before the advent of modern data, and orientation inaccuracies might have been introduced during the building process of modern mosques. When this is known, sometimes the direction of the mosque's mihrab is still observed, and sometimes a marker is added (such as lines drawn in the mosque) that can be followed instead of the mihrab.
Instruments
Muslims use various instruments to find the qibla direction when not near a mosque. The qibla compass is a magnetic compass which includes a table or a list of qibla angles from major settlements. Some electronic versions use satellite coordinates to calculate and indicate the qibla automatically. Qibla compasses have existed since around 1300, supplemented by the list of qibla angles often written on the instruments themselves. Hotel rooms with Muslim guests may use a sticker showing the qibla on the ceiling or a drawer. With the advent of computing, various mobile apps and websites use formulae to calculate the qibla for their users.
Diversity
Early Islamic world
Because varying methods have been used to determine the qibla, mosques were built throughout history in different directions, including some that still stand today. Methods based on astronomy and mathematics were not always used, and the same determination method could yield different qiblas due to differences in the accuracy of data and calculations. Egyptian historian Al-Maqrizi (d. 1442) recorded various qibla angles used in Cairo at the time: 90° (due east), 117° (winter sunrise, the "qibla of the sahaba"), 127° (calculated by astronomers, such as Ibn Yunus), 141° (Mosque of Ibn Tulun), 156° (the rising point of Suhayl/Canopus), 180° (due south, emulating the qibla of Muhammad in Medina), and 204° (the setting point of Canopus). The modern qibla for Cairo is 135°, which was not known at the time. This diversity also results in the non-uniform layout in Cairo's districts, because the streets are often oriented according to the varying orientation of the mosques. Historical records also indicate the diversity of qiblas in other major cities, including Cordoba (113°, 120°, 135°, 150°, and 180° were recorded in the 12th century) and Samarkand (180°, 225°, 230°, 240°, and 270° were recorded in the 11th century). According to the doctrine of jihat al-ka'bah, the diverse directions of qiblas are still valid as long as they are still in the same broad direction. In Mecca itself, many early mosques were constructed that were not directly facing the Kaaba.
In 1990, the scholar of geography Michael E. Bonine conducted a survey of the main mosques of all major cities in present-day Morocco—constructed from the Idrisid period (8th–10th centuries) up to the Alaouite period (17th century to present). While modern calculations yield the qiblas of between 91° (almost due east) in Marrakesh and 97° in Tangier, only mosques constructed in the Alaouite period are constructed with qiblas relatively close to this range. The qibla of older mosques vary considerably, with concentrations occurring between 155°–160° (slightly east of south) as well as 120°–130° (almost southeast). In 2008, Bonine also published a survey of the main city mosques of Tunisia, in which he found that most were aligned close to 147°. This is the direction of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, originally built in 670 and last rebuilt by the Aghlabids in 862, which is often credited as the model used by the other mosques. Among the mosques surveyed, the Great Mosque of Sousse was the only one with a significant difference, facing further south at 163°. The actual direction to Mecca as calculated using the great circle method ranges from 110° to 113° throughout the country.
Indonesia
Variations of the qibla also occur in Indonesia, the country with the world's largest Muslim population. The astronomically calculated qibla ranges from 291°—295° (21°—25° north of west) depending on the exact location in the archipelago. However, the qibla is often known traditionally simply as "the west", resulting in mosques built oriented due west or to the direction of sunset—which varies slightly throughout the year. Different opinions exist among Indonesian Islamic astronomers: Tono Saksono et al. argues in 2018 that facing the qibla during prayers is more of a "spiritual prerequisite" than a precise physical one, and that an exact direction to the Kaaba itself from thousands of kilometres away requires an extreme precision impossible to achieve when building a mosque or when standing for prayers. On the other hand, Muhammad Hadi Bashori in 2014 opines that "correcting the qibla is indeed a very urgent thing", and can be guided by simple methods such as observing the shadow.
In the history of the region, disputes about the qibla had also occurred in the then-Dutch East Indies in the 1890s. When the Indonesian scholar and future founder of Muhammadiyah, Ahmad Dahlan, returned from his Islamic and astronomy studies in Mecca, he found that mosques in the royal capital of Yogyakarta had inaccurate qiblas, including the Kauman Great Mosque, which faced due west. His efforts in adjusting the qibla were opposed by the traditional ulama of the Yogyakarta Sultanate, and a new mosque built by Dahlan using his calculations was demolished by a mob. Dahlan rebuilt his mosque in the 1900s, and later the Kauman Great Mosque would also be reoriented using the astronomically calculated qibla.
North America
Places long settled by Muslim populations tend to have resolved the question of the direction of the qibla over time. Other countries, like the United States and Canada, have had large Muslim communities only in the past several decades, and the determination of the qibla can be a matter of debate. The Islamic Center of Washington, D.C. was built in 1953 facing slightly north of east and initially puzzled some observers, including Muslims, because Washington, D.C.'s latitude is 17°30′, more northerly than that of Mecca. Even though a line drawn on world maps—such as those using the Mercator projection—would suggest a southeastern direction to Mecca, the astronomical calculation using the great circle method does yield a north-of-east direction (56°33′). Nevertheless, most early mosques in the United States face east or southeast, following the apparent direction on world maps. As the Muslim community grew and the number of mosques increased, in 1978, an American Muslim scientist, S. Kamal Abdali, wrote a book arguing that the correct qibla from North America was north or northeast as calculated by the great circle method which identifies the shortest path to Mecca. Abdali's conclusion was widely circulated and then accepted by the Muslim community, and mosques were subsequently reoriented as a result. In 1993, two religious scholars, Riad Nachef and Samir Kadi, published a book arguing for a southeastern qibla, writing that the north/northeast qibla was invalid and resulted from a lack of religious knowledge. In reaction, Abdali published a response to their arguments and criticism in an article entitled "The Correct Qibla" online in 1997. The two opinions resulted in a period of debate about the correct qibla. Eventually most North American Muslims accepted the north/northeast qibla with a minority following the east/southeast qibla.
Outer space
The International Space Station (ISS) orbits the earth at high speed—the direction from it to Mecca changes significantly within a few seconds. Before his flight to the ISS, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor requested, and the Malaysian National Fatwa Council provided, guidelines which have been translated into multiple languages. The council wrote that the qibla determination should be "based on what is possible" and recommended four options, saying that one should pray toward the first option if possible and, if not, fall back successively on the later ones:
the Kaaba itself
the position directly above the Kaaba at the altitude of the astronaut's orbit
the Earth in general
"wherever"
In line with the fatwa council, other Muslim scholars argue for the importance of flexibility and adapting the qibla requirement to what an astronaut is capable of fulfilling. Khaleel Muhammad of San Diego State University opined "God does not take a person to task for that which is beyond his/her ability to work with." Kamal Abdali argued that concentration during a prayer is more important than the exact orientation, and he suggested keeping the qibla direction at the start of a prayer instead of "worrying about possible changes in position". Before Sheikh Muszaphar's mission, at least eight Muslims had flown to space, but none of them publicly discussed issues relating to worship in space.
See also
Mizrah, the equivalent in the Jewish Faith
Qiblih, the equivalent in the Baháʼí Faith
Spatial deixis
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Salah
Mosque architecture
Islamic architecture
Islamic architectural elements
Arabic words and phrases
Kaaba
Salah terminology
Islamic terminology
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251714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex%20life | Sex life | In human sexuality, a sex life is a sector of a person's day-to-day existence which may involve sexual activity or represent the absence of sexual activity. In general parlance, the term can have many sub-meanings and social layers, but generally includes the following:
The individual is able to, on an either regular or semi-regular basis, enter into voluntarily agreed and consensual situations involving partnered sexual activity, i.e. an activity other than solo masturbation. This would inherently mean there is at least one other person per situation, with or without sexual activity, and regardless of whether or not these situations are sexually monogamous; i.e., a "sex life" can be had just as easily with a long-term sexual partner as it can with multiple partners in rapid succession over a lifetime. The idea of a 'regularly or semi-regularly' sex life varies, but categorizing an individual who is involuntarily celibate (as opposed to voluntary abstinence) as having a sex life may be inaccurate.
Presuming the above is true by default, the individual who has a sex life is then able to explore and deepen their existing sexual skills and also, when they desire it, is able to have the opportunity to learn new ones and to "grow" as a sexual being.
The individual is able, because of these factors, to have an "area" of their overall "life" that involves sex in a way that is somewhat similar to how athletes have an "area" of their lives that involves sports or how musicians have an "area" of their lives that involves music. A person with a secure and constantly developing sex life is inherently able to regard their sexuality as an active part of themselves, and although a secure sex life does not necessarily mean that the person will always feel self-confident or sexually attractive, consistent access to sex and the ability to deepen and broaden one's sexual skills provides a certain psychological assurance of sex appeal that people who do not have a "sex life" tend not to have.
Sex frequency
Several sources say that in humans, any frequency of sexual intercourse might range from 0 to 20 times a week. In the United States, the average frequency of sexual intercourse for married couples is 2 to 3 times a week. It is generally recognized that postmenopausal women experience declines in frequency of sexual intercourse and that average frequency of intercourse declines with age. According to the Kinsey Institute, average frequency of sexual intercourse in US is 112 times per year (age 18–29), 86 times per year (age 30–39), and 69 times per year (age 40–49).
In a number of sexual harassment cases, certain employees and others have been asked about their sex lives, often repeatedly, including in a case filed against Mitsubishi Motor Manufacturing of America by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
References
Human sexuality
Personal life | [
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251716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be%20Inc. | Be Inc. | Be Inc. was an American computer company founded in 1990. It is best known for the development and release of BeOS, and the BeBox personal computer. Be was founded by former Apple Computer executive Jean-Louis Gassée with capital from Seymour Cray.
Be's corporate offices were located in Menlo Park, California, with regional sales offices in France and Japan. The company later relocated to Mountain View, California for the duration of its dissolution.
The company's main intent was to develop a new operating system using the C++ programming language on a proprietary hardware platform. BeOS was initially exclusive to the BeBox, and was later ported to Apple Computer's Power Macs despite resistance from Apple, due to the hardware specifications assistance of Power Computing. In 1998, BeOS was ported to the Intel x86 architecture, and PowerPC support was reduced and finally dropped after BeOS R5. It inspired the open source operating system, Haiku.
History
Be was founded by former Apple Computer executive Jean-Louis Gassée in 1990 with Steve Sakoman after being ousted by Apple CEO John Sculley.
According to several sources including Macworld UK, the company name "Be" originated in a conversation between Gassée and Sakoman. Gassée originally thought the company should be called "United Technoids Inc.", but Sakoman disagreed and said he would start looking through the dictionary for a better name. A few days later, when Gassée asked if he had made any progress, Sakoman replied that he had got tired and stopped at "B." Gassée said, " 'Be' is nice. End of story."
Be aimed to create a modern computer operating system written in C++ on a proprietary hardware platform. In 1995, the BeBox personal computer was released by Be, with its distinctive strips of lights along the front that indicate the activity of each PowerPC CPU, and the combined analogue/digital, 37-pin GeekPort. In addition to BeOS and BeBox, Be also produced BeIA, an OS for internet appliances. Its commercial deployments included the Sony eVilla and DT Research, during its short lifespan.
In 1996, Apple was searching for a new operating system to replace the classic Mac OS. Eventually, the two final options were BeOS and NeXTSTEP. NeXT was chosen and acquired due to the persuasive influence of Steve Jobs and the incomplete state of the BeOS product, criticized at the time for lacking such features as printing capability. It was rumoured that the deal fell apart because of money, with Be Inc allegedly wanting US$500M and a high-level post in the company, when the NeXT deal closed at US$400M. The rumours were dismissed by Gassée.
Dissolution and litigation
Ultimately the assets of the Be, Inc. were bought for US$11 million in 2001 by Palm, Inc., where Gassée served on the board of directors, at which point the company entered dissolution. The company then initiated litigation against Microsoft for aggressively anti-competitive and monopolistic business practices. Joining a long history of antitrust lawsuits against Microsoft, Be specifically contested Microsoft's prohibition of OEMs to allow dual-boot systems containing both Microsoft and non-Microsoft operating systems. The suit was settled in September 2003 with a US$23.25 million payout to Be, Inc.
Palm subsequently spun off a wholly owned subsidiary PalmSource to develop its Palm OS and related software, with the Be assets being transferred to PalmSource which was subsequently acquired by Japanese-based ACCESS.
Legacy
The open source operating system Haiku resumed BeOS's legacy in the form of a complete reimplementation. Beta 1 of Haiku was released in September 2018. As of then, there is an active development team with nightly releases.
References
Defunct computer companies based in California
Defunct computer hardware companies
Defunct software companies of the United States
Home computer hardware companies
Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Companies based in Menlo Park, California
Computer companies established in 1990
Companies disestablished in 2001
1990 establishments in California
2001 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area | [
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251720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praseodymium | Praseodymium | Praseodymium is a chemical element with the symbol Pr and the atomic number 59. It is the third member of the lanthanide series and is traditionally considered to be one of the rare-earth metals. It is a soft, silvery, malleable and ductile metal, valued for its magnetic, electrical, chemical, and optical properties. It is too reactive to be found in native form, and pure praseodymium metal slowly develops a green oxide coating when exposed to air.
Praseodymium always occurs naturally together with the other rare-earth metals. It is the sixth-most abundant rare-earth element and fourth-most abundant lanthanide, making up 9.1 parts per million of the Earth's crust, an abundance similar to that of boron. In 1841, Swedish chemist Carl Gustav Mosander extracted a rare-earth oxide residue he called didymium from a residue he called "lanthana", in turn separated from cerium salts. In 1885, the Austrian chemist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach separated didymium into two elements that gave salts of different colours, which he named praseodymium and neodymium. The name praseodymium comes from the Greek (), meaning 'green', and () 'twin'.
Like most rare-earth elements, praseodymium most readily forms the +3 oxidation state, which is the only stable state in aqueous solution, although the +4 oxidation state is known in some solid compounds and, uniquely among the lanthanides, the +5 oxidation state is attainable in matrix-isolation conditions. The +0, +1, and +2 oxidation states are rarely found. Aqueous praseodymium ions are yellowish-green, and similarly, praseodymium results in various shades of yellow-green when incorporated into glasses. Many of praseodymium's industrial uses involve its ability to filter yellow light from light sources.
Properties
Physical properties
Praseodymium is the third member of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides cerium to its left and neodymium to its right, and above the actinide protactinium. It is a ductile metal with a hardness comparable to that of silver. Its 59 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f36s2; theoretically, all five outer electrons can act as valence electrons, but the use of all five requires extreme conditions and normally, praseodymium only gives up three or sometimes four electrons in its compounds.
Like most other metals in the lanthanide series, praseodymium usually only uses three electrons as valence electrons, as afterward the remaining 4f electrons are too strongly bound: this is because the 4f orbitals penetrate the most through the inert xenon core of electrons to the nucleus, followed by 5d and 6s, and this increases with higher ionic charge. Praseodymium nevertheless can continue losing a fourth and even occasionally a fifth valence electron because it comes very early in the lanthanide series, where the nuclear charge is still low enough and the 4f subshell energy high enough to allow the removal of further valence electrons. Thus, similarly to the other early trivalent lanthanides, praseodymium has a double hexagonal close-packed crystal structure at room temperature. At about 560 °C, it transitions to a face-centered cubic structure, and a body-centered cubic structure appears shortly before the melting point of 935 °C.
Praseodymium, like all of the lanthanides (except lanthanum, ytterbium, and lutetium, which have no unpaired 4f electrons), is paramagnetic at room temperature. Unlike some other rare-earth metals, which show antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic ordering at low temperatures, praseodymium is paramagnetic at all temperatures above 1 K.
Isotopes
Praseodymium has only one stable and naturally occurring isotope, 141Pr. It is thus a mononuclidic element, and its standard atomic weight can be determined with high precision as it is a constant of nature. It is also the only naturally-occurring isotope, therefore it is also a monoisotopic element. This isotope has 82 neutrons, which is a magic number that confers additional stability. This isotope is produced in stars through the s- and r-processes (slow and rapid neutron capture, respectively).
38 other radioisotopes have been synthesized. All of these isotopes have half-lives under a day (and most under a minute), with the single exception of 143Pr with a half-life of 13.6 days. Both 143Pr and 141Pr occur as fission products of uranium. The primary decay mode of isotopes lighter than 141Pr is positron emission or electron capture to isotopes of cerium, while that of heavier isotopes is beta decay to isotopes of neodymium.
Chemical properties
Praseodymium metal tarnishes slowly in air, forming a spalling green oxide layer like iron rust; a centimetre-sized sample of praseodymium metal corrodes completely in about a year. It burns readily at 150 °C to form praseodymium (III,IV) oxide, a nonstoichiometric compound approximating to Pr6O11:
12 Pr + 11 O2 → 2 Pr6O11
This may be reduced to praseodymium(III) oxide (Pr2O3) with hydrogen gas. Praseodymium(IV) oxide, PrO2, is the most oxidised product of the combustion of praseodymium and can be obtained by either reaction of praseodymium metal with pure oxygen at 400 °C and 282 bar or by disproportionation of Pr6O11 in boiling acetic acid. The reactivity of praseodymium conforms to periodic trends, as it is one of the first and thus one of the largest lanthanides. At 1000 °C, many praseodymium oxides with composition PrO2−x exist as disordered, nonstoichiometric phases with 0 < x < 0.25, but at 400–700 °C the oxide defects are instead ordered, creating phases of the general formula PrnO2n−2 with n = 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, and ∞. These phases PrOy are sometimes labelled α and β′ (nonstoichiometric), β (y = 1.833), δ (1.818), ε (1.8), ζ (1.778), ι (1.714), θ, and σ.
Praseodymium is an electropositive element and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form praseodymium(III) hydroxide:
2 Pr (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Pr(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Praseodymium metal reacts with all the halogens to form trihalides:
2 Pr (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 PrF3 (s) [green]
2 Pr (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 PrCl3 (s) [green]
2 Pr (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 PrBr3 (s) [green]
2 Pr (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 PrI3 (s)
The tetrafluoride, PrF4, is also known, and is produced by reacting a mixture of sodium fluoride and praseodymium(III) fluoride with fluorine gas, producing Na2PrF6, following which sodium fluoride is removed from the reaction mixture with liquid hydrogen fluoride. Additionally, praseodymium forms a bronze diiodide; like the diiodides of lanthanum, cerium, and gadolinium, it is a praseodymium(III) electride compound.
Praseodymium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the chartreuse Pr3+ ions, which exist as [Pr(H2O)9]3+ complexes:
2 Pr (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Pr3+ (aq) + 3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Dissolving praseodymium(IV) compounds in water does not result in solutions containing the yellow Pr4+ ions; because of the high positive standard reduction potential of the Pr4+/Pr3+ couple at +3.2 V, these ions are unstable in aqueous solution, oxidising water and being reduced to Pr3+. The value for the Pr3+/Pr couple is −2.35 V. However, in highly basic aqueous media, Pr4+ ions can be generated by oxidation with ozone.
Although praseodymium(V) in the bulk state is unknown, the existence of praseodymium in its +5 oxidation state (with the stable electron configuration of the preceding noble gas xenon) under noble-gas matrix isolation conditions was reported in 2016. The species assigned to the +5 state were identified as [PrO2]+, its O2 and Ar adducts, and PrO2(η2-O2).
Organopraseodymium compounds
Organopraseodymium compounds are very similar to those of the other lanthanides, as they all share an inability to undergo π backbonding. They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric. The coordination chemistry of praseodymium is largely that of the large, electropositive Pr3+ ion, and is thus largely similar to those of the other early lanthanides La3+, Ce3+, and Nd3+. For instance, like lanthanum, cerium, and neodymium, praseodymium nitrates form both 4:3 and 1:1 complexes with 18-crown-6, whereas the middle lanthanides from promethium to gadolinium can only form the 4:3 complex and the later lanthanides from terbium to lutetium cannot successfully coordinate to all the ligands. Such praseodymium complexes have high but uncertain coordination numbers and poorly defined stereochemistry, with exceptions resulting from exceptionally bulky ligands such as the tricoordinate [Pr{N(SiMe3)2}3]. There are also a few mixed oxides and fluorides involving praseodymium(IV), but it does not have an appreciable coordination chemistry in this oxidation state like its neighbour cerium. However, the first example of a molecular complex of praseodymium(IV) has recently been reported.
History
In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite. Thirty years later, the fifteen-year-old Wilhelm Hisinger, from the family owning the mine, sent a sample of it to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within. In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide, which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier. Ceria was simultaneously and independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth. Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius; he separated out two other oxides, which he named lanthana and didymia. He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid. The metals that formed these oxides were thus named lanthanum and didymium.
While lanthanum turned out to be a pure element, didymium was not and turned out to be only a mixture of all the stable early lanthanides from praseodymium to europium, as had been suspected by Marc Delafontaine after spectroscopic analysis, though he lacked the time to pursue its separation into its constituents. The heavy pair of samarium and europium were only removed in 1879 by Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran and it was not until 1885 that Carl Auer von Welsbach separated didymium into praseodymium and neodymium. Von Welsbach confirmed the separation by spectroscopic analysis, but the products were of relatively low purity. Since neodymium was a larger constituent of didymium than praseodymium, it kept the old name with disambiguation, while praseodymium was distinguished by the leek-green colour of its salts (Greek πρασιος, "leek green"). The composite nature of didymium had previously been suggested in 1882 by Bohuslav Brauner, who did not experimentally pursue its separation.
Occurrence and production
Praseodymium is not particularly rare, despite it being in the rare-earth metals, making up 9.2 mg/kg of the Earth's crust. This value is between those of thorium (9.6 mg/kg) and samarium (7.05 mg/kg), and makes praseodymium the fourth-most abundant of the lanthanides, behind cerium (66.5 mg/kg), neodymium (41.5 mg/kg), and lanthanum (39 mg/kg); it is less abundant than the rare-earth elements yttrium (33 mg/kg) and scandium (22 mg/kg). Instead, praseodymium's classification as a rare-earth metal comes from its rarity relative to "common earths" such as lime and magnesia, the few known minerals containing it for which extraction is commercially viable, as well as the length and complexity of extraction. Although not particularly rare, praseodymium is never found as a dominant rare earth in praseodymium-bearing minerals. It is always preceded by cerium and lanthanum and usually also by neodymium.
The Pr3+ ion is similar in size to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those from lanthanum up to samarium and europium) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate, silicate and carbonate minerals, such as monazite (MIIIPO4) and bastnäsite (MIIICO3F), where M refers to all the rare-earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium (mostly Ce, La, and Y, with somewhat less Nd and Pr). Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved. The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride. The product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution.
The procedure for monazite, which usually contains all the rare earth, as well as thorium, is more involved. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation. After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earth. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3–4, during which thorium precipitates as hydroxide and is removed. The solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earth to their insoluble oxalates, the oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing, and the oxides are dissolved in nitric acid. This last step excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3. Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra, the daughter of 232Th, which is a strong gamma emitter.
Praseodymium may then be separated from the other lanthanides via ion-exchange chromatography, or by using a solvent such as tributyl phosphate where the solubility of Ln3+ increases as the atomic number increases. If ion-exchange chromatography is used, the mixture of lanthanides is loaded into one column of cation-exchange resin and Cu2+ or Zn2+ or Fe3+ is loaded into the other. An aqueous solution of a complexing agent, known as the eluant (usually triammonium edtate), is passed through the columns, and Ln3+ is displaced from the first column and redeposited in a compact band at the top of the column before being re-displaced by . The Gibbs free energy of formation for Ln(edta·H) complexes increases along with the lanthanides by about one quarter from Ce3+ to Lu3+, so that the Ln3+ cations descend the development column in a band and are fractionated repeatedly, eluting from heaviest to lightest. They are then precipitated as their insoluble oxalates, burned to form the oxides, and then reduced to metals.
Applications
Leo Moser (son of Ludwig Moser, founder of the Moser Glassworks in what is now Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic, not to be confused with the mathematician of the same name) investigated the use of praseodymium in glass coloration in the late 1920s, yielding a yellow-green glass given the name "Prasemit". However, at that time far cheaper colorants could give a similar color, so Prasemit was not popular, few pieces were made, and examples are now extremely rare. Moser also blended praseodymium with neodymium to produce "Heliolite" glass ("Heliolit" in German), which was more widely accepted. The first enduring commercial use of purified praseodymium, which continues today, is in the form of a yellow-orange "Praseodymium Yellow" stain for ceramics, which is a solid solution in the zircon lattice. This stain has no hint of green in it; by contrast, at sufficiently high loadings, praseodymium glass is distinctly green rather than pure yellow.
Like many other lanthanides, praseodymium's shielded f-orbitals allow for long excited state lifetimes and high luminescence yields. Pr3+ as a dopant ion therefore sees many applications in optics and photonics. These include single-mode fiber optical amplifiers, fiber lasers, upconverting nanoparticles as well as activators in red, green, blue, and ultraviolet phosphors. Silicate crystals doped with praseodymium ions have also been used to slow a light pulse down to a few hundred meters per second.
As the lanthanides are so similar, praseodymium can substitute for most other lanthanides without significant loss of function, and indeed many applications such as mischmetal and ferrocerium alloys involve variable mixes of several lanthanides, including small quantities of praseodymium. The following more modern applications involve praseodymium specifically or at least praseodymium in a small subset of the lanthanides:
In combination with neodymium, another rare-earth element, praseodymium is used to create high-power magnets notable for their strength and durability. In general, most alloys of the cerium-group rare earths (lanthanum through samarium) with 3d transition metals give extremely stable magnets that are often used in small equipment, such as motors, printers, watches, headphones, loudspeakers, and magnetic storage.
Praseodymium - nickel intermetallic (PrNi5) has such a strong magnetocaloric effect that it has allowed scientists to approach within one thousandth of a degree of absolute zero.
As an alloying agent with magnesium to create high-strength metals that are used in aircraft engines; yttrium and neodymium are also viable substitutes.
Praseodymium is present in the rare-earth mixture whose fluoride forms the core of carbon arc lights, which are used in the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projector lights.
Praseodymium compounds give glasses, enamels and ceramics a yellow color.
Praseodymium is a component of didymium glass, which is used to make certain types of welder's and glass blower's goggles.
Praseodymium oxide in solid solution with ceria or ceria-zirconia has been used as an oxidation catalyst.
Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that praseodymium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. But this perspective has been criticized for failing to recognize that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.
Biological role and precautions
The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective. Praseodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms, but it is not very toxic either. Intravenous injection of rare earths into animals has been known to impair liver function, but the main side effects from inhalation of rare-earth oxides in humans come from radioactive thorium and uranium impurities.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
R. J. Callow, The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium, and Uranium, Pergamon Press, 1967.
External links
WebElements.com—Praseodymium
It's Elemental—The Element Praseodymium
Chemical elements
Lanthanides
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] |
251722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Arrows | Black Arrows | The Black Arrows, one of the predecessors to the current Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team the Red Arrows, were an aerobatic demonstration team formed in 1956 by Squadron Leader Roger L.Topp, then Commanding Officer 111 Squadron ("treble-one"). One of the many memorable feats accomplished by the Black Arrows was the execution of a world record loop of 22 Hawker Hunters in formation at the Society of British Aircraft Constructors' show at Farnborough in 1958. This was a world record for the greatest number of aircraft looped in formation, and remains unbroken to this day. After the loop the Black Arrows performed the world's first 16 aircraft barrel roll. Roger Topp handed over the lead of the Black Arrows to Squadron Leader Peter Latham in late 1958. Latham expanded the size of the team to nine aircraft from the original five and led the Squadron for two years.
No. 111 Squadron were formed at RAF North Weald where they received the Hunter before moving to RAF Wattisham in Suffolk. Until 1961, the Black Arrows were the RAF's premier team. In the early years of the 1960s the "Blue Diamonds" of No. 92 Squadron RAF (also flying Hunters), "The Tigers" of No. 74 Squadron RAF, equipped with the new English Electric Lightning, the "Red Pelicans" flying BAC Jet Provosts, and the "Yellowjacks" flying Folland Gnats formed. The large number of squadron display teams later rationalised to a single unit from the Central Flying School.
Aircraft used
List of Leaders
1956–1958: Roger Topp
1958–1960: Peter Latham
Notes and references
External links
Videos of the Black Arrows' last show, in Barcelona
Red Arrows website, accessed on 1 May 2007.
Black Arrows history at RAF website through the Internet Archive
British aerobatic teams
Organisations based in Suffolk
Military units and formations in Suffolk
Royal Air Force units | [
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251723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentlemen%27s%20Agreement%20of%201907 | Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 | The was an informal agreement between the United States of America and the Empire of Japan whereby Japan would not allow further emigration to the United States and the United States would not impose restrictions on Japanese immigrants already present in the country. The goal was to reduce tensions between the two Pacific nations such as those that followed the Pacific Coast race riots of 1907 and the segregation of Japanese students in public schools. The agreement was not a treaty and so was not voted on by the United States Congress. It was superseded by the Immigration Act of 1924.
Background
Chinese immigration to California boomed during the Gold Rush of 1852, but strict Japanese government practiced policies of isolation thwarted Japanese emigration. It was not until 1868 that the Japanese government lessened restrictions and that Japanese immigration to the United States began. Anti-Chinese sentiment motivated American entrepreneurs to recruit Japanese laborers. In 1885, the first Japanese workers arrived in the Kingdom of Hawaii, which was then independent.
Most Japanese immigrants wanted to reside in America permanently and came in family groups, in contrast to the Chinese immigration of young men, most of whom soon returned to China. Japanese immigrants assimilated to American social norms, such as on clothing. Many joined Methodist and Presbyterian churches.
As the Japanese population in California grew, they were regarded with suspicion as an entering wedge by Japan. By 1905, anti-Japanese rhetoric filled the pages of the San Francisco Chronicle, and Japanese Americans did not live only in Chinatown but throughout the city.
In 1905, the Japanese and Korean Exclusion League was established and promoted four policies:
Extension of the Chinese Exclusion Act to include Japanese and Koreans
Exclusion by League members of Japanese employees and the hiring of firms that employ Japanese
Initiation of pressure the School Board to segregate Japanese from white children
Initiation of a propaganda campaign to inform Congress and the President of that "menace".
Tensions had been rising in San Francisco, and since Japan's decisive victory against Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Japan demanded treatment as an equal. The result was a series of six notes communicated between Japan and the United States from late 1907 to early 1908.
The immediate cause of the Agreement was anti-Japanese nativism in California. In 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education passed a regulation whereby children of Japanese descent would be required to attend separate, segregated schools. At the time, Japanese immigrants made up approximately 1% of the population of California, many of whom had immigrated under a treaty in 1894 that had assured free immigration from Japan.
In the Agreement, Japan agreed not to issue passports for Japanese citizens wishing to work in the Continental United States, thus effectively eliminating new Japanese immigration to the United States. In exchange, the United States agreed to accept the presence of Japanese immigrants already residing there; to permit the immigration of wives, children, and parents; and to avoid legal discrimination against Japanese American children in California schools. There was also a strong desire on the part of the Japanese government to resist being treated as inferiors. Japan did not want the United States to pass any legislation such as had happened to the Chinese under the Chinese Exclusion Act. US President Theodore Roosevelt, who had a positive opinion of Japan, accepted the Agreement as proposed by Japan to avoid more formal immigration restrictions.
Segregation of schools
At the time, there were 93 Japanese students spread across 23 elementary schools. For decades, policies segregated Japanese schools, but they were not enforced as long as there was room and white parents did not complain. The Japanese and Korean Exclusion League appeared before the school board multiple times to complain. The school board dismissed its claims because it was fiscally infeasible to create new facilities to accommodate only 93 students. After the 1906 fire, the school board sent the 93 Japanese students to the Chinese Primary School and renamed it "The Oriental Public School for Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans." Transportation was limited after the earthquake, and many students could not attend the Oriental Public School.
Many Japanese Americans argued with the school board that the segregation of schools went against the Treaty of 1894, which did not expressly address education but indicated that Japanese in America would receive equal rights. Under the controlling decisions of the United States Supreme Court (Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896), a state did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution by requiring racial segregation so long as the separate facilities were substantially equal. Tokyo newspapers denounced the segregation as an insult to Japanese pride and honor. The Japanese government wanted to protect its reputation as a world power. Government officials became aware that a crisis was at hand, and intervention was necessary to maintain diplomatic peace.
Federal intervention
President Roosevelt had three objectives to resolve the situation: showing Japan that the policies of California did not reflect the ideals of the entire country, forcing San Francisco to remove the segregation policies, and reaching a resolution to the Japanese immigration problem. Victor Metcalf, Secretary of Commerce and Labor, was sent to investigate the issue and to force the rescission of the policies. He was unsuccessful since local officials wanted Japanese exclusion. Roosevelt tried to pressure the school board, but it would not budge. On February 15, 1907, the parties came to a compromise. If Roosevelt could ensure the suspension of Japanese immigration, the school board would allow Japanese American students to attend public schools. The Japanese government did not want to harm its national pride or to suffer humiliation like the Qing government in 1882 in China from the Chinese Exclusion Act. The Japanese government agreed to stop granting passports to laborers who were trying to enter the United States unless such laborers were coming to occupy a formerly-acquired home; to join a parent, spouse, or child; or to assume active control of a previously-acquired farming enterprise.
Concessions were agreed in a note consisting of six points a year later. The agreement was followed by the admission of students of Japanese ancestry into public schools. The adoption of the 1907 Agreement spurred the arrival of "picture brides," marriages of convenience made at a distance through photographs. By establishing marital bonds at a distance, women seeking to emigrate to the United States were able to gain a passport, and Japanese workers in America were able to gain a mate of their own nationality. Because of that provision, which helped close the gender gap within the community from a ratio of 7 men to every woman in 1910 to less than 2 to 1 by 1920, the Japanese American population continued to grow despite the Agreement's limits on immigration. The Gentlemen's Agreement was never written into a law passed by the US Congress but was an informal agreement between the United States and Japan, enacted via unilateral action by President Roosevelt. It was nullified by the Immigration Act of 1924, which legally banned all Asians from migrating to the United States.
See also
Japan–United States relations
List of United States immigration legislation
Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)
Immigration Act of 1924
Immigration Act of 1917
References
Further reading
Masuda, Hajimu, “Rumors of War: Immigration Disputes and the Social Construction of American-Japanese Relations, 1905–1913,” Diplomatic History, 33 (Jan. 2009), 1–37.
Masuda Hajimu, “Gentlemen's Agreement,” The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism (Wiley-Blackwell, 2015).
External links
"The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and the Avoidance of War with Japan"
U.S.-Japanese understanding (1907) on Encyclopædia Britannica Online
1907 in Japan
1907 in the United States
History of immigration to the United States
Japanese-American history
Treaties of the United States
Treaties of the Empire of Japan
Foreign relations of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
1907 in international relations
History of San Francisco
Japan–United States relations
1907 treaties | [
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251725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Wisconsin | List of governors of Wisconsin | The governor of Wisconsin is the head of government of Wisconsin and the commander-in-chief of the state's army and air forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Wisconsin Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of treason and impeachment.
Forty-four individuals have held the office of governor of Wisconsin since the state's admission to the Union in 1848, one of whom—Philip La Follette—served non-consecutive terms. Nelson Dewey, the first governor, took office on June 7, 1848. The longest-serving governor was Tommy Thompson, who took office on January 5, 1987 and resigned on February 1, 2001, a total of 14 years and 28 days. Arthur MacArthur, Sr. had the shortest term: he was governor for a total of just 5 days—from March 21, 1856 to March 25, 1856. The current governor is Tony Evers, a Democrat who took office on January 7, 2019.
Governors
Initially after the American Revolution, parts of the area now known as Wisconsin were claimed by Virginia, Massachusetts and Connecticut; however, Virginia ceded its claim in 1784, Massachusetts in 1785 and Connecticut in 1786. On July 13, 1787, the Northwest Territory, including the area now called Wisconsin, was formed; Wisconsin remained part of the territory until 1800. The territorial governor during this period was Arthur St. Clair. As parts of the Northwest Territory were admitted to the Union as states, Wisconsin became part of first the Indiana Territory (1800–1809), then the Illinois Territory (1809–1818), and then the Michigan Territory (1818–1836); see the lists of governors of Indiana, of Illinois, and of Michigan for these periods.
Governors of Wisconsin Territory
Wisconsin Territory was formed on July 3, 1836. During the time of its existence, the Wisconsin Territory had 3 territorial governors, 1 of whom served non-consecutive terms, and 1 who continued on as acting governor after the territory had officially ceased to exist.
Governors of the State of Wisconsin
Wisconsin was admitted to the Union on May 29, 1848. Since then, it has had 45 governors, one of whom served non-consecutive terms.
Originally, governors of Wisconsin served for two-year terms, but in 1967 the state constitution was amended to change this to four. Jeremiah McLain Rusk served 1 3-year term in the 1880s as the constitution was amended during his first term to move elections from odd to even years, and all officers were allowed to serve an extra year, rather than have their terms cut a year short. Patrick Lucey, elected in the 1970 election, was the first governor to serve a 4-year term. Governors of Wisconsin are not term limited.
The state constitution provides for the election of a lieutenant governor; originally, the governor and lieutenant governor were elected on different tickets, and thus were not necessarily of the same party. Since the 1967 amendment, however, the two have been nominated, and voted on, together. Originally, if the office of the governor was vacant for any reason, "the powers and duties of the office . . . devolve[d] upon the lieutenant governor." In 1979, the constitution was amended to make this more specific: if the governor dies, resigns, or is removed from office, the lieutenant governor becomes governor, but becomes acting governor if the governor is absent from the state, impeached, or unable to carry out of duties. If any of these events occur while the office of lieutenant governor is vacant, the secretary of state becomes either governor or acting governor. Two Wisconsin governors have died while in office, one has died after being elected but before taking office, and four have resigned.
Parties
Other high offices held
This is a table of other governorships, congressional and other federal offices, and ranking diplomatic positions in foreign countries held by Wisconsin governors.
Living former governors of Wisconsin
, there are six former governors of Wisconsin who are currently living at this time, the oldest governor of Wisconsin being Anthony S. Earl (served 1983–1987, born 1936). The most recent death of a former governor of Wisconsin was that of Patrick Lucey (served 1971–1977, born 1918) on May 10, 2014. The most recently serving governor to die was Lee S. Dreyfus (served 1979–1983, born 1926) on January 2, 2008.
Notes
References
General
Constitution
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of Wisconsin
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors
Lists of territorial governors of the United States | [
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251728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Rulfo | Juan Rulfo | Juan Nepomuceno Carlos Pérez Rulfo Vizcaíno, best known as Juan Rulfo ( ; 16 May 1917 – 7 January 1986), was a Mexican writer, screenwriter, and photographer. He is best known for two literary works, the 1955 novel Pedro Páramo, and the collection of short stories El Llano en llamas (1953). This collection includes the popular tale "¡Diles que no me maten!" ("Tell Them Not to Kill Me!").
Early life
Rulfo was born in 1917 in Apulco, Jalisco (although he was registered at Sayula), in the home of his paternal grandfather. Rulfo's birth year was often listed as 1918, because he had provided an inaccurate date to get into the military academy that his uncle, David Pérez Rulfo — a colonel working for the government — directed.
After his father was killed in 1923 and his mother died in 1927, Rulfo's grandmother raised him in Guadalajara, Jalisco. Their extended family consisted of landowners whose fortunes were ruined by the Mexican Revolution and the Cristero War of 1926–1928, a Roman Catholic revolt against the persecutions of Christians by the Mexican government, following the Mexican Revolution.
Rulfo was sent to study in the Luis Silva School, where he lived from 1928 to 1932. He completed six years of elementary school and a special seventh year from which he graduated as a bookkeeper, though he never practiced that profession. Rulfo attended a seminary (analogous to a secondary school) from 1932 to 1934, but did not attend a university afterwards, as the University of Guadalajara was closed due to a strike and because Rulfo had not taken preparatory school courses.
Rulfo moved to Mexico City, where he entered the National Military Academy, which he left after three months. He then hoped to study law at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. In 1936, Rulfo was able to audit courses in literature at the University, because he obtained a job as an immigration file clerk through his uncle.
Career
It was at the University that Rulfo first began writing under the tutelage of a coworker, . In 1944, Rulfo had co-founded the literary journal Pan. Later, he was able to advance in his career and travel throughout Mexico as an immigration agent. In 1946, he started as a foreman for Goodrich-Euzkadi, but his mild temperament led him to prefer working as a wholesale traveling sales agent. This obligated him to travel throughout all of southern Mexico, until he was fired in 1952 for asking for a radio for his company car.
Rulfo obtained a fellowship at the Centro Mexicano de Escritores, supported by the Rockefeller Foundation. There, between 1952 and 1954, he was able to write two books.
The first book was a collection of harshly realistic short stories, El Llano en llamas (1953). The stories centered on life in rural Mexico around the time of the Mexican Revolution and the Cristero War. Among the best-known stories are "¡Diles que no me maten!" ("Tell Them Not To Kill Me!"), a story about an old man, set to be executed, who is captured by order of a colonel, who happens to be the son of a man whom the condemned man had killed about forty years ago, the story contains echoes of the biblical Cain and Abel theme as well as themes critical to the Mexican Revolution such as land rights and land use; and "No oyes ladrar los perros" ("Don't You Hear the Dogs Barking(?)"), about a man carrying his estranged, adult, wounded son on his back to find a doctor.
The second book was Pedro Páramo (1955), a short novel about a man named Juan Preciado who travels to his recently deceased mother's hometown, Comala, to find his father, only to come across a literal ghost town ─ populated, that is, by spectral figures. Initially, the novel met with cool critical reception and sold only two thousand copies during the first four years; later, however, the book became highly acclaimed. Páramo was a key influence for Latin American writers such as Gabriel García Márquez. Pedro Páramo has been translated into more than 30 languages, and the English version has sold more than a million copies in the United States.
The book went through several changes in name. In two letters written in 1947 to his fiancée Clara Aparicio, he refers to the novel he was writing as Una estrella junto a la luna (A Star Next to the Moon), saying that it was causing him some trouble. During the last stages of writing, he wrote in journals that the title would be Los murmullos (The Murmurs). With the assistance of a grant from the Centro Mexicano de Escritores, Rulfo was able to finish the book between 1953 and 1954; it was published in 1955.
In passages of the novel Pedro Páramo, the influence of American novelist William Faulkner is notorious, according to Rulfo's former friend, philologist Antonio Alatorre, in an interview with the latter made by journalists of Mexican newspaper El Universal in November 1998, which was published on 31 October 2010.
Between 1956 and 1958, Rulfo worked on a novella entitled (The Golden Cockerel), which was not published until 1980. A revised and corrected edition was issued posthumously in 2010. The Fundación Rulfo possesses fragments of two unfinished novels, La cordillera and Ozumacín. Rulfo told interviewer Luis Harss that he had written and destroyed an earlier novel set in Mexico City.
From 1954 to 1957, Rulfo collaborated with "La comisión del rio Papaloapan", a government institution working on socioeconomic development of the settlements along the Papaloapan River. From 1962 until his death in 1986, he worked as editor for the National Institute for Indigenous People.
Personal life
Rulfo married Clara Angelina Aparicio Reyes (Mexico City, 12 August 1928) in Guadalajara, Jalisco, on 24 April 1948; they had four children, Claudia Berenice (Mexico City, 29 January 1949), Juan Francisco (Guadalajara, Jalisco, 13 December 1950), Juan Pablo (México City, 18 April 1955) and Juan Carlos Rulfo (México City, 24 January 1964).
Legacy
Gabriel García Márquez has said that he felt blocked as a novelist after writing his first four books and that it was only his life-changing discovery of Pedro Páramo in 1961 that opened the way to the composition of his masterpiece, One Hundred Years of Solitude. He noted that all of Rulfo's published writing, put together, "add up to no more than 300 pages; but that is almost as many and I believe they are as durable, as the pages that have come down to us from Sophocles".
The Juan Rulfo Foundation, which was established by Rulfo's family after his death, holds more than 6,000 negatives of his photographs. A selection of Rulfo's photographs, accompanied by essays by Carlos Fuentes and others, has been published under the title of Juan Rulfo's Mexico.
Books
El llano en llamas (1953). Translated by George D. Schade as The Burning Plain (University of Texas, 1967); Ilan Stavans and Harold Augenbraum as The Plain in Flames (University of Texas, 2012); Stephen Beechinor as El Llano in Flames (Structo, 2019).
Pedro Páramo (1955). Translated by Lysander Kemp (Grove Press, 1959) and Margaret Sayers Peden (Grove Press, 1994).
El gallo de oro (1980; revised 2010). Translated by Douglas J. Weatherford as The Golden Cockerel & Other Writings (Deep Vellum, 2017).
Further reading
Spanish
Lecturas rulfianas / Milagros Ezquerro, 2006
Tríptico para Juan Rulfo: poesía, fotografía, crítica / Víctor Jiménez, 2006
La recepción inicial de Pedro Páramo / Jorge Zepeda (Editorial RM-Fundación Juan Rulfo, México, 2005. )
Entre la cruz y la sospecha: los cristeros de Revueltas, Yáñez y Rulfo / Angel Arias Urrutia, 2005
Estructura y discurso de género en Pedro Páramo de Juan Rulfo / Alba Sovietina Estrada Cárdenas, 2005
Voces de la tierra: la lección de Rulfo / Felipe Garrido, 2004
Mito y poesía en la obra de Juan Rulfo / María Luisa Ortega, 2004
La ficción de la memoria: Juan Rulfo ante la crítica / Federico Campbell, 2003
Juan Rulfo / Núria Amat, 2003
Análisis de Pedro Páramo, Juan Rulfo / César Pérez P, 2003
Homenaje a Juan Rulfo / Dante Medina, 2002
Perfil de Juan Rulfo / Sergio López Mena, 2001
Revisión crítica de la obra de Juan Rulfo / Sergio López Mena, 1998
Juan Rulfo / Alberto Vital Díaz, 1998
La sociedad en la obra de Juan Rulfo / Magdalena González Casillas, 1998
Rulfo en su lumbre: y otros temas latinoamericanos / Jaime Mejía Duque, 1998
Juan Rulfo, el eterno: caminos para una interpretación / Anita Arenas Saavedra, 1997
Juan Rulfo: la naturaleza hostil / Antonio Aliberti, 1996
Recopilación de textos sobre Juan Rulfo / La Habana, Cuba: Centro de Investigaciones Literarias, 1995
Los caminos de la creación en Juan Rulfo / Sergio López Mena, 1994
Juan Rulfo: la lengua, el tiempo y el espacio / Gustavo C Fares, 1994
Juan Rulfo, del Páramo a la esperanza: una lectura crítica de su obra / Yvette Jiménez de Báez, 1994
Juan Rulfo y el sur de Jalisco: aspectos de su vida y obra / Wolfgang Vogt, 1994
El laberinto y la pena: ensayo sobre la cuentística rulfiana / Rafael José Alfonzo, 1992
Imaginar Comala: el espacio en la obra de Juan Rulfo / Gustavo C Fares, 1991
Rulfo y el dios de la memoria / Abel Ibarra, 1991
Rulfo, dinámica de la violencia / Marta Portal, 1990
Photography
Mexico: Juan Rulfo Fotógrafo, 2001: The Spanish language edition of his photographs with essays by the same authors as the volume above, but written in Spanish.
Inframundo: El México de Juan Rulfo / 1st ed. 1980, 2nd ed. 1983 / Versions in Spanish and English with essays. Published in 1980/83 by Ediciones del Norte in Hanover, New Hampshire
Juan Rulfo: Letras e imágenes, RM, 2002. The book is outlined in: https://web.archive.org/web/20110613163940/http://www.clubcultura.com/clubliteratura/clubescritores/juanrulfo/letrasimagenes01.htm
http://www.guiarte.com/noticias/juan-rulfo-fotografo.html
http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/ojos/Pedro/Paramo/elpepuint/20070903elpepicul_2/Tes
https://web.archive.org/web/20110519065034/http://elangelcaido.org/2005/11/200511jrulfo/200511jrulfoe.html
Notes
References
Janney, Frank (ed.) (1984). Inframundo: The Mexico of Juan Rulfo. New York: Persea Books.
Interview with Teresa Gómez Gleason, in: Juan Rulfo (1985). Jorge Ruffinelli, ed. Obra completa (2nd ed.). Fundación Biblioteca Ayacucho. p. 214.
Soler Serrano, Joaquín, "Entrevista con Juan Rulfo" in A Fondo ( TV show ), RTVE2, April 17, 1977.
External links
¡Diles que no me maten! – Sound recording of reading ¡Diles que no me maten! read by Juan Rulfo
"Asombro por Juan Rulfo" – Transcription of a speech given by Gabriel García Márquez on the 50th anniversary of El Llano en llamas, 18 September 2002.
1917 births
1986 deaths
Deaths from lung cancer
Mexican male novelists
Magic realism writers
Mexican screenwriters
Writers from Jalisco
Deaths from cancer in Mexico
20th-century Mexican male writers
20th-century Mexican novelists
20th-century screenwriters | [
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251738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Brett | Brian Brett | Brian Brett (born 28 April 1950) is a Canadian poet, journalist, editor and novelist. He has been writing and publishing since the late 1960s, and he has worked as an editor for several publishing firms, including the Governor-General's Award-winning Blackfish Press. He has also written a three-part memoir of his life in British Columbia.
Early life
Brett was born in British Columbia. He grew up with a rare endocrine disorder, Kallmann syndrome, which prevented his body from entering puberty; he later wrote a memoir about the effect this has had on his life.
Brett attended Simon Fraser University between 1969 and 1974, studying literature.
Career
Brett began writing in the 1960s. In the early 1970s, he worked as a freelance journalist and critic for The Globe and Mail, the Toronto Star, the Vancouver Sun, The New Reader, Books in Canada, and the Victoria Times-Colonist. He was a poetry critic and columnist for Vancouver's The Province. He also wrote articles for many other newspapers in Canada, and his essays appeared in many magazines. For ten years he wrote a monthly newspaper column called CultureWatch for the Yukon News.
Brett inaugurated the B.C. Poetry-in-the-Schools program, which for several years introduced students to world poetry. He has presented many writing workshops across Canada.
He has been a member of P.E.N. International and the Federation of BC Writers, and the Writers' Union of Canada. He embarked on a national reading tour organized by the League of Canadian Poets, of which he was also a member.
Brett has given reading of his work on CBC Radio as well at universities, Harbourfront, Vancouver International Writers Festival, Saltwater Festival, Sechelt Writers' Festival, Wordfest: Banff Calgary International Writers Festival, the Winnipeg International Writers Festival, National Book Festival, and the Canada Council.
In May 2005, Brett became chair of the Writers' Union of Canada.
In 2004 Brett published a book, Uproar's Your Only Music, about his struggles with Kallmann syndrome.
In November 2009, Brett won Canada's Writers' Trust Non-Fiction Prize for Trauma Farm: A Rebel History of Rural Life. The book describes a typical day in the life of his farm, with insight into the natural history of farming.
In 2016, the Writers' Trust of Canada awarded Brett the Matt Cohen Lifetime Award to honour his body of work.
Personal
Brett lives on his farm on Salt Spring Island, British Columbia. He takes testosterone to mitigate the effects of Kallmann syndrome, which include pain and osteoperosis.
Bibliography
Fossil Ground at Phantom Creek - 1976
Smoke Without Exit - 1984
Evolution in Every Direction - 1987
The Fungus Garden - 1988
Tanganyika - 1991
Poems: New and Selected - 1993
Allegories of Love and Disaster - 1993
The Colour of Bones in a Stream - 1998
Coyote - 2003
Uproar's Your Only Music - 2004
Trauma Farm: A Rebel History of Rural Life - 2009
The Wind River Variations - 2012
Tuco: The Parrot, the Others, and a Scattershot World - 2015
Discography
Night Directions for the Lost- The Talking Songs of Brian Brett Tongue & Groove Records - 2003
Talking Songs by Scattered Bodies - 2014
Anthologies
Poems from Planet Earth, (Poetry), Leaf Press, Winter 2013
In The Flesh, Twenty Writers Explore the Body, (Essays) Brindle & Glass, ed. by Lynne Van Luven & Kathy Page, 2011
Measure of the Year, (introduction), by Roderick Haig-Brown, Touchwood Editions, 2011
The Heart Does Break: Canadian Writers on Grief and Mourning, (Essays) Random House. Ed. By George Bowering and Jean Baird. Random House. 2009
Open Wide Wilderness: Canadian Nature Poems, Wilfrid Laurier Press, ed. by Nancy Holmes. 2009
A Verse Map of Vancouver ed. By George McWhirter, Anvil Press, 2009.
Wild Rivers of the Yukon's Peel Watershed: A Traveller's Guide (Poetry & Prose), Juri Peepre and Sarah Locke, 2008.
Writing The West Coast, Ronsdale Press, 2008.
Three Rivers: The Yukon's Great Boreal Wilderness Harbour Publishing, 2005.
Rendezvous With The Wild Houghton Mifflin, 2004.
The Eye In The Thicket (Natural History Essays) Thistledown Books 2002.
Mocambo Nights, ed. by Patrick Lane, Ekstasis Editions, 2001.
Lost Classics ed. by Ondaatje, Spalding, Redhill (Essays) Anchor Classics, 2001.
In The Clear (Fiction & Poetry) Thistledown Books, 1998.
What is Already Known (Fiction & Poetry) Thistledown Books, 1995.
How I Learned To Speak Dog (Poetry & Prose) Douglas & McIntyre.
Witness To Wilderness (Poetry & Prose), Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994.
Because You Loved Being A Stranger, (Poems) ed. by Susan Musgrave, Harbour Publishing, 1994.
Myths & Voices (Short Stories), White Pine Press, U.S.A.,1993.
The Last Map Is The Heart (Short Stories), Thistledown Books, 1989.
15 Years In Exile, Exile, 1992.
Vancouver Poetry (Poetry), Polestar Press, 1986.
For Rexroth (Poetry), The Ark, 1980.
Western Windows (Poetry & Prose), Commcept Publishing Ltd., 1977.
A Government Job At Last (Poetry), MacLeod Books, 1977.
References
External links
Brian Brett fonds at University of Victoria, Special Collections
Archives of Blackfish Press (Blackfish Press, R11707) are held at Library and Archives Canada. Brian Brett is one of the founders of the magazine with Allan Safarik
1950 births
Living people
Canadian male novelists
Canadian memoirists
Simon Fraser University alumni
Writers from Vancouver
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male poets
21st-century Canadian poets
Articles containing video clips
21st-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male non-fiction writers | [
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251739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proud | Proud | Proud may refer to:
Music
Proud (Heather Small album), the debut album by Heather Small
"Proud" (Heather Small song), a song by Heather Small that was the official song for the London 2012 Olympic bid
Proud (compilation album), a New Zealand hip hop compilation album
"Proud" (Britannia High song), a 2008 song written for Britannia High and later covered by Susan Boyle
"Proud" (JLS song), a 2012 song by the English boy band JLS
"Proud" (Tamara Todevska song), 2019 song that represented North Macedonia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019
"Proud", a 1975 song by Roger Daltrey from Ride a Rock Horse
"Proud", a song by Korn from Live & Rare
"Proud", a song by Todrick Hall from Straight Outta Oz
"Proud", a song by Rita Ora
Other uses
Proud (surname)
Proud (film), a 2004 film dramatizing the story of the African American crew of the USS Mason (DE-529)
Proud (play), a 2009 play by John Stanley
Proud Island, South Georgia, Atlantic Ocean
See also
List of people known as the Proud
Pride, the sense of one's own worth | [
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251740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic%20music | Arabic music | Arabic music or Arab music () is the music of the Arab world with all its diverse music styles and genres. Arabic countries have many rich and varied styles of music and also many linguistic dialects, with each country and region having their own traditional music.
Arabic music has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It represents the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today, all the 22 states.
History
Pre-Islamic period (Arabian Peninsula)
Pre-Islamic Arabia was the cradle of many intellectual achievements, including music, musical theory and the development of musical instruments. In Yemen, the main center of pre-Islamic Arab sciences, literature and arts, musicians benefited from the patronage of the Kings of Sabaʾ who encouraged the development of music. For many centuries, the Arabs of Hejaz recognized that the best real Arabian music came from Yemen, and Hadhrami minstrels were considered to be superior. Pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in the Arabian peninsula in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century AD. Arab poets of that time—called shu`ara' al-Jahiliyah (Arabic: شعراء الجاهلية) or "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes.
It was believed that Jinns revealed poems to poets and music to musicians. The choir at the time served as a pedagogic facility where the educated poets would recite their poems. Singing was not thought to be the work of these intellectuals and was instead entrusted to women with beautiful voices who would learn how to play some instruments used at that time such as the drum, the lute or the rebab, and perform the songs while respecting the poetic metre. The compositions were simple and every singer would sing in a single maqam. Among the notable songs of the period were the huda (from which the ghina derived), the nasb, sanad, and rukbani.
Early Islamic period
Both compositions and improvisations in traditional Arabic music are based on the maqam system. Maqams can be realized with either vocal or instrumental music, and do not include a rhythmic component.
Al-Kindi (801–873 AD) was a notable early theorist of Arabic music. He joined several others like al-Farabi in proposing the addition of a makeshift fifth string to the oud. He published several tracts on musical theory, including the cosmological connotations of music. He identified twelve tones on the Arabic musical scale, based on the location of fingers on and the strings of the oud.
Abulfaraj (897–967) wrote the Kitab al-Aghani, an encyclopedic collection of poems and songs that runs to over 20 volumes in modern editions.
Al-Farabi (872–950) wrote a notable book on Islamic music titled Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (The Great Book of Music). His pure Arabian tone system is still used in Arabic music.
Al-Ghazali (1059–1111) wrote a treatise on music in Persia which declared, "Ecstasy means the state that comes from listening to music".
In 1252, Safi al-Din developed a unique form of musical notation, where rhythms were represented by geometric representation. A similar geometric representation would not appear in the Western world until 1987, when Kjell Gustafson published a method to represent a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.
Al-Andalus
By the 11th century, Islamic Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughout France, influencing French troubadours, and eventually reaching the rest of Europe. The English words lute, rebec, and naker are derived from Arabic oud, rabab, and naqareh.
16th to 19th century
Bartol Gyurgieuvits (1506–1566) spent 13 years as a slave in the Ottoman empire. After escaping, he published De Turvarum ritu et caermoniis in Amsterdam in 1544. It is one of the first European books to describe music in Islamic society.
20th century–present
Egypt and the Levant
In the early 20th century, Egypt was the first in a series of Arab countries to experience a sudden emergence of nationalism, as it became independent after 2000 years of foreign rule. Any English, French or European songs got replaced by national Egyptian music. Cairo became a center for musical innovation.
Female singers were some of the first to take a secular approach. Egyptian performer Umm Kulthum and Lebanese singer Fairuz were notable examples of this. Both have been popular through the decades that followed and both are considered legends of Arabic music. Across the Mediterranean, Moroccan singer Zohra Al Fassiya was the first female performer to achieve wide popularity in the Maghreb region, performing traditional Arab Andalusian folk songs and later recording numerous albums of her own.
During the 1940s and 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – Egyptian artists Umm Kulthum and Abdel Halim Hafez along with composers Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Baligh Hamdi pioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand of Arabic pop was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s, Lydia Canaan, musical pioneer widely regarded as the first rock star of the Middle East fused English lyrics and Western sound with Middle-Eastern quarter tones and microtones and became the first internationally successful Lebanese recording artist.
Western pop music was also being influenced by Arabic music in the early 1960s, leading to the development of surf music, a rock music genre that later gave rise to garage rock and punk rock. Surf rock pioneer Dick Dale, a Lebanese American guitarist, was greatly influenced by the Arabic music he learnt from his uncle, particularly the oud and derbakki (doumbek) drum, skills which he later applied to his electric guitar playing when recording surf rock in the early 1960s.
In the 1990s, several Arab artists have taken up such a style including Amr Diab, Najwa Karam, Elissa, Nawal Al Zoghbi, Nancy Ajram, Haifa Wehbe, Angham, Fadl Shaker, Majida Al Roumi, Wael Kfoury, Asalah Nasri, Myriam Fares, Carole Samaha, Yara, Samira Said, Hisham Abbas, Kadhem Al Saher, Mostafa Amar, Ehab Tawfik, Mohamed Fouad, Diana Haddad, Mohamed Mounir, Latifa, Cheb Khaled, George Wassouf, Hakim, Fares Karam, Julia Boutros, and Amal Hijazi.
Iraq
Due to Iraq's diversity and the long history, the country encompasses the music of a number of ethnic groups and musical genres. In 1936, Iraq Radio was established by two of Iraq's most prominent performers and composers, the Iraqi Jewish musicians, Saleh and Daoud al-Kuwaity with an ensemble, with the exception of the percussion player. The brothers had a pioneering role in the modern music of Iraq. Saleh was considered the father of Iraqi maqam as he was the pioneer of its first song. He also composed for the most famous singers of that era in Iraq and in the Arab world, such as Salima Murad, Afifa Iskandar, Nazem al-Ghazali, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab.
One of the main reasons for the predominance of Jewish instrumentalists in early 20th century Iraqi music was a prominent school for blind Jewish children in Baghdad, which was founded in the late 1920s by the great qanunji ("qanun player") Joseph Hawthorne (Yusef Za'arur) (Hebrew: דנדהי ללוואלד-יוסף זערור).
Salima Pasha was one of the most famous singers of the 1930s–1940s. The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time, since public performance by women was considered shameful by some countries in the region, and most female singers were recruited from brothels.
The music in Iraq began to take a more Western tone during the 1960s and 1970s, notably by Ilham Madfai, with his Western guitar stylings with traditional Iraqi music which made him a popular performer in his native country and throughout the Middle East.
Influence of Arabic music
The majority of musical instruments used in European medieval and classical music have roots in Arabic musical instruments that were adopted from the medieval Arab world. They include the lute, which shares an ancestor with the oud; rebec (an ancestor of the violin) from rebab, guitar from qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba (a type of flute) from al-shabbaba, atabal (a type of bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal, the balaban, castanet from kasatan, and sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr.
The Arabic rabāb, also known as the spiked fiddle, is the earliest known bowed string instrument and the ancestor of all European bowed instruments, including the rebec, the Byzantine lyra, and the violin. The Arabic oud in Arab music shares an ancestor with the European lute. The oud is also cited as a precursor to the modern guitar. The guitar has roots in the four-string oud, brought to Iberia by the Moors in the 8th century. A direct ancestor of the modern guitar is the (Moorish guitar), which was in use in Spain by the 12th century. By the 14th century, it was simply referred to as a guitar.
A number of medieval conical bore instruments were likely introduced or popularized by Arab musicians, including the xelami (from zulami).
Some scholars believe that the troubadors may have had Arabian origins, with Magda Bogin stating that the Arab poetic and musical tradition was one of several influences on European "courtly love poetry". Évariste Lévi-Provençal and other scholars stated that three lines of a poem by William IX of Aquitaine were in some form of Arabic, indicating a potential Andalusian origin for his works. The scholars attempted to translate the lines in question and produced various different translations. The medievalist Istvan Frank contended that the lines were not Arabic at all, but instead the result of the rewriting of the original by a later scribe.
The theory that the troubadour tradition was created by William after his experience of Moorish arts while fighting with the Reconquista in Spain has been championed by Ramón Menéndez Pidal and Idries Shah. George T. Beech states that there is only one documented battle that William fought in Spain, and it occurred towards the end of his life. Beech adds that William and his father did have Spanish individuals within their extended family, and that while there is no evidence he himself knew Arabic, he may have been friendly with some Europeans who could speak the language. Others state that the notion that William created the concept of troubadours is itself incorrect, and that his "songs represent not the beginnings of a tradition but summits of achievement in that tradition."
Most scholars believe that Guido of Arezzo's Solfège musical notation system had its origins in a Latin hymn, but others suggest that it may have had Arabic origins instead. It has been argued that the Solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of an Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680). However, there is no documentary evidence for this theory, and no Arabic musical manuscripts using sequences from the Arabic alphabet are known to exist. Henry George Farmer believes that there is no firm evidence on the origins of the notation, and therefore the Arabian origin theory and the hymnal origin theories are equally credible.
Improvisational Music in the Arabic Mediterranean region.
Ethnomusicologist Ali Jihad Racy talks about the improvisation style of music that is present in much of the Mediterranean world. Racy discusses the regional attitudes towards improvisation music in the Middle East describing that improvisation can suggest casual or untrained or even non-professional music-making. This is held only by certain communities within the Arabic world and can differ from each region or community. Some regions look at improvisation music as the intuitive artistic ability that momentarily expresses the feeling of the player. Other groups tend to view improvisation as though it is the fulfillment of music transcending the classical maqam style or other styles of music playing. Other schools of thought on improvisation music, in the Arab world, believe that improvisation music shows a lack of understanding in musical training. Racy does not specify which groups have what views. Rather, the discussion is more focused on the idea that the Arabic music world is not monolithic in its view on improvisation in music. Other groups view improvisation as only learned through trial and error taking many years to perfect thus being a style played professionals.
Taqasim
A respectable tradition in improvisation music is known as Taqasim. Taqasim music uses a maqam and improvises the form or structure of the song, which creates a cathartic experience for the listener. Further, the improvisation aspects go beyond the form and are expressed in the quartertones of the song. This tradition historically was performed as a chant. Now it is used by performers on the oud/ud, violin, or nay, a type of flute. This style of improvisation is known for the effects it can conjure from a listener. Listeners have been known to laugh, cry, and shout, all from different parts of the same performance due to the improvisation music aligning exactly to draw extreme emotion from someone.
Improvisation in Chant
A certain type of Arabic chant is in the melismatic style and is both long and highly ornamented. It has specific elements of free rhythm and improvisation as part of its structure. Syllabic chant is isochronic and is accompanied by an al-durbkkeh (a percussion instrument. drum.) while being relatively fast in its nature. There is usually participation from the listeners who contribute through the clapping of hands to the rhythm.
Ethnomusicologist Jargy tells of another type of improvisation music in which he uses the name Median. This music is a combination of the syllabic chant and the melismatic style. Median improvisation music uses more extreme improvisation methods and expands the boundaries of improvisation and is usually faster than syllabic chant.
The last improvisation style discussed by Jargy is the recitative style that is sung predominantly by women and is built on aural tradition.
Genres
Franco-Arabic
Franco-Arabic music is a popular form of West-meets-East style of music, similar in many respects to modern Arabic Pop. This blend of western and eastern music was popularized by artists such as Dalida (Egypt), Sammy Clark (Lebanon), and Aldo from Australia. Although Franco-Arabic music includes many forms of cross-cultural blending between the West and the Middle East, musically the genre crosses over many lines as is seen in songs that incorporate Arabic and Italian, Arabic and French and, of course, Arabic and English styles or lyrics.
Arabic R&B, reggae, and hip hop
There has also been a rise of R&B, reggae and hip hop influenced Arab music in the past couple of years. These songs usually feature a rapper in a traditional Arab pop song (such as Ishtar's song 'Habibi Sawah'). The Moroccan singer Elam Jay developed a contemporary version of the Gnawa genre that is fused with R&B which he named Gnawitone Styla. Another variation of contemporary Gnawa played in Morocco is introduced by Darga. Based in Casablanca, the group fuses Gnawa with Reggae. Political Reggae artists such as TootArd from the occupied Syrian Golan Heights and from Haifa (Originally from Iqrith) started gaining popularity in Palestine in 2011 after the YouTube premiere of a song about the Arab Spring (mainly the Tunisian revolution), called "The Green Revolution", sung by them and an ensemble of Palestinian artists, most notable among them being Mahmoud Jrere of DAM. Notable is Shadia Mansour, a Palestinian British rapper known as "The First Lady of Arab Hip Hop." Much of her music focuses on the Palestinian cause.
Also there is the Moroccan pop introduced by the Moroccan singer Oussama Belhcen who's mixing between the American and the Moroccan music in his songs.
However certain artists have taken to using full R&B and reggae beats and styling such as Darine. This has been met with mixed critical and commercial reaction. As of now it is not a widespread genre.
Arabic electronica
Electronic dance music is another genre to come out into popularity. Often, songs in this genre would combine electronic musical instruments with traditional Middle Eastern instruments. Artists like Richii popularized this style with songs like "Ana Lubnaneyoun".
Arabic jazz
Another popular form of West meets East, Arabic jazz is also popular, with many songs using jazz instruments. Early jazz influences began with the use of the saxophone by musicians like Samir Suroor, in the "oriental" style. The use of the saxophone in that manner can be found in Abdel Halim Hafez's songs, as well as Kadim Al Sahir and Rida Al Abdallah today. The first mainstream jazz elements were incorporated into Arabic music by the Rahbani brothers. Fairuz's later work was almost exclusively made up of jazz songs, composed by her son Ziad Rahbani. Ziad Rahbani also pioneered today's oriental jazz movement, to which singers including Rima Khcheich, Salma El Mosfi, and (on occasion) Latifa adhere. We can also find a lot of jazz music in Mohamed Mounir's songs starting from his first album Alemony Eneeki in 1977, and he is considered to be the King of Arabic Jazz and Arabic Music generally. Another notable performer of this genre is the Palestinian singer Reem Kelani who blends jazz with Arabic music, both in her own compositions and in her arrangements of traditional songs.
Arabic Jazz has met many new kinds of composition since the end of the 20th century:
Modal forms with Anouar Brahem and Rabih Abou Khalil
Mixed electric sound experiences with Dhafer Youssef and Kamal Musallam
New pop jazz styles with Titi Robin and Toufic Farroukh
Other acoustic youth experiences with Hamdi Makhlouf, Amine & Hamza M'raihi and Jasser Haj Youssef
Arabic rock
Rock music is popular all around the world, the Arab world being no exception. There have been many Arab rock bands along the years that fused rock, metal and alternative rock sounds with traditional Arab instruments.
Arabic rock has been gaining a lot of attention lately in the Middle East with bands like JadaL, Kayan, Autostrad, El Morabba3 and Akher Zapheer of Jordan, The Wanton Bishops, Mashrou' Leila, Adonis and Meen of Lebanon, Cairokee, Massar Egbari, Sahara, Wyvern and Cartoon Killerz of Egypt, Khalas, and Chaos of Palestine and Acrassicauda of Iraq. The Tunisian rock band Myrath is gaining popularity worldwide. The band Hoba Hoba Spirit from Morocco is also gaining popularity, especially in the Maghrebi region. Rachid Taha, an Algerian musician, played a fusion of rock and raï.
Recently, there has been a new wave of bands emerging in the underground scene across the Arab world. These include Shaghaf, Khayal, Sada That, Code Masr and Hawas of Egypt and Ayloul of Lebanon.
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Musical regions
The world of modern Arabic music has long been dominated by musical trends that have emerged from Cairo, Egypt. The city is generally considered one of the important cultural centers in the Arab world. Innovations in popular music via the influence of other regional styles have also abounded from Morocco to Saudi Arabia. In recent years, Beirut has become an important city where singers can fluently sing in various Arabic Dialects. Other regional styles that have enjoyed popular music status throughout the Arab world, including:
North Africa
Al Jeel (Egypt)
Shaabi Music (Egypt)
Mawwal (Egypt)
Semsemya (Egypt)
Andalusian classical music (Morocco and Algeria) and Tunisia
Malouf (Libya)
Chaabi (Algeria)
Chaabi (Morocco)
Gnawa (Morocco and the southwest of Algeria)
Haqibah
Malhun (Morocco)
Mezwed (Tunisia)
Raï (Algeria)
Arabian Peninsula
Adani
Ardah
Ardham
Bandari Khaliji
Dazah
Fann at-Tanbura
Fijiri
Khabayti
Khaliji
Khuwizaani
Liwa
Mizmar
M'alayah
Rumba Khaliji
Samri
Sawt
Shaabi Khaliji
Yanbaawi
Yowlah
Zafah Khaliji
Sacred and Art music
Sacred music
Arabic religious music includes Jewish (Pizmonim and Baqashot), Christian, and Islamic music. However, Islamic music, including the Tajwid or recitation of Qur'an readings, is structurally equivalent to Arabic secular music, while Christian Arab music has been influenced by Syriac Orthodox, Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Anglican, Coptic, and Maronite church music.
Art music
Secular art musical genres include maqam al-iraqi, andalusi nubah, muwashshah, Fijiri songs, qasidah, layali, mawwal, taqsim, bashraf, sama'i, tahmilah, dulab, sawt, and liwa.
Characteristics of Arabic music
Much of Arabic music is characterized by an emphasis on melody and rhythm, as opposed to harmony. There are some genres of Arabic music that are polyphonic, but typically, Arabic music is homophonic.
Habib Hassan Touma submits that there are five components that characterize Arabic music:
The Arab tone system; that is, a musical tuning system that relies on specific interval structures and was invented by al-Farabi in the 10th century
Rhythmic-temporal structures that produce a rich variety of rhythmic patterns, known as awzan or "weight", that are used to accompany metered vocal and instrumental genres, to accent or give them form.
A number of musical instruments that are found throughout the Arab world that represent a standardized tone system, are played with generally standardized performance techniques, and display similar details in construction and design.
Specific social contexts that produce sub-categories of Arabic music, or musical genres that can be broadly classified as urban (music of the city inhabitants), rural (music of the country inhabitants), or Bedouin (music of the desert inhabitants)..."
An Arab musical mentality, "responsible for the esthetic homogeneity of the tonal-spatial and rhythmic-temporal structures throughout the Arab world whether composed or improvised, instrumental or vocal, secular or sacred." Touma describes this musical mentality as being composed of many things.
Maqam system
The basis of Arabic music is the maqam (pl. maqamat), which looks like the mode, but is not quite the same. The tonic note, dominant note, and ending note (unless modulation occurs) are generally determined by the maqam used. Arabic maqam theory as described in literature over the ages names between 90 and 110 maqams, that are grouped into larger categories known as fasilah. Fasilah are groupings of maqams whose first four primary pitches are shared in common.
Ajnas
The maqam consists of at least two ajnas, or scale segments. Ajnas is the plural form of jins, which in Arabic comes from the Latin word genus, meaning "type". In practice, a jins is either a trichord (three notes), a tetrachord (four notes), or a pentachord (five notes). A maqam usually covers only one octave (usually two ajnas), but can cover more. Like the melodic minor scale, some maqamat use different ajnas when descending and ascending. Due to continuous innovation and the emergence of new ajnas, and because most music scholars have not reached consensus on the subject, a solid figure for the total number of ajnas in use is uncertain. In practice, however, most musicians would agree there are at least eight major ajnas: rast, bayat, sikah, hijaz, saba, kurd, nahawand, and ajam, and commonly used variants such as nakriz, athar kurd, sikah beladi, saba zamzama. For example, Mukhalif is a rare jins (in the Sikah) family used almost exclusively in Iraq, and it is not used in combination with other ajnas.
Microtones in Arabic music
Unlike the tradition of Western music, Arabic music contains microtones, which are notes that lie between notes in the Western chromatic scale. While notes in the chromatic scale are separated by semitones (or half steps), notes in Arabic music can be separated by quarter tones. In some treatments of theory, the quarter tone scale or all twenty four tones should exist, but according to Yūsuf Shawqī (1969), fewer tones are used in practice.
Additionally, in 1932, at the Cairo Congress of Arab Music held in Cairo, Egypt—and attended by such Western luminaries as Béla Bartók and Henry George Farmer—experiments were done that determined conclusively that the notes in actual use differ substantially from an even-tempered 24-tone scale. Furthermore, the intonation of many of those notes differ slightly from region to region (Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Iraq).
Regional scales
As a result of these findings, the following recommendation was issued: "The tempered scale and the natural scale should be rejected. In Egypt, the Egyptian scale is to be kept with the values, which were measured with all possible precision. The Turkish, Syrian, and Iraqi scales should remain what they are...." Both in modern practice, and evident in recorded music over the course of the last century, several differently-tuned Es in between the E-flat and E-natural of the Western Chromatic scale are used, that vary according to the types of maqams and ajnas used, and the region in which they are used.
Practical treatment
Musicians and teachers refer to these in-between notes as quarter tones, using "half-flat" or "half-sharp" as a designation for the in-between flats and sharps, for ease of nomenclature. Performance and teaching of the exact values of intonation in each jins or maqam is usually done by ear. It should also be added, in reference to Habib Hassan Touma's comment above, that these quarter tones are not used everywhere in the maqamat: in practice, Arabic music does not modulate to 12 different tonic areas like the Well-Tempered Klavier. The most commonly used quarter tones are on E (between E and E), A, B, D, F (between F and F), and C.
Vocal traditions
Arab classical music is known for its famed virtuoso singers, who sing long, elaborately ornamented, melismatic tunes, coloraturas unheard in any other musical genres and are known for driving audiences into ecstasy. Its traditions come from pre-Islamic times, when female singing slaves entertained the wealthy, inspired warriors on the battlefield with their rajaz poetry, and performed at weddings. A vast number of female Arab vocalists are mezzo-sopranos who possess darker and richer tones than generic Soprano voices as a result of having thicker vocal folds and larger larynx.
Instruments and ensembles
The prototypical Arabic music ensemble in Egypt and Syria is known as the takht, and includes, (or included at different time periods) instruments such as the 'oud, qānūn, rabab, ney, violin (introduced in the 1840s or 50s), riq and dumbek. In Iraq, the traditional ensemble, known as the chalghi, includes only two melodic instruments—the jowza (similar to the rabab but with four strings) and santur—accompanied by the riq and dumbek. The Arab world has incorporated instruments from the West, including the electric guitar, cello, double bass and oboe, and incorporated influences from jazz and other foreign musical styles.
The singers have remained the stars, however, especially after the development of the recording and film industry in the 1920s in Cairo. These singing celebrities are (or were) the biggest stars in Arabic classic music, they include Farid Al Attrache, Asmahan, Abdel Halim Hafez, Sayed Darwish, Mohamed Abdel Wahab, Warda Al-Jazairia, Wadih El Safi, Fairuz, Sabah, and Umm Kulthum.
Research and documentation of Arabic music
Even though musical traditions in the Arab world have been handed down orally, Arab scholar Al-Kindi,and Persian scholars Abulfaraj or Al-Farabi and later Safi al-Din published treatises in Arabic on Persian music since at least the 9th century AD. In 1932, the first Congress of Arab Music was held in Cairo, where scholarship about the past, present and future of Arabic music was presented both from Western as well as Arab experts. The results were later documented, both in writing as well as in the form of audio recordings.
Research on Arabic music is a focus of departments of ethnomusicology at universities worldwide, and the global interest in World music has led to a growing number of studies and re-issues of historic recordings by independent researchers or private companies.
Making use of digital archives for texts, pictures and sounds, detailed information on the history of Arabic music is also made accessible over the Internet. The Lebanese foundation AMMAR, for example, is committed to the preservation and dissemination of traditional Arab music and has published a host of historical documents.
See also
Arabic poetry
Byzantine music
Durood
Hamd
Islamic music
Islamic poetry
Mawlid
Mehfil
Middle Eastern music
Music of Africa
Music of Asia
Music of Southeastern Europe
Na'at
Nasheed
Pizmonim
Sufi music
Sufi poetry
Sufism
History of Sufism
Arabic Oud House
Arabic pop music
References
Further reading
Lodge, David and Bill Badley. "Partner of Poetry". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 323–331. Rough Guides Ltd., Penguin Books. ISBN
Shiloah, Amnon. Music in the World of Islam. A Socio-Cultural Study 2001. ISBN
Julián Ribera y Tarragó. La música árabe y su influencia en la española (1985).
Fernández Manzano, Reynaldo. De las melodías del reino nazarí de Granada a las estructuras musicales cristianas. La transformación de las tradiciones Hispano-árabes en la península Ibérica. 1984.
Fernández Manzano, Reynaldo y Santiago Simón, Emilio de (Coordinación y supervisión ed.). Música y Poesía del Sur de al-Andalus. 1995.
Fernández Manzano, Reynaldo.: La música de al-Andalus en la cultura medieval, imágenes en el tiempo, Granada, Universidad e Granada, 2012.
External links
A Brief History of Arab Music – Video
Information about history of music from Arabic texts
Arabic 78 RPM Records Collection at Harvard Loeb Music Library
Maqam World
Middle Eastern music
North African music
Classical and art music traditions | [
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251746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Fei%20River | Battle of Fei River | The Battle of Fei River, also known as the Battle of Feishui (), was a battle in AD 383 in China, where forces of the Di-led Former Qin dynasty was decisively defeated by the outnumbered army of the Eastern Jin dynasty. The location of the battle, the Fei River, no longer exists, but is believed to have flowed through modern Lu'an, Anhui, near the Huai River. The battle is considered to be one of the most significant battles in the Chinese history. In the aftermath of the battle, the Former Qin fell into a massive civil war and resulted in its eventual collapse, ensuring the survival of the Eastern Jin and subsequent Han-ruled regimes south of the Yangtze River.
Background
The state of Former Qin, led by ethnic Di (氐) tribesmen, rose rapidly from a string of successes in the 350s. Fu Jiān, nephew of the founder Fu Jiàn, was a vigorous leader of tremendous drive and ambition. In 370 he conquered the state of Former Yan and in 373 seized modern Sichuan and Chongqing from Jin. In 379 the strategically important city of Xiangyang, gateway to the Middle Yangtze, fell to Qin. By 381 he had conquered all of north China and was preparing for an invasion of the south.
In May 383 a Jin army of 100,000 commanded by Huan Chong attempted to recover Xiangyang but was driven off by a Qin relief column of 50,000 men. In response, Fu Jiān ordered a general mobilization against Jin: 6 of every 10 able-bodied men were conscripted, and 30,000 elite guards (羽林郎) were gathered. In August 383 Fu Jiān sent his brother, Fu Rong, the Duke of Yangping (who had opposed the campaign), with an army of 300,000 as the advance force. Later that month Fu Jiān marched with his army of 270,000 cavalry and 600,000 infantry from Chang'an. In September Fu Jiān reached Xiangcheng. Separate columns were to push downstream from Sichuan, but the main offensive would occur against the city of Shouchun on the Huai River. Emperor Xiaowu of Jin hurriedly made preparations for defense. He gave Huan Chong responsibility for the defense of the Middle Yangtze. The pressing defense of the Huai River was given to Xie Shi (謝石) and Xie Xuan (謝玄) and the elite 80,000-strong Beifu Army (北府兵). Prime Minister Xie An oversaw overall strategy and, while he lacked military abilities, he calmed the panicking officials and people by himself acting in a calming manner.
Former Qin Army
Fu Jiān's force was composed of many smaller armies levied from the conquered northern territories, along with cavalry drawn from the nomadic peoples of the north (the Xianbei and Xiongnu). Most men had little or no loyalty to the Former Qin, and many were forced to join or joined only because of military rations and pay. Many battalions had problems following orders as instructed by their commanding officers. Fu was warned of the poor training of his heterogeneous army, but instead chose to rely on the vast number of men that made up the army, saying, "My army is so huge that if all the men throw their whips into the Yangtze, its flow will be stopped," (投鞭断流)
Jin Army
Xie Xuan's local army were well-motivated to protect their homeland and had a good knowledge of the local terrain—an advantage that would allow them to engage advance elements of the enemy and withdraw quickly.
Battle
In October 383, the Former Qin forces under Fu Rong captured the important Jin city of Shouyang (壽陽, in modern Lu'an, Anhui). Fu Jiān, seeing the possibility of achieving a quick victory, left his main force at Xiangcheng and led 8,000 light cavalry to rendezvous with Fu Rong. Fu Jiān sent captured Jin official Zhu Xu as a messenger to try to persuade Xie Shi to surrender. Instead, Zhu tipped off Xie Shi to the fact that the entire Former Qin force had not yet arrived, and that he should try to defeat the advance Former Qin forces to cripple the Former Qin's campaign. At Zhu's suggestion, Xie Xuan and Liu Laozhi (劉牢之) led 5,000 elite troops to engage the advance Former Qin force and scored a devastating victory, killing 15,000 men. Afterwards, Jin troops were lined up in a wide formation to give the illusion that the Jin forces could match Former Qin's manpower. Because of the early minor defeats and the Jin formation, Fu Jiān overestimated the amount of Jin forces.
In November 383 the Former Qin troops set up camp west of the Fei River. The Jin forces stopped east of the Fei and could not advance. Xie Xuan sent a messenger to Fu Rong, suggesting that the Former Qin forces retreat slightly west to allow Jin troops to cross the Fei River so that the two armies could engage. Most Former Qin generals opposed that plan, since maneuvering such a large army in that manner was too complicated for the benefits that might be obtained, especially with so many poorly trained troops. Fu Jiān overruled them, however, planning to attack the Jin army as it was crossing the river to seize a tactical advantage, as the Jin would be split in two. Fu Rong agreed, and ordered a retreat.
The Jin's tactic of ambush and bribery now paid off. Many soldiers in the Former Qin army began to wonder why a sudden retreat order was given. Already retreating and demoralized, the Former Qin army went into a panic when Zhu Xu raised a cry of "the Qin army has been defeated" and it was routed. Xie Xuan and generals Xie Yan (謝琰) and Huan Yi crossed the river and launched a major assault. The "Qin is Defeated" rumor spread like wildfire, and chaos followed. Fu Rong personally tried to halt the retreat and reorganize his troops, but his horse suddenly fell and he was killed by advancing Jin troops.
The Jin generals noticed the chaotic footprints and wheel marks, and declared that the Former Qin army was not in an organized retreat but was indeed in total disarray. The Jin soldiers continued their pursuit, and the entire Former Qin force collapsed.
A large amount of food and supplies were abandoned as Former Qin soldiers tried to escape with their lives. In the ensuing retreat and pursuit, an estimated 70-80% of the Former Qin troops died from combat, starvation, and exposure to the elements.
Aftermath
The Jin army defeated the overwhelming Former Qin forces, with only minor casualties. The Jin had routed and killed most of the escaping soldiers of the Former Qin army, greatly weakening the pool of troops from which the Former Qin could draw. Fu Jiān's forces were not able to be reorganized, even after he eventually withdrew to Luoyang under the protection of Murong Chui, whose 30,000-man army was one of the few that did not collapse.
Meanwhile, agrarian rebellions arose after news of the defeat at Fei River. Murong Chui used this opportunity to ask Fu Jiān to let him try to lead an army to pressure the rebels in the eastern empire back into submission. Instead, Murong Chui himself rebelled in early 384, which started a chain reaction of many Xianbei and Qiang uprisings. The Former Qin capital Chang'an would fall in 385 to the Xianbei forces of Western Yan, and Fu Jiān himself would die later that year at the hands of his former general Yao Chang, the founder of Later Qin. While Former Qin would last until 394, it would never regain its power and glory. In addition, after the battle, Jin forces advanced to the Yellow River and recovered much of the Chinese heartland, forming a basis for Liu Yu's expeditions and the Southern and Northern Dynasties period that would follow soon afterward.
This battle is famous not only because of its significance in history, but also because it demonstrated the importance of troop training, morale, loyalty and organized battle command. The battle was also significant in that it ensured South China would remain independent until 589 AD, when North China was again under a Han Chinese regime, the Sui Dynasty.
References
Fei River
Fei River 383
Former Qin
Jin dynasty (266–420)
4th century in China
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] |
251755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20management%20articles | Index of management articles | This is a list of articles on general management and strategic management topics. For articles on specific areas of management, such as marketing management, production management, human resource management, information technology management, and international trade, see the list of related topics at the bottom of this page.
Management an overview
Balanced scorecard
Benchmarking
Business intelligence
Industrial espionage
Environmental scanning
Marketing research
Competitor analysis
Reverse engineering
Operations
Popular management theories : a critique
Centralisation
Change management
Communications management
Conjoint analysis
Constraint Management
Focused improvement
Corporate governance
Corporation
Board of directors
Middle management
Senior management
Corporate titles
Cross ownership
Community management
Corporate image
Cost management
Spend management
Procurement
Crisis management
Critical management studies
Cultural intelligence
Decentralisation
Design management
Diagnostic Enterprise Method
Engineering Management
Enterprise content management
Content management system
Web content management system
Document management system
Contract management
Fixed assets management
Records Management
Extended Enterprise
Facility management
Force field analysis
Fraud deterrence
Human Interaction Management
Information technology management (MIS)
Knowledge management
Organizational development
Overall Equipment Effectiveness
Management effectiveness
Management fad
Management information systems
Management of Technology (MOT)
Midsourcing
Peter Drucker's Management by objectives (MBO)
Management consulting
Management science and operations research
Manufacturing
Just In Time manufacturing
Lean manufacturing
News management
Planning
Planning fallacy
Professional institutions in management
Quality management
Value-based management
Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity
Project management
Risk management
Timelines
Timeline of management techniques
Management topics
Management topics | [
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251756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln%20Financial%20Field | Lincoln Financial Field | Lincoln Financial Field, also known as simply "The Linc", is an American football stadium located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. It serves as the home stadium of the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL) and the Temple Owls football team of Temple University. It is located in South Philadelphia on Pattison Avenue between 11th and South Darien streets, also alongside I-95 as part of the South Philadelphia Sports Complex. It has a seating capacity of 69,796.
The stadium opened on August 3, 2003 after two years of construction that began on May 7, 2001, replacing Veterans Stadium. While total seating capacity is similar to that of "The Vet", the new stadium contains double the number of luxury and wheelchair-accessible seats, along with more modern services. The field's construction included several light emitting diode (LED) video displays, as well as more than of LED ribbon boards.
Naming rights were sold in June 2002 to the Lincoln Financial Group, for a sum of $139.6 million over 21 years. Together, the City of Philadelphia and the State of Pennsylvania contributed approximately $188 million to the stadium construction. Additional construction funding was raised from the sale of Stadium Builder's Licenses to Eagles season ticket holders.
The Army–Navy football game is frequently played at the stadium due to Philadelphia being located halfway between both service academies, the stadium being able to house the large crowds in attendance, and the historic nature of the city. Temple University's Division I college football team also plays their home games at Lincoln Financial Field, paying the Eagles $3 million a year to do so as of February 2020. The Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer have played exhibition games here against high-profile international clubs when their stadium Subaru Park does not provide adequate seating. The stadium also plays host to several soccer games each year. It has also played host to the NCAA lacrosse national championship three times, in 2005, 2006, and 2013 respectively.
In late spring 2013, the Eagles announced that there would be some major upgrades to Lincoln Financial Field over the next two years. The total project estimate was valued at over $125 million. The upgrades included seating expansion, two new HD video boards, upgraded amenities, WiFi, and two new connecting bridges for upper levels. These upgrades were decided upon after research from season ticket holders, advisory boards, and fan focus groups. The majority of these changes, including WiFi (which would accommodate 45,000 users and have coverage over the entire stadium), were completed by the 2013 home opener. The upgraded sound systems and video boards were finished for the 2014 season.
Notable events
August 3, 2003: Lincoln Financial Field hosted its first ticketed event, a soccer match between Manchester United and FC Barcelona.
August 22, 2003: The Philadelphia Eagles hosted the New England Patriots in the first pre-season football game at Lincoln Financial Field.
September 6, 2003: Lincoln Financial Field hosted its first regular-season college football game, a college matchup of local Philadelphia rivals: Villanova and Temple. Villanova prevailed 23–20 in double overtime.
September 8, 2003: The Eagles and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers competed on Monday Night Football in the first regular-season NFL game at Lincoln Financial Field. The game was referenced as the "Inaugural Game" at Lincoln Financial Field. The Buccaneers defeated the Eagles 17–0 in their new home.
NFC Divisional Playoff: January 11, 2004 (Philadelphia Eagles 20, Green Bay Packers 17). This game is also known as "The Miracle of 4th and 26". Donovan McNabb connected on a 28-yard pass to receiver Freddie Mitchell on 4th and 26 late in the 4th quarter with the Eagles out of timeouts. This led to the game-tying field goal that sent the game into overtime. In the overtime period, Brett Favre tossed an interception to Brian Dawkins, which set up David Akers' game-deciding 37-yard field goal that sent the Eagles to their third straight NFC Championship Game.
NFC Championship Game: January 18, 2004: (Carolina Panthers 14, Philadelphia Eagles 3). Eagles lose their third straight NFC Championship Game.
May 2004: Minor modifications were made to the stadium to change capacity slightly. Some seats were removed from the club box level to increase handicap access. The temporary seats were removed in the north east end zone and a permanent structure was erected and formally named The Pepsi Zone. It is designed as a family-friendly section.
NFC Divisional Playoff: January 16, 2005: (Philadelphia Eagles 27, Minnesota Vikings 14). Eagles advance to their fourth-consecutive NFC Championship Game.
NFC Championship Game: January 23, 2005: (Philadelphia Eagles 27, Atlanta Falcons 10). Eagles advance to the Super Bowl for the first time since 1980.
NFC Wild Card Playoff: January 7, 2007: (Philadelphia Eagles 23, New York Giants 20). David Akers wins the game with a field goal as time expires.
September 23, 2007: Wearing 1933 throwback uniforms celebrating the team's 75th anniversary, the Eagles set multiple team records in a 56–21 victory over the Detroit Lions; the second most points in team history. It was the first time the Eagles ever had a 300-yard passer (Donovan McNabb), a 200-yard receiver (Kevin Curtis), and a 100-yard rusher (Brian Westbrook) in the same game.
April 10, 2010: The Philadelphia Union win their inaugural home opener, a 3–2 victory over D.C. United. A second match was played against FC Dallas on May 15; those games served as home games before the opening of PPL Park June 27 against Seattle Sounders FC.
May 29, 2010: US men's national soccer team won their match 2–1 against Turkey in the last game of the 2010 World Cup Send Off Series. A crowd of 55,407 people attended, setting at the time a new attendance record for U.S Soccer at Lincoln Financial Field.
July 21, 2010: Philadelphia Union hosted Manchester United on their North America tour. Manchester United won, 1–0.
September 12, 2010: The Eagles honored the 50th Anniversary of their last NFL Championship as they wore replicas of the uniforms in a 27–20 loss to the Green Bay Packers.
NFC Wild Card Playoff: January 9, 2011: (Green Bay Packers 21, Philadelphia Eagles 16). Michael Vick throws a game-ending interception.
December 8, 2013: The Eagles erased a 14-point deficit to score 20 unanswered points in the fourth quarter en route to a 34–20 victory over the Detroit Lions amidst a driving snowstorm that lasted throughout the game. This game is referred to as the "Snow Bowl".
NFC Wild Card Playoff: January 4, 2014: (New Orleans Saints 26, Philadelphia Eagles 24). Shayne Graham kicks the game-winning field goal at the end of the game.
2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup Final: July 26, 2015: Mexico defeated Jamaica, 3–1, at a nearly sold-out event with 68,930 in attendance.
October 31, 2015: Temple vs Notre Dame on ESPN Saturday Night Football on ABC in primetime in front of a sold-out record crowd of 69,280. Notre Dame defeated Temple by a score of 24–20.
NFC Divisional Playoff: January 13, 2018: (Philadelphia Eagles 15, Atlanta Falcons 10). The Eagles stopped the Falcons on 4th and goal in the final minute to preserve the victory.
NFC Championship Game: January 21, 2018: (Philadelphia Eagles 38, Minnesota Vikings 7). Eagles advance to the Super Bowl for the first time in thirteen years, winning Super Bowl LII.
NFL Kickoff Game: September 6, 2018: (Philadelphia Eagles 18, Atlanta Falcons 12). The Super Bowl Champion Philadelphia Eagles hosted the Atlanta Falcons in a rematch of their 2017 NFC Divisional Playoff matchup.
2019 NHL Stadium Series: February 23, 2019: The Philadelphia Flyers defeat the Pittsburgh Penguins 4–3 in overtime, in front of a crowd of 69,620, the largest recorded attendance for a hockey game in Pennsylvania.
November 20, 2019: The Linc welcomed the Pleasantville Greyhounds and Camden Panthers for a resumption of a high school football game that was interrupted on November 15 due to a shooting that left one dead.
NFC Wild Card Playoff: January 5, 2020: (Seattle Seahawks 17, Philadelphia Eagles 9). Russell Wilson leads the Seahawks past the Eagles after Carson Wentz left with a head injury following a controversial helmet-to-helmet hit from Jadeveon Clowney.
Controversies
For the inaugural season at Lincoln Financial Field (2003), the Eagles imposed a ban on hoagies and cheesesteaks being brought into the stadium, citing security concerns related to the events of September 11. The ban only lasted one week after much mockery by fans and sports radio, along with traditional media.
Prior to the first Eagles game of the 2007 season, a ruling was made concerning a Philadelphia and national tradition: tailgating. While the Eagles did not ban the act entirely, they did ban the use of tables and tents as well as the purchasing of more than one parking spot per vehicle. Prices were also doubled to $40 for RVs and buses, and $20 for cars. Fans have been reported to be upset.
Suites and lounges
There are 172 Luxury Suites at Lincoln Financial Field. They range in capacity from 12 to 40 people and cost $75,000 to $300,000 per year or $20,000 for a single game rental. The suites are located in six separate areas throughout the stadium. There are 3,040 luxury suite seats in total.
There are 2 exclusive club lounges in the stadium. The lounge on the west side is the "Hyundai Club" and the one on the east side is the "Tork Club". Suite holders and club seat holders have access to these 2 lounges. There are a total of 10,828 club seats in the stadium. These club seats feature some unique benefits above and beyond the lounges. One major benefit is the lounges open hours before the event, in most cases 2–4 hours. The lounges also have multiple full-service bars in them. The seats in the club level are padded, and there is also a wait staff present to serve food and drinks.
Parking
There are numerous parking lots surrounding Lincoln Financial Field. The parking assignments may change depending on other activities in the area on a particular day. According to the stadium's website, all lots will cost visitors $40 and $80 for an oversized vehicle. Tailgating is allowed in all lots except for T-X lots. The majority of the lots are public cash lots, but visitors should visit the website Lincoln Financial Field Parking for more information before heading to an event.
Training Camp
The Eagles decided after the 2012 season to move training camp back to Philadelphia. As a part of this new agreement the Eagles will have multiple practices, which are open to the public, at Lincoln Financial Field. The rest of the practices will be closed, and will take place across the street at the NovaCare Complex. Information about tickets and dates can be found at Training Camp Information.
College football
Lincoln Financial Field is the home field for Temple University football. On August 13, 2003, the Philadelphia Eagles and Temple University announced a 15-year agreement for Temple to play their home football games at Lincoln Financial Field. Temple played its first game at the Linc on September 6, 2003 against Villanova, the teams' first meeting since 1980. During the 2015 season, the Temple Owls sold out the Linc on two occasions. The September 5 season opener against Penn State, and again on October 31 in a prime time matchup against Notre Dame. With its capacity of 69,796, it is the largest stadium in the American Athletic Conference.
Lincoln Financial Field is the primary home to the Army–Navy Game. The game has been played the most often in Philadelphia. It was played at Veterans Stadium for the final time in 2001, and prior to the Vet, at John F. Kennedy Stadium and Franklin Field. The Linc hosted the game five times between 2003 and 2009. It was announced on June 9, 2009 that the game would be played in Philadelphia at the Linc in 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015 and 2017.
Lincoln Financial Field is one of only five stadiums to be the home of both an NFL and college team, with the other four being Allegiant Stadium in Las Vegas (Raiders and UNLV), Hard Rock Stadium in Miami (Dolphins and Hurricanes), Heinz Field in Pittsburgh (Steelers and Panthers), and Raymond James Stadium in Tampa (Buccaneers and South Florida).
Attendance Records
Soccer
The stadium opened on August 3, 2003 with 68,396 attending a preseason friendly with Manchester United defeating Barcelona 3–1. It hosted some 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup matches.
In 2004, after winning the gold-medal in soccer at the 2004 Summer Olympics, the U.S. women's team conducted a "Fan Celebration Tour", playing ten matches across the United States from September to December 2004. The matches were the final national team appearances for Mia Hamm, Joy Fawcett, and Julie Foudy, all of whom retired after the tour. The team played at the Linc on November 6, 2004 where they lost 3–1 to Denmark in front of 14,812 spectators.
In late July and early August 2004, Manchester United returned to play Celtic and A.C. Milan played Chelsea in two friendly matches.
On July 18, 2009, Lincoln Financial Field hosted a doubleheader quarterfinal for the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup. The first game was between Canada and Honduras, and the second between USA and Panama. This was the first full international appearance for the United States national soccer team in Philadelphia since a 1968 friendly against Israel at Temple Stadium.
Lincoln Financial Field was listed by U.S. Soccer's World Cup bid committee as one of 18 stadiums to be potential sites for the United States to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup.
The Linc was also the first home of the Philadelphia Union early in 2010. The Union played their home opener against D.C. United at the Linc on April 10, 2010 due to construction delays at their new stadium, PPL Park (now Subaru Park). The Union defeated United, 3–2. The Union also played FC Dallas to a 1–1 tie in the second home game in franchise history at the Linc. After moving to their permanent venue in Chester, the Philadelphia Union continued to use the Linc for matches where ticket demand is expected to far exceed the full capacity at its regular home until 2011. English powerhouse club Manchester United met the Philadelphia Union during their pre-season tour on July 21, 2010 where they lost 1–0. The Union played the Spanish powerhouse club Real Madrid on July 24, 2011, where they lost 2–1.
Lincoln Financial Field also hosted the US National team's final match on home soil before the 2010 World Cup. The US defeated Turkey 2–1 on May 29, 2010.
The US men's national team returned to Lincoln Financial Field on August 10, 2011, for an international friendly match against Mexico, where they tied 1-1.
In 2012, the stadium hosted a World Football Challenge match between Real Madrid and Celtic F.C. with Real Madrid winning 2–0.
On August 2, 2014, Lincoln Financial Field hosted a soccer match between A.S. Roma and Inter Milan which was part of the 2014 International Champions Cup. Inter Milan won the match 2–0.
On July 26, 2015, the Linc hosted the final match of the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup.
In 2016, the stadium hosted games in the Copa América Centenario.
The Linc hosted a doubleheader of quarterfinals of the 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup and did so again for the 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup.
On July 25, 2018, the Linc hosted a 2018 International Champions Cup match between Juventus F.C. and FC Bayern Munich that Juventus won 2–0.
On August 29, 2019, the Linc hosted the US Women's National Team in the second match of their victory tour in a game against Portugal. The match set the record for the highest attendance for the team in a friendly match, attracting 49,504 fans. The United States won 4–0.
Other sports
The NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship in 2005, 2006, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2019 and 2020 were held at the stadium.
The Philadelphia Phillies celebrated their 2008 World Series championship with a parade down Broad Street, appearance before a sold-out crowd at the Linc, and then a ceremony at Citizens Bank Park. The Citizens Bank Park ceremony was simulcast to the crowd at the Linc. Tickets to the event at Lincoln Financial Field were made available at no cost to the public and were gone within 45 minutes when they were made available at 3pm on October 30, 2008.
Monster Jam performed at the stadium from 2010 to 2012 as part of the summer stadium tour. After a six-year absence, Monster Jam returned to the stadium on May 5, 2018. Previous events took place during the winter at the Spectrum and the Wells Fargo Center from 2013 to 2015.
On February 23, 2019, the Philadelphia Flyers defeated the Pittsburgh Penguins 4–3 in overtime in the 2019 NHL Stadium Series in front of a crowd of 69,620, the largest record attendance for a hockey game in Pennsylvania.
Entertainment
Concerts
In TV
The stadium is prominently featured in the opening of the TV show It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia. It also features in the third episode of season 3 of the show.
Awards
In 2013, Lincoln Financial Field was considered one of the "greenest" NFL stadiums. Energy-efficient additions include 11,000 solar panels, and 14 UGE-4K wind turbines outside and on top of the stadium respectively. These installations account for 30% of the electricity used to run the facility. 2013 also marked the fourth year in a row that the venue made the top of PETA's list of "Vegetarian-Friendly NFL Stadiums".
See also
List of NCAA Division I FBS football stadiums
References
External links
Lincoln Financial Field Official Site
Ballparks.com: Lincoln Financial Field
ESPN Stadium Guide: Lincoln Financial Field – Philadelphia
Stadiums of Pro Football: Lincoln Financial Field
Temple Official Athletic Site Facilities: Lincoln Financial Field – Football
Sports venues completed in 2003
American football venues in Pennsylvania
Army–Navy Game
2003 FIFA Women's World Cup stadiums
CONCACAF Gold Cup stadiums
National Football League venues
Philadelphia Eagles stadiums
Sports venues in Philadelphia
Soccer venues in Pennsylvania
College lacrosse venues in the United States
Lacrosse venues in the United States
Temple Owls football venues
NCAA Men's Division I Lacrosse Championship venues
NBBJ buildings
South Philadelphia
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] |
251757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linc | Linc | Linc, The Linc or LINC may refer to:
Science
LINC, Laboratory Instrument Computer
LINC 4GL, a programming language
LINC complex, a protein complex of the cytoskeleton
LINC complex, or simply LINC, another name for the DREAM complex
Organizations
LINC AB, a Swedish life science-focused investment company
MIT LINC, Learning International Networks Consortium of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Linc Energy, an Australian energy company
LINC TV, a community television station based in Lismore, New South Wales, from 1993 to 2012
Other
Linc (name), a list of people and fictional characters
Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada, Canadian federal government language education programme
ASF LINC, Loan Identification Number Code of the American Securitization Forum
Lincoln M. Alexander Parkway, expressway in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Lincoln Financial Field, the home stadium of the Philadelphia Eagles
LINC (Learning Innovation Centre), Edge Hill University, Lancashire, England
LINC, the computer controlling Union City in Beneath a Steel Sky
LINC, reporting mark of the Lewis and Clark Railway, Clark County, Washington, United States
See also
Linc's, an American television series from 1998 to 2000
Lincs Wind Farm, off the east coast of England
Lincs FM, a UK Independent Local Radio radio station serving Lincolnshire and Newark
Library Information Network of Clackamas County (LINCC)
lincRNA, large intergenic non-coding RNA
Lincs (disambiguation)
Link (disambiguation)
Linq (disambiguation) | [
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251758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retribution | Retribution | Retribution may refer to:
Punishment
Retributive justice, a theory of justice
Divine retribution, retributive justice in a religious context
Revenge, a harmful action against a person or group in response to a grievance
Film and television
Films
Retribution (1921 film), an Australian silent film by Armand Lionello
Retribution (1969 film), a Soviet drama film by Aleksandr Stolper
Retribution (1987 film), an American horror film by Guy Magar
Retribution (2000 film) or Complicity, a UK film based on a novel by Iain Banks
Retribution (2002 film), a British television film in the Hornblower series
Retribution (2006 film), a Japanese horror film by Kiyoshi Kurosawa
Retribution (2015 film), a Spanish thriller film by Dani de la Torre
Retribution (upcoming film), an American thriller film by Nimród Antal
Resident Evil: Retribution, a 2012 film, the fifth in the Resident Evil series
Television
Retribution (TV series), or One of Us, a 2016 British drama miniseries
"Retribution" (Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future), a 1988 two-part episode
"Retribution", a 1994 episode of BattleTech: The Animated Series
Literature
Retribution (Hoffman novel), a 2004 novel by Jilliane Hoffman
Retribution (Southworth novel), an 1849 novel by E. D. E. N. Southworth
"Retribution", an 1846 poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow; see Mills of God
Retribution, a 2007 novel in the Warhammer Von Carstein trilogy by Steven Savile
Retribution, a 2007 Dreamland novel by Jim DeFelice and Dale Brown
Mass Effect: Retribution, a 2010 novel by Drew Karpyshyn
Music
Albums
Retribution (Malevolent Creation album), 1992
Retribution (Nightingale album), 2014
Retribution (Obscura album), 2006
Retribution (Shadows Fall album), 2009
Retribution (Tanya Tagaq album) or the title song, 2016
Retribution, by Ektomorf, 2014
Songs
"Retribution", by Fantom Warior, 2012
"Retribution", by Thunder from Bang!, 2008
Video games
Retribution (video game), a 1994 first-person shooter computer game
Eve Online: Retribution, a 2012 expansion of the MMO Eve Online
Resistance: Retribution, a PSP game in the Resistance series
StarCraft: Retribution, a 1998 authorised add-on for the game StarCraft
Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War II – Retribution, a 2011 stand-alone expansion pack for the game Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War II
Other uses
Retribution (professional wrestling), a professional wrestling stable
See also
Avenger (disambiguation)
Reprisal, in warfare, a permissible act of retaliation
Reprisal (novel), a novel in The Adversary Cycle by F. Paul Wilson
Retaliation (disambiguation)
Retorsion, in international law, an act of retaliation by one nation upon another
Revenge (disambiguation)
Vengeance (disambiguation) | [
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251762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard%20Rock%20Cafe | Hard Rock Cafe | Hard Rock Cafe, Inc. is a chain of theme restaurants founded in 1971 by Isaac Tigrett and Peter Morton in London. In 1979, the cafe began covering its walls with rock and roll memorabilia, a tradition which expanded to others in the chain. In 2007, Hard Rock Cafe International (USA), Inc. was sold to the Seminole Tribe of Florida and was headquartered in Orlando, Florida, until April 2018, when the corporate offices were relocated to Davie, Florida. As of July 2018, Hard Rock International has venues in 74 countries, including 185 cafes, 25 hotels, and 12 casinos.
On June 10, 2021, Hard Rock announced Lionel Messi as its Hard Rock brand ambassador as the company celebrated its 50th anniversary.
History
Restaurants
The first Hard Rock Cafe opened on June 14, 1971 at 150 Old Park Lane, Hyde Park, Mayfair, London, under the ownership of two Americans, Isaac Tigrett and Peter Morton. Hard Rock initially had an eclectic decor, but it later started to display memorabilia.
In 1978, a second location was opened in Toronto, Canada. The chain began to expand worldwide in 1982 with locations in (among others) Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Paris, and Berlin. Hard Rock Cafe locations in the United States vary from smaller, more tourist driven markets (Biloxi, Pigeon Forge, Key West, etc.) to large metropolises (Houston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York City, Chicago, Boston, Washington, D.C., etc.). Hard Rock Cafe typically does not franchise cafe locations in the United States. All US cafes are corporate owned and operated, except for cafes in Tampa and the Four Winds New Buffalo casino. However, in the transition of the Las Vegas Hard Rock Hotel property originally owned and then later sold to Rank by founder Peter Morton, Morton retained hotel naming rights west of the Mississippi. When Morton sold his Las Vegas Hard Rock Hotel to the Morgans Hotel Group, he also sold those naming rights, which then gave rise to two US franchised hotels (without cafes) in Albuquerque and Tulsa. The Albuquerque hotel no longer pays for the Hard Rock rights and reverted to its former name in June 2013. Additional casino hotels franchised from Morgan's were subsequently opened in Sioux City and Vancouver.
In 1990, The Rank Group, a London-based leisure company, acquired Mecca Leisure Group and continued expansion of the concept in its geographic territory. Rank went on to purchase Hard Rock America from Peter Morton as well as Hard Rock Canada from Nick Bitove. After the completion of these acquisitions, Rank gained worldwide control of the brand. In March 2007, the Seminole Tribe of Florida acquired Hard Rock Cafe International, Inc. and other related entities from Rank for US$965 million.
In 2008, anonymous members of the wait staff criticized the business because of its practice of paying them less than half the official minimum wage in the UK, with the business allocating tips to staff to bring their salaries within the law. Most customers, it was argued, do not realize that they are subsidizing a low wage when they give the tip.
Music memorabilia
HRC is known for its collection of rock-and-roll memorabilia. The cafes solicit donations of music memorabilia but also purchase a number of items at auctions around the world, including autographed guitars, costumes from world tours and rare photographs; these are often to be found mounted on cafe walls. The collection began in 1979 with an un-signed Red Fender Lead II guitar from Eric Clapton, who was a regular at the first restaurant in London. Clapton wanted management to hang the guitar over his regular seat in order to lay claim to that spot, and they obliged. This prompted Pete Townshend of The Who to give one of his guitars, also un-signed with the note "Mine's as good as his! Love, Pete." Hard Rock's archive includes over 80,000 items, and is the largest private collection of Rock and Roll memorabilia in the world. Marquee pieces from the collection were briefly displayed in a Hard Rock museum named "The Vault" in Orlando, Florida from January 2003 until September 2004. After the closure, items were distributed to various restaurant locations. The London Vault remains open and free to visitors, located in the retail Rock Shop of the original cafe.
The Hard Rock Café is also in possession of a Bedford VAL three axle coach used in the 1967 Beatles film Magical Mystery Tour. The vehicle was completely refurbished after filming. It is currently displayed in the US, but makes regular appearances in events in the UK, especially at the original Hard Rock Cafe in London. In 2001, a competition was run to win the actual bus, but it was never given away and remained with the cafe.
Expansion into other businesses
Casinos and hotels
In 1995, Peter Morton spent $80 million to open the Hard Rock Hotel near the Las Vegas Strip in Las Vegas, Nevada. A subsequent $100 million expansion in 1999 nearly doubled the hotel's capacity.
In May 2006, Morton sold the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino, Las Vegas to Morgans Hotel Group for $770 million, including the rights to the Hard Rock Hotel brand west of the Mississippi, including Texas, California, Australia, and Vancouver, British Columbia. The hotel began another expansion in 2007 at a cost of $750 million. The project added 875 rooms in two towers and expanded meeting space. In March 2011, Morgans surrendered control of the property to partner Brookfield Asset Management, citing the high debt on the property in the face of the economic downturn. In April 2018, the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas was sold to Richard Branson with plans to renovate the property under the Virgin Hotels brand.
Today, the Seminole Tribe of Florida owns and operates all units except the Las Vegas, Sioux City, Tulsa, and Vancouver properties. In 2004, Hard Rock International and Sol Melia Hotels and Resorts launched Lifestar Hoteles España SL, a joint venture that intended to manage Europe's first Hard Rock Hotel in Madrid, but it was never opened as a Hard Rock property upon the dissolution of the joint venture in 2007. The other joint venture hotels are in Chicago, New York, and San Diego (the San Diego property includes Hard Rock condominiums). Hard Rock also operates hotels and resorts in Orlando, Florida (a joint venture with Loews Hotels); Bali, Indonesia; and Pattaya, Thailand, (a joint venture with Ong Beng Seng/Hotel Properties Limited). Hard Rock International continues to expand internationally (including hotels, casinos, resorts, and condominiums) through several joint ventures (Becker Ventures, Ong Beng Seng/Hotel Properties Limited and Loews Hotels), including hotels in Chicago, Bali, Orlando, Penang, San Diego, Singapore, and planned openings in Abu Dhabi, Cancun, Dubai, Hungary, Panama, Punta Cana and Puerto Vallarta, as well as hotel-casinos in Hollywood, Florida; Tampa, Florida; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Catoosa, Oklahoma, just northeast of Tulsa.
(The Hard Rock Casino in Biloxi, MS is owned by Twin River Management Group, Inc.) Opened on 20 January 2010 in Singapore at Sentosa, the Hard Rock Hotel at Resorts World Sentosa is owned by the Genting Group.
The Hotel Zoso in Palm Springs, California was converted into a 160-room Hard Rock Hotel and opened in 2014. A location in Atlantic City, New Jersey was planned in 2010, but those plans were canceled in 2012; however, in 2017, they acquired from Icahn Enterprises the closed Trump Taj Mahal, which in 2018 was reopened as Hard Rock Hotel & Casino Atlantic City. All-inclusive resorts operate under the Hard Rock brand in the Dominican Republic and Mexico. In 2013, the Hard Rock Rocksino Northfield Park opened as a joint slot machine and track venture., near Cleveland, Ohio. Then in early 2019, it was announced that JACK Cincinnati Casino in Cincinnati was sold for $745 million to Vici Properties and Hard Rock International, with Vici acquiring the land and buildings for $558 million and Hard Rock buying the operating business for $187 million. Hard Rock would lease the casino from Vici for $43 million per year, and would rebrand it as Hard Rock Casino Cincinnati.
Canada had numerous restaurants but many of them closed, notably the one at Yonge-Dundas Square in Toronto in May 2017, which had been the chain's second location, leaving just two in that country, Niagara Falls, Ont., and the Hard Rock Casino in Coquitlam, B.C.
In 2015, Hard Rock announced a new hotel in Bogotá, Colombia, which will open in 2019. The company had plans to open in the biggest financial district in Colombia, the Centro Internacional, but it revised those plans. The hotel will be located in the exclusive Zona Rosa de Bogotá, home of luxury boutiques.
In July 2019, Hard Rock International announced plans for a casino in Rockford, Illinois, about 75 miles west of Chicago along I-90. Two other proposals were made for the city's lone casino license, but the city council only recommended the Hard Rock proposal to the Illinois Gaming Board, who will decide which site will get the license. The temporary casino, named Rockford Casino-A Hard Rock Opening Act, opened on November 10, 2021. It features a Rock Shop, Hard Rock memorabilia, slots, and two restaurants. The permanent casino is planned to open within two years and feature a Hard Rock Cafe, live music venue, 90 foot tall replica of a Rick Nielson guitar, and will be a full-fledge Hard Rock Casino.
In November 2019, Hard Rock Hotel & Casino Sacramento at Fire Mountain opened adjacent to the Toyota Amphitheatre near Wheatland, California. Also in November, Hard Rock announced a new hotel in São Paulo, Brazil, in the heart of popular Paulista Avenue.
In May 2021, a $300 million Hard Rock Casino location opened in Gary, Indiana about 35 minutes east of Chicago. Branded as Hard Rock Casino Northern Indiana, the location includes memorabilia from local natives Jackson 5 and a 1,950-seat Hard Rock Live performance hall.
Other international locations include:
Hard Rock Casino Vancouver, Coquitlam, B.C., Canada
Hard Rock Hotel and Casino Punta Cana, Macao, Dominican Republic
Hard Rock Hotel Bali, Bali, Indonesia
Hard Rock Hotel Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Hard Rock Hotel Cancun, Cáncun, Mexico
Hard Rock Hotel Davos, Davos, Switzerland
Hard Rock Hotel Goa, Bardez, India
Hard Rock Hotel Ibiza, Islas Baleares, Spain
Hard Rock Hotel Panama Megapolis, Panama City, Panama
Hard Rock Hotel Penang, Penang, Malaysia
Hard Rock Hotel Pattaya, Chonburi, Thailand
Hard Rock Hotel Riviera Maya, Puerto Aventuras, Mexico
Hard Rock Hotel Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China
Hard Rock Hotel Singapore, Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore
Hard Rock Hotel Tenerife, Tenerife, Spain
Hard Rock Hotel Vallarta, Riviera Nayarit, Mexico
Hard Rock Hotel London, United Kingdom (co-located with Hard Rock Oxford Street restaurant)
Hard Rock Park
In March 2006, Hard Rock Cafe International announced that it had licensed the "Hard Rock" name to HRP Myrtle Beach Operations, LLC, to design, build, and operate a $400 million theme park called Hard Rock Park. Hard Rock Park opened on April 15, 2008 in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. The park was expected to draw an estimated 30,000 visitors per day, promised to create more than 3,000 jobs, and was billed as the largest single investment in South Carolina's history. It planned to feature a large concert arena and six zones with more than 40 attractions. HRP Myrtle Beach Operations, LLC, filed for Chapter 11 on September 25, 2008. The company hoped to re-open in 2009 after restructuring. On January 2, 2009 after failing to attract a buyer with a minimum $35 million bid for over two months, Hard Rock Park asked a Delaware Bankruptcy Court to convert the filing to Chapter 7 triggering immediate liquidation of assets to pay off creditors, and closing the park.
New owners renamed the venue Freestyle Music Park and planned to reopen retaining a music-theme, but without the Hard Rock name, by Memorial Day, 2009. The park only operated one additional year and then closed, due to poor attendance.
Stadiums
In August 2016, it was reported that the Miami Dolphins' stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida would be renamed Hard Rock Stadium. Super Bowl LIV was held there on February 2, 2020.
The Hard Rock Club is a sponsored bar at the Canadian Tire Centre, with Hard Rock branding and memorabilia. The stadium formerly housed Ottawa's first Hard Rock Café when it opened as The Palladium on January 15, 1996, and for many years when it was known as the Corel Centre. The café closed on August 8, 2002 and was replaced with the Frank Finnigan's restaurant. Since October 17, 2013, the restaurant is known as Chek Point, and is sponsored by SportChek. The Hard Rock Club bar was announced on October 9, 2018 and opened near the former Hard Rock Café. The bar features memorabilia from over a dozen artists, restaurant-style seating, and dedicated stadium seating.
Acquisition by the Seminole Tribe of Florida
On December 7, 2006, Rank sold its Hard Rock business to the Seminole Tribe of Florida for $965 million. Included in the deal were 124 Hard Rock Cafes, four Hard Rock Hotels, two Hard Rock Hotel and Casino Hotels, two Hard Rock Live! concert venues, and stakes in three unbranded hotels. Rank retained the Hard Rock Casino in London, and rebranded it the G Casino Piccadilly. The Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas was also not part of the deal, as it was sold by Peter Morton to Morgans Hotel Group in May 2006. The final takeover was mired in controversy, due to a payment clause in a contract with one casino developer, Power Plant Entertainment. Power Plant and the Seminoles announced a settlement in April 2007 which both sides called equitable. On January 8, 2007, Rank shareholders approved the Seminoles' $965 million offer. The Tribe announced it had finalized the deal on March 11, 2007.
On June 22, 2008, the Seminole Hard Rock Hotel & Casino Hollywood began "Vegas-style" table gambling in addition to the Class II slots already in operation. To win approval for the table games, which were barred under Florida law, the Seminole Tribe paid the State of Florida $100 million as part of a 25-year pact signed by Governor Charlie Crist. On July 3, 2008, the Florida Supreme Court ruled that the governor's agreement was unconstitutional, but table games continue to operate because the Federal Department of the Interior approved the now-invalid pact with the state.
List of locations
Gallery
See also
Bubba Gump Shrimp Company Restaurant and Market
Fashion Cafe
Morrison Hotel
Planet Hollywood
Rainforest Cafe
Hard Rock Cafe (Empire, CO) - Not related to the franchise, this restaurant dates back to 1934 and is named for the hard rock miners that made up its early customers.
References
External links
Official Hard Rock Hotel and Casino Site
Video review of the Hard Rock Cafe with on-site footage
Video tour of the Hard Rock Hotel Singapore
Hard Rock Memorabilia Gallery
"Seattle welcomes Hard Rock Cafe"
Companies based in Davie, Florida
Restaurant chains in the United States
Restaurant franchises
Restaurants established in 1971
Seminole Tribe of Florida
Theme restaurants
Restaurant chains in the United Kingdom
1971 establishments in England
Restaurant chains in Singapore
Fast-food chains of Singapore
Restaurants in Singapore | [
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251764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%20in%20B%20minor | Mass in B minor | The Mass in B minor (), BWV 232, is an extended setting of the Mass ordinary by Johann Sebastian Bach. The composition was completed in 1749, the year before the composer's death, and was to a large extent based on earlier work, such as a Sanctus Bach had composed in 1724. Sections that were specifically composed to complete the Mass in the late 1740s include the "Et incarnatus est" part of the Credo.
As usual for its time, the composition is formatted as a Neapolitan mass, consisting of a succession of choral movements with a broad orchestral accompaniment, and sections in which a more limited group of instrumentalists accompanies one or more vocal soloists. Among the more unusual characteristics of the composition is its scale: a total performance time of around two hours, and a scoring consisting of two groups of SATB singers and an orchestra featuring an extended winds section, strings and continuo. Its key, B minor, is rather exceptional for a composition featuring natural trumpets in D.
Even more exceptional, for a Lutheran composer such as Bach, is that the composition is a Missa tota. In Bach's day, Masses composed for Lutheran services usually consisted only of a Kyrie and Gloria. Bach had composed five such Kyrie–Gloria Masses before he completed his Mass in B minor: the Kyrie–Gloria Masses, BWV 233–236, in the late 1730s, and the Mass for the Dresden court, which would become Part I of his only Missa tota, in 1733. The Mass was likely never performed in its entirety during Bach's lifetime. Its earliest documented complete performance took place in 1859. With many dozens of recordings, it is among Bach's most popular vocal works.
In 2015, Bach's personal handwritten manuscript of the mass held by the Berlin State Library has been included in the UNESCO's Memory of the World Register, a project to protect and preserve culturally significant documents and manuscripts.
Background and context
On 1 February 1733, Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania and Elector of Saxony, died. Five months of mourning followed, during which all public music-making was suspended. Bach used the opportunity to work on the composition of a Missa, a portion of the liturgy sung in Latin and common to both the Lutheran and Roman Catholic rites. His aim was to dedicate the work to the new sovereign Augustus III, a convert to Catholicism, with the hope of obtaining the title "Electoral Saxon Court Composer". Upon its completion, Bach visited Augustus III in Dresden and presented him with a copy of the Kyrie–Gloria Mass BWV 232 I (early version), together with a petition to be given a court title, dated July 27, 1733; in the accompanying inscription on the wrapper of the Mass he complains that he had "innocently suffered one injury or another" in Leipzig. The petition did not meet with immediate success, but Bach eventually got his title: he was made court composer to Augustus III in 1736.
In the last years of his life, Bach expanded the Missa into a complete setting of the Latin Ordinary. It is not known what prompted this creative effort. Wolfgang Osthoff and other scholars have suggested that Bach intended the completed Mass in B minor for performance at the dedication of the new Hofkirche in Dresden, a Catholic cathedral dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which was begun in 1738 and was nearing completion by the late 1740s. However, the building was not completed until 1751 and Bach's death in July 1750 prevented his Mass from being submitted for use at the dedication. Instead, Johann Adolph Hasse's Mass in D minor was performed, a work with many similarities to Bach's Mass (the Credo movements in both works feature chant over a walking bass line, for example). In 2013, Michael Maul published research suggesting the possibility that instead, Bach compiled it for performance in Vienna at St. Stephen's Cathedral (which was Roman Catholic) on St. Cecilia's Day in 1749, as a result of his association with Count Johann Adam von Questenberg. Other explanations are less event-specific, involving Bach's interest in 'encyclopedic' projects (like The Art of Fugue) that display a wide range of styles, and Bach's desire to preserve some of his best vocal music in a format with wider potential future use than the church cantatas they originated in (see "Movements and their sources" below).
Chronology
The chronology of the Mass in B minor has attracted extensive scholarly attention. Recent literature suggests:
In 1724, Bach composed a Sanctus for six vocal parts for use in the Christmas service. Bach revised it when he reused it in the Mass, changing its initial meter from to , and its vocal scoring from SSSATB to SSAATB.
As noted above, in 1733 Bach composed the Missa (Kyrie and Gloria) during the five-month period of mourning following the February 1st death of Elector Augustus II and before July 27, when Bach presented the successor, Augustus III of Poland, with the Missa as a set of instrumental and vocal parts. It is possible that the Kyrie was meant as mourning music for Augustus II, and the Gloria as celebratory of the accession of Augustus III.
In the mid-1740s (c. 1743–46). Bach re-used two movements from the Gloria in a cantata for Christmas Day (Gloria in excelsis Deo, BWV 191). Gregory Butler argues that at the same service (which he dates to Christmas 1745, to celebrate the Peace of Dresden), Bach also used the 1724 Sanctus, and that this revisiting of the 1733 Missa suggested further development to the composer.
In the "last three years or so" of his life, Bach wrote/assembled the Symbolum Nicenum and the remainder of the work; many scholars, including Christoph Wolff, believe he did so in 1748–49. This dating in part reflects the scholarship of Yoshitake Kobayashi, who dates the Symbolum Nicenum section to August–October 1748 based on Bach's increasingly stiff and labored handwriting. Wolff among others argues that the "Et incarnatus est" movement was Bach's last significant composition. The words had been included in the preceding duet, but then Bach decided to treat them as a separate movement for the choir, giving the words extra weight and improving the symmetry of the Credo. John Butt argues that a definite final date of August 25, 1749 can be given, in that on this date C. P. E. Bach completed a setting of the Magnificat with an "Amen" chorus that "shows distinct similarities" to the 'Gratias' from the Missa and the 'Et expecto' from the Symbolum Nicenum." C. P. E. Bach later reported that he performed this Magnificat (Wq 215) in 1749 in Leipzig "at a Marian festival ... during the lifetime of his now-deceased father".
Title
Bach did not give the B minor Mass a title. Instead, he organized the 1748–49 manuscript into four folders, each with a different title. That containing the Kyrie and Gloria he called "1. Missa"; that containing the Credo he titled "2. Symbolum Nicenum"; the third folder, containing the Sanctus, he called "3. Sanctus"; and the remainder, in a fourth folder he titled "4. Osanna | Benedictus | Agnus Dei et | Dona nobis pacem". John Butt writes, "The format seems purposely designed so that each of the four sections could be used separately." On the other hand, the parts in the manuscript are numbered from 1 to 4, and Bach's usual closing formula (S.D.G = Soli Deo Gloria) is only found at the end of the Dona Nobis Pacem. Further, Butt writes, "What is most remarkable about the overall shape of the Mass in B Minor is that Bach managed to shape a coherent sequence of movements from diverse material." Butt and George Stauffer detail the ways in which Bach gave overall musical unity to the work.
The first overall title given to the work was in the 1790 estate of the recently deceased C.P.E. Bach, who inherited the score. There, it is called "Die Grosse Catholische Messe" (the "Great Catholic Mass"). It is called that as well in the estate of his last heir in 1805, suggesting to Stauffer that "the epithet reflects an oral tradition within the Bach family". The first publication of the Kyrie and Gloria, in 1833 by the Swiss collector Hans Georg Nägeli with Simrock, refers to it as "Messe" Finally, Nageli and Simrock produced the first publication in 1845, calling it the "High Mass in B Minor" (Hohe Messe in h-moll). The adjective "high", Butt argues, was "strongly influenced by the monumental impact of Beethoven's Missa solemnis." It soon fell from common usage, but the prepositional phrase "in B Minor" survives, even though it is in some ways misleading: only five of the work's 27 movements are in B minor, while twelve, including the final ones of each of the four major sections, are in D major (the relative major of B minor). The opening Kyrie, however, is in B minor, with the Christe Eleison in D major, and the second Kyrie in F-sharp minor; as Butt points out, these tonalities outline a B minor chord.
Orchestration
The piece is orchestrated for two flutes, two oboes d'amore (doubling on oboes), two bassoons, one natural horn (in D), three natural trumpets (in D), timpani, violins I and II, violas and basso continuo (cellos, basses, bassoons, organ and harpsichord). A third oboe is required for the Sanctus.
Performance history
In Bach's lifetime
Bach conducted the Sanctus, in its first version, at the 1724 Christmas service in Leipzig, and re-used it in Christmas services in the mid-1740s. Scholars differ on whether he ever performed the 1733 Missa. Arnold Schering (in 1936) asserted that it was performed in Leipzig on April 26, 1733, when Augustus III of Poland visited the town, but modern scholars reject his argument for several reasons:
the proposed date fell during an official period of mourning "when concerted music was forbidden in Saxon churches";
the extant parts (on which Schering based his hypothesis) are written on a paper found only in documents in Dresden, so were probably copied in Dresden when Bach went there in July; and
the copyists were not Bach's usual ones, but Bach and immediate family members who traveled with him to Dresden: his wife Anna Magdalena, and sons Wilhelm Friedemann and Carl Philipp Emanuel. It also appears that the Bach family employed a copyist in Dresden to assist them.
Scholars differ, however, on whether the Missa was performed in July in Dresden. Christoph Wolff argues that on July 26, 1733 at the Sophienkirche in Dresden, where Wilhelm Friedemann Bach had been organist since June, it "was definitely performed ... as evidenced by the extant Dresden performing parts and by the inscription on the title wrapper" given to the king the next day. Hans-Joachim Schulze made this case by pointing to the use of the past tense in the wrapper's inscription: "To his royal majesty was shown with the enclosed Missa ... the humble devotion of the author J. S. Bach." However, Joshua Rifkin rejects the argument, pointing out that the past-tense wording was typical of formal address often not related to performance. Also skeptical is Peter Williams, who notes that "there is no record of performers being assembled for such an event, and in August 1731 Friedemann reported that the Sophienkirche organ was badly out of tune." However, there is evidence of an organ recital by Bach at the Sophienkirche on 14 September 1731, and Friedemann Bach was only chosen as Organist for the institution on 23 June 1733. He would again perform a 2-hour Organ recital on 1 December 1736 at the Frauenkirche Dresden to inaugurate the new Gottfried Silbermann organ.
Scholars agree that no other public performances took place in Bach's lifetime, although Butt raises the possibility that there may have been a private performance or read-through of the Symbolum Nicenum late in Bach's life.
Later 18th century
The first public performance of the Symbolum Nicenum section (under the title "Credo or Nicene Creed") took place 36 years after Bach's death, in Spring of 1786, led by his son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach at a benefit concert for the Medical Institute for the Poor in Hamburg.
19th century
As recounted by George Stauffer, the next documented performance (not public) in the nineteenth century was when Carl Friedrich Zelter—a key figure in the 19th-century Bach revival—led the Berlin Singakademie in read-throughs of the "Great Mass" in 1811, covering the Kyrie; in 1813 he led read-throughs of the entire work. The first public performance in the century—of just the Credo section—took place in Frankfurt in March, 1828, with over 200 performers and many instrumental additions. In the same year in Berlin, Gaspare Spontini led the Credo section, adding 15 new choral parts and numerous instruments. A number of performances of sections of the Mass took place in the following decades in Europe, but the first attested public performance of the Mass in its entirety took place in 1859 in Leipzig, with Karl Riedel and the Riedel-Verein. The first performance of the Mass in the UK was given by The Bach Choir, newly formed for this purpose by conductor Otto Goldschmidt, in 1876 in St James's Hall, London.
20th century
The Bach Choir of Bethlehem performed the American premiere of the complete Mass on March 27, 1900, in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, though there is evidence that parts of the Mass had been performed in the United States as early as 1870.
From early in the century, authors such as Albert Schweitzer, Arnold Schering, and Frederick Smend called for smaller performance forces, and experiments with (relatively) smaller groups began in the late 1920s.
The first complete recording of the work was made in 1929, with a large choir and the London Symphony Orchestra led by Albert Coates. As of 2013, a database lists over 200 recordings with many different types of forces and performance styles. The work has played a central role in the 'historical performance movement' : Nikolaus Harnoncourt made the first recording with "period instruments" in 1968, his second Bach choral recording. Joshua Rifkin's first recording using the one-voice-per-part vocal scoring he proposes was made in 1982, and won a 1983 Gramophone Award.
Significance
The Mass in B minor is widely regarded as one of the supreme achievements of classical music. Alberto Basso summarizes the work as follows: The Mass in B minor is the consecration of a whole life: started in 1733 for "diplomatic" reasons, it was finished in the very last years of Bach's life, when he had already gone blind. This monumental work is a synthesis of every stylistic and technical contribution the Cantor of Leipzig made to music. But it is also the most astounding spiritual encounter between the worlds of Catholic glorification and the Lutheran cult of the cross.
Scholars have suggested that the Mass in B minor belongs in the same category as The Art of Fugue, as a summation of Bach's deep lifelong involvement with musical tradition—in this case, with choral settings and theology. Bach scholar Christoph Wolff describes the work as representing "a summary of his writing for voice, not only in its variety of styles, compositional devices, and range of sonorities, but also in its high level of technical polish ... Bach's mighty setting preserved the musical and artistic creed of its creator for posterity."
The Mass was described in the 19th century by the editor Hans Georg Nägeli as "The Announcement of the Greatest Musical Work of All Times and All People" ("Ankündigung des größten musikalischen Kunstwerkes aller Zeiten und Völker"). Despite being seldom performed, the Mass was appreciated by some of Bach's greatest successors: by the beginning of the 19th century Forkel and Haydn possessed copies.
Autographs and editions
Two autograph sources exist: the parts for the Kyrie and Gloria sections that Bach deposited in Dresden in 1733, and the score of the complete work that Bach compiled in 1748–50, which was inherited by C.P.E. Bach (the autograph has been published in facsimile from the source in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin). However, for his 1786 public performance of the Symbolum Nicenum, C.P.E. Bach, as was typical practice in the era, made additions to the autograph score for performance by adding a 28-bar introduction, replacing the now-obsolete oboe d'amore with newer instruments (clarinets, oboes, or violins) and making other changes in instrumentation for his own aesthetic reasons. C.P.E. also wrote in his own solutions to reading some passages made nearly illegible by his father's late-life handwriting problems.
For this and other reasons, the Mass in B minor poses a considerable challenge to prospective editors, and substantial variations can be noted in different editions, even critical urtext editions. The Bach Gesellschaft edition, edited by Julius Rietz, was published in 1856 based on several sources but without direct access to the autograph. When access was later obtained, the textual problems were so evident that the society published a revised edition the next year. The 1857 edition was the standard for the next century, but was later recognized to be even less accurate than the 1856 version due to inadvertent incorporation of C.P.E. Bach's alterations in the autograph. Similarly, the 1954 edition by Friedrich Smend for the Neue Bach-Ausgabe was shown to have significant faults within five years of publication.
Christoph Wolff's edition, published by C.F. Peters in 1997, uses two copies of the 1748–50 manuscript made before C.P.E. Bach's adulterations to try to reconstruct Bach's original readings, and seeks to recover performance details by using all available sources, including cantata movements that Bach reworked in the B minor Mass. Joshua Rifkin's edition, published by Breitkopf & Härtel in 2006, also seeks to remove the C.P.E. Bach emendations, but differs from Wolff in arguing that the 1748–50 work is, to quote John Butt, "essentially a different entity from the 1733 Missa, and that a combination of the 'best' readings from both does not really correspond to Bach's final (and virtually completed) conception of the work"; Rifkin's version seeks to adhere to this final version.
Uwe Wolf's edition, published by Bärenreiter in 2010, relies upon x-ray spectrograph technology to differentiate J.S. Bach's handwriting from the additions made by C.P.E. Bach and others. Ulrich Leisinger's edition, published by Carus in 2014, accepts some of C.P.E. Bach's revisions and uses the 1733 Dresden parts as the primary source for the Kyrie and Gloria.
Movements and their origins
The work consists of 27 sections. Tempo and metrical information and parodied cantata sources come from Christoph Wolff's 1997 critical urtext edition, and from George Stauffer's Bach: The Mass in B Minor. except where noted. Regarding sources, Stauffer, summarizing current research as of 1997, states that "Specific models or fragments can be pinpointed for eleven of the work's twenty-seven movements" and that "two other movements [the "Domine Deus" and "Et resurrexit"] are most probably derived from specific, now lost sources." But Stauffer adds "there is undoubtedly much more borrowing than this." Exceptions are the opening four bars of the first Kyrie, the Et incarnatus est and Confiteor.
Butt points out that "only with a musical aesthetic later than Bach's does the concept of parody (adapting existing vocal music to a new text) appear in an unfavourable light" while it was "almost unavoidable" in Bach's day. He further notes that "by abstracting movements from what he evidently considered some of his finest vocal works, originally performed for specific occasions and Sundays within the Church's year, he was doubtless attempting to preserve the pieces within the more durable context of the Latin Ordinary." Details of the parodied movements and their sources are given below.
I. Kyrie and Gloria ("Missa")
Kyrie eleison (1st)
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in B minor, marked Adagio (in the four-bar choral introduction) and then Largo in the main section with an autograph time signature of or common time.
Joshua Rifkin argues that, except for the opening four bars, the movement is based on a previous version in C minor, since examination of autograph sources reveals "a number of apparent transposition errors". John Butt concurs: "Certainly, much of the movement—like many others with no known models—seems to have been copied from an earlier version." Butt raises the possibility that the opening four bars were originally for instruments alone, but Gergely Fazekas details a case, based on manuscript, historical context, and musical structure, that "Bach might have composed the present introduction in a simpler form for the original C minor version" but "might have made the inner texture denser only for the 1733 B minor version."
Christe eleison
Duet (Soprano I & II) in D major with obbligato violins, no autograph tempo marking, time signature of .
Kyrie eleison (2nd)
Four-part chorus (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in F minor, marked alla breve, and (in the 1748–50 score) "stromenti in unisono". Autograph time signature is . George Stauffer points out (p. 49) that "the four-part vocal writing ... points to a model conceived outside the context of a five-voice Mass."
Note the nine (trinitarian, 3 × 3) movements that follow with a largely symmetrical structure, and the Domine Deus in the centre.
Gloria in excelsis
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in D major, marked Vivace in the 1733 first violin and cello parts, time signature. In the mid-1740s, Bach reused this as the opening chorus of his cantata Gloria in excelsis Deo, BWV 191.
Et in terra pax
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in D major, no autograph tempo marking, time signature of ; in the autographs no double bar separates it from the preceding Gloria section. Again, Bach reused the music in the opening chorus of BWV 191.
Laudamus te
Aria (Soprano II) in A major with violin obbligato, no autograph tempo marking, time signature of . William H. Scheide argues that Bach based this movement on the opening aria of a lost wedding cantata of his (for which we now have only the text) Sein Segen fliesst daher wie ein Strom, BWV Anh. I 14
Gratias agimus tibi
Four-part chorus (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in D major, marked alla breve, time signature of . The music is a reworking of the second movement of Bach's 1731 Ratswechsel (Town Council Inauguration) cantata Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir, BWV 29, in which the time signature is the number 2 with a slash through it. (Stauffer adds that both may have an earlier common source.)
Domine Deus
Duet (soprano I, tenor) in G major with flute obbligato and muted strings, no autograph tempo marking, time signature of . The music appears as a duet in BWV 191.
In the 1733 parts, Bach indicates a "Lombard rhythm" in the slurred two-note figures in the flute part; he does not indicate it in the final score or in BWV 191. Stauffer points out (p. 246) that this rhythm was popular in Dresden in 1733. It is possible that Bach added in the 1733 parts to appeal to tastes at the Dresden court and that he no longer wanted it used in the 1740s, or that he still preferred it but no longer felt it necessary to notate it.
Qui tollis peccata mundi
Four-part chorus (Soprano II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in B minor, marked adagio in the two violin 1 parts from 1733 and lente in the cello, continuo, and alto parts from 1733; time signature. No double bar separates it from the preceding movement in the autograph. The chorus is a reworking of the first half of the opening movement of the 1723 cantata Schauet doch und sehet, ob irgend ein Schmerz sei, BWV 46.
Qui sedes ad dexteram Patris
Aria (alto) in B minor with oboe d'amore obbligato, no autograph tempo marking, time signature.
Quoniam tu solus sanctus
Aria (bass) in D major with obbligato parts for solo corno da caccia (hunting horn or Waldhorn) and two bassoons, no autograph tempo marking, time signature.
Stauffer notes that the unusual scoring shows Bach writing specifically for the strengths of the orchestra in Dresden: while Bach wrote no music for two obbligato bassoons in his Leipzig cantatas, such scoring was common for works others composed in Dresden, "which boasted as many as five bassoonists", and that Dresden was a noted center for horn playing. Peter Damm has argued that Bach designed the horn solo specifically for the Dresden horn soloist Johann Adam Schindler, whom Bach had almost certainly heard in Dresden in 1731.
Regarding lost original sources, Stauffer says, "A number of writers have viewed the clean appearance of the "Quoniam" and the finely detailed performance instructions in the autograph score as signs that this movement is also a parody." Klaus Hafner argues that the bassoon lines were, in the original, written for oboe, and that in this original a trumpet, not the horn, was the solo instrument. John Butt agrees, adding as evidence that Bach originally notated both bassoon parts with the wrong clefs, both indicating a range an octave higher than the final version, and then corrected the error, and adding that "oboe parts would almost certainly have been scored with trumpet rather than horn." William H. Scheide has argued in detail that it is a parody of the third movement of the lost wedding cantata Sein Segen fliesst daher wie ein Strom, BWV Anh. I 14 Stauffer, however, entertains the possibility that it may be new music.
Cum Sancto Spiritu
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in D major, marked Vivace, time signature.
Bach reused the music in modified form as the closing chorus of BWV 191. As to origins, Donald Francis Tovey argued that it is based on a lost choral movement from which Bach removed the opening instrumental ritornello, saying "I am as sure as I can be of anything". Hafner agrees, and like Tovey, has offered a reconstruction of the lost ritornello; he also points to notational errors (again involving clefs) suggesting that the lost original was in four parts, and that Bach added the Soprano II line when converting the original into the Cum Sancto Spiritu chorus. Rifkin argues from the neat handwriting in the instrumental parts of the final score that the movement is based on a lost original, and he argues from the musical structure, which involves two fugues, that the original was probably a lost cantata from the middle or late 1720s, when Bach was especially interested in such structures. Stauffer is agnostic on the question.
II. Credo ("Symbolum Nicenum")
Note the nine movements with the symmetrical structure and the crucifixion at the centre.
Credo in unum Deum
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in A Mixolydian, no autograph tempo marking, . Stauffer identifies an earlier Credo in unum Deum chorus in G major, probably from 1748–49.
Patrem omnipotentem
Four-part chorus (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in D major, no autograph tempo marking, time signature of 2 with a slash through it in the autograph manuscript. The music is a reworking of the opening chorus of Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171.
Et in unum Dominum
Duet (soprano I, alto) in G major, marked Andante, . Stauffer derives it from a "lost duet, considered for "Ich bin deine", BWV 213/11 (1733). Original version also included "Et incarnatus est"; the two movements were split when Bach put together the complete Missa in 1748–49.
Et incarnatus est
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in B minor, no autograph tempo marking, time signature. Wolff among others argues that the "Et incarnatus est" movement was Bach's last significant composition.
Crucifixus
Four-part chorus (Soprano II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in E minor, no autograph tempo marking, time signature. The music is a reworking of the first section of the first chorus of the 1714 cantata Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12.
Et resurrexit
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in D major, no autograph tempo marking, time signature, polonaise rhythms.
Et in Spiritum Sanctum
Aria (Bass) in A major with oboi d'amore obbligati, no autograph tempo marking, time signature. William H. Scheide has argued that it is a parody of the sixth movement of the lost wedding cantata Sein Segen fließt daher wie ein Strom, BWV Anh. I 14 (=BWV 1144). Stauffer, however, entertains the possibility that it may be new music.
Confiteor
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in F minor, no autograph tempo marking (until the transitional music in bar 121, which is marked "adagio"), time signature.
John Butt notes that "the only positive evidence of Bach actually composing afresh within the entire score of the mass is in the 'Confiteor' section", by which he means, "composing the music directly into the autograph. Even the most unpracticed eye can see the difference between this and surrounding movements"; one part of the final transitional music is "still illegible ... and necessitates the conjectures of a judicious editor."
Et expecto
Five-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto, Tenor, Bass) in D major, marked Vivace ed allegro, implicitly in (as it is not set off with a double bar in the autograph from the Confiteor). The music is a reworking of the second movement of Bach's 1728 town council inauguration () cantata Gott, man lobet dich in der Stille, BWV 120 on the words Jauchzet, ihr erfreute Stimmen.
III. Sanctus
Sanctus
Six-part chorus (Soprano I & II, Alto I & II, Tenor, Bass) in D major, no autograph tempo marking, time signature; leading immediately—without double bar in the sources—into the Pleni sunt coeli , marked Vivace, time signature. Derived from an earlier three soprano and one alto work written in 1724 and repeated and altered slightly on Easter 1727; in that 1724/1727 Sanctus the first section was marked in , perhaps suggesting a tempo faster than what Bach conceived of when he finally re-used it in the Mass.
IV. Osanna, Benedictus, Agnus Dei and Dona Nobis Pacem
Osanna
Double chorus (both four parts) in D major, no autograph tempo marking, time signature. A reworking of the A section of the chorus Es lebe der König, BWV Anh. 11/1 (1732) or Preise dein Glücke, BWV 215 (1734).
Benedictus
Aria for tenor with obbligato instrument in B minor, no autograph tempo marking, time signature.
Butt writes that Bach "forgot to specify the instrument" for the obbligato; Stauffer adds the possibilities that Bach had not decided which instrument to use or that he was "indifferent" and left the choice open. The Bach-Ausgabe edition assigned it to the violin, and Stauffer suggests this choice may have been influenced by Beethoven's use of the violin in the Benedictus of his Missa solemnis. Modern editors and performers have preferred the flute; as Butt notes, the part never uses the G-string of the violin, and modern commentators "consider the range and style to be more suitable for the transverse flute."
William H. Scheide has argued that it is a parody of the fourth movement of the lost wedding cantata Sein Segen fliesst daber wie ein Strom, BWV Anh. I 14, for which the text begins "Ein Mara weicht von dir" Stauffer, however, entertains the possibility that it may be new music.
Osanna (da capo)
As above.
Agnus Dei
Aria for alto in G minor with violin obbligato, no autograph tempo marking, time signature. Parody of an aria, "Entfernet euch, ihr kalten Herzen" ("Withdraw, you cold heart"), from a lost wedding serenade (1725). Bach also re-used the wedding aria for the alto aria, "Ach, bleibe doch", of his 1735 Ascension Oratorio Lobet Gott in seinen Reichen, BWV 11; Alfred Dürr has demonstrated that Bach adapted both "Ach, bleibe doch" and the Agnus dei directly from the lost serenade's aria, rather than from one to the next.
Four-part chorus in D major, no autograph tempo marking, time signature. The music is almost identical to "Gratias agimus tibi" from the Gloria.
Recordings
, 237 recordings are listed on bach-cantatas, beginning with the first recording by a symphony orchestra and choir to match, conducted by Albert Coates. Beginning in the late 1960s, historically informed performances paved the way for recordings with smaller groups, boys choirs and ensembles playing "period instruments", and eventually to recordings using the one-voice-on-a-vocal-part scoring first argued for by Joshua Rifkin in 1982.
See also
Mass in B minor structure
Mass in B minor discography
References
External links
Mass in B minor: performance by the Netherlands Bach Society (video and background information)
Bach-cantatas.com Text (and its translation in several languages), details, list of recordings, reviews, and wide-ranging discussions.
Free scores of this work in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki).
Jsbach.org List of recommended recordings.
Timothy A. Smith (Northern Arizona University), "Bach's Mass in B Minor as a Musical Icon". Lecture at the Ball State University in 1995.
Mass in B Minor (Flash) at the Oregon Bach Festival.
Masses by Johann Sebastian Bach
1749 compositions
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251781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Bringhurst | Robert Bringhurst | Robert Bringhurst (born 16 October 1946) is a Canadian poet, typographer and author. He has translated substantial works from Haida and Navajo and from classical Greek and Arabic. He wrote The Elements of Typographic Style, a reference book of typefaces, glyphs and the visual and geometric arrangement of type. He was named an Officer of the Order of Canada in June 2013.
He lives on Quadra Island, near Campbell River, British Columbia (approximately 170 km northwest of Vancouver) with his wife, Jan Zwicky, a poet and philosopher.
Life
Bringhurst was born in Los Angeles, California, and raised in Utah, Montana, Wyoming, Alberta, and British Columbia. He studied architecture, linguistics, and physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and comparative literature and philosophy at the University of Utah. He holds a BA from Indiana University and an MFA in creative writing from the University of British Columbia. In 2006, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of the Fraser Valley, and in 2016 was awarded a Doctor of Letters (hon. causa) by Simon Fraser University.
Bringhurst taught literature, art history and history of typography at several universities and held fellowships from the Canada Council for the Arts, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the American Philosophical Society, and the Guggenheim Foundation.
Literary career
His 1992 publication, The Elements of Typographic Style was praised as "the finest book ever written about typography" by the type designers Jonathan Hoefler and Tobias Frere-Jones. A collection of his poetry, The Beauty of the Weapons, was short-listed for a Governor General's Award in 1982, and A Story as Sharp as a Knife, his work on Haida symbolism, was nominated for a Governor General's Award in 2000. Bringhurst won the Lieutenant Governor's Award for Literary Excellence in 2005, an award which recognizes British Columbia writers who have contributed to the development of literary excellence in the Province.
Work in Haida
Bringhurst has a strong interest in linguistics, translating works from classical Greek, Arabic, Navajo, and, most significantly, Haida. His interest in Haida culture stems from his friendship and close association with the influential Haida artist Bill Reid, with whom he wrote The Raven Steals the Light in 1984, among several other significant collaborations. It was this friendship that in 1987 "started Bringhurst on the philanthropic endeavour of recording the Haida canon". The result of this labour was a trilogy of works collectively titled Masterworks of the Classical Haida Mythtellers. The essays in its first volume, A Story As Sharp As A Knife, and particularly its nineteenth chapter, "The Prosody of Meaning," constitute an important contribution to the understanding of the poetics of oral literatures.
His translations from Haida have been viewed as an attempt to preserve the Haida culture, which in 1991 was considered part of a group "likely to be lost unless strong efforts are made very quickly to perpetuate them". The Haida translation has caused some controversy. Bringhurst was accused of academic exploitation and cultural appropriation. In 2001, the CBC radio program Ideas aired a two part series called "Land to Stand On." The series' first episode featured "a string of Haida claiming [...] that Bringhurst's work is 'about keeping us in our place,' written 'without asking us,'" and "replete with 'serious errors twisting it into the poetry that he wants'".
In 1999, the Globe and Mail published a report on the Haida reaction to A Story as Sharp as a Knife by Adele Weder. Weder's piece was later criticized for citing only two Haida sources, claiming they could speak for the entire Haida community, and was described as an "inflammatory article ... not likely to be mistaken for exemplary journalism". The Globe and Mail published Bringhurst's response, which was later called "considerably more measured".
In 2001, Jeff Leer reviewed A Story as Sharp as a Knife saying Bringhurst has neither formal linguistic education nor significant experience with spoken Haida, and doubting Bringhurst's ability to translate from Haida. Leer's review compared Bringhurst's work unfavourably to Enrico's Skidegate Haida Myths and Histories, and referred to the Weder review as an authoritative source. Leer's publisher, the International Journal of American Linguistics, retracted the review and apologized to Bringhurst for publishing:
Most academic discussion and recognition of Bringhurst's work in Haida has been positive. Linguist Dell Hymes wrote a review of the Masterworks of the Classical Haida Mythtellers trilogy (of which A Story as Sharp as a Knife is part) in Language in Society, praising the trilogy. He said it "should become a classic reference point" for Haida scholars in the future. In 2004, Bringhurst won the Edward Sapir Prize for Masterworks of the Classical Haida Mythtellers. The committee giving the award was headed by Leanne Hinton, an expert in American Indian languages, and chair of the Department of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley.
Bringhurst has been defended by Margaret Atwood, who says that "territorial squabbling cannot obscure the fact that Bringhurst's achievement is gigantic as well as heroic", and that far from appropriating native voices, Masterworks of the Classical Haida Mythtellers "restores to life two exceptional poets we ought to know". The CBC documentary was attacked in print for relying "entirely on the fallacy, convenient to the producers, that Bringhurst had not consulted with any Haida". Bringhurst with the help of Bill Reid had spent the better part of the previous decade working with members of the Haida community. People from other indigenous Canadian communities, such as late Cree elder Wilna Hodgson, CM, SOM, have also defended Bringhurst. In a letter to the editor of Books In Canada, she called A Story as Sharp as a Knife "a gift to First Nation people across [Canada]", and a true "masterpiece in the growing genre of spoken texts". In her opinion, Bringhurst's "efforts are clearly informed with the kind of integrity that all translators might strive to emulate".
Bringhurst says that "culture is not genetic" and that he pays respect to Native American languages like Haida by allowing works from those languages to be appreciated as art by as wide an audience as possible. He says he always intended his translations to be "[exercises] in literary history, not in the interpretation of present-day Haida culture".
Bibliography
Poetry
The Shipwright's Log, 1972
Cadastre, 1973
Deuteronomy, 1974 (Sono Nis Press, Delta, British Columbia, Canada)
Eight Objects, 1975 (Kanchenjunga Press)
Bergschrund, 1975
Tzuhalem's Mountain, 1982
The Beauty of the Weapons: Selected Poems 1972–82, 1982, nominated for a Governor General's Award; 1985 (Copper Canyon Press)
Tending the Fire, 1985
The Blue Roofs of Japan, 1986 (Barbarian Press)
Pieces of Map, Pieces of Music, 1986, 1987 (Copper Canyon Press)
Conversations with a Toad, 1987
The Calling: Selected Poems 1970–1995, 1995
Elements, with drawings by Ulf Nilsen, 1995
The Book of Silences, 2001
Ursa Major, 2003, short-listed for the 2004 Dorothy Livesay Poetry Prize
New World Suite Number Three: A Poem in Four Movements for Three Voices, 2006
Selected Poems, 2009 (Gaspereau Press)
Selected Poems, 2010 (Jonathan Cape)
Selected Poems, 2012 (Copper Canyon Press)
Stopping By, 2012 (Hirundo Press)
Going Down Singing, 2016 (Two Ponds Press)
Prose
Ocean/Paper/Stone, 1984
The Raven Steals the Light, with Bill Reid, 1984
Shovels, Shoes and the Slow Rotation of Letters, 1986
The Black Canoe: Bill Reid and the Spirit of Haida Gwaii, with photographs by Ulli Steltzer, 1991
Boats Is Saintlier Than Captains: Thirteen Ways of Looking at Morality, Language, and Design, 1997
Native American Oral Literatures and the Unity of the Humanities, 1998
A Short History of the Printed Word, with Warren Chappell, 1999
A Story as Sharp as a Knife: The Classical Haida Mythtellers and Their World, 1999, nominated for a Governor General's Award; 2nd ed., 2011
The Elements of Typographic Style, 1992, revised 1996, 2004, 2005, 2008 and 2012
The Solid Form of Language: An Essay on Writing and Meaning, 2004
The Tree of Meaning: Thirteen Talks, 2006
Everywhere Being Is Dancing, 2007
The Surface of Meaning: Books and Book Design in Canada, 2008
What Is Reading For?, 2011
Palatino: The Natural History of a Typeface, 2016 (Book Club of California)
Translation
Volumes 2 and 3 of the trilogy Masterworks of the Classical Haida Mythtellers (volume 1, A Story as Sharp as a Knife, is a prose work about Haida literature and is not primarily a work of translation)
Ghandl of the Qayahl Llaanas, Nine Visits to the Mythworld (a collection of stories by the myth-teller Ghandl, as collected in 1900 by John Reed Swanton), 2000, short-listed for the 2001 Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize
Skaay of the Qquuna Qiighawaay, Being in Being: The Collected Works of a Master Haida Mythteller (a collection of stories by the myth-teller Skaay, as collected by John Reed Swanton), 2001
Parmenides, The Fragments, 2003
Skaay of the Qquuna Qiighawaay, Siixha/Floating Overhead: The Qquna Cycle §3.3, 2007
Edited works
Visions: Contemporary Art in Canada, 1983
Jan Tschichold, The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality of Good Design, 1991
Bill Reid, Solitary Raven: The Essential Writings, 2000; 2nd ed., 2009
Carving the Elements: A Companion to the Fragments of Parmenides, 2004
François Mandeville, This Is What They Say, translated from Chipewyan by Ron Scollon, 2009
Kay Amert, The Scythe and the Rabbit: Simon de Colines and the Culture of the Book in Renaissance Paris, 2012
Commentary
Listening for the Heartbeat of Being: The Arts of Robert Bringhurst, edited by Brent Wood and Mark Dickinson – 2015
Citations
General references
Further reading
Brent Wood, Mark Dickinson (eds.): Listening for the Heartbeat of Being: The Arts of Robert Bringhurst, Montreal; Kingston; London; Chicago: McGill-Queen's University Press 2015,
External links
Griffin Poetry Prize biography
Griffin Poetry Prize reading, including video clip
(video)
Records of Robert Bringhurst are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books
The archives of Robert Bringhurst (Robert Bringhurst fonds (R11716) are held at Library and Archives Canada
1946 births
20th-century Canadian male writers
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian translators
21st-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian poets
21st-century Canadian translators
American emigrants to Canada
Canadian male non-fiction writers
Canadian male poets
Canadian typographers and type designers
Design writers
Indiana University Bloomington alumni
Living people
Officers of the Order of Canada
University of Utah alumni
Writers from British Columbia
Writers from Los Angeles | [
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251783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nika%20riots | Nika riots | The Nika riots (), Nika revolt or Nika sedition took place against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I in Constantinople over the course of a week in 532 AD. They are often regarded as the most violent riots in the city's history, with nearly half of Constantinople being burned or destroyed and tens of thousands of people killed.
Background
The ancient Roman and Byzantine empires had well-developed associations, known as demes, which supported the different factions (or teams) to which competitors in certain sporting events belonged, especially in chariot racing. There were initially four major factions in chariot racing, differentiated by the colour of the uniform in which they competed; the colours were also worn by their supporters. These were the Blues (Veneti), the Greens (Prasini), the Reds (Russati), and the Whites (Albati), although by the Byzantine era the only teams with any influence were the Blues and Greens. Emperor Justinian I was a supporter of the Blues.
The demes had become a focus for various social and political issues for which the general Byzantine population lacked other forms of outlet. They combined aspects of street gangs and political parties, taking positions on current issues, including theological problems and claimants to the throne. They frequently tried to affect imperial policy by shouting political demands between races. The imperial forces and guards in the city could not keep order without the cooperation of the factions, which were in turn backed by the aristocratic families of the city; these included some families who believed they had a more rightful claim to the throne than Justinian.
In 531 some members of the Blues and Greens were arrested for murder in connection with deaths during rioting after a chariot race. Relatively limited riots were not unknown at chariot races, similar to the football hooliganism that occasionally erupts after association football matches in modern times. The murderers were to be executed, and most of them were. However, on January 10, 532, two of them, a Blue and a Green, escaped and sought sanctuary in a church surrounded by an angry mob.
Justinian was nervous: he was in the midst of negotiating with the Persians over peace in the east at the end of the Iberian War and now he faced a potential crisis in his city. Therefore, he declared that a chariot race would be held on January 13 and commuted the sentences to imprisonment. The Blues and the Greens responded by demanding that the two men be pardoned entirely.
Causes
Justinian and two of his leading officials, John the Cappadocian and Tribonian, were extremely unpopular because of the high taxes they levied, the corruption of the latter two and John's cruelty against debtors. John and Justinian had also reduced spending on the civil service and combated the corruption of the civil service. The many nobles who had lost their power and fortune when removed from the smaller, less corrupt civil service joined the ranks of the Greens. Justinian was also reducing the power of both teams; the Greens saw this as imperial oppression akin to the reforms in the civil service, while the Blues felt betrayed. The Roman legal code had a popular image as distinguishing the civilized Romans from "barbarians" (). The law code was also religiously important as the Romans were believed to be "chosen by God", it being a symbol of justice. As such, if an emperor successfully made significant legal reforms it would lend him legitimacy, but if this process bogged down it showed divine anger. What had taken nine years for the Theodosian code took Justinian just thirteen months.
Just before the Nika riots of January 532, however, the pace of reforms had slowed. At the same time, Justinian was fighting an unsuccessful war against the Persians; while Byzantine victories at Dara (spring of 530) and Satala (summer of 530) had briefly fostered his legitimacy, the defeat at Calinicum (531) and negative strategic situation damaged the emperor's reputation. The legal reforms were unpopular with the aristocracy from the start, as they made it impossible to use obscure laws and jurisprudence to avoid unfavorable verdicts. Further, both Justinian and his wife Theodora were of low birth - late Roman and Byzantine society was not as class driven as the feudal-dominated society of the west. The Greens were a Monophysite group and represented the interest of the moneyed non-landowners, Justinian being neither of those. Thus, when Justinian refused to pardon the two arrested rioters there was already resentment towards him among both the general populace and the aristocracy.
Riots
On January 13, 532, an angry crowd arrived at the Hippodrome for the races. The Hippodrome was next to the palace complex, so Justinian could preside over the races from the safety of his box in the palace. From the start, the crowd hurled insults at Justinian. By the end of the day, at race 22, the partisan chants had changed from "Blue" or "Green" to a unified ("Nika", meaning "Win!", "Victory!" or "Conquer!"), and the crowds broke out and began to assault the palace. For the next five days, the palace was under siege. Fires started during the tumult destroyed much of the city, including the city's foremost church, the Hagia Sophia (which Justinian would later rebuild).
Some of the senators saw this as an opportunity to overthrow Justinian, as they were opposed to his new taxes and his lack of support for the nobility. The rioters, now armed and probably controlled by their allies in the Senate, also demanded that Justinian dismiss the prefect John the Cappadocian and the quaestor Tribonian. They then declared a new emperor, Hypatius, a nephew of former Emperor Anastasius I.
Justinian considered fleeing, but his wife Theodora is said to have dissuaded him, saying, "Those who have worn the crown should never survive its loss. Never will I see the day when I am not saluted as empress." She is also credited with adding, "[W]ho is born into the light of day must sooner or later die; and how could an Emperor ever allow himself to be a fugitive." Although an escape route across the sea lay open for the emperor, Theodora insisted that she would stay in the city, quoting an ancient saying, "Royalty is a fine burial shroud," or perhaps, "[the royal colour] Purple makes a fine winding sheet."
Justinian created a plan that involved Narses, a popular eunuch, and the generals Belisarius and Mundus. Carrying a bag of gold given to him by Justinian, the slightly built eunuch entered the Hippodrome alone and unarmed. Narses went directly to the Blues' section, where he approached the important Blues and reminded them that Justinian supported them over the Greens. He also reminded them that Hypatius, the man they crowned, was a Green. He distributed the gold and the Blue leaders spoke quietly with each other and then addressed their followers. In the middle of Hypatius' coronation, many Blues left the Hippodrome, while the Greens remained. Then, Imperial troops led by Belisarius and Mundus stormed into the Hippodrome, killing any remaining people indiscriminately, be they Blues or Greens.
About thirty thousand people were reportedly killed. Justinian had Hypatius executed and exiled the senators who had supported the riot. He then rebuilt Constantinople and the Hagia Sophia and was free to establish his rule.
References
Sources
Popular account based on the author's extensive scholarly research.
External links
Procopius, "Justinian Suppresses the Nika Revolt, 532", from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.
J. B. Bury, "The Nika Revolt", chapter XV part 5 from History of the Later Roman Empire (1923).
James Grout: "The Nika Riot", part of the Encyclopædia Romana
Samuel Vancea: "Justinian and the Nike Riots", published in Clio History Journal
532 riots
Constantinople
Sports riots
6th century in the Byzantine Empire
Justinian I
530s in the Byzantine Empire
532
Massacres in the Byzantine Empire | [
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251784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Else%20Alfelt | Else Alfelt | Else Alfelt (16 September 1910 – 9 August 1974) was a Danish artist who specialized in abstract paintings. She was one of two female members of the CoBrA movement. She was married to Carl-Henning Pedersen, another prominent CoBrA member.
Early life and education
Alfelt was born in Copenhagen to the parents Carl Valdemar Ahlefeldt (1882–1954) and Edith Alexandra Regine Julie Thomsen (1893–1938). She began to paint in an early age and remained self-taught as an artist. When her parents divorced while Else was very young, she was sent away to an orphanage by her father’s new wife. Alfelt learned to paint around age 12 by trying to capture staff and other children at the orphanage.
At age 15, Alfelt attended the Technical School in Copenhagen for two years. Her training worked to prepare her to apply to the Art Academy in Copenhagen where she was ultimately turned down. According to her museum website, “the rejection was made on the grounds that she already possessed the necessary painting skills.”
In 1933, when Alfelt was 23 years old, she attended the International Folk High School in Elsinore. There, she met her future husband Carl-Henning Pederson. They married very quickly, and their daughter Vibeke Alfelt was born in 1934. From about 1934 to 1937, the couple struggled financially but felt inspired still, so they would paint over used canvases in order to continue their craft. This was how Pederson allegedly began painting, by being given a used canvas from his wife and instructed to make it his own.
Career
Ahlefeldt submitted her work to the annual Autumn Salon of Danish artists (Kunstnernes Efterårsudstilling) from 1929, but her work was not accepted until 1936, when she exhibited two naturalistic portraits. Soon after this, Alfelt's painting style shifted to a completely abstract idiom of meditative and colorful prismatic compositions.
Alfelt was involved with the major avant-garde art movements in Denmark from the 1930s through the 1950s. She took part in Linien (The Line, 1934-1939), the artists' collective and art journal that was the first conduit of French Surrealism to Denmark. Under the German occupation of Denmark during World War Two, Alfelt was an integral component of Helhesten (The Hell-Horse, 1941-1944), the artists' group and art journal co-founded by Asger Jorn as a harbinger of experimental art and implicit cultural-political resistance. She was also an important member of CoBrA (1948-1951) after the war.
Alfelt's work explored motifs such as spirals, mountains, and spheres, which she linked to expressions of "inner space". Alfelt was directly inspired by nature, specifically mountains, which she sought out on her many travels, such as her trip to Lapland 1945 and Japan in 1967. In addition to paintings she also produced several mosaics.
She was awarded the Tagea Brandt Rejselegat in 1961.
Notable artworks
Posthumous Exhibitions
“Else Alfelt- The Flower of the Universe” – Carl Henning Pederson og Else Alfelts Museum; 2018.
Alfelt was inspired by travels to Japan to incorporate Zen Buddhism into her artistic style, resulting in 100 meditative paintings all named “Flower of the Universe.” These paintings were all made from Since she created them while traveling to Japan, each piece was composed on paper since it was lightweight and easy to transport.
“Abstract Women- Else Alfelt and Marianne Grønnow” – Carl Henning Pederson og Else Alfelts museum; March 2015-August 2015.
Abstract women documents two Danish abstract female painters who have gone overlooked by history, and overshadowed by their husbands’ works. While the two artists vary greatly in style and technique, the CHPEA museum brings them together for this exhibition to bring attention to the ways their art challenges established societal norms.
Legacy
'Carl Henning Pedersen og Else Alfelts Museum' outside Herning. Else Alfelts Vej in the Ørestad district of Copenhagen is named after her. In September 2010, the museum displayed a large-scale exhibition called “Else Alfelt – The Aesthetics of Emptiness.” The exhibition was shown for five months to celebrate what would have been Alfelt’s 100th birthday. The museum page description of the event calls her “one of the most significant women artists in Danish modernism.”
See also
List of Danish painters
List of Danish women artists
References
External links
'Carl Henning Pedersen og Else Alfelts Museum' - Else Alfelt
Else Alfelt in Kunstindeks Danmark
1910 births
1974 deaths
20th-century Danish painters
20th-century Danish women artists
Abstract painters
Artists from Copenhagen
Danish watercolourists
Danish women painters
Recipients of the Thorvaldsen Medal
Women watercolorists | [
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251786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Bromige | David Bromige | David Mansfield Bromige (October 22, 1933 – June 3, 2009) was a Canadian-American poet who resided in northern California from 1962 onward. Bromige published thirty books, many so different from one another as to appear to be the work of a different author. Associated in his youth with the New American Poetry and especially with Robert Duncan and Robert Creeley, Bromige is sometimes associated with the language poets, but this connection is based more on his close friendships with some of those poets, and their admiration for his work. It is difficult to fit Bromige into a slot. He departs from language poetry in the thematic unity of many of his poems, in the uses to which he puts found materials, with the romantic aspect of his lyricism, and with the sheer variety of his approaches to the poem.
Early life
Bromige was born in London, England. At an early age, he showed signs of being tubercular and was sent to an isolation hospital, but after four months, his condition improved, and he was discharged. That hospital was the first of four crucial interludes, which molded his adult life. The second of these interludes came during the London Blitz. A stick of bombs falling in their customary sequence appeared likely to destroy the Bromiges’ house, with them inside. The next interlude involves his schooling and work experience. When the war ended, Bromige won a scholarship to Haberdashers' Aske's Hampstead School and a chance to study at a socially superior school. After completing his School Certificate, Bromige accepted an offer to be a dairyman on a farm in southern Sweden. Each of these interludes changed him. The first made him suspicious of his family; the bombing made him vow to be someone else; work and study gave him the worldly experience to be a poet.
Becoming a poet
He met other poets at the University of British Columbia such as George Bowering, Fred Wah, Frank Davey, David Dawson, and Jamie Reid, and they encouraged him to write and publish his work. At the 1963 Vancouver Poetry Festival Bromige met Robert Creeley, Charles Olson, Denise Levertov, Allen Ginsberg, and Robert Duncan.
The result of this endeavor led to the publication of many poems. Robert Hass, the chairman of the Western States Book Award Committee, wrote glowingly of his work and chose his 1988 book, Desire: Selected Poems, 1963-1987 to win the first prize for poetry. He has twice been honored by the Poetry Foundation, once with a $3,000 and again with a $10,000 prize. And he has twice been honored by the National Endowment for the Arts. He won the college prize for the first poem he ever published.
Three years later, Bromige won a Woodrow Wilson Scholarship. The rules stated that he had to do his graduate work at a different university. In 1962, he chose the University of California at Berkeley after graduating from the University of British Columbia. At UC-Berkeley, Bromige studied with Frederick Crews, Stephen Booth, and Thomas Parkinson. Living in the Bay Area also brought him into contact with a younger generation of American poets, including Ron Loewinsohn, Michael Palmer, Ron Silliman, David Melnick, Kathleen Fraser, Kenneth Irby, Rae Armantrout, Bob Perelman, Harvey Bialy, Robert Grenier, Stephen Ratcliffe, Pat Nolan, Alistair Johnson and more.
In 1968, his third book, The Ends of the Earth, was published by Black Sparrow Press. It was the beginning of a twenty-three-year partnership that produced eleven of his books. The poems in this book have a ghostly tone. It is as though Cocteau was doing a very detailed description of Bromige's life. The change apparent in his fifth book, Threads, is startling. It reads as though the ghostly presences from The Ends of the Earth had fleshed out and learned to speak a language from the various lives whose talk fills the book.
Academic career
Leaving UC-Berkeley A.B.D., (All but dissertation), Bromige took a teaching position in the English Department at Sonoma State University in 1970. Then came seven books in two years. This is Bromige at an early peak. Ten Years in the Making began it. This book consisted of some of his early work, going back to 1960, work engagingly open to the merest reader. Then come selections from The Gathering, followed by poems from Threads. Next came Birds of the West, from Victor Coleman of Coachhouse Press in Toronto. This book consists of three sections: a journal of gardening and visitors; a section of more finished poems, filled with a landscape of Western Sonoma County; and a single, long poem written in sparse triplets to reflect a white-tail kite's hovering flight.
Soon afterwards, Tight Corners and What’s Around Them was issued by Black Sparrow. Bromige has stated it was the most interesting to him of this clutch of books. "I was using a fairly familiar sort of sentence, in prose, with a last line that either boosted sales or fell flat as a flapjack. I didn’t care. Banal or brilliant, it made no difference in the world I was living in. Besides, sometimes the banal turned brilliant as I listened."
He also did three pint-sized books about this time for the "Sparrow" series. In 1974, he also published a book of occasional poems, Spells and Blessings.
Bromige continued to publish prodigiously in magazines and, in 1980, published a book called My Poetry.
The 1980s started with a Pushcart Prize for My Poetry and ended with the Western States Poetry Award for his selected poems, Desire. In between, Bromige devoted himself to his wife and young daughter while carrying a full-time professor's responsibilities in the English Department at Sonoma State University. He coordinated poetry conferences at SSU, published a collaboration with Opal Nations, wrote an analysis of Allen Fisher's four-day residency at Langton Street in San Francisco, and was himself the subject of an issue of Tom Beckett's The Difficulties. In 1990, John Martin, who had moved Black Sparrow Press to Santa Rosa, published Men, Women & Vehicles, a book of selected prose.
Bromige retired early from Sonoma State University in 1993, and he continued to publish and give readings. Tiny Courts in a World Without Scales, Brick Books, is a book of fifty short poems, showing Bromige at his droll and sarcastic best. He had fun with They Ate, a cut up from a turn-of-the-century detective novel, before producing A Cast of Tens (Avec Press). Each stanza has 10 lines but in each poem is distributed variously. The Harbormaster of Hong Kong (Sun and Moon) came next with many kinds of writing in it including a perfect sonnet. Bromige's final book from the 90's was Vulnerable Bundles, a limited edition of thirty, from Potes and Poets Press.
Missing teaching, Bromige returned to it part-time at the University of San Francisco, and he also began writing what would later be As in T as in Tether, which was awarded A Best Book of the Year (2003) recognition from Small Press Traffic. Bromige published Indictable Suborners and Behave or Be Bounced with dPress, Sebastopol, in 2003. For the past few years, Bromige had been collaborating with poet and dPress editor Richard Denner on 100 Cantos. Spade: Cantos 1-33 was published in 2006.
Bromige lived in Sebastopol, California. He died on June 3, 2009 of complications from diabetes.
Bibliography
The Gathering. Buffalo, NY: Sumbooks, 1965.
Please, Like Me. Los Angeles, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1968.
The Ends of the Earth. Los Angeles, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1968.
The Quivering Roadway. Berkeley, CA: Archangel Press, 1969.
Threads. Los Angeles, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1970.
Three Stories. Los Angeles, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1973.
Ten Years in the Making. Vancouver, BC: New Star Press, 1974.
Tight Corners & What's Around Them. Los Angeles, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1974.
Birds of the West. Toronto, Ontario: Coach House Books, 1974.
Out of My Hands. Santa Barbara, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1974.
Spells & Blessings. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks, 1975.
Credences of Winter. Santa Barbara, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1976.
Living in Advance (with deBarros and Gifford). Cotati, CA: Open Ready Press, 1976.
My Poetry. Berkeley, CA: The Figures Press, 1980.
P-E-A-C-E. Berkeley, CA: Tuumba Press, 1981.
In the Uneven Steps of Hung Chow. Berkeley, CA: Little Dinosaur Press, 1982.
It's the Same Only Different/The Melancholy Owed Categories. Weymouth, England: Last Straw Press, 1984.
You See, Parts 1 & 2 (with Opal Nations). San Francisco, CA: Exempli Gratia Press, 1986.
Red Hats. Atwater, OH: Tonsure Press, 1986.
Desire: Selected Poems 1963-1987. Santa Rosa, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1988.
Men, Women & Vehicles: Prose Works. Santa Rosa, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1990.
Tiny Courts in a Year Without Scales. London, ON: Brick Books 1991.
They Ate. Sebastopol, CA: X-Press Books, 1992.
The Harbormaster of Hong Kong. Los Angeles, CA: Sun & Moon Press, 1993.
A Cast of Tens. Penngrove, CA: Avec Books, 1994.
Vulnerable Bundles. Hartford, CT: Cricket Press, 1995.
From the First Century. 1995.
Piccolo Mondo. Toronto, Ontario: Coach House Books, 1998.
Authenticizing. San Francisco, CA: a+bend press, 2000.
As in T, As in Tether. Tucson, AZ: Chax Press, 2002.
Indictable Suborners. Sebastopol, CA: DPress 2003.
Behave or Be Bounced. Sebastopol, CA: dPress, 2003.
Ten Poems from Clearings in the Throat. Sebastopol, CA dPress, 2005.
Spade (with Richard Denner). Sebastopol, CA: dPress, 2006.
if wants to be the same as is: Essential Poems of David Bromige, edited by Jack Krick, Bob Perelman and Ron Silliman, with an introduction by George Bowering, Vancouver, BC: NewStar Books, forthcoming.
References
External links
David Bromige page at the Electronic Poetry Center
David Bromige page at the University of Calgary
An Interview with David Bromige
PennSound has numerous audio recordings of David Bromige reading his poems
David Bromige 1933 - 2009 This "cyber-tombeau" at Silliman's Blog by poet Ron Silliman includes comments, tributes, and links
David Bromige Correspondence MSS 6. Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.
1933 births
2009 deaths
Deaths from diabetes
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male poets
21st-century Canadian poets
20th-century American poets
21st-century American poets
Sonoma State University faculty
Canadian expatriate academics in the United States
Canadian expatriate writers in the United States
Writers from the San Francisco Bay Area
21st-century Canadian male writers
Occasional poets | [
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251787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20North%20Dakota | List of governors of North Dakota | The governor of North Dakota is the head of government of the U.S. state of North Dakota. The current officeholder is Republican Doug Burgum. The Governor of North Dakota has the power to sign or veto laws and to call the Legislative Assembly into emergency session. The officeholder, who is also chairman of the North Dakota Industrial Commission, has an ex officio residence. There are no limits on the number of terms a governor may serve.
The following is a list of governors of North Dakota.
Governors of Dakota Territory
Governors of North Dakota
Parties
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented North Dakota except where noted.
Living former governors of North Dakota
, four former governors of North Dakota are alive. The oldest living former governor is Allen I. Olson (served 1981–85, born 1938). The most recent death of a former governor was George A. Sinner (served 1985–1992, born 1928), who died on March 9, 2018.
See also
Notes
External links
State Historical Society of North Dakota, North Dakota Governors
North Dakota
Governors
Governors | [
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251791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahsaan%20Patterson | Rahsaan Patterson | Rahsaan Patterson (born January 11, 1974) is an American singer and actor, best known for portraying "The Kid" on the 1980s television show Kids Incorporated.
Career
1984: Kids Incorporated
After appearing in a school talent show in 1984, Patterson auditioned for the television show Kids Incorporated. He was cast as "The Kid", and remained on the show for the next few years, appearing alongside such future stars as Fergie, Renee Sands, Martika, Mario Lopez and Shanice.
Music career
After Kids Incorporated, Patterson gained experience as a backup vocalist for several artists (including Kids co-star Martika). Following his vocal contributions on Colour Club's self-titled album, as well as writing for other artists (his credits include Brandy's platinum Top 5 smash "Baby", and Tevin Campbell's hit "Back to the World").
1997–98: Rahsaan Patterson
Patterson signed with MCA Records in 1995. Collaborating with Keith Crouch and Jamey Jaz,Ira Schickman, among others, released his self-titled debut album on January 28, 1997. The album peaked at No. 48 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums Chart.
There were two singles released, "Stop By" and "Where You Are" peaked No. 53 on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.
Receiving positive reviews from critics, the album failed to find a large audience (the single "Where You Are" did receive attention on R&B radio, and it appeared on the soundtrack to the 1996 Bulletproof). Patterson did, however, develop a loyal following both in the U.S. and abroad.
1999–2002: Love in Stereo, SoundTracks
Patterson went to work on his followup, Love in Stereo, with Jamey Jaz and new collaborators such as Van Hunt. When Love in Stereo was released in late 1999 it received better reviews than its predecessor, although the mainstream overlooked it. The album peaked at #51 on Billboards Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums Chart and two singles, "The Moment" and "Treat You Like A Queen" which peaked at no. 61 on Billboards Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. Rahsaan toured in support of Stereo playing dates throughout U.S. and Europe.
Although Patterson and MCA parted ways, he remained busy, continuing to perform live, working as a session singer, and contributing to both soundtracks (Brown Sugar) and compilation albums (Steve Harvey's Sign of Things to Come), while working on his next album.
2004–08 After Hours, Wines and Spirits
Patterson's third album, After Hours was released internationally in April 2004, garnering positive reviews. With the forming of his own label, After Hours was released in the U.S. in late October. The album debuted at No. 65 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The singles, "So Hot", "April's Kiss" and "Forever Yours" were issued but failed to chart on Billboard. Further collaborative efforts followed.
Patterson's album, Wines & Spirits (again featuring collaborations with Crouch and Jaz) was released September 24, 2007, and debuted at #42 on Billboards Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, his highest charted to date and No. 45 on Independent Albums Chart. The singles released, "Stop Breaking My Heart" and "Feels Good" charted on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs both at no. 59 and the later no. 76. A close friend, R&B singer Ledisi, in which he's also featured on her album Lost & Found, explains the genius of Patterson as, "Rahsaan's greatest artistic strength is his ability to be overly honest in his recordings and in his live performances. If I had to sum him up in one word, I would call him 'uninhibited'."
In August 2008, Patterson released a Christmas album, The Ultimate Gift, by November Patterson won a BET J award for Underground Artist of the year.
In 2008, Patterson joined with Australian-born producer/multi-instrumentalist/songwriter Jarrad 'Jaz' Rogers and Copenhagen-based electro-soul songstress Ida Corr to form the London-based alternative soul/pop/funk trio SugaRush Beat Company, who released their self-titled album through RCA (UK) in the summer of 2008.
2009–present: Bleuphoria, Touring, New Album
After the release of Wines and Spirits, Rahsaan resumed touring throughout the U.S. and overseas, and working with several recording artists'. On December 14, 2010 a new song was available on iTunes, "Easier Said Than Done", a slow funk groove aimed as the lead single from his new album. On February 12, 2011, he performed at B.B. King's Blues Club to a sold out crowd, the show received rave reviews. Patterson continues to tour across the U.S. and also completing recording for his new soon to be released sixth studio album, scheduled for release this year. March 2011, after a concert in Ram's Head Tavern in Annapolis, MD, Patterson spoke about his album, Bleuphoria during a brief interview for thesoulcialista.
In 2019, Rahsaan released the new single "Sent from Heaven" and announced his new album Heroes & Gods will release on May 17 that year.
Personal life
Patterson is openly gay. In a 2008 discussion about being a gay artist with LGBT-centric network Logo, for example, he said that "For me, it's not about being 'the gay artist'; I'm an artist." In an interview with BET's Daily Voice, Patterson further clarified that "I've never been in the closet or hiding anything."
Discography
Studio albums
Rahsaan Patterson (1997)
Love in Stereo (1999)
After Hours (2004)
Wines & Spirits (2007)
Bleuphoria (2011)
Heroes & Gods (2019)
References
External links
Rahsaan Patterson's official homepage
Mack Avenue Artist Page
American male child actors
African-American male actors
American neo soul singers
LGBT African Americans
American contemporary R&B singers
Singers from New York (state)
People from the Bronx
Male actors from New York (state)
Living people
LGBT singers from the United States
LGBT songwriters
American gay musicians
1974 births
LGBT hip hop musicians
American funk singers
American hip hop singers
American funk keyboardists
American soul keyboardists
21st-century American keyboardists
Mack Avenue Records artists
20th-century LGBT people
21st-century LGBT people
20th-century African-American male singers
21st-century African-American male singers | [
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251794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil%20eye | Evil eye | The evil eye (, ; ; ; ; , ; ; Kazakh: Көз) is a supernatural belief in curse, brought about by a malevolent glare, usually given to a person when one is unaware. It dates back at least to Greek classical antiquity, 6th century BC where it appeared on Chalcidian drinking vessels, known as 'eye-cups', as a type of apotropaic magic. It is found in many cultures in the Mediterranean region, with such cultures often believing that receiving the evil eye will cause misfortune or injury, while others believe it to be a kind of supernatural force that casts or reflects a malevolent gaze back-upon those who wish harm upon others (especially innocents). Older iterations of the symbol were often made of ceramic or clay; however, following the production of glass beads in the Mediterranean region in approximately 1500 BC, evil eye beads were popularised with the Phoenicians, Persians, Greeks, Romans and Ottomans. Blue was likely used as it was relatively easy to create; however, modern evil eyes can be a range of colors.
The idea expressed by the term causes many different cultures to pursue protective measures against it, with around 40% of the world's population believing in the evil eye. The concept and its significance vary widely among different cultures, but it is especially prominent in the Mediterranean and West Asia. The idea appears multiple times in Jewish rabbinic literature. Other popular amulets and talismans used to ward off the evil eye include the hamsa, while Italy (especially Southern Italy) employs a variety of other unique charms and gestures to defend against the evil eye, including the cornicello, the cimaruta, and the sign of the horns.
While the Egyptian Eye of Horus is a similar symbol of protection and good health, the Greek evil eye talisman specifically protects against malevolent gazes. Similarly, the Eye-Idols () excavated at the Tell Brak Eye Temple are believed to have been figurines offered to the gods, and according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, are unrelated to a belief in the evil eye.
History
Belief in the evil eye dates back to at least Ancient Ugarit, as it is attested to in texts from this city (ruins in modern-day Syria). Given that the city was destroyed circa 1250BC, during the late Bronze Age collapse to never be rebuilt, the belief dates back at least to this point, and likely earlier. Later in Greek Classical antiquity, it is referenced by Hesiod, Callimachus, Plato, Diodorus Siculus, Theocritus, Plutarch, Heliodorus, Pliny the Elder, and Aulus Gellius. Peter Walcot's Envy and the Greeks (1978) listed more than one hundred works by these and other authors mentioning the evil eye. Noting that Greeks are an ethnic group indigenous to Greece and the Levant, artefacts can be found from this region.
Classical authors attempted both to describe and to explain the function of the evil eye. Plutarch's scientific explanation stated that the eyes were the chief, if not sole, source of the deadly rays that were supposed to spring up like poisoned darts from the inner recesses of a person possessing the evil eye. Plutarch treated the phenomenon of the evil eye as something seemingly inexplicable that is a source of wonder and cause of incredulity. Pliny the Elder described the ability of certain African enchanters to have the "power of fascination with the eyes and can even kill those on whom they fix their gaze".
The idea of the evil eye appears in the poetry of Virgil in a conversation between the shepherds Menalcas and Damoetas. In the passage, Menalcas is lamenting the poor health of his stock: "What eye is it that has fascinated my tender lambs?".
Protection from the eye
The belief in the evil eye during antiquity varied across different regions and periods. The evil eye was not feared with equal intensity in every corner of the Roman Empire. There were places in which people felt more conscious of the danger of the evil eye. In Roman times, not only were individuals considered to possess the power of the evil eye but whole tribes, especially those of Pontus and Scythia, were believed to be transmitters of the evil eye.
The phallic charm called fascinum in Latin, from the verb fascinare, "to cast a spell" (the origin of the English word "fascinate") is one example of an apotropaic object used against the evil eye. They have been found throughout Europe and into the Middle East from contexts dating from the first century BC to the fourth century AD. The phallic charms were often objects of personal adornment (such as pendants and finger rings), but also appeared as stone carvings on buildings, mosaics, and wind-chimes (tintinnabula). Examples of stone phallic carvings, such as from Leptis Magna, depict a disembodied phallus attacking an evil eye by ejaculating towards it.
In describing their ability to deflect the evil eye, Ralph Merrifield described the Roman phallic charm as a "kind of lightning conductor for good luck".
Around the world
Belief in the evil eye is strongest in West Asia, Latin America, East and West Africa, Central America, South Asia, Central Asia, and Europe, especially the Mediterranean region; it has also spread to areas, including northern Europe, particularly in the Celtic regions, and the Americas, where it was brought by European colonists and West Asian immigrants.
Belief in the evil eye is found in the Islamic doctrine, based upon the statement of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, "The influence of an evil eye is a fact..." [Sahih Muslim, Book 26, Number 5427]. Authentic practices of warding off the evil eye are also commonly practiced by Muslims: rather than directly expressing appreciation of, for example, a child's beauty, it is customary to say Masha'Allah, that is, "God has willed it", or invoking God's blessings upon the object or person that is being admired.
A number of beliefs about the evil eye are also found in folk religion, typically revolving around the use of amulets or talismans as a means of protection.
In the Aegean Region and other areas where light-colored eyes are relatively rare, people with green eyes, and especially blue eyes, are thought to bestow the curse, intentionally or unintentionally. Thus, in Greece and Turkey amulets against the evil eye take the form of eyes looking back at someone, and in the painting by John Phillip, we witness the culture-clash experienced by a woman who suspects that the artist's gaze implies that he is looking at her with the evil eye.
Among those who do not take the evil eye literally, either by reason of the culture in which they were raised or because they simply do not believe it, the phrase, "to give someone the evil eye" usually means simply to glare at the person in anger or disgust. The term has entered into common usage within the English language. Within the broadcasting industry, it refers to when a presenter signals to the interviewee or co-presenter to stop talking due to a shortage of time.
Protective talismans and cures
Attempts to ward off the curse of the evil eye have resulted in a number of talismans in many cultures. As a class, they are called "apotropaic" (Greek for "prophylactic" / προφυλακτικός or "protective", literally: "turns away") talismans, meaning that they turn away or turn back harm.
Disks or balls, consisting of concentric blue and white circles (usually, from inside to outside, dark blue, light blue, white, and dark blue) representing an evil eye are common apotropaic talismans in West Asia, found on the prows of Mediterranean boats and elsewhere; in some forms of the folklore, the staring eyes are supposed to bend the malicious gaze back to the sorcerer.
Known as nazar ( or ), this talisman is most frequently seen in Turkey, found in or on houses and vehicles or worn as beads.
The hamsa hand, an apotropaic hand-shaped talisman against the evil eye, is found in West Asia. The word hamsa, also spelled khamsa and hamesh, means "five" referring to the fingers of the hand. In Jewish culture, the hamsa is called the Hand of Miriam; in some Muslim cultures, the Hand of Fatima. Though condemned as superstition by doctrinaire Muslims, it is almost exclusively among Muslims in the Near East and Mediterranean that the belief in envious looks containing destructive power or the talismanic power of a nazar to defend against them. To adherents of other faiths in the region, the nazar is an attractive decoration.
A variety of motifs to ward off the evil eye are commonly woven into tribal kilim rugs. Such motifs include a cross (Turkish: Haç) to divide the evil eye into four, a hook (Turkish: Çengel) to destroy the evil eye, or a human eye (Turkish: Göz) to avert the evil gaze. The shape of a lucky amulet (Turkish: Muska; often, a triangular package containing a sacred verse) is often woven into kilims for the same reason.
In Islam
In Islam, the evil eye, or al-’ayn , also ), is a common belief that individuals have the power to cause harm to people, animals or objects, by looking at them in a way that indicates jealousy. Although envy activates the evil eye, this happens (or usually happens) unconsciously, and the person who casts it is not responsible (or usually not responsible) for it. In addition to being looked at, astrology may play a part. Someone may become a victim of the evil eye by virtue of an "unfavorable celestial configuration" at the time of victim's birth, "according to some scholars".
Among the rituals to ward off the evil eye are to say "TabarakAllah" () ("Blessings of God") or "Masha'Allah" () ("God has willed it") if a compliment is to be made. Reciting Sura Ikhlas, Sura Al-Falaq and Sura Al-Nas from the Qur'an, three times after Fajr and after Maghrib is also used as a means of personal protection against the evil eye.
To cure the evil eye, strict orthodox (Salafi) scholars prescribe only "ritual bathing and by pious incantations" (the same Islamic cure for other supernatural maladies), according to scholar Remke Kruk. According to Salafi scholars, the Quran and Hadith call for performing exorcism using the words of God or his names, reciting in Arabic or in a language which can be understood by the people. While some Musliims avail themselves of magic practices -- talismans, amulets, fortune-tellers or asking jinns to help -- these are forbidden (haram) according to the strictly orthodox. According to another source, some scholars believe using talismans (along with the Quran) is permissible.
In Judaism
The evil eye is mentioned several times in the classic Pirkei Avot (Ethics of Our Fathers). In Chapter II, five disciples of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakai give advice on how to follow the good path in life and avoid the bad. Rabbi Eliezer says an evil eye is worse than a bad friend, a bad neighbor, or an evil heart.
Talmudic exegete, Rashi, says in the wake of the words of Israel's Sages that when the ten sons of Jacob went down into Egypt to buy provisions, they made themselves inconspicuous by each entering into a separate gate, so that they would not be gazed upon by the local Egyptians and, thereby, trigger a malevolent response (the Evil eye) by their onlookers, seeing that they were all handsome and of brave and manly dispositions.
Some Jews believe that a "good eye" designates an attitude of goodwill and kindness towards others. Someone who has this attitude in life will rejoice when his fellow man prospers; he will wish everyone well. An "evil eye" denotes the opposite attitude. A man with "an evil eye" will not only feel no joy but experience actual distress when others prosper and will rejoice when others suffer. A person of this character represents a great danger to our moral purity, according to some Jews.
Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook explained that the evil eye is "an example of how one soul may affect another through unseen connections between them. We are all influenced by our environment... The evil eye is the venomous impact from malignant feelings of jealousy and envy of those around us."
Many observant Jews avoid talking about valuable items they own, good luck that has come to them and, in particular, their children. If any of these are mentioned, the speaker and/or listener will say b'li ayin hara (Hebrew), meaning "without an evil eye", or kein eina hara (Yiddish; often shortened to kennahara), "no evil eye". Another way to ward off the evil eye is to spit three times (or pretend to). Romans call this custom "despuere malum," to spit at evil. It has also been suggested the 10th Commandment: "Do not covet anything that belongs to your neighbor" is a law against bestowing the evil eye on another person.
In Christianity
Caribbean/West Indies
In Trinidad and Tobago, the evil eye is called maljo (from French mal yeux, meaning 'bad eye'). The term is used in the infinitive (to maljo) and as a noun (to have/get maljo) referring to persons who have been afflicted. Maljo may be passed on inadvertently, but is believed to be more severe when coming from an envious person or one with bad intentions. It is thought to happen more readily when a person is stared at- especially while eating food. A person who has been taken by the ‘bad eye’ may experience unexplained illness or misfortune. In traditional rural legends, ‘The general belief is that doctors cannot cure maljo----only people who know prayers can "cut" the maljo and thus cure the victim.’
There are several secular approaches to combatting maljo, but more extreme cases are usually referred to spiritual rituals, with a particularly strong influence from the Hindu religion.
In non-religious respects, there is a strong cultural association that between the evil eye and the colour blue. It is believed to ward off maljo when worn as clothing or accessories, so much so that some striking shades are referred to as ‘maljo blue’. Blue ornaments may be used to protect a household, and blue bottles from Milk of Magnesia have been hung on trees or placed in the yard surrounding a property.
Blue soap and Albion Blue (an indigo dye referred to Trinbagonians simply as ‘blue’) are traditionally used for domestic washing, but are also considered to prevent maljo if used in bath water, or to anoint the soles of the feet.
Jumbie beads are the poisonous seeds of the Rosary Pea tree which are used to make jewelry that also wards off maljo and evil spirits.
One superstition is that a pinch can reverse maljo following interpersonal interactions, especially if one is stared at or given a compliment. Some also believe that rubbing one's own saliva in their hair will counteract maljo in general, but particularly from envy of the hair texture and length.
A bath in the sea is also thought to relieve an afflicted person.
Maljo believers are particularly concerned with safeguarding babies and children, who are considered to be most vulnerable to its effects. It may be ‘caused by someone born with a "blight" in the eye, when such a person looks admiringly at a child. It can also occur with a pat on the head, or with just a glance. Whether it is intended or not, compliments (...) can cause maljo. It can be caused by a stranger, a member of the child's immediate family or by another relative.’ It may even be passed on by a parent who is obsessed with their own child. A baby with maljo ‘refuses to eat or drink, cries continually and "pines away.". It may have an "attack of fever".’
Bracelets made of jet beads are traditionally given to newborns to wear as a preventative measure, while elders also recommend securing a bag of blue (dye) to the baby's clothes. This is because a newborn is viewed as most vulnerable.
Following East Indian influence, a tikka is a black dot that is placed on a baby's forehead- thought to distract the attention of the evil eye and protect the child as such.
The most common maljo remedy comes in the form of a Hindu ritual called a jharay. It may be practised at home (usually by parents or elders) or by a pundit or spiritual practitioner. There are many variations to the ritual, and non-Hindu persons readily participate if they are considered to have been affected by maljo.
The main implement in a jharay is either a peacock feather or a cocoyea broom- a traditional broom made using the midrib of the coconut palm leaf. Some also report a knife or machete being used. In some instances, the cocoyea broom is measured against a particular part of the body at the beginning of the ceremony, and it is believed to be confirmation of maljo if the recorded length has changed by the end of the session. The officiant will say a prayer while using the tool of choice to brush the person from head to toe. The prayer is conventionally said in Hindi, but may also be said in English.
A jharay may focus on a specific point of affliction or pain (head, hair, back, feet and so on).
It is not unusual for a jharay ceremony to be carried out on children and babies. ‘People believe that maljo can cause death. Two types were reported: the "'dragging" kind, where the baby gets smaller and smaller and goes through all of the symptoms mentioned above, before withering and dying; the "Twenty-four hour" maljo, said to kill in just twenty-four hours if effective help is not obtained.’
Another Hindu ritual called the oucchay is also employed to heal maljo- though this might also be interchangeably called a jharay. Ingredients such as onion skin, salt, cobweb, hot pepper or mustard seeds, piece of a cocoyea broom, a lock of the victim's hair (in the case of children, it is a lock of the mother's hair) are wrapped in a tissue or newspaper. The officiant will circle the wrapped objects around the victim's body before burning them all. It is believed that if the items create a large, crackling flame and a foul stench, it is an indication that the victim had a severe case of maljo. At the end of the ritual, the victim may be asked to walk away without looking back while the objects burn.
In Afro-Caribbean Spiritual Baptist and Orisha tradition, a special piece of jewelry called a 'guard' will be blessed by an elder, who invokes its protection on the wearer. It may be a waist bead, anklet, bracelet, or necklace. For babies, a large safety pin might be used as a guard.
Greece
The evil eye, known as (mati), "eye", as an apotropaic visual device, is known to have been a fixture in Greece dating back to at least the 6th century BC, when it commonly appeared on drinking vessels. In Greece, the evil eye is cast away through the process of xematiasma (), whereby the "healer" silently recites a secret prayer passed over from an older relative of the opposite sex, usually a grandparent. Such prayers are revealed only under specific circumstances, as according to their customs those who reveal them indiscriminately lose their ability to cast off the evil eye. There are several regional versions of the prayer in question, a common one being: "Holy Virgin, Our Lady, if [insert name of the victim] is suffering of the evil eye, release him/her of it." Evil repeated three times. According to custom, if one is indeed afflicted with the evil eye, both victim and "healer" then start yawning profusely. The "healer" then performs the sign of the cross three times, and emits spitting-like sounds in the air three times.
Another "test" used to check if the evil eye was cast is that of the oil: under normal conditions, olive oil floats in water, as it is less dense than water. The test of the oil is performed by placing one drop of olive oil in a glass of water, typically holy water. If the drop floats, the test concludes there is no evil eye involved. If the drop sinks, then it is asserted that the evil eye is cast indeed. Another form of the test is to place two drops of olive oil into a glass of water. If the drops remain separated, the test concludes there is no evil eye, but if they merge, there is. There is also a third form where in a plate full of water the "healer" places three or nine drops of oil. If the oil drops become larger and eventually dissolve in the water there is evil eye. If the drops remain separated from water in a form of a small circle there isn't. The first drops are the most important and the number of drops that dissolve in water indicate the strength of the evil eye. Note that a secret chant is spoken when these tests are conducted. The words of the chant are closed practised and can only be passed from man to woman, or woman to man.
There is another form of the "test" where the "healer" prepares a few cloves by piercing each one with a pin. Then she lights a candle and grabs a pinned clove with a pair of scissors. She then uses it to do the sign of the cross over the afflicted whilst the afflicted is asked to think of a person who may have given him the evil eye. Then the healer holds the clove over the flame. If the clove burns silently, there is no evil eye present; however, if the clove explodes or burns noisily, that means the person in the thoughts of the afflicted is the one who has cast the evil eye. As the clove explodes, the evil eye is released from the afflicted. Cloves that burn with some noise are considered to be λόγια - words - someone foul-mouthing you that you ought to be wary of. The burned cloves are extinguished into a glass of water and are later buried in the garden along with the pins as they are considered to be contaminated. Greek people will also ward off the evil eye by saying φτου να μη σε ματιάξω! which translates to "I spit so that I won't give you the evil eye." Contrary to popular belief, the evil eye is not necessarily given by someone wishing you ill, but it stems from admiration - if one considers admiration to be a compelled emotion of astonishment at a rival's success over one's evil plan. Since it is technically possible to give yourself the evil eye, it is advised to be humble.
The Greek Fathers accepted the traditional belief in the evil eye, but attributed it to the Devil and envy. In Greek theology, the evil eye or vaskania () is considered harmful for the one whose envy inflicts it on others as well as for the sufferer. The Greek Church has an ancient prayer against vaskania from the Megan Hieron Synekdemon () book of prayers.
Assyrians
Assyrians are also strong believers in the evil eye. They will usually wear a blue/turquoise bead around a necklace to be protected from the evil eye. Also, they might pinch the buttocks, comparable to Armenians. It is said that people with green or blue eyes are more prone to the evil eye effect. A simple and instant way of protection in European Christian countries is to make the sign of the cross with your hand and point two fingers, the index finger and the middle finger, towards the supposed source of influence or supposed victim as described in the first chapter of Bram Stoker's novel Dracula published in 1897:
When we started, the crowd round the inn door, which had by this time swelled to a considerable size, all made the sign of the cross and pointed two fingers towards me. With some difficulty, I got a fellow passenger to tell me what they meant. He would not answer at first, but on learning that I was English, he explained that it was a charm or guard against the evil eye.
Turkey
A typical nazar is made of handmade glass featuring concentric circles or teardrop shapes in dark blue, white, light blue and black, occasionally with a yellow/gold edge.
Cultures that have nazars or some variation include Turkey, Romania, Albania, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, Armenia, Iran, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Iraq and Azerbaijan, where the nazar is often hung in homes, offices, cars, children's clothing, or incorporated in jewellery and ornaments. They are a popular choice of souvenir with tourists.
Ethiopia
Belief in the evil eye, or buda (var. bouda), is widespread in Ethiopia. Buda is generally believed to be a power held and wielded by those in a different social group, for example among the metalworkers. Some Ethiopian Christians carry an amulet or talisman, known as a kitab, or will invoke God's name, to ward off the ill effects of buda. A debtera, who is either an unordained priest or educated layperson, will create these protective amulets or talismans.
Senegal
The equivalent of the evil eye in Wolof would be the "thiat". It is believed that beautiful objects may break if enviously stared at by others. To repel the effect of the evil eye, Senegalese people may wear cowrie shell bracelets. The sea shells are said to absorb the negative energy of the thiat and gradually darken until the bracelet breaks. It is also common for superstitious people to wear "gris-gris" made by a marabouts to avoid misfortune.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, the evil eye is called Nazar (نظر). People usually may resort to reading the last three chapters of the Quran, namely Sura Ikhlas, Sura Al-Falaq and Sura Al-Nas. "Masha'Allah" () ("God has willed it") is commonly said to ward off the evil eye. Understanding of the evil eye varies by the level of education. Some perceive the use of black color to be useful in protecting from the evil eye. Others use "taawiz" to ward off the evil eye. Truck owners and other public transport vehicles may commonly be seen using a small black cloth on the bumpers to prevent the evil eye.
Southern Italy
The cornicello, "little horn", also called the cornetto ("little horn", plural cornetti), is a long, gently twisted horn-shaped amulet. Cornicelli are usually carved out of red coral or made from gold or silver. The type of horn they are intended to copy is not a curled-over sheep horn or goat horn but rather like the twisted horn of an African eland or a chili pepper. A tooth or tuft of fur of the Italian wolf was worn as a talisman against the evil eye.
One idea that the ribald suggestions made by sexual symbols distract the witch from the mental effort needed to successfully bestow the curse. Another is that since the effect of the eye was to dry up liquids, the drying of the phallus (resulting in male impotence) would be averted by seeking refuge in the moist female genitals. Among the ancient Romans and their cultural descendants in the Mediterranean nations, those who were not fortified with phallic charms had to make use of sexual gestures to avoid the eye. Such gestures include scratching one's testicles (for men), as well as the mano cornuta gesture and the fig sign; a fist with the thumb pressed between the index and middle fingers, representing the phallus within the vagina. In addition to the phallic talismans, statues of hands in these gestures, or covered with magical symbols, were carried by the Romans as talismans.
The wielder of the evil eye, the jettatore, is described as having a striking facial appearance, high arching brows with a stark stare that leaps from his eyes. He often has a reputation for clandestine involvement with dark powers and is the object of gossip about dealings in magic and other forbidden practices. Successful men having tremendous personal magnetism quickly gain notoriety as jettatori. Pope Pius IX was dreaded for his evil eye, and a whole cycle of stories about the disasters that happened in his wake were current in Rome during the latter decades of the 19th century. Public figures of every type, from poets to gangsters, have had their specialized abilities attributed to the power of their eyes.
Malta
The symbol of the eye, known as "l-għajn", is common on traditional fishing boats which are known as luzzu. They are said to protect fishermen from storms and malicious intentions.
Brazil
Brazilians generally will associate mau-olhado ("act of giving a bad look") or olho gordo ("fat eye" i.e. "gluttonous eye") with envy or jealousy on domestic and garden plants (that, after months or years of health and beauty, will suddenly weaken, wither and die, with no apparent signs of pest, after the visitation of a certain friend or relative), attractive hair and less often economic or romantic success and family harmony.
Unlike in most cultures mau-olhado is not seen to be something that risks young babies. "Pagans" or non-baptized children are instead assumed to be at risk from bruxas (witches), that have malignant intention themselves rather than just mau-olhado. It probably reflects the Galician folktales about the meigas or Portuguese magas, (witches), as Colonial Brazil was primarily settled by Portuguese people, in numbers greater than all Europeans to settle pre-independence United States. Those bruxas are interpreted to have taken the form of moths, often very dark, that disturb children at night and take away their energy. For that reason, Christian Brazilians often have amulets in the form of crucifixes around, beside or inside beds where children sleep.
Nevertheless, older children, especially boys, that fulfill the cultural ideals of behaving extremely well (for example, having no problems whatsoever in eating well a great variety of foods, being obedient and respectful toward adults, kind, polite, studious, and demonstrating no bad blood with other children or their siblings) who unexpectedly turn into problematic adolescents or adults (for example lacking good health habits, extreme laziness or lacking motivation towards their life goals, having eating disorders, or being prone to delinquency), are said to have been victims of mau-olhado coming from parents of children whose behavior was not as admirable.
Amulets that protect against mau-olhado tend to be generally resistant, mildly to strongly toxic and dark plants in specific and strategic places of a garden or the entry to a house. Those include comigo-ninguém-pode ("against-me-nobody-can"), Dieffenbachia, espada-de-são-jorge ("St. George's sword"), Sansevieria trifasciata, and Guiné ("Guinea"), Petiveria alliacea (the guinea henweed). For those lacking in space or wanting to "sanitize" specific places, they may all be planted together in a single sete ervas ("seven [lucky] herbs") pot, that will also include arruda (common rue), pimenteira (Capsicum annuum), manjericão (basil) and alecrim (rosemary). (Though the last four ones should not be used for their common culinary purposes by humans.)
Other popular amulets against evil eye include: the use of mirrors, on the outside of your home's front door, or also inside your home facing your front door; an elephant figurine with its back to the front door; and coarse salt, placed in specific places at home.
Spain and Latin America
The evil eye or Mal de Ojo has been deeply embedded in Spanish popular culture throughout its history and Spain is the origin of this superstition in Latin America.
In Mexico and Central America, infants are considered at special risk for the evil eye (see mal de ojo, above) and are often given an amulet bracelet as protection, typically with an eye-like spot painted on the amulet. Another preventive measure is allowing admirers to touch the infant or child; in a similar manner, a person wearing an item of clothing that might induce envy may suggest to others that they touch it or some other way dispel envy.
One traditional cure in Latin America involves a curandero (folk healer) sweeping a raw chicken egg over the body of a victim to absorb the power of the person with the evil eye. The egg is later broken into a glass with water and placed under the bed of the patient near the head. Sometimes it is checked immediately because the egg appears as if it has been cooked. When this happens it means that the patient did have Mal de Ojo. Somehow the Mal de Ojo has transferred to the egg and the patient immediately gets well. (Fever, pain and diarrhea, nausea/vomiting goes away instantly) In the traditional Hispanic culture of the Southwestern United States and some parts of Latin America, the egg may be passed over the patient in a cross-shaped pattern all over the body, while reciting The Lord's Prayer. The egg is also placed in a glass with water, under the bed and near the head, sometimes it is examined right away or in the morning and if the egg looks like it has been cooked then it means that they did have Mal de Ojo and the patient will start feeling better. Sometimes if the patient starts getting ill and someone knows that they had stared at the patient, usually a child, if the person who stared goes to the child and touches them, the child's illness goes away immediately so the Mal de Ojo energy is released.
In some parts of South America the act of ojear, which could be translated as to give someone the evil eye, is an involuntary act. Someone may ojear babies, animals and inanimate objects just by staring and admiring them. This may produce illness, discomfort or possibly death on babies or animals and failures on inanimate objects like cars or houses. It's a common belief that since this is an involuntary act made by people with the heavy look, the proper way of protection is by attaching a red ribbon to the animal, baby or object, in order to attract the gaze to the ribbon rather than to the object intended to be protected.
Mexico
Mal de ojo (Mal: Illness - de ojo: Of eye. "To be made ill by an eye's gaze") often occurs without the dimension of envy, but insofar as envy is a part of ojo, it is a variant of this underlying sense of insecurity and relative vulnerability to powerful, hostile forces in the environment. In her study of medical attitudes in the Santa Clara Valley of California, Margaret Clark arrives at essentially the same conclusion: "Among the Spanish-speaking folk of Sal si Puedes, the patient is regarded as a passive and innocent victim of malevolent forces in his environment. These forces may be witches, evil spirits, the consequences of poverty, or virulent bacteria that invade his body. The scapegoat may be a visiting social worker who unwittingly 'cast the evil eye' ... Mexican folk concepts of disease are based in part on the notion that people can be victimized by the careless or malicious behavior of others".
Another aspect of the mal ojo syndrome in Ixtepeji is a disturbance of the hot-cold equilibrium in the victim. According to folk belief, the bad effects of an attack result from the "hot" force of the aggressor entering the child's body and throwing it out of balance. Currier has shown how the Mexican hot-cold system is an unconscious folk model of social relations upon which social anxieties are projected. According to Currier, "the nature of Mexican peasant society is such that each individual must continuously attempt to achieve a balance between two opposing social forces: the tendency toward intimacy and that toward withdrawal. [It is therefore proposed] that the individual's continuous preoccupation with achieving a balance between 'heat' and 'cold' is a way of reenacting, in symbolic terms, a fundamental activity in social relations."
Puerto Rico
In Puerto Rico, Mal de Ojo or "Evil Eye" is believed to be caused when someone gives a wicked glare of jealousy to someone, usually when the person receiving the glare is unaware. The jealousy can be disguised into a positive aspect such as compliments or admiration. Mal de Ojo is considered a curse and illness. It is believed that without proper protection, bad luck, injury, and illness are expected to follow. Mal de Ojo impact is believed to affect speech, relationships, work, family and most notably, health. Since Mal de Ojo centers around envy and compliments, it creates fear of interacting with people that are outside of their culture. Indirect harm could be brought to them or their family. When it comes to children, they are considered to be more susceptible to Mal de Ojo and it is believed that it can weaken them, leading to illness. As a child grows every effort is taken to protect them. When diagnosing Mal de Ojo, it is important to notice the symptoms. Physical symptoms can include: loss of appetite, body weakness, stomach ache, insomnia, fever, nausea, eye infections, lack of energy, and temperament.
Environmental symptoms can include financial, family, and personal problems as simple as a car breaking down. It is important for those who believe to be aware of anything that has gone wrong because it may be linked to Mal de Ojo. Puerto Ricans are protected through the use of Azabache bracelets. Mal de Ojo can also be avoided by touching an infant when giving admiration. The most common practice of protection in Puerto Rico is the use of Azabache bracelets. These bracelets traditionally have a black or red coral amulet attached. The amulet is in the shape of a fist with a protruding index finger knuckle.
Eggs are the most common method to cure Mal De Ojo. The red string and oils also used are more common in other cultures but still used in Puerto Rico depending on the Healer, or the person who is believed to have the ability to cure those who have been targeted. Ultimately, the act of giving someone the "Evil Eye" is a rather simple process and is practiced throughout the world.
India
In the northern states of India, like the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, the evil eye is called "nazar" (meaning gaze or vision) or more commonly as Buri Nazar. A charm bracelet, tattoo or other object (Nazar battu), or a slogan (Chashme Baddoor (slogan)), may be used to ward-off the evil eye. Some truck owners write the slogan to ward off the evil eye: "buri nazar wale tera muh kala" ("O evil-eyed one, may your face turn black").
In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, people call it as 'Disti' or 'Drusti', while people of Tamil Nadu call it 'drishti' or 'kannu' (translated, means evil eye). The people of Kerala also call it “kannu”, which translates to “eye”. To remove Drishti, people follow several methods based on their culture/area. Items often used are either rock salt, red chilies, white pumpkins, oiled cloth, or lemons coated with kumkuma. People remove Drishti by rotating any one of these items and around the affected person. The person who removes it will then burn the item, or discard it in a place where others are not likely to stamp on these items. People hang pictures of fierce and scary ogres in their homes or vehicles, to ward off the evil eye.
In India, babies and newborn infants will usually have their eye adorned with kajal, or eyeliner. This would be black, as it is believed in India that black wards off the evil eye or any evil auras. The umbilical cord of babies is often preserved and cast into a metal pendant, and tied to a black string — babies can wear this as a chain, bracelet or belt—the belief, once more, is that this protects the infant from drishti. This is a practice that has been followed right from historical times. People usually remove drishti on full-moon or new-moon days, since these days are considered to be auspicious in India.
Indians often leave small patches of rock salt outside their homes, and hang arrangements of green chilies, neem leaves, and lemons on their stoop. The belief is that this will ward away the evil eye cast on families by detractors.
United States
In 1946, the American occultist Henri Gamache published a text called Terrors of the Evil Eye Exposed! (later reprinted as Protection against Evil), which offers directions to defend oneself against the evil eye.
Media and press coverage
In some cultures, both over-complimenting and envy are said to cast a curse. Since ancient times such maledictions have been collectively called the evil eye. According to the book The Evil Eye by folklorist Alan Dundes, the belief's premise is that an individual can cause harm simply by looking at another's person or property. However, protection is easy to come by with talismans that can be worn, carried, or hung in homes, most often incorporating the contours of a human eye. In Aegean countries, people with light-colored eyes are thought to be particularly powerful, and amulets in Greece and Turkey are usually blue orbs. Indians and Jews use charms with palm-forward hands with an eye in the center; Italians employ horns, phallic shapes meant to distract spell casters.
Names in various languages
In most languages, the name translates literally into English as "bad eye", "evil eye", "evil look", or just "the Eye". Some variants on this general pattern from around the world are:
In Albanian it is known as "syri i keq" (Standard and Tosk), or as "syni keq" (Gheg) meaning "bad eye". Also "mësysh" is used commonly, meaning "cast an evil eye".
In Arabic, ʿayn al-ḥasūd, , "the eye of envy". ʿAyn ḥārrah (عين حارّة) is also used, literally translating to "hot eye".
In Armenian, char atchk () "evil eye" or "bad eye". Regarding the act of giving an evil gaze, it is said (directly translated), "to give with the eye" or in Armenian, "atchkov tal".
In Azerbaijani, "Göz dəyməsi" – translating as being struck by an eye
In Chinese it is called 邪惡之眼 (Traditional Chinese characters) / 邪恶之眼 (Simplified Chinese characters) (xié è zhī yǎn, literally "evil eye") or simply 邪眼 (xié yǎn).
In Corsican it is called "l'Ochju" (The Eye).
In Dutch it is called "het boze oog", literally "the malicious eye" or "the angry eye".
In Esperanto, it is called "malica okulo" (malicious eye).
In Finnish, it's called "paha silmä" (evil/bad eye)
In French, it is named "le mauvais œil" (The bad eye)
In Galician, it is called "meigallo", from meiga, "witch" (and maybe -allo, diminutive or aumentative suffix; or contracted with either ollo, "eye"; or allo, "garlic").
In German, it is called "böser Blick", literally "evil gaze".
In Greek, to matiasma (μάτιασμα) or mati (μάτι) someone refers to the act of casting the evil eye (mati being the Greek word for eye); also: vaskania (, the Greek word for jinx)
In Hebrew, ʿáyin hā-ráʿ (, "eye of evil")
In Hindi and other languages of South Asia, (Hindi: nazar (नज़र); nazar lagna (नज़र लगना)) means to be afflicted by the evil eye. (However, it generally has no evil connotations because a doting mother's eye can supposedly also cause harm.)
In Hungarian, gonosz szem means "evil eye", but more widespread is the expression szemmelverés (lit. "beating with eye"), which refers to the supposed/alleged act of harming one by an evil look
In Irish, the term drochshúil is used for the 'evil eye', being a compound of 'droch' (bad, poor, evil, ill) and 'súil (eye). This can also be used to refer to someone with weak eyesight.
In Indonesian the word ' 'dengki' ' refers to evil eye.
In Italian, the word malocchio () refers to the evil eye.
In Japanese it is known as ("jashi").
In Kurdish, it is called "Çav pîs/Chaw pis/ چاو پیس"
In Lithuanian evil eye is known as "pikta akis", while act of evil watching is called "nužiūrėjimas" (noun), "nužiūrėti" (verb).
In Malay, it is called mata jahat, meaning literally "bad/evil eye".
In Malayalam it is known as kannu veykkuka – to cast an evil eye while "kannu peduka" means to be on the receiving end of the malefic influence. "kannu dosham" refers to a bad effect caused by an evil eye.
In Maltese it is known as "l-għajn". It is a common symbol for warding off evil intentions.
In Neapolitan it is known as "'o mma'uocchje" which translates literally into "the evil/bad/maleficent eye", which afflicts people, especially women and children who are supposedly the most vulnerable, with multiple issues and problems, stemming from pre-natal issues, miscarriages, early childhood death or sickness or death of a mother during birth, as well as afflicting women with infertility, sexual problems, early widowhood, etc., while afflicted men suffer from cancer, laziness, greed, gluttony, and other diseases, disabilities and ailments.
In Persian it is known as (injurious look/eyes causing injury) or (omen eye) "Cheshmeh Hasood", meaning Jealous eye, or "Cheshme Nazar" meaning evil eye.
In Polish it is known as "złe oko" or "złe spojrzenie".
In Portuguese, it is called "mau olhado", ou "olho gordo" (literally "fat eye"). The first expression is used in Portugal and the second one is more common in Brazil.
In Romanian, it is known as "deochi", meaning literally "un-eye".
In Russian, (durnoy glaz) means "bad/evil eye"; (sglaz) literally means "from eye".
In Sanskrit, an ancient Indo-Aryan language, it is called "drishti dosha" (दृष्टि दोष) meaning malice caused by evil eye. (But cf. "drishti (yoga)".)
In Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), it is called Urokljivo oko (Cyr. Урокљиво око). The first word is an adjective of the word urok/урок, which means spell or curse, and the second word means eye.
In Slovak, it is known as "z očí", meaning "(coming) from eyes".
In Somali, it is called "il", or "ilaaco" or "sixir" (the first two words literally meaning "eye" and the other word meaning 'black magic')
In Sinhala it is known as ().
In Spanish, mal de ojo literally means "evil from the Eye" as the name does not refer to the actual eye but to the evil that supposedly comes from it. Casting the evil eye is then echar mal de ojo, i.e. "to cast evil from the Eye".
In Berber languages(Tamazight/Tamaziɣt/ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ/ⵜⵎⵣⵗⵜ) it is called Tafust (ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵙⵜ) which means little hand
In Tagalog, it is known as ohiya or usog, which is a culture-bound syndrome where a visit by a stranger afflicts a child with sudden illness and convulsions.
In Tamil, (kan padudhal) literally means "casting an eye" (with an intention to cause harm). (kannooru) "harm from the eye"
In Trinidadian Creole it is called 'maljo', derived from the French 'mal yeux' meaning "bad eye"
In Turkish kem göz means evil eye and the cure is having a "nazar boncuğu", the nazar amulet.
In Urdu, nazar (نظر) Chashm-é bad (چشمِ بد) or Nazar-é bad (نظرِبد); nazar lagna means to be afflicted by the evil eye.
In Welsh y llygad drwg, y llygad mall, drwglygad
In Yiddish עין הרע (ayin hora עין הרע)
See also
Amulets and other protections
Azabache - Spanish and Latin American amulet used to ward off the evil eye, especially in the form of a pin placed on infants
Eyespot (mimicry) - as found in living organisms
Harmal - plant used as protection against the evil eye
Mirror armour - believed to protect not from only cold steel and arrows, but also from the evil eye
Red string (Kabbalah) - a bracelet in Judaism worn to ward off the evil eye
Jumbie beads- poisonous seeds of the Rosary Pea tree which are used to make jewelry that wards off maljo (bad eye) and evil spirits in Trinbagonian tradition
The color blue- in Trinidad and Tobago is believed to ward off the evil eye, particularly when worn as garments or accessories, as well as in indigo dye
Creatures
Balor - a character in Irish legend
Basilisk - Death glance/petrifying glance
Beholder (Dungeons & Dragons) - modern invention
Cockatrice - Death glance/petrifying glance
Medusa and Gorgon - Petrification glance, picture also used as protection from the evil eye
Petrifaction in mythology and fiction
Concepts
Eye of Providence - a symbol showing an eye surrounded by rays of light or a glory, and usually enclosed by a triangle.
Lashon hara - Jewish concept of the "evil tongue"
Matthew 6:23 "If thine eye be evil" - The evil eye as ungenerosity of spirit, hence darkness/blindness/evil itself
Rule of Three
Scopophobia - fear of being stared at
Usog - a Filipino version
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
Borthwick, E. Kerr (2001). "Socrates, Socratics, and the Word ΒΛΕΠΕΔΑΙΜΩΝ". The Classical Quarterly New Series, 51(1): pp. 297–301
Dickie, Mathew W. (January 1991). "Heliodorus and Plutarch on the Evil Eye". Classical Philology 86(1): pp. 17–29
Elliott, John H. (2015). Beware the Evil Eye: The Evil Eye in the Bible and the Ancient World: Volume 1: Introduction, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Eugene, OR: Cascade.
Elliott, John H. (2016). Beware the Evil Eye: The Evil Eye in the Bible and the Ancient World: Volume 2: Greece and Rome. Eugene, OR: Cascade.
Elworthy, Frederick Thomas (1895). The Evil Eye: An Account of this Ancient & Widespread Superstition. John Murray, London, ; reprinted in 2004 as: The Evil Eye: The Classic Account of an Ancient Superstition Dover Publications, Mineola, New York, (online text )
Gifford, Edward S. (1958). The Evil Eye: Studies in the Folklore of Vision. Macmillan, New York,
Jones, Louis C. (1951). "The Evil Eye among European-Americans". Western Folklore 10(1): pp. 11–25
Limberis, Vasiliki (April 1991). "The Eyes Infected by Evil: Basil of Caesarea's Homily". The Harvard Theological Review 84(2): pp. 163–184.
Lykiardopoulos, Amica (1981). "The Evil Eye: Towards an Exhaustive Study". Folklore 92(2): pp. 221–230
Meerloo, Joost Abraham Maurits (1971.) Intuition and the Evil Eye: The Natural History of a Superstition. Servire, Wassenaar, Netherlands, .
Shamash, Jack (2020). The Evil Eye: The Magic of Envy and Destruction. Foxy Books, London. .
Slone, Kathleen Warner and Dickie, M. W. (1993). "A Knidian Phallic Vase from Corinth". Hesperia 62(4): pp. 483–505. . .
External links
"The Evil Eye" at Fortean Times
The Evil Eye by Frederick Thomas Elworthy
Evil Eye by Hakim Bey
"What is an 'Ayin Hara' (evil eye)?" – "Ask the Rabbi" at Ohr Somayach
Meaning of the Evil Eye Myth
Amulets
Curses
Eyes in culture
Fictional body parts
Folklore
Mediterranean
Eye
Occultism (Islam)
Superstitions of Iran
Superstitions of Italy
Superstitions
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251796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20battles%20of%20the%20Spanish%E2%80%93American%20War | List of battles of the Spanish–American War | During the Spanish–American War, the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Navy fought 30 significant battles against the Spanish Army and Spanish Navy. Of these, 27 occurred in the Caribbean theater and three in the Pacific theater. The Caribbean theater consisted of two campaigns — the Puerto Rico campaign, which had ten battles, and the Cuba campaign, with 17 battles — while the Pacific theater had one campaign — the Philippine campaign, with two battles — and the capture of Guam.
Overview
The United States Navy battleship was mysteriously sunk in Havana harbor on 15 February 1898; political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed the administration of Republican President William McKinley into a war that he had wished to avoid. Spain promised multiple times that it would reform the government of Cuba, but never delivered. The United States sent an ultimatum to Spain demanding that it surrender control of Cuba on 20 April. After the ultimatum was sent, Madrid declared war on 23 April and Washington responded with its own declaration two days later.
The main issue was Cuban independence; the ten-week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. After the declaration of war, the U.S. Navy blockaded ports such as Havana and Cardenas. The Spanish attempted to lift the blockades on Cardenas and Matanzas, finally succeeding after failing once at Cardenas. Commodore Dewey successfully destroyed the Spanish Pacific Fleet in Manila Bay on May 1, but failed to land troops. The Navy also blockaded Puerto Rico and bombarded San Juan, but the Spanish attempted to lift this blockade, succeeding on the second attempt in June. The U.S. Marines also cut telegraph lines under the bay of Cienfuegos, but suffered heavy losses from Spanish fire. The U.S. also captured the port of Guantánamo Bay after a four-day battle, which ended on June 10.
U.S. expeditionary forces landed in Cuba on 22 June and skirmished successfully at Las Guasimas two days later. Meanwhile, the island of Guam was "captured" by the Americans, which consisted of raising of the American flag. The U.S. also attempted to land forces near Trinidad, but were repulsed by Spanish forces. The U.S. forces captured San Juan Heights, which overlooked Santiago de Cuba, after two battles at San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill, which was preceded by a smaller battle on the San Juan Hill's right flank at El Caney. The Spanish also attempted to lift the blockade on the port of Manzanillo twice, but failed both times. The Spanish fleet also attempted to escape Santiago harbor, but was destroyed by U.S. gunboats and armored cruisers. After this victory, U.S. forces laid siege to Santiago de Cuba for 14 days, until the Spanish forces surrendered, but there were several skirmishes afterwards. The Spanish managed to cut the United States blockade at Manzanillo, but the Americans sunk two Spanish ships at Nipe Bay. The Americans also tried to land at Mani-Mani, which was west of Havana, but were repulsed by the Spanish.
On 23 July, Americans landed close to the port of Ponce, Puerto Rico. Two days later, there was a small skirmish at Yauco, which was won by the Americans. The Spanish retreated and attempted to destroy rail lines to Ponce, but failed to. On 5 August, American forces marched into the town of Guayama, but the Spanish deserted the town several hours earlier. From 8 to 9 August, an American battalion captured the mountain at Coamo, Puerto Rico, on the road to the port of Ponce. At the same time, there was an inconclusive battle at Fajardo, which led to the capture and desertion of a lighthouse. One day later, the Americans captured Silva Heights. The Americans also landed near Mayaguez, and captured the town with no resistance. At the Battle of Asomante, the US forces took Asomante and captured many Spanish prisoners. At the same time, American forces also captured Manila. These two battles led to an armistice agreement, which quickly led to the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Spanish–American War.
The 1898 Treaty of Paris, which was the result of the American victory in the war, was negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. which allowed it temporary direct control of Cuba and ceded ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippine islands. The cession of the Philippines involved payment of $20 million ($ today) to Spain in order to cover the Spanish infrastructure. The U.S. installed a military government in Cuba immediately after the Treaty of Paris, and eventually let it become an independent republic in 1902. The Philippines also rebelled against U.S. control, which led to the Philippine–American War lasting from 1899 to 1902. The Spanish also sold the rest of their Pacific islands to Germany under the German–Spanish Treaty.
Pacific Theater
Philippine campaign
Capture of Guam
Caribbean Theater
Cuba campaign
Puerto Rico campaign
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Spanamwar.com: Spanish–American War Centennial website
Conflicts in 1898
Spanish-American War
1898 in Cuba
1898 in Puerto Rico
1898 in the Philippines
1898 in the Spanish Empire
1898 in the Spanish East Indies
1898 in the Spanish West Indies
1898 in the United States | [
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251799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine%20embroidery | Machine embroidery | Machine embroidery is an embroidery process whereby a sewing machine or embroidery machine is used to create patterns on textiles. It is used commercially in product branding, corporate advertising, and uniform adornment. It is also used in the fashion industry to decorate garments and apparel. Machine embroidery is used by hobbyists and crafters to decorate gifts, clothing, and home decor. Examples include designs on quilts, pillows, and wall hangings.
There are multiple types of machine embroidery. Free-motion sewing machine embroidery uses a basic zigzag sewing machine. Designs are done manually. Most commercial embroidery is done with link stitch embroidery. In link stitch embroidery, patterns may be manually or automatically controlled. Link Stitch embroidery is also known as chenille embroidery, and was patented by Pulse Microsystems in 1994. More modern computerized machine embroidery uses an embroidery machine or sewing/embroidery machine that is controlled with a computer that embroiders stored patterns. These machines may have multiple heads and threads.
History
Before computers were affordable, most machine embroidery was completed by punching designs on paper tape that then ran through an embroidery machine. One error could ruin an entire design, forcing the creator to start over.
Machine embroidery dates back to 1964, when Tajima started to manufacture and sell TAJIMA Multi-head Automatic Embroidery machines.
In 1973 Tajima introduced the TMB Series 6-needle (6 color) full-automatic color-change embroidery machine. A few years later, in 1978, Tajima started manufacturing the TMBE Series Bridge Type Automatic Embroidery machines. These machines introduced electronic 6-needle automatic color change technology.
In 1980 the first computerized embroidery machines were introduced to the home market. Wilcom introduced the first computer graphics embroidery design system to run on a minicomputer. Melco, an international distribution network formed by Randal Melton and Bill Childs, created the first embroidery sample head for use with large Schiffli looms. These looms spanned several feet across and produced lace patches and large embroidery patterns. The sample head allowed embroiderers to avoid manually sewing the design sample and saved production time. Subsequently, it became the first computerized embroidery machine marketed to home sewers.
The economic policy of the Reagan presidency helped propel Melco to the top of the market. At the Show of the Americas in 1980, Melco unveiled the Digitrac, a digitizing system for embroidery machines. The digitized design was composed at six times the size of the embroidered final product. The Digitrac consisted of a small computer,mounted on an X and Y axis on a large white board. It sold for $30,000. The original single-needle sample head sold for $10,000 and included a 1" paper-tape reader and 2 fonts. The digitizer marked common points in the design to create elaborate fill and satin stitch combinations.
In 1982, Tajima introduced the world's first electronic chenille embroidery machine, called the TMCE Series Multi-head Electronic Chenille Embroidery Machine. In the same year, they developed the automatic frame changer, a dedicated apparatus for rolled textile embroidery. Also in 1982, Pulse Microsystems introduced Stitchworks, the first PC based embroidery software, and the first software based on outlines rather than stitches. This was monumental to decorators, in that it allowed them to scale and change the properties and parts of their designs easily, on the computer. Designs were output to paper tape, which was read by the embroidery machine. Stitchworks was sold worldwide by Macpherson.
Melco patented the ability to sew circles with a satin stitch, as well as arched lettering generated from a keyboard. An operator digitized the design using similar techniques to punching, transferring the results to a 1" paper tape or later to a floppy disk. This design would then be run on the embroidery machine, which stitched out the pattern. Wilcom enhanced this technology in 1982 with the introduction of the first multi-user system, which allowed more than one person to work on the embroidery process, streamlining production times.
In 1983, Tajima created the TMLE Series Multi-Head Electronic Lock Stitch Chenille Embroidery machine, followed by the TMEF Series 9-needle Type Electronic Embroidery Machine in 1984. In 1986, Tajima introduced the world's first sequin embroidery machine, enabling designers to combine sequin embroidery with plain embroidery.
In 1987, Pulse Microsystems introduced a digital asset management application called DDS, which was a design librarian for embroidery machines. This made it more efficient for machine operators to access their designs. In 1988 Tajima designed the TMLE-D5 series embroidery machines, with a pair arrangement of lock-stitch-handle embroidery heads, which were capable of sewing multiple threads.
Brother Industries entered the embroidery industry after several computerized embroidery companies contracted it to provide sewing heads. Pulse Microsystems developed a software for them called PG1. PG1 had a tight integration with the embroidery machine using high level protocol, enabling the machine to pull designs from software, rather than having the software push designs to the machine. This approach is still used today. Melco was acquired by Saurer in 1989.
The early 1990s were quiet for machine embroidery, but Tajima introduced a 12 needle machine into their series along with a noise reduction mechanism.
In 1995, Tajima added a multi-color (6-color) type to chenille embroidery machines, and announced the ability to mix embroidery machines with plain chenille embroidery. They also began sales of the TLFD Series Laser-cut Embroidery Machines. In 1996, Pulse Microsystems introduced the computational geometry based simulation of hand created chenille using a spiral effect. Following this in 1997, Tajima introduced 15-needle machines, in response to the "multi-color-age".
In the late 1990s, Pulse Microsystems introduced networking to embroidery machines. It added a box, which allowed them to network and then pull designs from a central server. It also provided machine feedback, and allowed machines to be optically isolated to protect machines in an industrial environment. Since then, computerized machine embroidery has grown in popularity as costs have fallen for computers, software, and embroidery machines.
In the year 2000, Pulse Microsystems introduced Stitchport, which is a server based embroidery engine for embroidery in a browser. This allowed for the factory automation of letter creation. Although they were not yet ready for it, this transformed the apparel industry by allowing manufacturers, stores, and end users access to customized versions of the mass-produced garments and goods they had been buying throughout their lives, with no margin of error.
In 2001, Tajima created heater-wire sewing machines, which were innovative, combination machines.
In an environment that was finally ready for the individuality that mass-customization allowed, the principles developed for Stitchport were adapted in 2008 for the creation of PulseID. PulseID allows for the automation of personalization, even on the largest industrial scale.
In 2013, Tajima released the TMAR-KC Series Multi-Head Emrboidery Machine, equipped with a digitally controlled presser foot.
The major embroidery machine companies and software developers are continuing to adapt their commercial systems to market them for home use, including Janome, RNK, Floriani, Tacony Corporation and many more. As costs have fallen for computers, software and home market embroidery machines, the popularity of machine embroidery as a hobby has risen, and as such, many machine manufacturers sell their own lines of embroidery patterns. In addition, many individuals and independent companies also sell embroidery designs, and there are free designs available on the internet.
Types of machine embroidery
Free-motion machine embroidery
In free-motion machine embroidery, embroidered designs are created by using a basic zigzag sewing machine. As this type of machine is used primarily for tailoring, it lacks the automated features of a specialized machine. The first zigzag sewing machine was patented by Helen Blanchard. To create free-motion machine embroidery, the embroiderer runs the machine and skillfully moves tightly hooped fabric under the needle to create a design. The "feed dogs" or machine teeth are lowered or covered, and the embroiderer moves the fabric manually. The embroiderer develops the embroidery manually, using the machine's settings for running stitch and fancier built-in stitches. A machine's zigzag stitch can create thicker lines within a design or be used to create a border. As this is a manual process rather than a digital reproduction, any pattern created using free-motion machine embroidery is unique and cannot be exactly reproduced, unlike with computerized embroidery.
Cornely hand-guided embroidery
This embroidery inherited the name of the Cornely machine. Created in the 19th century to imitate the Beauvais stitch (chain stitch), it is still used today, especially in the fashion industry. Cornely embroidery is a so-called hand-guided embroidery. The operator directs his machine according to the pattern. The fabric is moved by a crank located under the machine. The Cornely also has a universal drive system controlled by a handle. Some models can embroider sequins, cords, braids, etc. There are also Cornely machines performing a classic straight stitch.
Computerized machine embroidery
Most modern embroidery machines are computer controlled and specifically engineered for embroidery. Industrial and commercial embroidery machines and combination sewing-embroidery machines have a hooping or framing system that holds the framed area of fabric taut under the sewing needle and moves it automatically to create a design from a pre-programmed digital embroidery pattern.
Depending on its capabilities, the machine will require varying degrees of user input to read and sew embroidery designs. Sewing-embroidery machines generally have only one needle and require the user to change thread colors during the embroidery process. Multi-needle industrial machines are generally threaded prior to running the design and do not require re-threading. These machines require the user to input the correct color change sequence before beginning to embroider. Some can trim and change colors automatically.
The computerized machine embroidery process
Machine embroidery is a multi-step process with many variables that impact the quality of the final product, including the type of fabric to be embellished, design size, stabilizer choice and type of thread utilized. The basic steps for creating embroidery with a computerized embroidery machine are as follows:
Create an embroidery design file or purchase a stitchable machine embroidery file. Creation may take hours depending on the complexity of the design, and the software can be costly.
Edit the design and/or combine with other designs.
Export the design file to a (proprietary machine) embroidery file that mostly just contains commands for the embroidery machine. If you bought such a file, you may have to convert the file.
Load the embroidery file into the embroidery machine, making sure it is the correct format for the machine and that the stitched design will fit in the appropriate hoop.
Determine and mark the location of embroidery placement on the fabric to be embellished.
Secure the fabric in a hoop with the appropriate stabilizer, and place it on the machine.
Center the needle over the start point of the design.
Start and monitor the embroidery machine, watching for errors and issues. Troubleshoot any problems as they arise. The operator should have plenty of needles, bobbins, a can of air (or small air compressor), a small brush, and scissors..
Remove the completed design from machine. Separate the fabric from the hoop and trim the stabilizer, loose threads, etc.
List of machine embroidery design file extensions
References
Embroidery | [
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251802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.%20H.%20Haggin | B. H. Haggin | Bernard H. Haggin (December 29, 1900 – May 29, 1987) was an American journalist and music critic. After beginning his career in 1923 as a freelance writer, he was music critic of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle from 1934 to 1937 and of The Nation from 1936 to 1957. He later wrote for The New York Herald Tribune, The Hudson Review, Musical America, The New Republic, The Yale Review and other publications. He was known for his ability to write short, clear reviews, but his rigid views on certain artists garnered criticism.
Haggin wrote twelve books on music and two on ballet, including the first general guide to recorded classical music.
Early life
Haggin was born in New York City on December 29, 1900, the son of Byron Haggin and his wife Dorothea. He went to school in Manhattan and, too young for conscription in World War I, completed his high school education in 1918. He went on to the City College of New York, where he graduated in 1922. The following year he published his first music review.
Career
Haggin was a freelance writer, reviewing music and dance, until 1934, when he was appointed music critic of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, retaining the post until 1937. From 1936 to 1957 he was music critic of the weekly magazine The Nation. The American National Biography says of his work there: "Not given to self-doubt, Haggin attributed the reputation he earned in the Nation to 'a musician's ear, and an ability to assemble words in orderly, clear statements'". His ability to write short, clear reviews was an advantage at a time when the discursive columns of an earlier generation of critics such as William J. Henderson, James Huneker and Deems Taylor were less sought after by editors. Haggin said in a 1980 interview, that his "musician's ear and ability to assemble words" remained the equipment with which, "as I continued, I heard more and wrote better". In the view of The New York Times, despite Haggin's claim, his later writing was inferior to his early work.
Haggin's prose was admired and sometimes praised by many of his contemporaries, but his rigid views were less well received by his fellow critics. His obituarist in The New York Times wrote:
Later in his career, Haggin contributed a column about music on the radio for The New York Herald Tribune and wrote for The Hudson Review, Musical America, The New Republic, and The Yale Review, among other publications. He wrote twelve books on music and two on ballet. He was the author of the first general guide to recorded classical music, Music on Records (1938), later expanded as The Listener's Musical Companion (1956, 1967 and 1971).
Haggin died in Manhattan on May 29, 1987, after a short illness, at the age of 86. He was unmarried.
Books
Books listed in chronological order.
A Book of the Symphony (New York: Oxford University Press, 1937)
Music on Records (New York: Oxford University Press, 1938); revised as: Music on Records: a New Guide to the Music, the Performances, the Recordings (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1945)
Music for the Man who Enjoys 'Hamlet''' (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1944)Conversations with Toscanini (New York: Doubleday, 1959)The Toscanini Musicians Knew (New York: Horizon Press, 1967); 2nd edition 1980 The New Listener's Companion and Record Guide (New York: Horizon Press, 1967); 2nd edition: 1968; 3rd edition: 1971 ; 4th edition: 1974 ; 5th edition 1978 )A Decade of Music (New York: Horizon Press, 1973 )Music Observed (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964); reissued as 35 Years of Music (New York: Horizon Press, 1974 )Music and Ballet, 1973-1983 (New York: Horizon Press, 1984 )Arturo Toscanini: Contemporary Recollections of the Maestro, containing reprints of two titles: Conversations with Toscanini and The Toscanini musicians knew'' (New York: Da Capo, 1989)
References
External links
"Music: The Hamlet of B. H. Haggin" (Review of "Music for the Man Who Enjoys Hamlet") (access available with subscription)
1900 births
1987 deaths
American information and reference writers
American music critics
Opera critics
20th-century American non-fiction writers | [
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] |
251804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20King | Philip King | Philip or Phil King may refer to:
Philip Gidley King (1758–1808), British colonial administrator
Phillip Parker King (1791–1856), son of the above, Naval officer and Australian politician
Philip King (Australian politician) (1817–1904), named Philip Gidley King after his grandfather above, Australian politician
Philip King (American football) (1872–1938), American football player, coach, and lawyer
Philip Burke King (1903–1987), American geologist
Phil King (cricketer) (1915–1970), English cricketer
Philip King (playwright) (1904–1979), British playwright and actor
Philip King (historian) (1925–2019), American Roman Catholic priest, historian, and academic
Phil King (American football) (1936–1973), American football player
Philip King (musician) (born 1952), Irish musician, film maker, and broadcaster
Philip King (priest) (1603–1667), English academic and Anglican churchman
Phil King (Texas politician) (born 1956), American politician and jurist
Phil King (musician) (born 1960), English bass guitarist
Phil King (footballer) (born 1967), British footballer
Felipe VI (born 1968), King of Spain
Philippe of Belgium (born 1960), King of Belgium
See also
Phillip King (disambiguation) | [
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251815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Once%20More%2C%20with%20Feeling%20%28Buffy%20the%20Vampire%20Slayer%29 | Once More, with Feeling (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) | "Once More, with Feeling" is the seventh episode of the sixth season of the supernatural drama television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003) and the only one in the series performed as a musical. It was written and directed by the show's creator, Joss Whedon, and originally aired on UPN in the United States on November 6, 2001.
"Once More, with Feeling" explores changes in the relationships of the main characters, using the plot device that a demon—credited as "Sweet" but unnamed in the episode—compels the people of Sunnydale to break into song at random moments to express hidden truths. The title of the episode comes from a line sung by Sweet; once the characters have revealed their truths and face the consequences of hearing each other's secrets, he challenges them to "say you're happy now, once more, with feeling".
All of the regular cast performed their own vocals, although two actors were given minimal singing at their request. "Once More, with Feeling" is the most technically complex episode in the series, as extra voice and dance training for the cast was interspersed with the production of four other Buffy episodes. It was Joss Whedon's first attempt at writing music, and different styles—from 1950s sitcom theme music to rock opera—express the characters' secrets in specific ways. The episode was well received critically upon airing, specifically for containing the humor and wit to which fans had become accustomed. The musical format allowed characters to stay true to their natures while they struggled to overcome deceit and miscommunication, fitting with the sixth season's themes of growing up and facing adult responsibilities. It is considered one of the most effective and popular episodes of the series, and—prior to a financial dispute in 2007—was shown in theaters with the audience invited to sing along.
Background
Throughout the series Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), in her role as the Vampire Slayer, is assisted by her close friends, who refer to themselves as the "Scooby Gang". These include Xander Harris (Nicholas Brendon), a young man without particular strengths or talents, but devoted to Buffy and her calling, and Willow Rosenberg (Alyson Hannigan), a young woman who has grown from a shy but gifted student into a strong woman and powerful user of magic. They are mentored by Buffy's "Watcher", Rupert Giles (Anthony Stewart Head), a paternal figure since the first season, when Buffy moved to Sunnydale after her parents' divorce. Xander is engaged to Anya Jenkins (Emma Caulfield), a former vengeance demon who has become human. They have struggled with disclosing their engagement to the rest of the group and individually doubt their impending marriage.
Buffy died at the end of the fifth season ("The Gift"), sacrificing herself in place of her younger sister Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg) in order to save the world. In the first episode of the sixth season, Willow, believing Buffy to be in Hell, used magic to bring her back from the grave. Buffy was in fact at peace, in what she thinks was heaven, but she has kept this a secret from her friends. Since her resurrection, Buffy has been lost and without inspiration to perform her duties as a Slayer. Willow is romantically involved with Tara Maclay (Amber Benson), a powerful but ethical witch. Tara has previously expressed concern at Willow's use of her emergent magical powers for trivial or personal matters. In the preceding episode ("All the Way"), Willow cast a spell to make Tara forget an argument about her abuse of magic. In the same episode, Dawn, who has been stealing from stores, including Anya's magic shop, lies to Buffy and goes on a clandestine and almost deadly date. Left to take care of Dawn after the death of their mother Joyce Summers (Kristine Sutherland) in the fifth season ("The Body"), Buffy has come to depend more heavily on Giles. Following Dawn's date, Buffy asks Giles to shoulder responsibility for disciplining her, much to his discomfort.
Buffy's former nemesis is Spike (James Marsters), a vampire. In the fourth season The Initiative, a secret military organization whose mission is to evaluate and eliminate demonic beings, rendered Spike harmless by implanting a microchip in his head that causes him intense pain when he attacks humans. However, the chip does not affect him when he harms demons and he now often fights on Buffy's side, after at first fighting just for the pleasure of brawling. His motivations changed when, in the fifth season, Spike realized he had fallen in love with Buffy. She initially rejected him, but just before her death they had begun to form a friendship of sorts. She has been confiding in him; prior to this episode, he is the only one to whom Buffy has revealed that she was in heaven.
Throughout Buffy the Vampire Slayer, music serves as a narrative tool, integral to character development and action. The mood is set by music, characters discuss it, and writers use it to emphasize differences between generations. In an essay on the use of music in the series, Jacqueline Bach writes that in conjunction with the sixth season themes of growing up, "Once More, with Feeling" gives music a central role instead of keeping it in the background.
Plot
When Buffy is on patrol, she laments in song about how uninspired her life has become ("Going Through the Motions"). The next morning at the Magic Box, the gang reveal that they also sang that evening. Led by Giles, the gang theorizes about the cause of the singing; they sense no immediate danger but agree that by working together they can overcome anything ("I've Got a Theory"/"Bunnies"/"If We're Together"). Buffy learns that the whole town is affected when she looks outside the shop to see a large group (led by series writer and producer David Fury) singing and dancing about how a dry-cleaning service got their stains out ("The Mustard").
Tara and Willow leave to "research" at home, but dally along the way while Tara muses about how much Willow has improved her life ("Under Your Spell"). The next morning, Xander and Anya perform a duet about their secret annoyances with each other and their respective doubts about their impending marriage ("I'll Never Tell"). They realize that the songs are bringing out hidden secrets, and later insist to Giles that something evil is to blame. As they argue, they walk past a woman (series writer and producer Marti Noxon) protesting a parking ticket ("The Parking Ticket"). That evening, Buffy visits Spike, who angrily tells Buffy to leave him alone if she will not love him ("Rest in Peace").
Dawn tells Tara she is glad that Tara and Willow have made up after their argument. Since Tara has no recollection of an argument, she suspects that Willow has used magic to alter her memory. She goes to the Magic Box to consult a book, leaving Dawn alone. Dawn starts to bemoan that no one seems to notice her ("Dawn's Lament"), but is soon seized by a group of minions. They take Dawn to The Bronze, where her attempt to escape transforms into an interpretive dance with them ("Dawn's Ballet") before she meets Sweet (Hinton Battle), a zoot suit-wearing, tap-dancing, singing demon. He tells Dawn that he has come to Sunnydale in response to her "invocation", and he will take her to his dimension to make her his bride when his visit is complete ("What You Feel").
At the Magic Box, Giles recognizes that he must stand aside if Buffy is to face her responsibilities in caring for Dawn instead of relying on him ("Standing") and Tara finds a picture of the forget-me-not flower Willow used to cast a spell on her in a book of magic. Giles and Tara separately resolve to leave the people they love, respectively Buffy and Willow — Giles wants to leave Buffy for her own good, while Tara wants to leave Willow because she has become horrified by Willow's magical manipulation of their relationship ("Under Your Spell"/"Standing" (reprise)). Captured by Spike outside the store, one of Sweet's minions challenges Buffy to rescue Dawn from Sweet at The Bronze. Giles forbids the gang to assist Buffy, so she goes alone, despite having no will to do so; eventually Giles and the Scoobies change their minds and leave to catch up. Although Spike initially thinks that things would be better for him if Buffy was dead, he also changes his mind and decides to help Buffy; Sweet opines that Buffy is drawn to danger ("Walk Through the Fire").
Meeting Sweet at The Bronze, Buffy offers a deal to Sweet: she will take her sister's place if she cannot kill him. When asked by Sweet what she thinks about life, Buffy gives her pessimistic take on its meaning ("Something to Sing About"). When the others arrive, she divulges that Willow took her from heaven, and Willow reacts with horror at realizing what she has done. Upon divulging this truth, Buffy gives up on singing and dances so frenetically that she begins to smoke — on the verge of combusting as Sweet's other victims have been shown to do — until Spike stops her, telling her that the only way to go forward is to just keep living her life. Xander then reveals that he, not Dawn, called Sweet, hoping he would be shown a happy ending for his marriage plans. Sweet, after releasing Xander from the obligation to be Sweet's "bride", tells the group how much fun they have been ("What You Feel" (reprise)) and disappears. The Scoobies realize that their relationships have been changed irreversibly by the secrets revealed in their songs ("Where Do We Go from Here?"). Spike leaves The Bronze, but Buffy follows him out, and they kiss ("Coda").
Production and writing
Joss Whedon had wanted to make a musical episode since the start of the series. This was heightened during the fifth season when he hosted a Shakespeare reading at his house, to which the cast was invited. They began drinking and singing, demonstrating to Whedon that certain cast members had musical talents. Whedon knew he would have to write an entire score, which would take weeks or months. During the first three seasons of Buffy, he was unable to take more than two weeks off at a time, and the constraints of writing and directing the show precluded him from putting forth the effort of preparing a musical. Whedon spoke to the show's producer, Gareth Davies, about his idea; they agreed that a musical episode would be written.
Whedon spent six months writing the music for "Once More, with Feeling". When he returned after the end of the fifth season, he presented Davies with a script and CD, complete with notated and orchestrated music, which Davies found "mind-boggling". The actors were initially bewildered; in 2012, James Marsters commented that "it's obvious now that they were good songs but the thing was Joss and his wife Kai, they don't sing very well. And they don't play piano very well. The songs sounded really cheesy and horrible... We were saying, 'Joss, you're ruining our careers.'"
Preparing for the episode was physically difficult for some of the cast members, most of whom had little experience singing and dancing. They spent three months in voice training. Two choreographers worked with Whedon and the cast on dance sequences. Michelle Trachtenberg (Dawn), who is trained in ballet, requested a dance sequence in lieu of a significant singing part, and Alyson Hannigan (Willow), according to Whedon, begged him not to give her many lines. Sarah Michelle Gellar (Buffy) told the BBC that "It took something like 19 hours of singing and 17 hours of dancing in between shooting four other episodes" and she was so anxious about singing that she "hated every moment of it". When Whedon suggested using a voice double for her, however, she said, "I basically started to cry and said, 'You mean someone else is going to do my big emotional turning point for the season?' In the end, it was an incredible experience and I'm glad I did it. And I never want to do it again." Davies was so impressed with Hinton Battle's performance on Broadway in The Wiz that he asked Battle to play the demon Sweet. Battle, a three-time Tony-winner, wore prosthetic make-up for the first time to give him a demonic red face. Sweet was portrayed as "slick", smooth and stylish; in contrast, most demons on the series were designed to be crude and ugly. The set for The Bronze was used frequently throughout the series, but stairs were built from the stage to maximize floor space for Buffy's dance.
Running eight minutes longer than any in the series, the episode was also the most technical and complex. Whedon, who has stated this is one of his favorite Buffy episodes, used a widescreen letterboxed format for filming (the only episode in the series to get this treatment), different lighting to bring out the sets more vibrantly, and long takes for shooting—including a complicated shot with a full conversation, a song, and two choreographed dances that took 21 attempts to get right. These were designed to give viewers all the clues they needed to establish all the nuances of the relationships between characters. Davies commented that the intricacies of filming this episode were "infinitely more complicated than a regular Buffy" episode, and Whedon stated in the DVD commentary that he was ambitious to prove what television is capable of, saying "it just depends how much you care". UPN, the television network that aired Buffys last two seasons, promoted the episode by displaying Gellar's face on billboards with music notes over her eyes, and held a special premiere event. Network president Dean Valentine remarked he thought it was "one of the best episodes of television I ever saw in my life".
Critics hailed the episode as successful in telling a complex story about all the characters in a unique way, while retaining the series' effective elements of writing and character development. Throughout the show—as in the rest of the series—the characters self-consciously address their own dialogue and actions. Anya describes her own duet "I'll Never Tell" as "a retro pastiche that's never gonna be a breakaway pop hit". With a characteristic dry demeanor, Giles explains that he overheard the information about Sunnydale residents spontaneously combusting as he was eavesdropping upon the police taking "witness arias". In her opening number, "Going Through the Motions", Buffy sings that she feels as though she is playing a part: "nothing here is real, nothing here is right". The song introduces the character's emotional state but also removes the barrier between the actor and the audience, as Gellar the actor portrays Buffy, who feels she is merely playing the part of the Slayer. This hints to the audience that the episode's musical format is strange to the actors and characters. According to Buffy essayist Richard Albright, the lack of polish among cast members' singing voices added to the authenticity of their breaking out into song for the first time in the series. Whedon included self-conscious dialogue and references about the characters being in a musical and showed their reluctance toward song and dance, so that the audience would feel more comfortable with the improbability of such a thing happening on the show.
Themes
The dynamic nature of the characters was a unique element of writing in the series at the time. Once they were established in the twelve episodes of the first season, characters began to change and relationships were developed in the second. This continued through the series to the point of unpredictability that sometimes became unsettling to fans. Buffy essayist Marguerite Krause asserts that the monsters and demons faced by the Scoobies are thin symbolism for the show's true focus: relationships and how to maintain or ruin them. Common among most of these relationships—romantic, platonic, and familial—is, according to Krause, a "failure to communicate, lack of trust, [and the] inability to envision or create a viable future". Miscommunication is worsened or sustained through multiple episodes and seasons, leading to overwhelming misunderstanding and critical turning points for the characters, some of whom do not recover.
"Once More, with Feeling" propelled the story arc for season six by allowing characters to confess previously taboo issues to themselves and each other. Whedon commented that he was "obsessive about progressing a plot in a song, about saying things we haven't said", comparing the musical theater format to the fourth-season episode "Hush", in which characters begin communicating when they stop talking. According to Buffy essayist Zoe-Jane Playdon, earlier episodes' "false saccharine behaviour" impedes the characters so crucially that it summons a demon to force them to be honest. The consequences in the episode of concealing truth, spontaneous combustion, is an allusion to Bleak House by Charles Dickens—of whom Whedon is a fan—where characters also face immolation for being deceitful. For Buffy, however, truth is slow in coming, as she continues to lie to the Scoobies, claiming to forget what she sang about in the graveyard during "Going Through the Motions". Buffy continues her charade in the chorus number "If We're Together", beginning the song by persuading others to join in one by one, as if each is convinced that she is still invested and in charge, and their strength as a group is infallible. Although she asks in verse "Apocalypse / We've all been there / The same old trips / Why should we care?", all the Scoobies join her, including Giles despite his suspicions that Buffy is no longer interested in her life.
Secrets reveal themselves steadily throughout the episode. Xander fears that his future marriage will turn him into an argumentative drunk like his father. He attempts to avoid his fears through the song "I'll Never Tell", singing "'coz there's nothing to tell", after summoning Sweet to Sunnydale to show him that he and Anya will be happy. Amid the various annoyances Xander and Anya express through this song, some verses are clear-sighted observations of behavior, such as Anya's accusation that Xander—once in love with Buffy—uses Buffy as a mother figure to hide behind. Anya also avoids the truth by burying herself in wedding plans without thinking critically about what being married will entail; instead she considers Xander an accessory to her desired lifestyle. Of all the characters, Anya is the most preoccupied with the style of singing and songs, demanding to know if Spike sang "a breakaway pop hit, or a book number", and asking Dawn if the pterodactyl she facetiously says she gave birth to also broke into song. Anya and Xander's duet is the only song in the episode to address the audience directly. During the long single-shot scene when she and Xander talk over each other insisting to Giles that evil must be at play, Anya refers to the audience, saying "It was like we were being watched ... Like there was a wall missing ... in our apartment ... Like there were only three walls and not a fourth wall." Albright asserts that Anya's constant preoccupation with her and others' performances indicates that she has serious doubts about her future supporting role as Xander's wife.
Giles' truth, according to Whedon, is that he realizes he must not "fight my kid's battles or my kid will never grow up", which he sings in "Standing" while he throws knives at Buffy as part of her training. Whedon remarked that this touch "is the kind of complete turnaround that is a staple of the Buffy universe". Tara's heartfelt love song also has an ironic subtext; although she appears to mean that she is fulfilled by her relationship with Willow, the lyrics include multiple allusions to Willow working her manipulative will over Tara, overlaid with Tara's euphoric singing about her pleasure in their union. In Sex and the Slayer, Lorna Jowett calls the song between Willow and Tara the transformational event in their relationship, from Tara's subservient bearing towards Willow, into a relationship of equals. Two Buffy essayists note that Willow and Giles sing together at the start of the episode, but later Tara and Giles share a duet to express the diminished part each plays in their respective relationships.
Although "Once More, with Feeling" allows all the characters to confess truthfully, with the exception of Willow, it does not resolve the behavior that demanded confession in the first place. At the end of the episode, Buffy kisses Spike, initiating a romance that she hides from her friends. Their relationship lasts until the end of the series, marked for a time by Buffy's loathing of him because he has no soul. Her relationship with Spike, however, allows her to feel lust and attraction, which she yearns for after being pulled back from a heavenly dimension. In The Psychology of Joss Whedon, Mikhail Lubyansky writes that, although Buffy's first step toward re-engaging with her life is telling the Scoobies the truth in the song "Something to Sing About", she does not find meaning again until the end of the season. In his essay "A Kantian Analysis of Moral Judgment in Buffy the Vampire Slayer", Scott Stroud explains that Buffy, as the central character throughout the series, is torn between her desires and her duty, in a Kantian illustration of free will vs. predeterminism, symbolized by her responsibility as a Slayer and her adolescent impulses. In earlier seasons, this takes the form of simpler pleasures such as dating and socializing, interspersed with defeating evil forces. It reaches a climax in the ultimate sacrifice when Buffy offers to die to save the world. However, "Once More, with Feeling", according to Stroud, is the turning point at which she begins to face her responsibility to the community, her friends and her family. Not only does she continue her Slaying despite a lack of inspiration, but for the rest of the season she works at a humiliating job to provide for her sister and friends.
Music and style
"Once More, with Feeling" was Joss Whedon's first attempt at writing music, which he had always wanted to do. He learned how to play guitar to write several songs. Christophe Beck, a regular composer for the series, filled in the overture and coda and composed "Dawn's Ballet". Whedon is a fan of Stephen Sondheim, and used him as the inspiration for much of the music, particularly with the episode's ambiguous ending. Cast member James Marsters (Spike) said, "Some of Joss' music is surprisingly complicated. Maybe it's a Beatles thing. He doesn't know enough to know what he can't do and he's smashing rules."
The episode's musical style varies significantly. Buffy's opening number, "Going Through the Motions", was influenced heavily by the Disney song "Part of Your World" sung by Ariel in The Little Mermaid. Whedon wanted to use a similar opening in which the heroine explains her yearning. While singing her song, Buffy fights three vampires and a demon who themselves break into a choreographed dance; Whedon wanted this to be fun but not distracting. The song ends with chord influences from Stephen Schwartz's Pippin and a visual tribute to Disney: as Buffy stakes a vampire, it turns to dust that swirls around her face.
Whedon chose the most complicated scene, with the most dancers and choreography in the classic style of musical theater, to accompany an 18-second song ("The Mustard") "to get it out of the way" for more personal numbers later in the episode. Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com considers this "brilliant because it frees even people who hate musicals to settle into the story without getting hung up on the genre's conventions". The musical styles span from a jaunty 1950s sitcom arrangement of the Buffy theme in the opening credits—the only episode in the series to begin without the normal version of the theme song and full cast roll, signifying a genre shift—to Anya's hard-rock version of "Bunnies". Whedon assigned Emma Caulfield the rock-opera format because Caulfield often sang in such a way to him on the set. Spike's "Rest in Peace" is also a rock song, which Whedon wrote after completing the episode's first song, Tara's "Under Your Spell", a contemporary pop song with radio-play potential. Xander and Anya's duet—the most fun to shoot but difficult to write, according to Whedon—is inspired by Fred Astaire-Ginger Rogers comedies as evidenced by the silken pajama costumes and art deco apartment setting. Musically, the song uses influences from Ira Gershwin, a Charleston rhythm, and jazz-like chord slides. Giles' "Standing" is a ballad to Buffy that she does not hear, unlike the songs revealing truths elsewhere in the episode. Whedon shot the scene so that Giles moves in real time while Buffy works out in slow motion, to accentuate Giles' distance from her. Buffy's not hearing his song was intentional; Whedon explained, "You can sing to someone in musicals and they can never know how you feel or how much you love them, even if they're standing right in front of you".
"Under Your Spell" received attention from Buffy studies writers because it presents a frank and unflinching expression of lesbian romance. Buffy the Vampire Slayer was the first show in U.S. television history to portray a long-term lesbian relationship among the core cast of characters. Previous televised depictions of lesbian relations were primarily limited to single "coming out" or "lesbian kiss" episodes, showing lesbian-identified characters as affectionate but not erotic. Tara and Willow demonstrate throughout the series, and specifically in "Once More, with Feeling", that they are "intensely sexual", according to Buffy essayist Justine Larbalestier. Near the end of Tara's song, she sings, "Lost in ecstasy / Spread beneath my Willow tree / You make me / Com — plete", as Tara levitates off the bed while Willow tacitly performs cunnilingus on her. Lorna Jowett called the song "the most erotic scene" of the series. Whedon admitted on the DVD commentary for the episode that the song is "pornography" and "probably the dirtiest lyric I've ever written, but also very, very beautiful".
Buffy essayist Ian Shuttleworth writes that Amber Benson (Tara) has "the sweetest singing voice of all the lead players", referring to "Under Your Spell" as "heavenly and salacious"; author Nikki Stafford concurs, writing that Benson "has the most stunning voice, showing a surprising range". Whedon acknowledged that the "lyrical, heavenly quality" of Benson's voice led him to assign her the episode's love song. Alyson Hannigan (Willow) was unwilling to sing much and her performance is "apprehensive", according to Shuttleworth. He considers this an example of Tara's quieter strength coming out in front of Willow's showy demonstrations of powerful magic. Buffy studies scholar Rhonda Wilcox interprets Willow's diminished role representing the show's silence about Willow's descent into addiction and darkness through the rest of the season. Benson remarked that Tara's story arc is significant within the episode, starting out with ecstasy but soon recognizing the illusory circumstances surrounding her bliss and that "life can't be perfect all the time".
The most complicated song, "Walk Through the Fire", leads all the characters to the climax from different locations for different reasons, reminiscent of the "Tonight Quintet" from West Side Story. When they all sing the chorus at once to the line "We will walk through the fire / And let it — burn", two fire trucks race behind the Scoobies as they proceed to the Bronze. Whedon called the shot the "single greatest thing we ever did". Each of the singers in this song, which "marries soft rock to the function of a dirge", connects musically to earlier songs while foreshadowing Buffy's next number and the final chorus, providing an ominous anxiety.
Buffy's numbers are the most complex, changing key and tempo when she begins to reveal the secrets she swore she never would. This appears specifically in "Something to Sing About", which starts with uptempo platitudes: "We'll sing a happy song / And you can sing along: / Where there's life, there's hope / Every day's a gift / Wishes can come true / Whistle while you work ..." While singing, she kills Sweet's minions with a pool cue. Whedon attempted to make the song tuneful yet chaotic to express the main point of the episode. It transitions suddenly into her desire to be like normal girls, then changes again, slowing the tempo as she challenges Sweet not to give her a song, but "something to sing about". Musicologist Amy Bauer categorizes the tempo shifts as "rock ballad to punk polka to hymn" that indicates Buffy's turmoil. The key and tempo slow again, as Buffy finally reveals "I live in hell / 'Cause I've been expelled from heaven / I think I was in heaven" with the chord changing from B minor to B diminished, each time she repeats "heaven". When replying to her, Spike has the same shift from minor to diminished each time he repeats the word "living."
The episode nears the end with "Where Do We Go from Here?", as the Scoobies stand dazed and disoriented, facing different directions. As they sing "Understand we'll go hand in hand / But we'll walk alone in fear", they line up, hold hands, then fling each other's hands away in a piece of what Whedon calls "literal choreography". Each of the eight characters in this line wears a color in the visible spectrum, a conscious decision by the costume designer. The couples in the group wear opposite colors (Giles in green and Buffy in red, Anya in blue and Xander in orange, Tara in yellow and Willow in purple), and Rhonda Wilcox interprets the color-coding and choreography to represent the "tension between the individual and the group". The characters as a chorus sing "The curtains close on a kiss, God knows / We can tell the end is near", moments before Buffy runs out to kiss Spike and the show closes with actual curtains. As Spike and Buffy kiss, a swell of music accompanies them, similar to the ending of Gone with the Wind. Lyrics sung moments before, however, forecast the uncertainty of the relationship between Spike and Buffy, as well as their contrasting reasons for initiating any romance; Spike wants to feel love from Buffy, while she simply wants to feel.
Reception
When the episode was originally broadcast in the United States on UPN on November 6, 2001, it received a Nielsen rating of 3.4 and a share of 5. This placed the episode in sixth place in its timeslot, and 88th among broadcast television for the week of November 5–11, 2001. It was the most watched program on UPN that night, and the third most watched program that week, trailing episodes of Star Trek: Enterprise and WWF SmackDown. This was a decrease from the 3.7 rating received by the previous episode a week prior.
"Once More, with Feeling" received widespread critical acclaim from media and critics when it aired, during overseas syndication, and in reminiscences of the best episodes of Buffy after the series ended. Although Salon.com writer Stephanie Zacharek states "(t)he songs were only half-memorable at best, and the singing ability of the show's regular cast ranged only from the fairly good to the not so great", she also asserts that it works "beautifully", paces itself gracefully, and is "clever and affecting". Zacharek's unenthusiastic assessments of the music and cast's singing abilities were not shared by other writers. Debi Enker in Australia's The Age writes, "Giles (Anthony Stewart Head) and Tara (Amber Benson) are terrific, Xander (Nicholas Brendon) and Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg) struggle valiantly, and Willow (Alyson Hannigan) barely sings a note". Tony Johnston in The Sunday Herald Sun writes that Gellar "struggles on some of her higher notes, but her dance routines are superb, Michelle Trachtenberg's Dawn reveals sensual dance moves way beyond her tender years, and James Marsters' Spike evokes a sort of Billy Idol yell to disguise his lack of vocal proficiency [...] The rest of the cast mix and match like ready-made Broadway troupers." Johnston counts "I'll Never Tell" as one of the episode's "standout moments". Connie Ogle in The Miami Herald calls the songs "better and far more clever than most of the ones you'll hear on Broadway these days".
Writers agree that the episode was risky and could have failed spectacularly. Jonathan Bernstein in the British newspaper The Observer writes "What could have been, at best, an eccentric diversion and, at worst, a shuddering embarrassment, succeeded on every level [...] It provided a startling demonstration that creator Joss Whedon has a facility with lyrics and melody equal to the one he's demonstrated for the past six seasons with dialogue, character and plot twists. Rather than adopt the 'Hey, wouldn't it be wacky if we suddenly burst into song?' approach practised by Ally McBeal, the Buffy musical was entirely organic to the series' labyrinthine progression." Johnston in the Sunday Herald Sun says, "There is just so much to this marvellously cheeky episode that suggests the show can take any route it pleases and pull it off", while Debi Enker in The Age comments, "Whedon demonstrates yet again what Buffy aficionados have known and appreciated for years: that his wit, playfulness and readiness to take a risk make his television efforts rise way above the pack." Steve Murray in The Atlanta Journal-Constitution characterizes the episode as "scary in a brand-new way", saying "Once More, with Feeling" is "as impressive as Whedon's milestone episodes 'Hush' and 'The Body; the episode is "often hilarious", according to Murray, and acts as "(b)oth spoof and homage, [parodying] the hokiness of musicals while also capturing the guilty pleasure and surges of feeling the genre inspires".
Writing in the Toronto Star, Vinay Menon calls "Once More, with Feeling" "dazzling" and writes of "Joss Whedon's inimitable genius"; he goes on to say "(f)or a show that already violates conventions and morphs between genres, its allegorical narrative zigging and zagging seamlessly across chatty comedy, drama and over-the-top horror, 'Once More, with Feeling' is a towering achievement [...] The show may be anchored by existential weightiness, it may be painted with broad, supernatural brushstrokes, but in the end, this coming-of-age story, filled with angst and alienation, is more real than any other so-called teen drama [...] So let's add another line of gushing praise: 'Once More, with Feeling' is rhapsodic, original, deeply affecting, and ultimately, transcendental. Quite simply, television at its best."
The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Musical Direction, but the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS) neglected to include the title on the ballots for Emmy nominations in 2002. NATAS attempted to remedy this by mailing a postcard informing its voters that it should be included, but the episode did not win. NATAS' oversight, according to the Washington Post, was "another example of the lack of industry respect afforded one of television's most consistently clever shows". Ogle in The Miami Herald vigorously protests this omission, writing, "[T]he most astonishing, entertaining hour (hour plus, actually) of TV in the past year slips by virtually unnoticed. Nothing here is real; nothing here is right. Buffy the Vampire Slayer'''s musical episode, 'Once More, with Feeling', registers a paltry outstanding music direction nomination. Nice for the musical directors. A stake through the aspirations of writer/director Joss Whedon, the beating creative heart of Buffy, the only TV writer brave and clever enough to use horror as one great big wonderful metaphor for growing up [...] 'Once More, with Feeling' is TV of a different sort, something that comes along once in a lifetime and should not be buried but celebrated and rewarded." The episode was also nominated for a Best Dramatic Presentation Hugo Award and a Best Script Nebula Award, both given for excellence in science fiction and fantasy writing.2003 Nebula Awards , The Locus Index to Science Fiction Awards. Retrieved on August 2, 2010. In 2009 TV Guide ranked the episode #14 on its list of "TV's Top 100 Episodes of All Time". For its 65th anniversary, TV Guide picked it as the fifth best episode of the 21st century.
Soundtrack
An album including all 14 songs in the episode, with Christophe Beck's scores for three other Buffy episodes, was released by Rounder Records in September 2002 as season seven premiered. John Virant, president and chief executive of Rounder Records, told the Los Angeles Times, "I remember watching the episode when it aired last October, and after it was over, I said to my wife, 'That's the best hour of TV I've ever seen. Someone should put that [soundtrack] out.' I inquired at Fox, just following up, and they said, 'Well, we tried, it didn't happen. If you want to take a run at it, feel free. AllMusic gives the album five out of five stars, stating that the music is "every bit as fun as the episode itself", praising the voices of Benson, Marsters and Head. Reviewer Melinda Hill states it is "a must-have for Buffy fans, but it wouldn't be out of place in anyone's collection".
DVD releases
In addition to featuring on the sixth season box set, "Once More, with Feeling" was individually released on DVD in Region 2 format on April 14, 2003, the only episode to be individually released. In Region 1, the episode was released on the sixth season box set on May 25, 2004, over a year later than the Region 2 release.
Influence
Since the musical episode of Buffy aired, several other series have worked musical format into episodes, including Scrubs, ("My Musical") in 2007, an episode of Grey's Anatomy entitled "Song Beneath the Song" in 2011 and Batman: The Brave and the Bold, ("Mayhem of the Music Meister!") in 2009. The musical television episode was declared a genre, a gimmick, according to Mary Williams at Salon.com, for series that had run out of interesting story lines and characters. Both Williams and Margaret Lyons at New York magazine, however, declared "Once More, with Feeling" the "gold standard" for musical episodes.Williams, Mary (March 29, 2011). Musical TV episodes: The gimmick that won't die , Salon.com. Retrieved on April 18, 2011. Despite this, Joss Whedon recognized the influence "Once More, with Feeling" has had on other shows, but denied that it was primarily responsible for the rise in musical television episodes or series such as Glee, citing the popularity of High School Musical instead. Director John McPhail cited "Once More, with Feeling" as an influence on his film Anna and the Apocalypse (2018).
Public showingsBuffy the Vampire Slayer developed an enthusiastic fan following while it aired. Following its series finale, fans continued their appreciation in theater showings of "Once More, with Feeling" where attendees are encouraged to dress like the show's characters, sing along to the musical numbers, and otherwise interact in the style of The Rocky Horror Picture Show. Clinton McClung, a New York-based film programmer, got the idea for a sing-along from audience-participation showings of The Sound of Music in 2003. The next year, he began putting on sing-alongs to "Once More, with Feeling" in Boston's Coolidge Corner Theater, which became so popular that it went on the road. Audience members received props to use during key scenes, as well as directions (for example, to yell "Shut up, Dawn!" at Buffy's younger sister), and a live cast performed the episode alongside the screen.Buffy sing-alongs received growing media attention as they spread. At the 2007 Los Angeles Film Festival, a special screening and sing-along was held that featured both Marti Noxon and Joss Whedon giving brief speeches to the audience. In October 2007, after a dispute with the Screen Actors Guild over unpaid residuals, 20th Century Fox pulled the licensing for public screenings of "Once More, with Feeling", effectively ending official Buffy sing-alongs. Whedon called the cancellation "hugely depressing" and attempted to influence the studio to allow future showings.
See also
Adam Shankman, choreographer for the episode
"The Bitter Suite", the 1998 musical episode of Xena: Warrior Princess Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog, 2008 miniseries
Mayhem of the Music Meister!, a 2009 episode of Batman: The Brave and the Bold with a similar premise
"Dream On", 2010 Glee episode directed by Joss Whedon
Notes
References
Bibliography
Attinello, Paul; Halfyard, Janet; Knights, Vanessa (eds.) (2010). Music, Sound, and Silence in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Castañeda, Laura; Campbell, Shannon (2006). News and Sexuality: Media portraits of diversity, SAGE.
Davidson, Joy (ed.) (2007). The Psychology of Joss Whedon: An Unauthorized Exploration of Buffy, Angel, and Firefly, Benbella Books.
Dial-Driver, Emily; Emmons-Featherston, Sally; Ford, Jim; Taylor, Carolyn Anne (eds.) (2008), The Truth of Buffy: Essays on Fiction Illuminating Reality, McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers.
Jowett, Lorna (2005). Sex and the Slayer: A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy Fan, Wesleyan University Press.
Kaveney, Roz (ed.) (2004). Reading the Vampire Slayer: The New, Updated, Unofficial Guide to Buffy and Angel, Tauris Parke Paperbacks.
Mitchell, Claudia; Reid-Walsh, Jacqueline (2008). Girl Culture: Studying Girl Culture: A Readers' Guide, Volume 1, Greenwood Publishing Group. .
Newcomb, Horace (2004). Encyclopedia of Television, Museum of Broadcast Communications, .
Pateman, Matthew (2006). The Aesthetics of Culture in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, McFarland and Company.
South, James (ed.) (2003). Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Philosophy: Fear and Trembling in Sunnydale, Open Court Books.
Stafford, Nikki (2007). Bite Me! The Unofficial Guide to Buffy the Vampire Slayer, ECW Press.
Sweeney, Kathleen (2008). Maiden USA: Girl Icons come of Age, Volume 3, Peter Lang.
Tropiano, Stephen (2002). Prime Time Closet: A History of Gays and Lesbians on TV, Applause Theater and Cinema Books.
Preview.
Wilcox, Rhonda (2005). Why Buffy Matters: The Art of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, I. B. Tauris.
Yeffeth, Glenn (ed.) (2003). Seven Seasons of Buffy: Science Fiction and Fantasy Authors Discuss Their Favorite Television Show'', Benbella Books.
External links
"Once More, with Feeling" at BBC.co.uk
2001 American television episodes
Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 6) episodes
Musical television episodes
Television episodes directed by Joss Whedon
Television episodes written by Joss Whedon
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251818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Grimshaw | Walter Grimshaw | Walter Grimshaw (12 March 1832 – 27 December 1890) was a 19th-century British composer of chess problems. In 1854 he won the first ever chess problem composition tourney in London. He is perhaps best known for giving his name to the Grimshaw, a popular problem theme.
Sample compositions
This is one of his problems, a mate in five (white moves first, and must checkmate black within five moves against any defence) first published in the Illustrated London News in 1850. The key is 1.Bc8 which threatens 2.Qc5# or Qd2#. To defend, black plays 1...Bxc8 white plays 2.Qf6 (threatening 3.c4#) and now a Grimshaw interference comes into play: black can defend by cutting off the white queen from the defence of d6 with 2...Ne6 or 2...Be6, but this interferes with the rook's guard of e5, and so allows 3.Qe5#. If instead black plays 2...Re6, this interferes with the bishop's guard of f5 which is significant after 3.Qd4+ Kxd4 4.Nf5+, because the knight cannot be captured. Instead, there follows 4...Kd5 5.c4#.
The second example is one of Grimshaw's better-known problems, a mate in three composed for a competition organised by the Chess Players Chronicle, 1852-54. The key is the paradoxical 1.Rf1, sacrificing a strong white piece. This carries the threats 2.Nf3 (leading to various mates delivered by the d5 rook) and 2.f3+ (leading to knight mates on f5 or g2). Black's obvious defence, 1...exf1Q is answered by 2.Nf3 Kxf3 3.Rd2#. After 1...f3 (giving black a flight at f4), white plays his rook back to where it came from (a switchback) to take advantage of the newly opened fourth rank: 2.Rg1 any 3.Rg4#.
External links
Obituary in British Chess Magazine
1832 births
1890 deaths
Chess composers
English chess players
19th-century chess players | [
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251821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6taland%20theory | Götaland theory | The Götaland theory (or "Westrogothian School", Swedish Västgötaskolan) is a local patriotic view which challenges established history and archaeology, and claims that the foundation of Sweden occurred not (as traditionally assumed) in Eastern Sweden, but in the province of Westrogothia (Västergötland). The adherents of this idea use wide-ranging methods from controversial ones such as dowsing and asking mediums to contact the dead, to less controversial ones such as etymology, but also claim that the established academic material consists of lies and forgeries. Although well known in Sweden and fervently preached by its adherents, it has never been accepted by scholars.
The Nazi origin
The Götaland theory was the only notable result of the Nazi infiltration of Swedish archaeology during 1933–1945. Carl-Otto Fast, founder of the Westrogothian School ("Västgötaskolan"), was a notorious Nazi who collaborated with SS Ahnenerbe, Richard Walther Darré and eugenicists from Hadamar in Germany. The idea that the cradle of the Germanic culture and society was located in Västergötland, became an indisputable dogma in Nazi Germany. Archaeologist Magnus Alkarp, who has studied classified and semi-classified documents from the post-war era, has showed that the Westrogothian School (among regional, right-wing separatists movements in Scandinavia) was an important part of the Operation Gladio.
Putting the theory to the test
Several times, laymen have unsuccessfully tried to prove what they consider important aspects of the Götaland theory. The barrow at Skalunda was thus claimed to be the burial site of the hero Beowulf known from the Beowulf epic; by applying the dowsing technique with a pendulum, they established that the barrow was indeed the burial site of this Geatish hero. Later, professional archaeologists drilled into the barrow to extract a sample for C14 dating. The barrow was from around 700 A.D., about 150 years too late for being a candidate for Beowulf's burial site.
The locality Sätuna at the Lake Hornborga in Västergötland was commonly claimed to be the true Sigtuna, where king Olof Skötkonung had his coins made. A protrusion in the ground was pointed out by adherents of the Götaland theory as the king's mint. However, when archaeologists examined their claims the protrusion turned out to be the remains of an uncompleted barn from the 1890s.
History
The Götaland theory originated in the early 20th century with claims that the ancient city Ubsola (Uppsala) was situated in the province of Västergötland in the old lands called Uplanden. Additionally, the theory's supporters also held the view that Västergötland and the region of Lake Vänern was in fact the land of "Sithun", translated into modern day language as Sigtuna, where Odin and his Aesir companions supposedly settled when they came to Scandinavia.
An early predecessor of the theory was Pehr Tham (1737–1820), who during the 19th century unsuccessfully tried to promote ideas such as the village Sätuna being the location of Old Sigtuna, and the ancient town of Birka being situated somewhere around Lake Hornborga. He is regarded as a successor of Olof Rudbeckius, a seventeenth-century scholar who claimed that Sweden was the true location of the sunken Atlantis.
The early proponents of the Götaland theory proposed ideas about Västergötland, and the Vänern lake region in particular, being the origin not only of the Geats, but also of the Suiones, the Danes; and furthermore the location of various phenomena in Norse mythology, such as Odin's Sithun (Sigtuna), Valhall, and the ashtree Yggdrasil. These ideas, created in the spirit of Romanticism, were also a reaction to the archaeological research at the time, which arguably neglected some areas of Sweden that were nevertheless rich in archaeological remains. The speculations of the adherents of the Götaland theory movement are largely irrelevant to modern academic discussion, which does not pay much attention to Swedish-Geatish wars, Yngling kings, etc.
Especially, the story of Odin and the Aesir's emigration according to the Ynglinga saga is generally considered invalid by the official views and scholars. Other parts of the extensive work of Snorri Sturluson (and other saga writers) may however be considered valid references for finding elements of the ancient history of Scandinavian people and their religious customs and beliefs.
Birka speculations
The town Birka is also known from the Vita Ansgari, in which Ansgar founds a mission in the town. It is commonly identified with a location on Björkö island in the lake Mälaren. This location is a World Heritage Site and a popular tourism attraction.
According to the Västgöta theory, Birka as a name meant "merchant town", and could refer to any such town in ancient Sweden.
Ubsola speculations
Upsalir, or Ubsola, was the main cult center of pagan (heathen) Ása-faith in ancient Scandinavia and Sweden. The ancient Upsalir was described by Adam of Bremen in the 11th century, and by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century. It is generally considered to correspond to modern day Uppsala, with its location on Uppsala's old location – Old Uppsala, in east Sweden, the habitat of the ancient tribe called Suiones (Swedes). The Västgöta school however claim that the original site for the temple was located in West Sweden, in the habitat of the ancient Geats (Götar), the tribe which came to name Västergötland.
There are however no archeological findings that support the view of Västergötland being the original site of Ubsola, and therefore the views of the Västgöta theory have little or no credibility.
See also
Lands of Sweden
History of Sweden
Gothicismus
Name of the Goths
Notes
References
Alkarp, Magnus (2007). Men däri är också mycken galenskap : Adam av Bremen, arkeologin och Gamla Uppsala = Adamus Bremensis, archaeology and Old Uppsala. In: Kult, guld och makt : ett tvärvetenskapligt symposium i Götene.
Gahrn, Lars (1988). Sveariket i källor och historieskrivning. Gothenburg University, doctoral thesis with English summary.
Larsson, M. G. (2002). Götarnas riken. Upptäcksfärder till Sveriges enande. Atlantis, Stockholm. .
Strömberg, J.B.L.D. (1998). Svearikets vagga och västgötaskolan. Stockholm. Web edition with an English summary''
Pseudoarchaeology
Conspiracy theories in Sweden
Pseudohistory
Historiography of Sweden | [
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251823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff | Banff | Banff may refer to:
Canada
Banff, Alberta, a town in Alberta, Canada
Banff Airport
Banff station
Banff National Park
Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity
Banff (provincial electoral district)
Banff-Cochrane, another provincial electoral district
Banff Formation, a stratigraphical unit of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin
United Kingdom
Banff, Aberdeenshire, former royal burgh in Aberdeenshire (formerly Banffshire), Scotland
Banff distillery, a distiller of malt whisky
Banffshire (County of Banff) a traditional county
Banffshire (UK Parliament constituency)
Banff and Buchan, a modern committee area in Aberdeenshire
Lord Banff, title in the Peerage of Scotland
Banff railway station (Scotland), a former (now closed) railway station
Banff Bay, a coastal embayment in Scotland
See also
Banff Trail, Calgary, a neighbourhood of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Bamff, Perthshire, Scotland
BAMF (disambiguation) | [
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251826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innis%20College%2C%20Toronto | Innis College, Toronto | Innis College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Toronto. It is one of the University of Toronto's smallest colleges in terms of size and the second smallest college in terms of population with approximately 2000 registered students. It is located in the campus' historic west end, directly north of Robarts Library, and is named after prominent University of Toronto political economist Harold Innis.
The College includes a fully equipped cinema, supporting 35mm, 16mm, and all digital presentation formats, known as Innis Town Hall, which hosts numerous film festivals, free film screenings, and a variety of other cultural events. It also serves as a venue for Hot Docs, which is North America's largest documentary film festival.
History
Originally designed to be a wing (now Wetmore Hall) onto New College, Innis College was founded separately in 1964 as the second non-federated college to be formed under the University's administration.
Although initially located at the Macdonald-Mowatt house on St. George Street, the College has since relocated to a building on Sussex Avenue that incorporates a substantial Victorian home into a functional modern structure designed by Jack Diamond and Barton Myers.
Vladimir House, the first Innis residence located at 651 Spadina Avenue, was replaced by a larger, modern residence in 1994.
Innis was also the first University of Toronto college to host an open pub (1975) and the first one to sport an equity split between faculty and students on its governing council.
The current Principal of Innis College is Charlie Keil. The current Innis Registrar is Donald Boere.
Governance and Services
As mentioned, Innis College was the first college at the University of Toronto to have parity between students and faculty on its governing council. The main governing body of Innis College is the Innis College Council and operates under the Governing Council of the University of Toronto. The College Council is made up of students, administration, and other interest groups including the members of the later life learning program, and the alumni association to name a few. The council has many boards including boards on academic affairs, college affairs, student affairs, and community affairs. It is the job of the council to exercise the college's autonomous rights granted to them by the University and therefore oversees admissions, awards, and academic programs offered by the college.
The students of Innis College as well as the engineers living in the Innis Residence are members of the Innis College Student Society (ICSS). The ICSS is represented by a governing body that offers student services, as well as social events held by the college. The governing body of the ICSS is made up of an executive body, student representatives, and operations directors, all of whom are students.
Innis College is home to the Cinema Studies Student Union and the Urban Studies Student Union; the representative unions of students enrolled in Cinema Studies and Urban Studies programs.
Innis College is watched over by an administrative staff consisting of the Principal's Office and Registrar's Office, as well as the Innis Town Hall and Innis College Library staff.
Innis College houses a student-run newspaper called the Innis Herald which releases quarterly issues to the University of Toronto community.
Academic programs
All students of the College are enrolled in the Faculty of Arts and Science. Innis College also hosts several programs in the faculty, which are:
Cinema Studies (Innis is home to the Cinema Studies Institute, which not only offers the undergraduate program, but also a one-year graduate program leading to an MA.)
Urban Studies
Writing and Rhetoric (Minor)
Innis College students are welcome to enrol in any program within the Faculty of Arts & Science, and any student in the Faculty may enrol in one (or more) of Innis' programs.
The College formerly hosted the Environmental Studies program before it was relocated to the University's Centre for Environment.
Students
A student studying at Innis College is a member of the University of Toronto, the Faculty of Arts and Science, and Innis College. The representative body of Innis Students is the Innis College Student Society (ICSS). The student society is a mandatory membership student group which receives its funding through a dedicated student levy collected by the University of Toronto. Both Innis Students and engineering students living in the Innis Residence have this levy collected from them and are therefore members of the ICSS.
The ICSS holds elections twice a year; once in March at the end of the school year to elect the following year's council and once in September at the beginning of the school year to fill vacancies and elect first year student representatives. The ICSS conducts its elections using a preferential voting electoral method.
The ICSS Governing Body meets every two weeks during the academic year in open meetings where members of council, as well as members of the society are invited to deliberate on various issues. The deliberative proceedings of the ICSS government are conducted under Robert's Rules of Order.
The ICSS is steered by an executive committee consisting of a President, an Executive Vice-President, a Vice-President Internal, and a Vice-President Finance. The remainder of council is made up of directors responsible for council's operations (social activities, athletics, marketing, etc.), as well as student representatives representing various constituencies including first year students, non-residence students, and the graduating class. The direction and priorities of council are steered by the executive committee however each individual portfolio (social, athletics, etc.) has relative autonomy to make their own decisions when planning events and activities.
The office of the Innis College Student Society is located inside Room 107 of the Innis College main building at 2 Sussex Avenue.
Innis Residence
The Innis Residence was built in 1994 and is a modern apartment-style building with seven stories, located across the street from the College at 111 St. George Street. The building consists of four floors that form a U-shape around a courtyard, and two 3-story towers above them, on the north and south sides of the building. The building is suite-style - each suite contains a common kitchen, common living room, two shared bathrooms and 4-5 bedrooms. There are 327 spaces available for students in the building, which roughly consist of 60% first-year students and 40% upper-years. A number of spaces are also reserved for students from the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering.
The residence consists of six social communities known as houses. The houses are First House (named because it is located on the first floor of the building), Devonshire West House (named after the street that backs the residence to the east), Taddle Creek House (named after a creek that flows through Toronto), Vladimir House (named after the original Innis residence building), North House (named because it is located in the building's north tower), and Ajax House (named after a University of Toronto satellite campus that used to exist in Ajax, Ontario). These social communities hold inter-residence competitions to build unity and add to the student experience. Each house is overseen by Residence Dons. The residence also hires an Assistant Dean of Residence Life and a front desk staff that offers 24-hour security to the building. The residence is also home to a student-run Innis Residence Council (IRC).
The Innis Residence was the first university residence in North America to be wired for Internet access. The current Dean of Students is Steve Masse, and the current Assistant Dean of Residence Life is Anica Dang.
Notable alumni
Alan Bernstein - founding president, CIHR & Executive Director, Global HIV Vaccine Enterprise
Jessi Cruickshank - Canadian television personality
Sabrina Cruz - Canadian YouTuber
Ron Mann - president, Sphinx Productions; filmmaker
Stephanie Savage - executive producer and creator, Gossip Girl
Linda Schuyler - executive producer and creator, Degrassi franchise
Jay Bahadur - journalist and author Jeffrey Ian Ross - criminologist, University of Baltimore
Alan Whitten - Superior Court Judge, Ontario High Court
Sarah Gadon- actress, winner of best supporting actress in a Canadian film by Vancouver Film Critics Circle, Cosmopolis(film)
Kate Raynes-Goldie (BA hons 2004) award-winning internet scholar, game designer and industry evangelist
Chris Glover - Member of Provincial Parliament for Spadina-Fort York
Jean Yoon, actress Kim's Convenience (BA 1989)
Notable faculty
Peter H. Russell – Canadian constitutional scholar, helped write the South African Constitution.
Joe Medjuck – film producer
Josef Škvorecký - writer
References
Further reading
Martin L. Friedland The University of Toronto: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press © 2002)
Robin Harris A History of University of Toronto (Toronto: University of Toronto Press © 1970)
Rick Helmes-Hayes Forty Years, 1963-2003: A History of the Department of Sociology, University of Toronto (Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press, 2003, 215 pp.)
Professor Brian McKillop, Matters of Mind: The University in Ontario, 1791-1951 (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press ©1951)
Marian Packham 100 Years of Biochemistry at the University of Toronto: An Illustrated History 1908-2008 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press © 2008)
External links
Innis College Official Site
Innis College Registrar's Office
Prospective and Newly Admitted Innis College Students
Innis College Residence Official Site
Innis College Student Life Site
Innis College Library
Innis Town Hall
Cinema Studies Institute
Innis College Student Society
Educational institutions established in 1964
1964 establishments in Ontario
Colleges of the University of Toronto
Harold Innis | [
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251828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robarts%20Library | Robarts Library | The John P. Robarts Research Library, commonly referred to as Robarts Library, is the main humanities and social sciences library of the University of Toronto Libraries and the largest individual library in the university. Opened in 1973 and named for John Robarts, the 17th Premier of Ontario, the library contains more than 4.5 million bookform items, 4.1 million microform items and 740,000 other items.
The library building is one of the most significant examples of brutalist architecture in North America. Its towering main structure rests on an equilateral triangular footprint and features extensive use of triangular geometric patterns throughout. It forms the main component of a three-tower complex that also includes the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library and the Claude T. Bissell Building, which houses the Faculty of Information. The library's imposing appearance has earned it the nicknames Fort Book and The Peacock or The Turkey.
Architecture
The design of the Robarts Library complex was headed by Mathers & Haldenby Architects with consultation from Warner, Burns, Toan & Lunde, the New York architectural firm whose earlier works included the libraries at Cornell and Brown universities and who specialized in precast concrete buildings. Coinciding with the Canadian Centennial celebrations, the initial plan was expanded to add three more storeys to the original design. Construction of the library began in 1968 and completed in 1973, at a cost of over $40 million.
Robarts Library occupies a site on a field of open space and mature tree cover. The building rests on an equilateral triangle footprint with each side measuring , the same length as a Canadian football field from goal post to goal post. The building is oriented such that one side of the equilateral triangle faces west while the other two sides face northeast and southeast. From the southeast corner, the building appears as a turkey.
The elevation is mostly concrete, albeit differing in textures and directionality: smooth concrete lines the façade in a horizontal manner, the rough concrete lining vertically. The steel-framed windows are situated onto the bays protruding from the façade, and are reminiscent of overhanging towers in medieval castle architecture. The bay windows seem to elevate upwards, opening up the two lowermost levels into voids enclosed with steel-framed glazing, making these elements seem lighter than they really are. To stretch further one's imagination, it is as if these elements are elevators that transport the "scholar[s] anxious to escape the noise and turmoil of the vulgar press [into]… a dream palace enshrining in its holy mysteries the power of the word."
Comprising fourteen storeys, plus two underground floors, the brutalist and futurist structure features raised podia and a suspended fourth floor. A mezzanine level physically connects Robarts Library to the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library building at its southeastern side, and to the Claude T. Bissell Building, housing the Faculty of Information, at its northeastern side. The concrete waffle slab floor plates are adorned with triangular-patterned tessellation. A hexagonal central circulation atrium is enclosed at the core of the building and through the middle of the mezzanine level. The gross area of the building is over .
In 2008, the university announced that Robarts Library would be receiving a significant upgrade, the first phase of which was completed in the spring of 2011. During these years a major transformation gradually took place at Robarts, beginning with the renovation of the apexes on each stack floor in 2008 (finished in 2010), the Map & Data Library on the 5th floor in 2009, the Media Commons on the 3rd floor in 2010, and the second floor porticos in 2011. The renovations were intended to create a welcoming environment that would both provide informal study space and function to let people know about the services and resources available throughout the building. Signage throughout the building was redesigned and refreshed to improve navigation and usability of the library and its resources, and new touch screens are already improving communication with students, providing information such as the number of available workstations on each floor at any given time. Robarts outdoor signage can be scanned with the smartphone app Layar for augmented reality links.
The next phase of the renewal will be the addition of a five-storey pavilion which will become a new face of Robarts, opening up the west side of the building to the street, bringing a flood of natural light to the lower floors and making the overall environment more inviting, accessible and productive for students. The new Pavilion is anticipated to add 1,200 new work and study spaces to Robarts, bringing the library's total number of study spaces to over 6,000. The renovations were designed by Diamond and Schmitt Architects Incorporated.
Features and collections
A 1974 article in the Canadian Architect magazine outlines the library's significance to serving a campus community the size of a town, as well as by being a central storage for humankind's recorded thoughts and inspiration. The library was initially intended for use by graduate students only, but following a student protest that included an illegal occupation of the building, undergraduate students were also granted access. The library's initial design was for a mechanical book conveyor belt system to allow for faster collection by library staff, who would then send books downstairs for pickup. After Robarts was opened to all students, the conveyor system was discarded, although the tracks used by the conveyor system are still visible above the shelves.
The building houses a number of special collections, including the Mu Collection (Chinese: 慕氏藏書) which is a set of rare books from China in the Cheng Yu Tung East Asian Library, the largest research collection for Hong Kong and Canada-Hong Kong studies outside of Hong Kong at the Richard Charles Lee Canada-Hong Kong Library, and a sizable collection in Russian, Polish, Czech and Slovak, Ukrainian, and other East European languages at the Petro Jacyk Central & East European Resource Centre. All of them are open to the public.
In addition to an extensive collection of texts, the library provides limited after-hours study space to students during the academic year with the exception of weekends. The book stacks are off-limits after hours. In August 2010, the Adaptive Technology Resource Centre moved from the first floor of Robarts Library to OCAD University, which is shared with students with disabilities from that college, as well as from nearby Ryerson University and Seneca College. The Internet Archive Canada headquarters are located on the 7th floor.
In popular culture
Robarts Library is thought to be the model for the secret library in Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose. Eco spent much of the time writing the novel at the University of Toronto, and the stairwell of the secret library bears a particularly strong resemblance to that in Robarts Library.
Robarts was used for exterior shots of the prison setting in Resident Evil: Afterlife. The entire building is visible numerous times, having been digitally edited and transplanted from its downtown Toronto location to Los Angeles. In the film, it has been surrounded by a prison wall and hundreds of thousands of zombies. While the exterior retains its triangular shape, the interior is rectangular.
References
External links
Robarts Library
Forty Years of "Fort Book": The Story of Robarts Library
Brutalist architecture in Canada
University of Toronto libraries
University of Toronto buildings
Library buildings completed in 1973 | [
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251829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Oregon | List of governors of Oregon | This article lists the individuals who have served as governor of Oregon from the establishment of the Provisional Government between 1841 and 1843 to the present day.
Governors
Champoeg Meetings
The Champoeg Meetings, including a constitutional committee, held from February 1841 until May 1843, served as a de facto government before the government was officially established. While early attempts at establishing a government had been unsuccessful because of discontent between English American and French Canadian settlers over the question, whom they should choose as Governor, several other officers were elected at these meetings, including the position of Supreme Judge as the highest position at the second meeting. For lack of a government the Supreme Judge also received executive and legislative duties and was mostly chosen as the chairman of the following meetings.
Provisional Government
The meetings at Champoeg led up to the first constitution of the Oregon Country and several petitions for U.S. territorial status. The resulting acts also created this body as a provisional government for the region. The first executives of this government were a three-person, elected committee known as the Executive Committee. In 1845, elections for a chief executive were held. The first person in Oregon to hold the title of governor was George Abernethy, a prominent businessman.
Governors of the Territory of Oregon
Oregon became a U.S. Territory in 1848. Like most other U.S. territorial governments, Oregon's territorial governor was appointed by the President of the United States. As transportation and communications were not as reliable or as fast as 21st-century methods, there were times when a departing governor left office and a new governor could not yet take over. This resulted in several local individuals acting as territorial governor until the new executive was appointed and arrived to take office.
President Polk initially appointed Brigadier General James Shields to be Oregon's first territorial governor and Shields was confirmed by the Senate, but he declined the position and Joseph Lane was appointed in his place.
Governors of the State of Oregon
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Oregon except where noted.
Living former governors of Oregon
As of , there are four former governors of Oregon who are currently living, the oldest governor of Oregon being Barbara Roberts (served 1991–1995, born 1936). The most recent death of a former governor of Oregon and also the death of a former governor of Oregon who served most recently was of Victor Atiyeh, (served 1979–1987) on July 20, 2014.
See also
Governorship of John Kitzhaber
Governorship of Kate Brown
Notes
References
General
Constitution
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of Oregon
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors | [
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251833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20St.%20Michael%27s%20College | University of St. Michael's College | The University of St. Michael's College is a college of the University of Toronto, founded in 1852 by the Congregation of St. Basil of Annonay, France. While mainly an undergraduate college for liberal arts and sciences, St. Michael's retains its Catholic affiliation through its postgraduate theology faculty.
St. Michael's is most closely associated with teaching and research in the humanities and in theology. It is also known for being home to Marshall McLuhan throughout his influential career as a philosopher and communication theorist, from 1946 until his death in 1980. Both the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies and Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky Institute of Eastern Christian Studies reside within the college. St. Michael's College School is an affiliated boys school which was once the high school section of the college.
History
St. Michael's College was founded in 1852 as a Basilian college by Pierre Tourvieille, Superior General of the Congregation of St. Basil of Annonay, France. The following year, it merged with St. Mary's Lesser Seminary under the unified control of the Basilian Fathers, whose establishment in Canada began with Bishop Armand-François-Marie de Charbonnel. St. Michael's College educated pupils at three levels, operating as a preparatory school, as a liberal arts college, and as a minor seminary. The Basilians received a large estate in 1853 from John Elmsley, son of the Chief Justice of Upper Canada and a prominent philanthropist. St. Michael's College relocated to the new site east of the University of Toronto, and established the college parish, St. Basil's Church. The incorporation of the college was granted Royal Assent in 1855.
In the late 19th century when universities were closed to new Irish immigrants and many Canadians of Irish descent, St Michael's was seen as the only viable option and thus the school became a traditionally Irish filled college. Ever since this time St Michael's has been a bastion for higher education and a beacon for the Irish-Canadian community in Toronto and southern Ontario, with others coming from all over the rest of Canada to attend the dominantly Irish school.
By withdrawing its financial support in 1868, the provincial government encouraged denominational colleges to seek closer relations with secular institutions. St. Michael's affiliated with the University of Toronto in 1883, having secured a guarantee that it would conduct its own teaching in philosophy and history. The university senate authorized St. Michael's to administer its own examinations in philosophy. On December 8, 1910, St. Michael's College became a federated college of the University of Toronto. The college maintained autonomy in faculty hiring and teaching in liberal arts subjects, while the University of Toronto governed examinations and the granting of degrees in all subjects except theology. In 1912, Sir Robert Falconer, president of the University of Toronto, recognized the wish of St. Joseph's College and Loretto College to affiliate with the university. St. Joseph's and Loretto both became colleges of St. Michael's College, thereby allowing their female students to receive University of Toronto degrees.
As the 20th century began, professional education expanded beyond the traditional fields of theology, law and medicine. Graduate training based on the German-inspired American model of specialized course work and the completion of a research thesis was introduced. With the opening of the Institute of Mediaeval Studies in 1929, St Michael's expanded further into graduate teaching and research. Ten years later, Pope Pius XII signed a papal charter creating the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies.
The preparatory school division of the college was reorganized in 1950 as St. Michael's College School, an independent private school, ending the college's direct governance while maintaining its affiliation. In 1952, the last lectures for women were held at Loretto and St. Joseph's Colleges, which became residential units of the college. Thereafter, all teaching was conducted coeducationally in the classrooms of St. Michael's College.
Throughout much of its history, St. Michael's benefited from a common practice whereby staff and faculty who were members of religious orders would donate their salaries back to the college. This source of income gradually disappeared as new faculty members were hired with mainly secular backgrounds, compelling the college to seek new revenue. The college's first modern fundraising attempt was launched in 1927, but was only partly successful due to the onset of the Great Depression. The Basilian Fathers of St. Michael's College was registered as a charitable organization in 1972. Subsequent campaigns and land sales allowed the college to gradually increase its endowment, expand its academic programs and construct new residence buildings. The Canadian Catholic Bioethics Institute became affiliated with St. Michael's College in 2001. In 2002, the college marked the sesquicentennial of its founding with an anniversary mass held in St. Basil's Church.
Campus and buildings
The oldest buildings of St. Michael's College were constructed on the original Clover Hill estate donated by John Elmsley, and were designed by noted Scottish architect William Hay. With subsequent land acquisitions in 1890, 1920, 1926 and 1928, the college expanded from Clover Hill westward to reach Queen's Park. The present grounds of St. Michael's College form the eastern end of the University of Toronto campus, with Victoria College to the north and Regis College to the south. The main quadrangle of St. Michael's College is in the northwestern section of the college grounds, with its northern side leading into Victoria College.
The cornerstone was laid at Clover Hill on September 16, 1855, for the college building and the college parish of St. Basil's Church, which was consecrated November 16, 1856 with a Pontifical High Mass. This building is the oldest building at the University of Toronto in continuous academic use. A further addition, designed by William Irving, was constructed between 1872 and 1873 to house an auditorium, classrooms and student residence. In 1996, the original building was completely renovated by Carlos Ott Partnership Architects and renamed Odette Hall, and a modern religious art gallery donated by Rev. Daniel Donovan was installed on the two lower floors.
The master plan and Collegiate Gothic complex of buildings at the western side of the college nearest to Queen's Park were built in 1935 and designed by architect Arthur William Holmes in Gothic revival style: the Pontifical Institute, More House, Fisher House, Brennan Hall (1938) and Teefy Hall (1935–1936) and extension of the East Wing, (1902–1903). Brennan Hall in the north-central section of campus contains a dining hall, faculty dining room, common rooms, and guestrooms. The small park between Brennan Hall and St. Basil's Church is known as Scollard Park, named for St Michael's alumnus Fr. Robert Scollard.
Fisher House and More House both began as residences for men, while classrooms and faculty offices were located in Teefy Hall to the south. The Queen's Park Building to the north was built for the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. A student-faculty centre was built in 1968 as an extension of Brennan Hall.
The Soldier's Memorial Slype connects the college quadrangle with Queen's Park, its sandstone walls etched with the names of St. Michael's College alumni who died in the World Wars and the Korean War.
Examples of early post-war architecture at the college include Carr Hall, designed by Ernest Cormier and built in 1954, housing faculty and administrative offices, classrooms and an auditorium. At the northern edge of campus, Elmsley Hall was built in 1955 as a men's residence and a new residence for the Loretto College was built in 1958. The brutalist concrete building of the John M. Kelly Library was opened in 1969, at the southern portion of the college on St. Joseph Street. The former Ontario Research Council building next to the library has been redesigned with classrooms and offices as the Muzzo Family Alumni Hall.
A private tree-lined street, named Elmsley Place, runs up the center of the college's campus, connecting St Joseph Street to Brennan Hall. This street, laid out around the turn of the 20th century, is flanked by a group of five beautiful brick Victorian mansions that constituted Toronto's first subdivision. On the west side of Elmsley Place, heading south to north, stands McCorkell and Sullivan House (also known as Houses 2 and 96), and Gilson and Maritian House (also known as Houses 6 and 8). Both are student residences. On the east side of Elmsley Place, heading south to north, are Founders House, Phelan House, and Windle House. Founders House, at one point a student residence known as Bellisle House, is currently home to the office of the college's president, as well as other administrative offices. Phalen House serves as the rectory for the Basilian priests who oversee neighboring St. Basil's parish. Windle House, at the northeast corner of the street, is home to the Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky Institute of Eastern Christian Studies.
Academics
The University of St. Michael's College comprises the Faculty of Theology, the Division of Continuing Education, and its namesake undergraduate division, St Michael's College. Within the University of Toronto Faculty of Arts and Science, St. Michael's College sponsors the academic programs of book and media studies, Celtic studies, Christianity and Culture, Mediaeval studies and the Concurrent Teacher Religious Education Program. In 1996, the French and German departments of the University of Toronto took up residence on the St Michael's campus, followed in 2000 by the departments of Italian and Slavic studies.
After a reorganization in 1954, degrees in theology have been through the Faculty of Theology of St. Michael's College. In 1969, the Faculty of Theology became one of the founding colleges of the Toronto School of Theology, an ecumenical federation of the theological colleges at the University of Toronto. The undergraduate division of St. Michael's College joined the undergraduate divisions of six other University of Toronto colleges in 1974 to reorganize its academic departments into the University of Toronto Faculty of Arts and Science. In 2005, the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies ceased to be a division of the University of St. Michael's College and was reconstituted as an affiliated institution of U.S.M.C. instead.
Marshall McLuhan was hired as a member of faculty at St. Michael's College in 1946, and taught English literature at the college until his death in 1980. During this time he became famous and influential for his books The Mechanical Bride (1951), The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962), and Understanding Media (1964), in addition to his oft-quoted aphorisms on communications and media such as "the medium is the message".
The John M. Kelly Library is the main library at St. Michael's College, and is part of the University of Toronto's mass digitization partnership with the Internet Archive. Although the library building was opened in 1969, the library collection dates back to the earliest days of the college. The collection has since been developed in support of undergraduate programmes in the Faculty of Arts and Science, graduate programmes in the Faculty of Theology, and programmes of the college's continuing education division. In addition to more than 300,000 bookform volumes, the library maintains subscriptions to almost 500 journals and magazines and has the largest suite of public computers on the east side of the University of Toronto campus.
The Kelly Library's collection has representation mainly in the areas of humanities and social sciences, particularly in book history, media studies, philosophy, Celtic history, languages and literature, Canadian history, English literature, and Medieval history. The theological collection emphasizes patristics, early and medieval church history, Thomism, the Bible (especially Canon, Johannine literature, and the history of criticism), liturgical renewal, religious education, and Catholic missions. There are also extensive archival special collections including substantial holdings of G. K. Chesterton, John Henry Newman, early printed books, and the papers of Henri Nouwen and Sheila Watson.
College governance
Since St Michael's College's founding in 1852, the school has retained a strong connection to its Roman Catholic roots, in particular, with the Congregation of St. Basil. The college is primarily governed by three offices- the Chancellor, the President, and the Principal. The Chancellor serves as the ceremonial head of the college, and since the days of the college's founding, the office has been occupied by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Toronto. Prior to 1954, the office of the President was referred to as the Superior, and was always occupied by one of the Basilian priests from the adjacent St Basil's parish. The position morphed into the current Presidential role once St Michael's federated into the University of Toronto and re-organized in the 1950s, although several Basilians still held the office following. Today the President heads the administration of the college, and represents its interests in relation to the rest of the university and beyond. Founded in 1976, the office of the Principal heads the college's academics, and retains relations with all the various faculties and departments associated with and located at the college.
Residences and student life
Within the secular environment of the University of Toronto, the Catholic traditions of St. Michael's are still evident in its college programs, fellows' interests, and student activities. Thus far, the college has largely avoided stirring controversy in its move toward coeducational residences.
Unlike the university's other colleges, where most residences are co-ed, the majority of St Michael's residents reside on single sex floors. However, there are two co-ed residences currently at the college (Historic House 2&96 and Upper Brennan). Female students also have the option to live at the single-sex Loretto College residence; although males are permitted to visit during designated guest hours.
The dons at St. Michael's College are graduate, senior undergraduate and professional faculty students. The college's dining hall, the Canada Room, has recently been expanded and renovated and its hours have been extended.
Within the college, The Dean’s Office is responsible for residence operations, residence programming and all aspects of student life at St. Michael’s College.
The residences for St. Michael's students are Elmsley Hall Residence (Elmsley First, Mallon House, McBrady House, and Soulerin House), The Queen's Park Residence (Fisher House, More House, and Teefy House), the Historic Houses (McCorkell House, Sullivan House, Gilson House, and Maritain House), Sorbara Hall Residence (Lower Level, Murphy First (unofficial name), Second Floor, Fontbonne House, and Wall House), and Upper Brennan Hall.
Elmsley Hall was renovated in the summer of 2020, making it the most recently renovated space on campus. Renovations included painting and flooring in residence rooms, new furniture and updated common rooms on all floors.
Ice hockey at the college
St. Michael's College formerly participated in the senior ice hockey division of the Ontario Hockey Association, and won the J. Ross Robertson Cup in 1909 and 1910.
The Toronto St. Michael's Majors in the Ontario Hockey League descended from the college's ice hockey team.
Notable people
Faculty and staff
William Allen, lawyer and chairman of the Metro Toronto Council (1962–1969)
Richard Alway, administrator and educator
Dan Bahat, archeologist and professor
Gregory Baum, theologian, peritus at Vatican II
Robert Birgeneau, 9th chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, 14th president of the University of Toronto
Randy Boyagoda, author and professor
Father Henry Carr, noted Catholic educator and early administrator of St Michael's College
Sean Conway, professor and member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1999–2003)
, philosopher and professor of Slavic studies
Leslie Dewart, professor of philosophy
Maurice De Wulf, professor of philosophy and theology
Fr. Daniel Donovan, professor of theology and notable art collector
Ann Dooley, professor of Irish literature and Celtic studies
Peter Galadza, Ukrainian-Greco Catholic priest, liturgist, and director of the Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky Institute of Eastern Christian Studies
Étienne Gilson, philosopher and historian
, professor of philosophy and German
Mark Kingwell, philosopher and professor at the University of Toronto
Christina Kramer, professor of Balkan and Slavic languages and literature
Robert K. Logan, academic and media ecologist
Michael Lynch, professor of American literature and activist
Dave Mann, football player and St Michael's intramurals coach
Jacques Maritain, philosopher
Marshall McLuhan, professor of English literature and prominent media critic
Bruce Meyer, professor and poet
David Mulroney, diplomat and national foreign policy advisor, Canadian Ambassador to China (2009–2012) . Also an alumnus of St Michael's College
Denis O'Connor, Archbishop of Toronto (1899–1908) and college administrator. Also an alumnus of St Michael's College
Robert O'Driscoll, writer and professor of English
Margaret O'Gara, theologian and ecumenist
Thomas Pangle, political theorist
John Peter Portelli, poet and professor
Fr. Walter Principe, C.S.B., First Dean of Theology, member of International Theological Commission
Alexander Reford, historian and Dean of St Michael's College (1987–1995)
Yves Roberge, professor of French
Anna Shternshis, professor of Yiddish and German
Fr. Jean-Mathieu Soulerin, C.S.B., professor and early administrator of St Michael's College
David Sylvester, historian and president of St Michael's College
Emoke Szathmary, 10th president of the University of Manitoba
Fr. John R. Teefy, C.S.B., president of St Michael's College, journalist, and first editor of The Catholic Register
Victor Togni, organist and choirmaster for St Michael's College
Jean Vanier, professor of theology and philosophy, founder of L'Arche
Sir Bertram Windle, biologist, archeologist, and professor
Alumni
Academia and education
John Bolt, Dutch Reformed theologian
Vernon Bourke, philosopher and professor. Also taught at St. Michael's College
Andrew Carnie, scholar of Celtic languages and professor at the University of Arizona
Fr. Joseph Cassidy, S.J., theologian and academic administrator
Fr. John P. Dourley, priest, philosopher, and professor
Colleen Hanycz, president of La Salle University
Michael W. Higgins, theologian and academic
Gregory Kealey, historian and academic
Hugh Kenner, literary scholar and academic
John S. Kloppenborg, theologian and academic
Grace Ji-Sun Kim, theologian and academic
Eugene Carlisle LeBel, notable academic and religious leader
Richard Longenecker, professor and New Testament scholar
Fr. Thomas Looney, C.S.C., president of King's College
Gerard Mannion, theologian
Douglas Moggach, philosopher and professor at the University of Ottawa
Kim Richard Nossal, professor and political scholar
Rose Patten, businesswoman and 34th Chancellor of the University of Toronto
A. James Reimer, Mennonite theologian and academic
Kathryn M. Rudy, Medieval manuscript historian
Br. Lawrence Spitzig, F.S.C., educator and Director of St. John's Institution, Kuala Lumpur (1954-1960; 1978-1983)
David Staines, professor and literary critic
Daniel James Sullivan, professor, author of An Introduction to Philosophy (1957), and recipient of Purple Heart
Emőke Szathmáry, anthropologist and president of the University of Manitoba
Lucian Turcescu, professor and theologian
Paul C. Weiler, Harvard Law School professor
Peggy R. Williams, president of Ithaca College
Gale A. Yee, Biblical scholar
Philip G. Ziegler, theologian and United Church minister
Arts, literature, and media
Bert Archer, journalist and author
Philip Burke, illustrator
Barry Callaghan, author and poet
Eileen Carron, lawyer and journalist
Anne Carson, noted poet, author, and literary scholar
Fr. Charles Coughlin, C.S.B., controversial radio commentator and harsh critic of Franklin D. Roosevelt
Kevin Collins, actor
Anthony De Sa, novelist and short story writer
Paul Durcan, poet
Charles Foran, author and novelist
Ryan-James Hatanaka, television and film actor
Hugh Hood, author
Claire Keegan, short story writer
Fr. Mark Owen Lee, C.S.B., music scholar and academic
Bernard MacLaverty, writer and novelist
Daniel McCarthy, television producer
Eileen McGann, Celtic musician and songwriter
Glenn Patterson, writer and professor
Justin Rutledge, singer and songwriter
Philip Street, cartoonist and animator
Katsura Sunshine, Rakugo actor and theatre producer
Rajiv Surendra, actor and author
Kevin Sylvester, author, illustrator, and sportscaster
Sheila Watson, author and literary scholar
George Weigel, author and political commentator
Athletics
Marie-Thérèse Armentero, swimmer at the 1984 and 1988 Olympics, bronze medalist at the 1986 World Aquatics Championships
Bobby Bauer, Hockey Hall of Famer, Olympian, and long time player for the Boston Bruins
Fr. David Bauer, C.S.B., Roman Catholic priest and founder of the Canada men's national ice hockey team and inductee into the Hockey Hall of Fame
Fr. Ronald Cullen, inductee into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame (1996)
Dan D'Alvise, professional hockey player and member of Canadian Olympic hockey team (1980)
Frank Dunlap, lawyer and professional Canadian football player
Lori Dupuis, professional hockey player and Olympic gold medalist
Johnny Metras, inductee into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Mike Pelino, ice hockey coach
Alan Pyle, member of Canadian Olympic water polo team (1972)
Dorota Urbaniak, rower and Olympic bronze medalist
Stelio Zupancich, professional hockey player and member of Canadian Olympic hockey team (1980)
Business
Joseph J. Barnicke, entrepreneur and philanthropist
Francis Buckley, businessman
F. Anthony Comper, President and Chief Executive Officer of the Bank of Montreal
Victor G. Dodig, President and Chief Executive Officer of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce
Don Morrison, Chief Operating Officer of BlackBerry
Government and politics
Stella Ambler, member of Parliament (2011–2015)
Bob Callahan, member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1985–1995) and Brampton City Council (1969–1985, 1997–2014)
Edward F. Crawford, member of the New York State Assembly (1957–1973) and New York Supreme Court (1973–1975)
Bonnie Crombie, Mayor of Mississauga (2014–present)
Consiglio Di Nino, Senator from Ontario (1990–2012)
Richard A. Dollinger, member of the New York State Senate (1993–2002) and judge on the New York Court of Claims
Leona Dombrowsky, member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1999–2011)
James Gervase Foley, civil servant and Clerk of the Crown in Chancery for Canada (1908–1914)
James Joseph Foy, lawyer and member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1898–1916)
Eugene Pierce Gillespie, member of the United States House of Representatives (1891–1893)
Barbara Greene, politician and member of Parliament (1988–1993)
James Jerome, member of Parliament (1968–1979) and Speaker of the House of Commons (1974–1979)
David Lametti, member of Parliament (2015–present) and Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada (2019–present)
Laurier LaPierre, historian and Senator from Ontario (2001–2004)
Mark MacGuigan, academic, politician, and judicial figure
Paul Martin Sr., diplomat and member of Parliament (1935–1974)
Paul Martin, 21st Prime Minister of Canada (2003–2006)
Catherine McKenna, member of Parliament (2015–2021) , Minister of Environment and Climate Change (2015–2019) , and Minister of Infrastructure and Communities (2019–2021)
Marilou McPhedran, Senator from Manitoba (2016–present)
Joe Mihevc, Toronto City Councillor (1998–2018)
David Mulroney, diplomat and national foreign policy advisor, Canadian Ambassador to China (2009–2012) . Also served as president of St Michael's College
Thomas Mulvey, diplomat and Under-Secretary of State for Canada (1909–1933)
Fabian O'Dea, lawyer and Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland (1963–1969)
John Raymond O'Neill, member of Parliament (1925–1926)
Gordon Osbaldeston, civil servant and government administrator
Gérard Pelletier, journalist and member of Parliament (1965–1975)
Edmond Proulx, lawyer and member of Parliament (1904–1921) and member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1923–1929)
Ian Scott, lawyer and member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1985–1992)
Greg Sorbara, member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1985-1995, 2001-2012)
Elizabeth Joan Smith, politician, Solicitor General of Ontario, and member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1985–1990)
Filomena Tassi, member of Parliament (2015–present) and Cabinet member
Jim Wilson, politician and member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1990–present)
Health, science, and medicine
Nancy Olivieri, medical researcher and haematologist
Mark Siddall, biologist
Dr. Andy Smith, president and CEO of Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre and professor of surgery at the University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine
Law and judicial figures
John Casey, judge on the New York Court of Appeals
Gerald Francis Day, justice of the Ontario Court of Justice (1992–1999) and Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1999–2008)
Martha M. Devlin, justice of the Supreme Court of British Columbia
Kathleen O'Connor Diesman, judge on the Judicial Council of California
Guy P. DiTomaso, judge on the Ontario Superior Court of Justice for Simcoe County, Ontario
John Joseph Dowlin, judge on the Ontario Superior Court of Justice for Kent County, Ontario (appointed 1904)
John Edward Eberle, justice of the Ontario Court of Justice (1977–1990) and the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1990–1994)
Harry Edmondstone, judge on the Ontario Court of Justice
John James Fitzpatrick, justice on the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1982–1989)
Michael Stanton Fitzpatrick, justice on the Ontario Superior Court of Justice
Michael Paul Forestall, justice on the Ontario Court of Justice (1990–1999) and Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1999–2004)
Louis Martin Hays, judge on the regional court of Wellington County, Ontario, and a major in the 57th Regiment of the 2nd/10th Dragoons (1907)
Bernard William Hurley, justice of the Ontario Court of Justice (1990–1999) and Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1999–2002)
Joseph James, judge on the Ontario Superior Court of Justice
William Deneau Lyon, judge on the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1990–1998)
Frank Marrocco, Associate Chief Justice of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (2005–2020)
Patrick McCurry, judge on the regional court of the Parry Sound District of Ontario (appointed 1898)
Murray Alexander Mogan, judge on the Tax Court of Canada (appointed 1988)
J. Patrick Moore, judge on the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (2005–2020)
Michael Andrew McHugh, judge on the regional court of Essex County, Ontario (appointed 1891)
Nicholson Duncan McRae, justice of the High Court of Justice (1982–1990) , Ontario Court of Justice (1990–1999) , and Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1999–2005)
Hugh Michael O'Connell, justice of the Ontario Court of Justice (1990–1999) and Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1999–2008)
John Gerald Joseph O'Driscoll, justice of the High Court of Justice (1971–1990) , Ontario Court of Justice (1990–1999) , and Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1999–2006)
Dennis O'Leary, justice of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1971–2001)
George Bourke Smith, justice of the Ontario Court of Justice (1990–1999) and Ontario Superior Court of Justice (1999–2008)
Edward Wren, justice of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice
Religious figures
Francis Valentine Allen, titular Bishop of Avensa (1954–1977) and auxiliary Bishop of Toronto (1954–1977)
Bryan Bayda, Bishop of the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Saskatoon (2008–present)
John Anthony Boissonneau, titular Bishop of Tambeae (2001–present) and auxiliary Bishop of Toronto (2001–present)
Fr. Michael Brehl, C.S.s.R., Superior General of the Redemptorist Order (2009–present)
Thomas Burke, Bishop of Albany (1894–1915)
Francis Patrick Carroll, Bishop of Calgary (1935–1966)
Frederick Joseph Colli, Bishop of Thunder Bay (1999–present)
Joseph Henry Conroy, Bishop of Ogdensburg (1921–1939)
David Frederick Cunningham, Bishop of Syracuse (1970–1976)
Celestine Damiano, Apostolic Nuncio to South Africa (1952–1960) and Bishop of Camden (1960–1967)
Roman Danylak, Bishop and Apostolic Administrator of the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Toronto (1992–2012)
Nicola De Angelis, titular Bishop of Remesiana (1992), auxiliary Bishop of Toronto (1992–2002) , and Bishop of Peterborough (2002–2014)
Fr. Wilfrid Dewan, C.S.P., Superior of the Paulist Fathers (1978–1986)
Thomas Joseph Dowling, Bishop of Peterborough (1886–1889) and Bishop of Hamilton (1889–1924)
Ronald Peter Fabbro, Bishop of London (2002–present)
George Flahiff, Roman Catholic Cardinal and Archbishop of Winnipeg (1961–1982)
Richard Grecco, Bishop of Charlottetown (2009–2021)
Jon Hansen, Bishop of Mackenzie-Fort Smith (2017–present)
Fr. William Richard Harris, Roman Catholic priest, Church historian, Dean of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint Catharines
Robert Kasun, auxiliary Bishop of Toronto (2016–present)
Brian Kolodiejchuk, Roman Catholic priest and advocate for the canonization of St Mother Teresa
Michael Pearse Lacey, auxiliary Bishop of Toronto (1979–1993)
Fergus McEvay, Archbishop of Toronto (1908–1911)
Fr. Tom McKillop, Roman Catholic priest and member of the Order of Canada
J. Michael Miller, Archbishop of Vancouver (2009–present)
Fr. Thomas Mooney, Catholic chaplain killed during World War II
Kenneth Nowakowski, Bishop of the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of the Holy Family of London (2020–present)
Denis O'Connor, first Canadian-born Archbishop of Toronto (1899–1908) . Also taught at the University of St Michael's College
Ricardo Ramírez, Bishop of Las Cruces (1982–2013)
David Joseph Scollard, Bishop of Sault Sainte Marie (1904–1934)
John Michael Sherlock, Bishop of London (1978–2002)
Francis John Spence, Archbishop of Kingston (1982–2002)
Michael Joseph Spratt, Archbishop of Kingston (1911–1938)
Anthony F. Tonnos, Bishop of Hamilton (1983–2010)
Benjamin Ibberson Webster, auxiliary Bishop of Toronto (1946–1954) , Bishop of Peterborough (1954–1968)
James Matthew Wingle, Bishop of Yarmouth (1993–2001) , Bishop of St. Catharines (2001–2010)
Further reading
Friedland, Martin L. The University of Toronto: A History. University of Toronto Press, 2002.
McCorkell, Edmund J. Memoirs of Rev. E.J. McCorkell, C.S.B. Basilian Press, 1975.
Shook, Laurence K. Catholic Post-Secondary Education in English-Speaking Canada: A History. University of Toronto Press, 1971
Slater, John G. Minerva's Aviary: Philosophy at Toronto. University of Toronto Press, 2005.
References
External links
Official website
Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada profile
Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada member school profile
Toronto's Historical Plaques – St. Michael's College
St. Michael's College
Catholic universities and colleges in Canada
Educational institutions established in 1852
Catholic Church in Ontario
1852 establishments in Canada | [
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251849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Rae | Bob Rae | Robert Keith Rae (born August 2, 1948) is a Canadian diplomat, lawyer, negotiator, public speaker, and former politician who is the current Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations since 2020. He previously served as the 21st premier of Ontario from 1990 to 1995, leader of the Ontario New Democratic Party from 1982 to 1996, and interim leader of the Liberal Party of Canada from 2011 to 2013. Between 1978 and 2013, he was elected 11 times to federal (Broadview, Broadview-Greenwood, Toronto Centre) and provincial (York South) parliaments.
Rae was a New Democratic Party (NDP) Member of Parliament from 1978 to 1982. Then he moved to provincial politics, serving as leader of the Ontario NDP from February 7, 1982, to June 22, 1996. After leading his party to victory in the 1990 provincial election he served as the 21st Premier of Ontario from October 1, 1990, to June 26, 1995, and was the first person to have led a provincial NDP government in the province of Ontario. While in office, he brought forward a number of initiatives that were unpopular with many traditional NDP supporters, such as the Social Contract. Rae's subsequent disagreement with the leftward direction of the NDP led him to resign his membership. In 2006, he joined the Liberals; he had previously been a Liberal in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
In 2006, he was a candidate for the leadership of the Liberals, finishing in third place on the third ballot. Rae returned to the House of Commons of Canada on March 31, 2008, as a Liberal MP after winning a March 17, 2008 by-election, holding the riding that had previously been held by Liberal Bill Graham. He was re-elected in the 2008 general election. Rae ran again as a candidate for the party leadership but withdrew on December 12, 2008. He was re-elected in the Toronto Centre riding in the 2011 general election and was named interim leader of the Liberal Party weeks later, replacing Michael Ignatieff; he served in that position until Justin Trudeau's election as party leader in early 2013. On June 19, 2013, Rae announced that he would resign from parliament in order to become chief negotiator for James Bay area First Nations in their negotiations with the provincial government. His resignation from parliament became effective July 31, 2013. Rae joined Olthuis Kleer Townshend (OKT Law) LLP (a law firm specializing in representing Aboriginal clients) as a partner in February 2014. Rae sits as an advisor to Canada's Ecofiscal Commission.
He was appointed Canada's special envoy to Myanmar in October 2017 and advised Prime Minister Justin Trudeau on the Rohingya crisis. He is also a Senior Fellow to the Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights. On July 6, 2020, his appointment as Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations was announced by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.
Family
Rae was born in Ottawa, Ontario. His parents were Lois Esther (George) and Saul Rae, an eminent Canadian career diplomat who had postings in Washington, Geneva, New York, Mexico, and The Hague. Rae's paternal grandparents immigrated from Scotland, and his mother had English ancestry. Rae was raised as an Anglican. As an adult, he found out that his paternal grandfather was Jewish and was from a family of Lithuanian immigrants to Scotland.
Rae's elder brother John A. Rae (born 1945) was an executive vice-president and director of Power Corporation and a prominent member of the Liberal Party. He was also an adviser to Jean Chrétien when he was Indian Affairs Minister in 1968, and then again from 1993 until 2003 while Chrétien was prime minister. Rae's younger brother, David, was diagnosed with lymphatic cancer in 1987. Despite a bone marrow transplant from his brother, he died of leukemia in 1989 at age 32.
Rae learned of his family's Jewish origins in 1968. The revelation had a strong impact on him: he sought to explore his Jewish culture, dated Jewish girls exclusively and ultimately married a Jewish woman. Upon his marriage to Arlene Perly Rae, Rae agreed to raise three daughters in his wife's Jewish faith. Rae is a member of Holy Blossom Temple, a Reform Jewish congregation in Toronto.
His uncle, the late Jackie Rae was an entertainer and former host of The Jackie Rae Show on CBC and also performed on British television.
Early career
Rae attended Crichton Street Public School in Ottawa, Horace Mann Public School and Gordon Junior High School in Washington, D.C. (1956–1961), and the International School of Geneva, Switzerland. His first job was a paper route delivering the Evening Star newspaper, which he later described as "one of the worst newspapers in the history of modern journalism". His customers included Richard Nixon and Estes Kefauver. Rae later joked that Kefauver gave him a $20 tip one Christmas, whereas Pat Nixon only gave him a quarter and made him more sympathetic to Democrats from that moment.
He graduated with honours from University College, University of Toronto, where he also later received his law degree. Michael Ignatieff, who later became Rae's rival for the Liberal Party leadership, was his roommate for a time. He first became involved in politics by volunteering on Trudeau's 1968 Liberal leadership campaign, and later worked on Liberal Charles Caccia's campaign in the 1968 federal election. Rae and Caccia have remained personal friends through their political careers. During his final year as an undergraduate, Rae was a student representative on the Bissell Commission on University Government.
As a result of his strong student record, Rae was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to the University of Oxford, where he studied at Balliol College, Oxford under Isaiah Berlin. His Bachelor of Philosophy thesis criticized the cultural imperialism of early Fabian socialists in the United Kingdom, such as Sidney and Beatrice Webb. During his period in Britain he became involved with social work, helping squatters find rental accommodation in London. He attributes the experience with helping him develop a deepened commitment to social justice and, on his return to Canada in 1974 Rae joined the social democratic NDP. He worked in labour law during the mid-1970s.
Federal New Democrat MP
Rae was elected to the House of Commons of Canada in a 1978 by-election, defeating Progressive Conservative Tom Clifford by 420 votes in the Toronto riding of Broadview. Rae won the NDP nomination over former MP John Paul Harney and activist Kay Macpherson.
He won a full term in the 1979 federal election from the renamed riding of Broadview—Greenwood, and gained national prominence as the NDP's finance critic. In December 1979 he proposed a subamendment to the budget motion, stating that the House of Commons did not approve of Clark's budget. It was this motion's passage that toppled Clark's government after only eight months.
Rae was elected to parliament for a third time in the 1980 federal election, and married Arlene Perly days later. In caucus, he sided with party leader Ed Broadbent in supporting patriation of the Canadian Constitution with a Charter of Rights and Freedoms. He also articulated his party's policy on the Canadian Bank Act, and criticized the Bank of Canada's high interest rate policy.
Ontario NDP leader
During the same period Rae was in Ottawa, the Ontario New Democratic Party was suffering from internal disunity under the leadership of Michael Cassidy. Cassidy resigned as leader after a poor performance in the 1981 provincial election, and a movement began to draft Rae as his replacement. Rae initially declined a request from a provincial delegation led by Member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) Dave Cooke, but reconsidered after further entreaties from former Ontario NDP leader Stephen Lewis and many others.
Eleven of the party's 21 MPPs endorsed his candidacy, as did much of the labour movement. Rae's supporters in caucus were Marion Bryden, Brian Charlton, Dave Cooke, Odoardo Di Santo, Tony Grande, Donald C. MacDonald, Robert Mackenzie, Elie Martel, Ed Philip, George Samis and Mel Swart. He was the most centrist candidate in the contest, and easily defeated Richard Johnston and Jim Foulds at a leadership convention in early 1982.
When Rae won the NDP leadership, the Ontario Progressive Conservative Party had governed Ontario since 1943 and was widely regarded as unbeatable. Rae was strongly critical of the Bill Davis government's approach to social issues, and used his acceptance speech to describe the PC Party's Ontario as "Toryland", "essentially a country club in which women and people of colour were not welcome". His comments were criticized by some in the media, though Rae himself would later write that his words seemed "particularly apt" in retrospect and "certainly aroused an angry response which often means a target has been hit".
First session
After Rae won the party leadership, there was a delay of several months before he was able to contest a by-election to enter the Ontario legislature. Members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs) Jim Renwick, Marion Bryden and Tony Grande all declined to relinquish their seats, before former party leader Donald C. MacDonald agreed to stand down in the York South constituency. Rae defeated Liberal candidate John Nunziata, a York councillor in a by-election on November 4, 1982. Counting the leadership contest, this was his fifth election in just over four years.
The opposition Liberals were led by the inexperienced David Peterson. Many senior NDP strategists believed their party could surpass the Liberals for second place, and Rae and Peterson became frequent rivals for media attention and public support between 1982 and 1985. The NDP took two seats from the Liberals in late 1984 by-elections, and polling by Decima Research from this period put them slightly ahead of the Liberals, although still well behind the PCs.
1985 election and the Liberal-NDP Accord
The NDP did not, however, make the anticipated gains in the 1985 provincial election held on May 2, 1985. They won 25 seats out of 125, only a modest improvement from their 1981 showing. The Progressive Conservatives lost support after Davis retired and right-wing candidate Frank Miller was chosen as their new leader. However, it was the Liberals rather than the NDP who were able to reposition themselves in the political centre and reap the benefits of this change.
Rae nonetheless played a pivotal role in bringing the Progressive Conservative Party's 42-year dynasty to an end. The 1985 election resulted in a minority parliament, in which the Tories held four more seats than David Peterson's Liberals, but were eleven seats short of a majority. Rae entered into negotiations with both Premier Miller and Peterson, the latter begun by a phone call from Rae to Peterson shortly after election day. Rae and Peterson signed a "Liberal-NDP Accord" in which the NDP agreed to support a Liberal government in office for two years. The Liberals, in turn, agreed to implement some policies favoured by the NDP. Rae had personally supported a full coalition, but did not strongly argue this case with other members of his party. Peterson later indicated that he would not have accepted a coalition in any event.
The Progressive Conservatives were defeated in a no-confidence motion on June 18, 1985, and Lieutenant-Governor John Black Aird asked Peterson to form a new government. Rae himself moved the motion of non-confidence, as he had done in the defeat of Joe Clark's government six years earlier. With support from Rae, Peterson's minority government implemented socially progressive legislation on matters such as pay equity, brought an end to extra-billing by doctors, and established campaign spending limits. Rae often criticized Peterson's approach to specific issues, but never moved to bring down the government.
Rae advocated pension reform in early 1986, following revelations that some corporate leaders in Ontario had been given permission to withdraw money from their employees' pension funds. He was especially critical of Conrad Black, who then held a controlling interest in Dominion Stores Ltd., for withdrawing $62 million at a time when many laid off company workers were unable to receive severance pay. During a legislative debate, Rae described Black as "that most symbolic representative of bloated capitalism at its worst". The Liberal government declined to act on the matter. Later in the same year, Rae argued that the Peterson government should reform the Ontario Human Rights Code to include provisions for group defamation and systematic discrimination.
Some members of the NDP disapproved of the party's accord with the Liberals. Party activist Ian Orenstein challenged Rae for the provincial leadership in 1986 in a symbolic protest against the party's centrist tilt. Rae won without difficulty.
Leader of the Opposition
Peterson's minority government was very popular during its two years in office, and the Liberal Party won a landslide majority government in the 1987 provincial election, called after the conclusion of the Liberal-NDP accord. The NDP was reduced to nineteen seats and Rae was nearly defeated in his own riding, defeating high-profile Liberal challenger Alan Tonks by only 333 votes. The Progressive Conservatives under Larry Grossman suffered an even more serious defeat, falling to only sixteen seats. As a result, Rae became Leader of the Opposition once the legislature resumed.
In September 1989, Rae took part in a highly publicized protest in support of native land claims in the middle of the Temagami Forest in Northern Ontario. Following discussions with Chief Gary Potts, Rae agreed to participate in a road sit-in to protect a strand of old pine, a key aspect of the native claim. After the protest, Rae was escorted to a police wagon by members of the Ontario Provincial Police and driven to the nearby town of Elk Lake. He was not charged with an offense.
There was considerable speculation that Rae would seek the federal NDP leadership in 1989, after the resignation of Ed Broadbent. High-profile party members such as former Ontario NDP leader Stephen Lewis, Allan Blakeney and Roy Romanow of Saskatchewan, Gary Doer of Manitoba and Alexa McDonough of Nova Scotia all encouraged him to run, as did several representatives of organized labour. Expecting Rae to resign, Bud Wildman, Ruth Grier and Richard Johnston began preparing campaigns to succeed him as leader of the Ontario NDP. On October 5, 1989, however, Rae announced that he would not return to federal politics and would remain as provincial leader. Several of Rae's associates, including Arlene Perly Rae, declared their support for Howard McCurdy, and later moved to Audrey McLaughlin after McCurdy was dropped from the ballot at the leadership convention. Rae declined to endorse a candidate.
Rae was an international observer for Lithuania's first multi-party elections in early 1990. A lifelong opponent of communism, he later wrote that he was impressed by the spirit of the opposition Sąjūdis party, which won the election. He was also very critical of the Kremlin's harsh response to the opposition's victory.<ref>Bob Rae, "Kremlin response to Lithuania says nyet to freedom", The Globe and Mail, March 29, 1990, A7; Bob Rae, "Canada should support Lithuania", Toronto Star', May 4, 1990, A27.</ref>
Election victory
Peterson called a snap election for 1990. The NDP entered the campaign with low expectations, as the Liberals still held a significant lead in opinion polls and all signs indicated that they would win another majority government. Rae later acknowledged that he did not expect to win the election, and planned to leave electoral politics at some point in the next sitting of the legislature. A number of prominent MPPs, including Richard Johnston, Marion Bryden and David Reville, chose not to seek re-election. Floyd Laughren was also planning to retire, but had not finalized his plans when Peterson dropped the writ.
Contrary to expectations, the Liberal Party's support base declined significantly in mid-campaign. The snap election was unpopular, and the Liberals suffered lingering effects from an earlier scandal involving Liberal fundraiser Patti Starr undermined public confidence in the government. Peterson's prominent role in drafting and supporting the troubled Meech Lake Accord for constitutional reform proved a particular liability. There were also signs of an economic downturn by this time and some believed that Peterson had called the snap election to avoid its full impact. The Progressive Conservatives were led by the inexperienced Mike Harris, who ran a narrow campaign focused on tax issues and was unable to capitalize on the Liberal slide. As such, Rae's NDP was the primary beneficiary. Rae himself was more confident than in the 1985 and 1987 campaigns, and took a more aggressive stance against the Peterson government. A poll taken late in the campaign showed the NDP holding a slight lead over the Liberals.
The election results were nonetheless a surprise to political observers across the province, even to longtime NDP supporters. The NDP was elected to a strong majority government with 74 seats. The popular vote was very close, with the NDP outpolling the Liberals 37% to 34%. Several ridings were won by narrow margins. However, the NDP managed to take many seats from the Liberals in the Greater Toronto Area, and also did better than ever before (or in some cases, since) in many other cities and rural areas. Due to the nature of the first-past-the-post electoral system, which ignores the popular vote and only awards power based on the number of ridings won, this decimated the Liberal caucus. The Liberals lost 59 seats, the worst defeat in their history and the second-worst defeat for a governing party in Ontario. The NDP even managed to unseat Peterson in his own riding.
Premier
On October 1, 1990, Rae was sworn in as the first, and to date the only, NDP Premier of Ontario. He also took the Intergovernmental Affairs portfolio, giving himself a direct voice in future constitutional negotiations.
Bob Rae was in power for 1650 days, the longest term unique to an Ontario premier since the Second World War. In 1990 he was one of the only Ontario premiers who could speak French.
He was very popular for his first six months as Premier, with a poll from March 1991 showing the NDP at 52% support. The federal NDP also received 56% support in Ontario in a January 1991 poll.
The government was unable to sustain its popularity, however, and by late 1992 had fallen to third place in public opinion polls. The party's popularity continued to ebb throughout 1993, followed by only a modest recovery in the next two years. This, among other factors, partially contributed to a significant decline in support for the federal NDP.
There are many reasons for the Rae government's loss of popularity between 1991 and 1993. The NDP had never governed Ontario before, and Ontario was experiencing its worst recession since the Great Depression. The government backtracked on several campaign promises, most notably the introduction of public auto insurance, which caused disagreements among the party and supporters, especially from members of the progressive wing of the party such as cabinet ministers Howard Hampton and Shelley Martel. A number of scandals in cabinet and caucus due to the large number of rookie MPPs also cut into the government's popularity.
In the 1993 federal election, the NDP fell to a historic low of 6% support in Ontario. All 10 New Democrat MPs from Ontario lost their seats to Liberal challengers as the Liberals won all but one seat in the province. Besides many NDP supporters nationwide voting Liberal to ensure that the Conservatives would be defeated (to avoid the vote-splitting of the 1988 election), the Rae government's unpopularity was a major factor in the federal NDP's losses. On the day after the election, defeated MP Steven Langdon called on Rae to resign. Langdon had openly campaigned against Rae's austerity measures. Although he lost by 13,000 votes to the Liberal candidate, he received a higher percentage of votes than any other NDP candidate in the province.
Notwithstanding its setbacks, the Rae government achieved some positive accomplishments during its time in office. It saved many jobs in northern Ontario through its bailout of Algoma Steel, and negotiated a similar contract for paper mill workers in Kapuskasing. Other popular initiatives included the TTC Eglinton West subway line in Toronto (even though the official transit plan only recommended a busway for current needs), support for public housing, and the Jobs Ontario job creation program. Rae's decision to approve casino gambling for the province was also opposed by many in the party but it provided a steady source of revenue.
Rae's Government policies
Economic policy
Ontario's economic forecast was bleak when Rae took office in October 1990. The Liberal government had forecast a small surplus earlier in the year, but a worsening North American economy led to a $700 million deficit before Rae took office. In October, the NDP projected a $2.5 billion deficit for the fiscal year ending on March 31, 1991. Some economists projected soaring deficits for the upcoming years, even if the Rae government implemented austerity measures. Rae himself was critical of the Bank of Canada's high interest rate policy, arguing that it would lead to increased unemployment throughout the country. He also criticized the 1991 federal budget, arguing the Finance Minister Michael Wilson was shifting the federal debt to the provinces.
The Rae government's first budget, introduced in 1991, increased social spending to mitigate the economic slowdown and projected a record deficit of $9.1 billion. Finance Minister Floyd Laughren argued that Ontario made a decision to target the effects of the recession rather than the deficit, and said that the budget would create or protect 70,000 jobs. It targeted more money to social assistance, social housing and child benefits, and raised taxes for high-income earners while lowering rates for 700,000 low-income Ontarians.
Labour policy
In April 1991, the government introduced a one-year program to protect the pay of workers whose firms had shut down due to the recession. Labour Minister Bob Mackenzie estimated that the plan would help 56,000 workers.
Rae claims he faced a true emergency in the spring of 1993 a crisis of government on which he had to act. Upon returning from Davos, Rae gave a speech on 9 February describing international business leaders' despair over government deficits and inefficiencies in Europe, where they stressed "the worldwide trend to redesign organizations, downsizing possible and trying to make their organisations more responsive'. Rae left Davos convinced that major changes in Ontario public services were needed, where these changes were of the kind long-proposed by the more conservative and business leaders of Ontario.
As a result, his government brought in the Social Contract, austerity legislation which reopened collective bargaining agreements with the province's public sector unions. This legislation imposed a wage freeze and introduced what became known as "Rae days", requiring civil servants to take up to twelve days off without pay per year. These measures generated nearly 2 billion dollars in savings for Ontario, without laying off any public sector workers. These cutbacks led to a falling-out with both the public sector unions, most notably Ontario Public Service Employees Union (OPSEU), and the Canadian Auto Workers (CAW) and its leader Buzz Hargrove. Sid Ryan, Ontario President of the Canadian Union of Public Employees stated that Rae's passing of the "Social Contract" was unforgivable.Macleans reported that Rae had been delivered "a secret ultimatum" "by Canadian and international bond dealers". If he didn't get the deficit under $10 billion, they would demand junk-bond interest rates in order to finance Ontario's debt. Richard Walkom suggested it was a sudden panic of an NDP party aware of the stereotype it could not manage a budget, using the crisis as an opportunity to demonstrate it would use extreme measures in the appropriate circumstances. Regardless of whether Davos visit provided an epiphany, pressure or panic, this event is agreed as the beginning of the Ontario government's concessions to international corporations.
Indeed, no less than a year later at Davos, Rae arrived as a pro-business head of government. He approached the World Economic Forum as a unabashed champion of the international corporation working against the expansion of workers' wages and government services. He proposed giving a large majority of Ontario's investment planning to international banking and securities firms, meeting with Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs and Nomura Securities, all of whom sold Ontario bonds on the global market. Instead of selling more bonds, he was now asking them to "sell Ontario through their global networks", looking to "plug into" them instead of spending government money to control publicly-controlled avenues to investment.
This breach between the NDP and the labour movement struck at the party's foundations. The NDP was founded as an alliance between the old Cooperative Commonwealth Federation and the labour movement, and Rae's policy decisions alienated many traditional NDP voters. Thousands of members resigned from the party, and several unions turned against the NDP and vowed to defeat the government in the next election. The Rae government later attempted to regain labour support by passing Bill 40, a measure which (among other things) introduced anti-scab provisions to the province. This was not enough to bridge the gap with organized labour, however, and the party was unable to regain significant union support.
Health policy
As Premier, Rae placed a cap on enrollment into medical schools. The Rae government also delisted home care from OHIP coverage but introduced a new comprehensive program to deliver the service mostly on a non-profit basis by publicly run, regional multi-service agencies and passed the Home Care and Community Services Act, 1994 to facilitate this. The Harris government subsequently rejected this model for a brokerage model in which Community Care Access Centres would hire a home care provider to service a region rather than provide the service directly and lifted the 10% limit on the use of for-profit service delivery that the Rae government had imposed.
Auto insurance
The New Democratic Party campaigned on a promise to introduce public auto insurance in the 1987 and 1990 campaigns. After assuming office, Rae appointed Peter Kormos, one of the most vocal proponents of public insurance, as the minister responsible for bringing forward the policy. With the onset of the recession, however, both business and labour groups expressed concern about layoffs and lost revenues. The government backtracked from the policy in 1991. Kormos, who had already been dropped from cabinet, became Rae's most vocal critic in the NDP caucus.
Social policy
Rae's government attempted to introduce a variety of socially progressive measures during its time in office, though its success in this field was mixed. In 1994, the government introduced legislation, Bill 167, which would have provided for same-sex partnership benefits in the province. At the time, this legislation was seen as a revolutionary step forward for same-sex recognition. It was defeated, however, when twelve NDP MPPs (including two junior ministers) voted against it, while the opposition Liberals led by Lyn McLeod also withdrew their support.
The Rae government established an employment equity commission in 1991, and two years later introduced affirmative action to improve the numbers of women, non-whites, aboriginals and disabled persons working across the private and public sectors. This policy was controversial, and it cost the NDP support among its unionized working-class base of support.
In November 1990, the Rae government announced that it would restrict most rent increases to 4.6% for the present year and 5.4% for 1991. The provisions for 1990 were made retroactive. Tenants' groups supported these changes, while landlord representatives were generally opposed. Dave Cooke, the minister responsible for implementing the policy, later announced that he would work to factor in the costs of legitimate building renovations.
When campaigning in 1990, Rae promised that he would eliminate food banks through anti-poverty initiatives. After taking office, however, his government committed a significant sum of money to support Ontario's existing food banks. Gerard Kennedy, leader of the Daily Bread Food Bank in Toronto, criticized Rae for not targeting the money toward affordable housing and welfare reforms. In April 1991, Community and Social Services minister Zanana Akande announced that food banks would have to remain open in light of changed economic circumstances.
Rae increased the basic social assistance allowance by 7% in 1991, and increased the maximum payment for shelter allowances by 10%.
Rae supports abortion rights, saying "The rights of women to choose, to have control over their own bodies, is not a right which is going to be taken away by the Parliament of Canada, and it is not a right which should be subject to some private member's bill which is going to affect the rights of women to have choice, to have genuine equality and to have full and complete access to the medicare and the health care that they need."
Aboriginal issues
Soon after assuming office in 1990, Rae announced his support for native Canadians' "inherent right to self-government". He later worked to help six aboriginal bands in Northern Ontario gain reserve status, and called for self-government on the Akwesasne Indian Reserve, in part to help the reserve leaders combat smuggling. Rae also pushed for native rights to be included in future constitutional reforms.
Energy policy
In November 1990, the Rae government announced an indefinite moratorium on the construction of new nuclear plants in Ontario. He consistently opposed plans to privatize Ontario Hydro.
Intergovernmental affairs and Quebec status
In March 1991, Rae announced that he would support a new round of constitutional negotiations between the federal government and the provinces, which ultimately proved to be unsuccessful. He indicated that Ontario was willing to recognize Quebec as a distinct society, and called for aboriginal and women's rights to be entrenched in the Canadian Constitution. Rae also supported the creation of a "social charter", to establish national standards for social programs such as medicare.
Early in his term, Rae indicated that his government would continue a long-standing development freeze in Toronto's Harbourfront area, to ensure the survival of cultural programs in the area.
Rae was initially one of the most prominent opponents of the North American Free Trade Agreement in Canada. During a meeting with Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari in 1991, he argued that any proposed North American free trade zone would have to incorporate common environmental and labour standards.
Law enforcement
Rae endorsed Susan Eng's successful bid to chair the Metro Toronto Police Services Board in early 1991, over the opposition of several police officers. Rae later introduced policies requiring Ontario police services to hire more women, disabled people, native Canadians and members of visible minority groups.
Sunday shopping
When Rae assumed office, the Retail Business Holidays Act of Ontario had recently been found unconstitutional
by the Supreme Court of Ontario, meaning that many stores were allowed to open legally on Sundays for the first time. Rae announced that his government planned to introduce legislation for a "common pause day" across Ontario, "to help strengthen family and community life while protecting small business and the rights of workers". In practice, this initiative would have required many retail establishments to close on Sundays, with exemptions for religious minority communities. The province also appealed the court ruling to a higher court, the Ontario Court of Appeal, which restored the previous status quo.
However, many retail owners as well as members of the general public preferred Sunday shopping to be legal,
and in 1992 the Rae government yielded to the pressure and reversed its position, amending the Retail Business Holidays Act so that only statutory holidays, and not Sundays, would be common pause days.
Education – A Royal Commission
The Rae government created a Royal Commission on Learning – co-chaired by Gerald Caplan and Monique Bégin – which delivered its report and recommendations: "For the Love of Learning" in January 1995. Among the reports' more prominent recommendations were:
the creation of a common curriculum for Ontario schools
the equalization of funding per pupil
the elimination of grade 13
the appointment of pupil representatives on Ontario school boards
the creation of a College of Teachers (recommendation #58)
the implementation of uniform testing of students at various grade levels.
1995 election
Rae's popularity had recovered somewhat by 1995, but by the time the writs were dropped for that year's provincial election it was obvious that the NDP would not be re-elected.
The official opposition Liberals were expected to be the primary benefactors of the NDP's unpopularity, having recovered from their severe defeat of five years earlier, and leading in opinion polls since 1992. However, several unpopular policy reversals and mistakes by Liberal leader Lyn McLeod allowed Mike Harris and the Tories to benefit from the swing in support away from the NDP. During the leaders' debates, while Rae and McLeod traded barbs, Harris used his camera time to speak directly to the camera about the PC's platform. Several working-class ridings which had long voted NDP became disgruntled with the party due to the Social Contract and affirmative action, so they were attracted by Harris' populism and shifted to the Tories. While the NDP polled considerably better in northern Ontario than it did in 1990, it lost much of its support in rest of the province, especially the 905 region where they had won many seats five years earlier. In the end the Tories shot from third place to a landslide majority government, sweeping the NDP from power. The Liberals lost six seats, but retained their status as the official opposition, while the NDP fell to only seventeen seats and third place in the Legislative Assembly.
Rae himself was reelected in his own riding by over 3,000 votes. However, on February 29, 1996; he resigned as NDP leader and MPP for York South and moved to positions in law, academia and the private sector. He joined the law firm of Goodmans LLP. He was eventually succeeded as party leader by Howard Hampton, who was formerly Natural Resources Minister in Rae's cabinet and a longtime left-wing rival. Liberal Gerard Kennedy succeeded Rae as MPP for York South.
After NDP
Rae resigned from the New Democratic Party in 1998 due to his appointment to the Security Intelligence Review Committee. There was some speculation that Prime Minister Jean Chrétien would have him appointed Governor General in 1999, but he was passed over in favour of Adrienne Clarkson. There was further speculation that Rae would return to the federal Liberals and run under their banner in the 2000 election, though nothing came of this at the time.
Rae was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in 2000, and in 2004 he was appointed to the Order of Ontario. He was appointed the sixth chancellor of Wilfrid Laurier University on July 2, 2003, and was installed at that school's fall convocation in October. Rae also became a partner at Goodmans LLP, a Toronto-based corporate law firm, an adjunct professor at the University of Toronto, and a Senior Fellow of Massey College. He has written a number of books: From Protest to Power: Personal Reflections on a Life in Politics (1996), Three Questions: Prosperity and the Public Good (1998), Canada in the Balance (2006), Exporting Democracy: The Risks and Rewards of Pursuing a Good Idea (2010), and What's Happened to Politics? (2016). He was the national spokesperson for the Leukemia Research Foundation.
Rae helped the Toronto Symphony Orchestra restructure following an extended strike by its musicians at the beginning of the 1999–2000 season.
Rae returned to active politics on April 16, 2002, two days after Mike Harris announced his resignation as premier, with an opinion piece in the National Post newspaper. In an article entitled, "Parting Company with the NDP", Rae strongly criticized what he perceived as a bias against Israel in the federal party, and also criticized the NDP for rejecting Tony Blair's Third Way concept and for refusing to accept globalization and open markets. He suggested that the party's economic policies were insufficient for the 21st century, and that the party as a whole was no longer "worthy of support".
The Ontario NDP distanced itself from Rae's policies under Hampton. During the 2003 provincial election, Hampton argued that Rae was wrong to reverse the NDP's commitment to public auto insurance. The party's relations with the labour movement have not completely healed, although the situation has improved since 1993. Relations with the CAW remain especially fraught, and memories of the social contract have hurt the NDP's credibility with a new generation of public sector workers, despite the party's efforts to distance itself from the measure. Nonetheless, the Ontario NDP remained in third place in the Legislative Assembly, and would not win more than 20 seats in the legislature until 2014 under Hampton's successor, Andrea Horwath. It would not come out of the political wilderness until 2018, when it won 40 seats–its most since 1990–and opposition status.
Rae worked on the Red Cross tainted blood issue and also worked towards a resolution of the fishing conflict in Burnt Church, New Brunswick.
In 2005, Rae wrote a report for the Liberal government of Dalton McGuinty on post-secondary education, commonly referred to as the Rae Report. His report called for increased government funding to colleges and universities, and enhanced student aid especially for low-income students. The report also suggested that individual institutions ought to be able to determine what rate of tuition fees to charge, free from government controls, which generated controversy. Student groups including the Canadian Federation of Students have objected, noting the significant recent increases in tuition fees in Ontario under the government of Mike Harris, and the 57 per cent increase in tuition fees during Rae's own tenure as premier. Ontario NDP leader Howard Hampton also criticized the report. Rae defended his report, arguing that low income non-university individuals would not benefit from a tuition freeze/lowering, as well as being forced to bear the tax burden needed to enact it.
Rae has also become involved with international issues; in 2002 and 2003, as chair of the Forum of Federations he helped oversee constitutional discussions between the government of Sri Lanka and Tamil Tiger rebels. On April 26, 2005, he was appointed to advise Deputy Prime Minister Anne McLellan on whether or not there should be a government inquiry into the 1985 Air India disaster. On November 23, 2005, Rae recommended further inquiry into the investigation and prosecution.
In July 2005, The Globe and Mail and the National Post both reported that Rae was again being considered for appointment to the position of Governor General. However, Rae was passed over again, this time in favour of Michaëlle Jean.
Return to politics as a Liberal
In a July 2005 interview with Michael Valpy, Rae indicated that he was still committed to public life and public service. Valpy's feature on Rae included a comment by Arlene Perly Rae that he could return to politics if there was a national unity crisis.
On November 23, 2005, Rae presented his recommendations that there should be a formal but focused inquiry into the Air India disaster. Two days later, Deputy Prime Minister Anne McLellan announced Rae's appointment to conduct a limited inquiry into Air India under a government order-in-council. Rae produced a comprehensive report outlining the key issues that could be addressed, leaving Air India Victims' families spokeswoman Lata Pada "encouraged that demands for answers will be addressed".
On August 24, 2005, the Toronto Star reported that Rae was under "mounting pressure" to run for the federal Liberals in the 2006 general election. Though it was unclear how long the Air India inquiry was to last, Rae's appointment precluded any possibility of his running as a candidate in the January 23 election. A poll by SES Research suggested that Rae was tied for second place behind Frank McKenna as a prospective candidate to lead the federal Liberals. McKenna decided afterwards not to contest the leadership.
The new government of Stephen Harper appointed a judge to handle the Air India inquiry in March 2006 thus releasing Rae from his previous commitment and freeing him for a possible run for the Liberal Party leadership.
In a speech to the Canadian Club of Winnipeg on March 13, 2006, Rae expressed his interest in uniting the "progressive" forces of Canada to regain a majority government in the House of Commons of Canada. "There's a progressive record that's shared by a majority of Canadians, but so far, we have not succeeded in becoming a majority in the House of Commons, so we must think a bit about how that can happen."
2006 leadership election
On April 5, 2006, Rae applied for membership in the Liberal Party of Canada. His candidacy for the federal party leadership was supported by Greg Sorbara and George Smitherman, former Chrétien aides Eddie Goldenberg and Rae's brother John, as well as former top Martin advisor John Webster and others associated with the Martin camp. He announced his candidacy on April 24, 2006. At his campaign launch he responded to his critics by saying, "I made mistakes before I was in politics, I made mistakes when I was in politics, I made mistakes as premier ... I can only tell you I have learned from those mistakes and I am the wiser for them." Rae's predecessor as premier, David Peterson who was supporting Michael Ignatieff, criticized Rae's entry into the race due to his record as NDP provincial premier, though insisting that he did not hold a personal grudge against Rae.
On May 12, 2006, Trudeau-era Deputy Prime Minister Allan MacEachen backed Rae's leadership bid becoming honorary campaign chair. On June 16, former Ontario Liberal Party leader and provincial treasurer Robert Nixon, who sat as leader of the opposition to Rae's Ontario government for a time, endorsed Rae. He was also endorsed by MPs Irwin Cotler, Ujjal Dosanjh, Lawrence MacAulay, Diane Marleau and Brian Murphy, as well as several Senators. Rival candidate Maurizio Bevilacqua withdrew from the contest on August 14 to endorse Rae, and Carolyn Bennett did the same on September 15, followed by Hedy Fry on September 25 and John Godfrey on October 20.
On the night of December 1 at the Convention, Rae spoke freely without notes rather than make a formal speech. Rival candidate Joe Volpe announced his support for Rae after the speeches were concluded. On the morning of December 2, after finishing second on the first ballot, rival candidate Scott Brison, moved to Rae and yet another rival candidate, Ken Dryden, moved to him after the second ballot. However, Rae lost his bid for the leadership in the third round of Convention balloting, placing third behind both Michael Ignatieff and Stéphane Dion, who had leapfrogged into first after receiving the support of Gerard Kennedy. Rae then freed his delegates and did not indicate whom he supported on the final ballot; Dion won the leadership.
Despite the loss of the Liberal leadership, Rae had indicated that he would like to run for a federal seat in the House of Commons in the next federal election. On March 7, 2007, Rae announced that he would seek the Liberal nomination in Toronto Centre. On March 26, 2007, he won the party's nomination, defeating Toronto lawyer and human rights advocate Meredith Cartwright with 532 votes to her 267.
Several days following his defeat at the leadership convention it was reported that Rae's wife, Arlene Perly Rae was approached by a delegate who did not know who she was, and who told her that she should not vote for Rae because his wife is Jewish. A flyer was also sent electronically to convention delegates, stating that Rae's wife was a vice-president of the Canadian Jewish Congress and that he was a supporter of Israeli apartheid. The Canadian Press reported that the flyer was produced by Ron Saba, the editor of a small Montreal journal. Newly elected Liberal leader Stéphane Dion issued a press release condemning the "hateful comments" made against Rae and his wife, saying that they are "reprehensible and will not be tolerated within the Liberal Party of Canada", adding that "there is no room for abhorrent comments such as these within our Party".
Rae was named co-chair of the Liberals' platform development committee, with Scott Brison.
Federal Liberal MP
In the by-election held on March 17, 2008, Rae won handily. Toronto Centre had historically been one of the few ridings in the former Metro Toronto where the old Progressive Conservatives had a realistic chance of winning. However, since 1993, the Liberals have dominated the riding (as has been the case with most Toronto ridings), carrying it by 10,000 votes or more. Rae kept this tradition going; he finished almost 11,000 votes ahead of his closest opponent and with more than 4,400 votes than his five opponents combined (14,187 to 9,764). Rae's candidacy was endorsed by the former Conservative candidate Mark Warner, who was dropped due to disagreements with the party on social and urban issues. Rae had denounced the Tories' decision to drop Warner, calling it a "national disgrace."
Rae returned to Parliament on March 31, 2008, after a 25-year absence. He was immediately promoted to the Liberal shadow cabinet as Foreign Affairs critic (shadow foreign minister). In that role he publicly supported Iraq War resisters seeking asylum in Canada before and during the 2008 election campaign. He was re-elected to his Commons' seat in the fall 2008 federal election. When Dion announced that he would resign the leadership in May 2009 after the party's poor results, Rae became a candidate in the ensuing Liberal leadership election.
Rae took part in negotiations for the Liberals to form a coalition with the NDP, with support from the Bloc Québécois. They planned to pass a motion of non-confidence in the Conservative government, not unlike what Rae had done in 1979 and 1985. After Prime Minister Harper convinced the Governor General to prorogue parliament on December 4, 2008, and with Dion pressured to resign immediately as party leader, Rae took on the role of coalition spokesman.
Rae found it more difficult to garner support than he had in the last leadership contest, with his 2006 campaign co-chair now supporting Ignatieff. As it was obvious that Ignatieff had lined up enough support to become the party's leader, Rae withdrew on December 9, 2008. He has since criticized Ignatieff's decision to withdraw from the coalition with the NDP.
He served as Foreign Affairs critic in the shadow cabinets of both Dion and Ignatieff. On June 9, 2009, Rae was denied entry by Sri Lankan Immigration officials at the Bandaranaike International Airport, Colombo, Sri Lanka on grounds that he was "a threat to national security and sympathetic to the Tamil Tigers rebel group". Rae responded, "Sri Lanka is afraid of dialogue, afraid of discussion, afraid of engagement ... If this is how they treat me, imagine how they treat people who can't speak out." Rae has described Sri Lanka as 'a very dangerous place to be a journalist. "It's a very dangerous place to be any kind of Tamil right now and this is nuts."
In November 2009, Rae sponsored a motion for Canada to recognize Black Ribbon Day to commemorate the victims of Nazi and Communist regimes.
Interim Liberal leader
In the aftermath of the 2011 federal election in which the Liberals were reduced to third place behind the NDP, Rae speculated on national television about the possibility of future co-operation between the two parties. Following Ignatieff's announcement that he would be resigning as leader, Rae was touted as a possible successor. However, his advocacy of a possible Liberal-NDP merger caused consternation among some Liberals. Former Liberal Prime Minister Jean Chrétien reportedly called senior Liberals urging Rae's selection as interim leader. However, the Liberal National Board announced that the interim leader position could only be held by an individual who agreed not to seek the permanent leadership and not to seek to change the party or merge it with another party during his tenure.
On May 19, 2011, Rae declared that he would not be running for leadership for the Liberal Party, but would instead seek the interim leadership position. He was chosen over Quebec MP Marc Garneau for the interim leadership on May 25, 2011. While Rae had been widely expected to resign the post of interim leader and make a bid for the permanent leadership he announced on June 13, 2012, that he would not be a candidate in the Liberal leadership election.
Earlier in 2011, Rae was voted Maclean's'' Parliamentarian of the Year by members of the 41st Parliament. Journalist Carol Goar viewed Rae as the de facto leader of the Opposition in the six months between the death of NDP leader Jack Layton in August 2011 and the election of Thomas Mulcair in March 2012. When Justin Trudeau was elected the new permanent leader in April 2013, Rae had become the longest serving interim leader, having served almost two years in this capacity. As new leader, Trudeau named Rae the Liberal party's foreign affairs critic.
When Justin Trudeau won the 2015 elections and became Prime Minister, Rae was given considerable credit for laying the foundations for the turnaround in the fortunes of the Liberal Party.
Post-political career
On June 19, 2013, Rae announced that he would be leaving parliament in order to serve as chief negotiator and counsel for the Matawa First Nations in Northern Ontario's Ring of Fire; his resignation took effect on July 31. Rae also joined the University of Toronto School of Public Policy and Governance as a distinguished senior fellow, effective July 1, 2013. On July 13, Rae joined the National Advisory Board for Fair Vote Canada, an organization promoting electoral reform for Canadian elections. Later in July, Rae became the chairman of the board for the FN (PTP) Group Limited Partnership (FNLP), which represents the 15 British Columbian First Nations that signed a $200 million commercial deal with the Pacific Trail Pipelines Limited Partnership, a part of the Kitimat LNG Project that plans to use a pipeline to move liquified natural gas to a terminal on the coast of British Columbia. In February 2014, Rae became a partner in the law firm Olthuis Kleer Townshend LLP, a law firm which specializes in representing Aboriginal communities across the country.
After stepping down, Rae has also become a public speaker focusing on Canada's role in the world, Aboriginal issues, human rights, healthcare, and education.
In August 2018, Saudi Arabia expelled Canada's ambassador, and froze trade with Canada. Rae wrote on Twitter: "The Brits and the Trumpians run for cover and say 'we're friends with both the Saudis and the Canadians. Thanks for the support for human rights, guys, and we'll remember this one for sure."
Diplomatic career
In late 2017, Prime Minister Trudeau appointed Rae Canada's special envoy to Myanmar in response to the Rohingya human rights crisis and the suspected ethnic cleansing of the minority population by the Myanmar government. Rae will be advising the prime minister on the issue and is expected to attempt to obtain permission from Myanmar to visit Rakhine province. He also has a mandate "to promote accountability for alleged crimes perpetrated against vulnerable populations, including the Rohingya Muslim community, other religious and ethnic minorities, and women and girls".
On March 10, 2020, Prime Minister Trudeau expanded Rae's role naming him as Canada’s Special Envoy on Humanitarian and Refugee Issues.
On July 6, 2020, Trudeau named him Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations.
In November 2020, Rae called on the UN to investigate evidence of genocide against the Uighur minority in China.
Electoral record
Toronto Centre
**as compared to the 2006 General Election
York South
Broadview—Greenwood
Broadview
Honours
Queen's Counsel (QC) (1984)
Member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (giving him the style "The Honourable") (April 30, 1998)
Officer of the Order of Canada (OC) (2001)
Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal (2002)
Member of the Order of Ontario (O.Ont) (2003)
Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 3rd Class from Estonia (2011)
Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal (2012)
Companion of the Order of Canada (2015)
Lifetime Achievement Award (2018) (Canadian Association of Former Parliamentarians)
Honorary degrees
References
External links
Bob Rae fonds, Archives of Ontario
Robert Keith Rae oral history interview held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services
Bob Rae Wins Maclean's Parliamentarian of the Year Award
Bob Rae at The Canadian Encyclopedia
Bob Rae biography – Canada Premier
Bob Rae biography – Oxford University
Bob Rae 1990 Government Presentation – Radio-Canada
Bob Rae – Canadian Association of Former Parliamentarians
1948 births
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian Queen's Counsel
Canadian people of Scottish-Jewish descent
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
Canadian Rhodes Scholars
Canadian university and college chancellors
Canadian Zionists
Canadian memoirists
Lawyers in Ontario
Leaders of the Ontario New Democratic Party
Liberal Party of Canada leadership candidates
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Living people
Massey College, Toronto
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Members of the Order of Ontario
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
New Democratic Party MPs
Ontario New Democratic Party MPPs
Officers of the Order of Canada
Politicians from Ottawa
Politicians from Toronto
Premiers of Ontario
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 3rd Class
University of Toronto alumni
University of Toronto Faculty of Law alumni
University of Toronto faculty
Companions of the Order of Canada
21st-century Canadian politicians
Canadian diplomats
Permanent Representatives of Canada to the United Nations
21st-century Canadian pianists
International School of Geneva alumni | [
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251853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camden%20Town%20tube%20station | Camden Town tube station | Camden Town is a London Underground station on the Northern line. It is a major junction for the line, as it is where the Edgware and High Barnet branches merge from the north, and is also where they split to the south into the Bank and Charing Cross branches for the journey through Central London. It is particularly busy with visitors to the Camden markets at weekends, and, until 2019, was exit-only on Sundays to prevent overcrowding.
Northbound, the next stations are on the Edgware branch and on the High Barnet branch. Southbound, the next stations are on the Charing Cross branch and on the Bank branch. The station is in Travelcard Zone 2.
History
Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway
The station was first proposed as part of the original route of the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (CCE&HR) (now part of the Northern line). Proposals for the line had existed since 1893, but construction did not begin until the American entrepreneur Charles Tyson Yerkes invested in the line in October 1900. Work started in July 1902, and the station was opened on 22 June 1907 by David Lloyd George, then President of the Board of Trade. As the line here branched into two routes, to Hampstead and to Highgate, the design of the station was rather unusual, shaped like a V. The surface building was designed by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London's (UERL's) architect Leslie Green. The line to Hampstead (now the Edgware branch) is under Chalk Farm Road; the line to Highgate (now the High Barnet branch) is under Kentish Town Road. With the narrowness of the roads above, and the necessity to keep directly beneath them to avoid having to pay compensation to landowners during construction, on both branches the northbound platform is directly above the southbound one.
At the apex of the V was a junction allowing northbound trains to take either of the branches north, and likewise allow the trains south from the branches to join the single southbound track. This resulted in four connecting tunnels. When the CCE&HR and City & South London Railway (C&SLR) lines were joined together after the C&SLR became part of the Underground Group on 1 January 1913, a short extension was planned from the Euston terminus of the City & South London Railway to connect with the CCE&HR south of Camden Town station allowing services to run from both City and West End branches to and from the Hampstead and Highgate branches. City branch services were extended to this station on 20 April 1924. The work required to join the two lines together at Camden Town was one of the most ambitious projects in the history of the Underground, and was undertaken without disrupting any existing services. It added another four tunnels that allows trains to proceed to or from either the Edgware or High Barnet branch on to or off both the City or Charing Cross branch without following conflicting paths. The multiple junction tunnels are effectively located beneath Camden High Street.
The original lifts and emergency stairs to the platforms were inside the vertex of the V, leading to four passageways, one to each of the platforms, with return passageways back to the lifts. With growing patronage and increasing congestion the lifts were later replaced by escalators that came into service on 7 October 1929 with an escalator heading from the station building to a circulating area at the northern end of the platforms. This has only two pairs of parallel passageways, one for each branch (northbound), with a small side passage on each leading to the lower southbound platforms. One set of the original lift passageways became part of the ventilation system, but the remaining one adds to the confusion of the station.
Northern line
The line, known post-merger for many years as the 'Edgware - Morden' line, was formally referred to as the Northern line from 28 August 1937.
The station was damaged by a bomb on 14 October 1940 during the Blitz. One person was killed. Shortly afterwards, Camden Town was chosen as one of eight stations on the Northern line where dedicated air-raid shelters would be constructed alongside the line, capable of accommodating 640,000 people.
2003 derailment
On 19 October 2003, the last carriage of a 1995 stock train derailed on the approach to the station while traversing points in the connecting tunnels that connect the various Northern line branches. Seven passengers were injured, six of them with minor injuries. Two carriages were seriously damaged by the impact. After the accident, trains were restricted to travelling either from the Edgware branch to the Bank branch or from the High Barnet branch to the Charing Cross branch. Full use of the junction was restored in March 2004.
Following the derailment, a joint report by London Underground and its maintenance contractor Tube Lines concluded that poor track geometry was the main cause of the derailment. Extra friction arising out of striations (scratches) on a newly installed set of points had allowed the leading wheel of the last carriage to climb the rail and therefore derail. The track at the derailment site is on a very tight bend in a tight tunnel bore, which prevents canting the track by dipping the height of one rail relative to the other, the normal solution in this sort of situation.
Future expansion and upgrade
The station is too small for current passenger demand, with just two escalators and too few passageways between Northern line platforms. The station is particularly busy at weekends with tourists visiting Camden Market and Camden High Street, with entry to the station prohibited on Sunday afternoons to prevent overcrowding on the station's narrow platforms. By 2021, weekday passenger demand at the station is expected to grow by 40 per cent.
London Underground originally submitted redevelopment plans in the early 2000s, a £130m project that would have eased congestion and provided step free access – with residential and office development above the new station. However, the project involved demolition of all buildings between Buck Street, Camden High Street and Kentish Town Road – including Buck Street Market, Electric Ballroom and the ox-blood tiled Leslie Green station building itself. London Underground's reasoning was that land was required for a temporary entrance for the station while the new station was built. Complaints regarding the loss of these buildings and the market – as well as complaints regarding out-of-place and out-of-scale development when compared to the remainder of Camden Town – led to a public inquiry, which was held in 2004. In 2005, Transport for London had their Transport and Works Act order refused by the office of the Deputy Prime Minister and the scheme was subsequently cancelled.
In 2013, TfL announced new redevelopment plans given the continuing congestion and high passenger demand at the station. Instead of the previously aborted scheme, TfL proposed a new station building built on the north side of Buck Street, on the site of the vacated Hawley School, avoiding the need to demolish both the original station and the other previously-threatened buildings. As well as this new station entrance, expansion work would take place throughout the station with new escalators and passageways and step-free access - tripling the size of the station. In the 2017 consultation, construction work was estimated to take four years to complete. In 2018, following the delays to Crossrail and the knock on effects on TfL's business plan, the station upgrade was placed on hold indefinitely.
Station layout
As one of only three stations where transfers between the Bank and Charing Cross branches are possible and the northern of the two junctions between them, Camden Town features a complex platform arrangement. Like its sister station of Kennington, the station has four platforms with cross-platform interchanges available between branches.
However, unlike at Kennington, since trains do not terminate at Camden Town, there are no terminus platforms or loop to allow terminating trains to turn around. Instead, all northbound trains headed to the branch use platform 1, northbound trains headed to the branch use platform 3 and trains headed southbound to either central branch use platforms 2 for trains coming from Edgware and 4 for trains coming from High Barnet or Mill Hill East respectively.
Connections
Out-of-station interchange
Camden Road station is located 450 metres north-east of the station for London Overground services to Stratford, Hackney, and Richmond.
Buses
London Buses Routes 24, 27, 29, 31, 88, 134, 168, 214, 253, 274, and Night Routes N5, N20, N28, N29, N31, N253, N279 serve the station. Route 46 passes nearby.
Air raid shelter
Camden Town is one of eight London Underground stations with a deep-level air-raid shelter underneath it. The entrances are on Buck Street (near the market) and Underhill Street with the shelter tunnels reaching from just north of Hawley Crescent to south of Greenland Street.
Nearby places
Camden Town
Chalk Farm
Kentish Town
Regent's Park
London Zoo
Somers Town
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Subterranea Britannica's visit to the Camden Town deep level shelter
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
Utilitarian building is London Underground electrical substation.
The elevation was never fully rebuilt.
Northern line stations
Former Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway stations
Tube stations in the London Borough of Camden
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1907
Tube station
Leslie Green railway stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom | [
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251854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quevedo | Quevedo | Quevedo may refer to:
Quevedo (surname)
Quevedo, Ecuador
Quevedo (Madrid Metro), a station on Line 2
See also
Club Deportivo Quevedo, football (soccer) club in Ecuador
Metro Miguel Ángel de Quevedo, on the Mexico City Metro
Quevedos, a municipality in the west-central part of the state of Rio Grande do Sul | [
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] |
251856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puxian%20Wannu | Puxian Wannu | Púxiān Wànnú () was a Jurchen warlord who established the short-lived Eastern Xia dynasty in 13th-century China.
He originally served the waning Jin dynasty under pressure from the Mongol Empire. While the Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Jin, a Khitan chief Yelü Liuge (耶律留哥) revolted against the dynasty in Liaodong in 1211 and made contact with the Mongol Empire in the next year. In 1214 Jin dispatched Puxian Wannu to Liaodong, but he was defeated around Kaiyuan. While Mukhali of the Mongol Empire invaded Northern China, Puxian Wannu rebelled against Jin and founded the Dazhen (大眞) kingdom in Dongjing (Liaoyang) in 1215. He adopted the title of Tianwang (天王 lit. Heavenly King) and named his era Tiantai (天泰).
As a result of an internal strife in the Eastern Liao, Yelü Liuge was expelled and sought support from Genghis. The Khitans got a counterattack from Jin and fled to Goryeo without permission. Puxian Wannu capitulated to Mukhali's army and sent his son Tege (铁哥/鐵哥 Tiěgē) as a hostage in 1216. However, he revolted soon after that and fled to an island while the Mongol army invaded Liaoxi and Liaodong.
In 1217 he moved from Dongjing to the Tumen River basin possibly to avoid both Mongol and Jin oppressions. He again named his kingdom Eastern Xia or Dongxia (东夏/東夏), established the capital around Yanji and called it Nanjing (南京 literally: "Southern Capital"). His domain extended north to Laoyeling Mountains, south to Hamgyŏngnamdo in modern-day North Korea, east to the Sea of Japan and west to the Zhangguangcailing Mountains, corresponding to the borderlands of modern-day China, Russia and North Korea.
He seems to have submitted to the Mongol Empire again. In 1218 the Mongol and Eastern Xia armies jointly intruded into Goryeo to subdue the Khitan remnants. Goryeo also joined the campaign and the Khitans were exterminated. The Mongol army retreated after establishing a "sibling" relationship with Goryeo. Mongol officers with Eastern Xia delegates came to Goryeo to exact tribute.
In 1222 Puxian Wannu revolted against the Mongol Empire yet again while Genghis Khan made an expedition toward the west. Since Goryeo rejected his demand for the opening of trading posts on the border, he invaded Goryeo many times. In 1233 Ögedei's son Güyük attacked Eastern Xia with a large force and captured Puxian Wannu. The Jin dynasty was overthrown in the next year.
References
The Cambridge History of China: Alien regimes and border states, 907-1368. p.257. The loss of Manchuria: Yeh-lu Liu-ko and P'u-hsien Wan-nu.
William E. Henthorn, Korea: the Mongol invasions
Jurchen history
Warlords
13th-century Chinese monarchs
Founding monarchs | [
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251857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gongsun%20Kang | Gongsun Kang | Gongsun Kang () ( 200s) was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He became a vassal of the state of Cao Wei in the early Three Kingdoms period.
Life
Gongsun Kang was a son of Gongsun Du, the Administrator of Liaodong appointed by the Han central government. In 204, he inherited his father's appointment and controlled the territories of Liaodong, Xuantu and Lelang commanderies. He was nominally subject to the Han chancellor Cao Cao, while keeping his domain semi-independent of the central government. In 207, when Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to Liaodong after being defeated by Cao Cao's forces, Gongsun Kang killed the Yuans and sent their heads to Cao Cao.
Gongsun also defeated Yiyimo, the king of Goguryeo, at his capital and forced him to move the capital. He separated the southern half of Lelang Commandery and established Daifang Commandery in 204 to make administration more efficient. He also attacked the southern natives and forced them to submit to Han rule.
When Gongsun Kang died, his younger brother Gongsun Gong succeeded him because his sons were still young at the time. Gongsun Kang's son Gongsun Yuan took back control of Liaodong in 228.
See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
References
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Cao Wei politicians
Cao Wei generals
Han dynasty generals
Han dynasty politicians
Han dynasty warlords | [
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251858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss%20JN%20Jenny | Curtiss JN Jenny | {|
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The Curtiss JN "Jenny" was a series of biplanes built by the Curtiss Aeroplane Company of Hammondsport, New York, later the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company. Although the Curtiss JN series was originally produced as a training aircraft for the US Army, the "Jenny" (the common nickname derived from "JN") continued after World War I as a civil aircraft, as it became the "backbone of American postwar [civil] aviation".
Thousands of surplus Jennys were sold at bargain prices to private owners in the years after the war and became central to the barnstorming era that helped awaken the US to civil aviation through much of the 1920s.
Design and development
Curtiss combined the best features of the model J and model N trainers, built for the US Army and US Navy, and began producing the JN or "Jenny" series of aircraft in 1915. Curtiss built only a limited number of the JN-1 and JN-2 biplanes. The design was commissioned by Glenn Curtiss from Englishman Benjamin Douglas Thomas, formerly of the Sopwith Aviation Company.
The JN-2 was an equal-span biplane with ailerons controlled by a shoulder yoke in the aft cockpit. It was deficient in performance, particularly climbing, because of excessive weight. The improved JN-3 incorporated unequal spans with ailerons only on the upper wings, controlled by a wheel. In addition, a foot bar was added to control the rudder.
The 1st Aero Squadron of the Aviation Section, US Signal Corps received eight JN-2s at San Diego in July 1915. The squadron was transferred to Fort Sill, Oklahoma, in August to work with the Field Artillery School, during which one JN-2 crashed, resulting in a fatality. The pilots of the squadron met with its commander, Capt. Benjamin Foulois, to advise that the JN-2 was unsafe because of low power, shoddy construction, lack of stability, and overly sensitive rudder. Foulois and his executive officer Capt. Thomas D. Milling disagreed, and flights continued until a second JN-2 crashed in early September, resulting in the grounding of the six remaining JN-2s until mid-October. When two new JN-3s were delivered, the grounded aircraft were then upgraded in accordance with the new design. In March 1916, these eight JN-3s were deployed to Mexico for aerial observation during the Pancho Villa Expedition of 1916–1917.
After the successful deployment of the JN-3, Curtiss produced a development, known as the JN-4, with orders from both the US Army and an order in December 1916 from the Royal Flying Corps for a training aircraft to be based in Canada. The Canadian version, the JN-4 (Canadian), also known as the "Canuck", had some differences from the American version, including a lighter airframe, ailerons on both wings, a bigger and more rounded rudder, and differently shaped wings, stabilizer, and elevators.
As many as 12 JN-4 aircraft were fitted with an aftermarket Sikorsky wing by the then fledgling company in the late 1920s.
Operational history
The Curtiss JN-4 is possibly North America's most famous World War I aircraft. It was widely used during World War I to train beginning pilots, with an estimated 95% of all trainees having flown a JN-4. The US version was called "Jenny", a derivation from its official designation. It was a twin-seat (student in front of instructor) dual-control biplane. Its tractor propeller and maneuverability made it ideal for initial pilot training with a Curtiss OX-5 V8 engine giving a top speed of and a service ceiling of . The British used the JN-4 (Canadian), along with the Avro 504, for their primary World War I trainer using the Canadian Aeroplanes Ltd. indigenous variant. Many Royal Flying Corps pilots earned their wings on the JN-4, both in Ontario and later in winter facilities at Camp Taliaferro, Texas.
Although ostensibly a training aircraft, the Jenny was extensively modified while in service to undertake additional roles. Due to its robust but easily adapted structure able to be modified with ski undercarriage, the Canadian Jenny was flown year-round, even in inclement weather. The removable turtle-deck behind the cockpits allowed for conversion to stretcher or additional supplies and equipment storage, with the modified JN-4s becoming the first aerial ambulances, carrying out this role both during wartime and in later years. Most of the 6,813 Jennys built were unarmed, although some had machine guns and bomb racks for advanced training. With deployment limited to North American bases, none saw combat service in World War I.
The Curtiss factory in Buffalo, New York, was the largest such facility in the world, but due to production demands, from November 1917 to January 1919, six different manufacturers were involved in production of the definitive JN-4D. Production from spare or reconditioned parts continued sporadically until 1927, although most of the final orders were destined for the civil market in Canada and the United States.
Like the re-engined JN-4H version of the most-produced JN-4 subtype, the final production version of the aircraft was the JN-6, powered by a Wright Aeronautical license-built, 150-hp (112-kW) Hispano-Suiza 8 V-8, first ordered in 1918 for the US Navy. A floatplane version was built for the navy which was so modified, it was essentially a different airframe. This was designated the N-9. In US Army Air Service usage, the JN-4s and JN-6s were configured to the JNS ("S" for "standardized") model. The Jenny remained in service with the US Army until 1927.
After World War I, thousands were sold on the civilian market, including one to Charles Lindbergh in May 1923, in which he then soloed. Surplus US Army aircraft were sold (some still in their unopened packing crates) for as little as $50, flooding the market. With private and commercial flying in North America unhampered by regulations concerning their use, pilots found the Jenny's stability and slow speed made it ideal for stunt flying and aerobatic displays in the barnstorming era between the world wars, with the nearly identical Standard J-1 aircraft often used alongside it. Some were still flying into the 1930s.
JN-4 airframes were used to produce early Weaver Aircraft Company / Advance Aircraft Company / Waco aircraft, such as the Waco 6.
Notable firsts
Between 1917 and 1919, the JN-4 type accounted for several significant aviation firsts while in service with the US Army Signal Corps Aviation Section and the United States Marine Corps (USMC) including flying the first US Air Mail in May 1918.
In a series of tests conducted at the US Army's Langley Field in Hampton, Virginia, in July and August 1917, the world's first "plane-to-plane" and "ground-to-plane, and vice versa" communications by radiotelephony (as opposed to radiotelegraphy which had been developed earlier) were made to and from modified US Army JN-4s by Western Electric Company (Bell Labs) design engineers Lewis M. Clement and Raymond Heising, the developers of the experimental wind generator-powered airborne wireless voice transmitter and receiver equipment.
In early 1919, a United States Marine Corps (USMC) JN-4 was also credited with what is believed to be the first successful dive bombing attack during the United States occupation of Haiti. USMC pilot Lt Lawson H. Sanderson mounted a carbine barrel in front of the windshield of his JN-4 (previously, an unarmed trainer that had a machine gun mounted in the rear cockpit) as an improvised bomb sight that was lined up with the long axis of his aircraft, loaded a bomb in a canvas mail bag that was attached to the JN-4's belly, and launched a single-handed raid at treetop level, in support of a USMC unit that had been trapped by Haitian Cacos rebels. Although the JN-4 almost disintegrated in the pullout, the attack was effective and led to Sanderson in 1920 developing further dive-bombing techniques to provide Marine pilots with close aerial support to infantry comrades.
Variants
Although the first series of JN-4s were virtually identical to the JN-3, the JN-4 series was based on production orders from 1915 to 1919.
JN-1 — possibly unofficial designation of the second Model J, which served as the prototype for the Model JN.
JN-1W — Two aircraft that appear in US Navy records, which may have been confused with the Model S-4 and S-5.
JN-2 — first production version, 8 built
JN-3 — variant with new unequal-span wings and improved flight controls, 97 built for the RNAS (some sources indicate 91, but serial numbers total 97; 12 built in Canada) plus 2 for the US Army. The six surviving JN-2s were modified to this standard.
JN-4A — production version of the JN-4, 781 built
JN-4B — This version was powered by an OX-2 piston engine; 76 were built for the US Army, and nine for the US Navy.
JN-4C — experimental version, only two were built
JN-4 (Canadian) Canuck — Canadian-built version, 1,260 built by Canadian Aeroplanes Ltd. for the RFC in Canada/RAF in Canada and USAAC: Independently derived from the JN-3, it had a lighter airframe, ailerons on both wings, a bigger and more rounded rudder, and differently shaped wings, stabilizer, and elevators. Its use by the USAAC was curtailed as the lighter structure was claimed to cause more accidents than the US-built aircraft, although no air fatalities were attributed to the structural integrity of the type.
JN-4D — improved version, adopting the control stick from the JN-4 (Canadian) 2,812 built
JN-4D-2 — One prototype only, the engine mount was revised to eliminate the down thrust position.
JN-4H — two-seat advanced trainer biplane with ailerons on both wings, 929 built for the US Army, notable for introducing the use of the Wright Aeronautical license-built Hispano-Suiza 8 V-8 engine for greater power and reliability
JN-4HT — two-seat, dual-control trainer version
JN-4HB — bombing trainer version
JN-4HG — gunnery trainer version
JN-4HM — communications conversion of JN-4HT, powered by Wright-Hisso E 150-hp (112-kW), six converted, used to fly the first US Air Mail (May–August, 1918)
JN-5H — advanced trainer biplane, only one built
JN-6 — improved version of JN-5 trainer biplane series, notably used four ailerons, 1,035 built for the US Army and five for the US Navy
JN-6H — improved version of the JN-6
JN-6BH — bomber trainer version
JN-6HG-1 — two-seat, dual-control trainer version, 560 built from JN-6 production, 34 for US Navy
JN-6HG-2 — single-control gunnery trainer. 90 delivered
JN-6HO — single-control observer trainer version, 106 delivered
JN-6HP — single-control pursuit fighter trainer version
JNS ("standardized") — During the postwar years of the early 1920s, between 200 and 300 US Army aircraft were upgraded to a common standard of equipment and modernized.
"Specials"
Allison Monoplane — conversion of JN-4 (Can) G-CAJL by the Allison Company, Kansas, that mounted a parasol wing in place of the biplane configuration, only one conversion made
Curtiss Stinson Special (1918) — a custom-built, single-seat aircraft for Katherine Stinson, constructed from the fuselage of a Curtiss Model S plus new biplane wings and JN-4 tail surfaces, powered by a 100-hp (74.5-kW) OXX-6
Ericson Special Three — Some reconditioned aircraft built by Canadian Aeroplanes Ltd. were fitted with a third cockpit.
Hennessey Monoplane — a 1926 monoplane conversion by James R. Hennessey, three-place transport, 90-hp Curtiss OX-5, span: 36 ft (11 m) length: 25 ft (7.6 m)
Severski 1926 biplane — a JN-4 modified with a roller/ski undercarriage, one experimental aircraft converted by the Seversky company
Sperry Monoplane — conversion offered by the Sperry Company that mounted a parasol wing in place of the biplane configuration
Twin JN — An enlarged twin-engined version of the JN-4, they were powered by two OXX-2 V-8 engines, built in 1916 as the JN-5 for an observation role; among the many other modifications was an enlarged wingspan and new rudder adapted from the Curtiss Model R-4. Two of the series saw action with the US Army on the Mexican border in 1916–1917. A total of eight Twin JNs were built, with two in US Navy service.
Operators
Military operators
Argentine Naval Aviation
Australian Flying Corps
No. 3 Squadron AFC - Used for training.
Central Flying School AFC at Point Cook, Victoria.
Brazilian Naval Aviation (JN-4D variant)
Royal Flying Corps Canada (primarily JN-4 (Can) variant)
Royal Canadian Air Force
Cuban Air Force
Nicaraguan National Guard (1920)
Royal Flying Corps
No. 24 Squadron RFC
No. 25 Squadron RFC
Royal Naval Air Service
United States Army Signal Corps Aviation Section (1915)
United States Army Signal Corps Aeronautical Division (1915–1918)
United States Army Air Service (1918 et seq.)
United States Marine Corps
United States Navy
National Revolutionary Army in the Northern Expedition.
Civil operators
Elliot Air Service, Red Lake, Ontario
Surviving aircraft
1282 – JN-4D airworthy at the Western Antique Aeroplane & Automobile Museum in Hood River, Oregon.
2805 – JN-4D on static display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It was obtained from Robert Pfiel of Taylor, Texas in 1956. The aircraft is displayed in the Museum's Early Years gallery.
3793 – JN-4D on static display at the Alberta Aviation Museum in Edmonton, Alberta.
3805 – JN-4D on static display in Terminal B at San Antonio International Airport in San Antonio, Texas. It is on loan from the Witte Museum.
5368 – JN-4D on static display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois. It is displayed upside down next to a wraparound balcony, and details of the cockpit can readily be seen. This airframe was built in 1917. It was cleaned and reskinned by Century Aviation in 2006.
6200 – JN-4D being restored for flight by Ranger Airfield Foundation in Ranger, Texas.
8644 – Airworthy at the Sonoma Valley Airport in Sonoma, California.
10875 – JN-4C owned by John Shue in York, Pennsylvania.
MSN 65 – JN-4D on static display at the Denver International Airport in Denver, Colorado.
MSN 450 – JN-4D airworthy at Fagen Fighters WWII Museum in Granite Falls, Minnesota. It was previously on display at the Virginia Aviation Museum in Richmond, Virginia, on loan from Ken Hyde of Warrenton, Virginia. This airframe was built in 1918.
MSN 490 – JN-4 on static display at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida.
MSN 3712 – JN-4D airworthy at the Flying Heritage Collection in Everett, Washington. This airframe was built in May 1918 and at one time served at March Field in Riverside, California.
MSN 4072 – JN-4D on display at the Frontiers of Flight Museum in Dallas, Texas.
MSN 4983 – JN-4D on static display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia.
MSN 8047 – JN-4D airworthy at the Golden Age Air Museum in Bethel, Pennsylvania.
USMC A4160 – On static display at the National Museum of the Marine Corps in Triangle, Virginia.
USASC 34094 – JN-4D airworthy at the Owls Head Transportation Museum in Owls Head, Maine. This airframe was built in 1917 by the St. Louis Airplane Company.
USASC 34135 – JN-4D airworthy at the Military Aviation Museum in Virginia Beach, Virginia.
USASC 38428 – JN-4D on static display at The Henry Ford in Dearborn, Michigan.
USASC 39158 – JN-4(Can) on static display at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum in Ottawa, Ontario. It is painted with the registration number C227. The airframe was acquired in 1962 and restoration was completed in May 1964.
Replica – JN-4(Can) airworthy at the Eagle's Mere Air Museum in Eagles Mere, Pennsylvania. It was formerly owned by Skeeter Carlson of Spokane, Washington and is painted as C1122.
Replica – On display at the Combat Air Museum in Topeka, Kansas.
Reproduction – JN-4D on display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. The airframe was built up from parts.
C1347 – JN-4(Can) on display at the Royal Alberta Museum in Edmonton, Alberta, on loan from the Reynolds-Alberta Museum in Wetaskiwin, Alberta.
Unknown ID – JN-4(Can) airworthy at the Historic Aircraft Restoration Museum in Maryland Heights, Missouri.
C308 – JN-4(Can) airworthy at the Pioneer Flight Museum in Kingsbury, Texas.
Unknown ID – JN-4D on display at the Wichita Falls Municipal Airport in Wichita Falls, Texas. Its last flight was to the airport to be put on display.
Unknown ID – JN-4D on static display in partially unskinned condition at EAA AirVenture Museum in Oshkosh, Wisconsin.
Unknown ID – Airworthy with Friends of Jenny in Bowling Green, Kentucky.
Unknown ID – JN-4 on static display at the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Garden City, New York. This airframe is the aircraft owned by Charles Lindbergh in which he barnstormed long before his transatlantic flight. Lindbergh purchased this aircraft in Americus, Georgia, for $500 in May 1923, and sold it to his flying student in Iowa the following October. It was restored by the late George Dade in the 1970s and is on loan from the Long Island Early Fliers Club.
Unknown ID – JN-4 on static display in unskinned condition at the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Garden City, New York.
Unknown ID – JN-4D on display at the Fantasy of Flight in Polk City, Florida.
Unknown ID – JN-4D on static display as SC5002/43 at the Hill Aerospace Museum in Roy, Utah. Restored during the 1970s by Jim Nissen and flown with c/r N5001.
Unknown ID – JN-4D on static display in unskinned condition at the Yanks Air Museum in Chino, California.
Unknown ID – JN-4D on display at the Yanks Air Museum in Chino, California.
Unknown ID – JN-4D on static display at the Glenn H. Curtiss Museum in Hammondsport, New York.
Unknown ID – JN-4H airworthy at the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome in Red Hook, New York. It is painted as a US Navy Model 1E, BuNo A6226 and is powered by a Hispano-Suiza 8 engine.
Specifications (JN-4D)
In popular culture
The "Inverted Jenny" stamp
The "Inverted Jenny" (C-3a) is a 24-cent 1918 US Air Mail postage stamp printing error in which the blue central vignette of US Army Curtiss JN-4HM #38262, the nation's first mailplane, appeared as "inverted" on a single sheet of 100 stamps owing to an inadvertent error made by the operator of a hand-rolled spider press by printing the blue vignette impressions upside down after the red frames had previously been printed on the sheet. As the Jenny vignette was only inverted on one sheet, this stamp represents the rarest and most valuable known USPOD printing error of all time. A single example (sheet position 57) sold at auction in 2007 for $977,500.00. The stamp was reissued for a limited time as a $2 stamp in October 2013.
Notable appearances in media
In 1921, Lee De Forest made a short film Flying Jenny Airplane in his Phonofilm sound-on-film process. The film depicted a JN-4 flying, and recorded the sound of the Jenny, as well. The short documentary was the first production of the De Forest Phonofilm company.
Among many later films depicting the barnstorming era when the Jennys "ruled supreme" and played a feature role, was The
Spirit of St. Louis (1957) and The Great Waldo Pepper (1974). In The Court Martial of Billy Mitchell (1955), authentic OX-5 Jennys were showcased as United States Army Air Service training aircraft. Broadcast on April 15, 1987, by PBS, the National Geographic special entitled "Treasures from the Past" featured the restoration and first flight by Ken Hyde of a JN-4D that would go on to win the "Lindy Award" at the EAA AirVenture Oshkosh '87.
See also
Airmails of the United States
John J. Pershing
Standard J, the Jenny's primary "competitor" for both its military contract and in civilian barnstorming aviation exhibitions
Early Bird Jenny, a homebuilt kit aircraft replica of the JN-4
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Angelucci, Enzo. Great Aeroplanes of the World. London: Hamlyn, 1973. .
Auliard, Gilles. "Maiden of the Skies." Air Classics, Volume 45, No. 4, April 2009.
Bowers, Peter M. "Jenny's Younger Sister." Air Progress, Volume 18, No. 2, February/March 1966.
Chajkowsky, William E. Royal Flying Corps: Borden to Texas to Beamsville. Eden Prairie, Ontario, Canada: Boston Mills Press, 1979. .
Donald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1997. .
Harwick, Jack and Ed Schnepf. "A Viewer's Guide to Aviation Movies". The Making of the Great Aviation Films, General Aviation Series, Volume 2, 1989.
House, Kirk W. Hell-Rider to King of the Air. Warrendale, Pennsylvania: SAE International, 2003. .
Hurd, William W. and John G. Jernigan. Aeromedical Evacuation: Management of Acute and Stabilized Patients. New York: Springer Publishing, 2002. .
Jones, A.D. Aerial Mail Service: A Chronology of the Early United States Government Air Mail, March–December, 1918. Mineola, New York: The American Air Mail Society, 1993. .
Larson, Lt. Col. George A., USAF (Ret.). "Hunting Pancho: The 1st Aero Squadron's Air Operations in support of the Army's 1916 punitive expedition." Air Classics, Volume 40, no. 6, June 2004.
Lindbergh, Charles A. "WE" New York & London: G.P. Putnam's Sons (The Knickerbocker Press), 1927.
Molson, Ken M. "The Canadian JN-4." Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal, Volume 10, No. 3, March 1964.
Molson, K.M. Pioneering in Canadian Air Transport. Winnipeg: James Richardson & Sons, Ltd., 1974. .
Molson, Ken M. and Harold A. Taylor. Canadian Aircraft Since 1909. Stittsville, Ontario: Canada's Wings, Inc., 1982. .
Nowarra, Heinz J. Gezielter Sturz. Die Geschichte der Sturzkampfbomber aus aller Welt (in German). Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag, 1982. .
Roseberry, C.R. Glenn Curtiss: Pioneer of Flight, A Biography. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1972. .
United States Air Force Museum Guidebook. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975.
Winchester, Jim, ed. "Curtiss JN-4 'Jenny'." Biplanes, Triplanes and Seaplanes (Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2004. .
External links
Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's page on its JN-4D
Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome's Curtiss JN-4H Page
Vintage Aircraft Collection: Glenn H. Curtiss Museum, Hammondsport, New York
Account of the 1st Aero Squadron in the pursuit of Pancho Villa
1908-1921 USAAS Serial Numbers
"Resurrection of a Jenny" by Chet Peek - Book covering the history of the Curtiss Jenny
Engine run-up and flight video of restored Texas-based OX-5 powered JN-4C Canuck Jenny
Single-engined tractor aircraft
1910s United States military trainer aircraft
JN-4
Military aircraft of World War I
Biplanes
Aircraft first flown in 1915 | [
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251860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric%20Word | Electric Word | Electric Word was a bimonthly, English-language magazine published in Amsterdam between 1987 and 1990 that offered eclectic reporting on the translation industry, linguistic technology, and computer culture.
Its editor was Louis Rossetto and it featured avant-garde graphics by the Dutch graphic designer Max Kisman.
History and profile
In 1986, Amsterdam-based INK Taalservice, a high-tech translation company serving the new PC industry, launched an English-language magazine Language Technology, which covered the burgeoning the technologies used to process language — from PCs to machine translation to networks. Louis Rossetto was the editor of Language Technology. Jane Metcalfe was the magazine's ad sales director. The first issue of Language Technology was designed by leading edge Dutch graphic designer Max Kisman. It was the first issue of any magazine to be created with desktop publishing software, in this case ReadySetGo, which Rossetto had carried back from its introduction at that year's San Francisco MacWorld exhibition.
INK later sold the magazine to a small Dutch media company Media Nederland, who renamed it Electric Word.
Electric Word'''s circulation grew to include leading research labs at universities, governments, and high tech companies around the world. Cover subjects were as diverse as computer visionary Alan Kay, AI pioneer Marvin Minsky, Timothy Leary, and MIT Media Lab founder Nicholas Negroponte. Whole Earth Review’s editor Kevin Kelley proclaimed Electric Word "the least boring computer magazine in the world," which became its tagline.Electric Word was terminated in 1990 due to Media Nederland's change of focus. Rossetto and Metcalfe went on to found Wired magazine. The last issue of Electric Word'' featured the world's first photoshopped magazine cover — of TED founder Richard Wurman
References
External links
Electric Word online archive
1987 establishments in the Netherlands
1990 disestablishments in the Netherlands
Defunct magazines published in the Netherlands
Bi-monthly magazines published in the Netherlands
Science and technology magazines published in the Netherlands
English-language magazines
Magazines established in 1987
Magazines disestablished in 1990
Magazines published in Amsterdam | [
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251861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Michael%27s%20College%20School | St. Michael's College School | St. Michael's College School, (also known as St. Michael's, St. Mike's, and SMCS), is an independent, Catholic school for young men in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Administered by the Basilian Fathers, it is the largest school of its kind in Canada, with an enrolment of approximately 950 students from grades 7 to 12. It is known for its high standard of academics and athletics, notably its ice hockey, football and basketball programs. The hockey program has graduated numerous future National Hockey League ice hockey players. The basketball and football programs have graduated multiple NBA, NFL, and CFL players. St. Michael's College School is the affiliate school of Holy Name of Mary College School, an independent, Catholic all-girls school in Mississauga. St. Michael's was part of the Metropolitan Separate School Board from 1967 to 1985, but has subsequently operated within the Conference of Independent Schools of Ontario Athletic Association.
History
The Congregation of St. Basil (Basilian Fathers) was established as a religious congregation in France in 1822. As a result of the closing of seminaries in France during the French Revolution, two diocesan priests opened a secret school in the mountains of central France.
After several years of operation and a change in the French laws, ten priests serving there openly bound themselves into a religious community. They reasoned that the school, by then located in the nearby city of Annonay, would have a better chance of continuing if it were conducted by a religious congregation that could accept and train new members to continue its operation after the founding fathers’ retirement.
The original members chose St. Basil the Great, a fourth-century teacher, bishop, and doctor of the Church, to be the namesake of the new community.
In the middle of the nineteenth century, the French Basilians came to Canada on an invitation from Bishop de Charbonnel of Toronto. The Bishop saw the need for Catholic schools for the young people of his parishes, especially at the high school level. In his plans to bring Catholic education to more of his people, the Bishop immediately thought of his own education in France. He had been educated at the College of Annonay near Lyon, a school established by the Basilian Fathers.
In September 1852, St. Michael’s College School opened. It quickly outgrew its original facilities in the basement of the Bishop’s Palace on Church Street. In 1856, it moved to Clover Hill, a property donated to the Basilian Fathers by the Honourable John Elmsley. Clover Hill was outside the city at that time, in an area now bounded by Bay, St. Joseph, and St. Mary’s streets. In 1881, St. Michael’s was affiliated with St. Michael's College at the University of Toronto for post secondary education.
The school specifically targeted Irish immigrants. The high school section expanded much more rapidly than the College section. In 1902, a new wing was added to the original building and the high school remained here until 1950.
In the years after World War II, it became apparent that the Bay Street buildings were not equal to the challenge of serving a growing student body. At this point the high school section was separated from the University College. In September 1950, St. Michael’s College School opened its doors at Bathurst Street and St. Clair Avenue, where it is situated today.
In 1967, St. Michael’s College School entered into partnership with the Metropolitan Separate School Board (known today as the Toronto Catholic District School Board) educating the Board’s students in Grades 9 and 10. This decision made St. Michael’s College School both a public and private school, which lasted for approximately 20 years. In September 1985, the Basilian Fathers decided to refuse provincial aid beyond and return St. Michael’s to its roots as an independent, Catholic high school.
In 1995, a major capital expansion program upgraded the school to include an east wing complete with Science classrooms, a library (Odette Library), music and visual arts facilities, a design and technology facility, a 250-seat lecture hall, and an expanded gymnasium. In September 1998, St. Michael’s College School expanded its academic program to include a Grade 7 and 8 program. The Preparatory school was previously active during the early 1900s.
On September 15, 2002, St. Michael’s College School celebrated its 150th Anniversary.
The school’s athletic stadium was retrofitted in September 2004 to include a state-of-the-art athletic field complete with artificial turf, an electronic scoreboard, stadium lighting, and an air supported dome that covers a third of the field for use during the winter months. The St. Michael's College School Centre for the Arts was the fourth and final phase of this revitalization project. The St. Michael's College School Centre for the Arts opened in April 2010, and hosts annual school stage productions of musicals and dramas in addition to concerts and other events.
In November 2018, police began an investigation after learning of two separate sexual assaults at the school. The school suspended and expelled a number of students. On October 3, 2019, three of the seven students charged pleaded guilty to charges of sexual assault with a weapon and assault with a weapon and were later sentenced to two years probation. A former student is suing the school, three former students, the Board, the Basilian Fathers, the coaches, and administration for $1.65-million. On November 2, 2019, the final case concluded in court with a former student being sentenced to two years probation.
Campus
The school's campus is located at Bathurst Street and St. Clair Avenue at the edge of Toronto's Forest Hill neighbourhood. The main school building was designed by Canadian architect Ernest Cormier and completed in 1950. Its most recognizable features are the distinctive chapel tower and yellow brickwork, similar to Cormier's earlier work at the Université de Montréal.
In the late 1990s, a major expansion programme was undertaken, with two major academic wings and a gymnasium extension added to the original building. The additions contain classrooms tailored to the science, art and music programmes, a substantial lecture hall, several computer laboratories, and a large library. An outdoor courtyard adjacent to the cafeteria overlooked by classrooms is popular for major school events. The school's residence wing, originally built to accommodate boarding students, functioned as a Basilian house until 2008 when it was removed to make room for the school's "state-of-the-art" Centre for the Arts. The $10 million facility was completed in the April 2010.
There are a number of sports facilities located on campus, including the St. Michael's College School Arena. The school's basketball court is named after former vice-principal, teacher, coach, and alumnus Paul Dignan. In 2005, a major overhaul of the stadium was undertaken. Renamed in honour of its benefactor, billionaire alumnus Eugene Melnyk, it features an artificial turf field, a rubberized running track, and lighting for evening events. During the winter, an air supported dome covers part of the field to allow for use year-round.
Athletics
Over 90 St. Michael's Majors alumni have played in the National Hockey League. From the Majors, there are twelve Hockey Hall of Fame inductees: Bobby Bauer, Turk Broda, Gerry Cheevers, Dick Duff, Tim Horton, Red Kelly, Dave Keon, Ted Lindsay, Frank Mahovlich, Joe Primeau, Murray Costello, and Jim Gregory. Additionally, Hall of Famer Reg Noble played for St. Michael's before the team adopted the Majors name.
The school's flagship hockey team, the Toronto St. Michael's Majors, won the Memorial Cup four times before ceasing operation in 1961. The Majors name was revived as an expansion franchise in the Ontario Hockey League from 1996 to 2012, then sold off to become the Mississauga Steelheads. The school also operates the St. Michael's Buzzers, at the Tier II Junior "A" level. The school was featured on CBC's annual Hockey Day in Canada on January 13, 2007, as the College School was celebrating 100 years of hockey.
The junior and senior football teams are called the Kerry Blues. The Jr. Kerry Blues won their third Ontario Regional Invitational in 2008 (having previously won in 2002 and 2004) In 2008, the Senior Kerry Blues won their seventh Metro Bowl, making the St. Michael's Kerry Blues the most bowl-winning team in Ontario. They have won the Metro Bowl three years in a row. There have been many Kerry Blues Football alumni that have gone on to win the CIAU National Football Championship with their respective universities. The 1993 Vanier Cup Champion University of Toronto Varsity Blues had several SMCS Alumni: Christopher Tyndorf, Lou Tiro and Peter Woo. National Football League players Glen Young, O.J. Santiago and Mike Labinjo, each of whom have competed in the Super Bowl, played football while attending St. Michael’s.
The school competes in the Basil Bowl against other Basilian high schools.
Notable faculty
Greg Wojt, former CFL player; St. Michael's coach
Former faculty
Father David Bauer, Founder of the Canada men's national ice hockey team, inductee into the Hockey Hall of Fame
Michael Colle, Ontario Minister of Citizenship and Immigration
Dr. Michael W. Higgins, president of St. Thomas University; former president of St. Jerome's University
Michael McGowan, English teacher; director of the film Saint Ralph
Notable alumni
St. Michael's alumni include many athletes, politicians and media personalities, some of whom are publicly known on multiple stages.
Academia
Robert J. Birgeneau, Canadian Physicist, the 9th chancellor of University of California, Berkeley, currently Chancellor Emeritus and Chair in Departments of Physics, Materials Science and Engineering and Public Policy, former President of the University of Toronto (2000–2004), former professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Yale University, and University of Oxford
Gregory Kealey, historian on Canada's working class, Professor Emeritus Department of History, vice president (Research) 2001–2021 University of New Brunswick
Joseph Pivato, Doctor of Philosophy, professor, Emeritus of Literary Studies Athabasca University
David Staines, English professor, University of Ottawa; member of the Order of Canada, Medal of Courage, Order of Ontario, Founding member of the jury of the Giller Prize.
Athletes
Professional athletes among alumni, include numerous CFL and NHL players, some of whom are also noted sports coaches.
National Hockey League (NHL) players
Bobby Bauer
Turk Broda
Gerry Cheevers
Andrew Cogliano
Les Costello
Murray Costello, Hockey Hall of Famer
Bill Dineen, coach
Dick Duff
Paul Gardner, coach
Luke Gazdic
Tim Horton, Tim Hortons co-founder
Red Kelly, coach; York West MPP, Canadian Senator
Dave Keon
Michael Liambas
Brett Lindros
Eric Lindros
Ted Lindsay
Frank Mahovlich, Canadian senator
Peter Mahovlich
Cesare Maniago
Craig Mills
Dominic Moore
Steve Moore
Reg Noble
Joe Primeau
Jason Spezza
Tyler Seguin
Chris Tanev
John Jakopin
Matthew Halischuk
Jake Evans
Akil Thomas
Jamie Drysdale
National Football League (NFL) players
Mike Labinjo
O.J. Santiago
Glen Young
Canadian Football League (CFL) players
Nolan MacMillan
Derek Wiggan
Glen Young
Andrew Martin
Kaion Julien-Grant
National Basketball Association (NBA) players
Leo Rautins, NBA player, Philadelphia 76ers; Canadian national men's basketball team coach; Toronto Raptors broadcaster
Other athletes
Danilo Djuricic, D1 NCAA basketball player for Harvard Crimson
Marcus Carr, D1 NCAA basketball player for Minnesota Golden Gophers
Duane Notice, professional basketball player for Raptors 905
Justyn Knight, 2017 NCAA DI Men's Cross Country National Champion (Syracuse University), distance runner with Reebok
Business
Robert Deluce, founder, Porter Airlines
Sergio Marchionne, CEO, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles; chair, Maserati, chair, Ferrari; chair (Italy), Council for the United States and Italy
Eugene Melnyk, billionaire, co-founder, Biovail Corporation; owner, Ottawa Senators
Frank Buckley, President of Buckley's cough syrup
Anthony Di Iorio, billionaire Canadian entrepreneur, co-founder of Ethereum, early investor in Bitcoin, founder and CEO of the blockchain company Decentral, first chief digital officer of the Toronto Stock Exchange
Media
Mikey Bustos, entertainer; finalist, Canadian Idol
Jesse Carere, actor
Sergio Di Zio, actor
Michael Enright (honorary diploma recipient), host, CBC Radio
Michael Ontkean, actor
Estanislao Oziewicz, journalist, The Globe and Mail
Politics
Patrick Brown, Mayor of Brampton; former MPP; former Ontario Leader of the Official Opposition (PCC)
Josh Colle, Toronto City Councillor; Toronto Transit Commission
Michael Colle, Toronto City Councillor; former Minister of Citizenship and Immigration
Stephen Lecce, King—Vaughan MPP, Ontario Minister of Education
Joe Mihevc, Toronto City Councillor
Jaggi Singh, anarchist; activist
Michael Tibollo, Vaughan—Woodbridge MPP
See also
Conference of Independent Schools of Ontario Athletic Association
References
External links
Boys' schools in Canada
Catholic secondary schools in Ontario
Catholic elementary schools in Ontario
High schools in Toronto
Private schools in Toronto
Toronto Catholic District School Board
Educational institutions established in 1852
Basilian schools
1852 establishments in Canada
1852 establishments in Ontario | [
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251867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barron%20Field | Barron Field | Barron Field (Camp Taliaferro Field #2) is a former World War I military airfield, located West-southwest of Everman, Texas. It operated as a training field for the Air Service, United States Army between 1917 until 1921. It was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I in April 1917.
After the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917, General John J. "Blackjack" Pershing invited the British Royal Flying Corps to establish training fields in Texas for the training of American and Canadians volunteers because of its mild weather. After looking at sites in Dallas, Fort Worth, Waco, Austin, Wichita Falls and Midland, three sites were established in 1917 in the Fort Worth vicinity (known as the "Flying Triangle."), those being Hicks Field (#1), Barron Field (#2), and Benbrook Field (#3).
Canadians named the training complex Camp Taliaferro after Walter Taliaferro, a US aviator who had been killed in an accident. Camp Taliaferro was headquartered under the direction of the Air Service, United States Army, which had an administration center near what is now the Will Rodgers Memorial Center in Fort Worth, Texas.
History
Taliafero Field No. 2 was used by the Royal Flying Corps from October 1917 to April 1918 as a training field for American and Canadian pilots. It was then turned over to the Air Service, United States Army. The Americans renamed the field Barron Field after Cadet R. J. Barron, who was drowned at Chandler Field, Pennsylvania on 22 August 1917 when the airplane he was flying fell into the water.
World War I
Construction on Taliaferro Field #2 began in September 1917, with the first trainees arriving in November to a very crude facility. Most structures were unfinished and personnel lived and worked in canvas tents. It was taken over by the United States Army in February 1918 and renamed Barron Field on 1 May for Cadet Robert J. Barron, on 1 May 1918 who was killed at another flying school.
The Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" became the primary aircraft used for flight training after the Army takeover. Eventually, the base expanded to 600 acres, housing as many as 150 officers and 900 enlisted men. Barron Field saw flight training and daredevil stunting by the likes of Ormer Locklear, and other pioneer barnstorming pilots, sending six squadrons of pilots to France before the war ended in November 1918.
Squadrons assigned to Barron Field:
Post Headquarters, Taliaferro Field #2, 1 February 1918
Re-designated Post Headquarters, Barron Field, 1 May 1918-April 1919
77th Aero Squadron (II), May 1918
Re-designated Squadron "A", July–November 1918
106th Aero Squadron (II), March 1918
Re-designated Squadron "B", July–November 1918
207th Aero Squadron (II), April 1918
Re-designated: Squadron "C", July 1918; Transferred September 1918 to Call Field, Texas
273d Aero Squadron, February 1918
Re-designated Squadron "D", July–November 1918
Flying School Detachment, November 1918-March 1919
Formed from elements of Squadrons A,B,C,D
Service Squadrons trained at Barron Field:
351st Aero Squadron (Service), March–July 1918; Deployed to American Expeditionary Forces. France
353d Aero Squadron (Service), May–July 1918; Deployed to American Expeditionary Forces. France
After the war ended, the base was closed in April 1919 and was used as an Army storage depot. Military use ended in 1921, and the facility was eventually dismantled and returned to farmland. Over the years, the southern suburbs of Fort Worth have expanded over the area, the airfield now is indistinguishable from the urbanized area. Barron Field was located south of Everman Parkway and west of Oak Grove Road. One small building, used for munitions, has survived, and today a Texas historical marker is located at the site on the west side of Oak Grove Road.
See also
List of Training Section Air Service airfields
References
Barron Field
External links
Buildings and structures in Tarrant County, Texas
United States Army airfields
World War I airfields in the United States
World War I sites in the United States | [
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251873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ormer%20Locklear | Ormer Locklear | Ormer Leslie "Lock" Locklear (October 28, 1891 – August 2, 1920) was an American daredevil stunt pilot and film actor.
His popular flying circus caught the attention of Hollywood, and he starred in The Great Air Robbery (1919), a screenplay about the mid-air piracy of a US airmail plane. In his next film, The Skywayman, the plane crashed during a climactic dive, when the lighting team supposedly failed to douse the lights on cue, so Locklear was dazzled and flew blindly into the ground, dying instantly with his co-pilot Milton "Skeets" Elliott. The scene remained on the film.
Early life
Born in Greenville, Texas, Locklear was raised in Fort Worth. In 1911, Locklear met Calbraith Perry Rodgers, who landed his plane in Fort Worth to unclog a fuel line. After meeting Rodgers, Locklear became fascinated with aviation and airplanes. Shortly thereafter, Locklear and his brother constructed their own glider.
Upon completing his education, Locklear went to work as a carpenter.
Flying career
In October 1917, Locklear joined the U.S. Army Air Service. He trained in Austin, at Camp Dick and Barron Field, becoming a flying instructor. Locklear was an exponent of wing walking to make aircraft repairs in flight.
A second lieutenant at the end of the World War I, Locklear had been assigned to military recruitment when he saw a barnstorming show and realized his own usual flying exploits were far more impressive. After briefly reenlisting, Locklear left the Army in 1919, along with two military colleagues, Milton "Skeets" Elliott and Shirley Short. With manager and promoter William Pickens, they soon obtained aircraft and formed the "Locklear Flying Circus".
Pickens had a great deal of experience promoting barnstormers, with Locklear being his greatest success. Both men became wealthy and lived in high style. His trademark stunt of jumping from one aircraft to another led Locklear to perfect a transfer from a car, and then the "Dance of Death," in which two pilots in two aircraft, would switch places in midair.
On April 7, 1920, Locklear was flying in the city of Los Angeles, California, where he was issued the first aviation law violation for reckless aerial driving. He was fined $25.00 ($ in ).
Film career
The Locklear Flying Circus performed throughout the United States. When they came to the attention of Hollywood, Pickens arranged for Locklear to appear as a stunt man in film work. This opened the way to a movie career in California for Locklear, now considered the foremost "aviation stunt man in the world". Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Pictures, agreed to purchase all of Locklear's future air show dates in July 1919 in order to have him on contract for a proposed two-film series. Locklear was signed to star in The Great Air Robbery, a film depicting pilots flying air mail.
Principal photography for The Great Air Robbery began in July 1919 at DeMille Field 1, Los Angeles, California, owned by producer Cecil B. DeMille. Besides being used as a base for flying, Locklear's Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" aircraft was also mounted on a raised wooden platform at the airfield in order to film closeups. The Great Air Robbery was primarily an opportunity to showcase the aerial stunts that had made Locklear famous. The studio promotion was extensive, with Laemmle declaring the film was "... the most amazing and unbelievable photodrama of all time." The promotional campaign included a premiere at the Superba Theatre in Los Angeles, and a two-month personal appearance tour with Locklear.
Reviews were generally favourable, as The Great Air Robbery was the first of a cycle of postwar films dealing with the exploits of stunt pilots. The New York Times review focused on the exciting elements of the film. "Lieutenant Locklear swings from one airplane to another and crawls out on the tail of a flying machine several thousand feet, presumably, above the earth. The melodrama's use of airplanes for midnight mail deliveries, highway, or rather highair, robberies, and battles between the forces of law and lawlessness adds excitement."
Although The Great Air Robbery was a commercial success, Laemmle did not take up the option for a second film starring Locklear, prompting his $25,000 lawsuit against Universal. Unwilling to go back to the air show circuit, Locklear wanted to continue his Hollywood career, and in April 1920, he was signed to star in The Skywayman (1920).
Principal photography on The Skywayman began on June 11, 1920, with DeMille Field 2 as the main base of operations. Despite Locklear's public claim that new stunts "more daring ever filmed" would be involved, the production would rely heavily on models and less on actual stunt flying. Two stunts, a church steeple being toppled by Locklear's aircraft and an aircraft-to-train transfer were both problematic and nearly ended in disaster.
Personal life
Locklear married Ruby Graves in 1915. The marriage was largely unhappy as Graves and Locklear had vastly different personalities. They separated in 1919 after Locklear moved to Los Angeles to pursue a film career. Despite the marriage being an unhappy one, Graves refused to grant Locklear a divorce. They remained legally married until Locklear's death.
While separated from Graves, Locklear met widowed silent film actress
Viola Dana. They began a relationship and were engaged at the time of Locklear's death. Dana witnessed the plane crash that killed Locklear. She was so traumatized by the event that she refused to fly for the next 25 years. In 1980, Dana recalled her relationship with Locklear and also spoke about his fatal crash in the documentary Hollywood.
Death
The last stunt scheduled for filming for The Skywayman was a nighttime spin, initially to take place in daylight with cameras fitted with red filters to simulate darkness. Locklear, under a lot of pressure, with not only his family life being in upheaval but also learning that studio head William Fox was not going to extend his contract beyond one film, demanded that he be allowed to fly at night. The studio relented, and on August 2, 1920, publicity surrounding the stunt led to a large crowd gathering to witness the filming of the unusual stunt. Large studio arc lights were set up on DeMille Field 2 to illuminate the Curtiss "Jenny", to be doused as the aircraft entered its final spin. The dive towards some oil derricks was to make it appear that the airplane crashed beside the oil well. As arranged, Locklear had forewarned the lighting crew to douse their lights when he got near the derricks so that he could see to pull out of the dive, saying that "When you take the lights off, I'll know where I am and I can come out of it." After completing a series of aerial maneuvers, Locklear signaled that he would descend.
In front of spectators and film crew, Locklear and his long-time flying partner "Skeets" Elliot crashed heavily into the sludge pool of an oil well, never pulling out of the incipient spin. The crash resulted in a massive explosion and fire, with Locklear and Elliot dying instantly. After the accident, speculation revolved around the five arc lights that had remained fully on, possibly blinding the flight crew.
With the entire film already completed except for the night scene, Fox made the decision to capitalize on the fatal crash by rushing The Skywayman into post-production and release. With notices proclaiming "Every Inch Of Film Showing Locklear's Spectacular (And Fatal) Last Flight. His Death-Defying Feats And A Close Up Of His Spectacular Crash To Earth," the film premiered in Los Angeles on September 5, 1920. The advertising campaign that accompanied the film was very similar to that of Locklear's first feature film, focusing on his earlier exploits and combining model displays and exhibition flights across North America to coincide with the film's release. Upon the film's release, Fox Film Corporation publicly announced that 10% of the profits would go to the families of Locklear and Elliot.
Locklear is buried at Greenwood Cemetery in Fort Worth, Texas.
Legacy
Locklear was reputed to be the prototype for the character of Waldo Pepper, played by Robert Redford in The Great Waldo Pepper (1975). Viola Dana was an honored guest at the premiere of the film.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Farmer, James H. Celluloid Wings: The Impact of Movies on Aviation. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books Inc., 1984. .
Golden, Eve. Golden Images: 41 Essays on Silent Film Stars. McFarland, 2000. .
Hatfield, D. D. Los Angeles Aeronautics 1920-29. Inglewood, California: Northrop University Press, 1973. ASIN B0006CB8ZI
Nichols, Michael. Lost Fort Worth. The History Press, 2014. .
Paris, Michael. From the Wright Brothers to Top Gun: Aviation, Nationalism, and Popular Cinema. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1995. .
Pendo, Stephen. Aviation in the Cinema. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 1985. .
Ronnie, Art. Locklear: The Man Who Walked on Wings. Cranbury, New Jersey: A.S. Barnes and Company, 1973.
Wynne, H. Hugh. The Motion Picture Stunt Pilots and Hollywood's Classic Aviation Movies. Missoula, Montana: Pictorial Histories Publishing Co., 1987. .
External links
Still of Ormer Locklear, promotional tour for The Great Air Robbery, University of North Texas
1891 births
1920 deaths
20th-century American male actors
Accidental deaths in California
American male film actors
American male silent film actors
United States Army Air Service pilots of World War I
American stunt performers
Aviators from Texas
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in the United States
Barnstormers
Burials in Texas
Filmed deaths of entertainers
Male actors from Fort Worth, Texas
People from Greenville, Texas
Stunt pilots
United States Army officers
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1920
Military personnel from Texas | [
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251874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible%20electronics | Flexible electronics | Flexible electronics, also known as flex circuits, is a technology for assembling electronic circuits by mounting electronic devices on flexible plastic substrates, such as polyimide, PEEK or transparent conductive polyester film. Additionally, flex circuits can be screen printed silver circuits on polyester. Flexible electronic assemblies may be manufactured using identical components used for rigid printed circuit boards, allowing the board to conform to a desired shape, or to flex during its use.
Manufacturing
Flexible printed circuits (FPC) are made with a photolithographic technology. An alternative way of making flexible foil circuits or flexible flat cables (FFCs) is laminating very thin (0.07 mm) copper strips in between two layers of PET. These PET layers, typically 0.05 mm thick, are coated with an adhesive which is thermosetting, and will be activated during the lamination process. FPCs and FFCs have several advantages in many applications:
Tightly assembled electronic packages, where electrical connections are required in 3 axes, such as cameras (static application).
Electrical connections where the assembly is required to flex during its normal use, such as folding cell phones (dynamic application).
Electrical connections between sub-assemblies to replace wire harnesses, which are heavier and bulkier, such as in cars, rockets and satellites.
Electrical connections where board thickness or space constraints are driving factors.
Advantage of FPCs
Potential to replace multiple rigid boards or connectors
Single-sided circuits are ideal for dynamic or high-flex applications
Stacked FPCs in various configurations
Disadvantages of FPCs
Cost increase over rigid PCBs
Increased risk of damage during handling or use
More difficult assembly process
Repair and rework is difficult or impossible
Generally worse panel utilization resulting in increased cost
Applications
Flex circuits are often used as connectors in various applications where flexibility, space savings, or production constraints limit the serviceability of rigid circuit boards or hand wiring. A common application of flex circuits is in computer keyboards; most keyboards use flex circuits for the switch matrix.
In LCD fabrication, glass is used as a substrate. If thin flexible plastic or metal foil is used as the substrate instead, the entire system can be flexible, as the film deposited on top of the substrate is usually very thin, on the order of a few micrometres.
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are normally used instead of a back-light for flexible displays, making a flexible organic light-emitting diode display.
Most flexible circuits are passive wiring structures that are used to interconnect electronic components such as integrated circuits, resistors, capacitors and the like; however, some are used only for making interconnections between other electronic assemblies either directly or by means of connectors.
In the automotive field, flexible circuits are used in instrument panels, under-hood controls, circuits to be concealed within the headliner of the cabin, and in ABS systems. In computer peripherals flexible circuits are used on the moving print head of printers, and to connect signals to the moving arm carrying the read/write heads of disk drives. Consumer electronics devices make use of flexible circuits in cameras, personal entertainment devices, calculators, or exercise monitors.
Flexible circuits are found in industrial and medical devices where many interconnections are required in a compact package. Cellular telephones are another widespread example of flexible circuits.
Flexible solar cells have been developed for powering satellites. These cells are lightweight, can be rolled up for launch, and are easily deployable, making them a good match for the application. They can also be sewn into backpacks or outerwear.
In December 2021, engineers from Keio University in Tokyo and Stanford University announced the creation of stretchable and skin-like semiconductor circuits. In the future, these wearable electronics may be used to send health data to doctors wirelessly.
History
Patents issued at the turn of the 20th century show that early researchers were envisioning ways of making flat conductors sandwiched between layers of insulating material to layout electrical circuits to serve in early telephony switching applications. One of the earliest descriptions of what could be called a flex circuit was unearthed by Dr Ken Gilleo and disclosed in an English patent by Albert Hansen in 1903 where Hansen described a construction consisting of flat metal conductors on paraffin coated paper. Thomas Edison’s lab books from the same period also indicate that he was thinking to coat patterns cellulose gum applied to linen paper with graphite powder to create what would have clearly been flexible circuits, though there is no evidence that it was reduced to practice.
In the 1947 publication "Printed Circuit Techniques" by Cledo Brunetti and Roger W. Curtis a brief discussion of creating circuits on what would have been flexible insulating materials (e.g. paper) indicated that the idea was in place and in the 1950s Sanders Associates' inventors (Nashua, NH) Victor Dahlgren and company founder Royden Sanders made significant strides developing and patenting processes for printing and etching flat conductors on flexible base materials to replace wire harnesses. An advertisement from the 1950 placed by Photocircuits Corporation in New York demonstrated their active interest in flexible circuits also.
Today, flexible circuits which are also variously known around the world variously as flexible printed wiring, flex print, flexi circuits, are used many products. Large credit is due to the efforts of Japanese electronics packaging engineers who have found countless new ways to employ flexible circuit technology. For the last decade, flexible circuits have remained one of the fastest growing of all interconnection product market segments. A more recent variation on flexible circuit technology is one called "flexible electronics" which commonly involves the integration of both active and passive functions in the processing.
Flexible circuit structures
There are a few basic constructions of flexible circuits but there is significant variation between the different types in terms of their construction. Following is a review of the most common types of flexible circuit constructions
Single-sided flex circuits
Single-sided flexible circuits have a single conductor layer made of either a metal or conductive (metal filled) polymer on a flexible dielectric film. Component termination features are accessible only from one side. Holes may be formed in the base film to allow component leads to pass through for interconnection, normally by soldering. Single sided flex circuits can be fabricated with or without such protective coatings as cover layers or cover coats, however the use of a protective coating over circuits is the most common practice. The development of surface mounted devices on sputtered conductive films has enabled the production of transparent LED Films, which is used in LED Glass but also in flexible automotive lighting composites.
Double access or back bared flex circuits
Double access flex, also known as back bared flex, are flexible circuits having a single conductor layer but which is processed so as to allow access to selected features of the conductor pattern from both sides. While this type of circuit has certain benefits, the specialized processing requirements for accessing the features limits its use.
Sculptured flex circuits
Sculptured flex circuits are a novel subset of normal flexible circuit structures. The manufacturing process involves a special flex circuit multi-step etching method which yields a flexible circuit having finished copper conductors wherein the thickness of the conductor differs at various places along their length. (i.e., the conductors are thin in flexible areas and thick at interconnection points.).
Double-sided flex circuits
Double-sided flex circuits are flex circuits having two conductor layers. These flex circuits can be fabricated with or without plated through holes, though the plated through hole variation is much more common. When constructed without plated through holes and connection features are accessed from one side only, the circuit is defined as a "Type V (5)" according to military specifications. It is not a common practice but it is an option. Because of the plated through hole, terminations for electronic components are provided for on both sides of the circuit, thus allowing components to be placed on either side. Depending on design requirements, double-sided flex circuits can be fabricated with protective coverlayers on one, both or neither side of the completed circuit but are most commonly produced with the protective layer on both sides. One major advantage of this type of substrate is that it allows crossover connections to be made very easily. Many single sided circuits are built on a double sided substrate just because they have one or two crossover connections. An example of this use is the circuit connecting a mousepad to the motherboard of a laptop. All connections on that circuit are located on only one side of the substrate, except a very small crossover connection which uses the second side of the substrate.
Multilayer flex circuits
Flex circuits having three or more layers of conductors are known as multilayer flex circuits. Commonly the layers are interconnected by means of plated through holes, though this is not a requirement of the definition for it is possible to provide openings to access lower circuit level features. The layers of the multilayer flex circuit may or may not be continuously laminated together throughout the construction with the obvious exception of the areas occupied by plated through-holes. The practice of discontinuous lamination is common in cases where maximum flexibility is required. This is accomplished by leaving unbonded the areas where flexing or bending is to occur.
Rigid-flex circuits
Rigid-flex circuits are a hybrid construction flex circuit consisting of rigid and flexible substrates which are laminated together into a single structure. Rigid-flex circuits should not be confused with rigidized flex constructions, which simply flex circuits on which a stiffener is attached to support the weight of the electronic components locally. A rigidized or stiffened flex circuit can have one or more conductor layers. Thus while the two terms may sound similar, they represent products that are quite different.
The layers of a rigid-flex are also normally electrically interconnected by means of plated through holes. Over the years, rigid-flex circuits have enjoyed tremendous popularity among military product designers, however, the technology has found increased use in commercial products. While often considered a specialty product for low volume applications because of the challenges, an impressive effort to use the technology was made by Compaq computer in the production of boards for a laptop computer in the 1990s. While the computer's main rigid-flex PCBA did not flex during use, subsequent designs by Compaq utilized rigid-flex circuits for the hinged display cable, passing tens of thousands of flexures during testing. By 2013, the use of rigid-flex circuits in consumer laptop computers is now common.
Rigid-flex boards are normally multilayer structures; however, two metal layer constructions are sometimes used.
Polymer thick film flex circuits
Polymer thick film (PTF) flex circuits are true printed circuits in that the conductors are actually printed onto a polymer base film. They are typically single conductor layer structures, however two or more metal layers can be printed sequentially with insulating layers printed between printed conductor layers, or on both sides. While lower in conductor conductivity and thus not suitable for all applications, PTF circuits have successfully served in a wide range of low-power applications at slightly higher voltages. Keyboards are a common application, however, there are a wide range of potential applications for this cost-effective approach to flex circuit manufacture.
Flexible circuit materials
Each element of the flex circuit construction must be able to consistently meet the demands placed upon it for the life of the product. In addition, the material must work reliably in concert with the other elements of the flexible circuit construction to assure ease of manufacture and reliability. Following are brief descriptions of the basic elements of flex circuit construction and their functions.
Base material
The base material is the flexible polymer film which provides the foundation for the laminate. Under normal circumstances, the flex circuit base material provides most primary physical and electrical properties of the flexible circuit. In the case of adhesiveless circuit constructions, the base material provides all of the characteristic properties.
While a wide range of thickness is possible, most flexible films are provided in a narrow range of relatively thin dimension from 12 µm to 125 µm (1/2 mil to 5 mils) but thinner and thicker material are possible. Thinner materials are of course more flexible and for most material, stiffness increase is proportional to the cube of thickness. Thus for example, means that if the thickness is doubled, the material becomes eight times stiffer and will only deflect 1/8 as much under the same load.
There are a number of different materials used as base films including: polyester (PET), polyimide (PI), polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), polyetherimide (PEI), along with various fluropolymers (FEP) and copolymers. Polyimide films are most prevalent owing to their blend of advantageous electrical, mechanical, chemical and thermal properties.
Bonding adhesive
Adhesives are used as the bonding medium for creating a laminate. When it comes to temperature resistance, the adhesive is typically the performance limiting element of a laminate especially when polyimide is the base material. Because of the earlier difficulties associated with polyimide adhesives, many polyimide flex circuits presently employ adhesive systems of different polymer families. However some newer thermoplastic polyimide adhesives are making important in-roads.
As with the base films, adhesives come in different thickness. Thickness selection is typically a function of the application. For example, different adhesive thickness is commonly used in the creation of cover layers in order to meet the fill demands of different copper foil thickness which may be encountered.
Metal foil
A metal foil is most commonly used as the conductive element of a flexible laminate. The metal foil is the material from which the circuit paths are normally etched. A wide variety of metal foils of varying thickness are available from which to choose and create a flex circuit, however copper foils serve the vast majority of all flexible circuit applications. Copper's excellent balance of cost and physical and electrical performance attributes make it an excellent choice. There are actually many different types of copper foil. The IPC identifies eight different types of copper foil for printed circuits divided into two much broader categories, electrodeposited and wrought, each having four sub-types.) As a result, there are a number of different types of copper foil available for flex circuit applications to serve the varied purposes of different end products. With most copper foil, a thin surface treatment is commonly applied to one side of the foil to improve its adhesion to the base film. Copper foils are of two basic types: wrought (rolled) and electrodeposited and their properties are quite different. Rolled and annealed foils are the most common choice, however thinner films which are electroplated are becoming increasingly popular.
In certain non standard cases, the circuit manufacturer may be called upon to create a specialty laminate by using a specified alternative metal foil, such as a special copper alloy or other metal foil in the construction. This is accomplished by laminating the foil to a base film with or without an adhesive depending on the nature and properties of the base film.
Flexible circuit industry standards and specifications
Specifications are developed to provide a common ground of understanding of what a product should look like and how it should perform. Standards are developed directly by manufacturer's associations such as the Association Connecting Electronics Industries (IPC) and by users of flexible circuits.
Scientific Publications
IEEE Journal on Flexible Electronics (J-FLEX)
Scientific Conferences
IEEE International Flexible Electronics Technology Conference (IFETC)
See also
Amorphous silicon
Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS)
Flexible circuit
Flexible keyboard
Kapton
Polyimide Film
Rollable electronics
Printed electronics
Roll-to-roll
Soft robotics
Solar vehicle
Stretchable electronics
Stretch sensor
Thin film
References
Further reading
External links
Flexible OLEDs
Example of Flexible Circuit with integrated heatsink for cooling
Electronics manufacturing
Electronic engineering
Emerging technologies | [
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