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252206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William | William | William is a male given name of Germanic origin. It became very popular in the English language after the Norman conquest of England in 1066, and remained so throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era. It is sometimes abbreviated "Wm." Shortened familiar versions in English include Will, Willy, Willie, Bill, and Billy. A common Irish form is Liam. Scottish diminutives include Wull, Willie or Wullie (see Oor Wullie or Douglas for example). Female forms are Willa, Willemina, Willamette, Wilma and Wilhelmina.
Etymology
William is related to the given name Wilhelm (cf. Proto-Germanic ᚹᛁᛚᛃᚨᚺᛖᛚᛗᚨᛉ, *Wiljahelmaz > German Wilhelm and Old Norse ᚢᛁᛚᛋᛅᚼᛅᛚᛘᛅᛋ, Vilhjálmr). By regular sound changes, the native, inherited English form of the name should be *Wilhelm as well (although the name is not actually attested in the history of English, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle refers to William the Conqueror as Willelm). That is a compound of two distinct elements: wil = "will or desire"; helm; Old English helm "helmet, protection"; English helm "knight's large helmet".
In fact, the form William is clearly identified as typical of the Old Norman form Williame, Willame, because first, the English language should have retained (h)elm (see common words helm, helmet), second, -iaume [iaʷm] (typical of Popular French, see Guillaume) turned to -iame [iam] (typical of some Norman and Picard dialects) > English -iam. Historically, there was first a triphthongation of -elm (early Gallo-Romance form WILLELMU) into [iaʷ] + [m] in Old Norman-French, quite similar in Old Central French [eaʷ] + [m]. Then, the triphthong -iau was submitted to a monophthongation localized on the second part of the triphthong áu > āò > ā. For instance, this development can be followed in the different versions of the name in the Wace's Roman de Rou. or in the Cauchois variant forms of common words such as osias (plural of osè "bird", older oisel) / Regular Norman oisiaus "birds" (French sing. oiseau, pl. oiseaux).
The spelling and phonetics Wi- [wi] is a characteristic trait of the Northern French dialects, but the pronunciation changed in Norman from [wi] to [vi] in the 12th century (cf. the Norman surnames Villon and Villamaux "little William"), unlike the Central French and Southern Norman that turned the Germanic Wi- into Gui- [gwi] > [gi]. The Modern French spelling is .
The first well-known carrier of the name was Charlemagne's cousin William of Gellone, a.k.a. Guilhem, William of Orange, Guillaume Fierabrace, or William Short-Nose (755–812). This William is immortalized in the Chanson de Guillaume and his esteem may account for the name's subsequent popularity among European nobility.
English history
The English "William" is taken from the Anglo-Norman language and was transmitted to England after the Norman conquest in the 11th century, and soon became the most popular name in England, along with other Norman names such as Robert (the English cognate was Hrēodbeorht, which by regular sound changes would have developed into something along the lines of "Reedbart"), Richard, Roger (the English cognate was Hroðgar), Henry(all of possible Germanic origin and may have been transmitted through the Normans' use of Old French).
The name 'Wilkin' is also of medieval origin taken from the shortened version of William (Will) with the suffix "kin" added.
Variants and cognates
Weelum (Scots)
Willum (Scots)
Guilherme (Portuguese)
Viliamu (Samoan)
Viliami (Tongan)
Whiriyamu (Karanga)
Whiliyamu (Ndebele)
Wilhelm (German, Polish, Swedish)
Willem, Wilhelmus (Dutch, Frisian, Low German)
Willem, Wilhelm (Afrikaans)
Wiremu (Maori)
Willelm (Old English)
Wullie, Wully, Weelum, Willum (Scots)
Williama (Hawaiian)
Wellëm (Luxembourgish)
Walaam (Persian)
Wiliyom, Wiliyem (Bengali)
Vĩnh Liêm, Vĩnh Lâm (Vietnamese)
Billem (Toba Batak)
Cuglierme (Neapolitan)
Golem, Gulielm (Albanian)
Gilen, Guilen (Basque)
Gulielmus, Vilhelmus, Willelmus, Gullelmus, Gullielmus, Villelmus (Latin)
Guglielmo (Italian)
Guillaume (French)
Guildhelm (Old Dutch)
Guilhem (Occitan)
Guillem, Guim (Catalan)
Guillén (Aragonese)
Guillermo (Spanish)
Guilherme (Portuguese)
Guillerme (Galician)
Gwilym (Welsh)
Gwilherm (Breton)
Gugghiermu (Sicilian)
Gllâome (Modern Norman)
Uilliam, Ulliam (Irish)
Liam (Irish)
Illiam (Manx Gaelic)
Uilleam (Scottish Gaelic)
وليم (Arabic)
Уилиам – Uiliam (Bulgarian)
װֶעלװֶעל – /ˈvelvel/ (Yiddish)
Villem, Villu (Estonian)
Вильгельм, Уильям – Vil'gel'm, Uil'yam (Russian)
Вільгельм, Вільям – Vil'hel'm, Vil'yam (Ukrainian)
Уільям, Вільям – Uiĺjam, Viĺjam (Belarusian)
Villem – Estonian
Vilhelm (Danish, Norwegian, Romanian, Swedish)
Vilhelmo (Esperanto)
Vilhelms (Latvian)
Viliam (Slovak)
Viljem (Slovene)
ויליאם – /ˈviljam/ (older propronunciation), /ˈwiljam/ (contemporary) (Hebrew)
Vilim (Croatian)
Вилим (Serbian)
Vilém (Czech)
Vilmos (Hungarian)
Viljams, Vilhelms, Vilis (Latvian)
Vilius, Viliumas, Vilhelmas (Lithuanian)
Viljami, Ville, Vilho, Viljo (Finnish)
Vilhjálmur (Icelandic)
Vilhjálmur, Viljormur (Faroese)
Vilhjálmr (Old Norse)
Vilko (Croatian)
Vilyam, Vilyım (Turkish)
Vėljams (Samogitian)
Γουλιέλμος (Wouliélmos) (Greek)
ܘܠܝܡ (Wil-yam) (Assyrian)
Գուլիելմոս (Goulielmós) (Armenian)
Shortened names
Bill
Billy
Gil
Will
Wil
Willy, Willie
Gui
Wim
Guiguille, Guigui (French language)
Guille (Spanish)
Liam
Memo (Mexico, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Colombia)
Wim, Pim, Jelle (Dutch)
People named William
See also
Bill (disambiguation)
Billy (disambiguation)
King William (disambiguation)
Saint William (disambiguation)
Wilhelm (disambiguation)
References
English-language masculine given names
English masculine given names
German masculine given names | [
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252213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistive%20force | Resistive force | In physics, resistive force is a force, or the vector sum of numerous forces, whose direction is opposite to the motion of a body, and may refer to:
Friction, during sliding and/or rolling
Drag (physics), during movement through a fluid (see fluid dynamics)
Normal force, exerted reactionally back on the acting body by the compressive, tensile or shear stress within the recipient body
Intermolecular forces, when separating adhesively bonded surfaces
Magnetic repulsion, when a magnetic object moves against another magnetic field
Gravity, during vertical takeoff
Mechanical load, in a simple machine | [
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252215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada%20Council | Canada Council | The Canada Council for the Arts (), commonly called the Canada Council, is a Crown corporation established in 1957 as an arts council of the Government of Canada. It acts as the federal government's principal instrument for funding public arts, as well as for fostering and promoting the study and enjoyment of, and the production of works in, the arts.
The Canada Council fulfills its mandate primarily through providing grants and services to professional Canadian artists and arts organizations in dance, interdisciplinary art, media arts, music, opera, theatre, writing, publishing, and the visual arts. In addition, the Canada Council administers the Art Bank, which operates art rental programs and an exhibitions and outreach program. The Canada Council Art Bank holds the largest collection of contemporary Canadian art in the world. The Canada Council is also responsible for the secretariat for the Canadian Commission for UNESCO and the Public Lending Right Commission.
The Canada Council for the Arts reports to Parliament through the Minister of Canadian Heritage and is governed by an 11-member Board. The Board consists of a Chair and a Vice-Chair—currently Jesse Wente and Nathalie Bondil, respectively—along with nine other members from around the country. Along with the Director and CEO, they are appointed by the Governor-in-Council for fixed terms.
Organization
The Canada Council for the Arts is an arms-length agency based in Ottawa, Ontario, that reports to Parliament through the Minister of Canadian Heritage. Its endowment income is supplemented by annual appropriations from Parliament, donations, and bequests. Its main duty is allotting grants and prizes to Canadian artists based on the merits of their applications. The Canada Council also funds and administers many of Canada's top arts awards, including the Governor General's Literary Awards and the Governor General's Awards in Visual and Media Arts.
The Canada Council is called from time to time to appear before parliamentary committees, particularly the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage. Its accounts are audited by the Auditor General of Canada and included in an Annual Report to Parliament.
Canada Council for the Arts Act
The Canada Council for the Arts Act is the establishing act of the Canada Council for the Arts, appointing a council of at least nine members. The Act was first passed into law in 1957, by the Liberal government of Louis St. Laurent, later amended in 1985.
Governance
The Canada Council for the Arts, as a federal Crown corporation, is accountable to Parliament through the Minister of Canadian Heritage and is governed by an 11-member Board. The Board is composed of a Chair, Vice-Chair, and nine other members from across Canada.
Along with the Director and CEO, Board members are appointed by the Governor-in-Council for fixed terms. The Board meets at least three times per year and is responsible for the oversight of the Canada Council's policies, programs, budgets, and grant decisions. The Canada Council’s Executive Management, on the other hand—which is led by the Director and CEO—is responsible for establishing and implementing the broad directions and vision developed by the Board, as well as managing the Council itself. The Director is appointed by the Governor in Council as well, and also acts as the chief executive officer (CEO).
Chairs of the Canada Council:
Brooke Claxton, 1957–1960
Claude Bissell, 1960–1962
Douglas B. Weldon, 1962–1964
Jean Martineau, 1964–1969
John G. Prentice, 1969–1974
Brian Flemming (interim), 1974–1975
Gertrude M. Laing, 1975–1978
Mavor Moore, 1979–1983
Maureen Forrester, 1983–1988
Allan Gotlieb, 1989–1994
Donna Scott, 1994–1998
Jean-Louis Roux, 1998–2004
Karen Kain, 2004–2008
Joseph L. Rotman, 2008–2015
Pierre Lassonde, 2015–2020
Jesse Wente, 2020–2025
Executive Management:
For the complete list of members of the Canada Council's Executive Management, visit the organization's website.
History
The Canada Council for the Arts was established and began operations in 1957 as part of a major recommendation of the 1951 report by the Royal Commission on National Development in the Arts, Letters and Sciences, commonly known as the Massey Commission.
The report described an unpromising cultural landscape in Canada: professional theatre was "moribund;" the musical space was meager; professional artistic ventures were lacking and virtually absent outside of the largest urban areas; and English Canada produced only 14 works of fiction in an entire year. Moreover, the report stated:No novelist, poet, short story writer, historian, biographer, or other writer of non-technical books can make even a modestly comfortable living by selling his work in Canada. No composer of music can live at all on what Canada pays him for his compositions. Apart from radio drama, no playwright, and only a few actors and producers, can live by working in the theatre in Canada." Gifted Canadians "must be content with a precarious and unrewarding life in Canada, or go abroad where their talents are in demand.As such, the report recommended that the Government of Canada establish a Canada Council for the Encouragement of the Arts, Letters, Humanities and Social Sciences. Due to "the dangers inherent in any system of subvention by the central government to the arts and letters and to the culture of the country generally," the Commission—operating in the aftermath of WWII—proposed that the new council be created with a large amount of independence from government. In introducing the Canada Council Act to Parliament, then-Prime Minister Louis St-Laurent said:Our main object in recommending the establishment of the Canada Council is to provide some assistance to universities, to the arts, humanities and social sciences as well as to students in those fields without attempting in any way to control their activities or to tamper with their freedom. Governments should, I feel, support the cultural development of the nation but not attempt to control it.The Canada Council for the Arts was thereafter created as an independent, arm's-length body, accountable to Parliament through the Minister of Canadian Heritage with responsibility for establishing its priorities, policies, and funding programs as well as making grant decisions. In its first year, from an initial endowment of CA$50 million, the Council had a budget of $1.5 million for the arts, humanities, and social sciences. By 1964, the Council proposed for a substantial increase to the endowment. Instead, the Council's main source of revenue became yearly government appropriations.
In 1977, the Canada Council sets up the Payment for Public Use Committee to discuss the creation of a Public Lending Right (PLR) program. The following year, the federal government created the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, adopting responsibility for the humanities and social sciences from the Canada Council, which would now only be responsible for the arts. In March 1986, the Payment for Public Use (PPU) program was established by a Cabinet decision, with an initial budget of $3 million allocated to it by the Treasury Board Secretariat. This would make Canada the 13th country in the world to develop a PLR program. The initial name was promptly changed to Public Lending Right, and catalogue-based system was adopted.
The mid-1990s "program review" process, which the federal government undertook to curb spending and reduce the deficit, affected the Canada Council as it did other federal agencies and departments. During the mid-1990s period, the Council was restructured and its staff numbers reduced. Toward the end of the decade, however, came what the then-chairman of the Council, actor Jean-Louis Roux, called "the beginnings of a new period of growth." In October 1997, the Canadian Heritage Minister announced another $25 million of funding for 1997–98 and for each of the following 4 years. An additional $10-million increase in the appropriation was announced in the federal budget of February 2000. In May 2001, further $25 million was provided to the Council by the federal government between 2001–02 and 2003–05. In 2006, the Canadian government provided one-time funding of $50 million (divided into $20 million for 2006–07 and $30 million for 2007–08), all of which would go towards grants. In 2007, the government announced an additional $30 million to be added permanently to the Council's base budget, bringing the Parliamentary appropriation to around $180 million in 2008–09.
Divisions and spaces
Âjagemô Exhibition Space
Âjagemô is a 3,000-square-foot (278.71 m2) display and performance space at the Canada Council offices that features various exhibitions of contemporary Canadian art, including work from the collection of the Canada Council Art Bank. It takes its name from the Algonquin word for 'crossroads'.
Art Bank
The Canada Council for the Arts oversees the Art Bank (), a division of the Canada Council with the mandate to rent works of art to public and private sector offices. The Art Bank's collection—the largest collection of contemporary Canadian art in the world—includes some 18,000 artworks by over 3,000 Canadian artists, including those from Indigenous backgrounds. These works include the 6,400 currently being rented to over 200 government and corporate clients. It offers public access to this art through its 3 programs: art rental, loans to museums, and outreach projects.
Established in the 1970s and developed by Canada Council Visual Arts Officer Suzanne Rivard-Lemoyne, the Art Bank buys art from notable Canadian artists through a system of peer-review juries. The Bank is completely self-funded, earning its money from renting out works in its collection, and continues to expand its collection by buying works in accord with its annual purchasing budget. The vast majority of its art is rented by the federal government, with less than 10% being rented to the private sector. Works of art are rented out for two-year periods. The rental rate is generally 20% of the piece's market value. Although located in Ottawa, Ontario, the Art Bank services its clients across the country. Its collection has been appraised to be worth over 71 million dollars.
In 2002 the Canada Council Art Bank began to purchase Indigenous art to enhance its collection as part of its 45th anniversary.
Canadian Commission for UNESCO
Overseeing UNESCO activities in Canada, the Canada Council operates the Canadian Commission for UNESCO (CCUNESCO), which helps governments, organizations, and individual Canadians share information, along with making recommendations to the federal Canadian government on UNESCO programs and budgets.
Established by the Canada Council for the Arts in 1957, the Commission is managed by a 17-member executive committee consisting of representatives of government departments, academics, and other experts in education, culture, and world heritage.
Grants, Prizes and Initiatives
Prizes
The Canada Council for the Arts promotes public awareness of the arts through its communications, research and arts promotion activities. In particular, every year, the Canada Council awards a broad range of prizes to over 200 Canadian artists and scholars in recognition of their work.
The Canada Council administers various Governor General's Awards, including Medals in Architecture, Literary Awards, Performing Arts Awards, and Awards in Visual and Media Arts. Other awards include the Killam Program of scholarly awards, J.B.C Watkins Awards, the John G. Diefenbaker Award, the Musical Instrument Bank, and the Walter Carsen Prize for Excellence in the Performing Arts, among others.
The John G. Diefenbaker Award, with a prize of up to $95,000, allows a distinguished German scholar in the humanities to conduct research in Canada and spend brief periods gaining additional experience at American institutions. The Award was created in 1991, in memory of former Prime Minister John G. Diefenbaker, as the Canadian counterpart to the Konrad Adenauer Award, which was established by the Government of Germany for Canadian scholars in 1988.
The Killam Research Fellowship, granted for two years with a prize of $70,000 per year, provides support to scholars by granting them time to pursue research projects of broad significance and widespread interest within the disciplines of the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, health sciences, engineering, or studies linking any of these disciplines. This award is one of the most distinguished research fellowships in Canada, and was established by the Killam Trusts through Dorothy J. Killam, in memory of her husband, Izaak Walton Killam.
Musical Instrument Bank
The Musical Instrument Bank (MIB; ) is an initiative of Canada Council wherein preeminent Canadian classical musicians, especially young artists, compete for the opportunity to become the steward and performer of a classical instrument from the Musical Instrument Bank on a 3-year loan.
The MIB was established in 1985 with a $100,000 bequest from the Barwick Family along with the fundraising efforts of businessman William Turner and cellist Denis Brott, both of Montréal. Since then, the Bank has received donations and loans of violins, cellos, and bows—created by such luthiers as Stradivari, Gagliano, Guarneri, and Pressenda—as well as generous bequests for the Canada Council to purchase additional instruments.
The Musical Instrument Bank has supported various notable Canadian classical musicians, including Lara St. John, Alexandre Da Costa, Martin Beaver, Judy Kang, and Denise Djokic. among others.
Grants
In 2018-19, the Canada Council awarded grants to over 2,800 Canadian artists, almost 450 groups, and over 2,000 arts organizations.
Each year the organization receives some 16,000 grant requests, which are reviewed by peer assessment committees. In 2006-07, the Canada Council awarded some 6,000 grants to artists and arts organizations and made payments to more than 15,400 authors through the Public Lending Right Commission. Grants and payments totaled more than $152 million.
Public Lending Right
Through its Public Lending Right (PLR) program, the Canada Council financially compensates over 17,000 Canadian authors annually for providing free public access to their books in Canadian public libraries. Authors are compensated through direct payments ranging from CA$50 to $4,500 a year. Eligible work includes original writing, translation, illustration, narration and photography contained in library books across a range.
The Public Lending Right Commission is a permanent advisory board that works with the Canada Council "to define the program’s criteria and promote the program among eligible authors, illustrators, narrators and translators" from a variety of literary and scholarly genres. The Commission consists of writers, translators, librarians, and publishers, as well as non-voting representatives from the Canada Council, the Department of Canadian Heritage, Library and Archives Canada, and Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec. Author Mélikah Abdelmoumen is the current Commission Chair, with writer Russell Wangersky as Vice-Chair.
The creation of a PLR program was first deliberated in 1977, when the Council sets up the Payment for Public Use Committee to discuss the matter. Also that year, UNEQ (Union des écrivaines et des écrivains québécois) is founded in order to defend the rights of Quebec authors. In 1982, the Applebaum-Hébert Committee recommended that the federal government create a program to pay authors for the use of their books in libraries. Soon after, in March 1986, the Payment for Public Use (PPU) program was established by a Cabinet decision, with an initial budget of $3 million allocated to it by the Treasury Board Secretariat. This would make Canada the 13th country in the world to develop a PLR program. The initial name was promptly changed to Public Lending Right and catalogue-based system was adopted.
The PLR Commission developed and approved its Constitution and Bylaws in 1988, its second year of operation. In 2008, the Commission would unanimously adopt a growth management strategy, including a new four-tier payment scale for PLR payments, which was implemented two years later. The Commission first moved in favour of the possibility of ebooks being eligible in the PLR Program in 2011. However, it would not be until 2016, when the Program opened registration to ebooks. Also in 2016, the Program would begin to consider the future eligibility of audiobook materials, and the Canada Council would pledge to increase direct payments to authors through the PLR Program. In 2012, author Roy MacSkimming published the first of three major research studies related to PLR; subsequent reports would address the arrival of new technologies and compare the Canadian model to other PLR systems operating around the world. The PLR Program would finally open registration to audiobooks in 2019. For the first time, works must have been published during the previous 5 years in order to be eligible for registration.
See also
The Killam Trusts
Virginia Parker Prize
References
Further reading
Granatstein, J.L. 1986. "Culture and scholarship: The first ten years of the Canada Council." Canada 1957-1967: Years of Uncertainty and Innovation. Toronto, ON: McClelland & Stewart. Pgs. 139–168.
Klages, G. 2011. "By Artists, for Artists? Creating the Saskatchewan Arts Board and Canada Council." Saskatchewan History 64/1 (Spring/Summer), pgs. 38–49.
Mailhot, L., and Melançon, B. 1982. Le Conseil des arts du Canada, 1957-1982. Montreal, PQ: Lemeac.
Ostry, B. 1978. The Cultural Connection. Toronto, ON: 1978.
Woodcock, G. 1985. Strange Bedfellows: the State and the Arts in Canada. Toronto, ON: Douglas & McIntyre.
External links
Art Bank official website
Governor General's Literary Awards official website
Governor General's Awards in Visual and Media Arts official website
Musical Instrument Bank official website
Canada Council fonds (R834) at Library and Archives Canada
Canadian federal Crown corporations
Organizations based in Ottawa
1957 establishments in Ontario
Arts organizations established in 1957 | [
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252216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localization%20%28commutative%20algebra%29 | Localization (commutative algebra) | In commutative algebra and algebraic geometry, localization is a formal way to introduce the "denominators" to a given ring or module. That is, it introduces a new ring/module out of an existing ring/module R, so that it consists of fractions such that the denominator s belongs to a given subset S of R. If S is the set of the non-zero elements of an integral domain, then the localization is the field of fractions: this case generalizes the construction of the ring of rational numbers from the ring of integers.
The technique has become fundamental, particularly in algebraic geometry, as it provides a natural link to sheaf theory. In fact, the term localization originated in algebraic geometry: if R is a ring of functions defined on some geometric object (algebraic variety) V, and one wants to study this variety "locally" near a point p, then one considers the set S of all functions that are not zero at p and localizes R with respect to S. The resulting ring contains information about the behavior of V near p, and excludes information that is not "local", such as the zeros of functions that are outside V (c.f. the example given at local ring).
Localization of a ring
The localization of a commutative ring by a multiplicatively closed set is a new ring whose elements are fractions with numerators in and denominators in .
If the ring is an integral domain the construction generalizes and follows closely that of the field of fractions, and, in particular, that of the rational numbers as the field of fractions of the integers. For rings that have zero divisors, the construction is similar but requires more care.
Multiplicative set
Localization is commonly done with respect to a multiplicatively closed set (also called a multiplicative set or a multiplicative system) of elements of a ring , that is a subset of that is closed under multiplication, and contains .
The requirement that must be a multiplicative set is natural, since it implies that all denominators introduced by the localization belong to . The localization by a set that is not multiplicatively closed can also be defined, by taking as possible denominators all products of elements of . However, the same localization is obtained by using the multiplicatively closed set of all products of elements of . As this often makes reasoning and notation simpler, it is standard practice to consider only localizations by multiplicative sets.
For example, the localization by a single element introduces fractions of the form but also products of such fractions, such as So, the denominators will belong to the multiplicative set of the powers of . Therefore, one generally talks of "the localization by the power of an element" rather than of "the localization by an element".
The localization of a ring by a multiplicative set is generally denoted but other notations are commonly used in some special cases: if consists of the powers of a single element, is often denoted if is the complement of a prime ideal , then is denoted
In the remainder of this article, only localizations by a multiplicative set are considered.
Integral domains
When the ring is an integral domain and does not contain , the ring is a subring of the field of fractions of .
More precisely, it is the subring of the field of fractions of , that consists of the fractions such that This is a subring since the sum and the product of two elements of are in This results from the defining property of a multiplicative set, which implies also that In this case, is a subring of It is shown below that this is no longer true in general, typically when contains zero divisors.
For example, the decimal fractions are the localization of the ring of integers by the multiplicative set of the powers of ten. In this case, consists of the rational numbers that can be written as where is an integer, and is a nonnegative integer.
General construction
In the general case, a problem arises with zero divisors. Let be a multiplicative set in a commutative ring . If is the image in of and if with then one must have and thus some nonzero elements of must be zero in The construction that follows is designed for taking this into account.
Given and as above, one considers the equivalence relation on that is defined by if there exists a such that
The localization is defined as the set of the equivalence classes for this relation. The class of is denoted as or So, one has if and only if there is a such that
The localization is a commutative ring with addition
multiplication
additive identity and multiplicative identity
The function
defines a ring homomorphism from into which is injective if and only if does not contain any zero divisors.
If then is the zero ring that has as unique element.
If is the set of all regular elements of (that is the elements that are not zero divisors), is called the total ring of fractions of .
Universal property
The (above defined) ring homomorphism satisfies a universal property that is described below. This characterizes up to an isomorphism. So all properties of localizations can be deduced from the universal property, independently from the way they have been constructed. Moreover, many important properties of localization are easily deduced from the general properties of universal properties, while their direct proof may be together technical, straightforward and boring.
The universal property satisfied by is the following: if is a ring homomorphism that maps every element of to a unit (invertible element) in , there exists a unique ring homomorphism such that
Using category theory, this can be expressed by saying that localization is a functor that is left adjoint to a forgetful functor. More precisely, let and be the categories whose objects are pairs of a commutative ring and a submonoid of, respectively, the multiplicative semigroup or the group of the units of the ring. The morphisms of these categories are the ring homomorphisms that map the submonoid of the first object into the submonoid of the second one. Finally, let be the forgetful functor that forgets that the elements of the second element of the pair are invertible.
Then the factorization of the universal property defines a bijection
This may seem a rather tricky way of expressing the universal property, but it is useful for showing easily many properties, by using the fact that the composition of two left adjoint functors is a left adjoint functor.
Examples
If is the ring of integers, and then is the field of the rational numbers.
If is an integral domain, and then is the field of fractions of . The preceding example is a special case of this one.
If is a commutative ring, and if is the subset of its elements that are not zero divisors, then is the total ring of fractions of . In this case, is the largest multiplicative set such that the homomorphism is injective. The preceding example is a special case of this one.
If is an element of a commutative ring and then can be identified (is canonically isomorphic to) (The proof consists of showing that this ring satisfies the above universal property.) This sort of localization plays a fundamental role in the definition of an affine scheme.
If is a prime ideal of a commutative ring , the set complement of in is a multiplicative set (by the definition of a prime ideal). The ring is a local ring that is generally denoted and called the local ring of at This sort of localization is fundamental in commutative algebra, because many properties of a commutative ring can be read on its local rings. Such a property is often called a local property. For example, a ring is regular if and only if all its local rings are regular.
Ring properties
Localization is a rich construction that has many useful properties. In this section, only the properties relative to rings and to a single localization are considered. Properties concerning ideals, modules, or several multiplicative sets are considered in other sections.
if and only if contains .
The ring homomorphism is injective if and only if does not contain any zero divisors.
The ring homomorphism is an epimorphism in the category of rings, that is not surjective in general.
The ring is a flat -module (see for details).
If is the complement of a prime ideal , then denoted is a local ring; that is, it has only one maximal ideal.
Properties to be moved in another section
Localization commutes with formations of finite sums, products, intersections and radicals; e.g., if denote the radical of an ideal I in R, then
In particular, R is reduced if and only if its total ring of fractions is reduced.
Let R be an integral domain with the field of fractions K. Then its localization at a prime ideal can be viewed as a subring of K. Moreover,
where the first intersection is over all prime ideals and the second over the maximal ideals.
There is a bijection between the set of prime ideals of S−1R and the set of prime ideals of R that do not intersect S. This bijection is induced by the given homomorphism R → S −1R.
Saturation of a multiplicative set
Let be a multiplicative set. The saturation of is the set
The multiplicative set is saturated if it equals its saturation, that is, if , or equivalently, if implies that and are in .
If is not saturated, and then is a multiplicative inverse of the image of in So, the images of the elements of are all invertible in and the universal property implies that and are canonically isomorphic, that is, there is a unique isomorphism between them that fixes the images of the elements of .
If and are two multiplicative sets, then and are isomorphic if and only if they have the same saturation, or, equivalently, if belongs to one of the multiplicative set, then there exists such that belongs to the other.
Saturated multiplicative sets are not widely used explicitly, since, for verifying that a set is saturated, one must know all units of the ring.
Terminology explained by the context
The term localization originates in the general trend of modern mathematics to study geometrical and topological objects locally, that is in terms of their behavior near each point. Examples of this trend are the fundamental concepts of manifolds, germs and sheafs. In algebraic geometry, an affine algebraic set can be identified with a quotient ring of a polynomial ring in such a way that the points of the algebraic set correspond to the maximal ideals of the ring (this is Hilbert's Nullstellensatz). This correspondence has been generalized for making the set of the prime ideals of a commutative ring a topological space equipped with the Zariski topology; this topological space is called the spectrum of the ring.
In this context, a localization by a multiplicative set may be viewed as the restriction of the spectrum of a ring to the subspace of the prime ideals (viewed as points) that do not intersect the multiplicative set.
Two classes of localizations are more commonly considered:
The multiplicative set is the complement of a prime ideal of a ring . In this case, one speaks of the "localization at ", or "localization at a point". The resulting ring, denoted is a local ring, and is the algebraic analog of a ring of germs.
The multiplicative set consists of all powers of an element of a ring . The resulting ring is commonly denoted and its spectrum is the Zariski open set of the prime ideals that do not contain . Thus the localization is the analog of the restriction of a topological space to a neighborhood of a point (every prime ideal has a neighborhood basis consisting of Zariski open sets of this form).
In number theory and algebraic topology, when working over the ring of the integers, one refers to a property relative to an integer as a property true at or away from , depending on the localization that is considered. "Away from " means that the property is considered after localization by the powers of , and, if is a prime number, "at " means that the property is considered after localization at the prime ideal . This terminology can be explained by the fact that, if is prime, the nonzero prime ideals of the localization of are either the singleton set or its complement in the set of prime numbers.
Localization and saturation of ideals
Let be a multiplicative set in a commutative ring , and be the canonical ring homomorphism. Given an ideal in , let the set of the fractions in whose numerator is in . This is an ideal of which is generated by , and called the localization of by .
The saturation of by is it is an ideal of , which can also defined as the set of the elements such that there exists with
Many properties of ideals are either preserved by saturation and localization, or can be characterized by simpler properties of localization and saturation.
In what follows, is a multiplicative set in a ring , and and are ideals of ; the saturation of an ideal by a multiplicative set is denoted or, when the multiplicative set is clear from the context,
(this is not always true for strict inclusions)
If is a prime ideal such that then is a prime ideal and ; if the intersection is nonempty, then and
Localization of a module
Let be a commutative ring, be a multiplicative set in , and be an -module. The localization of the module by , denoted , is an -module that is constructed exactly as the localization of , except that the numerators of the fractions belong to . That is, as a set, it consists of equivalence classes, denoted , of pairs , where and and two pairs and are equivalent if there is an element in such that
Addition and scalar multiplication are defined as for usual fractions (in the following formula, and ):
Moreover, is also an -module with scalar multiplication
It is straightforward to check that these operations are well-defined, that is, they give the same result for different choices of representatives of fractions.
The localization of a module can be equivalently defined by using tensor products:
The proof of equivalence (up to a canonical isomorphism) can be done by showing that the two definitions satisfy the same universal property.
Module properties
If is a submodule of an -module , and is a multiplicative set in , one has This implies that, if is an injective module homomorphism, then
is also an injective homomorphism.
Since the tensor product is a right exact functor, this implies that localization by maps exact sequences of -modules to exact sequences of -modules. In other words, localization is an exact functor, and is a flat -module.
This flatness and the fact that localization solves a universal property make that localization preserves many properties of modules and rings, and is compatible with solutions of other universal properties. For example, the natural map
is an isomorphism. If is a finitely presented module, the natural map
is also an isomorphism.
If a module M is a finitely generated over R, one has
where denotes annihilator, that is the ideal of the elements of the ring that map to zero all elements of the module. In particular,
that is, if for some
Localization at primes
The definition of a prime ideal implies immediately that the complement of a prime ideal in a commutative ring is a multiplicative set. In this case, the localization is commonly denoted The ring is a local ring, that is called the local ring of at This means that is the unique maximal ideal of the ring
Such localizations are fundamental for commutative algebra and algebraic geometry for several reasons. One is that local rings are often easier to study than general commutative rings, in particular because of Nakayama lemma. However, the main reason is that many properties are true for a ring if and only if they are true for all its local rings. For example, a ring is regular if and only if all its local rings are regular local rings.
Properties of a ring that can be characterized on its local rings are called local properties, and are often the algebraic counterpart of geometric local properties of algebraic varieties, which are properties that can be studied by restriction to a small neighborhood of each point of the variety. (There is another concept of local property that refers to localization to Zariski open sets; see , below.)
Many local properties are a consequence of the fact that the module
is a faithfully flat module when the direct sum is taken over all prime ideals (or over all maximal ideals of ). See also Faithfully flat descent.
Examples of local properties
A property of an -module is a local property if the following conditions are equivalent:
holds for .
holds for all where is a prime ideal of .
holds for all where is a maximal ideal of .
The following are local properties:
is zero.
is torsion-free (in the case where is a commutative domain).
is a flat module.
is an invertible module (in the case where is a commutative domain, and is a submodule of the field of fractions of ).
is injective (resp. surjective), where is another -module.
On the other hand, some properties are not local properties. For example, an infinite direct product of fields is not an integral domain nor a Noetherian ring, while all its local rings are fields, and therefore Noetherian integral domains.
Localization to Zariski open sets
Non-commutative case
Localizing non-commutative rings is more difficult. While the localization exists for every set S of prospective units, it might take a different form to the one described above. One condition which ensures that the localization is well behaved is the Ore condition.
One case for non-commutative rings where localization has a clear interest is for rings of differential operators. It has the interpretation, for example, of adjoining a formal inverse D−1 for a differentiation operator D. This is done in many contexts in methods for differential equations. There is now a large mathematical theory about it, named microlocalization, connecting with numerous other branches. The micro- tag is to do with connections with Fourier theory, in particular.
See also
Local analysis
Localization of a category
Localization of a topological space
References
Atiyah and MacDonald. Introduction to Commutative Algebra. Addison-Wesley.
Borel, Armand. Linear Algebraic Groups (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. .
Matsumura. Commutative Algebra. Benjamin-Cummings
Serge Lang, "Algebraic Number Theory," Springer, 2000. pages 3–4.
External links
Localization from MathWorld.
Ring theory
Module theory
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252218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAM%20Coup%C3%A9 | SAM Coupé | The SAM Coupé (pronounced /sæm ku:peɪ/ from its original British English branding) is an 8-bit British home computer that was first released in late 1989. It was based on and designed to have compatibility with the Sinclair ZX Spectrum 48K and marketed as a logical upgrade from the Spectrum. It was originally manufactured by Miles Gordon Technology (MGT), based in Swansea in the United Kingdom.
Its release at a time when 16-bit home computers were more prevalent, and a lack of commercial software titles, led to it being a commercial failure.
Hardware
The SAM Coupé's hardware was designed by Bruce Gordon of Miles Gordon Technology. The computer included custom silicon to handle display, memory and IO functionality. This was originally prototyped using wire-wrapped 7400-series logic chips, before being produced as a VLSI VGT-200 gate array ASIC.
Processor and logic
The machine is based around a Z80B CPU clocked at 6 MHz and a 10,000-gate ASIC. The ASIC performs a similar role in the computer to the ULA in the ZX Spectrum. The Z80B CPU accesses selected parts of the large memory space in its 64 KB address space by slicing it into 16 KB banks and using I/O registers to select the memory pages mapped into each 16 KB bank.
Memory and storage
The basic SAM Coupé model has 256 KiB of RAM, internally upgradable to 512 KiB via a connector on the main board accessible via a trapdoor underneath, and externally up to an additional 4 MiB, added in 1 MiB packs via the "Euroconnector" on the back of the system.
The computer has a direct connection for a cassette recorder for data storage but two 3.5 inch floppy disk drives can be installed within the case as well or externally using an interface.
Graphics
The SAM Coupé was designed primarily for the UK market, and is designed around the PAL television standard, which refreshes at 50 frames per second. Unlike a standard PAL signal which is interleaved, the SAM is designed to emit two identically positioned fields at 50FPS, giving something closer to a 312P signal than the 625I broadcast television signals common in the UK at the time.
The display is surrounded by a large border area to provide a title-safe display zone for the CRT televisions of that era. The colour of this region can be changed in software by using the BORDER port to select a colour from the palette.
The SAM Coupé has four display modes:
Mode 4 — 256×192, linear framebuffer, 4 bits per pixel (16 colours) = 24 KB
Mode 3 — 512×192, linear framebuffer, 2 bits per pixel (4 colours) = 24 KB
Mode 2 — 256×192, linear framebuffer, 1 bit per pixel with separate colour attributes for each 8-wide block of pixels = 12 KB
Mode 1 — 256×192, non-linear framebuffer, 1 bit per pixel with separate colour attributes for each 8×8 block of pixels = 6.75 KB (arranged to match the display of the ZX Spectrum for backwards compatibility)
The 'attribute' modes borrow their design from the ZX Spectrum, where a bitmap is used to select between a paper and ink colour from two groups of eight colours. The group to use is selected by a 'brightness' flag. The colour block can also be set to 'flash' - that is, alternate between the two colours used for paper and ink.
All modes use palette-based Colour look-up tables, selecting from a palette of 128 colours. The palette values consist of 2 bits for each of the red, green and blue components as well as an extra bit which increases the intensity of all three components by a half-step (a 'brightness' bit).
The ASIC can be configured to generate interrupts when a line on the display is starting to be emitted, allowing video effects to be synchronised with specific display lines with little effort. By default, it will generate an interrupt for every frame. Typically this interrupt is used to double buffer the frame, read the keyboard/mouse state, and output music.
The interrupt state can also be polled directly from the ASIC's status register.
The Motorola MC1377P RGB to PAL/NTSC video encoder creates a composite video signal from the machine's RGB- and Sync-signals (output by the ASIC) for the RF modulator.
The non-standard SCART display connector includes both composite and RGB output, as well as signals to drive a 16-colour TTL monitor.
Access to internal RAM was shared between the display and the CPU, with CPU accesses incurring a speed penalty (memory contention) as it was forced to waited for isochronous ASIC memory-accesses to complete. As a result, the SAM Coupé's CPU effectively ran only around 14% faster than the ZX Spectrum CPU, yet was required to do much more work in SAM's high-resolution modes to produce a similar movement on the display. A Mode 3 or Mode 4 screen uses four times as much RAM as a ZX Spectrum Mode 1 display, so four times the work had to be done in the same time when updating it.
A small compensation was the straightforward arrangement of colour pixels in this memory, instead of the ZX Spectrum's more limited display and attributes memory. Low-level graphics software operations could be much simpler than their Spectrum equivalents and therefore somewhat faster to execute.
The penalty of memory contention delay applied to all memory accesses to RAM, and not just to memory associated with the video circuitry (as in the case of the ZX Spectrum). Hardware sprites and scrolling would have greatly improved the performance of games, unfortunately there was insufficient wafer space on the VLSI ASIC to include such circuitry.
While the main 256×192 area of the screen was being drawn, the processor could only access memory in 1 out of every 8 t-states. During the border area this was 1 out of every 4 t-states, which had no effect on the many instructions whose timings were a multiple of 4. In modes 3 and 4 the display could be disabled completely, eliminating these memory contention delays for a full 6 MHz running speed. Code running in ROM or external RAM was unaffected by contention, though any RAM accesses they performed to shared internal RAM would still be affected.
Audio
Six channels of 8-octave stereo sound are provided by a Philips SAA1099 sound generator chip.
This sound chip can also produce four 3-bit sampled sound channels, and generate noise.
To provide backwards compatibility with the ZX Spectrum, the SAM also provides a single-bit 'beeper' channel which can be used to emit simple tones by toggling the bit on and off as per the original Spectrum.
Backwards compatibility
In order to match the processing speed of the ZX Spectrum (3.5 MHz), the SAM Coupé introduces extra wait states in display mode 1 (the ZX Spectrum-compatible graphics mode) to slow down the CPU to roughly match the rate of that system.
Firmware and DOS
The machine shipped with 32 KB of ROM containing code to boot the machine and a BASIC interpreter (SAM BASIC) written by Andrew Wright and heavily influenced by his earlier Beta BASIC for the ZX Spectrum. The ROMs contained only the bootstrap code and the DOS was instead loaded from disk using the BOOT command, or the F9 key. The majority of disks shipped with SAMDOS, the system's first DOS, on them so that they could be directly booted. An improved replacement, MasterDOS, was also developed offering faster disk access, more files and support for the real-time clock accessory to provide file timestamps amongst many other improvements.
The BASIC was very advanced and included code for sprite drawing and basic vector shapes such as lines and circles. The screen co-ordinate system for these was variable and could be arbitrarily scaled and centred. A provision for "recording" sequences of graphics commands so that they could later be repeated without the speed penalty of a BASIC interpreter in between was provided.
The machine is capable of running CP/M 2.2 using the Pro-Dos software with support for both 720 Kilobyte format disks and IDE drives
Disk drives
The SAM originally used Citizen 3.5 inch slimline drives which slotted in below the keyboard to provide front-facing slots. Like IDE hard disks, these enclosures contained not just the drives but also the drive controllers, a WD1772-02, with the effect that the SAM could use both drives simultaneously.
Due to a flaw in the Coupé's design, resetting the machine while a disk was left in a drive would be liable to cause data corruption on that disk, as while RESET is held in, no 8Mhz clock signal is sent to the drive's controllers.
The double density disks used a format of 2 sides, 80 tracks per side and 10 sectors per track, with 512 bytes per sector. This gave a total capacity of 800 KB, though the standard directory occupied 20 KB leaving 780 KB free for user files. Files were stored in the same structure as MGT's original +D interface, but with additional codes used for SAM Coupé file types. The disk encoding (NRZ), encoding strategy (linear angular velocity), and track and sector header formats were compatible with those used on the IBM PC and Atari ST, and programs were available to read FAT formatted disks.
Expansion ports
A large array of expansion ports were provided, including:
Two internal drive bays.
Non-standard SCART connector offering composite video and digital and linear RGB as well as power input.
64-pin Euroconnector for general purpose hardware expansions.
Mouse socket (proprietary format, although a converter for Atari ST style mice was later available).
Light pen / Light gun and Stereo sound output via 5-pin DIN connector.
MIDI IN/OUT ports (and THROUGH, via a software switch).
Network using the MIDI port (up to 16 machines could be interconnected).
Atari-style 9-pin joystick port (dual capability with a splitter cable although due to a flaw the two joysticks would interfere with each other).
3.5 mm mono Cassette jack (dual use for loading and saving).
Up to four devices could be connected to the Coupé's Euroconnector port, through the use of the SAMBUS, which also provided a built-in clock. When using more power-hungry peripherals, the SAMBUS required an additional power supply.
Power
The SAM's Power Supply was a modified Amstrad CPC MP1/MP2 modulator unit, with the RF modulator built in and connected via a joint power/TV socket to the computer. This made signal interference from the AC/DC converter common and it was a popular but entirely unofficial modification to remove the modulator and keep it as a separate unit.
Naming
The capitalised SAM is an acronym for 'Some Amazing Micro' according to Alan Miles (although it has been reported to be 'Some Amazing Machine') also the ‘Coupé’ was a nickname from two sources: one being an ice cream sundae called the “Ice Cream Coupé” and the other because the machine resembles a fastback car in profile with the feet as the wheels.
ZX Spectrum compatibility
Emulation of the ZX Spectrum was limited to the 48K and was achieved by either using a supplied utility and a skeleton ROM image (containing no original code) or by loading a complete copy of the ZX Spectrum ROM (obtained from a ZX Spectrum) and switching to display MODE 1, which mimicked the ZX Spectrum display mode and approximated that machine's processor speed.
The 128K model's memory map was incompatible with the Coupé's memory model and the machine featured an entirely different sound generator. It was possible to convert games and demos by hacking the 128K code.
Because the Coupé did not run at exactly the same speed as the Spectrum even in emulation mode, many anti-piracy tape loaders would not work on the Coupé hardware. This led to the development by MGT of a special hardware interface called the Messenger which could capture the state of a connected ZX Spectrum to SAM Coupé disk for playback later without the Spectrum connected. The Messenger plugged into the Coupé's network port, and the Spectrum's expansion slot. Due to unsuitable onboard break (NMI) buttons (needed to activate the Messenger software), a de-bounced break-button card was also provided, which plugged into the Coupé's expansion slot.
See also
List of SAM Coupé games
References
External links
World of SAM
Quazar
Simcoupe emulator
SAM Coupé Pro-DOS [CP/M 2.2] Resource Pages
Spectrum Advanced Machine
SAM Coupé for MiSTer
SAM Coupé for MIST Board
Computer-related introductions in 1989
Z80-based home computers
Home computers
ZX Spectrum clones
Computers designed in the United Kingdom | [
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252219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchannel | Microchannel | Microchannel can refer to
Basic structure used in microtechnology, see Microchannel (microtechnology).
Micro Channel architecture in computing | [
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252223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Runaways | The Runaways | The Runaways were an all-female American rock band that recorded and performed from 1975 to 1979. The band released four studio albums and one live album during its run. Among their best-known songs are "Cherry Bomb", "Hollywood", "Queens of Noise" and a cover version of the Velvet Underground's "Rock & Roll". Never a major success in the United States, the Runaways became a sensation overseas, especially in Japan, thanks to the single "Cherry Bomb".
History
Early years
The Runaways were formed in August 1975 by drummer Sandy West and guitarist Joan Jett after they had separately introduced themselves to producer Kim Fowley, who gave Jett's phone number to West. Fowley then helped the girls find other members. Two decades later he said, "I didn't put the Runaways together, I had an idea, they had ideas, we all met, there was combustion and out of five different versions of that group came the five girls who were the ones that people liked."
Starting as a power trio with singer/bassist Micki Steele, the Runaways began playing the party and club circuit around Los Angeles. They soon added lead guitarist Lita Ford and Jett switched to rhythm guitar. Steele was soon fired from the group, replaced by bassist Peggy Foster, who left after just one month. Lead singer Cherie Currie was recruited in a local teen nightclub called the Sugar Shack, followed by Jackie Fox on bass.
Fame
The Runaways were signed to Mercury Records in 1976 and their debut album, The Runaways, was released shortly afterward. The band toured the U.S. in support of headlining groups such as Cheap Trick, Van Halen, Talking Heads, and Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. For their stage performance, the documentary Edgeplay: A Film About the Runaways (directed by former Runaway bassist Vicki Blue) revealed each girl patterned herself after their musical idol: Currie on David Bowie, Jett on Suzi Quatro, Ford on a cross between Jeff Beck and Ritchie Blackmore, West on Roger Taylor, and Fox on Gene Simmons.
Their second album, Queens of Noise, was released in 1977 and the band performed a world tour in support of the album. The Runaways quickly became lumped in with the growing punk rock movement. The band (already fixtures on the West Coast punk scene) formed alliances with mostly male punk bands such as the Ramones and the Dead Boys (via New York City's CBGB) as well as the British punk scene by hanging out with the likes of the Damned, Generation X and the Sex Pistols.
In the summer of 1977, booking agent David Libert secured dates in Japan, where they played a string of sold-out shows. They were unprepared for the onslaught of fans that greeted them at the airport. Jett later described the mass hysteria as "like Beatlemania". While in Japan, the Runaways had a TV special, did numerous television appearances, and released the album Live in Japan, which went gold. While in Japan, Fox left the band shortly before the group was scheduled to appear at the 1977 Tokyo Music Festival. She told the Telegraph her relationship with the band deteriorated after Fowley raped her in front of a roomful of people. Jett took over bass duties until the group returned home and recruited Vicki Blue. Currie then left the group after a blow-up with Ford in the fall of 1977. Jett, who had previously shared vocals with Currie, took over lead vocals full-time. The band released their fourth album, Waitin' for the Night, and started a world tour in support of the Ramones.
Dissolution
Due to disagreements over money and the management of the band, the Runaways and Kim Fowley parted ways in 1977. The group quickly hired Toby Mamis, who worked for Blondie and Suzi Quatro. When the group split from Fowley, they also parted with their record label Mercury/PolyGram, to which their deal was tied. In the Edgeplay documentary, members of the group (especially Fox and Currie) as well as the parents of Currie and West, have accused Fowley, and others assigned to look after the band, of broken promises as to schooling and other care, using divide and conquer tactics to keep control of the band, along with the verbal taunting of band members. The band reportedly spent much time enjoying the excesses of the rock 'n' roll lifestyle during this time. They partnered with Thin Lizzy producer John Alcock, after Jett's future partner Kenny Laguna turned down the job, to record their last album And Now... The Runaways.
Blue left the group due to medical problems and was briefly replaced by Laurie McAllister in November 1978. McAllister was referred to the band by her neighbor, Duane Hitchings, who played keyboards on And Now... The Runaways. Before joining the Runaways, McAllister played with "Baby Roulette and the Rave Ons", who had one song released on a Kim Fowley compilation LP called Vampires From Outer Space. McAllister appeared onstage with the Runaways at their final shows in California in December 1978 and quit in January 1979.
Disagreement among band members included the musical style; Jett wanted the band to make a musical change, shifting towards punk rock/glam rock while Ford and West wanted to continue playing hard rock/heavy metal music. Neither would accept the other's point of view. The band played their last concert on New Year's Eve 1978 at the Cow Palace and officially broke up in April 1979.
Potential reunion
In 2010, Jett and Currie reunited to re-record the song "Cherry Bomb" for the video game Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock.
In a 2015 interview with WHMH-FM, Ford said that she decided against a possible reunion in the early '90s because "Nirvana was just kicking in, and it was really bad timing; it wouldn't have worked. People would have just turned their nose up at it."
In December 2018, Ford said that a Runaways reunion would never happen and blamed Jett's manager Kenny Laguna as the reason saying "Joan Jett is very much in 'Joan Jett land,' I guess you could say. Will she ever come out of Joan Jett land? I don't think so. I think her manager controls that and it's really up to him and her. It seems to me like Joan Jett's manager just runs her life in every way, shape, or form. He's very controlling and he has a real problem with me. He has a real issue with me. He sees me as a threat, which is ridiculous, because she's like my sister and I love Joan. It's ridiculous, it's uncalled for, and it's caused a little bit of rivalry between her and I, which is totally uncalled for. It's his fault. The hard part is just trying to communicate with Joan without her manager involved. We had dinner a couple of years ago, what was supposed to be a girl's night out, and she brought her manager with her. So it's like, dude, answer the question. I'm trying to ask you a question. Are you interested in putting The Runaways back together? She never answered the question."
Currie in May 2021 was asked about a reunion saying "I've played with all the girls individually, I've played with all of them — with Lita, with Joan, and, of course, with Sandy; I never did a show without her before she passed away. So I'm the only one that's actually played with all the members. Lita and Joan have a little bit of an issue, and that just seems to be the problem. Lita doesn't like Kenny. I wish they would get over it, honestly, but I don't think so. Kenny was my manager during the early stages of making Blvds Of Splendor. We were very good friends for 20 years. But then, unfortunately, with the record, with them holding up Blvds Of Splendor for 10 years, that kind of eroded my friendship with him a bit."
After the breakup
Joan Jett
Jett went on to work with producer Kenny Laguna and after being rejected by 23 record labels, formed their own label, Blackheart Records, in 1980. In doing so, Jett became one of the first female recording artists to found her own record label. The label continues to release albums by the Blackhearts and other bands. Jett went on to have massive success with a cover of the Arrows' song "I Love Rock 'n' Roll", as well as "Crimson and Clover", "Bad Reputation", and "I Hate Myself for Loving You". She also co-starred in the 1987 film Light of Day with Michael J. Fox, and appeared in the 2000 Broadway revival of The Rocky Horror Show as Columbia. Jett is on Rolling Stone magazine's list of "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time". In 2015, she and her band the Blackhearts were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
Sandy West
West continued her association with John Alcock once the group disbanded. She formed the Sandy West Band and toured California throughout the 1980s and 1990s. She also did session work with John Entwistle of The Who and became a drum teacher. West was diagnosed with lung cancer in 2005 and died from it in October 2006. A memorial tribute concert was later held in Los Angeles, featuring the Sandy West Band, Cherie Currie, The Bangles, The Donnas, and Carmine and Vinny Appice, among several others.
Micki Steele
Steele (as Michael Steele) joined the band The Bangles and went on to success with songs such as "Manic Monday", "Walk Like an Egyptian" and "Eternal Flame".
Cherie Currie
Upon leaving the Runaways, Currie released a 1978 solo album titled Beauty's Only Skin Deep and a 1980 duet album with her twin sister Marie Currie, Messin' with the Boys, in which the duo was backed by members of Toto. The Curries' cover of Russ Ballard's "Since You Been Gone" reached Number 95 on the U.S. chart. Currie also appeared in a number of films, most notably Foxes with Jodie Foster. Throughout the 1990s, Currie worked as a drug counselor for addicted teens and as a personal fitness trainer. She married actor Robert Hays and they had a son together, Jake Hays. The couple divorced in 1997.
Currie still performs and records, remaining under contract with Blackheart Records, but her current passion is chainsaw carving which she displays at an art gallery in Chatsworth, California. In 2013, Cherie recorded two songs with Alexx Michael for the Munich-based hard rock-glam metal group Shameless, which were released on the album Beautiful Disaster on October 2, 2013. Currie's most recent solo album, Blvds of Splendor, was released in 2020.
Lita Ford
Ford returned to PolyGram as a solo artist in the 1980s, where she released several albums before pairing with manager Sharon Osbourne. She had success with songs like "Kiss Me Deadly" and "Close My Eyes Forever" (the second a duet with her manager's husband Ozzy Osbourne). She was married to Chris Holmes of W.A.S.P., and to former Nitro singer Jim Gillette, with whom she has two sons. After a long hiatus, Ford staged a comeback, performing at Rock The Bayou and other hard rock festivals during the summer of 2008. She released Wicked Wonderland, her first studio album in 14 years, on October 6, 2009. During that year Ford toured as a special guest of progressive metal band Queensrÿche and performed songs from Wicked Wonderland and reprised her duet "Close My Eyes Forever" with Queensrÿche lead singer Geoff Tate.
Vicki Blue
Vicki Blue is now known as Victory Tischler-Blue. After leaving the Runaways, she shifted her focus to film and television production eventually becoming a producer/director for several reality- and magazine-based television shows including Entertainment Tonight, Access Hollywood, and Real Stories of the Highway Patrol. She went on to form Sacred Dogs Entertainment Group a motion picture production company and released a documentary on the Runaways called Edgeplay: A Film About the Runaways. In 2005, Tischler-Blue directed Naked Under Leather, a documentary about fellow female rocker Suzi Quatro, which was selected for the Santa Cruz Film Festival in May 2004 but never released. Focusing on music driven productions, she was tapped to executive produce a network special: The Bee Gees "Unbroken Fever"—The 30th Anniversary of Saturday Night Fever. Additionally, Tischler-Blue and Ford teamed up to record music for El Guitarrista, an animated series that Sacred Dogs Entertainment Group is producing.
Jackie Fox
Fox returned to using her birth name of Fuchs and graduated from UCLA summa cum laude, with a Bachelor of Arts in Linguistics and Italian. She later received a Juris Doctor from Harvard Law School and practices entertainment law. She co-wrote "Delilah's Scissors" with Tischler-Blue and executive-produced and appeared in Edgeplay, Tischler-Blue's 2005 documentary about the Runaways. She also writes an L.A. cat care column for Examiner.com and is an occasional contributor to Listverse.com. She is the author of The Well, an unpublished work of young adult historical fiction, and is currently working on her second novel. In December 2018 she won four games on the game show Jeopardy!
In July 2015, after Fowley's death, Fuchs revealed publicly that Fowley raped her on New Year's Eve 1975 at a party after a Runaways performance at a club in Orange County. Sixteen years old at the time, she was reportedly given Quaaludes by a man who she thought was a roadie and raped while she was incapacitated. Currie said she spoke up against Fowley's actions, then stormed out of the room when he refused to stop.
Laurie McAllister
McAllister joined another of Fowley's all-female bands, the Orchids, who released their only album in 1980. McAllister retired from the music industry and worked as a veterinarian technician in Eugene, Oregon. She died of complications from an asthma attack on August 25, 2011 at the age of 54.
Members
Former Members
Joan Jett – rhythm guitar (1975–1979), lead guitar (1975), backing vocals (1975–1977, 1978); lead vocals (1977–1979), bass (1977, 1979)
Sandy West – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1975–1979; died 2006); lead vocals (1978)
Micki Steele – lead vocals, bass (1975)
Lita Ford – lead guitar, backing vocals (1975–1979); rhythm guitar (1977, 1979) bass (1978); lead vocals (1978)
Peggy Foster – bass (1975)
Cherie Currie – lead vocals (1975–1977); tambourine, snare drum (1977)
Jackie Fox – bass, backing vocals (1975–1977)
Vicki Blue – bass, backing vocals (1977–1978)
Laurie McAllister – bass (1978–1979; died 2011)
Session musicians
Rodney Bingenheimer – orchestration on The Runaways (1976)
Duane Hitchings – keyboards on And Now... The Runaways (1978)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Compilation albums
Flaming Schoolgirls (1980, Cherry Red)
Little Lost Girls (1981, Rhino)
The Best of the Runaways (1982, Mercury)
I Love Playin' with Fire (1982, Cherry Red)
Born to be Bad (1991, Marilyn)
Neon Angels (1992, Mercury)
The Runaways featuring Joan Jett and Lita Ford (1997, PolyGram)
20th Century Masters - The Millennium Collection: The Best of the Runaways (2005, Universal)
The Mercury Albums Anthology (2010, Hip-O)
Charted singles
Use in media
"Cherry Bomb" appears on the soundtracks of Dawn: Portrait of a Teenage Runaway, Dazed and Confused, RV, Cherrybomb, Guardians of the Galaxy and The Boys.
In Margaret Cho's stand-up DVD special I'm The One That I Want "Cherry Bomb" is played as she is making her entrance.
The television sitcom Step by Step named one of their episodes after the Runaways' song "School Days" (They changed the spelling to "School Daze")
"School Days" appears in the 1999 movie Detroit Rock City, and it was played in an episode of the teen drama 90210, the episode "What's Past Is Prologue".
In the teen drama The O.C., in the Season 3 episode "The Man of the Year", Marissa makes an entrance to "Cherry Bomb", while dressed in a provocative schoolgirl outfit, to Kaitlyn's boarding school. In another episode of The O.C., in the Season 1 episode "The Girlfriend", "Wait for Me" by the Runaways' was played.
In the 2007 movie Juno, the main character mentions her three favorite bands, one of which is the Runaways.
In the 2007 novel Derby Girl, by Shauna Cross, Oliver is said to have a poster of Joan Jett "in her Runaways days". The band is also referenced in a chapter title.
In the 2008 novel Lonely Werewolf Girl, by Martin Millar, the main character's favorite band is the Runaways.
The Runaways' song "You Drive Me Wild" was played in an episode of the comedy-drama Entourage, in the episode "Unlike a Virgin".
A cover version of "Cherry Bomb" is available for download in the music video game Rock Band. The song was re-recorded by Cherie Currie and Joan Jett in 2010 for inclusion in Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock.
"Cherry Bomb" appears as load-screen background music in the video game Lollipop Chainsaw.
Queens of Noise: The Real Story of the Runaways by Evelyn McDonald was released July 9, 2013.
"Dead End Justice" was used in Stranger Things season 2 episode 7 "The Lost Sister" as Jane (eleven), Kali (eight), and the rest of Kali's crew leave their headquarters.
Influence
The Runaways' success paved the way for many successful female artists and female bands over the past 30 years, including the Bangles, the Go-Go's, Sahara Hotnights, L7, the Donnas, and Vixen to enter the male-dominated arena of rock music. They are named as influences by several artists, including the Germs, Courtney Love, the Adolescents, Taylor Momsen, White Flag, and Rhino Bucket who acknowledged the Runaways' influence on their music during their performance at the December 2006 tribute concert honoring Sandy West.
Film
A biographical film about the band, inspired by Currie's memoir, was released in 2010. Jett was one of the executive producers of the film. Actresses Kristen Stewart and Dakota Fanning starred as Jett and Currie, respectively. Michael Shannon played Fowley. None of the band's former bass players were featured in the film; Fox did not want to be involved in any part of the film, and requested that her name be changed in the story. The fictional replacement is named Robin Robbins. The film was written and directed by Floria Sigismondi, and was released to limited theaters on March 19, 2010.
The Runaways received generally positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 70% rating based on 187 reviews, and an average rating of 6.19/10.
New Runaways (1987)
In the early 1980s, Gayle Welch, an ambitious 13-year-old girl from Kaitaia, New Zealand, wrote a song, "Day of Age", and recorded it in Mandrell Recording Studios in Auckland, New Zealand. The resulting tape found its way to Fowley's desk. He played the Welch tape for colleague and Los Angeles deejay Rodney Bingenheimer, who played the song on his show on radio KROQ and included it on his annual compilation of his most-liked music for the year. Also on that compilation was a song that featured Chicago-native guitarist Bill Millay.
It did not take long before Fowley, who still owned the Runaways trademark, was putting together a new Runaways band built around Welch. Missy Bonilla was recruited from the typing pool of CBS Records, Denise Pryor came from Compton and Kathrine Dombrowski ("Kathy DiAmber") was also added. Welch was present only on tape and only on the first song on the CD, "I Want to Run With the Bad Boys". Millay played guitar, David Carr played keyboards and a drum machine rounded out the team. Glenn Holland, also from New Zealand, a friend of both Bingenheimer and Fowley, facilitated. The album, Young and Fast, was released in 1987, and was a minor hit.
References
External links
Joan Jett official Site
Lita Ford official site
Victory Tischler-Blue official site
Sacred Dogs Entertainment Group official site
Jackie Fox's Runaways essays
The Runaways on Metaladies.com
All-female bands
Hard rock musical groups from California
Mercury Records artists
Musical groups disestablished in 1979
Musical groups established in 1975
Punk rock groups from California
Cherry Red Records artists
Female-fronted musical groups | [
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] |
252228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Quicksilver | Operation Quicksilver | Operation Quicksilver may refer to:
Operation Quicksilver (deception plan), a World War II plan by the Allied nations threatening an invasion at Pas de Calais
Operation Quicksilver (1978), an American nuclear test series of eighteen blasts conducted at the Nevada Test Site in 1978 and 1979
Operation Quicksilver (1990s), a plan to reduce the size of the United States Army in the early 1990s as a result of the end of the Cold War | [
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252235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilpotent | Nilpotent | In mathematics, an element x of a ring R is called nilpotent if there exists some positive integer n, called the index (or sometimes the degree), such that xn = 0.
The term was introduced by Benjamin Peirce in the context of his work on the classification of algebras.
Examples
This definition can be applied in particular to square matrices. The matrix
is nilpotent because A3 = 0. See nilpotent matrix for more.
In the factor ring Z/9Z, the equivalence class of 3 is nilpotent because 32 is congruent to 0 modulo 9.
Assume that two elements a, b in a ring R satisfy ab = 0. Then the element c = ba is nilpotent as c2 = (ba)2 = b(ab)a = 0. An example with matrices (for a, b):
Here AB = 0, BA = B.
By definition, any element of a nilsemigroup is nilpotent.
Properties
No nilpotent element can be a unit (except in the trivial ring {0}, which has only a single element ). All nilpotent elements are zero divisors.
An n-by-n matrix A with entries from a field is nilpotent if and only if its characteristic polynomial is tn.
If x is nilpotent, then 1 − x is a unit, because xn = 0 entails
More generally, the sum of a unit element and a nilpotent element is a unit when they commute.
Commutative rings
The nilpotent elements from a commutative ring form an ideal ; this is a consequence of the binomial theorem. This ideal is the nilradical of the ring. Every nilpotent element in a commutative ring is contained in every prime ideal of that ring, since . So is contained in the intersection of all prime ideals.
If is not nilpotent, we are able to localize with respect to the powers of : to get a non-zero ring . The prime ideals of the localized ring correspond exactly to those prime ideals of with . As every non-zero commutative ring has a maximal ideal, which is prime, every non-nilpotent is not contained in some prime ideal. Thus is exactly the intersection of all prime ideals.
A characteristic similar to that of Jacobson radical and annihilation of simple modules is available for nilradical: nilpotent elements of ring R are precisely those that annihilate all integral domains internal to the ring R (that is, of the form R/I for prime ideals I). This follows from the fact that nilradical is the intersection of all prime ideals.
Nilpotent elements in Lie algebra
Let be a Lie algebra. Then an element of is called nilpotent if it is in and is a nilpotent transformation. See also: Jordan decomposition in a Lie algebra.
Nilpotency in physics
Any ladder operator in a finite dimensional space is nilpotent. They represent creation and annihilation operators, which transform from one state to another, for example the raising and lowering Pauli matrices .
An operand Q that satisfies is nilpotent. Grassmann numbers which allow a path integral representation for Fermionic fields are nilpotents since their squares vanish. The BRST charge is an important example in physics.
As linear operators form an associative algebra and thus a ring, this is a special case of the initial definition. More generally, in view of the above definitions, an operator Q is nilpotent if there is such that Qn = 0 (the zero function). Thus, a linear map is nilpotent iff it has a nilpotent matrix in some basis. Another example for this is the exterior derivative (again with ). Both are linked, also through supersymmetry and Morse theory, as shown by Edward Witten in a celebrated article.
The electromagnetic field of a plane wave without sources is nilpotent when it is expressed in terms of the algebra of physical space. More generally, the technique of microadditivity used to derive theorems makes use of nilpotent or nilsquare infinitesimals, and is part smooth infinitesimal analysis.
Algebraic nilpotents
The two-dimensional dual numbers contain a nilpotent space. Other algebras and numbers that contain nilpotent spaces include split-quaternions (coquaternions), split-octonions,
biquaternions , and complex octonions .
See also
Idempotent element (ring theory)
Unipotent
Reduced ring
Nil ideal
References
Ring theory
0 (number)
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252236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Frontier | The Frontier | The Frontier can refer to:
The Frontier (1991 film), a 1991 Chilean film directed by Ricardo P. Larrain
The Frontier (2014 film), an American drama film by Matt Rabinowitz
The Frontier (2015 film), an American crime film
The Frontier (Hong Kong), a defunct political group in Hong Kong
The Frontier (Hong Kong, 2010), a political group in Hong Kong
The Frontier (website), an investigative news website in Oklahoma, U.S.
The Frontier (North American history), the American frontier during the period of western expansion
Fallout: The Frontier, a mod for Fallout: New Vegas.
The Frontier, previous name for the New Frontier Hotel and Casino
See also
Frontier (disambiguation)
La Frontera, Chile, the limit between the Spanish/Chilean state and Mapuche territory | [
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252247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20II%20%28emperor%29 | Leo II (emperor) | Leo II (, ; 467 – November 474) was briefly Roman emperor in 474 when he was a child aged six or seven. He was the son of Zeno, the Isaurian general and future emperor, and Ariadne, a daughter of the emperor Leo I (), who ruled the eastern Roman empire. Leo II was made co-emperor with his grandfather Leo I on 17 November 473, and became sole emperor on 18 January 474 after Leo I died of dysentery. His father Zeno was made co-emperor by the Byzantine Senate on 29 January and they co-ruled for a short time before Leo II died in November 474. The precise date of Leo's death is unknown.
History
Leo II was born in 467, the son of Zeno, an Isaurian general, and Ariadne, the daughter of then emperor Leo I. He was the maternal grandson of Emperor Leo I and Empress Verina. Leo II was made caesar around October 472, and was later promoted to augustus on November 473, making him co-emperor alongside his grandfather, Leo I. He was crowned at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, and the ceremony was presided over by the Ecumenical Patriarch Acacius. The 10th century De Ceremoniis gives a detailed account of his coronation as augustus, which is dated to 17 November 473. He was also appointed as the sole consul for 474 around this time. When Leo I died of dysentery on 18 January 474, Leo II ascended the throne as sole augustus. On 29 January 474, the Byzantine Senate made his father Zeno co-augustus under Leo II, as he was too young to sign official documents. Leo II died some time after 10 October 474, at the age of 7, leaving Zeno as the sole emperor.
His death having occurred so soon after he became emperor has led to speculation among some modern scholars that he was poisoned by his mother Ariadne so that Zeno could ascend to the throne. However no contemporary sources raised this suggestion, even though Zeno was unpopular, thus it is considered likely that Leo II's death was natural, especially when the high child mortality rate of the time is considered. Victor of Tunnuna, a 6th-century chronicler, says that Leo II did not actually die, but was rather taken by Ariadne and hidden at a monastery. This is very likely a confusion with Basiliscus, the son of the Byzantine commander Armatus. Basiliscus was crowned caesar in 476 and was almost executed in 477 after his father was murdered by Zeno, but was saved by Ariadne. The confusion likely stems from the fact that Basiliscus was renamed Leo in order to avoid association with the usurper who rose against Zeno.
Zeno was vastly unpopular, due to a lack of dynastic prestige, with his only familial ties to the imperial throne being his marriage to Ariadne, the daughter of Leo I, and through his now-dead son Leo II. Additionally, because he was an Isaurian, he was seen as a foreigner by the Byzantine elite, and the treasury was empty on his ascension. Zeno's sole rule was opposed by the House of Leo, with Verina, the widow of Leo I, proclaiming her brother Basiliscus as emperor in January 475. Zeno fled, and for 20 months Basiliscus ruled before Zeno returned and retook the throne. Zeno's rule was marked by constant unrest, and it was only through cunning and bribery that he managed to rule for 17 years, until his death on 9 April 491.
References
Notes
Primary sources
Anonymus Valesianus II (Anonymous, 6th century).
Chronicon Paschale (Anonymous, 7th century).
Makhtbhanuth Zabhne (Bar Hebraeus, 13th century).
Chronicle of Domninos (6th century).
Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius Scholasticus (6th century).
Book XIV of the Chronographia of John Malalas (6th century).
Romana (Jordanes, 6th century).
Chronicle of Michael the Syrian (12th century).
Chronicle of Nestorianos (6th century).
Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor (8th century).
Chronicle of Victor of Tunnuna (6th century).
Extracts of History (Joannes Zonaras, 12th century).
Citations
Bibliography
McEvoy, M. A. (2019). 'Leo II, Zeno, and the transfer of power from a son to his father in AD 474', in J.-W. Drijvers and N. Lenski (eds). The Fifth Century: Age of Transformation. Edipuglia.
467 births
474 deaths
5th-century Byzantine emperors
5th-century Roman consuls
Ancient child rulers
House of Leo
Imperial Roman consuls
Rulers who died as children
Sons of Byzantine emperors | [
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252250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit%20%28dynamics%29 | Orbit (dynamics) | In mathematics, specifically in the study of dynamical systems, an orbit is a collection of points related by the evolution function of the dynamical system. It can be understood as the subset of phase space covered by the trajectory of the dynamical system under a particular set of initial conditions, as the system evolves. As phase space trajectory is uniquely determined for any given set of phase space coordinates, it is not possible for different orbits to intersect in phase space, therefore the set of all orbits of a dynamical system is a partition of the phase space. Understanding the properties of orbits by using topological methods is one of the objectives of the modern theory of dynamical systems.
For discrete-time dynamical systems, the orbits are sequences; for real dynamical systems, the orbits are curves; and for holomorphic dynamical systems, the orbits are Riemann surfaces.
Definition
Given a dynamical system (T, M, Φ) with T a group, M a set and Φ the evolution function
where with
we define
then the set
is called orbit through x. An orbit which consists of a single point is called constant orbit. A non-constant orbit is called closed or periodic if there exists a in such that
.
Real dynamical system
Given a real dynamical system (R, M, Φ), I(x) is an open interval in the real numbers, that is . For any x in M
is called positive semi-orbit through x and
is called negative semi-orbit through x.
Discrete time dynamical system
For discrete time dynamical system :
forward orbit of x is a set :
backward orbit of x is a set :
and orbit of x is a set :
where :
is an evolution function which is here an iterated function,
set is dynamical space,
is number of iteration, which is natural number and
is initial state of system and
Usually different notation is used :
is written as
where is in the above notation.
General dynamical system
For a general dynamical system, especially in homogeneous dynamics, when one has a "nice" group acting on a probability space in a measure-preserving way, an orbit will be called periodic (or equivalently, closed) if the stabilizer is a lattice inside .
In addition, a related term is a bounded orbit, when the set is pre-compact inside .
The classification of orbits can lead to interesting questions with relations to other mathematical areas, for example the Oppenheim conjecture (proved by Margulis) and the Littlewood conjecture (partially proved by Lindenstrauss) are dealing with the question whether every bounded orbit of some natural action on the homogeneous space is indeed periodic one, this observation is due to Raghunathan and in different language due to Cassels and Swinnerton-Dyer . Such questions are intimately related to deep measure-classification theorems.
Notes
It is often the case that the evolution function can be understood to compose the elements of a group, in which case the group-theoretic orbits of the group action are the same thing as the dynamical orbits.
Examples
The orbit of an equilibrium point is a constant orbit.
Stability of orbits
A basic classification of orbits is
constant orbits or fixed points
periodic orbits
non-constant and non-periodic orbits
An orbit can fail to be closed in two ways.
It could be an asymptotically periodic orbit if it converges to a periodic orbit. Such orbits are not closed because they never truly repeat, but they become arbitrarily close to a repeating orbit.
An orbit can also be chaotic. These orbits come arbitrarily close to the initial point, but fail to ever converge to a periodic orbit. They exhibit sensitive dependence on initial conditions, meaning that small differences in the initial value will cause large differences in future points of the orbit.
There are other properties of orbits that allow for different classifications. An orbit can be hyperbolic if nearby points approach or diverge from the orbit exponentially fast.
See also
Wandering set
Phase space method
Cobweb plot or Verhulst diagram
Periodic points of complex quadratic mappings and multiplier of orbit
Orbit portrait
References
Dynamical systems
Group actions (mathematics) | [
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252251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic%20writing | Automatic writing | Automatic writing, also called psychography, is a claimed psychic ability allowing a person to produce written words without consciously writing. Scientists and sceptics consider automatic writing to be the result of the ideomotor effect and even proponents of automatic writing admit it has been the source of innumerable cases of self-delusion. Automatic writing is not the same thing as free writing.
History
Early history
Spirit writing, later called Fuji (planchette writing) (扶乩/扶箕), has a long tradition in China, where messages from various deities and spirits were received by mediums since the Song dynasty. In the 19th century, messages received through spirit writing led to the foundation of several Chinese salvationist religions. The spread of Chinese cultural techniques, such as printing and painting, introduced the influence of "spirit writing", practiced by Japanese Zen Ōbaku monks, who were said to communicate with an ancient Taoist sage credited with creation of the kung fu system.
In the West, an early example of the practice is the 16th-century Enochian language, allegedly dictated to John Dee and Edward Kelley by Enochian angels and integral to the practice of Enochian magic. The language is said to be extremely detailed and complex with its own grammar and rules. Dee also claimed that the Enochian instruction included information regarding the elixir of life in the ruins of Glastonbury Abbey.
Parapsychologist William Fletcher Barrett wrote that "automatic messages may take place either by the writer passively holding a pencil on a sheet of paper, or by the planchette, or by a 'ouija board'." In spiritualism, spirits are claimed to take control of the hand of a medium to write messages, letters, and even entire books. Automatic writing can happen in a trance or waking state. Some psychical researchers such as Thomson Jay Hudson have claimed no spirits are involved in automatic writing and the subconscious mind is the explanation.
Paranormal investigator Harry Price exposed the supposed automatic writing in the Borley Rectory as the wall-scrawling of a housewife attempting to hide an extramarital affair.
A prominent alleged example of automatic writing is the Brattleboro hoax. When Charles Dickens died in 1870 he left The Mystery of Edwin Drood unfinished. According to the itinerant printer T. P. James this angered Dickens' spirit so much that he channeled the rest of the novel through James's hand. This is supposed to have begun on Christmas Eve 1872 and continued in thrice weekly sessions until completion.
Automatic writing as a spiritual practice was reported by Hyppolyte Taine in the preface to the third edition of his De l'intelligence, published in 1878. Besides "ethereal visions" or "magnetic auras", Fernando Pessoa claimed to have experienced automatic writing. He said he felt "owned by something else", sometimes feeling a sensation in the right arm he claimed was lifted into the air without his will. Georgie Hyde-Lees, the wife of William Butler Yeats, also claimed she could write automatically. Sri Aurobindo and his follower, The Mother (Mirra Alfassa), regularly practiced Automatic writing.
Shortly after his 1917 marriage to Georgie Hyde-Lees the poet W. B. Yeats came to be heavily influenced by her delving into what they referred to as "the automatic script".
Arthur Conan Doyle, in his book The New Revelation (1918), wrote that automatic writing occurs either by the writer's subconscious or by external spirits operating through the writer. Doyle and his wife led an automatic writing séance with Harry Houdini where Lady Doyle wrote fifteen pages of purported messages from Houdini's mother although this information was immediately discounted as fraudulent by Houdini.
The essay The Automatic Message (1933), first published in the magazine Minotaure, No. 3-4, (Paris), was one of André Breton's significant theoretical works about automatism. In 1919, Breton and Philippe Soupault had used what later became the Surrealist automatism method to compose Les Champs Magnétiques (The Magnetic Fields). In 1997, "The Magnetic Fields" was also the title of a compilation of surrealist writing of André Breton, Paul Éluard, Philippe Soupault, and others. It included the authorized translation of Breton's The Automatic Message in English by the poet David Gascoyne, whose Man's Life is This Meat (1936) (a collection of his own surrealist writings and translations of the French surrealists) and Hölderlin's Madness (1938) established Gascoyne's reputation as one of a small group of English surrealists. Gascoyne's 1935 A Short Survey of Surrealism for the 1936 London International Surrealist Exhibition also expanded the movement to the English-speaking world. The Surrealist poet Robert Desnos claimed he was among the most gifted in automatic writing. Surrealist automatists, most notably André Masson, adapted these methods to art-making in which the artist suppresses conscious control over the making process, allowing the unconscious mind to have great sway. Prior to the Surrealists, Dadaists, such as Hans Arp, made some use of this method through chance operations.
The medium Pierre L. O. A. Keeler had an alleged spirit writing communication from Abraham Lincoln currently exhibited at the Lily Dale Museum. Despite Lincoln being a well known skeptic and Keeler having been known to employ magician's tricks this is used as one of the many examples of skeptics purportedly endorsing spiritualism—posthumously. Skeptical investigator Joe Nickell who made a detailed examination of the "spirit" writing concluded it had no resemblance to Lincoln's handwriting and described the message as "bogus".
There was an apocalyptic cult led by a lapsed Scientologist named Dorothy Martin. She and her followers were waiting for an alien ship to take them to the nonexistent planet Clarion and save them from a worldwide flood that was to commence at midnight on December 20, 1954. When that did not occur Martin allegedly got an automatic writing message from God calling the whole thing off.
Since 1975
In 1975, Wendy Hart of Maidenhead claimed she wrote automatically about Nicholas Moore, a sea captain who died in 1642. Also in 1975 the CIA attempted to employ remote viewing through the Stargate Project. In the spring of 1989, Angela Dellafiora, a member of Stargate Project's remote viewing unit, claimed to be guided by spirits moving her hand in writing responses about the location of a fugitive DEA agent named Charlie Jordan. In reviewing the matter, Joe Nickell states, "[T]he Charlie Jordan case, touted as one of the most successful examples ... in the U.S. government's psychic-spying project is not convincing evidence of anything-save perhaps folly. ... [I]t also illustrates the limitations of anecdotal evidence: conflicting versions, selective reporting, and lack of documentation, together with additional manifestations of faulty memory, bias, and other human foibles."
David Icke said he first became aware of being Son of the Godhead via automatic writing. Vassula Ryden claims to receive and transcribe messages from her guardian angel Daniel, Jesus, Yahweh. She has provoked both skepticism and credulity from Catholic laity and clergy, as well as the skeptical community at large. Alleged cases of automatic writing have included Joseph Smith, Patience Worth, Aleister Crowley, Jane Roberts, Helen Schucman and Neale Donald Walsch. Crowley, for instance, compiled the Collected Works over time, which included The Book of the Law as well as transcripts of his visions of the first two Enochian Aethyrs.
Scientific analysis and scepticism
Scientists and sceptics consider automatic writing to be the result of the ideomotor effect.
According to skeptical investigator Joe Nickell, "automatic writing is produced while one is in a dissociated state. It is a form of motor automatism, or unconscious muscular activity." Neurologist Terence Hines has written "automatic writing is an example of a milder form of dissociative state". In 1900, Swiss psychologist Theodore Flournoy studied the case of the French medium Helene Smith, particularly her handwriting during seances. He concluded that the automatic writing phenomenon was an effect of autosuggestion produced by autohypnotization, leading to the emergence of a secondary self.
Paranormal researcher Ben Radford writes in his 2017 book Investigating Ghosts that there is no real way to know if the writing is coming from "outside their bodies," you "must take their word for it. Because the source of the information is at issue and the medium cannot be validated, we must turn to the content of the material." Various psychic mediums have claimed to channel famous dead people like Susan Lander who claimed that Betsy Ross contacted her to say, "I am gay and I fly the flag of pride and liberty for all of us." Radford states that historians say that there is "no credible historical evidence that Ross ... either made or had a hand in designing the American flag." Without some kind of validation, "anyone can claim to communicate with the spirit of anyone." Radford states that it would seem to be easier for the ghost to communicate by voice than by controlling a pen, considering spelling and grammar are more difficult. "Automatic writing should logically hinder, not help spirit communication."
Scientific studies
In an 1890 paper on hypnotism Morton Prince claims, "automatic writing is not a purely unconscious reflex act, but, the product of conscious individuality," and further claims that the hand that is writing is under the control of a separate hypnotic personality during trances. Physician Charles Arthur Mercier in the British Medical Journal (1894) criticized the spiritualist interpretation of automatic writing, concluding, "there is no need nor room for the agency of spirits, and the invocation of such agency is the sign of a mind not merely unscientific, but uninformed."
Psychology professor Théodore Flournoy investigated the claim by nineteenth-century medium Hélène Smith (Catherine Müller) she did automatic writing to convey messages from Mars in Martian language. Flournoy concluded her "Martian" language had a strong resemblance to Ms. Smith's native language of French and her automatic writing was "romances of the subliminal imagination, derived largely from forgotten sources (for example, books read as a child)." He invented the term cryptomnesia to describe this phenomenon.
In 1927, psychiatrist Harold Dearden wrote that automatic writing is a psychological method of "tapping" the unconscious mind and there is nothing mysterious about it.
In 1986, A. B. Joseph investigated two female patients who were found to exhibit ictal hypergraphia.
Automatic writing behavior was discovered by Dilek Evyapan and Emre Kumral in three patients with right hemispheric damage.
A 2012 study of ten psychographers using single photon emission computed tomography showed differences in brain activity and writing complexity during alleged trance states vs. normal state writing.
Pop culture and media
Automatic writing is touted by medium Bonnie Page in a Sentinel and Enterprise article as a method of accessing claircognizance abilities.
Automatic writing is featured prominently in the 1961 episode of Perry Mason, The Case of the Meddling Medium.
Portions of Van Morrison's album Astral Weeks supposedly are inspired by dreams, reveries, and automatic writing.
Czech director Jan Svankmajer claims he concocted the screenplay for his hybrid film Insect (Hmyz) in a fit of automatic writing.
William S. Burroughs has described his book Naked Lunch as "automatic writing gone horribly wrong" and believed he found his subconscious taken over by a hostile entity.
In an interview in GQ, David Byrne indicated an interest in automatic writing due to the influence of Brian Eno.
Gallery
See also
Alien hand syndrome
Automatic drawing
Artistic inspiration
Asemic writing
Automatic speech
Memoirs of a Suicide
Chico Xavier
Joseph Sieber Benner
Bicameral mentality
Divided consciousness
Dowsing
Dual consciousness
Hypergraphia
Ideomotor phenomenon
Left brain interpreter
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Matthew Manning
Oahspe: A New Bible, claimed to be written via automatic writing
Ouija
Spiritism
Surrealist automatism
References
Further reading
(The document is in English but the linked website is in German.)
External links
Mediumship
Language and mysticism
Parapsychology
Spiritism
Spiritualism
Paranormal terminology
Unconscious
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252252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matti%20Vanhanen | Matti Vanhanen | Matti Taneli Vanhanen (; born 4 November 1955) is a Finnish politician who served as Prime Minister of Finland from 2003 to 2010. He was also Chairman of the Centre Party and President of the European Council in 2006. In his earlier career, he was a journalist. Vanhanen is the son of professor Tatu Vanhanen and Anni Tiihonen.
Career
Vanhanen studied political science at the University of Helsinki, graduating as a Master of Social Sciences in 1989. He was chairman of the Centre Party Youth League from 1980 to 1983. He also served as a member of the Espoo City Council from 1981 to 1984. Vanhanen used to work as a journalist. He was an editor (1985–1988) and editor-in-chief (1988–1991) at the local newspaper Kehäsanomat. In a column in Suomenmaa (the Centre Party's organ), he strongly condemned the Baltic Star pro-Estonian independence demonstration held in Helsinki in July 1985, calling the demonstration "provocative".
Vanhanen was elected to the Finnish Parliament (Eduskunta) in 1991. As a member of Parliament he was interested in ecological issues. For instance, Vanhanen spoke against the building of a fifth nuclear power plant in 1992, at the same time as serving on the board of electricity corporation Fortum. He served on the Parliamentary Environment Committee 1991–1995, and was chair of the Parliamentary Grand Committee 2000–2001. He was vice-chair of the Centre Party Parliamentary group 1994–2001, and Deputy Chairman of the Centre Party 2000–2003.
Another important topic for Vanhanen was Finland's foreign and security policy. As a specialist on the European Union he was a member of the European Union Constitutional Convention. There he criticised the president of the convention, former French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, as authoritarian. Vanhanen has said that he is unenthusiastic about European co-operation, and that he is an "EU pragmatist", so he may be considered a eurosceptic, especially when compared to his EU-enthusiast predecessor Paavo Lipponen.
Vanhanen's first cabinet
Vanhanen resigned from the Constitutional Convention in 2003 when he became Minister of Defense in the cabinet of Prime Minister Anneli Jäätteenmäki. After Jäätteenmäki's resignation, Vanhanen was elected Prime Minister and his first cabinet was formed.
As a politician, Vanhanen is considered to be part of the liberal wing of the old agrarian Central Party, along with the two other Party ministers from Uusimaa region. His government cut the top state income tax rate from 35.5% to 33.5% in 2005 and 32.5% in 2006 (resulting in approximately 55% total tax rate after local government and social security taxes). The corporate tax rate was also lowered to 26% and capital gains to 28% (both formerly 29%), though at the same time dividends were partially made taxable. Vanhanen has said he is willing to continue tax cuts.
Presidential candidate
As the Centre Party candidate, Vanhanen challenged President Tarja Halonen in the 2006 Finnish presidential election. He received 18.6% of the vote, coming third to the National Coalition Party's Sauli Niinistö (24.1%) and Social Democrat and incumbent Tarja Halonen (46.3%), and thus did not qualify for the runoff. Vanhanen expressed his support for Niinistö in the runoff election against his coalition partner's candidate Halonen.
The presidential election, and co-operation between Centre Party and National Coalition Party, proved to be a major strain on the government coalition between the Centre Party and Social Democrats. The flashpoint came in March, when the Centre Party demanded national agricultural subsidies to cover farmers' losses when the Finnish exception in the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy was about to expire. At the end of the crisis Vanhanen told his parliamentary group that taxpayers would cover ninety percent or about 100 million euros in losses.
Vanhanen's second cabinet
After the March 2007 election the Centre Party narrowly remained the largest party after losing four seats. However their coalition partner, the SDP, lost eight seats and the centre-right National Coalition Party gained ten. Vanhanen's second cabinet was formed on a centre-right basis, with minor partners the Green League and the Swedish People's Party.
A scandal involving Vanhanen's second cabinet began rolling in May 2008, after the leader of the Centre Party's parliamentary group Timo Kalli said publicly that he would not reveal information about his campaign finances, because such disclosure was not required. After a media backlash, Kalli gave up his secrecy and listed a group of businessmen known as "Kehittyvien maakuntien Suomi" (KMS; in English, "The Finland of Developing Regions"), who had financed the Centre Party. Centre Party links with KMS were suspected, as one address of the organisation belonged to a party official. It was later revealed that the organisation had been formed in the Centre Party's general secretary's office.
After the Russian response to the Georgian invasion of South Ossetia, Vanhanen said that Finland would rethink its security.
Vanhanen's cabinet proposed raising the retirement age from 63 to 65 years. His proposal was fiercely opposed by the Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions (Finnish acronym SAK), which is affiliated with the SDP.
In December 2009, Vanhanen announced that he would step down as chair of the Centre Party at its June 2010 convention. Mari Kiviniemi was chosen to the position and she also inherited the position as Prime Minister. In September 2010 Vanhanen started as the head of the Family Business Network Finland and left the parliament.
In 2010, the Finnish police investigated whether Vanhanen had been wrong not to disqualify himself in certain cabinet decisions on financial contributions to an organisation affiliated with the Centre Party, which had previously financed Vanhanen's presidential campaign. Because the charges concerned Vanhanen's actions while in office, the decision whether he should be prosecuted fell to the Constitutional Law Committee of the Finnish Parliament. The Committee decided not to prosecute Vanhanen.
Return to politics
In November 2014, Vanhanen announced that he would leave the Family Business Network. He was elected to the parliament in the 2015 elections with 11,304 personal votes. In June 2015, Vanhanen was chosen as the chairman of the Centre Party parliamentary group.
In March 2016, Vanhanen announced that he is seeking Centre Party's candidacy in 2018 presidential election. As no challengers appeared within the party, Vanhanen was the sole candidate in June's party conference and was confirmed as the Centre Party's candidate in the presidential election. Vanhanen said that his candidacy is motivated by the support he felt he had around the country during his last campaign and the will to improve the security situation in the areas surrounding Finland. Following the nomination, Vanhanen left his duties as the chairman of the parliamentary group in order to focus on global affairs. On 23 June 2016, Vanhanen was chosen as the chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee in the Parliament. In the first round of the presidential election, Vanhanen placed fifth with 4.1 percent of the votes, while the incumbent president Sauli Niinistö went on to secure his second term with a majority of votes.
After getting re-elected in 2019 parliamentary election, Vanhanen was elected as the Speaker of the Parliament.
In June 2020, after Katri Kulmuni's resignation, Vanhanen was appointed Minister of Finance. Though he initially didn't want to accept the offer, he changed his mind and accepted out of a sense of duty. In May 2021 Vanhanen announced his resignation from the post to hand it over to party chair Annika Saarikko.
Personality
Vanhanen has been characterised as uncharismatic and even boring, which he has attempted to turn to his advantage in tense political situations. Vanhanen is known for being a teetotaler, saying that he does not like the taste of alcohol.
Matti Vanhanen was against the independence movement in the Baltic States during the 1980s. In his column in Suomenmaa in 1985, Vanhanen condemned the Baltic independence movement both for "wishing to change the Soviet system" and for "indifference towards the post Second World War reality." Vanhanen claimed that the difference between capitalism and socialism was not significant; and that instead of being concerned about the Soviet system, it would be better to concentrate, for example, on the research of Finno-Ugric languages.
In 2009, he visited China and credited the government for being systematic, as well as being able to place clear priorities and to mobilise the required resources to accomplish them. In his opinion, the Western world ought to note the example of China, where policies are implemented rapidly and effectively. He said he was impressed of the progress the country has made in dealing with difficult issues.
Vanhanen married Merja Vanhanen in 1985. They have two children: Annastiina (born 1991) and Juhana (born 1994). Matti Vanhanen and Merja Vanhanen unexpectedly announced their divorce on 6 April 2005.
After his divorce, he dated Susan Kuronen (she later changed her last name to Ruusunen). In February 2007, Kuronen released a tell-all book The Prime Minister's Bride, which actually boosted the prime minister's popularity with the public. Tens of thousands of Finns signed an online petition against the book and some bookstores refused to put it on the shelf. Vanhanen sued the book's publisher (but not Kuronen) for invasion of privacy in March 2007, following the March elections. In 2010 the Supreme Court of Finland upheld the privacy violation conviction against Susan Ruusunen and her publisher.
After ending his dating relationship with Kuronen (Ruusunen), Vanhanen got engaged to Sirkka Mertala in 2009. This relationship ended in 2010.
In a 2006 book commissioned for the presidential elections, Se on ihan Matti, Vanhanen compared the Finnish tabloid press to the KGB and Stasi, former Soviet Union and East German secret police agencies.
Vanhanen has two homes; he lives permanently in Lepsämä, a rural village in the Nurmijärvi municipality, but on weekends in the town of Rauma.
Vanhanen is about 198 cm (6'6"). He is left-handed.
Campaign funds
Matti Vanhanen received 25,000 euros for his presidential election campaign in 2006 from Ahti Vilppula via his company Helsingin Mekaanikkotalo. Mekaanikkotalo is owned by Procomex in Luxembourg and further by Kilbrin Investments Limited in the Virgin Islands. In 2009 it was found out that this finance was not included in the finance announcement. Also Sauli Niinistö had not announced his finance 50,000 € from Ahti Vilppula in 2006 by 2009.
Youth Foundation
Vanhanen served as Chairman of the Youth Foundation from 1998 to 2003 and Deputy chairman from 1981 to 1997. The prosecution claims the Youth Foundation donated under the direction of Centre Party MP Antti Kaikkonen funding of over 90,000 euros for his own campaign and that of other Centre Party MPs including Matti Vanhanen. Prosecutors say this contravened the Foundation's own rules and laws governing such institutions.
Cabinets
Vanhanen I Cabinet
Vanhanen II Cabinet
See also
Keskusta
References
External links
Official site
|-
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1955 births
Living people
Candidates for President of Finland
Centre Party (Finland) politicians
Finnish bloggers
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1991–95)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1995–99)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1999–2003)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2003–07)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2007–11)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2015–19)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2019–23)
Ministers of Defence of Finland
Ministers of Finance of Finland
People from Jyväskylä
Presidents of the European Council
Prime Ministers of Finland
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class
Speakers of the Parliament of Finland
University of Helsinki alumni | [
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252268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool%2C%20New%20South%20Wales | Liverpool, New South Wales | Liverpool is a suburb of Greater Western Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is located south-west of the Sydney CBD. Liverpool is the administrative seat of the local government area of the City of Liverpool and is situated in the Cumberland Plain.
History
Liverpool is one of the oldest urban settlements in Australia, founded on 7 November 1810 as an agricultural centre by Governor Lachlan Macquarie. He named it after Robert Banks Jenkinson, Earl of Liverpool, who was then the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the English city of Liverpool, upon which some of the area's architecture is based.
Liverpool is at the head of navigation of the Georges River and combined with the Great Southern Railway from Sydney to Melbourne reaching Liverpool in the late 1850s, Liverpool became a major agricultural and transportation centre as the land in the district was very productive.
Until the 1950s, Liverpool was still a satellite town with an agricultural economy based on poultry farming and market gardening. However the urban sprawl of Sydney across the Cumberland Plain soon reached Liverpool, and it became an outer suburb of metropolitan Sydney with a strong working-class presence and manufacturing facilities. The Liverpool area also became renowned for its vast Housing Commission estates housing thousands of low-income families after the slum clearance and urban renewal programs in inner-city Sydney in the 1960s.
Heritage listings
Liverpool has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
251 Bigge Street: Liverpool Courthouse
Birkdale Crescent: Collingwood
College Street: Old Liverpool Hospital
Elizabeth Drive: St Luke's Anglican Church
Georges River, Heathcote Road near Newbridge Road: Liverpool Weir
Great Southern railway: Liverpool railway station
17 Speed Street: Rosebank
Commercial area
Liverpool is currently the major city centre in South Western Sydney. The city centre has a Hoddle Grid layout with many little laneways and arcades, similar to that of Melbourne. The main strip is Macquarie Street which contains numerous small cafes. In recent times the extension of the Westfield shopping centre has seen many new fashion stores come in. The Central Business District is being touted as Sydney's Third CBD centred around the Western Sydney Airport and aerotropolis. The CBD was rezoned for mixed use in 2018 to allow for more homes, offices and shops.
The main shopping area is centred on Macquarie Street, with Westfield Liverpool, a major shopping centre at the northern end. Liverpool Plaza is located between Macquarie Mall & Northumberland Street. The northern end of the city has been zoned for high density residential apartments. The southern end of the city is zoned for high density commercial developments. Liverpool has a large teaching hospital, two technical colleges and many shopping centres and office buildings. The private hospital operator Healthscope owns the Sydney Southwest Private Hospital in Liverpool.
Transport
Liverpool is well served by roads such as the Hume Highway (also known as Liverpool Road), the M5 Motorway, the Westlink M7 Motorway.
Liverpool railway station has services to the Sydney CBD, Leppington, Parramatta and Schofields. The Liverpool to Parramatta transitway provides a bus-only route for buses.
For details of long distance and local bus services see Liverpool station
Schools and places of worship
There are three public primary schools within the suburb of Liverpool: Liverpool Public School, Liverpool West and Marsden Road. Liverpool Boys and Liverpool Girls are the two public secondary schools. The Mainsbridge School caters to children with intellectual disabilities and Liverpool Hospital School for children hospitalized for lengthy periods.
Private schools include All Saints Primary School, All Saints Catholic College and Al Amanah College.
Post secondary education is catered to with the South Western College of TAFE, Macarthur Community College, Liverpool U3A: School for Seniors, University of Western Sydney English Language Centre, School of Arts in Macquarie Street, and The University Of Wollongong.
St Lukes Anglican Church, located in the city centre across the road from Westfield Liverpool, is the oldest Anglican church in Australia. All Saints Catholic Church in George St is located with the All Saints schools. St Raphael, Nickolas and Irene Greek Orthodox Church is in Forbes Street and the Serbian Orthodox Church of the Apostle Luke is on Flowerdale Rd.
Sport and recreation
Parks
There are many open spaces within the city centre, including botanical parks and sporting facilities. Bigge Park on the east side of the city features a War Memorial while Pioneer Memorial Park to the north has a historical cemetery. Woodward Park to the west is the main sporting precinct containing a number of outdoor playing fields and the Whitlam Leisure Centre, hosting a swimming pool and a 3000-seat indoor sports stadium. Other notable sports facilities within the suburb of Liverpool include Collimore Park (netball) and Paciullo Park (soccer and touch football).
Sporting teams
Prominent local teams include Fairfield-Liverpool Cricket Club which plays in the Sydney Grade Cricket competition, Liverpool City Netball, which has participated successfully in many State and representative competitions, Hinchinbrook Hornets Junior Rugby League and FC Bossy Liverpool which plays in the New South Wales Super League and Liverpool Rangers FC which is located at Ireland Park, Memorial Avenue. The West Sydney Razorbacks basketball team used to play out of the Gough Whitlam Centre while they were in the NBL. Liverpool is also home to Australian Ice Hockey League team the Sydney Ice Dogs who play out of the Liverpool Catholic Club Ice Rink and Liverpool little athletics.
Media
Liverpool has an arts and creation centre which provides music lessons with instruments such as:guitar, drums and banjo etc.
Liverpool is currently served by a full-time radio station 89.3FM 2GLF which broadcasts local information, music and ethnic programming. It is one of the first FM radio stations setup in the early '80s.
Liverpool has had several newspapers since the late 1800s. The first newspaper appeared in Liverpool in 1886 was The Liverpool Times which was soon superseded by The Liverpool Mercury. Both of these newspapers were then incorporated with The Liverpool Herald. There was also the free newspaper The Liverpool News that ran from 1904 to about 1973.
Liverpool now has two newspapers, The Liverpool Leader and The Liverpool Champion published every Wednesday.
Population
Demographics
According to the 2016 census conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Liverpool had a population of 27,084. These came from a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds; less than one-third (31.1%) of residents were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were Lebanon (10.9%), India (6.4%), Fiji (2.9%), Vietnam (2.5%) and Croatia (2.4%). The most popular ethnic responses were Indian (8.4%), Australian (7.9%), English (7.0%), Iraqi (6.5%) and Serbian (6.3%).
22.2% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Arabic 18.1%, Serbian 7.4%, Hindi 3.9%, Vietnamese 3.5% and Spanish 2.2%.
Liverpool is remarkable for the high proportion of people who reported following some religion in the Census; only 8.8% stated that they had no religion, much lower than the national average of 22.3%. This Census question is optional and 14.9% of residents did not respond to it, which introduces some uncertainty into all the religious figures. The most common responses for religion were Catholic 17.3, Islam 14.8% and "Miscellaneous Religions" 8.9%.
The age distribution is just a little younger than the rest of the country: the median age of Liverpool residents was 34 years (national median is 37). Children aged 0–14 years made up 21.0% of the population (19.3% nationally) and people aged 65 years and over made up 11.9%% of the population (14.0% nationally).
Over half (57.8%) the dwellings in Liverpool were apartments and 55.9% were being rented, which is significantly higher than the national average of 29.6%.
Notable people from Liverpool
Evin Agassi, an Assyrian American singer who owns a home in the suburb
Mark Bosnich, former footballer
Leslie Camilleri, convicted criminal with 3x life imprisonment charges
Michael Clarke, cricketer
Sir Jenkin Coles, auctioneer and politician
Walter Hampson Cooper, journalist, playwright, politician and barrister
Isaac De Gois, rugby league player
Mitchell Duke, soccer player
Michael Dwyer, Irish Rebellion Leader (1798–1803) and Chief of Police Liverpool (1813–1820)
Nathan Foley, a former member of Hi-5, entertainer
Frederick Augustus Forbes, store-keeper, grazier and politician
Scott Gardiner, first golfer of Aboriginal descent to play on the PGA Tour
Jennifer Harrison, poet
Liam Hatcher, cricketer
Vic Hey, rugby league player
Brett Hodgson, rugby league player
Harry Kewell, soccer player
Craig Knowles, politician
Terry Lamb, rugby league player
Anthony Minichiello, rugby league player
Mark Minichiello, rugby league player
Pat Richards, rugby league player
Leonardo Zappavigna, boxer
Politics
The suburb of Liverpool is split in its representation at all three levels of government with Hoxton Park Road the divider in each case. At the local level, Liverpool is part of the City of Liverpool, which is divided into two wards, the North Ward on the north side of Hoxton Park Road and the South Ward on the other side. Each ward elects five councillors and the council currently consists of four Labor councillors, five Liberals, one member of the Liverpool Community Independents Team (LCIT). There is also a directly elected mayor, Ned Mannoun.
For New South Wales state elections, the north side of Liverpool is located in the Electoral district of Liverpool, held by Paul Lynch, while the south side is in the Electoral district of Macquarie Fields, held by Anoulack Chanthivong. Both men are members of the Australian Labor Party. Federally, the north side of Liverpool is located in the Division of Hughes held by Craig Kelly of the United Australia Party. The south side is part of the Division of Werriwa, held by Labor's Anne Stanley.
The table at right illustrates recent election results in the Liverpool area by combining results from each of the five booths located in the suburb of Liverpool. The results indicate the suburb is a safe Labor area with the Labor primary vote well above 50% at both the last state and federal elections.
Geography
Climate
Liverpool has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) and is a few degrees warmer than the Sydney CBD, although nights are slightly cooler than Sydney's. If the maximum temperature is 27 °C in the City, in Liverpool it could typically reach as high as 33 °C, while in winter the temperature can be close to 0 °C while it is above 7 °C in central Sydney. Rainfall is somewhat spread throughout the months, although the first half tends to be wetter, namely in March. July to September tend to be drier, namely due to foehn winds originating from the Great Dividing Range.
References
External links
Liverpool City Council website
Spokey Blokeys - Liverpool - Episode 25
Suburbs of Sydney
1810 establishments in Australia
Cities in New South Wales
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252269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendis | Bendis | Bendis was a Thracian goddess associated with hunting and the moon whom the Athenians identified with Artemis and whose worship was introduced into Athens about 430 BC. She was a huntress, like Artemis, but was often accompanied by dancing satyrs and maenads, as represented on a fifth-century red-figure stemless cup at Verona.
The Greeks wrote of Bendis as one of the seven daughters of Zeus who were turned into swans who would later reappear in human forms driving a golden carriage and teaching crowds.
Because the Dacians observed the lunar calendar, many stories of their past are related to the sky and stars. After the second war with the Romans, the solar calendar came to be used instead.
Worship
By a decree of the Oracle of Dodona, which required the Athenians to grant land for a shrine or temple, her cult was introduced into Attica by immigrant Thracian residents, and, though Thracian and Athenian processions remained separate, both cult and festival became so popular that in Plato's time () its festivities were naturalized as an official ceremonial of the city-state, called the Bendideia. Among the events were night-time torch-races on horseback, mentioned in Plato's Republic, 328:
"You haven't heard that there is to be a torchlight race this evening on horseback in honour of the Goddess?" "On horseback?" said I. "That is a new idea. Will they carry torches and pass them along to one another as they race with the horses, or how do you mean?" "That's the way of it," said Polemarchus, "and, besides, there is to be a night festival which will be worth seeing."
The Bendideia also featured a solemn joint procession of Athenians and Thracians to the Goddess's sanctuary, located at the harbour of Piraeus. A red-figure skyphos, now at Tübingen University, of c. 440–430, seems to commemorate the arrival of the newly authorized cult: it shows Themis (representing traditional Athenian customs) and a booted and cloaked Bendis, who wears a Thracian fox-skin cap.
A small marble votive stele of Bendis, –375 BC, found at Piraeus, (pictured left) shows the goddess and her worshippers in bas-relief. The image shows that the Thracian goddess has been strongly influenced by Athenian conceptions of Artemis: Bendis wears a short chiton like Artemis, but with an Asiatic snug-sleeved undergarment. She is wrapped in an animal skin like Artemis and has a spear, but has a hooded Thracian mantle, fastened with a brooch. She wears high boots. In the fourth century BC terracotta figurine (pictured right) she is similarly attired and once carried a (wooden?) spear.
Elsewhere in Greece, the cult of Bendis did not catch on.
Just as in all other respects the Athenians continue to be hospitable to things foreign, so also in their worship of the gods; for they welcomed so many of the foreign rites that they were ridiculed for it by comic writers; and among these were the Thracian and Phrygian rites. (Strabo, Geography (1st century AD), 10.3.18)
The "Phrygian rites" Strabo mentioned referred to the cult of Cybele that was also welcomed to Athens in the 5th century.
Related deities
The Athenians may have blended the cult of Bendis with the equally Dionysiac Thracian revels of Kotys, mentioned by Aeschylus and other ancient writers. Archaic female cult figures unearthed in Thrace (modern-day Bulgaria) have also been identified with Bendis.
Bendida Peak on Trinity Peninsula in Antarctica is named after the goddess.
References
Sources
"Bendis", William Smith (ed.) Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1867.
"Bendis (Thracian goddess)", The Editors. Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Jul. 1998. Accessed 24 January 2022.
Further reading
Janouchová, Petra. "The cult of Bendis in Athens and Thrace". In Graeco-Latina Brunensia. 2013, vol. 18, iss. 1, pp. 95-106.
External links
"BENDIS - Thracian Goddess of the Moon & Hunting", Theoi Project, 2017. Accessed 24 January 2022.
Culture in Classical Athens
Lunar goddesses
Dacian goddesses
Hunting goddesses
Religion in ancient Athens
Thracian goddesses | [
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252272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hume%20Highway | Hume Highway | The Hume Highway, inclusive of the sections now known as the Hume Freeway and Hume Motorway, is one of Australia's major inter-city national highways, running for between Melbourne in the southwest and Sydney in the northeast. Upgrading of the route from Sydney's outskirts to Melbourne's outskirts to dual carriageway was completed on 7 August 2013.
From north to south, the road is called the Hume Highway in metropolitan Sydney, the Hume Motorway between the suburbs of Edmondson Park and Prestons and Berrima, the Hume Highway elsewhere in New South Wales and the Hume Freeway in Victoria. It is part of the Auslink National Network and is a vital link for road freight to transport goods to and from the two cities as well as serving Albury-Wodonga and Canberra.
In New South Wales during 2013, the National Highway shield, National Highway 31, was replaced with a standard alphanumeric route number, the M31 south of Prestons (along with the A22 east of Liverpool into the Sydney CBD and the A28 for a short length through Liverpool). This re-numbering for the first time in over 20 years created one continuously signed route along the Hume Highway, having already been signed the M31 in Victoria during the 1990s. During 2013, the route between Berrima and Prestons was also renamed the Hume Motorway.
History
The coast of New South Wales from the Queensland border to the Victorian border is separated from the inland by an escarpment, forming the eastern edge of the Great Dividing Range. There are few easy routes up this escarpment. To climb from the coast to the tablelands the Hume Highway uses the Bargo Ramp, a geological feature which provides one of the few easy crossings of the escarpment.
In the first twenty years of European settlement at Sydney (established 1788), exploration southwest of Sydney was slow. This area was heavily wooded at the time, especially the "Bargo brush", which was regarded as almost impenetrable. In 1798 explorers (Wilson, Price, Hacking, and Collins) reached the Moss Vale and Marulan districts, but this was not followed up. Any settlement would have to await the construction of an adequate access track, which would have been beyond the colony's resources at the time, and would have served little purpose as a source of supplies for Sydney, due to the time taken to reach Sydney. In 1804, Charles Throsby penetrated through the Bargo brush to the country on the tablelands near Moss Vale and Sutton Forest. On another expedition in 1818, he reached Lake Bathurst and the "Goulburn Plains". Many of the early explorers would most likely have used aboriginal guides, but they do not appear to have given them credit.
After Charles Throsby's 1818 journey towards present day Goulburn, followed by Hamilton Hume and William Hovell's overland journey from Appin (near Campbelltown) to Port Phillip and return in 1824, development of the Southern Tablelands for agriculture was rapid. The present route of the Hume Highway is much the same as that used by the pioneers.
The route taken by the Hume Highway to climb from the coast to the Southern Tablelands and across the Great Divide is situated between the parallel river gorge systems of the Wollondilly and Shoalhaven rivers. This country consists generally of a gently sloping plateau which is deeply dissected by the Nepean River and its tributaries. The route of the Highway, by using four high-level bridges to cross these gorges, avoids the Razorback Range, and has minimal earthworks. The climb from the western side of the Nepean River at Menangle up to Mittagong is fairly sustained, a fact that is hard to appreciate at high speed on the modern freeway. The highway climbs non-stop over a distance of from the Pheasants Nest bridge over the Nepean River to Yerrinbool, before dropping slightly before the final climb to reach the tablelands at Aylmerton, a climb of over in .
Early road construction
Governor Lachlan Macquarie ordered the construction of a road, which became known as the Great South Road (the basis of the northern end of the Hume Highway) in 1819 from Picton to the Goulburn Plains and he travelled to Goulburn in 1820, but it is unlikely that even a primitive road was finished at that time.
The Great South Road was rebuilt and completely re-routed between Yanderra and Goulburn by Surveyor-General Thomas Mitchell in 1833. The Main Roads Management Act of June 1858 declared the Great Southern Road, from near Sydney through Goulburn and Gundagai to Albury, as one of the three main roads in the colony. However, its southern reaches were described as only a 'scarcely formed bullock track' as late as 1858. The road was improved in the mid-1860s with some sections near Gundagai "metalled" and all creeks bridged between Adelong Creek (approximately 10 kilometres south of Gundagai and now known as the village of Tumblong) and Albury.
Mitchell's route in New South Wales, except for the bypasses at Mittagong, Berrima and Marulan (dual carriageways were completed in 1986) is still largely followed by the current highway. Mitchell intended to straighten the route north of Yanderra, but was not granted funding, although his proposed route through Pheasants Nest has similarities to the freeway route opened in 1980. Mitchell's work on the Great South Road is best preserved at Towrang Creek (10 kilometres north of Goulburn), where his stone arch culvert still stands, although it was superseded in 1965 by a concrete box culvert which in turn was superseded by the current route of the highway when it was duplicated in 1972.
By contrast, in Victoria there was an early and major change to Mitchell's route. Mitchell's original route between Albury and Melbourne went through Mitchellstown on the Goulburn River and took a long detour to the west of Mount Macedon.
In March 1837, Charles Bonney blazed a new trail from Mitchellstown through Kilmore to Melbourne, a route that took a day and a half off the previous journey. The bulk of Bonney's track formed the Sydney Road for the next 139 years., and was especially surveyed in 1840.
In 1914, both the Victorian and NSW sections of the highway were declared main roads by their respective state road authorities.
Within Victoria, the passing of the Highways and Vehicles Act of 1924 through the Parliament of Victoria provided for the declaration of State Highways, roads two-thirds financed by the State government through the Country Roads Board (later VicRoads). The North-Eastern Highway was declared a State Highway on 1 July, 1925, cobbled from a collection of roads from Melbourne through Seymour, Benalla, Wangaratta and Wodonga to the Murray River (for a total of 161 miles); before this declaration, the road between Melbourne and Bendigo was referred to as (Main) Sydney Road or Melbourne-Sydney Road.
The Great South Road through New South Wales, and the North-Eastern Highway through Victoria, were renamed the Hume Highway in 1928, after Hamilton Hume, the first European (with William Hovell) to traverse an overland route between Sydney and the Port Phillip District, in what later became the Colony of Victoria.
The Hume Highway was fully sealed by 1940, and was later signed National Route 31 in 1954.
The Whitlam Government introduced the federal National Roads Act 1974, where roads declared as a National Highway were still the responsibility of the states for road construction and maintenance, but were fully compensated by the Federal government for money spent on approved projects. As an important interstate link between the capitals of New South Wales and Victoria, the Hume Highway was declared a National Highway in 1974.
Timeline of duplication and bypass works
Duplication works on the highway began in the 1960s and concluded in 2013. The entire route between Sydney and Melbourne is now a dual carriageway, limited access highway.
1962 – Chiltern to Barnawartha opened January, 1962. This is referred to as the 'Hume By-pass Road'. Although initially opened as a single carriageway, two lane bypass, it was the first rural bypass of Victorian towns - Chiltern and Barnawartha - on the Hume Highway and was designed to allow for the future construction of a second carriageway.
1962 – Craigieburn 'Hume By-pass Road' opened January, 1962 at a cost of A£388,000. This dual carriageway bypass over the Sydney to Melbourne railway and Craigieburn Road has since been bypassed itself by the M31 Hume Freeway bypass, opened in 2007.
1965/66 – Broadford to Tallarook. Duplication of 4 miles completed during the financial year.
1966 – 1.6 km of dual carriageway opened over Bendooley Hill between Mittagong and Berrima (superseded by Berrima bypass in 1989).
1966/67 – Craigieburn to Kalkallo. 4.4 miles of dual carriageways completed during the financial year.
1966/67 – Tallarook. 1.4 miles completed south of Tallarook and 1.3 miles completed north of Tallarook during the financial year.
1967/68 – Kalkallo to Beveridge. 4.1 miles of dual carriageways completed during the financial year.
1969/70 – Beveridge. Completion of 11 miles of dual carriageway during the financial year, including a deviation at Beveridge and continuation south to connect with existing dual carriageways north of Craigieburn.
1970/71 – Tallarook bypass. 4.5 mile bypass of Tallarook opened during the financial year.
1973 – stage 1 of Camden bypass (Macarthur Bridge across Nepean River floodplain) opened.
1973 – first section of South Western Expressway (9.8 km), later subsumed into the Hume Highway, was opened from Cross Roads to Campbelltown Rd Raby on 26 October.
1974 – stage 2 of Camden bypass (new dual carriageway route Narellan Rd-Macarthur Bridge) opened.
1974 – second section of South Western Expressway (5.8 km), also later subsumed into the Hume Highway, was opened from Campbelltown Rd Raby to Narellan Rd Macarthur on 16 December.
1976 – Wallan to Broadford section opened 3 May 1976, by the Premier of Victoria, the Hon R J Hamer, ED, MP. At that time it was the longest section of freeway ever opened at one time in Victoria (34 km) and was the 'single biggest construction project carried out by the CRB since its inception in 1913'.
1977 – new route of Hume Highway, built to freeway standard, opened from Yanderra to Aylmerton (13.5 km) on 24 May.
1979 – Violet Town to Baddaginnie. 10 km of dual carriageways opened early 1979 at a cost of A$5.1m.
1979 – Avenel to Tubbs Hill, near Longwood. 14.5 km duplication opened 19 December 1979, by the Minister for Transport, the Hon Robert Maclellan MLA, at a cost of A$6.5m.
1980 – Violet Town bypass. 12 km from Wibrahams Road to the existing freeway at One Mile Creek, opened 21 March 1980, by the Minister for Transport, the Hon Robert Maclellan MLA at a cost of A$11m.
1980 – 35 km deviation of Hume Highway bypassing the Razorback Range opened on 15 December from Narellan Rd Macarthur to Yanderra, connecting sections opened December 1974 and May 1977.
1981 – Avenel bypass. 16 km north-east from the Goulburn Valley Highway interchange, opened 1 December 1981 by the Minister for Transport, the Hon Robert Maclellan MLA at a cost of A$25m.
1982 – Seymour bypass opened 14 December 1982 by the Minister for Transport, the Hon. Steve Crabb MP. The 9 km bypass cost A$26m to complete. At this stage, although largely opened to traffic, a one kilometre section of south bound carriageway south of Seymour was still under construction.
1984 – Longwood section. This 10 km section from Oxenburys Road to Creighton Road was opened by the Assistant Minister of Transport, the Hon. Jack Simpson MP, on 18 May 1984. The project cost A$10m. The opening marked the halfway point for the duplication of the highway within Victoria, with the total length of dual carriageways at that point measuring 151 km.
1985 – Barnawartha to Wodonga duplication, from Hanson Road to Parkers Road. An initial 4 km of the 12.6 km duplicate carriageway was completed in 1985.
1986 – 7.3 km Marulan Bypass opened on 27 November 1986.
1987 – Benalla bypass opened March 1987. The 36.5 km bypass was at this time the longest stretch of highway duplication opened at once in Victoria. The project cost was A$70m and extended from south of Baddaginnie to Chivers Road, south of Glenrowan.
1987/88 – Barnawartha to Wodonga, from Hanson Road to Parkers Road. The remaining 8.6 km of the 12.6 km duplicate carriageway was expected to be open to traffic in 'the second half of 1987'.
1987/88 – Chiltern to Barnawartha. 21 km A$31m duplication from Gilmours Road to Hanson Road was expected to be 'opened to traffic in stages from July 1987 until late 1989'.
1988/89 – 12.5 km Glenrowan bypass completed during the financial year at a cost of A$31.5m.
1989 – Berrima Bypass. 15.5 km-long bypass officially opened to traffic on 22 March 1989 at a total cost of A$80m.
1990 – Springhurst to Chiltern, Victoria. This 5.2 km duplication opened to traffic in March 1990, at a cost of A$8.5m.
1990 – Euroa to Balmattum, Victoria. Duplication of this 8 km section was opened to traffic in June 1990, at a cost of A$16m.
1990 – The 3.3 km Barnawartha (Victoria) bypass was fully completed and opened to traffic in June 1990, at a cost of A$11m.
1991 – 3.3 km duplication north of Springhurst opened in November 1991.
1991 – 10 km duplication from Coppabella Road to Reedy Creek completed on 17 December 1991.
1992 – Euroa bypass opened to traffic on 3 April 1992, at a cost of A$43m – A$2m under budget.
1992 – Mittagong Bypass. Originally part of the 1970s/1980's F5 project, this 8.2 km-long bypass was opened on 17 August 1992 at a completed cost of A$83m.
1992 – 13 km Goulburn Bypass opened to traffic on 5 December 1992 at a completed cost of A$84m.
1993 – Cullerin Range Deviation. 34 km-long freeway-grade deviation officially opened on 5 April 1993 at a cost of A$132m.
1994 – Springhurst bypass. 5 km opened to traffic in March 1994, at a cost of A$7.7m.
1994 – Wangaratta bypass. A$80m 20 km bypass opened to traffic in April 1994, eight months ahead of schedule and A$30m under budget. This was the final section of the Hume Highway in Victoria to be duplicated.
1994 – Yass Bypass. 18 km dual-carriageway officially opened on 25 July 1994 at a total cost of A$106m.
1995 – Cullerin to Yass Duplication. First 11 km section opened on 14 September 1994, followed by the second 6 km section on 3 May 1995. Final cost was A$59.1m.
1995 – Jugiong Bypass. 13 km dual-carriageway opened on 11 October 1995 at a total cost of A$85.5m.
1996 – Tarcutta Range Deviation. A$52.6m 9.4 km-long upgrade south of Tumblong opened to traffic on 3 May 1996.
2004 – Craigieburn bypass (section one) opened to traffic December 2004 between the Metropolitan Ring Road and Cooper Street.
2005 – Craigieburn bypass (section two) opened December 2005, completing the A$305m 17 km bypass.
2007 – Albury-Wodonga bypass. Construction commenced in May 2005 and was opened to traffic on 6 March 2007. The NSW section comprised 14.6 km from Ettamogah to the Murray River through the city of Albury. The Australian Government fully funded the A$374 million NSW section of the project. The A$150m Victorian section was largely funded by the federal government, with the A$5.8m Bandiana Link funded by the State Government of Victoria.
2009 – Southern Hume Highway Duplication. Work began in October 2007 and the 65 km section (2 km shorter than the previous highway route) was progressively opened to traffic from mid 2009 and completed in December 2009. Completion of this section left only 21 km of the Hume Highway as single carriageway, through the towns of Tarcutta, Holbrook and Woomargama.
2009 – Coolac Bypass. Construction began in May 2007. The 12 km bypass was opened to traffic in August 2009. The project was fully funded by the Australian Government at a cost of A$171 million.
2009 – Sheahan Bridge duplication, Gundagai. This A$70.6 million project was fully funded by the Australian Government and was completed in 2009. Traffic was switched to the new bridge in May 2009 to enable essential maintenance on the existing bridge. Both bridges were available to traffic as dual carriageways in December 2009.
2011 – Woomargama Bypass. This 9 km bypass was opened on 7 November 2011. The A$265 million project was funded by the Australian Government.
2011 – Tarcutta Bypass. The 7 km Tarcutta Bypass was opened to traffic on 15 November 2011. The A$290 million project was funded by the Australian Government.
2013 – Holbrook bypass. In June 2013, the NSW department of Roads and Maritime celebrated the imminent completion of the duplication of the Hume Highway with a community day at the Holbrook Bypass.
Route
At its Sydney end, the Hume Highway begins at Parramatta Road, in Summer Hill. This route is numbered as A22. The first of the highway was known as Liverpool Road until August 1928, when it was renamed as part of the Hume or Great Southern Highway, as part of the creation of the NSW highway system. Sections of the highway through Sydney's suburbs continue to be also known by its former names of Liverpool Road, Sydney Road and Copeland Street (through Liverpool).
The main Hume Highway/Motorway effectively commences at the junction of the M5 South-West Motorway and the Westlink M7 at . Heading eastbound, the M5 provides access to Sydney Airport and the CBD; while the M7 provides access to Newcastle and Brisbane bypassing the Sydney CBD. Both of these routes are tolled. The section of Hume Motorway between Prestons and Narellan Road was previously known as South Western Freeway (not to be confused with the M5 South-West Motorway) and was allocated route number F5. While this section later officially became known as the Hume Highway, it continued to be referred to as the F5 Freeway until the early 2010s.
Other than sections within the urban areas of Sydney and Melbourne, the Hume Highway is dual carriageway or expressway standard for its full length in Victoria and New South Wales.
Although the full length of the Hume Highway is dual carriageway (with at-grade intersections and restricted entry from adjoining land), there are considerable lengths of the highway which are of full freeway standard. Most of these sections are bypasses of the larger towns on the route, where the need to deviate the route to construct the bypass made it practical to deny access from adjoining land and thus provide full freeway conditions. In addition to these bypasses the sections between Casula (in southwestern Sydney) and Berrima (built 1973–92), and Broadford to Wallan (1976), which were both constructed as major deviations, are also of full freeway standard. The entire section in Victoria is categorised as a freeway by government roads authority VicRoads, although a few intersections along the route are not yet grade-separated. The speed limit on the full length of the highway is .
As the Hume Freeway approaches Melbourne at the suburb of Craigieburn, north of the Melbourne central business district, the Craigieburn Bypass now diverts the Hume Freeway (and the M31 designation) to the east of the former route, to terminate at the Western Ring Road/Metropolitan Ring Road (M80). This bypass was opened in two stages, in December 2004 and December 2005.
At its Melbourne end, the original alignment of the Melbourne–Sydney route followed Royal Parade northward from where it begins at its intersection with Elizabeth Street and Flemington Road. Royal Parade becomes Sydney Road at Brunswick Road and then became the Hume Highway itself at Campbellfield. This ceased to be the designated route of the Hume Highway in 1992, with the completion of Stage 1 of the Western Ring Road, at which point the designation of the southbound highway was truncated. The former highway south from the Western Ring Road to Elizabeth Street is route is now numbered as State Route 55 and is now officially called Sydney Road.
Recent New South Wales upgrading
Between February 2009 and March 2012, both carriageways were widened between Brooks Road and Narellan Road. This work was undertaken in 3 stages. The first stage, widening to 4 lanes each way between Brooks Road and St Andrews Road St Andrews was completed in 2010. The second stage, widening to 4 lanes each way between St Andrews Road and Raby Road commenced in 2009 and was completed in mid-2011. The final stage, widening to 3 lanes each way between Raby Road and Narellan Road, commenced in September 2010 and was completed in March 2012. Construction of a pedestrian bridge over the highway to link Claymore and Woodbine was also completed. This section of the highway, opened as part of the two stages opened in October 1973 and December 1974, was originally designed for widening of the carriageways to three lanes.
Work commenced in 2010 on a bypass of Holbrook. The bypass was opened to traffic on 7 August 2013 after being postponed due to wet weather. The opening of the bypass resulted in dual carriageway (much to freeway standard) over the full length of the Hume Highway for the first time.
Current Victorian upgrade projects
VicRoads has undertaken a planning study for the upgrading of the Hume Freeway by removal of direct access from adjoining properties and grade-separation of the intersections between Kalkallo and Beveridge. These intersections have the highest accident rate of the Hume Freeway in Victoria. The study, completed in March 2009, intended to amend council planning schemes so as to reserve space for the upgrade, but no timetable has been set for the project.
In addition a 4-level interchange between the Hume Freeway and the Outer Metropolitan Ring Road is proposed for construction after 2020.
Landscapes
Heading north from Melbourne, the road passes through the hills of the Great Dividing Range, some of which is covered with box eucalypt forest but of which much is cleared for farmland, before levelling out near Seymour to cross flat, mostly cleared farming country to Wodonga and the Victoria-New South Wales border. Victoria's landscape differs from that of the typical 'true Australian Outback', but a dry summer can leave the ground parched. Mount Buffalo can be seen in the distance to the east as the highway comes down off the Warby Range near Glenrowan, and a museum commemorating Ned Kelly is located nearby. At Wangaratta the highway passes close to the Rutherglen and Milawa wine-producing areas.
Continuing north, the Murray River, the south bank of which is the Victoria-New South Wales border, is crossed on the bypass of Albury-Wodonga. From Albury, the highway skirts Lake Hume and continues across undulating country generally north-east towards Holbrook and then Tarcutta. Just north of Tarcutta the highway encounters the first of several ranges which form outliers of the Great Dividing Range, and which are crossed as the highway climbs the slopes to the tablelands west of Yass. From here the highway runs eastward, to Goulburn where it again turns northeast. Most of the New South Wales countryside from Albury to Marulan has been developed for wool production, with Yass and Goulburn in particular noted for their fine wool.
Fixed speed camera locations
In April 2007, 'point-to-point' fixed speed-camera sites were installed, in the median strip along the Craigieburn Bypass section and northward to Broadford, in Victoria, at roughly 15–20 km intervals. These measure both instantaneous (flash photography) speed and its speciality in the point-to-point versions (between two or more sites and then the average speed is measured to the fixed speed limit, comparing how long it takes a vehicle to reach one point from another). There are five sites, with two cameras (radar version) at each, totalling ten altogether.
In Sydney: next to Ashfield Primary School, near Culdees Road Burwood, Willee St Enfield, Stacey St Bankstown, Brennan St Yagoona, and Knight St Lansvale.
Exit numbering trial
Between Prestons and Campbelltown, an exit numbering system was trialled from May 2016.
Former route allocations
The Hume Highway has many former route allocations including former National Route 31. Where and when the former route numbers were implemented are stated below.
Haberfield – Chullora:
National Route 31
Metroad 5
State Route 31
A22
Chullora – Warwick Farm:
National Route 31
State Route 31
A22
Warwick Farm – Casula:
National Route 31
National Highway 31
Metroad 7
unallocated:
A28
Casula – Prestons:
National Route 31
National Highway 31
Metroad 5
Metroad 7
unallocated:
A28
Prestons – Campbelltown:
National Route 31
National Highway 31
Metroad 5
M31
Campbelltown – NSW/VIC border:
National Route 31
National Highway 31
M31
NSW/VIC border – Campbellfield:
National Route 31
National Highway 31
National Highway M31
M31
Exits and major interchanges
The Hume Highway exits and major intersections are spread across in the Australian states of New South Wales and Victoria. The Hume Highway national route is divided into four sections comprising, from north to south, urban stretches of the highway in Sydney, a motorway from the outskirts of Sydney to the Southern Highlands, a grade-separated highway in regional New South Wales and across the state border, and a freeway throughout regional Victoria and into the outer suburbs of northern Melbourne.
In Sydney, the Hume Highway stretches southwest from in the inner west to via and . From Sydney's southwestern outskirts, the Hume Motorway stretches south by southwest, from Prestons to outside bypassing and . From outside Berrima, the Hume Highway stretches southwest by west, bypassing , , and before crossing the Murray River and entering Victoria. From this point the Hume Freeway continues southwest by south, bypassing , and terminating at .
From northeast to southwest, termini, major exits and interchanges occur with the Great Western Highway / Parramatta Road (A22), A3 (A3), A6 (A6), Henry Lawson Drive, Cumberland Highway (A28), M5 Motorway (M5), Westlink M7 (M7), Camden Valley Way (A28), A9 (A9), Remembrance Drive, Old Hume Highway (B73), Illawarra Highway (A48), Federal Highway (M23), Yass Valley Way, Barton Highway (A25), Lachlan Valley Way (B81), Burley Griffin Way (B94), Snowy Mountains Highway (B72), Sturt Highway (A20), Olympic Highway (A41), Riverina Highway (B58), Murray Valley Highway (B400), Great Alpine Road (B500), Midland Highway (A300/B300), Goulburn Valley Freeway (M39), Goulburn Valley Highway (B340), Northern Highway (B75), Sydney Road (SR55), and Metropolitan Ring Road (M80).
Major river crossings, from northeast to southwest, are the Nepean (three times), Wingecarribee, Paddys, Murrumbidgee, Murray, Ovens, King and Goulburn rivers. The Hume also crosses the Prospect, Jugiong, and Tarcutta creeks.
Towns
In New South Wales, all towns on the Hume Highway have been bypassed. From Sydney, southwards to the Victorian border, the bypassed towns include Campbelltown, Camden, Picton, Mittagong, Berrima, Marulan, Goulburn, Gunning, Yass, Bowning, Bookham, Jugiong, Coolac, Gundagai, Tarcutta, Holbrook, Woomargama and Albury.
In Victoria, all towns have been bypassed. They are, in order from the NSW border, Wodonga, Chiltern, Wangaratta, Benalla, Euroa, Violet Town, Seymour, Broadford and Craigieburn.
Camden
Camden dates from 1840 and lies south west of Sydney on the Nepean River. It retains a rural character and has many historic buildings. There is an aviation museum at nearby Narellan. Urban sprawl has made Camden part of the Sydney metropolitan area.
Before the mid-1980s, the Hume Highway ran west from the Cross Roads at Prestons, 4 km south of Liverpool to Edmondson Park, where it followed the route of what is now Cowpasture Road. It then ran southwest to Camden. This section of the Hume Highway became known as the Camden Valley Way after it was bypassed by the completion of the South Western Freeway.
The Hume Highway has twice bypassed Camden. The first bypass (Camden Bypass) was opened in 1973, via the Macarthur Bridge, and ran from Narellan to Benkennie (South Camden). The Camden Bypass was in turn bypassed in December 1980 when a section of what was then called the South Western Freeway (route F5) from Campbelltown to Yerrinbool opened. From the north, the freeway then ran from the Cross Roads to Campbelltown Rd at St Andrews (opened August 1973) and St Andrews-Camden Road (opened December 1974) joining the southern section from Yerrinbool to Aylmerton (opened May 1977). This became the route of the Hume Highway and national route 31 in the mid 1980s.
The former highway from Camden south to Aylmerton is now called Remembrance Drive. It climbs southwards from Camden, goes through the Razorback Ridge to Picton, and then climbs to Tahmoor and Bargo. It reaches the Southern Tablelands and rejoins the present Hume Highway at Aylmerton, 6 km north of Mittagong. The whole route from Cross Roads to Aylmerton is now state route 89.
An alternative route to the highway runs from Aylmerton through Mittagong and Bowral to join the Illawarra Highway at Moss Vale and then follows the Illawarra Highway through Sutton Forest to rejoin the Hume Highway at Hoddles Crossroads (named after Surveyor Robert Hoddle who also laid out the Melbourne CBD).
Mittagong
Mittagong lies south-west of Sydney, just off the Hume Highway at the edge of the Southern Tablelands. Mittagong is also a part of the Southern Highlands region. It is notable for being the location of Australia's first ironworks. Mittagong's streets are lined with various species of deciduous trees and it has a busy town centre.
Until August 1992 when the Mittagong bypass was opened, the town was dominated by trucks and in winter it was also busy with skiers' traffic on the way to the Australian Alps. Today the Hume Highway bypasses Mittagong and all the towns of the Southern Tablelands. In the late 1990s, engineers detected subsidence under part of the bypass where it runs along a steep slope near the Nattai River. This was caused by features of the local geology, and mining activity at the adjacent Mount Alexandra coalmine from the 1950s to the 1970s. The problem was remedied by closing one carriageway at a time and building a pair of 'land bridges' across the unstable section of the slope.
Moss Vale
Moss Vale has several beautiful old and attractive buildings and Leighton Gardens, in the centre of the main street, is a pleasant park. It is best during spring when its flowers are in blossom or in autumn when the leaves of its exotic deciduous trees are changing colour. Sutton Forest is surrounded by farms, vineyards and is home to elegant country homes and estates. It has a church, an inn, a couple of restaurants and one or two specialty shops.
Berrima
Berrima has flourished since it was bypassed in March 1989, with tourists finding it an easy day trip from either Sydney or Canberra to enjoy the town square and the Georgian architecture of this historic town. Berrima is the last Southern Highlands town that the Hume Highway passes.
Marulan
The Marulan bypass was opened in 1986. The southern part of Governor Lachlan Macquarie's road of 1819 ran from Sutton Forest roughly along existing minor roads through what is now Penrose State Forest to Canyonleigh, Brayton, Carrick and Towrang, where it joined the current route to Goulburn. Branching from this route (now part of the Illawarra Highway) just west of Sutton Forest, a road, now known as Old Argyle Road, developed in the 1820s. It ran to Bungonia, via Wingello, Tallong, and the southern outskirts of Marulan. Marulan lies on the 150th meridian east.
When Thomas Mitchell rerouted the Great South Road in the 1830s, he decided to bring these two roads together to meet at old Marulan, with roads proceeding west to Goulburn and south to Bungonia. When the railway reached Marulan in 1868, the town migrated 3 km north to the railway station. Nevertheless, the old cemetery remains at the Bungonia Road intersection. A quarry is about to be developed near the intersection, so an interchange has been built. It is at this point that the highway climbs the Marulan Ramp, which is part of the divide between the Shoalhaven and Wollondilly River systems.
Towrang Stockade
Towrang Creek was the site of a major stockade for chain-bound convicts and others involved in the construction of the Great South Road. The stockade was located on the western side of the Highway and was used from around 1836 to 1842. The stockade became the principal penal establishment in the southern district and was noted for its harsh discipline. There were usually at least 250 convicts stationed there. They slept on bare boards with a blanket apiece, 10 men to a box or cell. One of the two official floggers was later found murdered. The stockade used to be accessible by a stile, but this has been taken down to discourage use of the once daunting intersection of the Highway with Towrang Road. There are the remains of the powder magazine next to the Wollondilly River, three graves on the north bank of Towrang Creek, and the remains of a weir on Towrang Creek built for the stockade. Aboriginal stone tools have also been found on the banks of Towrang Creek, indicating that this was a route well-travelled long before Hamilton Hume came this way in 1824.
There is also a rest area on the eastern side of the highway, where a well-preserved bridge dating from 1839 (possibly designed by David Lennox) and a 1960s concrete box culvert can be viewed.
Goulburn
After the cities of Liverpool and Campbelltown, Goulburn is the first major rural city along the Hume Highway from Sydney. It is the centre of a rich agricultural area specialising in fine wool production. From this area comes some of the world's finest wool. Therefore, the city has a monument called The Big Merino near the service station. Goulburn was bypassed on 5 December 1992 and the main street (Auburn Street) is quieter, but still busy during Saturday morning shopping. Picturesque Belmore Park is located midway along Auburn Street. A number of architecturally and historically significant buildings are located near Belmore Park, including the courthouse, the post office and the railway station. Also in central Goulburn are two cathedrals, both of architectural note. A number of old houses and hotels are located near the railway station on Sloane Street.
Gunning
Gunning's 19th century main street was built very wide, for the time of horse and bullock-drawn wagons. This served the town well when the main highway between Sydney and Melbourne carried cars and trucks through the town. This ceased when the bypass was completed on 5 April 1993. The town is now much quieter, and it has been able to resume a more rural pace of life. It has developed something of an industry in providing bed and breakfast accommodation. The recently built Gunning Wind Farm is located beside the highway, with its wind turbines providing a distinctive landmark.
The former route of the highway which passed over the Cullerin Ranges is still in use between Bredalbane and Gunning. It is now known as the Cullerin Road.
Yass
Yass has an historic main street, with well-preserved 19th century verandah-post pubs (mostly converted to other uses). It is popular with tourists, some from Canberra and others taking a break from the Hume Highway. Hamilton Hume's farm Cooma Cottage is located east of Yass, close to the intersection of the former routes of the Hume and Barton Highways. He lived there until his death in 1873. The Yass Bypass opened on 25 July 1994.
Bookham
Bookham is situated west of Yass. The Hume Highway once passed through the village, but now bypasses it. This bypass was completed in two stages, the south stage opened on 18 February 1998 and the north stage opened on 11 July 2001.
Coolac
The section at Coolac was the last two lane section of highway between Sydney and Gundagai until it was bypassed with a dual carriageway on 14 August 2009, after a delay due to indigenous heritage issues, the construction contract was awarded to Abigroup in February 2007.
Gundagai
At Snake Gully, adjacent to the highway north of Gundagai is the Dog on the Tuckerbox. A statue (with a souvenir shop next door) was erected five miles (eight kilometres) from Gundagai. Snake Gully serves as a way station for many highway travellers.
Gundagai was bypassed on 25 March 1977 with the completion of the first Sheahan Bridge over the Murrumbidgee River. This bridge, named after Bill Sheahan, was the second longest road bridge in New South Wales (after the Sydney Harbour Bridge), until the completion of the duplicate Sheahan Bridge on 17 May 2009, This is now the fourth longest road bridge in New South Wales – longer than the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The original Sheahan Bridge was only one lane in each direction.
The Prince Alfred Bridge, on the old route of the highway across the Murrumbidgee floodplain, is of major engineering interest, as it is one of Australia's longest timber trestle bridges, as is the adjacent 1903 railway bridge. Gundagai was originally located on the river flats directly beside the Murrumbidgee River, but a disastrous flood in 1852 destroyed the town and drowned 89 people. The town was then relocated to its present position. A grade-separated interchange was completed at the intersection of the Highway and West Street in December 2006.
Tumblong
The route of the highway between Tumblong and Tarcutta is the third route of the highway in this location. The original route led west from Tumblong along the Murrumbidgee River, before turning south over difficult country, crossing what is now the Sturt Highway and rejoining the current route of the highway as Lower Tarcutta Road. This was replaced in December 1938 by the first Tumblong deviation, to the east of the current route. The main features of this section of the highway were a deep, narrow cutting and the reinforced concrete bowstring arch bridge over Hillas Creek. This bridge has been preserved as it is one of only two bridges in New South Wales built to this design, and is visible on the western side of the highway close to the interchange with the Snowy Mountains Highway. The second and current deviation opened to traffic on 21 November 1983.
Approximately southwest of Gundagai is the interchange with the Sturt Highway, which leads to Wagga Wagga, Mildura and Adelaide.
Tarcutta
Tarcutta is located almost exactly halfway between Sydney and Melbourne and has been a popular stopover and change-over point for truck drivers making their way between the two cities. There is a memorial to truck drivers who have died on the local stretch of the Hume Highway. It was near Tarcutta that the final section of the Hume Highway was sealed in 1940. Construction began on a bypass of Tarcutta in 2010. The bypass, which passes west of the town, was opened to traffic on 15 November 2011. As improvements to the Hume Highway have reduced travelling time between Sydney and Melbourne to about nine hours driving time in good conditions, the town's importance to the average motorist has diminished.
Holbrook
Holbrook was called Germanton until anti-German sentiment during World War I led to the town and the shire being renamed in honour of the wartime submarine captain, Lt Holbrook who was awarded the Victoria Cross. From 1995, a feature of the town has been a partial reconstruction of HMAS Otway, an Oberon class submarine. This landmark was in recognition of the town's namesake's connections with submarines. Holbrook had the only set of traffic signals (for pedestrians) that remained on the Hume Highway between the Sydney Orbital and Melbourne's Western Ring Road. A bypass, that was officially opened by Prime Minister, Julia Gillard and Minister for Infrastructure and Transport, Anthony Albanese on 23 June 2013, did not open for traffic until August 2013.
Woomargama
Woomargama, is a village between Holbrook and Albury which acts as a local service centre for a rich woolgrowing area. The bypass of Woomargama was opened on 7 November 2011.
Bowna and Table Top
Table Top is a small town located approximately north of Albury, and Bowna is a locality about to the east of Table Top. In the 1950s, the road was diverted a much longer route to the northwest, intersecting with the Olympic Highway south of Gerogery, to allow the construction of the Hume Dam. This in turn was superseded by the dual carriage way which straightened the route.
Remnants of the old original road still exist as Old Sydney Road to the north east of Thurgoona and Plunketts Road in Bowna. The route is visible on aerial imagery (when water levels are low), following a line from the intersection with Table Top road, pointing directly to Bowna and Mullengandra. Remannts of the old single lane highway used from the 1950s can be seen and used for vehicular traffic. This section was renamed as Bowna Road.
Albury-Wodonga
Albury's history is linked with the two famous Australian explorers, Hamilton Hume and William Hovell, as the city's location sprung from their crossing of the Murray River. Albury, commonly associated with its Victorian twin, Wodonga, is one of the few rural Australian cities to experience a boom, mainly from industrialisation in recent times.
The Albury bypass, was first proposed in 1964 but only opened on 6 March 2007. Following a series of announcements and changes of plans through the 1990s, when Albury residents failed to agree on whether an 'internal' or 'external' bypass route was more appropriate, the 'internal bypass' option was chosen. Approval was granted in 2004 and construction, by Abigroup, began in January 2005. The route is parallel to and on the eastern side of the Sydney–Melbourne railway, beginning at the railway overpass north of Albury. After crossing the Murray River, the bypass crosses the railway to rejoin the previous highway at the southern end of the Lincoln Causeway, connecting to the Wodonga bypass. The Albury bypass includes a freeway standard connection to the Murray Valley Highway at Bandiana, east of Wodonga.
Wangaratta
Wangaratta is, after Wodonga, the largest centre in northeast Victoria, with a population of approximately 17,000 at the . Wangaratta is at the junction of the Great Alpine Road. Hume and Hovell passed through this area on their 1824 expedition and the town was founded in 1837 when the surrounding area was opened for farming. The town was bypassed in 1994.
Attractions include Merriwa Park, a sunken garden adjacent to the King River, Airworld at Wangaratta Airport, and old goldfield areas of nearby Beechworth and Chiltern.
Benalla
Benalla is a large town located just off the Hume Freeway between Melbourne and Wangaratta. Founded in 1848, growth was slow until a goldrush in the 1850s. It had many associations with the Kelly gang and the courthouse was the venue for a number of their trials. It also has a memorial to the Australian war hero Sir Edward 'Weary' Dunlop, an Australian doctor who acted as a leader to allied troops on the Thailand-Burma Railway in World War II.
Euroa
Euroa is famous for a Ned Kelly bank robbery. The town is located on the Seven Creeks and has pretty gardens and a number of attractive 19th century buildings.
Seymour
The Hume Highway bypass of Seymour opened in December 1982. Seymour remains on the M39 Goulburn Valley Highway. The town is in the rich Goulburn Valley which supports the local vineyards. The large Puckapunyal military base is located west of Seymour. Once the centre of the bushranging area of Victoria, it has a museum which displays many period relics of that era. It was until the 1970s a major railway maintenance centre, and part of the railway workshops now houses a railway museum. The museum's collection of rolling stock, including State carriages used by governors and monarchs, is extensive.
Kalkallo
Construction of the Donnybrook Road interchange, immediately to the north of the Craigieburn Bypass, replaced the dangerous at-grade intersection with (C723) at Kalkallo an overpass and entry/exit ramps in both directions, at a cost of $32 million. Works commenced in December 2007 and completion occurred in March 2009, three months ahead of schedule.
Craigieburn
Prior to the opening of the Craigieburn Bypass in 2005, the Hume Highway skirted Craigieburn (the town centre was bypassed in the 1950s). The section of the Highway from Craigieburn to Campbellfield (on Melbourne's outskirts) was a significant bottleneck, with 12 sets of traffic signals in section of road. The Craigieburn Bypass now links directly to the Western Ring Road/Metropolitan Ring Road. By 2013, the Old Hume Highway (Sydney Road) section from Fawkner to Campbellfield was again becoming a bottleneck due to poor traffic signal coordination. There was some opposition for the bypass by several local governments in the northern suburbs of Melbourne, including the City of Darebin and the City of Moreland, as well as local environmental groups. Their alternative proposal was rejected by the state government. A pedestrian and cyclist cement path – the Galada Tamboore Pathway – runs the length of the bypass and connects with the Metropolitan Ring Road path, from where it is possible to connect to the Merri Creek Trail, Western Ring Road Trail, the City of Whittlesea Public Gardens and Edgars Road. The Craigieburn Bypass is shown in the 1969 Melbourne Transportation Plan as part of the F2 Freeway corridor, which extended south along Merri Creek, Hoddle St, Barkly St in St Kilda, south through Elwood and Brighton, then east along South Road, connecting to the Dingley Freeway corridor.
Alternative Routes
The main alternative route between Sydney and Melbourne is the Princes Highway/Princes Freeway/Princes Motorway route (A1/M1) which follows the coast for most of its length. Other inland alternate routes include the Olympic Highway route (A41) between Albury and Sydney via Wagga Wagga, Cowra and Bathurst, and also the Federal Highway / Monaro Highway route (M23/A23/B23) via Canberra which links with the Hume Highway near Goulburn and the Princes Highway in East Gippsland.
See also
Old Hume Highway
Highways in Australia
Highways in New South Wales
Highways in Victoria
Freeways in Australia
Freeways in New South Wales
Freeways in Victoria
References
Bibliography
External links
Driving the Hume Hwy – 900km in 6 minutes – Youtube video
Hume Highway to receive $785m upgrade: Vaile
Libs to finish Hume duplication by 2012
QBR (Queensland Business review) Coalition to complete duplication of Hume Highway by 2012
ALP to fix NSW rural transport corridors
Vaile exhorts colleagues to keep up the fight to win
Construction news
Coolac Bypass, RTA
Coolac bypass better projects, RTA
Hume Highway, Abigroup
Coolac bypass, Abigroup
Hume Highway duplication package, RTA
Southern Alliance
Northern Alliance
Hume Highway to receive $785m upgrade: Vaile
Liberals to finish Hume duplication by 2012
QBR (Queensland Business review) Coalition to complete duplication of Hume Highway by 2012
ALP to fix NSW rural transport corridors
Media release – Warren Truss, Minister for Transport and Regional Services
Streets in Sydney | [
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252274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sade%20%28singer%29 | Sade (singer) | Helen Folasade Adu ( ; born 16 January 1959), known professionally as Sade Adu or simply Sade ( ), is a Nigerian-born British singer, songwriter, and actress, known as the lead singer of her eponymous band. One of the most successful British female artists in history, she is often recognised as an influence on contemporary music. Her influence on music was recognised in the UK with an award of the Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 2002, and was made Commander in the 2017 Birthday Honours.
Sade was born in Ibadan, Nigeria, and brought up partly in Essex, England, from the age of four. She studied at Saint Martin's School of Art in London and gained modest recognition as a fashion designer and part-time model, prior to joining the band Pride in the early 1980s. After gaining attention as a performer, she formed the band Sade, and secured a recording contract with Epic Records in 1983. A year later the band released the album Diamond Life, which became one of the best-selling albums of the era, and the best-selling debut by a British female vocalist. In July 1985, Sade was among the performers at the Live Aid charity concert at Wembley Stadium, and the following year she appeared in the film Absolute Beginners. Following the band's third and fourth albums, Stronger Than Pride (1988) and Love Deluxe (1992), they went on hiatus after the birth of Sade's child, while the singer experienced widespread media coverage for unsubstantiated claims of mental health and addiction problems.
After a spell of eight years without an album, the band reunited in 1999, and released Lovers Rock in 2000. The album departed from the jazz-inspired inflections of their previous work, featuring mellower sounds and pop compositions. The band then underwent another hiatus, not producing music for another ten years until the release of Soldier of Love. Following that album's release, the band entered a third period of extended hiatus, and have only released two songs ("Flower of the Universe" for the soundtrack of Disney's A Wrinkle in Time, and "The Big Unknown" as part of the soundtrack for Steve McQueen's film Widows) since.
Early life
Helen Folasade Adu was born on 16 January 1959 in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, but is a native of Ekiti State. Her middle name, Folasade, means "wealth confers a crown". Her parents are Adebisi Adu, a Nigerian lecturer in economics of Yoruba background, and Anne Hayes, an English district nurse; they met in London, married in 1955, and moved to Nigeria. When Sade was four years old, her parents separated. Anne Hayes then returned to England, taking Sade and her elder brother Banji to live with their grandparents near Colchester, Essex. When Sade was 11 years old, she moved to Holland-on-Sea, Essex, to live with her mother. After completing her education at Clacton County High School and Colchester Institute at the age of 18, she moved to London and studied fashion design at Saint Martin's School of Art.
Career
1980–1984: Beginnings and Diamond Life
After completing a three-year course in fashion design, and later modelling briefly, Sade began backup singing with British band Pride. During this time, she formed a songwriting partnership with Pride's guitarist/saxophonist Stuart Matthewman; together, backed by Pride's rhythm section, they began doing their own sets at Pride gigs. Her solo performances of the song "Smooth Operator" attracted the attention of record companies, and in 1983 Sade and Matthewman split from Pride, along with keyboardist Andrew Hale, bassist Paul Denman and drummer Paul Cook, to form the band Sade. By the time she performed her first show at London's Heaven nightclub, she had become so popular that 1,000 people were turned away at the door. In May 1983, Sade performed their first US show at the Danceteria nightclub in New York City. On 18 October 1983, Sade Adu signed with Epic Records, while the rest of the band signed in 1984.
Following the record deal, the group began recording their debut album, Diamond Life, which took six weeks to record and was recorded entirely at The Power Plant in London. Diamond Life was released on 16 July 1984, reached number two in the UK Album Chart, sold over 1.2 million copies in the UK, and won the Brit Award for Best British Album in 1985. The album was also a hit internationally, reaching number one in several countries and the top ten in the US, where it has sold in excess of four million copies. Diamond Life had international sales of over six million copies, becoming one of the top-selling debut recordings of the '80s, and the best-selling debut ever by a British female vocalist.
"Your Love Is King" was released as the album's lead single on 25 February 1984 and was a success in European territories, charting at number seven in Ireland and number six on the UK Singles Chart. The song was less successful in the US, where it peaked at number 54 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The third single, "Smooth Operator", was released on 15 September 1984 and became the most successful song in the US from the album Diamond Life. The track peaked at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the US Billboard Hot Black Singles, as well as peaking at number one on the US Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. In Europe the song fared well, peaking at number 19 in the UK, and reaching the top 20 in Austria, Switzerland, France, and Germany.
1985–2000: Continued success and first hiatus
In late 1985, the band released their second album, Promise, which peaked at number one in both the UK and the US and became the band's first album to reach number one on the US Billboard 200. The album topped the chart in 1986 and spent two weeks at the peak position. Eventually, the album went on to sell four million copies in the region and was certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album spawned two singles "Never as Good as the First Time" and "The Sweetest Taboo," the latter of which was released as the album's lead single and stayed on the US Hot 100 for six months. "The Sweetest Taboo" peaked at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100, number one on the US adult Contemporary chart, and number three on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks. Sade was so popular that some radio stations reinstated the '70s practice of playing album tracks, adding "Is It a Crime" and "Tar Baby" to their playlists. The following year, 1986, the band won a Grammy Award for Best New Artist.
In 1986, Sade made her acting debut in Absolute Beginners, a film adapted from the Colin MacInnes book of the same name about life in late-1950s London. Sade played the role of Athene Duncannon and lent her vocals to the film's accompanying soundtrack. The film was screened out of competition at the 1986 Cannes Film Festival and grossed £1.8 million in the UK.
Sade's third album, Stronger Than Pride, was released on 3 May 1988, and like Sade's previous album became a commercial success and certified three times platinum in the US. The album was popularized by four singles, most notably the album's second single "Paradise", which peaked at number 16 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at number one on the US Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, becoming the band's first single to do so.
Love Deluxe was released as the band's fourth studio album on 26 October 1992. The album peaked at number three on the US Billboard 200 and has sold 3.4 million copies in the United States. The album was later certified four times platinum by the RIAA for shipments of four million copies. The album was also commercially successful elsewhere, reaching number-one in France, and reaching the top ten in New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. The album went on to be certified gold in the United Kingdom. In November 1994, the group released their first compilation album, The Best of Sade. The album was another top ten hit in both the United Kingdom and the United States, certified platinum and four times platinum, respectively.
The compilation album included material from Sade's previous albums, as well as a cover version of "Please Send Me Someone to Love" (1950), originally by Percy Mayfield.
2000–2010: Lovers Rock and second hiatus
Following an eight-year hiatus, the band released their fifth studio album, Lovers Rock, on 13 November 2000 and received positive reviews from music critics.
The album reached number 18 on the UK Albums Chart, number three on the US Billboard 200, and has since been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), having sold 3.9 million copies in the United States by February 2010. On 27 February 2002, the album earned Sade the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album, and the lead single "By Your Side" was nominated for the 2002 Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. Although the single lost out to Nelly Furtado's "I'm Like a Bird", it has been listed as the 48th greatest love song of all time by VH1.
To promote the album, Sade and the band embarked on their fifth concert tour entitled Lovers Rock Tour. The tour was announced via the band's website in April 2001. The announcement stated the tour would begin in the summer of 2001 with 30 shows. Initial dates were rescheduled due to extended rehearsal time. The shows sold well, with many stops adding additional shows. In August 2001, the tour was extended by eight weeks due to ticket demand. Deemed by many critics as a comeback tour, it marked the band's first performances since 1994 and took place in 2001. Although many believed the trek would expand to other countries, this did not occur. With over 40 shows, it became the 13th biggest tour in North America, earning over 26 million.
Following the tour, the band released their first live album, Lovers Live on 5 February 2002 by Epic Records. Lovers Live reached number ten on the US Billboard 200 and number 51 on the UK Albums Chart, the band's first album to miss the top twenty in the UK. The album was certified gold by the RIAA on 7 March 2002, having reached US sales of 562,000 copies, while the DVD was certified platinum on 30 January 2003 for shipping 100,000 copies.
Following the release of Lovers Rock, Sade took a ten-year hiatus, during which she raised her son and moved to the Caribbean. During this time, she made a rare public appearance for an award ceremony that took place in 2002 to accept an Order of the British Empire (OBE) at Buckingham Palace for services to music. In 2002, she appeared on the Red Hot Organization album, Red Hot + Riot, a compilation CD in tribute to the music of fellow Nigerian musician, Fela Kuti. She recorded a remix of her hit single "By Your Side" for the album and was billed as a co-producer.
2010–present: Soldier of Love, third hiatus and return
The band's sixth studio album, Soldier of Love, was released worldwide on 8 February 2010, and was their first album in ten years to contain new material. Upon release, the album received positive reviews and became a success. The album debuted atop the Billboard 200 in the United States with first-week sales of 502,000 copies. Soldier of Love became the band's first album to debut at number-one and the band's second album to peak at number-one on the chart. The album also had the best sales week by a group since Australian band AC/DC released their album Black Ice and entered the Billboard 200 at number-one in November 2008. Consequently, the band became the act with the longest time between number-one albums, as the band's Promise (1985) and Soldier of Love were separated by 24 years, 10 months and 2 weeks.
The first single and title track, "Soldier of Love", premiered on US radio on 8 December 2009 and was released digitally on 11 January 2010. Subsequent singles, "Babyfather" and "The Moon and the Sky", were played by US urban adult contemporary radio on 13 April and 24 August 2010, respectively. At the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards in 2011, the title track won Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, while the song, "Babyfather", was nominated for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.
In April 2011, the band began their Sade Live tour (also known as the "Once in a Lifetime Tour" or the "Soldier of Love Tour"). The band toured Europe, the Americas, Australia and Asia to promote the band's sixth studio album and their second compilation album, The Ultimate Collection (2011). This trek marked the band's first tour in nearly a decade and ranked 27th in Pollstar's "Top 50 Worldwide Tour (Mid-Year)", earning over 20 million dollars. At the conclusion of 2011, the tour placed tenth on Billboard's annual "Top 25 Tours", earning over $50 million with 59 shows. The tour was chronicled with Bring Me Home - Live 2011, released in May 2012.
In March 2018, she (and the reunited band that also bears her name) released the acoustic ballad "Flower of the Universe" for the soundtrack to the Disney film A Wrinkle In Time. About asking Sade to contribute to the album, director Ava DuVernay wrote "I never thought she'd say yes, but asked anyway." Later that year, Sade released "The Big Unknown" for the soundtrack to the 20th Century Fox film Widows. That film's director, Steve McQueen stated that Sade agreed to write the song for the film, because "the original series of Widows had deeply resonated with her." The successor to Soldier of Love is in the works.
Legacy and impact
The New Yorker described Sade's voice as a "grainy contralto full of air that betrays a slight ache but no agony, and values even imperfect dignity over a show of pain", a "deeply English" quality that makes categorising the artist's voice difficult. Her voice was described by the BBC as "husky and restrained" and compared to singer Billie Holiday. BBC called her songwriting "sufficiently soulful and jazzy yet poppy, funky yet easy listening, to appeal to fans of all those genres." Sade has been called a "pop star". With the musicians in her band, Sade, The New Yorker wrote, "created one of the most profitable catalogues in pop"; the band's "easy" sound backing songs "exploring the heavier lifting inside love: commitment, consistency, friendship." Her success has been attributed to a combination of her unique beauty, seemingly indefinable origins, and mysterious persona.
Sade's work has influenced and been recognised by many singers and hip hop artists. Rapper Rakim of Eric B. & Rakim stated he grew up listening to Sade's music and was influenced by her voice and style. Rakim has also referenced Sade's song "Smooth Operator" in the song "Microphone Fiend" (1988). Talib Kweli stated he learned about precision from Sade due to her performance of Love Deluxe in its entirety at Madison Square Garden. Rapper Missy Elliott cited Sade's performance of "Smooth Operator" as one of her favourites. Hip hop group Souls of Mischief stated they grew up listening to Sade's music. Hip hop group Tanya Morgan also described Sade as one of their favourite artists. Other rappers to recognise Sade include the former rap-duo of Clipse – Malice and Pusha. In reaction to the newly released album Soldier of Love, rapper Kanye West wrote, "This is why i still have a blog. To be a part of moments like this ... new Sade ... How much better this ... than everything else?". Rapper Rick Ross stated in an interview that "People may know my infatuation with Sade. There's never been a bad Sade track. I love all different sides."
American singer Beyoncé called Sade's music a "true friend" and an inspiration. The late singer Aaliyah said that she admired Sade because "she stays true to her style no matter what ... she's an amazing artist, an amazing performer ... and I absolutely love her." American R&B singer Brandy has cited Sade as one of her major vocal influences. Heavy metal singer Greg Puciato also named her as an inspiration. In 2019, Spanish Formula One driver Carlos Sainz Jr. developed a habit of crooning the chorus of "Smooth Operator" as his celebration after successful drives, to the extent that it became a running joke among motorsport fans and an unofficial Formula One anthem.
Personal life
Sade squatted in Tottenham in the 1980s, with her boyfriend Robert Elms. In 1989, she married Spanish film director Carlos Pliego. Their marriage ended in 1995. Sade moved briefly to the Caribbean to live with Jamaican music producer Bob Morgan in the late 1990s, and gave birth to their child on 21 July 1996. The child was raised as a daughter, who sang on Sade's song "Babyfather" in 2010. Sade and Morgan later separated, and she has been in a relationship with Ian Watts, a former Royal Marine, since 2007; from this relationship, she has a stepson. In 2016, on National Coming Out Day, Sade's child came out as a transgender man named Izaak Theo Adu. In September 2019, Izaak posted a message online, thanking his mother for her support through his transition.
In 2005, Sade moved to the Gloucestershire countryside, where she bought a run-down cottage to renovate. Sade rarely grants interviews.
Honours, awards and nominations
Sade was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2002 for services to music, and stated her award was "a great gesture to me and all black women in England". She was promoted to Commander of the same Order (CBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours, also for services to music. In 1986, she became the first Nigerian(African) to win a Grammy Award when she was chosen as Best New Artist.
Discography
Studio albums
Diamond Life (1984)
Promise (1985)
Stronger Than Pride (1988)
Love Deluxe (1992)
Lovers Rock (2000)
Soldier of Love (2010)
Tours
1984: Diamond Life Tour
1986: Promise Tour
1988: Stronger Than Pride Tour
1993: Love Deluxe World Tour
2001: Lovers Rock Tour
2011: Sade Live
See also
Music history of the United States in the 1980s
References
Further reading
Books
Magazines
Newspapers
Websites
External links
Main
– official site
Articles
Shapersofthe80s.com – Provides images and stories of Sade Adu's life while a men's clothing designer and part-time model.
1959 births
Living people
Alumni of Saint Martin's School of Art
20th-century Black British women singers
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English contraltos
English female models
English songwriters
English soul singers
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from Essex
Musicians from Ibadan
Nigerian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Nigerian people of English descent
Nigerian songwriters
People from Tendring (district)
Sade (band) members
Singers from London
Smooth jazz singers
Sophisti-pop musicians
Squatters
Yoruba women musicians
21st-century Black British women singers | [
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] |
252277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyether%20ether%20ketone | Polyether ether ketone | Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) is a colourless organic thermoplastic polymer in the polyaryletherketone (PAEK) family, used in engineering applications. The polymer was first developed in November 1978, later being introduced to the market by Victrex PLC, then Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) in the early 1980s.
Synthesis
PEEK polymers are obtained by step-growth polymerization by the dialkylation of bisphenolate salts. Typical is the reaction of 4,4'-difluorobenzophenone with the disodium salt of hydroquinone, which is generated in situ by deprotonation with sodium carbonate. The reaction is conducted around 300 °C in polar aprotic solvents - such as diphenyl sulfone.
Properties
PEEK is a semicrystalline thermoplastic with excellent mechanical and chemical resistance properties that are retained to high temperatures. The processing conditions used to mold PEEK can influence the crystallinity and hence the mechanical properties. Its Young's modulus is 3.6 GPa and its tensile strength is 90 to 100 MPa. PEEK has a glass transition temperature of around 143 °C (289 °F) and melts around 343 °C (662 °F). Some grades have a useful operating temperature of up to 250 °C (482 °F). The thermal conductivity increases nearly linearly with temperature between room temperature and solidus temperature. It is highly resistant to thermal degradation, as well as to attack by both organic and aqueous environments. It is attacked by halogens and strong Brønsted and Lewis acids, as well as some halogenated compounds and aliphatic hydrocarbons at high temperatures. It is soluble in concentrated sulfuric acid at room temperature, although dissolution can take a very long time unless the polymer is in a form with a high surface-area-to-volume ratio, such as a fine powder or thin film. It has high resistance to biodegradation.
Applications
PEEK is used to fabricate items for demanding applications, including bearings, piston parts, pumps, high-performance liquid chromatography columns, compressor plate valves, and electrical cable insulation. It is one of the few plastics compatible with ultra-high vacuum applications, which makes it suitable for aerospace, automotive, teletronic, and chemical industries. PEEK is used in medical implants, e.g., use with a high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), for creating a partial replacement skull in neurosurgical applications.
PEEK is used in spinal fusion devices and reinforcing rods. It is radiolucent, but it is hydrophobic causing it to not fully fuse with bone. PEEK seals and manifolds are commonly used in fluid applications. PEEK also performs well in high temperature applications (up to 500 °F/260 °C). Because of this and its low thermal conductivity, it is also used in FFF printing to thermally separate the hot end from the cold end.
Processing options
PEEK melts at a relatively high temperature (343 °C / 649.4 °F) compared to most other thermoplastics. In the range of its melting temperature it can be processed using injection moulding or extrusion methods. It is technically feasible to process granular PEEK into filament form and 3D printing parts from the filament material using fused deposition modeling – FDM (or fused filament fabrication – FFF) technology.
PEEK filaments have been demonstrated for producing medical devices up to class IIa. With this new filament, it is possible to use the FFF method for different medical applications like dentures.
In its solid state PEEK is readily machinable, for example, by (CNC) milling machines and is commonly used to produce high-quality plastic parts that are thermostable and both electrically and thermally insulating. Filled grades of PEEK can also be CNC machined, but special care must be taken to properly manage stresses in the material.
PEEK is a high-performance polymer, but its high price restricts its use to only the most demanding applications.
Shape-memory PEEK in biomechanical applications
PEEK is not traditionally a shape-memory polymer; however, recent advances in processing have allowed shape-memory behavior in PEEK with mechanical activation. This technology has expanded to applications in orthopedic surgery.
References
Polyethers
Organic polymers
Thermoplastics
Fused filament fabrication | [
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252279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEEK%20and%20POKE | PEEK and POKE | In computing, PEEK and POKE are commands used in some high-level programming languages for accessing the contents of a specific memory cell referenced by its memory address. PEEK gets the byte located at the specified memory address.
POKE sets the memory byte at the specified address. These commands originated with machine code monitors such as the DECsystem-10 monitor;
these commands are particularly associated with the BASIC programming language, though some other languages such as Pascal and COMAL also have these commands. These commands are comparable in their roles to pointers in the C language and some other programming languages.
One of the earliest references to these commands in BASIC, if not the earliest, is in Altair BASIC. The PEEK and POKE commands were conceived in early personal computing systems to serve a variety of purposes, especially for modifying special memory-mapped hardware registers to control particular functions of the computer such as the input/output peripherals. Alternatively programmers might use these commands to copy software or even to circumvent the intent of a particular piece of software (e.g. manipulate a game program to allow the user to cheat). Today it is unusual to control computer memory at such a low level using a high-level language like BASIC. As such the notions of PEEK and POKE commands are generally seen as antiquated.
The terms peek and poke are sometimes used colloquially in computer programming to refer to memory access in general.
Statement syntax
The PEEK function and POKE commands are usually invoked as follows, either in direct mode (entered and executed at the BASIC prompt) or in indirect mode (as part of a program):
integer_variable = PEEK(address)
POKE address, value
The address and value parameters may contain complex expressions, as long as the evaluated expressions correspond to valid memory addresses or values, respectively. A valid address in this context is an address within the computer's address space, while a valid value is (typically) an unsigned value between zero and the maximum unsigned number that the minimum addressable unit (memory cell) may hold.
Memory cells and hardware registers
The address locations that are POKEd or PEEKed at may refer either to ordinary memory cells or to memory-mapped hardware registers of I/O units or support chips such as sound chips and video graphics chips, or even to memory-mapped registers of the CPU itself (which makes software implementations of powerful machine code monitors and debugging/simulation tools possible). As an example of a POKE-driven support chip control scheme, the following POKE command is directed at a specific register of the Commodore 64's built-in VIC-II graphics chip, which will make the screen border turn black:
POKE 53280, 0
A similar example from the Atari 8-bit family tells the ANTIC display driver to turn all text upside-down:
POKE 755, 4
The difference between machines, and the importance and utility of the hard-wired memory locations, meant that "memory maps" of various machines were important documents. An example is Mapping the Atari, which starts at location zero and mapped out the entire 64 kB memory of the Atari 8-bit systems location by location.
PEEK and POKE in other BASICs
North Star Computers, a vendor from the early 1980s, offered their own dialect of BASIC with their NSDOS operating system. Concerned about possible legal issues, they renamed the commands EXAM and FILL. There were also BASIC dialects that used the reserved words MEMW and MEMR instead.
BBC BASIC, used on the BBC Micro and other Acorn Computers machines, did not feature the keywords PEEK and POKE but used the question mark symbol (?), known as query in BBC BASIC, for both operations, as a function and command. For example:
> DIM W% 4 : REM reserve 4 bytes of memory, pointed to by integer variable W%
> ?W% = 42 : REM store constant 42; equivalent of 'POKE W%, 42'
> PRINT ?W% : REM print the byte pointed to by W%; equivalent of 'PRINT PEEK(W%)'
42
32-bit values could be POKEd and PEEKed using the exclamation mark symbol (!), known as pling, with the least significant byte first (little-endian). In addition, the address could be offset by specifying either query or pling after the address and following it with the offset:
> !W% = &12345678 : REM ampersand (&) specifies hexadecimal
> PRINT ~?W%, ~W%?3 : REM tilde (~) prints in hexadecimal
78 12
Strings of text could be PEEKed and POKEd in a similar way using the Dollar sign ($). The end of the string is marked with the Carriage return character (&0D in ASCII); when read back, this terminating character is not returned. Offsets cannot be used with the dollar sign.
> DIM S% 20 : REM reserve 20 bytes of memory pointed to by S%
> $S% = "MINCE PIES" : REM store string 'MINCE PIES', terminated by &0D
> PRINT $(S% + 6) : REM retrieve string, excluding &0D terminator, and starting at S% + 6 bytes
PIES
16 and 32-bit versions
As most early home computers uses 8-bit processors, PEEK or POKE values are between 0 and 255. Setting or reading a 16-bit value on such machines requires two commands, such as to read a 16-bit integer at address A, and followed by and to store a 16-bit integer V at address A.
Some BASICs, even on 8-bit machines, have commands for reading and writing 16-bit values from memory. BASIC XL for the Atari 8-bit family uses a "D" (for "double") prefix: DPEEK and DPOKE The East-German "Kleincomputer" KC85/1 and KC87 calls them DEEK and DOKE.
The Sinclair QL has PEEK_W and POKE_W for 16-bit values and PEEK_L and POKE_L for 32-bit values. ST BASIC for the Atari ST uses the traditional names but allows defining 8/16/32 bit memory segments and addresses that determine the size.
POKEs as cheats
In the context of games for many 8-bit computers, users could load games into memory and, before launching them, modify specific memory addresses in order to cheat, getting an unlimited number of lives, immunity, invisibility, etc. Such modifications were performed using POKE statements. The Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC also allowed players with the relevant cartridges or Multiface add-on to freeze the running program, enter POKEs, and resume.
For example, in Knight Lore for the ZX Spectrum, immunity can be achieved with the following command:
POKE 47196,201
In this case, the value 201 corresponds to a RET instruction, so that the game returns from a subroutine early before triggering collision detection.
Magazines such as Your Sinclair published lists of such POKEs for games. Such codes were generally identified by reverse-engineering the machine code to locate the memory address containing the desired value that related to, for example, the number of lives, detection of collisions, etc.
Using a 'POKE' cheat is more difficult in modern games, as many include anti-cheat or copy-protection measures that inhibit modification of the game's memory space. Modern operating systems enforce virtual memory protection schemes to deny external program access to non-shared memory (for example, separate page tables for each application, hence inaccessible memory spaces).
Generic usage of POKE
"POKE" is sometimes used to refer to any direct manipulation of the contents of memory, rather than just via BASIC, particularly among people who learned computing on the 8-bit microcomputers of the late 1970s and early 1980s. BASIC was often the only language available on those machines (on home computers, usually present in ROM), and therefore the obvious, and simplest, way to program in machine language was to use BASIC to POKE the opcode values into memory. Doing much low-level coding like this usually came from lack of access to an assembler.
An example of the generic usage of POKE and PEEK is in Visual Basic for Windows, where DDE can be achieved with the LinkPoke keyword.
See also
Killer poke
Type-in program
Self-modifying code
Pointer (computer programming)
References
Microcomputer software
BASIC commands
Cheating in video games
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252282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20Andr%C3%A9 | Maurice André | Maurice André (21 May 1933 – 25 February 2012) was a French trumpeter, active in the classical music field.
He was professor of trumpet at the Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique in Paris where he introduced the teaching of the piccolo trumpet including the Baroque repertoire on trumpet. André has inspired many innovations on his instrument and he contributed to the popularization of the trumpet.
Biography
André was born in Alès in the Cévennes, into a mining family. His father was an amateur musician; André studied trumpet with a friend of his father, who suggested that André be sent to the conservatory. In order to gain free admission to the conservatory, he joined a military band. After only six months at the conservatory, he won his first prize.
At the conservatory, André's professor, Raymond Sabarich, reprimanded him for not having worked hard enough and told him to return when he could excel in his playing. A few weeks later, he returned to play all fourteen etudes found in the back of Arban's book to a very high standard. Sabarich later said that "it was then that Maurice Andre became Maurice Andre." Maurice André won the Geneva International Music Competition in 1955, together with Theo Mertens, and the ARD International Music Competition in Munich in 1963. He was made an honorary member of the Delta chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia at Ithaca College in New York in 1970.
André rose to international prominence in the 1960s and 1970s with a series of recordings of baroque works on piccolo trumpet for Erato and other labels. He also performed many transcriptions of works for oboe, flute, and even voice and string instruments. André had over 300 audio recordings to his name, from the mid-1950s to his death.
André had three children: Lionel (1959–1988), trumpeter and music teacher; Nicolas, who plays the trumpet; and Béatrice, who plays the oboe. All three performed with their father in concert. He also made several recordings with his brother Raymond (b. 1941).
One of André's students, Guy Touvron, wrote a biography entitled Maurice André: Une trompette pour la renommée (Maurice André: A Trumpet for Fame), which was published in 2003.
André spent the last few years of his life in retirement in southern France. He died at the age of 78 in a hospital in Bayonne on 25 February 2012. He is buried in the cemetery of the village of Saint-André-Capcèze (in the Lozère).
References
External links
Maurice André website, part of the French Ministry of Culture's portal (French/English)
Webpage with rich information about Maurice André
Maurice André and Prague. Documents and reminiscences on the recording of the Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 in F major in 1965 (Maurice André, Milan Munclinger, Ars Rediviva)
AllMusic Guide to Maurice Andre Discography
1933 births
2012 deaths
People from Alès
EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists
French classical trumpeters
Male trumpeters
French cornetists
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
Conservatoire de Paris faculty
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
20th-century French musicians
20th-century trumpeters
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
20th-century French male musicians
Erato Records artists
20th-century classical musicians | [
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] |
252289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severn%20Tunnel | Severn Tunnel | The Severn Tunnel () is a railway tunnel in the United Kingdom, linking South Gloucestershire in the west of England to Monmouthshire in south Wales under the estuary of the River Severn. It was constructed by the Great Western Railway (GWR) between 1873 and 1886 for the purpose of dramatically shortening the journey times of their trains, passenger and freight alike, between South Wales and Western England. Its completion has often been regarded as having represented the crowning achievement of the noted Victorian civil engineer and GWR's chief engineer Sir John Hawkshaw.
Prior to the Severn Tunnel, lengthy detours were necessary for all traffic between South Wales and Western England, which either used ship or a lengthy diversion upriver via . Recognising the value of such a tunnel, the GWR sought its development, tasking Hawkshaw with its design and later contracting the civil engineer Thomas A. Walker to undertake its construction, which commenced in March 1873. Work proceeded smoothly until October 1879, at which point significant flooding of the tunnel occurred from what is now known as “The Great Spring”. Through strenuous and innovative efforts, the flooding was contained and work was able to continue, albeit with a great emphasis on drainage. Structurally completed during 1885, the first passenger train was run through the Severn Tunnel on 1 December 1886, nearly 14 years after the commencement of work.
Following its opening, the Severn Tunnel quickly formed a key element of the main trunk railway line between southern England and South Wales. Amongst other services, the GWR operated a car shuttle train service through the tunnel for many decades. However, the Severn Tunnel has also presented especially difficult conditions, both operationally and in terms of infrastructure and structural maintenance. On average, around 50 million litres of water per day infiltrates the tunnel, necessitating the permanent operation of several large pumping engines. Originally, during much of the steam era, a large number of pilot and banking locomotives were required to assist heavy trains traverse the challenging gradients of the tunnel, which deployed from nearby marshalling yards. Time has proven that these factors have been within the realm of manageability.
The Severn Tunnel is four miles and 624 yards (7,008 m) long, although only miles (3.62 km) of the tunnel are under the river. The Severn Tunnel was the longest underwater tunnel in the world until 1987 and, for more than 100 years, it was the longest mainline railway tunnel within the UK. It was finally exceeded in this capacity during 2007 with the opening of the two major tunnels of High Speed 1, forming a part of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link. In 2016, Overhead line equipment (OHLE) was installed in the Severn Tunnel to allow the passage of electric traction through its length; this work was undertaken as one element of the wider 21st-century modernisation of the Great Western main line.
General
The Severn Tunnel forms a critical part of the trunk railway line between southern England and South Wales, and carries an intensive passenger train service as well as significant levels of freight traffic. As of 2012, an average of 200 trains per day use the tunnel. The whole length of the tunnel is controlled as a single signal section, which has the consequence of limiting the headway of successive trains. The steep gradients (1 in 90 and 1 in 100) make the working of heavy freight trains difficult.
There is a continuous drainage culvert between the tracks to lead ground water away to the lowest point of the tunnel, under Sudbrook Pumping Station, where it is pumped to the surface. The hazard of ignited petroleum running into the culvert in the event of derailment of a tank wagon means special arrangements have to be made to prevent occupation of the tunnel by passenger trains while hazardous liquid loads are being worked through. Evacuation arrangements are in place to enable the escape of passengers and staff in the event of serious accident in the tunnel.
There is restricted personnel access to the tunnel at Sudbrook Pumping Station, where an iron ladder descends in the shaft of the water pumping main; the ventilation air is pumped in at this point also. The GWR original ventilation arrangement was to extract air at Sudbrook, but the exhaust gases from steam train operation led to premature corrosion of the fan mechanism. When the Cornish pumping engines were replaced in the 1960s, the draughting was reversed so that atmospheric air is pumped into the tunnel exhausting at the tunnel mouths.
On average, it has been determined that around per day of fresh (spring) water are typically being pumped from the tunnel; this is normally released directly into the adjacent River Severn. Attempts have also been made to try to determine the sources of the water which feeds the "Great Spring".
The especially difficult conditions for infrastructure maintenance in the tunnel, as well as the physical condition of the tunnel structure, require a higher than normal degree of maintenance attention. Access and personal safety difficulties mean that significant work tasks can only be performed during temporary line closure, during which trains are normally diverted via . It is claimed that the tunnel would be full of water within 26 minutes if the pumps were switched off and backup measures failed, while Network Rail has also observed that the corrosive atmosphere of the tunnel, produced from a combination of moisture and diesel fumes from passing trains, results in so much corrosion that the steel rails need to be replaced every six years.
History
Construction
Prior to the building of the tunnel, the railway journey between the Bristol area and South Wales involved a ferry journey between and or a long detour via . Officials within the Great Western Railway (GWR) Company soon realised that the rail journey time between the two locations could be significantly shortened by construction of a tunnel directly underneath the River Severn. As such, during the early 1870s, GWR's chief engineer, Sir John Hawkshaw, developed his design for this tunnel. On 27 June 1872, the company obtained an Act of Parliament which authorised the construction of the envisioned railway tunnel as a replacement for the ferry between Portskewett, Monmouthshire and Lew Passage, Gloucestershire.
On 18 March 1873, construction activity commenced using labourers employed directly by the GWR; this initial work was focused on the sinking of a shaft, possessing a diameter of at Sudbrook and a smaller drainage heading near the Pennant Measures. The rate of early work on the tunnel was slow and gradual, but without major incident. By August 1877, only the shaft and a heading had been completed; accordingly, that same year, new contracts were issued for the digging of additional shafts at both sides of the Severn as well as new headings along the tunnel's intended route.
As the civil engineer Thomas A. Walker, who was appointed as the contractor for the tunnel's construction, notes in his book, the GWR had expected the critical part of the work to be the tunnelling under the deep-water channel of the Shoots. However, the most substantial difficulties of the venture were encountered during October 1879, when, with only 130 yards (119 m) separating the main tunnel heading being driven from the Monmouthshire side and the shorter Gloucestershire heading, the workings were inundated. The incoming water was fresh, not from the Severn but from the Welsh side, and the source became known as "The Great Spring".
Walker was entrusted by Hawkshaw to proceed with efforts to rescue and then complete the tunnel following the 1879 flooding. To achieve this required holding the Great Spring in check, which in turn was accomplished via the installation of greatly-increased pumping facilities, while a diver also had to be sent down a shaft and along the tunnel heading to close a watertight door in the workings, sealing off the waters. During November 1880, this troublesome task was finally achieved by the lead diver, Alexander Lambert, who was equipped with Henry Fleuss' newly developed self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA); however, work in the area of the Great Spring was unable to continue until January 1881, at which point the Great Spring was temporarily sealed off.
On 26 September 1881, the two headings met, marking a key milestone in the tunnel's construction, efforts transferred to addressing the tunnel's final structure along with the long deep cuttings at either end. During October 1883, work was again disrupted by further flooding originating from the Great Spring, which was further compounded by the appearance of a spring tide only a week later; again, Lambert and other divers managed to save the day and seal the works. It was recognised that water ingress problems were to continue, thus a heading was driven at a gradient of 1 in 500 from the original Sudbrook shaft, continuing until it reached the fissure through which the Great Spring flowed. By diverting the water into the new heading, the walled-in section of the tunnel could be more easily drained and finished.
There were additional mishaps which afflicted the construction site; at one point, there was an unintentional breakthrough of the bed of a pool, known as the "Salmon Pool", on the English side of the tunnel. It had been originally assumed that the continuous brickwork lining of the tunnel would withstand the groundwater pressure, thus the drainage sluice valve on the side heading was closed and all but one of the pumps were taken from the site. However, on 20 December 1885, the pressure rose so high (up to 395 kN per sq m) that a number of bricks were discovered to have been pushed out of the lining. To address this, the sluice valve was opened gradually, allowing the pressure to subside but necessitating the long-term operation of additional pumping engines. In the intervening period, the Severn Railway Bridge, a competing means for railway traffic to traverse the Severn, spanning between Sharpness and Lydney, was also being built, eventually being opened to traffic during 1879.
On 22 October 1884, work commenced on the laying of the double tracks throughout the tunnel. On 18 April 1885, the final brick was placed in the tunnel's lining. It possessed a horseshoe-shaped cross-section, complete with a concave floor, having a height of 6.1 meters above the rails along with a maximum width of . An enclosed drainage channel, in the form of an upturned semi-circular tunnel, is built onto the tunnel invert, below the rails and having a height of . According to Railway Industry publication Rail Engineer, it is believed that around 76.4 million bricks were used in the tunnel's construction. The brickwork is between and thick. Around the deepest part of the tunnel, the roof is only a maximum of beneath the river bed.
During mid-1885, the Severn Tunnel was completed from a structural standing. To mark this accomplishment, on 5 September 1885, a special passenger train carrying numerous company officials and VIPs, including Sir Daniel Gooch, the then-chairman of the GWR Company, travelled through the tunnel. The first goods train passed through it on 9 January 1886. However, regular services would have to wait until the permanent pumping systems were complete. On 17 November 1886, the tunnel works were inspected by Colonel F. H. Rich, the Government Inspector, a necessary step in advance of its opening to any passenger traffic. Colonel Rich approved the works; thus, the tunnel was opened to regular goods trains during September 1886; the first passenger train followed on 1 December 1886, by which point nearly 14 years had passed since work on the tunnel had started.
Operations
At the newly built station, the GWR built a major marshalling yard, which: distributed east and north, sending coal from the South Wales Valleys towards London and the Midlands; created mainline and localised mixed-traffic freight from goods shipped in from the Midlands, the Southwest and along the Thames Valley, both westwards into Wales and vice versa.
Due to the access gradients, throughout the steam era, assistance was required for the passage of all heavy trains through the Severn Tunnel, which entailed (eastwards, from ): of 1-in-90 down to the middle of the tunnel; a further at 1-in-100 up to ; a short level then more at 1-in-100 to . This meant that the associated locomotive shed at Severn Tunnel Junction (86E), had a large number of pilot and banking locomotives to assist heavy trains through the tunnel. Under typical operations, pilot locomotives usually worked eastwards and were detached at Pilning, and would then work westwards piloting a second train back to the marshalling yard. During the latter days of steam under British Rail, these locomotives were mainly a group of latter-built GWR 5101 Class 2-6-2T locomotives, the bulk of which now form the core preserved stock of that class today.
A number of fixed Cornish engines, powered by Lancashire boilers, were used to permanently pump out the Great Spring and other sources of water from the tunnel. These were still in regular use until the 1960s, at which point they were replaced by electrically powered pumps. These pumps and their control systems have since been replaced during the 1990s by privately owned railway infrastructure company Railtrack. During the 1930s, the availability of the reliable fresh water supply from the Great Spring was a significant contributing factor in favour of the selection of an adjacent site to be established as the Royal Navy Propellant Factory, Caerwent. Water was also supplied for paper manufacture to a mill at Sudbrook; this facility has since been closed.
On 7 December 1991, the Severn Tunnel rail accident occurred, involving an InterCity 125 that was struck from behind by a Class 155. The subsequent accident investigation, while unable to reach a firm conclusion on the cause, indicated that the axle counters used for detecting train movements in the tunnel may have been accidentally reset.
The Second Severn Crossing, which was built during the 1990s, crosses over the tunnel via a "ground level bridge" on the English side, near the Salmon Pool. This bridge is supported in such a way that no load is imposed on the tunnel. During that bridge's construction, the opportunity was taken to renew the concrete cap above the tunnel in the Salmon Pool.
In 2002, two Class 121s were overhauled by LNWR, Crewe for use as a Network Rail emergency train that was stabled near Severn Tunnel Junction station. They were removed in 2008 having never been used.
Car transport
During 1924, the Great Western Railway started a car shuttle train service using the tunnel, which would transport cars on rail trucks through the tunnel between Pilning and Severn Tunnel Junction. The service functioned as a rail-based alternative to the Aust Ferry, which was operated under an erratic timetable determined by the tides, or lengthy road journeys via Gloucester. The rail shuttle service was continued after the end of World War II, but was ultimately made redundant by the opening of the Severn Bridge in 1966, leading to its discontinuation shortly thereafter.
Electrification
As part of the 21st-century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line, the tunnel was prepared for electrification. While the structure provided good clearances and was therefore relatively easy to electrify, there was also a detracting factor in the form of the continuous seepage of water through the tunnel roof in some areas, which provided a key engineering challenge. The options of using either conventional tunnel electrification equipment or a covered solid beam technology were considered; supported by studies, it was decided to use the solid beam approach. Accordingly, along the length of the tunnel's roof, an aluminium conductor rail was installed to hold an un-tensioned copper contact cable; this rail is held in place using roughly 7000 high-grade stainless steel fixtures, which should be resistant to the hostile tunnel environment. Reportedly, the rigid rail is more robust, requires less maintenance, and is more compact than traditional overhead wires, and has been used in several other tunnels along the GWML.
In order to install the overhead electrification equipment, a six-week closure of the Severn Tunnel was necessary, which commenced on 12 September 2016. During that time, alternative means of travel were either a longer train journey via Gloucester, or a bus service between Severn Tunnel Junction and Bristol Parkway stations. Also during that time, and possibly later, there were direct flights between Cardiff and London City Airport. Following the completion of this work, which involved the installation of of copper contact wires using 1,700 vertical drop tubes and 857 anchoring points at a rough cost of £10 million to perform, the tunnel was reopened to regular traffic on 22 October 2016. However, less than two years later, another three-week closure of the tunnel was enacted after it was discovered that some of the recently installed overhead electrification equipment had already started to rust. To combat corrosion, aluminium wire was used, the first of its type in the United Kingdom. Electric trains began operating through the tunnel in June 2020.
Location
See also
Severn tunnel (1810)
Severn Tunnel rail accident
Crossings of the River Severn
References
Citations
Bibliography
The Severn Tunnel: Its Construction and Difficulties (1872–1887) by Thomas A. Walker (1st edition 1888) reprinted edition 2004, Nonsuch Publishing Ltd, Stroud, England . Reissued in 2013 (from fresh photographs of the 1890 second edition) by Cambridge University Press, . (Walker was the contractor entrusted by the chief GWR engineer Sir John Hawkshaw with rescuing and completing the tunnel after the 1879 flooding)
Railway Tales of the Unexpected by K Westcott-Jones , 1992, Atlantic Transport Publishers.
Further reading
External links
History of the tunnel from the Great Western Archive
Building the Severn Tunnel, how divers tried to seal the Great Spring
River Severn
Transport in South Gloucestershire District
Buildings and structures in South Gloucestershire District
Railway tunnels in England
Railway tunnels in Wales
Tunnels in Wales
South Wales Main Line
Transport in Monmouthshire
Tunnels completed in 1886
Tunnels in Gloucestershire
Tunnels in Monmouthshire
1886 establishments in the United Kingdom | [
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252290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20New%20Mexico | List of governors of New Mexico | The following is a list of the governors of the State of New Mexico (Spanish: gobernadores de Nuevo México) and Territory of New Mexico.
Twenty-eight individuals have held the office of governor of New Mexico since the state's admission to the Union in 1912, two of whom—Edwin L. Mechem and Bruce King—served three non-consecutive terms. King holds the record as New Mexico's longest-serving governor, with 12 years of service. William C. McDonald, the first governor, took office on January 6, 1912. The current officeholder is Michelle Lujan Grisham, who took office on January 1, 2019, as the first elected female Democratic governor of the state. Governors are limited to two consecutive terms, but a former governor is eligible for re-election after an intervening governor's term expires.
Governors
Governors under U.S. military rule
In 1846 the U.S. Army under Stephen W. Kearny invaded and occupied New Mexico. Military governors at times were assisted by civilian governors.
Military governors were:
Civilian governors were:
Governors of the Territory of New Mexico
In 1850 New Mexico was organized as a Territory.
Governors of the State of New Mexico
Notes
Other high offices held
This is a table of the higher federal offices and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators represented New Mexico. * denotes offices that the governor resigned to take.
References
External links
State of New Mexico website
New Mexico History Museum website
Governors of New Mexico, List of
Lists of state governors of the United States
Lists of territorial governors of the United States | [
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252293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Washington | List of governors of Washington | The Governor of Washington is the head of government of Washington State and commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The officeholder has a duty to enforce state laws, the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Washington Legislature and line-item veto power to cancel specific provisions in spending bills. The Washington Governor may also convene the legislature on "extraordinary occasions".
Washington Territory had 14 territorial governors from its organization in 1853 until the formation of the state of Washington in 1889. Territorial governors were appointed by the President of the United States. Elisha P. Ferry had the longest term of eight years and went on to become the state's first governor. William H. Wallace was appointed governor but never took office due to being elected as the territory's congressional delegate. George Edward Cole was appointed governor and took office, but his appointment was never ratified by the U.S. Senate and he was replaced as governor after four months.
Twenty-two individuals have held the office of Governor of Washington since the state's admission to the Union, with Arthur B. Langlie serving non-consecutive terms. Populist Party candidate John Rankin Rogers is the only non-Democratic or Republican nominee to win office. The most recent governor to be from Eastern Washington was Clarence Martin, elected in 1932. The current governor is Democrat Jay Inslee, who took office on January 16, 2013, and was reelected in 2016 and 2020; his term will expire on January 15, 2025. Washington has had the longest current streak of Democratic governors in the nation, with the last Republican to hold the office being John Spellman in 1985.
With the re-election of Inslee in 2020, Langlie, Daniel J. Evans and Inslee are the only three Washington Governors to be elected to three terms.
Governors
Governors of the Territory of Washington
Washington Territory was created on March 2, 1853, from the northern half of Oregon Territory. At this point, Washington Territory also included the northern panhandle of modern Idaho and parts of Montana. The southern half of Idaho was assigned to the Washington Territory in 1859 after Oregon was admitted as a state. Idaho Territory was split from Washington Territory in 1863 giving Washington Territory its final borders.
Due to the long distance between Washington, D.C., and Olympia, there was often a lengthy gap between a governor being appointed and his arrival in the territory.
Governors of the State of Washington
Washington was admitted to the Union on November 11, 1889. The term for governor is four years, commencing on the second Monday in the January following the election. If the office of governor is vacant or the governor is unable to discharge their duties, the lieutenant governor assumes the duties of governor, though still officially retains the office of lieutenant governor. If both the offices of governor and lieutenant governor are unable to fulfill their duties, the secretary of state is next in line, and then the treasurer. There is no limit to the number of terms a governor may serve. The office of lieutenant governor is not elected on the same ticket as the governor.
Parties
Succession
Other high offices held
Six of Washington's territorial governors and four of its state governors have served higher federal or confederate offices, or as governors of other states. Three represented Washington Territory as delegates to the U.S. House, and one additionally represented Idaho Territory in the same fashion, as well as serving as Governor of Idaho Territory. Two territorial governors represented eastern states, one as a representative from, and governor of, New Jersey, and one represented Virginia both in the United States and Confederate Houses. Three governors represented the state in the U.S. Senate, and two represented the state in the House. One governor has served in the United States Cabinet. Two of the territorial governors (marked with *) resigned their office to serve as territorial delegates.
See also
List of Washington state legislatures
Notes
References
General
Constitution
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of Washington
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors
Governors of Washington Territory
1889 establishments in Washington (state) | [
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252294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TwixT | TwixT | TwixT is a two-player strategy board game, an early entrant in the 1960s 3M bookshelf game series. It became one of the most popular and enduring games in the series. It is a connection game where players alternate turns placing pegs and links on a pegboard in an attempt to link their opposite sides. The rules are simple but the strategy complex, so young children can play it, but it also appeals to adults. The game has been discontinued except in Germany and Japan.
History
TwixT was invented as a paper and pencil game in 1957 by Alex Randolph, a game designer. When Alex was commissioned along with Sid Sackson by 3M in 1961 to start a games division, the game was issued as a boardgame, one of the first 3M bookshelf games. Avalon Hill took over publication in 1976 when 3M sold its game division. Avalon's parent company was acquired by Hasbro in 1998, and the game was discontinued. The game is no longer produced in the United States, but a succession of German companies has produced the game since the 1970s under license from Avalon. TwixT was short-listed for the first Spiel des Jahres in 1979, and was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design's Hall of Fame, along with Randolph, in 2011.
Rules
Twixt is played on a board comprising a 24×24 square grid of holes (minus four corner holes). The playing pieces are pegs which fit the holes, and link pieces which join pegs along the diagonal of a 3×2 grid (i.e. the move of a chess knight). In the 3M edition, players are Red and Black; different sets may use different colors. The topmost and bottommost rows of holes belong to the lighter color; the leftmost and rightmost rows to the darker color.
The players take turns placing pegs of their respective colors on the board, one peg per turn.
The player with the lighter color makes the first move.
A player may not place a peg on their opponent's border rows.
To counteract first-move advantage, the pie rule is suggested. After the first peg is placed, the second player has the option to swap sides. This is typically indicated by turning the pieces box end for end, or swapping boxes if they are separate. If the second player chooses not to swap immediately after the first peg is placed, then sides may not be swapped later in that game. (This "one-move equalization" was added by Randolph after 3M published his game. It is present in the Schmidt Spiele edition and all later editions.)
After placing a peg, a player may link one or more pairs of pegs on the board of their colour. The links can only connect two pegs a knight's move away from each other, and cannot cross another link; they block other links, most importantly those of the opponent. As part of the player's move, they may remove their own links (but not those of the opponent) in order to rearrange the sequence of links on the board. A variant for pencil and paper play allows a connection to cross the player's links but not those of the opponent.
The object is to make a continuous chain of linked pegs connecting the player's border rows. If neither player can achieve this, the game is a draw.
Computational complexity for general rectangular boards
TwixT has been proven to be PSPACE-complete for determining the game value, via a reduction from Hex. TwixT has also been shown to be NP-complete regarding whether a single set of vertices can support a connecting path, via a reduction from 3-satisfiability.
These proofs are indicative of a complex strategy: the game has not been solved, no winning strategy has been discovered, nor is the outcome of the game with perfect play known.
Related games
On the 24×24 grid, tactical considerations tend to predominate. The opening phase is over quickly, and the rest of the game is spent attempting to tactically execute the plan. Hex, which has a very similar game object, may have more predictable tactics, but strategical considerations are much more important. In this sense, Hex is more like Go than TwixT, since a single move is generally less committal, and consequences may take longer to play out.
Variants
One variant is Twixt PP (Paper and Pencil). The rules are almost identical to standard TwixT, except links are never removed and a player's own links are allowed to cross each other. A winning path might loop across itself but crossed links are not connected to each other at the intersection. The P-P rules may reduce the number of draws (already rare) Whether it reduces the complexity of the game or not is highly debatable.
This rules difference has no effect in terms of game outcome more than 99% of the time. For those rare situations where it does, most of those cases are where a draw under standard rules is a decisive game under PP rules. The diagram shows a contrived position on a tiny grid where a win for black under PP rules turns into a win for white under standard rules.
Row handicapping can be used to equalize the game for players of different strengths. The simplest handicap is to allow the weaker player to move first (i.e. eliminate the pie rule). Beyond that, one dimension of the grid is reduced so the weaker player has a shorter distance to span.
The game may be played on different size grids. The 12×12 board shown here leads to a very short game. On the standard board, tactics dominate; larger boards introduce deeper strategic considerations. Since most commercial sets use boards which are made from four "quadrants" which either clip together or are hinged, a 36×36 grid could be assembled from three standard sets of the same size. In Europe, there briefly appeared a TwixT knock-off called "Imuri" which used a 30×30 grid. The board had no holes, and lines were drawn to indicate where the links could be placed. This edition was removed from shelves for copyright infringement.
Mark Thompson's variant Diagonal TwixT has the same rules as standard TwixT, but the border lines run at a 45-degree angle to the grid. David Bush's version has the border lines running parallel to link paths. These variants result in different tactical patterns.
Competition
The official world championships were held as part of the Mind Sports Olympiad in 1997, 1998 and 1999. Since 2000 TwixT has had a major international tournament as part of the MSO but there has been no official World Championships. Since 2011, the TwixT event at the MSO has again become the World Championships. The list of winners is given below.
List of MSO champions
See also
List of connection games
Gale, also called Bridg-It
References
External links
Introduction to TwixT on the International Computer Games Association website. Introduction, rules, computer-TwixT related links
Sensei's Library: Twixt More info about TwixT
Current Twixt-playing programs
Connection Games Part VI: Twixt from Dr. Eric Silverman's blog on abstract games
3M bookshelf game series
Abstract strategy games
Alex Randolph games
Avalon Hill games
Board games introduced in 1962
Connection games
Kosmos (publisher) games
Paper-and-pencil games | [
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252295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank%20and%20Monument%20stations | Bank and Monument stations | Bank and Monument are interlinked London Underground and Docklands Light Railway (DLR) stations that form a public transport complex spanning the length of King William Street in the City of London. Bank station, named after the Bank of England, opened in 1900 at Bank junction and is served by the Central, Northern and Waterloo & City lines, and the DLR. Monument station, named after the Monument to the Great Fire of London, opened in 1884 and is served by the District and Circle lines. The stations have been linked as an interchange since 1933.
The station complex is one of the busiest on the London Underground network, with usage of the station rising by 38% since 2008. Owing to this, the station complex has been rated the Underground's worst station in passenger surveys, and is currently undergoing a substantial upgrade and expansion. The stations are in fare zone 1.
History
The Bank–Monument station complex was created by building links between several nearby stations constructed by different companies. The first station was opened by the Metropolitan Inner Circle Completion Railway.
Metropolitan Inner Circle Completion Railway, 1884
The Metropolitan Railway (MR) and District Railway (DR) had, by 1876, built most of the Inner Circle (now the Circle line), reaching and respectively. The companies were in dispute over the completion of the route as the DR was struggling financially and the MR was concerned that completion would affect its revenues through increased competition from the DR in the City area. City financiers keen to see the line completed established the Metropolitan Inner Circle Completion Railway in 1874 to link Mansion House to Aldgate. Forced into action, the MR bought out the company and with the DR began construction of the final section of the Inner Circle in 1879. The new section of railway included two new stations: Tower of London and another located close to the Monument.
The station at Monument opened with the name "Eastcheap" on 6 October 1884, after the nearby street, and was renamed "The Monument" on 1 November 1884. Initially, trains from both companies served the station on the Inner Circle service but other operational patterns have been used. The Inner Circle service achieved a separate identity as the Circle line in 1949 although its trains were still provided by the District or Metropolitan lines.
Waterloo & City Railway, 1898
The Waterloo & City Railway was built by the London and South Western Railway (L&SWR) to link its terminus at Waterloo to the City. The station, with platforms under Queen Victoria Street and close to Mansion House, opened on 8 August 1898 as "City".
The Waterloo and City line platforms were renamed "Bank" on 28 October 1940. In September 1960, the steeply sloping passages to the platforms were supplemented with the "Travolator", one of the few sets of moving walkways on the whole underground system. Advertising at the Waterloo & City line station often takes the form of large painted murals on the walls and ceilings of the sloped exits, forming one of the largest advertisements on the Underground.
As the W&CR was owned by the L&SWR, a mainline railway, it became part of British Rail; it was only transferred to Underground operation in 1994.
City & South London Railway, 1900
The first station to be known as Bank opened on 25 February 1900 when the City & South London Railway (C&SLR, now part of the Northern line) opened its extension from to . The earlier terminus of the line, , on a different tunnel alignment was closed at the same time.
The C&SLR had obtained permission to demolish the 18th-century church of St Mary Woolnoth on the corner of Lombard Street and build a station (originally proposed to be named "Lombard Street") on the site. After public protest, the company changed its plans to build only a sub-surface ticket hall and lift entrance in the crypt of the church. This necessitated moving the bodies elsewhere, strengthening the crypt with a steel framework and underpinning the church's foundations. Unusually for stations later converted to escalators, the original lift access from the ticket hall is still in use.
Central London Railway, 1900
The opening of the eastern terminus of the Central London Railway (CLR, now the Central line) at Bank followed on 30 July 1900.
As with the C&SLR, the high cost of property in the City, coupled with the presence of the Royal Exchange, the Bank of England, and Mansion House, meant that the station had to be built entirely underground. Permission was granted by the City of London Corporation for the station to be sited beneath the busy junction of roads meeting at this point on condition that public subways were provided to act as pedestrian road crossings. To avoid undermining the road above, the station's lifts were installed in separate lift shafts rather than paired two-per-shaft as usual.
To avoid wayleave payments to property owners and to lessen possible claims for damage during construction and operation, the CLR tunnels were directly under public streets. This caused the platforms under Threadneedle Street and Poultry to be so curved that one end of the platform cannot be seen from the other. East of Bank station the Central line tunnels have sharp curves to avoid the vaults of the Bank of England itself. Due to the close proximity of the CLR, W&CR and C&SLR stations, and the non-competing directions of their services, their ticket halls were soon connected, but connection between the CLR and C&SLR platforms were made only when escalators were installed in 1924. The Central London Railway station itself was reconstructed during the major rebuilding of the Bank of England in 1925. The booking hall underneath Bank junction was redecorated and a new subway entrance built into the corner of the Bank itself.
Monument link, 1933
The southern end of the C&SLR (by then part of the Edgware-Highgate-Morden line) platforms was close to those of Monument station and, on 18 September 1933, a connecting escalator link was opened, connecting the two stations directly for the first time.
World War II
During the Blitz, the station was used as a bomb shelter. On 11 January 1941 during World War II the Central line ticket hall of Bank station suffered a direct hit from a German bomb. The roadway collapsed into the subways and station concourse, killing 56 people.
Docklands Light Railway and station refurbishment, 1990s
In 1991, the Docklands Light Railway was extended to Bank station, following criticism of the original, poorly connected terminus at Tower Gateway. The new platforms were built parallel to but deeper than those of the Northern line, with connections at one end to the Central line and Monument Station at the other. As part of the construction of the extension, a new link between the Waterloo & City and the Central line was excavated – uncovering part of one of the Greathead tunnelling shields used for the Waterloo and City line. This shield forms part of the new passageway, and passengers pass through when transferring between the two lines. As with all other DLR stations, the DLR platforms are accessible, however the route is indirect with the use of three different passenger lifts required to reach the DLR.
In January 1994, a statue of James Henry Greathead was erected outside the station, next to the Royal Exchange. It was unveiled by the Lord Mayor of London and is positioned on a plinth which hides a ventilation shaft for the Underground.
The rest of the station was comprehensively refurbished, with decorative tiling panels based on the City's coat of arms, new lighting and replacement of escalators. This work was completed in 1997, partially funded by the City of London Corporation.
New Bloomberg entrance, 2010s
In the late 2010s, a new entrance was constructed at Bloomberg's new London headquarters on Walbrook, near station, providing direct access to the Waterloo & City line via four new escalators and two lifts – providing step free access to that line for the first time. First announced in 2008, construction began in November 2015, and the new entrance was opened on 30 November 2018. The new entrance was officially opened by Mayor of London Sadiq Khan and former Mayor of New York Michael Bloomberg in December 2018.
The new entrance incorporates etched glass panels by artist John Hutton, depicting 66 figures based on the ancient Roman history of the area, including the Roman Temple of Mithras. The artwork was originally completed in 1962 on Bucklersbury House, the post war office building previously located on the site.
Station upgrade and expansion
Since 2003, demand at the Bank-Monument station complex has risen by over 50% to 337,000 customers per day. According to Transport for London, "areas of the station are close to 'saturation' point, where day to day demand overwhelms capacity". Unlike other congested stations such as Oxford Circus, passengers cannot be held back at station entrances during peak times to avoid overwhelming the station, as around half of passengers are interchanging between lines. The high demand on the station is exacerbated by the narrow passageways, pinch points, spiral staircases and indirect routes between lines. Some parts of the station operate "one way", with staff directing passengers on longer routes to increase the capacity of the station.
Given these issues, the station complex is currently under construction to substantially upgrade the station and increase capacity by 40%, at a cost of around £620m. The overall project – incorporating twelve new escalators, two new lifts and two moving walkways – includes:
A new southbound platform for the Northern line and conversion of the existing southbound platform to passenger circulation space.
New direct passenger tunnel with moving walkways connecting the Northern line and Central line.
New escalators between the Northern line and the Docklands Light Railway (DLR).
A new station entrance and ticket hall on Cannon Street, with new escalators and step free access to the Northern line and DLR.
Modernising the station to comply with contemporary fire and evacuation standards.
Owing to the severe curvature of the Central line platforms, there is a substantial gap between the train and the platform. Because of this, no step-free access is currently proposed for the Central line, as the cost would be prohibitive and it would be difficult for passengers to use.
The new southbound Northern line tunnel was dug from a worksite on King William Street, using the underground spaces left over from the closed King William Street tube station. Former running tunnels have previously been used as circulation space at Angel and London Bridge stations.
Progress
Following consultations in the early 2010s and a Transport and Works Act Order in 2015, construction of the new Northern line tunnel began in April 2016, and was estimated to take 6 years. By July 2019, the project had reached the halfway stage. By October 2020, all tunnelling work, around , had been completed, with around 200,000 tonnes of material excavated from beneath the City. By July 2021, installation of escalators was underway, as well as preparation work to connect to the new Northern line tunnels in 2022. In January 2022, the Northern line through Bank was closed for 17 weeks until mid May 2022. The closure is required to allow the existing line to be connected to the new running tunnels, convert the previous southbound platform to a new passenger concourse, as well as final fit-out and integration works throughout the expanded station complex.
, new areas of the station are estimated to open in late Spring 2022 when the Northern line reopens, with the new Cannon Street entrance opening in late 2022.
Ticket halls and entrances
Following the opening of the Bloomberg entrance in 2018, the station complex has sixteen entrances and four ticket halls, the most of any station on the Underground.
Bullring (Central line) ticket hall, located underneath Bank Junction.
Lombard Street (Northern line) ticket hall, under Lombard Street.
Monument ticket hall, located under Monument Street adjacent to the Monument to the Great Fire of London, serving the District & Circle lines.
Walbrook ticket hall, at Bloomberg London, serving the Waterloo & City line.
Notable events
On 11 January 1941, during the Blitz, 56 people were killed and 69 were seriously injured when a German bomb hit the booking hall, with the blast travelling down the stairs and escalators to the platforms. The crater, measuring , was covered with a Bailey bridge for the traffic to pass over. The station itself was closed for two months.
On 7 September 2003, Bank station was used for a disaster training exercise, Exercise Osiris, billed as "the most realistic live disaster exercise of its kind". The event, lasting several hours and involving about 500 police, fire brigade, ambulance and London Underground personnel, was intended to prepare the emergency services for mass decontamination in the event of a chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear attack.
Connections
A large number of London Bus routes serve the station complex day and night.
References
External links
Bank Station from the Open Guide to London
History of Bank station, including a picture just after the 1941 bomb
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
More photographs of Bank station
Photograph and Street View imagery of Monument station
Central line stations
Northern line stations
Circle line stations
District line stations
Docklands Light Railway stations in the City of London
Waterloo & City line stations
Bank station
Tube stations in the City of London
Former Metropolitan and Metropolitan District Joint Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1884
Former City and South London Railway stations
Former Central London Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1900
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom | [
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252299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth%20Brethren | Plymouth Brethren | The Plymouth Brethren or Assemblies of Brethren are a low church, non-conformist, non-denominational Christian movement whose history can be traced back to Dublin, Ireland, in the late 1820s, where they originated from Anglicanism. The group emphasizes sola scriptura, the belief that the Bible is the supreme authority for church doctrine and practice, over and above any other source of authority. Plymouth Brethren generally see themselves as a network of like-minded free churches, not as a Christian denomination.
History
The Brethren movement began in Dublin, Ireland, where several groups of Christians met informally to celebrate the Lord's Supper together in 1820. The central figures were Anthony Norris Groves, a dentist studying theology at Trinity College; Edward Cronin, studying medicine, John Nelson Darby, a curate in County Wicklow; and John Gifford Bellett, a lawyer who brought them together. They did not require ministers or even an order of service, as their guide was the Bible alone.
An important early stimulus was the study of prophecy, which was the subject of a number of annual meetings at Powerscourt House in County Wicklow starting in 1831. Lady Powerscourt had attended Henry Drummond's prophecy conferences at Albury Park, and Darby was espousing the same pre-tribulational view in 1831 as Edward Irving. Many people came to these meetings who became important in the English movement, including Benjamin Wills Newton and George Müller.
The two main but conflicting aspirations of the movement were to create a holy and pure fellowship on one hand, and to allow all Christians into fellowship on the other. Believers in the movement felt that the established Church of England had abandoned or distorted many of the ancient traditions of Christendom, following decades of dissent and the expansion of Methodism and political revolutions in the United States and France. People in the movement wanted simply to meet together in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ without reference to denominational differences.
The first meeting in England was held in December 1831 in Plymouth. It was organised primarily by George Wigram, Benjamin Wills Newton, and John Nelson Darby. The movement soon spread throughout the United Kingdom, and the assembly in Plymouth had more than 1,000 people in fellowship in 1845. They became known as "the brethren from Plymouth" and were soon simply called "Plymouth Brethren". The term Darbyites is also used, especially when describing the Exclusive branch which has a more pronounced influence from Darby. Many within the movement refuse to accept any name other than "Christian".
In 1845, Darby returned from an extended visit to Switzerland where he had achieved considerable success planting churches. He returned to Plymouth where Newton was in control, and he disagreed with some details in a book that Newton had published concerning the tribulation that was coming. He also objected to Newton's place as an elder in the Plymouth meeting. But several attempts to settle the quarrel in the presence of other brethren failed to produce any clear result. Two years later, Darby attacked Newton over a lecture that Newton had given on the 6th Psalm, and an exchange of tracts followed. Newton retracted some of his statements, but he eventually left Plymouth and established another chapel in London.
Darby had instituted a second meeting at Plymouth, and he complained of the Bristol Bethesda assembly in 1848, in which George Müller was prominent; he was concerned because they had accepted a member from Ebrington Street, Newton's original chapel. Bethesda investigated the individual but defended their decision, and Darby was not satisfied. He issued a circular on 26 August 1848, cutting off Bethesda and all assemblies who received anyone who went there. This defined the essential characteristic of "exclusivism" which he pursued for the rest of his life.
The Exclusive Brethren experienced many subsequent splits, scatterings, and recombinations. The Open Brethren also suffered one split (concerning the autonomy of assemblies) which occurred at different times in different parts of the world. Nevertheless, both the Exclusive and the Open Brethren continued to expand their congregations, with the opens expanding more rapidly than the exclusives.
Darby visited Exclusive assemblies in America seven times between 1862 and 1877. Itinerant preachers from Scotland and Ireland established most of the early Open Brethren assemblies in America in the second half of the 19th century.
Open Brethren
The best-known and oldest distinction between Open assemblies is in the nature of relationships among their local churches. Open Brethren assemblies function as networks of like-minded independent local churches. Brethren generally feel an obligation to recognize and adhere to the disciplinary actions of other associated assemblies. Conversely, Open assemblies aware of that disciplining would not automatically feel a binding obligation to support it, treating each case on its own merit. Reasons for being put under discipline by both the Open and Exclusive Brethren include disseminating gross Scriptural or doctrinal error or being involved in unscriptural behavior. Being accused of illegal financial dealings may also result in being put under discipline.
Another less clear difference between assemblies lies in their approaches to collaborating with other Christians. Many Open Brethren will hold gospel meetings, youth events, or other activities in partnership with non-Brethren Evangelical Christian churches. More conservative Brethren tend to not support activities outside their own meetings.
International Brethren Conferences on Mission (IBCM) were founded in 1993 in Singapore by unions of churches from various countries. According to an IBCM Network census released in 2020, they claimed 40,000 churches and 2,700,000 members in 155 countries.
Exclusive Brethren
Exclusive Brethren have remained attached to Darby's doctrine. They are more interdependent, more conservative with a propensity for a dress code, very attached to the spontaneity of worship and preaching. They form several more or less compartmentalized circles of communion, from the most moderate to the narrowest. The movement has a Protestant theology and recognizes infant baptism. Around 40,000 worldwide in 2012, "close" brothers are often referred to as Darbyists, but rarely refer to themselves as such.
Plymouth Brethren Christian Church
The term Exclusive Brethren is most commonly used in the media to describe one separatist group known as Taylor-Hales Brethren, who now call themselves the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church (PBCC). The majority of Christians known as Exclusive Brethren are not connected with the Taylor-Hales group, who are known for their extreme interpretation of separation from evil and their belief of what constitutes fellowship. In their view, fellowship includes dining out, business and professional partnerships, membership of clubs, etc., rather than just the act of Communion (Lord's Supper), so these activities are done only with other members.
The group called the Raven Brethren (named for prominent Exclusive leader F.E. Raven) seceded from the Raven-Taylor-Hales group and are less strict and isolationist. Exclusive Brethren groups who are not affiliated with PBCC prefer being referred to as Closed rather than Exclusive brethren to avoid any connection with these more strident groups.
Brethren labels and distinctions
Terminology which sometimes confuses Brethren and non-Brethren alike is the distinction between the Open assemblies, usually called "Chapels", and the Closed assemblies (non-Exclusive), called "Gospel Halls." Contrary to common misconceptions, those traditionally known as the "Closed Brethren" are not a part of the Exclusive Brethren, but are rather a very conservative subset of the Open Brethren. The Gospel Halls regard reception to the assembly as a serious matter. One is not received to the Lord's Supper but to the fellowship of the assembly. This is important because the Lord's Supper is for believers, not unbelievers.
Some chapels, on the other hand, will allow practically anyone to participate who walks in and says that he is a Christian, based on the newcomer's profession of faith. Such assemblies are said to have an "open table" approach to strangers. Gospel Hall Brethren, on the other hand, generally believe that only those formally recognised as part of that or an equivalent assembly should break bread. Most Closed and some Open Brethren hold that association with evil defiles and that sharing the Communion meal can bring that association.
Their support text is from 1 Corinthians 15:33, "Do not be deceived: evil communications corrupt good manners." Among other distinctions, the Gospel Halls would generally not use musical instruments in their services, whereas many Chapels use them and may have singing groups, choirs, "worship teams" of musicians, etc. The Gospel Halls tend to be more conservative in dress; women do not wear trousers often, although they can and there is no scriptural objection in doing so, but most do not wear them in meetings and always have their heads covered, while in most Chapels women may wear whatever they wish, though modesty in dress serves as a guideline, and many may continue the tradition of wearing a head covering. Open Brethren churches are all independent, self-governing, local congregations with no central headquarters, although there are a number of seminaries, missions agencies, and publications that are widely supported by Brethren churches and which help to maintain a high degree of communication among them.
Henry K. Carroll performed an analysis of United States census data in 1912 to assign Roman numerals to various Brethren groups. For example, Brethren III is also known as the Lowe Brethren and the Elberfeld Brethren. Carroll's initial findings listed four sub-groups, identified as Brethren I-IV, but he expanded the number to six and then to eight; Arthur Carl Piepkorn expanded the number to ten. Those who have attempted to trace the realignments of the Plymouth Brethren include Ian McDowell and Massimo Introvigne. The complexity of the Brethren's history is evident in charts by McDowell and Ian McKay.
Definition
Both Open and Exclusive Brethren have historically been known as "Plymouth Brethren." That is still largely the case in some areas, such as North America and Northern Ireland. In some other parts of the world such as Australia and New Zealand, most Open Brethren shun the "Plymouth" label. This is mostly because of widespread negative media coverage of the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, the most hardline branch of the Exclusive Brethren (and the only numerically significant Exclusive group in either country), which most Open Brethren consider to be a cult with which they do not wish to be misidentified.
Leadership
One of the most defining elements of the Brethren is the rejection of the concept of clergy. Their view is that all Christians are ordained by God to serve and therefore all are ministers, in keeping with the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. The Brethren embrace the most extensive form of that idea, in that there is no ordained or unordained person or group employed to function as minister(s) or pastors. Brethren assemblies are led by the local church elders within any fellowship.
Historically, there is no office of pastor in most Brethren churches, because they believe that the term pastor (, in Greek) as it is used in Ephesians 4:11 describes one of the gifts given to the church, rather than a specific office. In the words of Darby, these gifts in Ephesians 4:11 are "ministrations for gathering together and for edification established by Christ as Head of the body by means of gifts with which He endows persons as His choice." Therefore, there is no formal ordination process for those who preach, teach, or lead within their meetings. Men who become elders, or those who become deacons and overseers within the fellowship, have been recognized by others within the individual assemblies and have been given the blessing of performing leadership tasks by the elders.
An elder should be able and ready to teach when his assembly sees the "call of God" on his life to assume the office of elder (). Brethren elders conduct many other duties that would typically be performed by the clergy in other Christian groups, including counselling those who have decided to be baptized, performing baptisms, visiting the sick, and giving spiritual counsel in general. Normally, sermons are given either by the elders or by men who regularly attend the Sunday meetings—but, again, only men whom the elders recognize as having the "call of God" on their lives for that particular ministry. Visiting speakers, however, are usually paid their travel costs and provided for with Sunday meals following the meetings.
Open and Exclusive Brethren differ in how they interpret the concept of no clergy. The Open Brethren believe in a plurality of elders (; ,; ; Philippians 1:1), men meeting the Biblical qualifications found in and . This position is also taken in some Baptist churches, especially Reformed Baptists, and by the Churches of Christ. It is understood that elders are appointed by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28) and are recognised as meeting the qualifications by the assembly and by previously existing elders. Generally, the elders themselves will look out for men who meet the biblical qualifications, and invite them to join them as elders. In some Open assemblies, elders are elected democratically, but this is a fairly recent development and is still relatively uncommon.
Officially naming and recognizing eldership is common to Open Brethren (cf. ), whereas many Exclusive Brethren assemblies believe that recognizing a man as an elder is too close to having clergy, and therefore a group of leading brothers, none of whom has an official title of any kind, attempts to present issues to the entire group for it to decide upon, believing that the whole group must decide, not merely a body of elders. Traditionally, only men are allowed to speak (and, in some cases, attend) these decision-making meetings, although not all assemblies follow that rule today.
The term elder is based on the same Scriptures that are used to identify bishops and overseers in other Christian circles, and some Exclusive Brethren claim that the system of recognition of elders by the assembly means that the Open Brethren cannot claim full adherence to the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. Open Brethren consider, however, that this reveals a mistaken understanding of the priesthood of all believers which, in the Assemblies, has to do with the ability to directly offer worship to God and His Christ at the Lord's Supper, whether silently or audibly, without any human mediator being necessary—which is in accordance with , where it is stated that Christ Jesus Himself is the sole Mediator between God and men (men being used here generically of mankind, and not referring simply and solely to males).
The Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, the most hardline of all the Exclusive Brethren groups, has developed into a de facto hierarchical body which operates under the headship of an Elect Vessel, currently Bruce Hales of Australia.
In place of an ordained ministry, an itinerant preacher often receives a "commendation" to the work of preaching and teaching that demonstrates the blessing and support of the assembly of origin. In most English-speaking countries, such preachers have traditionally been called full-time workers, labouring brothers, or on the Lord's work; in India, they are usually called Evangelists and very often are identified with Evg. in front of their name.
A given assembly may have any number of full-time workers, or none at all. In the last twenty years, many Open Assemblies in Australia and New Zealand, and some elsewhere, have begun calling their full-time workers pastors, but this is not seen as ordaining clergy and does not connote a transfer of any special spiritual authority. In such assemblies, the pastor is simply one of several elders, and differs from his fellow-elders only in being salaried to serve full-time. Depending on the assembly, he may or may not take a larger share of the responsibility for preaching than his fellow elders.
UK government COVID contracts
Dozens of companies with connections to the Plymouth Bretheren were awarded £2.2 billion in UK government coronavirus contracts from the Department of Health and Social Care. This included providing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Several former members of the church have connections with the Conservative Party and MPs have previously lobbied for the church to be given UK charitable status by the Charities Commission.
Notable Brethren
This list consists of mostly nineteenth-century figures who were associated with the Brethren movement before the 1848 schism. They are the leading historical figures common to both the Open and Exclusive Brethren. Two exceptions are H.A. Ironside and Watchman Nee, twentieth-century preachers who spent time associated with both the Open and Exclusive Brethren. See the respective articles for other more recent figures who have functioned primarily or entirely in either the Open Brethren or Exclusive Brethren:
Robert Anderson – senior officer of Scotland Yard and Christian author; was a member of the Plymouth Brethren, first with Darby then with the Open Brethren party, before returning to his Presbyterian roots
John Gifford Bellet – classics researcher of Trinity College, Cambridge
George Beurling – Canadian WWII fighter pilot
Robert Mackenzie Beverley – one of the most influential figures to abandon the Quakers and join the Brethren during the Beaconite controversy
John Bodkin Adams – British general practitioner, convicted fraudster, and suspected serial killer.
Lancelot Brenton – translator of the Greek-English edition of the Septuagint
F. F. Bruce – British biblical scholar, author of 40 books and commentaries. (Open Brethren)
Robert Chapman – prominent among the Plymouth Brethren in the 19th century
Henry Craik – worked with George Müller in Bristol at Gideon and Bethesda Chapels from 1832
Edward Cronin – pioneer of homeopathy and one of the original Dublin brethren
John Nelson Darby – preacher and originator of modern Rapture doctrine
James George Deck – evangelist and missionary to New Zealand; officially associated with the Exclusives but refused to cut his ties to the Open Brethren.
Jim Elliot – one of five missionaries killed while participating in Operation Auca
Ken Follett – British novelist
Emily Bowes Gosse – painter, illustrator, and author of religious tracts
Philip Henry Gosse – naturalist and marine biologist
Edmund Gosse – the son of Phillip and Emily Gosse who wrote Father and Son, about his relationship with his father and the religion.
Anthony Norris Groves – missionary to Baghdad and India
John Eliot Howard – chemist and quinologist
Luke Howard – chemist and meteorologist, the "namer of clouds"
Harry Ironside – Bible teacher, preacher, and author; pastor of the Moody Church in Chicago (1930–1948); associated at different times with both the Open and Exclusive Brethren
William Kelly – prominent leader of the Exclusive Brethren in the late 19th century
Charles Henry Mackintosh – 19th-century author of Christian books who published as C.H.M.
George Müller – founder of the Bristol Orphanage and a stated teacher in Bethesda Chapel, Bristol
Watchman Nee – leader in the "Little Flock" movement in China after being "put out" by Exclusive Brethren for "breaking bread with sectarians"
Thomas Newberry – translator of the Newberry Reference Bible, which uses a system of symbols to explain verb tenses
Francis William Newman – younger brother of Cardinal John Henry Newman; excommunicated for denying the Divinity of Christ
Benjamin Wills Newton – early leader of the assembly in Plymouth; branded as a heretic by John Darby and his followers
John Parnell, 2nd Baron Congleton – missionary to Mesopotamia
G. H. Pember – English theologian who lived in the 19th century; wrote the book Earth's Earliest Ages
Joseph M. Scriven – writer of the words to the hymn "What A Friend We Have In Jesus"
Hudson Taylor – founder of the China Inland Mission
Samuel Prideaux Tregelles – English biblical scholar and theologian
William Edwy Vine – author of Vine's Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words and numerous commentaries
George Wigram – wrote a Greek and English Concordance to the New Testament and The Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance of the Old Testament
Orde Wingate – British commando
See also
Assemblies Jehovah Shammah
Exclusive Brethren
Gospel Hall Brethren or Gospel Hall Assemblies
Indian Brethren
Kerala Brethren Assembly
The Local Church (affiliation)
Needed Truth Brethren
Open Brethren
Plymouth Brethren Christian Church
Notes and references
Bibliography
Adams, Norman (1972) Goodbye, Beloved Brethren. Impulse Publications Inc.
Carroll, H. K. (1912) Religious Forces in the United States. New York
Coad, F. Roy (2001) A History of the Brethren Movement: Its Origins, Its Worldwide Development and Its Significance for the Present Day. Regent College Publishing
Dorman, W. H. (1866) The Close of Twenty-eight Years of Association with J. N. Darby. London: Houlston & Wright.
Ph.D. Thesis
Groves, Henry (1866). Darbyism: Its Rise and Development and a Review of the “Bethesda Question”. London: Houlston & Wright.
Groves, Mrs. (1869) Biography of A. N. Groves, by his widow, 3rd edition. London
Ironside, H. A. (1985) Historical Sketch of the Brethren Movement Loizeaux Brothers , 1st edition 1942.
Kelly, William (1883) Response by William Kelly to J. S. Teulon's Plymouth Brethren Free download site
Lindsay, Thomas Martin (1885). "Plymouth Brethren", Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Lindsay, Thomas Martin & Grieve, Alexander James (1911). "Plymouth Brethren", Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition. New York: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Neatby, William B. (1901). A history of the Plymouth Brethren. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Pickering, Henry (1918) Chief Men Among the Brethren. London: Pickering & Inglis, 1918; Loizeaux Brothers, Inc. Neptune, NJ, 1996,
Smith, Natan Dylan (1996) Roots, Renewal and the Brethren. Hope Publishing House
Strauch, Alexander (1995) Biblical Eldership: an Urgent Call to Restore Biblical Church Leadership. Lewis & Roth Publishers
Stott, Rebecca (2017) In the Days of Rain: A Daughter, A Father, A Cult. Winner of the 2017 Costa Biography Prize. London: Fourth Estate.
Stunt, Timothy C. F. (2000) From Awakening to Secession: radical evangelicals in Switzerland and Britain, 1815–35. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark
Taylor (1866) Biography of Henry Craik. London
Teulon, J. S. (1883) The History and Teaching of The Plymouth Brethren. London Free download site
External links
Brethren Online
Plymouth Brethren (online library of Brethren authors)
The Brethren Writers Hall of Fame
BrethrenPedia
Brethren Archive (online archive of historical reference material related to all strands of 'Plymouth Brethren')
Brethren Archivists and Historians Network
Christian Brethren Collections (University of Manchester Library)
The Plymouth Brethren Movement History of, and Selected Ministry from, the 'Raven/Taylor' segment of the so-called Plymouth Brethren movement)
Bible. Darby Translation
1827 establishments in Ireland
19th century in Dublin (city)
Christian fundamentalism
Religious organizations established in 1827 | [
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252300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Idaho | List of governors of Idaho | The governor of Idaho is the head of government of Idaho and commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The officeholder has the duty to see state laws are executed, power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Idaho Legislature. The current governor of Idaho is Republican Brad Little, who took office on January 7, 2019.
History
The Territory of Idaho had sixteen territorial governors appointed by the president of the United States from the territory's organization in 1863 until the formation of the state of Idaho in 1890. Four of these never took office, resigning before reaching the territory.
31 individuals have held the office of governor of Idaho since the state's admission to the Union in 1890, two of whom—C. A. Bottolfsen and Cecil Andrus—served non-consecutive terms. The state's first governor, George L. Shoup, had the shortest term of three months; Cecil Andrus served as governor the longest at 14 years. Four governors resigned, but none have died while in office.
20 governors have been Republicans while 11 were Democrats. Andrus was the last Democrat to hold the governorship in Idaho; he left office in 1995.
Governors
Governors of the Territory of Idaho
Idaho Territory was created from Dakota Territory, Nebraska Territory, and Washington Territory on March 4, 1863.
Due to the long distance between Washington, D.C. and Boise, there was often a lengthy gap between a governor being appointed and his arrival in the territory; four resigned before even arriving.
Governors of the State of Idaho
Idaho was admitted to the Union on July 3, 1890. Since then, the state has had 33 governors, two of whom served non-consecutive terms. The terms for governor and lieutenant governor are 4 years, commencing on the first Monday in the January following the election. Prior to 1946, the offices were elected to terms of two years. If the office of governor is vacant or the governor is out of state or unable to discharge his duties, the lieutenant governor acts as governor until such time as the disability is removed. If both the offices of governor and lieutenant governor are vacant or both those officers are unable to fulfill their duties, the President pro tempore of the Idaho Senate is next in line, and then the Speaker of the Idaho House of Representatives. After the change to four-year terms, self-succession (re-election) was not initially allowed; newly elected Governor Robert E. Smylie, formerly the state's attorney general, successfully lobbied the 1955 legislature to propose an amendment to the state constitution to allow gubernatorial re-election, which was approved by voters in the 1956 general election. There is no limit to the number of terms a governor may serve.
Succession
See also
List of lieutenant governors of Idaho
List of Idaho state legislatures
Elections in Idaho
Notes
References
General
Constitution
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of Idaho
Idaho, Governors of
Governors | [
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252305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Wyoming | List of governors of Wyoming | This is a list of governors of Wyoming, beginning with territorial governors. Wyoming Territory was organized in 1868, and the state was admitted to the union on July 10, 1890.
Governors of the Territory of Wyoming
Governors of the State of Wyoming
There have been 20 Republican Governors, 13 Democratic and one Progressive.
Notes
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Wyoming except where noted.
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors | [
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252306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zollernalbkreis | Zollernalbkreis | The Zollernalbkreis is a Landkreis (district) in the middle of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The district is located in the Swabian Alb, and contains the second highest elevation of this range, the high Oberhohenberg. In the south-east the district nearly reaches to the river Danube.
The district was created on January 1, 1973, when the two previous districts Balingen and Hechingen were merged.
Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Tübingen, Reutlingen, Sigmaringen, Tuttlingen, Rottweil and Freudenstadt.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms show the black-and-white checkered symbol of the Hohenzollern in the left half, and the triple black deer antler on yellow ground as the symbol of Württemberg. Almost all of the district's area belonged to these two states historically.
Towns (Städte) and municipalities (Gemeinden)
Language
In the area of Zollernalbkreis, Swabian German is spoken. In former times, Yiddish, Pleißne and Romani was also spoken.
The Pleißne was spoken by hawkers selling items such as baskets, brushes, and whips, and belongs to Rotwelsch. It was used as a code.
Smuggler
Within the Heuberg Training Area there is the legendary Dreibannmarke, also called the "Bahn", a 17th-century border, which today marks the border between three different municipalities, formerly in the three states of Württemberg, Baden, and Hohenzollern. The meadow at the Dreibannmarke served as a stopping place for traveling merchants, wagons and craftsmen. With care it is possible to identify traces of the border. After the inauguration of the firing ranges, a meadow in Meßstetten was allocated as a camping site at the edge of the restricted area. Until 1835 merchandise was smuggled over the customs borders guarded by local hunters.Hans Ungnad von Weißenwolff, Freiherr von Sonneck, Hans III.(1493–1564) Bible printer and smuggler in Bad Urach Coffee smuggler Haux had was killed on 21 July 1831 in Pfaffental.
Ébénistes
Ébénistes make case furniture, either veneered or painted. Frommern was the world capital of furniture in the time of Wirtschaftswunder In Frommern a line of high polished industrial production take up the ideas of the royal Hofebenist. In the Haus der Volkskunstof the Schwäbischer Albverein the traditional Himmelbett is use as a hotel bed.
Mining
Sandstone, limestone, black coal and sand have been the primary products mined. The Goldhöhle mine was in Erlaheim near Mildersbach, Schwefelkies, in Geislingen. It later collapsed.
In former times iron ore was mined on the Heuberg. Fidel Eppler was the name of the mine inspector. The buttress wood was bought in Truchtelfingen and used by Lautlingen miners at the Hörnle area.
In Oberdigisheim Geppert in 1738 SHW-Ludwigsthal produced iron ore.
From an old 3.5 km mine in an ooidal iron ore seam (Doggererzflöz) in Weilheim is wood in the Tuttlinger Fruchtkasten.
Steel was produced in Tuttlingen by the Schwäbische Hüttenwerke in Ludwigstal, which produces now iron brakes.
In Meßstetten-Michelfeld sand was found in an old arm of Danube. Christian Kiesinger (1876–1969) father of Kurt Georg Kiesinger had a factory. Ooidal iron ore (Bohnerz aus Eisenroggenstein) was found. After the Franco-Prussian War the mining was stopped. In Germany coal mining stopped 2018.
black stone was mined for Operation Desert (German fuel project).
Black coal is mined from the Posidonia Shale.
Jet work (to make black jewellery which was very fashionable), was called Beinschnitzen.
References
External links
https://www.br.de/br-fernsehen/sendungen/traumpfade/wegdesbuches-104.html
Tübingen (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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252309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20T.%20Conway | James T. Conway | James Terry Conway (born December 26, 1947) is a retired United States Marine Corps four-star general who served as the 34th Commandant of the Marine Corps. Among his previous postings were Director of Operations (J-3) on the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Commanding General of 1st Marine Division and I Marine Expeditionary Force, taking part in the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the First Battle of Fallujah.
Early life
Conway was born in Walnut Ridge, Arkansas. He graduated from Roosevelt High School in St. Louis, Missouri and then attended Southeast Missouri State University, where he was a member of the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity, graduating in 1969 with a Bachelor of Science degree in psychology. He was commissioned as an infantry officer in 1970.
Marine career
Conway's first assignment was command of a rifle platoon with 3rd Battalion 1st Marines, based at Camp Pendleton. He also served as the battalion's 106mm recoilless rifle platoon commander. Later, he served as Marine detachment executive officer aboard the aircraft carrier and as commanding officer of the Sea School at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego.
After graduating with honors from the Army's Infantry Officers Advanced Course, Conway commanded two companies in the 2nd Marine Regiment's Operations and Security section. As a field grade officer, he commanded two companies of students and taught tactics at The Basic School. He then went on to serve as operations officer for the 31st Marine Amphibious Unit, with sea duty in the western Pacific and in contingency operations off Beirut, Lebanon.
Returning to the United States, Conway was assigned as Senior Aide to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff for two years. After graduating from Marine Corps Command and Staff College with honors, he took command of 3rd Battalion 2nd Marines through its eight-month deployment to Southwest Asia during the Gulf War.
After the war, he was promoted to colonel and assigned command of The Basic School. Promoted to brigadier general in December 1995, he again was assigned to the Joint Chiefs and later served as President of the Marine Corps University. After being promoted to major general, he served as commander of the 1st Marine Division and as Deputy Commanding General of Marine Forces Central. He was promoted to lieutenant general and assumed command of I Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF) on November 16, 2002. He commanded I MEF during two combat tours in Iraq, with 60,000 troops under his command, including Marines, soldiers, sailors, and British forces. In the book The Iraq War, Conway was described as, "big, buff, well read and well educated ... he represented all that was best about the new United States Marine Corps, which General Al Gray as the commandant had set up."
In a press interview on May 30, 2003, Conway was questioned about the failure at that point to locate weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. He replied, in part:
US Marines of the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force under Conway's command constructed the military base "Camp Alpha" on top of ancient Babylonian ruins following the invasion. Though a US Military spokesman claimed that the project was discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum", the construction of the base drew intense criticism from archaeologists, who contend that it caused irreparable damage to one of the most important sites in the world. Dr. John Curtis of the British Museum's Near East department described how parts of the archaeological site were levelled and paved over to create a helipad as well as parking lots for heavy vehicles. Donny George, head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, stated that the "mess will take decades to sort out".
On June 13, 2006, Conway was nominated by President George W. Bush to become the 34th Commandant of the Marine Corps; the nomination was confirmed by the Senate on August 2, 2006. On November 13, Conway was promoted to the rank of general at Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. and became the 34th Commandant of the Marine Corps. He was the first Commandant in nearly 40 years to have not served in the Vietnam War.
On June 11, 2009, Conway spoke at the National Press Club about the importance of maintaining the Amphibious assault ships to lift two Marine Expeditionary Brigades and the time "at home" away from the current wars to train for amphibious assault.
Conway was reported to have had "major reservations" about the repeal of "don't ask, don't tell", in contrast to the Pentagon opinion that the younger rank and file of the military did not have such reservations about serving with openly gay service members. Conway, along with Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Gary Roughead, and Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General George Casey, supported running a one-year study on the effects of a possible repeal. Conway said that if gay Marines are allowed to serve openly, he might need to change the policy that requires unmarried Marines to share rooms. The policy was repealed on December 22, 2010, after his tenure as Commandant had ended.
On October 22, 2010, Conway turned the position of Commandant over to General James F. Amos, his Assistant Commandant, at a ceremony at Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., Defense secretary Robert Gates presented Conway with his third Defense Distinguished Service Medal during the change-in-command. He then retired on November 1.
Personal life
Conway is a graduate of the Infantry Officers Advanced Course, the Marine Corps Command and Staff College, and the Air War College.
Awards and decorations
Conway has been decorated for service, to include:
He also holds 7 expert awards in both rifle and pistol marksmanship badges. In 2010, Conway was the recipient of the distinguished "Keeper of the Flame" award.
See also
List of United States Marine Corps four-star generals
United States Marine Corps Wounded Warrior Regiment
Notes
References
External links
1947 births
Living people
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Gulf War
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Iraq War
People from Walnut Ridge, Arkansas
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Marine Corps generals
Joint Chiefs of Staff
United States Marine Corps Commandants
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal | [
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252311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule%20of%20inference | Rule of inference | In the philosophy of logic, a rule of inference, inference rule or transformation rule is a logical form consisting of a function which takes premises, analyzes their syntax, and returns a conclusion (or conclusions). For example, the rule of inference called modus ponens takes two premises, one in the form "If p then q" and another in the form "p", and returns the conclusion "q". The rule is valid with respect to the semantics of classical logic (as well as the semantics of many other non-classical logics), in the sense that if the premises are true (under an interpretation), then so is the conclusion.
Typically, a rule of inference preserves truth, a semantic property. In many-valued logic, it preserves a general designation. But a rule of inference's action is purely syntactic, and does not need to preserve any semantic property: any function from sets of formulae to formulae counts as a rule of inference. Usually only rules that are recursive are important; i.e. rules such that there is an effective procedure for determining whether any given formula is the conclusion of a given set of formulae according to the rule. An example of a rule that is not effective in this sense is the infinitary ω-rule.
Popular rules of inference in propositional logic include modus ponens, modus tollens, and contraposition. First-order predicate logic uses rules of inference to deal with logical quantifiers.
Standard form
In formal logic (and many related areas), rules of inference are usually given in the following standard form:
Premise#1
Premise#2
...
Premise#n
Conclusion
This expression states that whenever in the course of some logical derivation the given premises have been obtained, the specified conclusion can be taken for granted as well. The exact formal language that is used to describe both premises and conclusions depends on the actual context of the derivations. In a simple case, one may use logical formulae, such as in:
This is the modus ponens rule of propositional logic. Rules of inference are often formulated as schemata employing metavariables. In the rule (schema) above, the metavariables A and B can be instantiated to any element of the universe (or sometimes, by convention, a restricted subset such as propositions) to form an infinite set of inference rules.
A proof system is formed from a set of rules chained together to form proofs, also called derivations. Any derivation has only one final conclusion, which is the statement proved or derived. If premises are left unsatisfied in the derivation, then the derivation is a proof of a hypothetical statement: "if the premises hold, then the conclusion holds."
Example: Hilbert systems for two propositional logics
In a Hilbert system, the premises and conclusion of the inference rules are simply formulae of some language, usually employing metavariables. For graphical compactness of the presentation and to emphasize the distinction between axioms and rules of inference, this section uses the sequent notation () instead of a vertical presentation of rules.
In this notation,
is written as .
The formal language for classical propositional logic can be expressed using just negation (¬), implication (→) and propositional symbols. A well-known axiomatization, comprising three axiom schemata and one inference rule (modus ponens), is:
(CA1) ⊢ A → (B → A)
(CA2) ⊢ (A → (B → C)) → ((A → B) → (A → C))
(CA3) ⊢ (¬A → ¬B) → (B → A)
(MP) A, A → B ⊢ B
It may seem redundant to have two notions of inference in this case, ⊢ and →. In classical propositional logic, they indeed coincide; the deduction theorem states that A ⊢ B if and only if ⊢ A → B. There is however a distinction worth emphasizing even in this case: the first notation describes a deduction, that is an activity of passing from sentences to sentences, whereas A → B is simply a formula made with a logical connective, implication in this case. Without an inference rule (like modus ponens in this case), there is no deduction or inference. This point is illustrated in Lewis Carroll's dialogue called "What the Tortoise Said to Achilles", as well as later attempts by Bertrand Russell and Peter Winch to resolve the paradox introduced in the dialogue.
For some non-classical logics, the deduction theorem does not hold. For example, the three-valued logic of Łukasiewicz can be axiomatized as:
(CA1) ⊢ A → (B → A)
(LA2) ⊢ (A → B) → ((B → C) → (A → C))
(CA3) ⊢ (¬A → ¬B) → (B → A)
(LA4) ⊢ ((A → ¬A) → A) → A
(MP) A, A → B ⊢ B
This sequence differs from classical logic by the change in axiom 2 and the addition of axiom 4. The classical deduction theorem does not hold for this logic, however a modified form does hold, namely A ⊢ B if and only if ⊢ A → (A → B).
Admissibility and derivability
In a set of rules, an inference rule could be redundant in the sense that it is admissible or derivable. A derivable rule is one whose conclusion can be derived from its premises using the other rules. An admissible rule is one whose conclusion holds whenever the premises hold. All derivable rules are admissible. To appreciate the difference, consider the following set of rules for defining the natural numbers (the judgment asserts the fact that is a natural number):
The first rule states that 0 is a natural number, and the second states that s(n) is a natural number if n is. In this proof system, the following rule, demonstrating that the second successor of a natural number is also a natural number, is derivable:
Its derivation is the composition of two uses of the successor rule above. The following rule for asserting the existence of a predecessor for any nonzero number is merely admissible:
This is a true fact of natural numbers, as can be proven by induction. (To prove that this rule is admissible, assume a derivation of the premise and induct on it to produce a derivation of .) However, it is not derivable, because it depends on the structure of the derivation of the premise. Because of this, derivability is stable under additions to the proof system, whereas admissibility is not. To see the difference, suppose the following nonsense rule were added to the proof system:
In this new system, the double-successor rule is still derivable. However, the rule for finding the predecessor is no longer admissible, because there is no way to derive . The brittleness of admissibility comes from the way it is proved: since the proof can induct on the structure of the derivations of the premises, extensions to the system add new cases to this proof, which may no longer hold.
Admissible rules can be thought of as theorems of a proof system. For instance, in a sequent calculus where cut elimination holds, the cut rule is admissible.
See also
Argumentation scheme
Immediate inference
Inference objection
Law of thought
List of rules of inference
Logical truth
Structural rule
References
Propositional calculus
Formal systems
Syntax (logic)
Logical truth
Inference
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252312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Hinton%20%28surgeon%29 | James Hinton (surgeon) | James Hinton (baptised 26 November 1822 – 16 December 1875) was an English surgeon and author. He was the father of mathematician Charles Howard Hinton. He was an outspoken advocate of polygamy. He appears as a character in some fictional accounts of the 19th century English serial murderer known as Jack the Ripper.
Life
He was born at Reading, Berkshire, the son of John Howard Hinton, Baptist minister and author of the History and Topography of the United States and other works. James was educated at his grandfather's school near Oxford, and at the Nonconformist school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on his father's removal to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in Whitechapel. After working there for about a year he became clerk in an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study, and this, combined with a concentration on moral problems, so affected his health that, aged eighteen, he tried to seek refuge from his own thoughts by running away to sea. His intention having been discovered, he was sent, on the advice of his doctor, to St Bartholomew's Hospital to study for the medical profession. After receiving his diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone to take medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage thence to Jamaica, where he stayed some time. He returned to England in 1850, and entered into partnership with a surgeon in London, where he soon had his interest awakened specially in aural surgery, and also studied physiology.
After being appointed aural surgeon to Guy's Hospital in 1863, he soon acquired a reputation as the most skillful aural surgeon of his day. In the 1870s his health began to break down, and in 1874 he gave up practice. He died the following year at the Azores of "acute inflammation of the brain".
Writings
His career as an author started in 1856 with papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the Christian Spectator; and in 1859 he published Man and his Dwellingplace. A series of papers entitled "Physiological Riddles," in the Cornhill Magazine, afterwards published as Life in Nature (1862), as well as another series entitled Thoughts on Health (1871), proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition. His specialist field of aural surgery was the subject of An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana tympani (1874), and Questions of Aural Surgery (1874). In addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author of The Mystery of Pain (1866) and The Place of the Physician (1874). On account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of many of the important moral and social problems of the times his writings had a wide circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.
He was also a radical advocate of polygamous relationships, and according to his wife, had once remarked to her: "Christ was the saviour of Men but I am the saviour of Women and I don't envy him a bit." The notoriety of his writings on polygamy led to accusations in polite society of actual immorality leading to a renunciation of them just before he died.
His Life and Letters, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction by Sir WW Gull, appeared in 1878 but overlooked references to polygamy. Some philosophical writings were published posthumously, edited by his wife Margaret and sister-in-law Caroline Haddon. The polygamous aspects led to a campaign to discredit him, fronted especially by a group of London radicals, The Men and Women's Club, founded in 1885 to discuss matters of gender and sexuality. Its success led to the discrediting too of his son, Charles Howard, whose bigamy was attributed to his father's theories. In 1887, Charles Howard and Mary Ellen Boole, the eldest daughter of George Boole and Mary Everest, exiled their family to Japan.
Portrayal in fiction
Because of his association with Sir William Withey Gull, Hinton has been indirectly associated with the murders of Jack the Ripper.
In their fictional graphic novel on the Ripper, From Hell, authors Alan Moore and Eddie Campbell extend Hinton's concern over social problems to prostitution in Whitechapel, which became the hunting grounds for the Ripper after his death. Their suggestion is that his concerns over prostitution among the lower classes greatly influenced Gull, who was put forward as a Ripper suspect in Stephen Knight's 1976 book, Jack the Ripper: The Final Solution.
In From Hell, Hinton is portrayed as an idealistic doctor given to "passionate outbursts" and flights of metaphysical theorising and speculation. His character is used as a complementary figure to the more worldly – and less compassionate – Dr. Gull.
Hinton's association with the murders has much to do with both Knight's book and Iain Sinclair's novel White Chappell, Scarlet Tracings.
References
Hinton, James. (1862). Life in Nature. Smith, Elder and Co. (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
Hinton, James. (1859). Man and his Dwelling Place: An Essay towards the Interpretation of Nature. John W. Parker and son (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
Mind, Vol 1, No 2 (Apr 1876), pp. 247–252 by Joseph Frank Payne. Published by: Oxford University Press.
External links
Facscimile of James Hinton: a Sketch, 1918, by Edith Mary Oldham Lees Ellis (Mrs. Havelock Ellis); includes photos and chronology of events in his life from 30 of his 54 years
1822 births
1875 deaths
English philosophers
English non-fiction writers
19th-century English medical doctors
English Anglicans
Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital
British ethicists
English male non-fiction writers
People from Reading, Berkshire
19th-century English male writers
Physicians of Guy's Hospital
Hinton family | [
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252313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypripedioideae | Cypripedioideae | Cypripedioideae is a subfamily of orchids commonly known as lady's slipper orchids, lady slipper orchids or slipper orchids. Cypripedioideae includes the genera Cypripedium, Mexipedium, Paphiopedilum, Phragmipedium and Selenipedium. They are characterised by the slipper-shaped pouches (modified labella) of the flowers – the pouch traps insects so they are forced to climb up past the staminode, behind which they collect or deposit pollinia, thus fertilizing the flower. There are approximately 165 species in the subfamily.
Taxonomy
Unlike most other orchids, slipper orchids have two fertile anthers — they are "diandrous". For that reason, experts have debated whether this clade should be classified within the orchid family (Orchidaceae), or whether they should compose a separate family altogether called Cypripediaceae. Around the year 2000, molecular phylogenetics and DNA sampling have come to play an increasingly important role in classification. This has led to the conclusion that recognition of a distinct family Cypripediaceae would be inappropriate.
The subfamily Cypripedioideae is monophyletic and consists of five genera:
Cypripedium, found across much of North America, as well as in parts of Europe (one species), Africa (only in Algeria has been discovered in 2019) and Asia. The state flower of Minnesota is the showy lady's slipper (Cypripedium reginae); the pink lady's slipper (Cypripedium acaule) is the official flower of the Canadian province of Prince Edward Island.
Mexipedium, a monotypic genus, consisting of a single species that was found in a single locality in Oaxaca, Mexico.
Paphiopedilum, found in the tropical forests of southeast Asia reaching as far north as southern China. Paphiopedilum is quite easy to cultivate and therefore is popular among orchid enthusiasts. In fact, over-collection of this genus has been so extensive that many species are now sub-viable in their natural habitats.
Phragmipedium, found across northern South and Central America, is also easy to cultivate as it requires lower temperatures than Paphiopedilum, eliminating the need for a greenhouse in many areas.
Selenipedium, found in Central and South America.
Hybrids
Hybrids between the genera in this subfamily are placed in the following nothogenera:
Cyphiopedilum (Cphd.) = Cypripedium × Paphiopedilum
Cyphragmipedium (Cgd.) = Cypripedium × Phragmipedium
Phragmipaphium (Phrphm.) = Paphiopedilum × Phragmipedium
Hybrids with genera outside of the subfamily are not known as of 2017.
References
Further reading
Cox, A. V., A. M. Pridgeon, V. A. Albert, and M. W. Chase. 1997. Phylogenetics of the slipper orchids (Cypripedioideae: Orchidaceae): nuclear rDNA ITS sequences. Plant Systematics and Evolution 208: 197–223. Abstract
Pridgeon, A. M.; Cribb, P. J.; Chase, M. W. & F. N. Rasmussen (1999): Genera Orchidacearum Vol. 1, Oxford U. Press.
External links
The Slipper Orchid Alliance
SlipperOrchids.info
Asparagales subfamilies
Provincial symbols of Prince Edward Island | [
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252314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing%2C%20Science%20and%20Finance | Manufacturing, Science and Finance | Manufacturing, Science and Finance (or the Manufacturing, Science and Finance Union; almost exclusively known as MSF) was a trade union in Britain. Over eighty members of Parliament (primarily members of the Labour Party) were members.
History
The MSF was the result of a merger in January 1988 between the Association of Scientific, Technical and Managerial Staffs (ASTMS) and the Technical, Administrative and Supervisory Section (TASS). In 1991, it had 604,000 members, but this fell to 446,000 in 1996, the most rapid decline of any major British union.
In 2001 the MSF merged with the Amalgamated Engineering and Electrical Union to form Amicus. The General Secretary of MSF from 1992 until the merger with Amicus was Roger Lyons, who continued as Joint General Secretary of Amicus's MSF section. In 2007 Amicus merged with the TGWU to form Unite.
Amalgamations
Several unions amalgamated with the MSF:
1988: Church of England Children's Society Staff Association, Imperial Supervisors' Association, United Friendly Field Management Staff Association
1989: Imperial Group Staff Association
1990: Health Visitors' Association
1991: Australian Mutual Provident Society
1993: Hospital Physicists Association, National Union of Scalemakers
1994: Ceron Research Staff Association
1997: College of Health Care Chaplains
1998: Communication Managers' Association
1999: Britannic Supervisory Union, Corporation of London Staff Association, National Union of Insurance Workers, Neilson Staff Association
2000: Lloyds Registry Staff Association, Union of Textile Workers
2001: Leicester Housing Association Staff Association
Leadership
General Secretaries
1988: Clive Jenkins and Ken Gill
1988: Ken Gill
1992: Roger Lyons
Assistant General Secretaries
1988: Roger Lyons and Barbara Switzer
1992: John Chowcat and Barbara Switzer
1997: John Chowcat
1999: Post vacant
References
External links
Catalogue of the MSF archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick
Defunct trade unions of the United Kingdom
1988 establishments in the United Kingdom
Trade unions established in 1988
Trade unions disestablished in 2001 | [
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252319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek%20Simpson%20%28trade%20unionist%29 | Derek Simpson (trade unionist) | Derek Simpson (born 23 December 1944) is a British trade unionist who was the Joint-General Secretary of the UK's biggest private-sector trade union, Unite, from 2007 until 2010. He was previously the General Secretary of Amicus from 2002 until its merger with the Transport and General Workers' Union to form Unite in 2007.
Early life
Derek Simpson was born and educated in Sheffield. He was an only child with an absent father. He attended Sheffield Central Technical School (a technical school, which transferred to the Ashleigh School in Gleadless and was then demolished having merged to become Myrtle Springs School which is now Sheffield Springs Academy).
In 1987 he received an Open University BSc in Computing and Mathematics. He was appointed an honorary fellow of Sheffield Hallam University in 1999.
Career
From 1960 to 1966 he worked for Firth Brown Tools, then Balfour Darwin from 1966 to 1981, then working full-time as a union official.
AEU
He joined the Amalgamated Engineering Union (AEU) on becoming an apprentice at the age of 15. He became an AEU shop steward at Balfour Darwin in 1967 and held a number of increasingly senior union positions in workplaces where he was employed, learning his politics in what described as "the socialist republic of South Yorkshire". In 1981 he became a full-time union official, becoming the AEU's District Secretary for Sheffield. He was still working for the union in that city when he stood for the position of Joint General Secretary in 2002.
General Secretary of Amicus
Simpson was the surprise winner of the June 2002 election for the position of Joint General Secretary of the AEEU Section of Amicus. He beat Tony Blair's 'favourite trade unionist' – Sir Ken Jackson. He assumed the position of General Secretary in May 2004 following the departure of the MSF Section's JGS, Roger Lyons.
In the above election, Simpson was seen as the left candidate, and was backed by the broad left in the AEEU, now known as Amicus Unity Gazette. During this election campaign he appeared at fringe meetings of the Amicus MSF section conference in Blackpool, defying an instruction from Jackson not to attend. He was still identified with the Unity Gazette and appeared at their national meetings until 2008, when he helped launch a rival "Workers Uniting Group".
Simpson has repeatedly denied press claims, that he was part of the "Awkward Squad" of trade union leaders opposed to New Labour policies, that they perceive to be against the interests of working people. Simpson stated that he is not in the awkward squad: "I get named as such, but it's astonishing that nobody's able to back that up with any fact".
Since becoming General Secretary, he has been supportive of the links between Amicus and the Labour Party. A member of the Communist Party of Great Britain until its disbanding in 1991, he joined the Labour Party in 1994. He was involved in the negotiation that let to the 2004 Warwick Agreement, in which the Labour Party agreed to implement some of the trade unions' policies during their third term. He favoured the early departure of Tony Blair as Labour Party Leader and Prime Minister.
Joint General Secretary of Unite
On 9 October 2008, the Executive Council of Unite decided that there would be an election for the General Secretary (Amicus section), with a timetable of January/February 2009 for the election, the results to be announced in March 2009. This election was for a fixed term until December 2010. The Executive council also postponed the merger of the union and adoption of the new rule book until May 2009.
In May 2010, during confidential negotiations with British Airways under the chairmanship of conciliation service Acas to resolve an ongoing dispute, Simpson was found to be using his BlackBerry to update his Twitter account with progress of the confidential negotiations.
Personal life
Simpson met his first wife Freda when working at a greyhound track, parading the dogs and setting the traps. They married on 23 December 1967 in Sheffield. They divorced in 1974, and in 1976 Simpson married Linda Gilliver; they have two sons (born 1980 and September 1986) and a daughter (born 1982). Simpson then divorced Linda, and remarried Freda, who has two sons (born 1979 and August 1984) and a daughter (born 1977) from her previous marriage.
References
External links
A message from Unite's joint general secretaries Unite
Key players in union movement BBC News, 5 September 2007
1944 births
Living people
Trade unionists from Sheffield
Alumni of the Open University
Communist Party of Great Britain members
General Secretaries of Amicus
General Secretaries of Unite the Union
Members of the General Council of the Trades Union Congress
Unite the Union | [
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252322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges%20River | Georges River | The Georges River, also known as Tucoerah River, is an intermediate tide-dominated drowned valley estuary, located to the south and west of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
The river travels for approximately in a north and then easterly direction to its mouth at Botany Bay, about from the Tasman Sea. The Georges River is the main tributary of Botany Bay; with the Cooks River being a secondary tributary.
The total catchment area of the river is approximately and the area surrounding the river is managed by various local government authorities and NSW Government agencies.
The land adjacent to the Georges River was occupied for many thousands of years by the Tharawal and Eora peoples. They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade.
Geography
From its source east of Appin within heath habitat of Wollondilly Shire & Wollongong Local government area, the Georges River flows north through rugged sandstone gorges to the east of Campbelltown, roughly parallel to the Main South railway line, with its eastern bank forming a boundary of Holsworthy Army Base. At Glenfield it reaches the urban environment and then travels to Liverpool where the river turns east and flows past the suburbs of East Hills, Lugarno, and Blakehurst, before emptying into Botany Bay at Taren Point in the southern suburbs of Sydney, where it joins with the estuarine catchment.
Major tributaries include O'Hares Creek, Bunbury Curran Creek, Cabramatta Creek, Lennox River (proposed), Prospect Creek, Salt Pan Creek and the Woronora River. The Georges River is popular for recreational activities such as water skiing and swimming. The banks of the river along the lower reaches are marked by large inlets and indentations overlooked by steep sandstone ridges and scarps, many being home to expensive residential properties.
The Georges River features some artificial lakes in the suburb of Chipping Norton, near Liverpool. These lakes, known as the Chipping Norton Lakes, are the result of sand mining and quarrying operations in the twentieth century. The Lakes are now a popular watersports and recreational facility for the residents of the south-western suburbs of Sydney.
Liverpool Weir now forms the uppermost tidal limit and presence of salt water on the Georges River.
Georges River National Park adjoins the upper reaches of the Georges River. From Appin to Glenfield, a large corridor has been protected as part of the Georges River Regional Open Space Corridor. Council reserves allow for access to natural sections of the river at Simmo's Beach, Ingleburn Reserve, Keith Longhurst Reserve, and Frere's Crossing.
Botany Bay Community River Health Monitoring Program is a community-based initiative to monitor ecosystem health catchment.
History
Aboriginal history
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Georges River was formerly known as Tucoerah River by the traditional custodians of the area.
European history
The Georges River was given its English name in honour of King George III, by Governor Arthur Phillip. It was one of the many sites of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars, a series of wars between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the resisting Indigenous clans in the late 1700s and early 1800s.
The river was explored by Bass and Flinders in 1795 on their first voyage on the Tom Thumb after their arrival in New South Wales. The exploration led to the establishment of Bankstown .
A dam was constructed by David Lennox using convict labour at Liverpool in 1836, as a water supply to Liverpool.
In February 2007, Liverpool and Campbelltown City Council were awarded a $2 million grant from the NSW Environmental Trust under their Urban Sustainability Initiative. The grant was to allow the councils, in conjunction with Wollondilly Shire Council and the Georges River Combined Councils Committee, to develop a Comprehensive Strategic Plan focused on the rehabilitation of the catchment area.
Crossings
Bridges over the Georges River include from east to west:
Captain Cook Bridge (connecting Sans Souci to Taren Point), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
Tom Uglys Bridge (connecting Blakehurst to Sylvania), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
Old Como railway bridge, now for pedestrians and cyclists.
Como railway bridge on the Illawarra line, connecting Oatley to Como, for trains.
Alfords Point Bridge (connecting Padstow Heights to Alfords Point), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
East Hills rail bridge at East Hills, for the Airport & South Line
Voyager Point footbridge, for pedestrians and cyclists.
M5 South Western Motorway Georges River East Bridge
Milperra Bridge (Newbridge Rd connecting Moorebank to Milperra), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
Governor Macquarie Drive bridge (connecting Warwick Farm to Chipping Norton), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
Liverpool Weir - built 1836
Liverpool footbridge (now demolished which utilised the footing of the decommissioned railway bridge to Holsworthy).
Newbridge Rd (connecting Liverpool to Chipping Norton), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
M5 South Western Motorway Georges River West Bridge
Airport & South Line rail bridge (connecting Holsworthy to Glenfield), for trains.
Cambridge Ave Causeway (connecting Holsworthy to Glenfield), for cars.
King Falls Bridge
Fish
The Georges River is a popular area for recreational fishing. Species present in the river include bass, bream, whiting, yellowtail, jewfish and flathead. The river is also host to a number of commercial oyster farms. The upper ends of the Georges River are abundant with Bass during the summer months and during the winter months these bass migrate down to the lower ends of the river towards the salt water to breed. Waste water inflows to the river are carefully managed to maintain the estuarine habitat.
See also
Dharawal National Park
List of rivers in Australia
List of rivers in New South Wales (A-K)
Rivers of New South Wales
Geography of Sydney
References
External links
[CC-By-SA] Series of articles about Georges River history
[CC-By-SA]
[CC-By-SA]
Guide to Sydney Rivers site
Botany Bay
Rivers of Sydney | [
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] |
252324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad%20left | Broad left | Broad Left is a coalition of leftist members, usually involving independents, members of the Labour Party (UK) (although some people deny that the Labour Party still constitute as "broad left"), and members of organised revolutionary leftist movements within a trade union, or members of a political party that appeals to a wide range of leftist ideologies, such as Left Unity (UK).
References
Sources
Political organisations based in the United Kingdom | [
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252326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity%20Gazette | Unity Gazette | Unity Gazette is a broad left caucus group in the Amicus trade union in the United Kingdom. It includes activists from the former Manufacturing, Science and Finance (MSF) and Amalgamated Engineering and Electrical Union (AEEU) trade unions which merged to form Amicus. The broad left of AEEU was also known as Unity Gazette or Engineering Gazette. Recent mergers between Amicus and UNIFI and GPMU have resulted in new members from those unions.
Unity Gazette is often known as "the Gazette" or "the Left" by supporters and opponents alike.
Membership of Unity Gazette is open to any lay member or employee of Amicus who shares its aims, regardless of any position they may hold within the union.
Grass-roots activity of the Gazette is organised on a regional basis, each region being permitted a high degree of autonomy in how it organises its own activities. In some regions, candidates for membership must be proposed, seconded and approved by the attendees at the regional meeting, while other regions grant membership immediately on request.
National Gazette policy is decided at National Meetings, which normally take place every three months in Preston, Lancashire. At all other times the Editorial Committee are empowered to run the affairs of the national Gazette.
Activities of Unity Gazette include:
Regular national and regional meetings to decide policy and lists of candidates, which all members are then mandated to support.
Encouragement of members who belong to the Labour Party to stand for election to the Amicus Political Committees, which are only open to Labour Party members.
Publicising and encouraging support for Amicus campaigns and industrial disputes.
The Gazette was instrumental in campaigning for two rule changes which were approved by the union's 2005 Policy and Rules Conference. The first introduced area committees, consisting of workplace representatives from a given geographical area. Such structures existed in the AEEU. The second, much more controversial rule change, introduced election of full-time officers rather than appointment; although an election was held for the Regional Secretary of the Yorkshire and Humberside, it is highly unlikely that any more elections of officers will take place in Amicus, and there is no provision for election of officers within the new union formed by the merger of Amicus and the Transport and General Workers' Union.
At the Unity Gazette Annual General Meeting held on 2007-03-10, members voted to support a statement of intent to merge with the TGWU Broad Left organisation at the earliest opportunity, to maximise the role of both organisations' activists in the new union.
Unity Gazette is completely self-financing, by means of members' donations.
The name Unity Gazette derives from a newspaper of the same name which had a regular print run and was circulated within AEEU workplaces. This paper was not printed for many years except as a special edition for conferences and in response to industrial disputes. In April 2006 the Unity Gazette was revived as a monthly newsletter which is available on the website and is delivered to supporters by email or post.
Another caucus group within the union, with different aims, is ATU Network. That group seeks to attract Labour-supporting members of Amicus who are sympathetic to Blairism. It is currently smaller than the Gazette, with a much lower profile. However it is believed to have opposed the Gazette's campaign for election of full-time officers.
See also
ATU Network
External links
National website of Amicus Unity Gazette
North West Amicus Unity Gazette
Yorkshire & Humberside Unity Gazette
Labour movement in the United Kingdom
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252329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequent%20calculus | Sequent calculus | In mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a style of formal logical argumentation in which every line of a proof is a conditional tautology (called a sequent by Gerhard Gentzen) instead of an unconditional tautology. Each conditional tautology is inferred from other conditional tautologies on earlier lines in a formal argument according to rules and procedures of inference, giving a better approximation to the natural style of deduction used by mathematicians than to David Hilbert's earlier style of formal logic, in which every line was an unconditional tautology. More subtle distinctions may exist; for example, propositions may implicitly depend upon non-logical axioms. In that case, sequents signify conditional theorems in a first-order language rather than conditional tautologies.
Sequent calculus is one of several extant styles of proof calculus for expressing line-by-line logical arguments.
Hilbert style. Every line is an unconditional tautology (or theorem).
Gentzen style. Every line is a conditional tautology (or theorem) with zero or more conditions on the left.
Natural deduction. Every (conditional) line has exactly one asserted proposition on the right.
Sequent calculus. Every (conditional) line has zero or more asserted propositions on the right.
In other words, natural deduction and sequent calculus systems are particular distinct kinds of Gentzen-style systems. Hilbert-style systems typically have a very small number of inference rules, relying more on sets of axioms. Gentzen-style systems typically have very few axioms, if any, relying more on sets of rules.
Gentzen-style systems have significant practical and theoretical advantages compared to Hilbert-style systems. For example, both natural deduction and sequent calculus systems facilitate the elimination and introduction of universal and existential quantifiers so that unquantified logical expressions can be manipulated according to the much simpler rules of propositional calculus. In a typical argument, quantifiers are eliminated, then propositional calculus is applied to unquantified expressions (which typically contain free variables), and then the quantifiers are reintroduced. This very much parallels the way in which mathematical proofs are carried out in practice by mathematicians. Predicate calculus proofs are generally much easier to discover with this approach, and are often shorter. Natural deduction systems are more suited to practical theorem-proving. Sequent calculus systems are more suited to theoretical analysis.
Overview
In proof theory and mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a family of formal systems sharing a certain style of inference and certain formal properties. The first sequent calculi systems, LK and LJ, were introduced in 1934/1935 by Gerhard Gentzen as a tool for studying natural deduction in first-order logic (in classical and intuitionistic versions, respectively). Gentzen's so-called "Main Theorem" (Hauptsatz) about LK and LJ was the cut-elimination theorem, a result with far-reaching meta-theoretic consequences, including consistency. Gentzen further demonstrated the power and flexibility of this technique a few years later, applying a cut-elimination argument to give a (transfinite) proof of the consistency of Peano arithmetic, in surprising response to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Since this early work, sequent calculi, also called Gentzen systems, and the general concepts relating to them, have been widely applied in the fields of proof theory, mathematical logic, and automated deduction.
Hilbert-style deduction systems
One way to classify different styles of deduction systems is to look at the form of judgments in the system, i.e., which things may appear as the conclusion of a (sub)proof. The simplest judgment form is used in Hilbert-style deduction systems, where a judgment has the form
where is any formula of first-order logic (or whatever logic the deduction system applies to, e.g., propositional calculus or a higher-order logic or a modal logic). The theorems are those formulae that appear as the concluding judgment in a valid proof. A Hilbert-style system needs no distinction between formulae and judgments; we make one here solely for comparison with the cases that follow.
The price paid for the simple syntax of a Hilbert-style system is that complete formal proofs tend to get extremely long. Concrete arguments about proofs in such a system almost always appeal to the deduction theorem. This leads to the idea of including the deduction theorem as a formal rule in the system, which happens in natural deduction.
Natural deduction systems
In natural deduction, judgments have the shape
where the 's and are again formulae and . Permutations of the 's are immaterial. In other words, a judgment consists of a list (possibly empty) of formulae on the left-hand side of a turnstile symbol "", with a single formula on the right-hand side. The theorems are those formulae such that (with an empty left-hand side) is the conclusion of a valid proof.
(In some presentations of natural deduction, the s and the turnstile are not written down explicitly; instead a two-dimensional notation from which they can be inferred is used.)
The standard semantics of a judgment in natural deduction is that it asserts that whenever , , etc., are all true, will also be true. The judgments
and
are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either one may be extended to a proof of the other.
Sequent calculus systems
Finally, sequent calculus generalizes the form of a natural deduction judgment to
a syntactic object called a sequent. The formulas on left-hand side of the turnstile are called the antecedent, and the formulas on right-hand side are called the succedent or consequent; together they are called cedents or sequents. Again, and are formulae, and and are nonnegative integers, that is, the left-hand-side or the right-hand-side (or neither or both) may be empty. As in natural deduction, theorems are those where is the conclusion of a valid proof.
The standard semantics of a sequent is an assertion that whenever every is true, at least one will also be true. Thus the empty sequent, having both cedents empty, is false. One way to express this is that a comma to the left of the turnstile should be thought of as an "and", and a comma to the right of the turnstile should be thought of as an (inclusive) "or". The sequents
and
are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either sequent may be extended to a proof of the other sequent.
At first sight, this extension of the judgment form may appear to be a strange complication—it is not motivated by an obvious shortcoming of natural deduction, and it is initially confusing that the comma seems to mean entirely different things on the two sides of the turnstile. However, in a classical context the semantics of the sequent can also (by propositional tautology) be expressed either as
(at least one of the As is false, or one of the Bs is true)
or as
(it cannot be the case that all of the As are true and all of the Bs are false).
In these formulations, the only difference between formulae on either side of the turnstile is that one side is negated. Thus, swapping left for right in a sequent corresponds to negating all of the constituent formulae. This means that a symmetry such as De Morgan's laws, which manifests itself as logical negation on the semantic level, translates directly into a left-right symmetry of sequents—and indeed, the inference rules in sequent calculus for dealing with conjunction (∧) are mirror images of those dealing with disjunction (∨).
Many logicians feel that this symmetric presentation offers a deeper insight in the structure of the logic than other styles of proof system, where the classical duality of negation is not as apparent in the rules.
Distinction between natural deduction and sequent calculus
Gentzen asserted a sharp distinction between his single-output natural deduction systems (NK and NJ) and his multiple-output sequent calculus systems (LK and LJ). He wrote that the intuitionistic natural deduction system NJ was somewhat ugly. He said that the special role of the excluded middle in the classical natural deduction system NK is removed in the classical sequent calculus system LK. He said that the sequent calculus LJ gave more symmetry than natural deduction NJ in the case of intuitionistic logic, as also in the case of classical logic (LK versus NK). Then he said that in addition to these reasons, the sequent calculus with multiple succedent formulas is intended particularly for his principal theorem ("Hauptsatz").
Origin of word "sequent"
The word "sequent" is taken from the word "Sequenz" in Gentzen's 1934 paper. Kleene makes the following comment on the translation into English: "Gentzen says 'Sequenz', which we translate as 'sequent', because we have already used 'sequence' for any succession of objects, where the German is 'Folge'."
Proving logical formulas
Reduction trees
Sequent calculus can be seen as a tool for proving formulas in propositional logic, similar to the method of analytic tableaux. It gives a series of steps which allows one to reduce the problem of proving a logical formula to simpler and simpler formulas until one arrives at trivial ones.
Consider the following formula:
This is written in the following form, where the proposition that needs to be proven is to the right of the turnstile symbol :
Now, instead of proving this from the axioms, it is enough to assume the premise of the implication and then try to prove its conclusion. Hence one moves to the following sequent:
Again the right hand side includes an implication, whose premise can further be assumed so that only its conclusion needs to be proven:
Since the arguments in the left-hand side are assumed to be related by conjunction, this can be replaced by the following:
This is equivalent to proving the conclusion in both cases of the disjunction on the first argument on the left. Thus we may split the sequent to two, where we now have to prove each separately:
In the case of the first judgment, we rewrite as and split the sequent again to get:
The second sequent is done; the first sequent can be further simplified into:
This process can always be continued until there are only atomic formulas in each side.
The process can be graphically described by a rooted tree graph, as depicted on the right. The root of the tree is the formula we wish to prove; the leaves consist of atomic formulas only. The tree is known as a reduction tree.
The items to the left of the turnstile are understood to be connected by conjunction, and those to the right by disjunction. Therefore, when both consist only of atomic symbols, the sequent is accepted axiomatically (and always true) if and only if at least one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left.
Following are the rules by which one proceeds along the tree. Whenever one sequent is split into two, the tree vertex has two child vertices, and the tree is branched. Additionally, one may freely change the order of the arguments in each side; Γ and Δ stand for possible additional arguments.
The usual term for the horizontal line used in Gentzen-style layouts for natural deduction is inference line.
Starting with any formula in propositional logic, by a series of steps, the right side of the turnstile can be processed until it includes only atomic symbols. Then, the same is done for the left side. Since every logical operator appears in one of the rules above, and is removed by the rule, the process terminates when no logical operators remain: The formula has been decomposed.
Thus, the sequents in the leaves of the trees include only atomic symbols, which are either provable by the axiom or not, according to whether one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left.
It is easy to see that the steps in the tree preserve the semantic truth value of the formulas implied by them, with conjunction understood between the tree's different branches whenever there is a split. It is also obvious that an axiom is provable if and only if it is true for every assignment of truth values to the atomic symbols. Thus this system is sound and complete for classical propositional logic.
Relation to standard axiomatizations
Sequent calculus is related to other axiomatizations of propositional calculus, such as Frege's propositional calculus or Jan Łukasiewicz's axiomatization (itself a part of the standard Hilbert system): Every formula that can be proven in these has a reduction tree.
This can be shown as follows: Every proof in propositional calculus uses only axioms and the inference rules. Each use of an axiom scheme yields a true logical formula, and can thus be proven in sequent calculus; examples for these are shown below. The only inference rule in the systems mentioned above is modus ponens, which is implemented by the cut rule.
The system LK
This section introduces the rules of the sequent calculus LK as introduced by Gentzen in 1934. (LK, unintuitively, stands for "klassische Prädikatenlogik".)
A (formal) proof in this calculus is a sequence of sequents, where each of the sequents is derivable from sequents appearing earlier in the sequence by using one of the rules below.
Inference rules
The following notation will be used:
known as the turnstile, separates the assumptions on the left from the propositions on the right
and denote formulae of first-order predicate logic (one may also restrict this to propositional logic),
, and are finite (possibly empty) sequences of formulae (in fact, the order of formulae does not matter; see subsection Structural Rules), called contexts,
when on the left of the , the sequence of formulas is considered conjunctively (all assumed to hold at the same time),
while on the right of the , the sequence of formulas is considered disjunctively (at least one of the formulas must hold for any assignment of variables),
denotes an arbitrary term,
and denote variables.
a variable is said to occur free within a formula if it occurs outside the scope of quantifiers or .
denotes the formula that is obtained by substituting the term for every free occurrence of the variable in formula with the restriction that the term must be free for the variable in (i.e., no occurrence of any variable in becomes bound in ).
, , , , , : These six stand for the two versions of each of three structural rules; one for use on the left ('L') of a , and the other on its right ('R'). The rules are abbreviated 'W' for Weakening (Left/Right), 'C' for Contraction, and 'P' for Permutation.
Note that, contrary to the rules for proceeding along the reduction tree presented above, the following rules are for moving in the opposite directions, from axioms to theorems. Thus they are exact mirror-images of the rules above, except that here symmetry is not implicitly assumed, and rules regarding quantification are added.
Restrictions: In the rules and , the variable must not occur free anywhere in the respective lower sequents.
An intuitive explanation
The above rules can be divided into two major groups: logical and structural ones. Each of the logical rules introduces a new logical formula either on the left or on the right of the turnstile . In contrast, the structural rules operate on the structure of the sequents, ignoring the exact shape of the formulae. The two exceptions to this general scheme are the axiom of identity (I) and the rule of (Cut).
Although stated in a formal way, the above rules allow for a very intuitive reading in terms of classical logic. Consider, for example, the rule . It says that, whenever one can prove that can be concluded from some sequence of formulae that contain , then one can also conclude from the (stronger) assumption that holds. Likewise, the rule states that, if and suffice to conclude , then from alone one can either still conclude or must be false, i.e. holds. All the rules can be interpreted in this way.
For an intuition about the quantifier rules, consider the rule . Of course concluding that holds just from the fact that is true is not in general possible. If, however, the variable y is not mentioned elsewhere (i.e. it can still be chosen freely, without influencing the other formulae), then one may assume, that holds for any value of y. The other rules should then be pretty straightforward.
Instead of viewing the rules as descriptions for legal derivations in predicate logic, one may also consider them as instructions for the construction of a proof for a given statement. In this case the rules can be read bottom-up; for example, says that, to prove that follows from the assumptions and , it suffices to prove that can be concluded from and can be concluded from , respectively. Note that, given some antecedent, it is not clear how this is to be split into and . However, there are only finitely many possibilities to be checked since the antecedent by assumption is finite. This also illustrates how proof theory can be viewed as operating on proofs in a combinatorial fashion: given proofs for both and , one can construct a proof for .
When looking for some proof, most of the rules offer more or less direct recipes of how to do this. The rule of cut is different: it states that, when a formula can be concluded and this formula may also serve as a premise for concluding other statements, then the formula can be "cut out" and the respective derivations are joined. When constructing a proof bottom-up, this creates the problem of guessing (since it does not appear at all below). The cut-elimination theorem is thus crucial to the applications of sequent calculus in automated deduction: it states that all uses of the cut rule can be eliminated from a proof, implying that any provable sequent can be given a cut-free proof.
The second rule that is somewhat special is the axiom of identity (I). The intuitive reading of this is obvious: every formula proves itself. Like the cut rule, the axiom of identity is somewhat redundant: the completeness of atomic initial sequents states that the rule can be restricted to atomic formulas without any loss of provability.
Observe that all rules have mirror companions, except the ones for implication. This reflects the fact that the usual language of first-order logic does not include the "is not implied by" connective that would be the De Morgan dual of implication. Adding such a connective with its natural rules would make the calculus completely left-right symmetric.
Example derivations
Here is the derivation of "", known as
the Law of excluded middle (tertium non datur in Latin).
Next is the proof of a simple fact involving quantifiers. Note that the converse is not true, and its falsity can be seen when attempting to derive it bottom-up, because an existing free variable cannot be used in substitution in the rules and .
For something more interesting we shall prove . It is straightforward to find the derivation, which exemplifies the usefulness of LK in automated proving.
These derivations also emphasize the strictly formal structure of the sequent calculus. For example, the logical rules as defined above always act on a formula immediately adjacent to the turnstile, such that the permutation rules are necessary. Note, however, that this is in part an artifact of the presentation, in the original style of Gentzen. A common simplification involves the use of multisets of formulas in the interpretation of the sequent, rather than sequences, eliminating the need for an explicit permutation rule. This corresponds to shifting commutativity of assumptions and derivations outside the sequent calculus, whereas LK embeds it within the system itself.
Relation to analytic tableaux
For certain formulations (i.e. variants) of the sequent calculus, a proof in such a calculus is isomorphic to an upside-down, closed analytic tableau.
Structural rules
The structural rules deserve some additional discussion.
Weakening (W) allows the addition of arbitrary elements to a sequence. Intuitively, this is allowed in the antecedent because we can always restrict the scope of our proof (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all black cars have wheels); and in the succedent because we can always allow for alternative conclusions (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all cars have either wheels or wings).
Contraction (C) and Permutation (P) assure that neither the order (P) nor the multiplicity of occurrences (C) of elements of the sequences matters. Thus, one could instead of sequences also consider sets.
The extra effort of using sequences, however, is justified since part or all of the structural rules may be omitted. Doing so, one obtains the so-called substructural logics.
Properties of the system LK
This system of rules can be shown to be both sound and complete with respect to first-order logic, i.e. a statement follows semantically from a set of premises if and only if the sequent can be derived by the above rules.
In the sequent calculus, the rule of cut is admissible. This result is also referred to as Gentzen's Hauptsatz ("Main Theorem").
Variants
The above rules can be modified in various ways:
Minor structural alternatives
There is some freedom of choice regarding the technical details of how sequents and structural rules are formalized. As long as every derivation in LK can be effectively transformed to a derivation using the new rules and vice versa, the modified rules may still be called LK.
First of all, as mentioned above, the sequents can be viewed to consist of sets or multisets. In this case, the rules for permuting and (when using sets) contracting formulae are obsolete.
The rule of weakening will become admissible, when the axiom (I) is changed, such that any sequent of the form can be concluded. This means that proves in any context. Any weakening that appears in a derivation can then be performed right at the start. This may be a convenient change when constructing proofs bottom-up.
Independent of these one may also change the way in which contexts are split within the rules: In the cases , and the left context is somehow split into and when going upwards. Since contraction allows for the duplication of these, one may assume that the full context is used in both branches of the derivation. By doing this, one assures that no important premises are lost in the wrong branch. Using weakening, the irrelevant parts of the context can be eliminated later.
Absurdity
One can introduce , the absurdity constant representing false, with the axiom:
Or if, as described above, weakening is to be an admissible rule, then with the axiom:
With , negation can be subsumed as a special case of implication, via the definition .
Substructural logics
Alternatively, one may restrict or forbid the use of some of the structural rules. This yields a variety of substructural logic systems. They are generally weaker than LK (i.e., they have fewer theorems), and thus not complete with respect to the standard semantics of first-order logic. However, they have other interesting properties that have led to applications in theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.
Intuitionistic sequent calculus: System LJ
Surprisingly, some small changes in the rules of LK suffice to turn it into a proof system for intuitionistic logic. To this end, one has to restrict to sequents with at most one formula on the right-hand side, and modify the rules to maintain this invariant. For example, is reformulated as follows (where C is an arbitrary formula):
The resulting system is called LJ. It is sound and complete with respect to intuitionistic logic and admits a similar cut-elimination proof. This can be used in proving disjunction and existence properties.
In fact, the only two rules in LK that need to be restricted to single-formula consequents are and (and the latter can be seen as a special case of the former, via as described above). When multi-formula consequents are interpreted as disjunctions, all of the other inference rules of LK are actually derivable in LJ, while the offending rule is
This amounts to the propositional formula , a classical tautology that is not constructively valid.
See also
Cirquent calculus
Nested sequent calculus
Resolution (logic)
Proof theory
Notes
References
External links
A Brief Diversion: Sequent Calculus
Interactive tutorial of the Sequent Calculus
Proof theory
Logical calculi
Automated theorem proving | [
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252332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Cotton | Billy Cotton | William Edward Cotton (6 May 1899 – 25 March 1969) as Billy Cotton was an English band leader and entertainer, one of the few whose orchestras survived the British dance band era. Cotton is now mainly remembered as a 1950s and 1960s radio and television personality, but his musical career had begun in the 1920s. In his younger years, Billy Cotton was also an amateur footballer for Brentford (and later, for the then Athenian league club Wimbledon), an accomplished racing driver and the owner of a Gipsy Moth, which he piloted himself. His autobiography, I Did It My Way, was published in 1970, a year after his death.
Life and career
Born in Smith Square, Westminster, London, England, to Joseph and Susan Cotton, Cotton was a choirboy and started his musical career as a drummer. He enlisted in the Royal Fusiliers by falsifying his age and saw service in the First World War in Malta and Egypt before landing at Gallipoli in the middle of an artillery barrage. He was recommended for a commission and learned to fly Bristol Fighter aircraft. Not yet 19 years old, he flew solo for the first time in 1918, on the day the Royal Flying Corps became the Royal Air Force. After the end of the war, in the early 1920s, he worked at several jobs, including as a bus driver, before setting up his own orchestra, the London Savannah Band, in 1924.
At first a conventional dance band, the London Savannah Band gradually tended towards music hall/vaudeville entertainment, introducing visual and verbal humour in between songs. Famous musicians who played in Billy Cotton's band during the 1920s and 1930s included Arthur Rosebery, Syd Lipton and Nat Gonella. The band was also noted for their African American trombonist and tap dancer, Ellis Jackson. Their signature tune was "Somebody Stole My Gal", and they made numerous commercial recordings for Decca.
During the Second World War Cotton and his band toured France with the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA). After the war, he started his successful Sunday lunchtime radio show on BBC, the Billy Cotton Band Show, which ran from 1949 to 1968. In the 1950s, composer Lionel Bart contributed comedy songs to the show. It regularly opened with the band's signature tune and Cotton's call of "Wakey Wakey". From 1957, it was also broadcast on BBC television. Cotton often also provided vocals on many of his band's recordings, in addition to work as a vocalist on recordings that did not feature his band.
As a racing driver, he raced at Brooklands between the wars but his finest moment came in 1949 when he finished eighth in the 1949 British Grand Prix, sharing an English Racing Automobiles with David Hampshire.
Personal life
Cotton married Mabel E. Gregory in 1921. They had two sons, Ted and Sir Bill Cotton, who later became the BBC's managing director of television. In 1962, Billy Cotton suffered a stroke. He died in 1969 while watching a boxing match at Wembley Arena.
Billy Cotton was the great-great-uncle of TV and radio presenter Fearne Cotton.
Selected filmography
The First Mrs. Fraser (1932)
Variety (1935)
Music Hall Parade (1939)
Bibliography
I Did It My Way, Autobiography, 1970, Publisher: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. SBN 245 59941 x.
The Greatest Billy Cotton Band Show, John Maxwell, 1976, Publisher: Jupiter Books (London) Ltd. SBN 904041 31x.
References
External links
1899 births
1969 deaths
Wimbledon F.C. players
Billy Cotton Band Show
Brentford F.C. players
British Army personnel of World War I
Dance band bandleaders
English bandleaders
English racing drivers
Grand Prix drivers
Footballers from Lambeth
Royal Fusiliers soldiers
Royal Flying Corps officers
Musicians from London
20th-century British conductors (music)
20th-century English musicians
Association footballers not categorized by position
English footballers
Royal Air Force personnel of World War I
Royal Air Force officers | [
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252335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osceola | Osceola | Osceola (1804 – January 30, 1838, Asi-yahola in Creek), named Billy Powell at birth in Alabama, became an influential leader of the Seminole people in Florida. His mother was Muscogee, and his great-grandfather was a Scotsman, James McQueen. He was reared by his mother in the Creek (Muscogee) tradition. When he was a child, they migrated to Florida with other Red Stick refugees, led by a relative, Peter McQueen, after their group's defeat in 1814 in the Creek Wars. There they became part of what was known as the Seminole people.
In 1836, Osceola led a small group of warriors in the Seminole resistance during the Second Seminole War, when the United States tried to remove the tribe from their lands in Florida to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. He became an adviser to Micanopy, the principal chief of the Seminole from 1825 to 1849. Osceola led the Seminole resistance to removal until he was captured on October 21, 1837, by deception, under a flag of truce, when he went to a site near Fort Peyton for peace talks. The United States first imprisoned him at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, then transported him to Fort Moultrie in Charleston, South Carolina. He died there a few months later of causes reported as an internal infection or malaria. Because of his renown, Osceola attracted visitors in prison, including renowned artist George Catlin, who painted perhaps the most well-known portrait of the Seminole leader.
Early life
Osceola was named Billy Powell at his birth in 1804 in the Creek village of Talisi, which means "Old Town". The village site, now the city of Tallassee, Alabama, was located on the banks of the Tallapoosa River about upstream from Fort Toulouse where the Tallapoosa and the Coosa rivers meet to form the Alabama River. The residents of the original Talisi village and of the current city of Tallassee were a mixture of several ethnicities. The Muscogee Creek were among the Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands, and some of them held enslaved black people. Powell was believed to have ancestors from all of these groups. His mother was Polly Coppinger, a mixed-race Creek woman, and his father was most likely William Powell, a Scottish trader.
Polly was also of Muscogee and European ancestry, as the daughter of Ann McQueen and Jose Coppinger. Because the Muscogee had a matrilineal kinship system, Polly and Ann's children were all born into their mother's clan. They were reared by their mothers and their maternal male relatives following Muscogee cultural practices, and they gained their social status from their mother's people. Ann McQueen was also mixed-race Muscogee Creek; her father, James McQueen, was Scottish. Ann was probably the sister or aunt of Peter McQueen, a prominent Muscogee leader and warrior. Like his mother, Billy Powell was raised in the Muscogee Creek confederacy.
Billy Powell's maternal grandfather, James McQueen, was a ship-jumping Scottish sailor who in 1716 became the first recorded white person to trade with the Muscogee Creek Confederacy in Alabama. He stayed in the area as a fur trader and married into a Muscogee family, becoming closely involved with these people. He was buried in 1811 at the Indian cemetery in Franklin, Alabama, near a Methodist missionary church for the Muscogee.
In 1814, after the Red Stick Muscogee Creeks were defeated by United States forces, Polly took Osceola and moved with other Muscogee refugees from Alabama to Florida, where they joined the Seminole. In adulthood, as part of the Seminole, Powell was given his name Osceola ( or ). This is an anglicized form of the Creek Asi-yahola (pronounced ); the combination of asi, the ceremonial black drink made from the yaupon holly, and yahola, meaning "shout" or "shouter".
In 1821, the United States acquired Florida from Spain, and more European-American settlers started moving in, encroaching on the Seminoles' territory. After early military skirmishes and the signing of the 1823 Treaty of Moultrie Creek, by which the US seized the northern Seminole lands, Osceola and his family moved with the Seminole deeper into the unpopulated wilds of central and southern Florida.
As an adult, Osceola took two wives, as did some other high-ranking Muscogee and Seminole leaders. With them, he had at least five children. One of his wives was black, and Osceola fiercely opposed the enslavement of free people. Lt. John T. Sprague mentions in his 1848 history The Florida War that Osceola had a wife named "Che-cho-ter" (Morning Dew), who bore him four children.
1830s resistance and war leader
Through the 1820s and the turn of the decade, American settlers continued pressuring the US government to remove the Seminole from Florida to make way for their desired agricultural development. In 1832, a few Seminole chiefs signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing, by which they agreed to give up their Florida lands in exchange for lands west of the Mississippi River in Indian Territory. According to legend, Osceola stabbed the treaty with his knife, although there are no contemporary reports of this. Donald L. Fixico, an American Indian historian, says he made a research trip to the National Archives to see the original Treaty of Fort Gibson (also known as the Treaty of Payne's Landing), and that upon close inspection, he observed that it had "a small triangular hole shaped like the point of a knife blade".
Five of the most important Seminole chiefs, including Micanopy of the Alachua Seminole, did not agree to removal. In retaliation, the US Indian agent, Wiley Thompson, declared that those chiefs were deposed from their positions. As US relations with the Seminole deteriorated, Thompson forbade the sale of guns and ammunition to them. Osceola, a young warrior rising to prominence, resented this ban. He felt it equated the Seminole with slaves, who were forbidden by law to carry arms.
Thompson considered Osceola to be a friend and gave him a rifle. Osceola had a habit of barging into Thompson's office and shouting complaints at him. On one occasion Osceola quarreled with Thompson, who had the warrior locked up at Fort King for two nights until he agreed to be more respectful. In order to secure his release, Osceola agreed to sign the Treaty of Payne's Landing and to bring his followers into the fort. After his humiliating imprisonment, Osceola secretly prepared vengeance against Thompson.
On December 28, 1835, Osceola, with the same rifle Thompson gave him, killed the Indian agent. Osceola and his followers shot six others outside Fort King, while another group of Seminole ambushed and killed a column of US Army, more than 100 troops, who were marching from Fort Brooke to Fort King. Americans called this event the Dade Massacre. These nearly simultaneous attacks catalyzed the Second Seminole War with the United States.
Capture and death
On October 21, 1837, Osceola and 81 of his followers were captured by General Joseph Hernández on the orders of General Thomas Jesup, under a white flag of truce, when they went for peace talks to Fort Peyton near St. Augustine. He was initially imprisoned at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, before being transferred to Fort Moultrie on Sullivans Island, outside Charleston, South Carolina. Osceola's capture by deceit caused a national uproar. General Jesup's treacherous act and the administration were condemned by many congressional leaders and vilified by international press. Jesup suffered a loss of reputation that lasted for the rest of his life; his betrayal of the truce flag has been described as "one of the most disgraceful acts in American military history."
That December, Osceola and other Seminole prisoners were moved to Fort Moultrie. They were visited by various townspeople. The portraitists George Catlin, W. M. Laning, and Robert John Curtis, the three artists known to have painted Osceola from life, persuaded the Seminole leader to allow his portrait to be painted despite his being gravely ill. Osceola and Curtis developed a close friendship, conversing at length during the painting sessions; Curtis painted two oil portraits of Osceola, one of which remains in the Charleston Museum. These paintings have inspired numerous widely distributed prints and engravings, and cigar store figures were also based on them.
Osceola, having suffered from chronic malaria since 1836, and having acute tonsillitis as well, developed an abscess and died of quinsy on January 30, 1838, three months after his capture. He was buried with military honors at Fort Moultrie.
Legacy and honors
Numerous landmarks, including Osceola counties in Florida, Iowa, and Michigan, were named after him.
The town of Osceola, New York, is named after him. The name was selected by Anna Maria Jay, the granddaughter of John Jay.
Osceola, Indiana, a town
Osceola, Iowa, county seat of Clarke County
Osceola, Wisconsin, a village
Osceola Township, Renville County, Minnesota
Florida's Osceola National Forest was named for him.
Mount Osceola, located in the White Mountains of New Hampshire.
Two lakes in Florida named Osceola, one located on the University of Miami campus in Coral Gables, and another in Winter Park.
Battery Osceola at Fort Taylor, Key West, Florida, is named after him.
Osceola Hall, a dormitory at Florida State University.
Ocilla, a small town in southern Georgia, may have been named after him.
The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
Osceola is the symbol for Florida State University.
Descendants
Chairman Joe Dan Osceola (1936–2019), ambassador of the Seminole Tribe, was Osceola's great-great-great grandson.
Relics
According to the oral tradition of his descendants, Dr. Frederick Weedon was alone with the body and cut off Osceola's head, placing it in the coffin with the scarf that Osceola had customarily worn being wrapped around the neck, and immediately before the funeral ceremony removed the head and shut the coffin's lid. Weedon kept the head for himself, as well as other objects belonging to Osceola, including a brass pipe and a silver concho. Capt. Pitcairn Morrison, the U.S. Army officer in charge of the Seminole prisoners who had been transported with Osceola, made a last-minute decision to take other items belonging to Osceola. The historical evidence suggests that it was Morrison who decided that a death mask should be made, a European-American custom at the time for prominent persons, but it was done without the permission of Osceola's people. An acquaintance of Morrison, Dr. Benjamin Strobel, a native of Charleston, made a plaster cast of Osceola's face and upper torso. The process of "pulling" the first mold, which was soon displayed in the window of a Charleston drugstore, destroyed the original cast. Weedon apparently preserved Osceola's head in a large jar of alcohol and took it to St. Augustine, where he exhibited it in the family drugstore.
Captain Pitcairn Morrison sent the death mask and some other objects collected by Weedon to an army officer in Washington. By 1885, the death mask and some of Osceola's belongings were being held in the anthropology collection of the Smithsonian Institution. The death mask is currently housed in the Luce collection of the New-York Historical Society.
In 1966, Miami businessman Otis W. Shriver claimed he had dug up Osceola's grave and put his bones into a bank vault to rebury them at a tourist site at the Rainbow Springs in Marion County. Shriver traveled around the state in 1967 to gather support for his project. Archaeologists later proved that Shriver had dug up animal remains; Osceola's body was still in its coffin.
In 1979 the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma bought Osceola's bandolier and other personal items from a Sotheby's auction. Because of the chief's significance, over time some people have created forgeries of Osceola's belongings. Rumors persist that his embalmed head has been found in various locations.
Related media
Literature
Osceola (1858) by Thomas Mayne Reid
In the Wilds of Florida: A Tale of Warfare and Hunting (1880) by William Henry G. Kingston
"Osceola" (1889), a poem by Walt Whitman, featured in Leaves of Grass.
"Osceola" was an early pen name used by Danish author Karen Blixen (1885–1962), known primarily for her novels and stories set in Kenya during the colonial period. She also published as Isak Dinesen.
War Chief of the Seminoles (1954), a children's book by May McNeer, is part of the Landmark Books series.
Osceola, Häuptling der Seminole-Indianer (1963) by Ernie Hearting, is a German novel featuring Osceola and based on historical sources.
In the alternate history novel The Probability Broach (1979), part of the North American Confederacy Series by L. Neil Smith, the United States becomes a Libertarian State after a successful Whiskey Rebellion and execution of George Washington. The figure of Osceola is featured as the ninth President of the North American Confederacy, serving from 1842 to 1848.
A People's History of the United States (1980) by Howard Zinn
Tourist Season (1986) and Nature Girl (2006), mystery novels by Carl Hiaasen, each give an abbreviated history of Osceola's capture and imprisonment, as well as that of his contemporary, Thlocklo Tustenuggee.
Light a Distant Fire (1988) by Lucia St. Clair Robson
Captive (1996), a historical novel by Heather Graham, features Osceola as one of the protagonists.
Freedom Land: A Novel (2003) by Martin L. Marcus. In this version, Osceola was the son of a respected British officer and his Creek consort.
Osceola/ His Capture and Seminole Legends (2010), non-fiction by William Ryan
Osceola "Ossie" Bigtree is the name of a character in Karen Russell's novel Swamplandia! (2011), about a family of alligator wrestlers who work at a tourist attraction in Florida. It was developed from her short story "Ava Wrestles the Alligator".
Films
In the mid-1930s Nathanael West wrote a 17-page film treatment entitled Osceola but failed to sell it to a studio.
Seminole (1953), highly fictionalized American western film directed by Budd Boetticher and starring Anthony Quinn as Osceola.
Naked in the Sun (1957), the life of Osceola and the Second Seminole War, starring James Craig as Osceola.
Osceola – Die rechte Hand der Vergeltung (1971) by Konrad Petzold, an East German western with Gojko Mitić as the Native American leader.
Television, music, sports, and art
The Sedgeford Hall Portrait (c. 1830), once thought to be of Pocahontas and her mixed-race son, Thomas Rolfe, is now believed to be of Pe-o-ka (a wife of Osceola) and their son.
1957 Jim Bowie TV-series episode "Osceola". When the army attempts to remove the Seminole Indians from their own lands to a less desirable tract, Bowie steps in on their behalf.
The song "Seminole Wind", the title track of the album by the same name by John Anderson, refers to hearing the ghost of Osceola. The song has been covered by James Taylor and Gravemist.
Osceola and Renegade are mascots of the Florida State Seminoles football team. The use of Osceola and Renegade as a symbol was approved by the Seminole Tribe of Florida.
References
External links
1804 births
1838 deaths
Deaths from malaria
Native American leaders
Seminole people
Native Americans of the Seminole Wars
Infectious disease deaths in South Carolina
Deaths from peritonsillar abscess
American people who died in prison custody
Prisoners who died in United States military detention
Native Americans imprisoned at Fort Marion
Muscogee people
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American people of English descent | [
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252336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunost | Brunost | Brunost ("brown cheese") is a common Norwegian name for mysost ("whey cheese"; ; ; ; ), a family of cheese-related foods made with whey, milk, and/or cream. The term is often used to just refer to the Gudbrandsdalsost ("Gudbrandsdal Cheese") type, which is the most popular variety. Brunost is primarily produced in Norway and is popular in both Norway and South Korea. It is regarded as one of the country's most iconic foodstuffs, and is considered an important part of Norwegian gastronomical and cultural identity and heritage.
History
Boiling down whey 10:1 to create a brown, cheesy spread (such as the Norwegian prim and Swedish messmör) has been common in the Scandinavian countries since time immemorial. An archeological find from September 2016 in central Jutland has determined that a cheese residue on pottery from circa 650 B.C.E. is a type of cheese, probably brunost.
However, the creation of the modern, firm, fatty brunost is commonly attributed to the milkmaid Anne Hov from the rural valley of Gudbrandsdalen. In the second half of the 1800s, Gudbrandsdalen was suffering economically due to falling profits from grain and butter sales. While working at the Valseter mountain farm near Gålå in 1863, Anne Hov (sometimes named Anne Haav) came up with the idea of adding cream to the whey when boiling, and to boil it down in an iron pot until the fluid content was reduced to less than 80 percent, creating a firmer, fattier, more cheese-like product. She originally called it feitost ("fat cheese"). The name later changed into fløtemysost ("cream whey cheese"). The product immediately caught on, and was soon commonly produced and consumed in the area. This variety is currently the second most popular type in Norway.
When Hov married and moved to Rusthågå farm in Nord-Fron, she started larger-scale production and invented a variety where she added goat's milk to the mix for a more pronounced taste. The local trader Ole Kongsli liked it so much he thought there might be a market for the product in the capital, Oslo. He started exporting it to his business contacts in Oslo under the name Gudbrandsdalsost ("Gudbrand Valley Cheese"), and it became so successful that it contributed significantly to the economy of the region, thus helping Gudbrandsdalen out of recession. In 1933, at age 87, Hov received the King's Medal of Merit (Kongens fortjenstmedalje) for her contributions to Norwegian cuisine and economy.
In modern times, the world's largest producer of brunost is the Norwegian dairy co-operative Tine, who market a total of 13 varieties, as well as three types of prim and three types of pultost. The second-largest is Norwegian dairy company Synnøve Finden, which market two varieties of brunost, as well as two varieties of prim. There are also a number of smaller, artisanal producers, mainly in Norway and in the US.
Description
Mysost are a family of cheese-related foods made with whey and milk and/or cream. The main ingredient, whey, is a byproduct of the cheese making process, it is what is left when the cheese is removed from the milk. Therefore, brunost is not technically cheese, and it does not taste like cheese. However, it is produced by cheese makers, and is sold, handled and consumed in the same way as cheese. Therefore, it is generally regarded as a cheese. The texture is firm, but slightly softer than Gouda cheese, for example, and lends itself well to cutting and shaping. It does not crumble like hard cheeses. The taste is sweet, and best described as caramel-like, but with a tang that is more noticeable in the variants that contain goat's milk. The variant Ekte Geitost ("true goat's cheese") contains only whey and goat's milk, and has an intense, Chèvre-like taste that cuts the sweetness.
Production
Brunost is made by boiling a mixture of milk, cream, and whey carefully for several hours so that the water evaporates. The heat turns the milk sugars into caramel, which gives the cheese its characteristic brown colour and sweetness. It is ready for consumption as soon as it is packed and refrigerated. Low-fat varieties are made by increasing the proportion of whey to milk and cream.
Varieties
In Norway, Brunost is commonly divided into two types: those that contain only cow's cream and/or milk, and the ones that contain some proportion of goat's milk. The latter type is commonly called Geitost or Gjetost ("goat's cheese"). Varieties that do not contain any cow's milk are called Ekte Geitost ("true goat's cheese"). Technically, the name "true goat's cheese" is misleading, since goat cheese (such as the French chèvre) is relatively uncommon in Norway, and is commonly called Hvit geitost ("white goat's cheese") to avoid confusion.
By far the most popular variety is the Gudbrandsdalsost, which contains a mixture of cow and goat milk, cream, and whey. Heidal cheese is a type of Gudbrandsdalsost. In Norway it is so common that people just refer to it as "Brunost" or "Geitost", assuming that unless otherwise specified, Gudbrandsdalsost will be provided. This variety is also the most popular internationally, and in the US it is commonly referred to just as "Gjetost". The second most popular variety is the Fløtemysost, which has a milder taste due to the lack of goat's milk. The third most popular type is the Ekte geitost.
Related to brunost are prim (in Norwegian) or messmör (in Swedish), which is a soft, sweet spread commonly sold in tubes all across the Nordic countries. This is the original, ancient product made by boiling whey for a shorter period of time than brunost, and not adding milk or cream. Also, in Norway, pultost is traditionally made from byproducts of the brunost-making process, and has a very distinctive flavour.
Very similar to full cow's milk brunost, but unrelated to it (probably developed independently) is "requeijão moreno", from the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil. It's produced in a similar way, by boiling cow's milk until it caramelises and darkens to a brown colour, hence the name "moreno" ("tanned" or "brown"). Requeijão has three varieties: branco ("white"), de raspa ("with scrapes", because of the streaks of caramelised milk scraped from the pan), and moreno. The flavour and texture of the latter remarkably resembles brunost.
Usage
Brunost is mostly used as a topping for sandwiches, crispbread, and biscuits as well as knekkebrød. It is very common in the traditional Norwegian matpakke (literally "food pack"), which is a common Norwegian lunch—sandwiches are packed in a lunch box in the morning, and carried to work for consumption in the 30 minute lunch break commonly afforded to Norwegian workers. One advantage of brunost for this purpose is that although its texture changes if not refrigerated, its taste does not. Brunost is also popular on Norwegian waffles, and as an ingredient in cooking, particularly in sauces for game meat.
Nutrition
To what extent brunost is healthy has been the subject of some controversy in Norway. Brunost contains high amounts of calcium, proteins and vitamin B, as well as Iodine, which is beneficial. It also does not, as other cheeses do, contain salt. It used to contain significant amounts of iron because it was traditionally made in iron pots. In fact, when modern production methods with aluminium pans were introduced by the Norwegian dairy co-operative, the government was worried that it would significantly reduce iron intake in the general population, and ordered iron to be added to the cheese. Modern brunost does not contain significant amounts of iron.
However, the (natural) sugar content of Brunost is quite high, and also the fat content is significant, causing some to warn against it, and even likening it to milk chocolate. Some tests have shown major nutritional differences between different varieties of brunost. Also, it has been pointed out that the fat content of most brunost is significantly lower than in numerous other cheeses, such as soft cheeses.
Accidents
In January 2013, a lorry carrying 27 tonnes of brunost caught fire in the long Bratli tunnel in Tysfjord. The temperature increased so much that the Brunost caught fire, the fats and sugars in the cheese fuelling the blaze, preventing firefighters from approaching it until four days later, when most of it had burned out. The tunnel was severely damaged, and was closed for repair for several months afterward. The accident was widely publicized in international media, and was dubbed "the goat cheese fire". It was likened to the 1999 Mont Blanc tunnel fire, when a truck carrying margarine and flour caught fire.
See also
List of cheeses
References
Further reading
Arne Espelund (1998) Brunosten, historien til et godt næringsemne gjennom 300 år (Trondheim: Arketype forlag)
External links
Preben S. Ottesen, "Brunost", Store norske leksikon
Norwegian cuisine
Norwegian cheeses
Goat's-milk cheeses
Spreads (food)
Whey cheeses | [
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252342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristippus | Aristippus | Aristippus of Cyrene (; ; c. 435 – c. 356 BCE) was a hedonistic Greek philosopher and the founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates, but adopted a very different philosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek pleasure by adapting circumstances to oneself and by maintaining proper control over both adversity and prosperity. His view that pleasure is the only good came to be called ethical hedonism. Despite having two sons, Aristippus identified his daughter Arete as the "intellectual heiress" of his work.
There are indications that Aristippus was conflated with his grandson, Aristippus the Younger.
Life
Aristippus, the son of Aritades, was born in Cyrene, Ancient Libya, c. 435 BCE. He came to Greece to be present at the Olympic games, where he asked Ischomachus about Socrates, and by his description was filled with so ardent a desire to see Socrates, that he went to Athens for the purpose, and remained with him almost up to the time of his execution in 399. Diodorus dates him to 366, which agrees very well with the facts known about him, and with the statement that Lais, the courtesan with whom he was intimate, was born in 421.
Though a disciple of Socrates, Aristippus wandered very far both in principle and practice from the teaching and example of his great master. He lived luxuriously, was happy to seek sensual gratification and the company of the notorious Lais. He also took money for his teaching, the first of Socrates' disciples to do so and even told Socrates that he resided in a foreign land in order to escape the trouble of involving himself in the politics of his native city. He passed part of his life at the court of Dionysius I of Syracuse or Dionysius the Younger, and is also said to have been taken prisoner by Artaphernes, the satrap who drove the Spartans from Rhodes in 396. He appears, however, at last to have returned to Cyrene, and there he spent his old age.
In Book VI of De architectura, Vitruvius describes Aristippus:
It is related of the Socratic philosopher Aristippus that, being shipwrecked and cast ashore on the coast of the Rhodians, he observed geometrical figures drawn thereon, and cried out to his companions: "Let us be of good cheer, for I see the traces of man." With that he made for the city of Rhodes, and went straight to the gymnasium. There he fell to discussing philosophical subjects, and presents were bestowed upon him, so that he could not only fit himself out, but could also provide those who accompanied him with clothing and all other necessaries of life. When his companions wished to return to their country, and asked him what message he wished them to carry home, he bade them say this: that children ought to be provided with property and resources of a kind that could swim with them even out of a shipwreck.
Philosophy
The anecdotes which are told of Aristippus (there are many in Diogenes Laërtius) by no means give us the notion of a person who was the mere slave of his passions, but rather of one who took a pride in extracting enjoyment from all circumstances of every kind, and in controlling adversity and prosperity alike. They illustrate and confirm the two statements of Horace, that to observe the precepts of Aristippus is "to endeavour to adapt circumstances to myself, not myself to circumstances" and that, "every complexion of life, every station and circumstance sat gracefully upon him." Thus when reproached for his love of bodily indulgences, he answered, that "it is not abstinence from pleasures that is best, but mastery over them without ever being worsted". When Dionysius, provoked at some of his remarks, ordered him to take the lowest place at table, he said, "You wish to dignify the seat". His statement "wise people, even though all laws were abolished, would still lead the same life" is a quote sometimes, and erroneously, attributed to the comic poet Aristophanes.
Whether Aristippus was a prisoner to a satrap, grossly insulted and even spit upon by a tyrant, enjoying the pleasures of a banquet, or reviled for faithlessness to Socrates by his fellow-pupils, he maintained the same calm temper. He seemed insulting to Xenophon and Plato, as seen from the Memorabilia, where he maintains a discussion against Socrates in defense of voluptuous enjoyment, and from the Phaedo, where his absence at the death of Socrates, though he was only at Aegina, 200 stadia from Athens, is doubtless mentioned as a reproach. Aristotle, too, calls him a sophist, and notices a story of Plato's speaking to him, with rather undue vehemence, and of his replying with calmness.
Aristippus imparted his doctrine to his daughter Arete who, in turn, imparted it to her son, Aristippus the Younger, who is said to have reduced it to a system. Although his dubious reputation has survived into modern times, his philosophy of ethical hedonism, as its name implies, was not entirely amoral. He admonished his students to never harm others, and cautioned that the pursuit of pleasure ought to be moderated by moral self-restraint.
Works
None of Aristippus's works are extant. Diogenes Laërtius, on the authority of Sotion and Panaetius, gives a long list of books whose authorship is ascribed to Aristippus, though he also states that according to Sosicrates of Rhodes, Aristippus never wrote anything. Some letters attributed to him are forgeries.
One work attributed to Aristippus in ancient times was a scandalous book entitled On Ancient Luxury (or On the Luxury of the Ancients; ); although it has long been realized that this work could not have been written by Aristippus of Cyrene, not least because the author mentions Theophrastus, who lived a generation after Aristippus. The name may have been adopted by the writer to suggest a connection with the hedonistic philosopher. This work, judging by the quotations preserved by Diogenes Laërtius, was filled with spicy anecdotes about philosophers and their supposed taste for courtesans or boys. Thus the author supports his claims for Plato's various erotic relationships through his quotation of epigrams attributed to the philosopher, and makes an extreme allegation that Periander committed incest with his own mother.
Notes
References
Attribution
Further reading
Voula Tsouna, The Epistemology of the Cyrenaic School, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998.
Ugo Zilioli, The Cyrenaics, New York: Acumen / Routledge, 2012.
External links
Cyrenaics Resource Handbook of Cyrenaic resources, primary and secondary, includes Aristippus
Aristippus of Cyrene on Ancient History Encyclopedia
430s BC births
360s BC deaths
4th-century BC philosophers
Ancient Greek ethicists
Cyrenaic philosophers
Cyrenean Greeks
Founders of philosophical traditions
Metic philosophers in Classical Athens
Pupils of Socrates | [
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252344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20James%20Sumner%20Maine | Henry James Sumner Maine | Sir Henry James Sumner Maine, (15 August 1822 – 3 February 1888), was a British Whig comparative jurist and historian. He is famous for the thesis outlined in his book Ancient Law that law and society developed "from status to contract." According to the thesis, in the ancient world individuals were tightly bound by status to traditional groups, while in the modern one, in which individuals are viewed as autonomous agents, they are free to make contracts and form associations with whomever they choose. Because of this thesis, Maine can be seen as one of the forefathers of modern legal anthropology, legal history and sociology of law.
Early life
Maine was the son of Dr. James Maine, of Kelso, Roxburghshire. He was educated at Christ's Hospital, where a boarding house was named after him in 1902. From there he went up to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1840. At Cambridge, he was noted as a classical scholar and also won the Chancellor's Gold Medal for poetry in 1842. He won a Craven scholarship and graduated as senior classic in 1844, being also senior chancellor's medallist in classics. He was a Cambridge Apostle.
Shortly afterwards, he accepted a tutorship at Trinity Hall. In 1847, he was appointed Regius Professor of Civil Law, and he was called to the bar three years later; he held this chair till 1854. Meanwhile, in 1852 he had become one of the readers appointed by the Inns of Court.
In India
The post of legal member of council in India was offered to Maine in 1861; he declined it once, on grounds of health. The following year Maine was persuaded to accept, and it turned out that India suited him much better than Cambridge or London. He was asked to prolong his services beyond the regular term of five years, and he returned to England in 1869.
The subjects on which it was Maine's duty to advise the government of India were as much political as legal. They ranged from such problems as the land settlement of the Punjab, or the introduction of civil marriage to provide for the needs of unorthodox Hindus, to the question of how far the study of Persian should be required or encouraged among European civil servants. Plans of codification were prepared, and largely shaped, under Maine's direction, which were implemented by his successors, Sir James Fitzjames Stephen and Dr Whitley Stokes.
Maine became a member of the secretary of state's council in 1871 and remained so for the rest of his life. In the same year he was gazetted a K.C.S.I.
Oxford professor
In 1869, Maine was appointed to the chair of historical and comparative jurisprudence newly founded in the University of Oxford by Corpus Christi College. Residence at Oxford was not required, and the election amounted to an invitation to the new professor to resume and continue in his own way the work he had begun in Ancient Law.
In 1877, the mastership of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where Maine had formerly been tutor, became vacant. There were two strong candidates whose claims were so nearly equal that it was difficult to elect either; the difficulty was solved by a unanimous invitation to Maine to accept the post. His acceptance entailed the resignation of the Oxford chair, though not continuous residence at Cambridge. Ten years later, he was elected to succeed Sir William Harcourt as Whewell Professor of International Law at Cambridge.
In 1886, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.
Death
Maine's health, which had never been strong, gave way towards the end of 1887. He went to the Riviera under medical advice, and died at Cannes, France, on 3 February 1888. He left a wife, Jane, and two sons, of whom the elder died soon afterwards. An oil portrait of Jane remains in the possession of their descendants.
Works
Maine wrote journalism in 1851 for the Morning Chronicle, edited by John Douglas Cook. With Cook and others, in 1855, he then founded and edited the Saturday Review, writing for it to 1861. Like his close friend James Fitzjames Stephen, he enjoyed occasional article-writing, and never quite abandoned it.
Maine contributed to the Cambridge Essays an essay on Roman law and legal education, republished in the later editions of Village Communities. Lectures delivered by Maine for the Inns of Court were the groundwork of Ancient Law (1861), the book by which his reputation was made at one stroke. Its object, as stated in the preface, was "to indicate some of the earliest ideas of mankind, as they are reflected in ancient law, and to point out the relation of those ideas to modern thought." He published the substance of his Oxford lectures: Village Communities in the East and the West (1871); Early History of Institutions (1875); Early Law and Custom (1883). In all these works, the phenomena of societies in an archaic stage are brought into line to illustrate the process of development in legal and political ideas (see freedom of contract).
As vice-chancellor of the University of Calcutta, Maine commented on the results produced by the contact of Eastern and Western thought. Three of these addresses were published, wholly or in part, in the later editions of Village Communities; the substance of others is in the Rede lecture of 1875, in the same volume. An essay on India was his contribution to the composite work entitled The Reign of Queen Victoria (editor Thomas Humphry Ward, 1887).
His brief work in international law is represented by the posthumous volume International Law (1888). Maine had published in 1885 his one work of speculative politics, a volume of essays on Popular Government, designed to show that democracy is not in itself more stable than any other form of government and that there is no necessary connexion between democracy and progress.
In 1886, there appeared in the Quarterly Review an article on the posthumous work of J. F. McLennan, edited and completed by his brother, entitled "The Patriarchal Theory". The article, though unsigned by the rule of the Quarterly at the time, was Maine's reply to the McLennan brothers' attack on the historical reconstruction of the Indo-European family system put forward in Ancient Law and supplemented in Early Law and Custom. Maine charged McLennan in his theory of primitive society with neglecting and misunderstanding of the Indo-European evidence.
A summary of Maine's writings was in Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff's memoir.
Selected publications
Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas. London: John Murray, 1861.
Village-Communities in the East and West. London: John Murray, 1871.
The Early History of the Property of Married Women. Manchester: A. Ireland and Co., 1873.
Lectures on the Early History of Institutions. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1875.
Dissertations on Early Law and Custom: Chiefly Selected from Lectures Delivered at Oxford. London: John Murray, 1883.
Popular Government: Four Essays. London: John Murray, 1885.
International Law: A Series of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge, 1887. London: John Murray, 1888.
Plato: A Poem. Cambridge: Privately Printed, 1894.
Selected articles
"Mr. Fitzjames Stephen's Introduction to the Indian Evidence Act," The Fortnightly Review, Vol. XIX, 1873.
"South Slavonians and Rajpoots," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. II, 1877.
"The King and his Successor," The Fortnightly Review, Vol. XXXVII, 1882.
See also
M. E. Grant Duff
Frederick Pollock
James Fitzjames Stephen
Paul Vinogradoff
Notes
References
Further reading
Cassani, Anselmo (2002), Diritto, antropologia e storia: studi su Henry Sumner Maine, prefazione di Vincenzo Ferrari, Bologna, Clueb.
Chakravarty-Kaul, Minoti (1996). Common Lands and Customary Law: Institutional Change in North India over the Past Two Centuries, Oxford University Press.
Cocks, Raymond (1988). Sir Henry Maine: A Study in Victorian Jurisprudence. Cambridge University Press.
Cotterrell, Roger (2003). The Politics of Jurisprudence: A Critical Introduction to Legal Philosophy. Oxford University Press, pp. 40–48.
Diamond, Alan. ed. (2006). The Victorian Achievement of Sir Henry Maine: A Centennial Reappraisal. Cambridge University Press. ;
Feaver, George (1969). From Status to Contract: A Biography of Sir Henry Maine 1822–1888. London: Longmans Green.
Hamza, Gabor (1991): Sir Henry Maine et le droit comparé. Annales Universitatis Scientiarum Budapestinensis de Rolando Eötvös nominatae, Sectio Juridica pp. 59–76.
Hamza, Gabor (2007): Sir Henry Maine’work and the traditional legal systems. In: Chinese Culture and the Rule of Law. Ed. by China Society of Legal History. Social Sciences Academic Press (China) Beijing, pp. 417–429.
Hamza, Gabor (2008): Sir Henry Maine et le droit comparé. In: Philia. Scritti per Gennaro Franciosi. (A cura di F. M. d’Ippolito), vol. II. Napoli pp. 1217–1232.
Grant Duff, Sir M.E (1900). Notes From a Diary, 1886–1888, Vol. 2. London: John Murray.
Landauer, Carl (2003). "Henry Summner Maine´s Grand Tour: Roman Law and Ancient Law," Current Legal Issues, Vol. 6, pp. 135–47.
Lyall, Alfred Comyn [and others] (1888). "Sir Henry Maine". Law Quarterly Review, Vol. IV, pp. 129–138.
Mantena, Karuna (2010). Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism. Princeton University Press.
Pollock, Sir Frederick (1890). "Sir Henry Maine and his Work." In: Oxford Lectures. London: Macmillan Company, pp. 147–168; Ancient Law, Introduction and Notes. London: John Murray.
Vinogradoff, Paul (1904). The Teaching of Sir Henry Maine. London: Henry Frowde.
External links
Works by Henry James Sumner Maine, at Hathi Trust
Maine, Henry Sumner: at McMaster University Archive for the History of Economic Thought.
Maine, Henry Sumner: at Online Library of Liberty
Henry Sumner Maine, Writings
1822 births
1888 deaths
Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge
People educated at Christ's Hospital
Scholars of comparative law
English legal writers
English historians
Fellows of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Legal historians
Vice Chancellors of the University of Calcutta
Fellows of the Royal Society
People from the Scottish Borders
Whewell Professors of International Law
Masters of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
Professors of Jurisprudence (University of Oxford)
Regius Professors of Civil Law (University of Cambridge)
English male non-fiction writers
19th-century historians
19th-century Indian male writers
Members of the American Philosophical Society | [
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252345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius%20II%20Constantine | Tiberius II Constantine | Tiberius II Constantine (; , ; died 14 August 582) was Eastern Roman emperor from 574 to 582. Tiberius rose to power in 574 when Justin II, prior to a mental breakdown, proclaimed Tiberius Caesar and adopted him as his own son. In 578, Justin II, before he died, gave him the title of Augustus, under which title he reigned until his death on 14 August 582.
Early career
Born in Thrace in the mid-6th century, Tiberius was appointed to the post of notarius. There, sometime after 552, he was introduced by the Patriarch Eutychius to the future emperor, Justin II, with whom he became firm friends. Under Justin's patronage, Tiberius was promoted to the position of Comes excubitorum, which he held from approximately 565 through to 574. He was present during Justin's imperial accession on 14 November 565 and also attended his inauguration as consul on 1 January 566.
Justin ceased making payments to the Avars, which had been implemented by his predecessor, Justinian. In 569, he appointed Tiberius to the post of Magister utriusque militiae, with instructions to deal with the Avars and their demands. After a series of negotiations, Tiberius agreed to allow the Avars to settle on Roman territory in the Balkans, in exchange for male hostages taken from various Avar chiefs. Justin, however, rejected the agreement, insisting on taking hostages from the family of the Avar Khan himself. That condition was rejected by the Avars and so Tiberius mobilized for war.
Avar War of 570
In 570, he defeated an Avar army in Thrace and returned to Constantinople. While attempting to follow up that victory in late 570 or early 571, Tiberius was defeated in a battle in which he narrowly escaped death, as his army was fleeing the battlefield. Agreeing to a truce, Tiberius provided an escort to the Avar envoys to discuss the terms of a treaty with Justin. On their return, the Avar envoys were attacked and robbed by local tribesmen, prompting them to appeal to Tiberius for help. He tracked down the group responsible and returned the stolen goods.
In 574, Justin had a mental breakdown, forcing Empress Sophia to turn to Tiberius to manage the empire, which was fighting the Persians to the east and dealing with the internal crisis of the plague. To achieve a measure of breathing space, Tiberius and Sophia agreed to a one-year truce with the Persians, at the cost of 45,000 nomismata. On 7 December 574, Justin, in one of his more lucid moments, had Tiberius proclaimed Caesar and adopted him as his own son. Tiberius added the name Constantine to his own. Although his position was now official, he was still subordinate to Justin. Sophia was determined to remain in power and kept Tiberius tightly controlled until Justin died, in 578.
Elevation as Caesar (574–578)
The day after his appointment as Caesar, the plague abated, giving Tiberius more freedom of movement than Justin had been able to achieve. Tiberius also charted a very different course from his predecessor and proceeded to spend the money that Justin had doggedly saved in order to defend the imperial frontiers and win over the populace who had turned against him. According to Paul the Deacon, Tiberius found two treasures: the treasure of Narses and 1,000 centenaria: 100,000 pounds of gold or 7,200,000 solidi (nomismata), under a slab. The treasures were given away to the poor, to the consternation of Sophia.
Alongside generous donations, he also proceeded to reduce state revenue by removing taxes on wine and bread instituted by Justinian I. He continued the official ban on the sale of governorships, which was highly popular. He also negotiated a truce with the Avars, paying them 80,000 nomismata per year for which the Avars agreed to defend the Danube frontier, thereby allowing Tiberius to transfer troops across to the east for a planned renewal of the conflict against the Persians.
In 575, Tiberius began moving the armies of Thrace and Illyricum to the eastern provinces. Buying time to make the necessary preparations, he agreed to a three-year truce with the Persians, paying 30,000 nomismata, though the truce excluded action in the region around Armenia. Not content with making preparations, Tiberius also used this period to send reinforcements to Italy under the command of Baduarius with orders to stem the Lombard invasion. He saved Rome from the Lombards and allied the Empire with Childebert II, the King of the Franks, to defeat them. Unfortunately, Baduarius was defeated and killed in 576, allowing even more imperial territory in Italy to slip away. Tiberius was unable to respond as the Sassanid Emperor Khosrau I struck at the empire's Armenian provinces in 576, sacking Melitene and Sebastea. Shifting his attention eastward, Tiberius sent his general Justinian with the eastern armies to push the Persians back across the Euphrates. The Byzantines followed, and pushed deep into Persian territory, culminating in a raid on Atropatene. In 577, however, Justinian was defeated in Persian Armenia, forcing a Byzantine withdrawal. In response to that defeat, Tiberius replaced Justinian with the future emperor Maurice. During the truce that Tiberius concluded with Khosrau, he busily enhanced the army of the east not only with transfers from his western armies but also through barbarian recruits, which he formed into a new foederati unit, amounting to some 15,000 troops by the end of his reign.
Throughout 577 and into 578, Tiberius avoided all other entanglements that would have distracted him from the approaching Persian conflict. He appeased, quite successfully, both Chalcedonian and Monophysite Christians by the use of strategic appointments and the easing of persecutions. He paid the Lombard tribal chieftains some 200,000 nomismata in an attempt to keep them divided and to prevent the election of a king. When the Slavs invaded Illyricum, he transported Avar armies to attack them and force their retreat. Consequently, when Khosrau invaded Roman Mesopotamia in 578, his general, Maurice, was able to invade Persian Arzanene and Mesopotamia, sacking a number of key towns and forcing the Persians to abandon their advance and defend their own territory. It was during that period that the ailing emperor, Justin, finally died in early October 578.
Reign as Augustus (578–582)
On 26 September 578, Tiberius was made Augustus by the rapidly-failing Justin. He used that opportunity to give away 7,200 pounds of gold, a practice that he continued annually throughout the four years of his reign.
Sophia, Justin's widow, tried to maintain her power and influence by marrying the new emperor, but he refused her proposal because he was already married to Ino. When Tiberius had first been raised to the rank of Caesar, Sophia had refused the request for Ino and her children to move into the Imperial palace with her husband, forcing them to reside in a small residence nearby and prohibiting them from entering the palace. Once Tiberius was elevated to the rank of Augustus, however, he had his family moved into the palace and renamed Ino as Anastasia, much to Sophia's resentment. Therefore, Sophia sought revenge, and a secret pact was made between the dowager empress and General Justinian, whom Tiberius had replaced the year before. They conspired to overthrow the emperor and seat Justinian in his place. The conspiracy failed, however, and Sophia was reduced to a modest allowance; Justinian was forgiven by Tiberius.
The ongoing success against the Persians in the East once again allowed Tiberius to turn his gaze westward. In 579, he again extended his military activities into the remnants of the Western Roman Empire. He sent money and troops to Italy to reinforce Ravenna and to retake the port of Classis. He formed an alliance with one of the Visigothic princes in Spain, who was fomenting rebellion, and his generals defeated the rebellious Berbers under their king Garmul in North Africa. He also intervened in Frankish affairs in the former province of Gaul, which had been largely free of imperial contacts for close to a century. Consequently, he might have been the basis for the fictional emperor Lucius Tiberius of Arthurian legend, who sent envoys to former Roman provinces after a long period without an imperial presence.
The reality, however, was that the empire was seriously overextended. In 579, with Tiberius occupied elsewhere, the Avars decided to take advantage of the lack of troops in the Balkans by besieging Sirmium. At the same time, the Slavs began to migrate into Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, which Tiberius was unable to halt as the Persians refused to agree to a peace in the east, which remained the emperor's main priority. Furthermore, the army of the East was beginning to become restless, as it had not been paid, and it threatened to mutiny.
In 580, General Maurice launched a new offensive, raiding well beyond the Tigris. The following year, he again invaded Persian Armenia and almost succeeded in reaching the Persian capital, Ctesiphon, before a Persian counterinvasion of Byzantine Mesopotamia forced him to withdraw in order to deal with that threat. By 582, with no apparent end to the Persian war in sight, Tiberius was forced to come to terms with the Avars, and he agreed to pay an indemnity and to hand over the vital city of Sirmium, which the Avars then looted. The migration of the Slavs continued, with their incursions reaching as far south as Athens. Although a new Persian invasion was halted with a significant defeat at Constantina in June 582, by now, Tiberius was dying, apparently having eaten some poorly-prepared or possibly-deliberately poisoned food.
In his state, Tiberius initially named two heirs, each of whom married one of his daughters. Maurice was betrothed to Constantina, and Germanus, related through blood to the great emperor Justinian, was married to Charito. It appears that his plan was to divide the empire in two, with Maurice receiving the eastern provinces and Germanus the western provinces. This plan was never implemented, and on 13 August 582, he elevated Maurice to the rank of Augustus.
Tiberius died on the following day, 14 August 582, and his last words were spoken to his successor:
Let my sovereignty be delivered to thee with this girl. Be happy in the use of it, mindful always to love equity and justice.
Character and legacy
A native of the Latin-speaking part of Thrace, Tiberius was nonetheless distinguished as the first of the "Greek[-speaking] Caesars" by Edward Gibbon, who cited the 13th-century Syriac Orthodox patriarch and writer Bar Hebraeus. Tiberius reportedly was tall and handsome, with a regal bearing. He was gentle and humane, both as a man and a ruler, with a reputation for generosity. Unlike his predecessor, he largely refrained from persecuting his Monophysite subjects, but his Arian subjects in the west did not fare as well. He also spent a good deal of money on building projects, most notably the continued expansion of the Great Palace of Constantinople.
According to Gibbon, Tiberius II was a good emperor:
With the odious name of Tiberius, he assumed the more popular appellation of Constantine, and imitated the purer virtues of the Antonines. After recording the vice or folly of so many Roman princes, it is pleasing to repose, for a moment, on a character conspicuous by the qualities of humanity, justice, temperance, and fortitude; to contemplate a sovereign affable in his palace, pious in the church, impartial on the seat of judgment, and victorious, at least by his generals, in the Persian war. The most glorious trophy of his victory consisted in a multitude of captives, whom Tiberius entertained, redeemed, and dismissed to their native homes with the charitable spirit of a Christian hero. The merit or misfortunes of his own subjects had a dearer claim to his beneficence, and he measured his bounty not so much by their expectations as by his own dignity. This maxim, however dangerous in a trustee of the public wealth, was balanced by a principle of humanity and justice, which taught him to abhor, as of the basest alloy, the gold that was extracted from the tears of the people. For their relief, as often as they had suffered by natural or hostile calamities, he was impatient to remit the arrears of the past, or the demands of future taxes: he sternly rejected the servile offerings of his ministers, which were compensated by tenfold oppression; and the wise and equitable laws of Tiberius excited the praise and regret of succeeding times. Constantinople believed that the emperor had discovered a treasure: but his genuine treasure consisted in the practice of liberal economy, and the contempt of all vain and superfluous expense. The Romans of the East would have been happy, if the best gift of Heaven, a patriot king, had been confirmed as a proper and permanent blessing. But in less than four years after the death of Justin, his worthy successor sunk into a mortal disease, which left him only sufficient time to restore the diadem, according to the tenure by which he held it, to the most deserving of his fellow-citizens.
That opinion was not shared by John Bagnall Bury, who commented:
But though he might have made a very good minister of war, Tiberius did not make a good Emperor. It was natural that his first acts should be reactionary, as Justin's government had been extremely unpopular. He removed the duty on the "political bread," and remitted a fourth part of the taxes throughout the Empire. Had he been contented with this he might deserve praise, but he began a system of most injudicious extravagance. He gratified the soldiers with large and frequent Augustatica, and he granted donations to members of all the professions scholastics or jurists ("a very numerous profession"), physicians, silversmiths, bankers. This liberality soon emptied the treasury of its wealth. The result was that by the end of the first year of his reign he had spent 7200 pounds of gold, beside silver and silk in abundance; and before he died he was obliged to have recourse to the reserve fund which the prudent economy of Anastasius had laid by, to be used in the case of an extreme emergency. And, notwithstanding these financial difficulties, he laid out money on new buildings in the palace. The consequence of this recklessness was that when Maurice came to the throne he found the exchequer empty and the State bankrupt. There is considerable reason, I think, to remove Tiberius from his pedestal.
Family
Originally betrothed as a young man to the daughter of Ino, Tiberius eventually married Ino after her daughter and husband died. She took on the name Anastasia in 578 after his accession to the throne.
They had three children together, one of whom died before Tiberius was created Caesar in 574. Of his other two, both daughters, Constantina was married to Tiberius's successor, Maurice, and Charito was married to Germanus. His wife and two daughters all outlived him.
Footnotes
References
Sources
Edward Walford, translator (1846) The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, .
Theophylact Simocatta, History
582 deaths
6th-century Byzantine emperors
Adult adoptees
Caesars (heirs apparent)
Comites excubitorum
Flavii
Justinian dynasty
People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars | [
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252348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitley%20Stokes%20%28Celtic%20scholar%29 | Whitley Stokes (Celtic scholar) | Whitley Stokes, CSI, CIE, FBA (28 February 1830 – 13 April 1909) was an Irish lawyer and Celtic scholar.
Background
He was a son of William Stokes (1804–1878), and a grandson of Whitley Stokes the physician (1763–1845), each of whom was Regius Professor of Physic at the University of Dublin. His sister Margaret Stokes was a writer and archaeologist.
He was born at 5 Merrion Square, Dublin and educated at St Columba's College where he was taught Irish by Denis Coffey, author of a Primer of the Irish Language. Through his father he came to know the Irish antiquaries Samuel Ferguson, Eugene O'Curry, John O'Donovan and George Petrie. He entered Trinity College, Dublin in 1846 and graduated with a BA in 1851. His friend and contemporary Rudolf Thomas Siegfried (1830–1863) became assistant librarian in Trinity College in 1855, and the college's first professor of Sanskrit in 1858. It is likely that Stokes learnt both Sanskrit and comparative philology from Siegfried, thus acquiring a skill-set rare among Celtic scholars in Ireland at the time.
Career
Stokes qualified for the bar at Inner Temple. His instructors in the law were Arthur Cayley, Hugh McCalmont Hughes, and Thomas Chitty. Stokes became an English barrister on 17 November 1855, practicing in London before going to India in 1862, where he filled several official positions. In 1865 he married Mary Bazely by whom he had four sons and two daughters. One of his daughters, Maïve, compiled a book of Indian Fairy Tales in 1879 (she was 12 years old) based on stories told to her by her Indian ayahs and a man-servant. It also included some notes by Mrs. Mary Stokes. Mary died while the family was still living in India. In 1877, Stokes was appointed legal member of the viceroy's council, and he drafted the codes of civil and criminal procedure and did much other valuable work of the same nature. In 1879 he became president of the commission on Indian law. Nine books by Stokes on Celtic studies were published in India. He returned to settle permanently in London in 1881 and married Elizabeth Temple in 1884. In 1887 he was made a CSI, and two years later a CIE He was an original fellow of the British Academy, an honorary fellow of Jesus College, Oxford and foreign associate of the Institut de France.
Celtic scholarship
Whitley Stokes is perhaps most famous as a Celtic scholar, and in this field he worked both in India and in England. He studied Irish, Breton and Cornish texts. His chief interest in Irish was as a source of material for comparative philology. Despite his learning in Old Irish and Middle Irish, he never acquired Irish pronunciation and never mastered Modern Irish. In the hundred years since his death he has continued to be a central figure in Celtic scholarship. Many of his editions have not been superseded in that time and his total output in Celtic studies comes to over 15,000 pages. He was a correspondent and close friend of Kuno Meyer from 1881 onwards. With Meyer he established the journal Archiv für celtische Lexicographie and was the co-editor, with Ernst Windisch, of the Irische Texte series.
In 1862 he was awarded the Cunningham Gold Medal by the Royal Irish Academy.
Death and reputation
Stokes died at his London home, 15 Grenville Place, Kensington, in 1909 and is buried in Paddington Old Cemetery. Willesden Lane, where his grave is marked by a Celtic cross. Another Celtic cross was erected as a memorial to him at St Fintan's, Sutton, Dublin. The Gaelic League paper An Claidheamh Soluis called Stokes "the greatest of the Celtologists" and expressed pride that an Irishman should have excelled in a field which was at that time dominated by continental scholars. In 1929 the Canadian scholar James F. Kenney described Stokes as "the greatest scholar in philology that Ireland has produced, and the only one that may be ranked with the most famous of continental savants".
A conference entitled "Ireland, India, London: The Tripartite Life of Whitley Stokes" took place at the University of Cambridge from 18–19 September 2009. The event was organised to mark the centenary of Stokes's death. A volume of essays based on the papers delivered at this conference, The Tripartite Life of Whitley Stokes (1830–1909), was published by Four Courts Press in autumn 2011.
In 2010 Dáibhí Ó Cróinín published Whitley Stokes (1830–1909): The Lost Celtic Notebooks Rediscovered, a volume based on the scholarship in Stokes's 150 notebooks which had been resting unnoticed at the University Library, Leipzig since 1919.
Works
The Passion: Middle Cornish Poem (1860–1861)
Three Irish Glossaries (1862)
Gwreans an Bys: the Creation of the World Translation of William Jordan's 1611 Cornish play (1864)
Beunans Meriasek The Life of Saint Meriasek Bishop and Confessor (1872) - Editor[Trubner & Co London]Three Middle-Irish Homilies (1877)Old Irish Glosses at Merzburg and Carlsruhe (1887)Irische Texte published at Leipzig (1880–1900), co-editor with Ernst WindischThe Anglo-Indian Codes (1887).Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore (1890) translatorUrkeltischer Sprachschatz (1894) with Adalbert BezzenbergerThesaurus Palaeohibernicus'' (1901–03) with John Strachan
See also
The Meeting on the Turret Stairs
References
Sources
External links
Stokes bibliography at University College Cork's CELT project
Irish Texts edited, some translated, by Whitley Stokes, CELT project, retrieved 23 May 2007
1830 births
1909 deaths
Celtic studies scholars
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Fellows of the British Academy
Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Companions of the Order of the Star of India
Administrators in British India
Irish Protestants
People from Howth | [
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252350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptelea%20trifoliata | Ptelea trifoliata | Ptelea trifoliata, commonly known as common hoptree, wafer ash, stinking ash, and skunk bush, is a species of flowering plant in the citrus family (Rutaceae). It is native to North America, where it is found in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It is a deciduous shrub or tree, with alternate, trifoliate leaves.
Description
Ptelea trifoliata is a small tree, or often a shrub of a few spreading stems, growing to around tall with a broad crown. The bark is reddish brown to gray brown, with short horizontal lenticels (warty corky ridges), becoming slightly scaly, The plant has an unpleasant odor and bitter taste. Branchlets are dark reddish brown, shining, covered with small excrescences. The twigs are slender to moderately stout, brown with deep U-shaped leaf scars, and with short, light brown, fuzzy buds. It has thick fleshy roots.
Leaves
Its leaves are alternate and compound with three leaflets, dotted with oil glands. The leaflets are sessile, ovate or oblong, long by broad, pointed at the base, entire or serrate, and gradually pointed at the apex. They are feather-veined, with a prominent midrib and primary veins. They come out of the bud conduplicate and very downy. When fully grown the leaves are dark green and shiny above and paler green beneath. In autumn they turn a rusty yellow. The petioles are stout, long, with an enlarged base. Stipules are absent. The western and southwestern forms have smaller leaves, , than the eastern forms , an adaptation to the drier climates in the west.
Flowers
The flowers are small, across, with 4–5 narrow, greenish white petals. The pedicels are downy. The 4- or 5-part calyx is downy and imbricate in bud. The corolla has four or five petals which are white, downy, spreading, hypogynous, and imbricate in bud. The five stamens alternate with the petals. The pistillate flowers bear rudimentary anthers. The filaments are awl-shaped and more-or-less hairy. The anthers are ovate or cordate, two-celled, with cells opening longitudinally. The ovaries are superior, hairy, abortive in the staminate flowers, two to three-celled. The style is short, the stigma 2- or 3-lobed, with two ovules per cell. Fertile and sterile flowers are produced together in terminal, spreading, compound cymes—the sterile being usually fewer and falling after the anther cells mature.
Flowers are produced in May and June. Some find the odor unpleasant but to others the plant has a delicious scent.
Fruit
The fruit is a round wafer-like papery samara, across, light brown, and two-seeded. The fruit ripens in October, and is held on the tree until high winds shake them loose in the early winter.
Wood
Its wood is yellow brown; heavy, hard, close-grained, satiny. The specific gravity is 0.8319; weight per cubic foot is .
Gallery
Taxonomy
While Ptelea trifoliata is most often treated as a single species with subspecies and/or varieties in different distribution ranges, some botanists treat the various hoptrees as a group of four or more closely related species:
P. trifoliata subsp. trifoliata – common hoptree or eastern hoptree; eastern Canada & United States (U.S.), central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. trifoliata var. trifoliata – eastern Canada & (U.S.), central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp trifoliata var. mollis Torr. & A. Gray – eastern and central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia (Benth.) V.L.Bailey – south-central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia var. angustifolia (Benth.) M.E.Jones (P. angustifolia, P. lutescens) – narrowleaf hoptree; south-central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia var. persicifolia (Greene) V.L.Bailey – south-central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida (Greene) V.L.Bailey – pallid hoptree, south-central and southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. pallida (Greene) V.L.Bailey – southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. cognata (Greene) Kearney & Peebles – southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. confinis (Greene) V.L.Bailey – south-central and southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. lutescens – southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. polyadenia (Greene) V.L.Bailey – pallid hoptree, south-central and southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata var. baldwinii (Torr. & A.Gray) D.B.Ward (P. baldwinii)
The specific epithet "trifoliata" refers to the three-parted compound leaf.
Other common names for this shrub include stinking prairie bush, Carolina shrub-trefoil, tree-trefoil, swamp dogwood, ague bark, paleleaf hoptree, prairie-grub, prickaway-anise, quinine tree, sang-tree, water-ash, western hoptree, wingseed, and woolly hoptree.
Distribution and habitat
Ptelea trifoliata is native to North America, where its northern limits are in Ontario and Quebec, Canada. It is native through much of the eastern and southwestern United States, although it is absent from some areas of the Upper Midwest and is rare in much of New England. Its southern limits are in Mexico.
It has a wide-ranging natural habitat. In the Southeastern United States it is most often found in rocky forests, in both moist and dry soil, often associated with calcareous or mafic substrates. In the Midwest, habitats include forests, savannas, prairies, glades, and sand dunes. In Arizona it is common in canyons.
Ecology
Larva of the giant swallowtail butterfly Papilio cresphontes feed on the leaves. Treehoppers of the genus Enchenopa infest the branches, laying white-frothy masses of eggs on the branch undersides. Several ant species tend to the treehoppers, including Camponotus pennsylvanicus, Formica montana, and Formica subsericea. Several bee species have been documented visiting the flowers of wafer ash, including Agapostemon virescens, Andrena commoda, Andrena crataegi, Andrena cressonii, Apis mellifera, Bombus auricomus, Bombus bimaculatus, Bombus impatiens, Ceratina calcarata, Ceratina dupla, Ceratina mikmaqi, and Lasioglossum imitatum.
Uses
It has several Native American uses as a seasoning and as an herbal medicine for different ailments.
Numerous cultivars have been developed for ornamental use in parks and gardens. The cultivar 'Aurea' with golden leaves has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
German immigrants to Texas in the 19th century used its seeds in place of hops in the beer-making process, lending the species its common name.
References
Zanthoxyloideae
Trees of the Northeastern United States
Trees of the Great Lakes region (North America)
Trees of the Plains-Midwest (United States)
Trees of the Southeastern United States
Trees of the Eastern United States
Trees of the Southwestern United States
Trees of Eastern Canada
Trees of Ontario
Trees of the North-Central United States
Trees of the Southern United States
Trees of the South-Central United States
Flora of California
Flora of Central Mexico
Trees of Mexico
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Medicinal plants
Garden plants of North America
Trees of the United States | [
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252353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic%20William%20Maitland | Frederic William Maitland | Frederic William Maitland (28 May 1850 – ) was an English historian and lawyer who is regarded as the modern father of English legal history.
Early life and education, 1850–72
Frederic William Maitland was born at 53 Guilford Street, London in 1850, the only son and second of three children of John Gorham Maitland and of Emma, daughter of John Frederic Daniell. His grandfather was Samuel Roffey Maitland. Maitland's father was a barrister but, having little practice, became a civil servant, serving as secretary to the Civil Service Commission.
Maitland was educated at a preparatory school in Brighton before entering Eton College in 1863, where Edward Daniel Stone was his private tutor. At Eton, Maitland was not prominent either academically or athletically, although a close school friend thought he would become "a kind of philosophic Charles Lamb". He then matriculated at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1869 as a commoner. A dislike of classics acquired at Eton initially led him to read mathematics, with little success. Then, inspired by Henry Sidgwick, he switched to the relatively new moral sciences tripos in 1870, and took first-class honours in 1872, being bracketed senior with his friend William Cunningham; he was elected a scholar of his college the same year. The following year, he took his degree and won the Whewell Scholarship in international law.
Popular among his contemporaries, Maitland was elected secretary, then president, of the Cambridge Union. He was also, like his father before him, a Cambridge Apostle. A lover of exercise since his Eton days, he rowed for Trinity and ran for the university, winning a blue for representing the university in three-mile races.
Maitland's mother had died in 1851, shortly after the birth of his younger sister. Then, both his father and grandfather died when he was still at school. From his grandfather he inherited a manor house and some land in Brookthorpe, Gloucestershire. The estate provided him with an income until the agricultural depression in the 1880s.
Career at the bar and early efforts, 1872–84
Career at the bar
After Cambridge, Maitland tried to gain a fellowship in philosophy at Trinity College in 1875 with a dissertation entitled A Historical Sketch of Liberty and Equality: As Ideals of English Political Philosophy from the Time of Hobbes to the Time of Coleridge, but was beaten out by fellow Apostle James Ward. Having joined Lincoln's Inn as a student in 1872, he was called to the bar there in 1876, and became a competent equity lawyer and conveyancer.
Meanwhile, encouraged by Sidgwick, he began a book on property law, but abandoned it out of frustration at certain features of English property law; he expressed these sentiments in an anonymous article in the Westminster Review in 1879, described as "a bold, eloquent, and humorous plea for a sweeping change in the English law of Real Property". It was followed by three further articles in the Law Magazine and Review between 1881 and 1883.
Meeting with Vinogradoff
In 1880, Maitland was introduced by Frederick Pollock, who had been to Eton and Cambridge with him, to the Sunday Tramps, a walking club founded by Leslie Stephen. Through Pollock, Maitland was introduced in 1884 to Paul Vinogradoff, a Russian medievalist who was in England to study records lodged in the Public Record Office.
Maitland would later write that the day of his first meeting with Vinogradoff "determined the rest of my life". According to H. A. L. Fisher, Maitland was so chagrined by the fact that a Russian knew more about English legal records than he did that he made his first visit to the PRO shortly thereafter, though Geoffrey Elton points out that Maitland had already been working in the archives before he met Vinogradoff. The result of Maitland's initial work was Pleas of the Crown for the County of Gloucester, a transcription of the 1221 Gloucestershire eyre roll, which he published at his own expense in 1884 and dedicated to Vinogradoff.
Return to Cambridge and marriage, 1884–88
In 1884, Maitland was elected Reader in English law at Cambridge, having failed to be elected to a readership at Oxford the previous year. The post had been personally endowed by Sidgwick, to the tune of £300 a year for four years. In 1887, Maitland published, again at his own expense, an edition of Bracton's note book in three volumes, acting on a suggestion by Vinogradoff. He also published extensively on legal history in the Law Quarterly Review, which was edited by Sidgwick.
On 20 July 1886, Maitland married Florence Henrietta Fisher in a village church in Hampshire. He had met her through Stephen: her aunt was Stephen's second wife. Fisher was the daughter of Herbert William Fisher and the sister of H. A. L. Fisher, a future Liberal minister and Maitland's biographer. They had two daughters: Ermengard (named after a woman whose name appeared in Bracton's note book) in 1887 and Fredegond in 1889. By all account the marriage was a success, and the household a happy one.
Selden Society
In 1887, Maitland was among the founders of the Selden Society, established to promote the study of the history of English law, mainly through the publication of English legal manuscripts. The Society's first years were rocky: its treasurer, P. E. Dove, committed suicide in 1894, leaving behind a deficit of £1,000. Nevertheless, the Society published a steady stream of volumes under Maitland's direction as its first literary director. He personally edited eight volumes for the Society, contributed to more, and personally reviewed the proofs of every volume.
Downing Professor, 1888–1906
In 1888, Maitland was elected Downing Professor of the Laws of England, becoming a fellow of Downing College. On 13 October 1888 he gave his inaugural lecture, "Why the History of English Law is Not Written". The post carried with it an official residence, and Maitland's family settled in happily. He held frequent musical gatherings, and kept a series of exotic pets, including a monkey, a meerkat, and a badger. The same year, he published Select pleas of the Crown, A.D. 1200–1225, the first publication of the Selden Society.
In addition to teaching duties, Maitland served on numerous University and college bodies. He advocated for a number of reforms, including the abandonment of Greek as a compulsory entrance subject and the admission of women to degrees. In March 1897 he helped defeat a proposal for the creation of a Queen's University for women only as an alternative to granting them Cambridge degrees, making a speech which was long afterwards remembered.
Meanwhile, Maitland published extensively, making important contributions to the Cambridge Modern History, the English Historical Review, the Law Quarterly Review, Harvard Law Review and other publications. He delivered the Ford Lectures in English history at Oxford in 1897 (later published as Township and Borough) and the Rede Lecture in 1901. His most important work, The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I, appeared in 1895. It was co-authored with his friend Sir Frederick Pollock, though the latter wrote only the chapter on Anglo-Saxon law: "Chapter 1...was Pollock's work, and Maitland's reaction was never to let him write another." Popularly known as "Pollock and Maitland", The History of English Law has been described as "the best book on English legal history ever published in the English language."
In 1902 Maitland was offered the Regius Professorship of Modern History at Cambridge by Arthur Balfour in succession to Lord Acton, but declined. In the same year he became one of the founding fellows of the British Academy.
Final years and death
Maitland's health began to deteriorate in the 1890s: the exact nature of his illness remains unclear, but has been variously ascribed to tuberculosis or to diabetes. In 1898 he suffered from an attack of pleurisy, and thereafter he wintered either in the Canary Islands or in Madeira. In December 1906, he left Cambridge for the Canaries for the last time: during the trip, he contracted influenza, which turned into double pneumonia. He died at Las Palmas and was buried in the English Cemetery there.
Upon his death, the University of Oxford presented an address of condolence to Cambridge, described by Sir Geoffrey Elton as an "unprecedented tribute." Such addresses were often presented to the royal family, but the only precedent in the case of Maitland was an address to the University of Berlin upon the death of Theodor Mommsen.
Posthumous publications by his students, editing their lecture notes based on his lectures, include The Constitutional History of England, Equity, and The Forms of Action at Common Law. The latter publication has been repeatedly reprinted, and contains perhaps his most-quoted observation, which still appears in learned articles and superior court judgments:
"The forms of action we have buried but still they rule us from their graves."
Personal life
Maitland married Florence Henrietta Fisher, daughter of the historian Herbert William Fisher, in 1886 and they had two daughters, Ermengard (1887–1968) and Fredegond (1889–1949); after Maitland's death his widow married Sir Francis Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin.
Maitland was a moderate Liberal in politics, sympathizing with the Liberal Party but striving to maintain objectivity in his scholarship. Florence Fisher's brother, the Liberal scholar and politician H. A. L. Fisher, edited Maitland's papers and lectures on English constitutional history after his death.
Scholarship
Approach and style
His written style was elegant and lively. His historical method was distinguished by his thorough and sensitive use of historical sources, and by his determinedly historical perspective. Maitland taught his students, and all later historians, not to investigate the history of law purely or mostly by reference to the needs of the present, but rather to consider and seek to understand the past on its own terms.
Memoranda de Parliamento
In 1889, Maitland was invited by Henry Maxwell Lyte, the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records, to examine and edit the petitions presented to Edward I's parliament. Maitland quickly determined that the task was too large to be completed by one man. However, by chance he discovered a hitherto-unpublished parliament roll from 1305, which he edited and published in 1883 as part of the Rolls Series. This formed the basis of what Elton described as his "most explosive contribution to English history."
At the time, it was generally believed that early English parliaments were, from the beginning, an assembly of the estates of the realm who met to discuss affairs of state. This view had been laid down by Stubbs, who based his view on the 1295 "Model Parliament". In his introduction to the 1305 roll, Maitland instead proposed that early English parliaments were judicial bodies which met mainly to receive petitions to address grievances. Though the revolutionary nature of Maitland's suggestion was only realised later, most historians have come to accept Maitland's view.
"Why the history of English Law is not written?"
On 13 October 1888, Maitland gave his inaugural lecture as Downing Professor of the Laws of England. Pointing out that "no attempt has ever been made to write the history of English law as a whole", he proposed two causes: the insularity of English law and the conflicting logics of the lawyer and of the historian.
Assessment
Maitland was held in high regard by his contemporaries. Lord Acton called him the ablest historian in England.
Maitland's reputation has stood high since his death. Speaking in 1980, S. F. C. Milsom said that Maitland is "not just revered but loved" by historians, while in 1985, Sir Geoffrey Elton wrote of Maitland as the "patron saint" of historians.
Beginning in the 1960s, scholars such as S. F. C. Milsom and Patrick Wormald began to point out shortcomings in Maitland's views, which had by then become the orthodoxy, although the criticisms were inevitably coupled with sincere admiration for Maitland. The highly technical nature of Maitland's work, as well as the relative decline of legal history, made Maitland's views "lasting orthodoxies", as few historians had either the technical knowledge or the inclination to challenge them. Speaking on the centenary of the publication of Pollock and Maitland, Milsom said that:"if we go on as we are, we can look forward to our successors celebrating the bicentenary of 'Pollock and Maitland' as still the last word on the history of English law in its most crucial period. I wonder whether he would be pleased."
Honours and memorials
During his lifetime, Maitland received honorary doctorates from the universities of Cambridge (1891), Oxford (1899), Glasgow (1896), Moscow and Kracow. He was one of the founding fellows of the British Academy in 1902, and was a corresponding member of the Royal Prussian Academy of the Arts and of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. He was also an honorary fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge and an honorary bencher of Lincoln's Inn. On the latter honour, Maitland wrote to Pollock that "one of the vacant bishoprics would have been less of a surprise". Just before his death Maitland received the Ames Medal from Harvard Law School, and at the time of the death he had been invited by Oxford to deliver the Romanes Lecture.
After his death, the F. W. Maitland Memorial Fund was established at Cambridge in 1907 to promote research in legal history. It continues to award grants and studentships for that purpose. In 2000, a Maitland Legal History Room was established within the Squire Law Library of the Faculty of Law at the University of Cambridge. The Maitland Historical Society of Downing College, Cambridge, is also named in his honour.
At Oxford, a Maitland Library, begun with 300 books from Maitland's personal library, was established in 1908. Originally housed at All Souls College, Oxford, it was eventually taken over by the Bodleian Library, and was maintained as a separate collection until 1933.
In 2001, a memorial stone for Maitland was unveiled in Poet's Corner, Westminster Abbey; he was the first professional historian to be so honoured. The stone, cut by Richard Kindersley, is inscribed with a quote from Doomsday Book and Beyond: "By slow degrees the thoughts of our forefathers their common thoughts about common things will have become thinkable once more".
See also
Otto von Gierke
Herbert Fisher
Henry de Bracton
Paul Vinogradoff
Social law
Quia Emptores, Seisin and Cestui que
Works
His principal works include:
Pleas of the Crown for the County of Gloucester before the Abbot of Reading and his Fellows Justices Itinerant, Macmillan & Co., 1884.
Justice and Police, Macmillan & Co., 1885.
Bracton's Note-Book, Vol. 2, C. J. Clay & Sons, 1887 [reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010]. )
History of English Law before the Time of Edward I, with Sir Frederick Pollock, Cambridge University Press, 1899 [1st Pub. 1895; new ed. 1898].
Domesday Book and Beyond, Cambridge University Press, 1897.
Township and Borough: Being the Ford Lectures Delivered in the University of Oxford in the October Term of 1897, Cambridge University Press, 1898.
Roman Canon Law in the Church of England, Methuen & Co., 1898.
English Law and the Renaissance: the Rede Lecture for 1901, Cambridge University Press, 1901.
Charters of the Borough of Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1901 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010. )
Life and Letters of Leslie Stephen, Duckworth & Co., 1906.
The Constitutional History of England, Cambridge University Press, 1909 [1st Pub. 1908].
Equity. Also the Forms of Action at Common Law, Edited by A.H. Chaytor and W.J. Whittaker, Cambridge University Press, 1910.
The Collected Papers of Frederic William Maitland, H.A.L. Fisher, ed., Vol. I, Cambridge University Press, 1911.
The Collected Papers of Frederic William Maitland, H.A.L. Fisher, ed., Vol. II, Cambridge University Press, 1911.
The Collected Papers of Frederic William Maitland, H.A.L. Fisher, ed., Vol. III, Cambridge University Press, 1911.
A Sketch of English Legal History, with Francis G. Montague, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1915.
The Letters of Frederic William Maitland, Selden Society, 1965.
Essays
"The Relation of Punishment to Temptation," Mind, Vol. V, 1880.
"The Criminal Liability of the Hundred," The Law Magazine and Review, Vol. VII, 1882.
"Mr. Herbert Spencer's Theory of Society," Part II, Mind, Vol. VIII, 1883.
"From the Old Law Courts to the New," The English Illustrated Magazine, Vol. I, 1883.
"The Seisin of Chattels," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. I, 1885.
"The Deacon and the Jewess: or, Apostasy at Common Law," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. II, 1886.
"The Mystery of Seisin," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. II, 1886.
"The Suitors of the County Court," The English Historical Review, Vol. III, 1888.
"The Beatitude of Seisin," Part II, The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. IV, 1888.
"The Surnames of English Villages", The Archaeological Review, Vol. IV, No. 4, 1889.
"The Introduction of English Law into Ireland," The English Historical Review, Vol. IV, 1889.
"The Materials for English Legal History," Part II, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. IV, 1889.
"The 'Praerogativa Regis'," The English Historical Review, Vol. VI, 1891.
"Henry II and the Criminous Clerks," The English Historical Review, Vol. VII, 1892.
"The 'Quatripartitus'," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. VIII, 1892.
"The History of Cambridgeshire Manor," The English Historical Review, Vol. IX, No. 35, July 1894.
"The Origin of the Borough," The English Historical Review, Vol. IX, 1896.
"Wyclif on English and Roman Law," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XII, 1896.
"'Execrabilis' in the Common Pleas," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XII, 1896.
"Canon Law in England," The English Historical Review, Vol. XII, 1897.
"The Corporation Sole," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XVI, 1900, pp. 335–354
"The Crown as Corporation," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XVII, 1901, pp. 131–146
"Prologue to a History of English Law." In: Select Essays in Anglo-American Legal History, Vol. I. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1907.
"Materials For the History of English Law." In: Select Essays in Anglo-American Legal History, Vol. II. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1908.
"The History of the Register of Original Writs." In: Select Essays in Anglo-American Legal History, Vol. II. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1908.
Other
"Glanville, Ranulf de." In: Dictionary of National Biography, Vol. XXI, 1890.
"Court Rolls, Manorial Accounts and Extents." In: Dictionary of Political Economy, Vol. I, 1894.
Essays on the Teaching of History, William Arthur Jobson Archbold, ed., with an introduction by F.W. Maitland, Cambridge University Press, 1901.
Notes
References
Bell, Henry Esmond (1965). Maitland: A Critical Examination and Assessment. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Cameron, James R. (1961). Frederic William Maitland and the History of English Law. University of Oklahoma Press [rep. by Greenwood Press, 1977; Lawbook Exchange, 2001].
Elton, G. R. (1985). F.W. Maitland. Yale University Press.
Fifoot, C. H. S. (1971). Frederic William Maitland: A Life. Harvard University Press, 1971 [only full-length biography in print. Written by an academic lawyer in the field, but covering both the personal and professional life of its subject].
Fisher, H. A.L. (1910). F. W. Maitland. Cambridge University Press.
Heatley, D. P. (1913). "Frederic William Maitland." In: Studies in British History and Politics. London: Smith, Elder & Co., pp. 138–163.
Hollond, Henry Arthur (1953). Frederic William Maitland, 1850–1906: A Memorial Address. London: Quaritch.
Lapsley, Gaillard Thomas (1907). "Frederic William Maitland," The Green Bag, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 205–213.
Milsom, Stroud Francis Charles (1980). F. W. Maitland: Lecture on a Mastermind. Oxford University Press.
Milsom, Stroud Francis Charles (2001). "Maitland," Cambridge Law Journal, Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 265–270.
Reynell, Mrs. (1951). "Frederic William Maitland," The Cambridge Law Journal, Vol. XI, No. 1, pp. 67–73 [Mrs. Reynell was Maitland's eldest sister].
Schuyler, Robert Livingston (1952). "The Historical Spirit Incarnate: Frederic William Maitland," The American Historical Review, Vol. 57, No. 2, pp. 303–322.
Schuyler, Robert Livingston (1960). Introduction to Frederic William Maitland: Historian, University of California Press.
Smith, A. L. (1908). F. W. Maitland. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Smith, Munro & J. T. Shotwell (1907). "Frederic William Maitland," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 22, pp. 282–296.
Pollock, Sir Frederick et al. (1907). "In Memorian: Frederic W. Maitland," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. 23, pp. 137–150.
Vinogradoff, Paul (1907). "Frederic William Maitland," English Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 86, pp. 280–289.
Wormald, Patrick (1998). "Frederic William Maitland and the Earliest English Law," Law and History Review, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 1–25.
External links
Maitland, Frederick William: at McMaster University Archive for the History of Economic Thought.
English barristers
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Historians of England | [
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252354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Stubbs | William Stubbs | William Stubbs (21 June 182522 April 1901) was an English historian and Anglican bishop. He was Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Oxford between 1866 and 1884. He was Bishop of Chester from 1884 to 1889 and Bishop of Oxford from 1889 to 1901.
Early life
The son of William Morley Stubbs, a solicitor, and his wife, Mary Ann Henlock, he was born in a house on the High Street in Knaresborough, Yorkshire, and was educated at Ripon Grammar School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated MA in 1848, obtaining a first-class in Literae Humaniores and a third in mathematics.
Education and career to 1889
Stubbs was elected a Fellow of Trinity College, during his time living in Navestock, Essex, from 1850 to 1866, where he served as parish priest for the same period.
In 1859 he married Catherine Dellar, daughter of John Dellar, of Navestock, and they had several children. He was librarian at Lambeth Palace, and in 1862 was an unsuccessful candidate for the Chichele Professorship of Modern History at Oxford.
In 1866, Stubbs was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, and held the chair until 1884. His lectures were thinly attended, and he found them a distraction from his historical work. Some of his statutory lectures are published in his Lectures on Mediaeval and Modern History. In 1872, he founded Oxford University's School of Modern History, allowing postclassical history to be taught as a distinct subject for the first time. He accepted the patronage of the Stubbs Society during his time at Oxford, where he interacted with future doyens of the historical profession.
Stubbs was rector of Cholderton, Wiltshire, from 1875 to 1879, when he was appointed a canon of St Paul's Cathedral. He served on the ecclesiastical courts commission of 1881–1883 and wrote the weighty appendices to the report. On 25 April 1884 he was consecrated Bishop of Chester, and in 1889 became Bishop of Oxford until his death. As Bishop of Oxford he was also ex officio the Chancellor of the Order of the Garter. He was a Member of the Chetham Society, and served as vice-president from 1884.
Approach to church office
Stubbs was a High Churchman whose doctrines and practice were grounded on learning and a veneration for antiquity. His opinions were received with marked respect by his brother prelates, and he acted as an assessor to the archbishop in the trial of Edward King, Bishop of Lincoln.
Final illness and death
An attack of illness in November 1900 seriously impaired Stubbs' health. He was able, however, to attend the funeral of Queen Victoria on 2 February 1901, and preached a remarkable sermon before the king and the German emperor on the following day. His illness became critical on 20 April. He died in Cuddesdon on 22 April 1901. Stubbs was buried in the churchyard of All Saints, Cuddesdon, next to the palace of the bishops of Oxford.
Honours and degrees
Both in England and America Stubbs was universally acknowledged as the head of all English historical scholars, and no English historian of his time was held in equal honour in European countries. Among his many distinctions he was D.D. and honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Cambridge and Edinburgh, Doctor in utroque jure of Heidelberg; an hon. member of the University of Kyiv, and of the Prussian, Bavarian and Danish academies; he received the Prussian order Pour le Mérite, and was corresponding member of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques of the French Institute. Stubbs was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1897.
Reception of his historical work
Until Stubbs found it necessary to devote all his time to his episcopal duties, he concentrated on historical study. He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not remove distinctions between ancient and modern history. He believed that, though work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He also believed that the effects of individual character and human nature will render generalizations vague and useless. While pointing out that history is useful as a mental discipline and a part of a liberal education, he recommended its study chiefly for its own sake. It was in this spirit that he worked; he had the faculty of judgment and a genius for minute and critical investigation. He was equally eminent in ecclesiastical history, as an editor of texts and as the historian of the British constitution.
Registrum sacrum, Constitutional History, and Select Charters
In 1858 Stubbs published his Registrum sacrum anglicanum, which sets forth episcopal succession in England, which was followed by many other later works, and particularly by his share in Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents, edited in co-operation with the Rev. A. W. Haddan, for the third volume of which he was especially responsible. He edited nineteen volumes for the Rolls series of Chronicles and Memorials.
It is, however, by Stubbs' Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874–78) that he is most widely known as a historian. It became at once the standard authority on its subject. The appearance of this book, which traces the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain till 1485, marks a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning. It was followed by its companion volume of Select Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitutional History.
His merits as a historian
By Stubbs' contemporaries and after his death Stubbs was considered to have been in the front rank of historical scholars both as an author and a critic, and as a master of every department of the historian's work, from the discovery of materials to the elaboration of well founded theories and literary production. He was a good palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition. His merits as an author are often judged solely by his Constitutional History.
However, Stubbs' work is not entirely unquestionable. Some modern historians have questioned his acceptance of some medieval chronicles, written by monastical scribes whose views would be, to some extent, influenced by the politics of the Catholic Church. One such criticism was Stubbs' tirade against William Rufus whose character was much-maligned by the chroniclers perhaps due to his opposition to Gregorian reforms during his reign, which led to Archbishop Anselm going into exile.
Among the most notable examples of Stubbs' work for the Rolls series are the prefaces to Roger of Hoveden, the Gesta regum of William of Malmesbury, the Gesta Henrici II, and the Memorials of St. Dunstan.
Modern views of him
In the main Stubbs' ideas of a confrontational political framework have been superseded by K. B. McFarlane's "community of interest" theory; the idea that the amount of possible conflict between a king and his nobles was actually very small (case in point, Henry IV, 1399–1413). Historians like Michael Hicks, Rosemary Horrox and notably May McKisack, have pushed this view further.
J. W. Burrow proposed that Stubbs, like John Richard Green and Edward Augustus Freeman, was an historical scholar with little or no experience of public affairs, with views of the present which were romantically historicised and who was drawn to history by what was in a broad sense an antiquarian passion for the past, as well as a patriotic and populist impulse to identify the nation and its institutions as the collective subject of English history, making
the new historiography of early medieval times an extension, filling out and democratising, of older Whig notions of continuity. It was Stubbs who presented this most substantially; Green who made it popular and dramatic... It is in Freeman...of the three the most purely a narrative historian, that the strains are most apparent.
Publications
The medieval kingdoms of Cyprus and Armenia: two lectures delivered 26 and 29 October 1878. Oxford: E. Pickard Hall, M.A., and J.H. Stacy (1878)
The constitutional History of England, 3 vols, 5th ed. (Oxford, 1891–98).
The Constitutional History of England in Its Origin and Development, (sixth edition 1903)
Volume One
Volume Two
Volume Three
References
Sources
Cam, Helen. "Stubbs Seventy Years after." Cambridge Historical Journal 9#2 (1948): 129–47. online.
Letters of William Stubbs, Bishop of Oxford, ed. W. H. Hutton.
Charles Petit-Dutaillis, Studies and Notes Supplementary to Stubbs' Constitutional History,
Volume One
Volume Two
External links
Bibliographic directory from Project Canterbury
Chetham Society
Select Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitutional History
1825 births
1901 deaths
People from Knaresborough
People educated at Ripon Grammar School
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Bishops of Chester
Bishops of Oxford
Doctors of Divinity
English historians
Fellows of Trinity College, Oxford
Anglo-Saxon studies scholars
British medievalists
Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques
Regius Professors of History (University of Oxford)
English legal writers
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Chancellors of the Order of the Garter
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
19th-century Church of England bishops
Surtees Society
Chetham Society
Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire | [
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252355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequent | Sequent | In mathematical logic, a sequent is a very general kind of conditional assertion.
A sequent may have any number m of condition formulas Ai (called "antecedents") and any number n of asserted formulas Bj (called "succedents" or "consequents"). A sequent is understood to mean that if all of the antecedent conditions are true, then at least one of the consequent formulas is true. This style of conditional assertion is almost always associated with the conceptual framework of sequent calculus.
Introduction
The form and semantics of sequents
Sequents are best understood in the context of the following three kinds of logical judgments:
<li>Unconditional assertion. No antecedent formulas.
Example: ⊢ B
Meaning: B is true.
<li>Conditional assertion. Any number of antecedent formulas.
<li>Simple conditional assertion. Single consequent formula.
Example: A1, A2, A3 ⊢ B
Meaning: IF A1 AND A2 AND A3 are true, THEN B is true.
<li>Sequent. Any number of consequent formulas.
Example: A1, A2, A3 ⊢ B1, B2, B3, B4
Meaning: IF A1 AND A2 AND A3 are true, THEN B1 OR B2 OR B3 OR B4 is true.
Thus sequents are a generalization of simple conditional assertions, which are a generalization of unconditional assertions.
The word "OR" here is the inclusive OR. The motivation for disjunctive semantics on the right side of a sequent comes from three main benefits.
The symmetry of the classical inference rules for sequents with such semantics.
The ease and simplicity of converting such classical rules to intuitionistic rules.
The ability to prove completeness for predicate calculus when it is expressed in this way.
All three of these benefits were identified in the founding paper by .
Not all authors have adhered to Gentzen's original meaning for the word "sequent". For example, used the word "sequent" strictly for simple conditional assertions with one and only one consequent formula. The same single-consequent definition for a sequent is given by .
Syntax details
In a general sequent of the form
both Γ and Σ are sequences of logical formulas, not sets. Therefore both the number and order of occurrences of formulas are significant. In particular, the same formula may appear twice in the same sequence. The full set of sequent calculus inference rules contains rules to swap adjacent formulas on the left and on the right of the assertion symbol (and thereby arbitrarily permute the left and right sequences), and also to insert arbitrary formulas and remove duplicate copies within the left and the right sequences. (However, , uses sets of formulas in sequents instead of sequences of formulas. Consequently the three pairs of structural rules called "thinning", "contraction" and "interchange" are not required.)
The symbol ' ' is often referred to as the "turnstile", "right tack", "tee", "assertion sign" or "assertion symbol". It is often read, suggestively, as "yields", "proves" or "entails".
Properties
Effects of inserting and removing propositions
Since every formula in the antecedent (the left side) must be true to conclude the truth of at least one formula in the succedent (the right side), adding formulas to either side results in a weaker sequent, while removing them from either side gives a stronger one. This is one of the symmetry advantages which follows from the use of disjunctive semantics on the right hand side of the assertion symbol, whereas conjunctive semantics is adhered to on the left hand side.
Consequences of empty lists of formulas
In the extreme case where the list of antecedent formulas of a sequent is empty, the consequent is unconditional. This differs from the simple unconditional assertion because the number of consequents is arbitrary, not necessarily a single consequent. Thus for example, ' ⊢ B1, B2 ' means that either B1, or B2, or both must be true. An empty antecedent formula list is equivalent to the "always true" proposition, called the "verum", denoted "⊤". (See Tee (symbol).)
In the extreme case where the list of consequent formulas of a sequent is empty, the rule is still that at least one term on the right be true, which is clearly impossible. This is signified by the 'always false' proposition, called the "falsum", denoted "⊥". Since the consequence is false, at least one of the antecedents must be false. Thus for example, ' A1, A2 ⊢ ' means that at least one of the antecedents A1 and A2 must be false.
One sees here again a symmetry because of the disjunctive semantics on the right hand side. If the left side is empty, then one or more right-side propositions must be true. If the right side is empty, then one or more of the left-side propositions must be false.
The doubly extreme case ' ⊢ ', where both the antecedent and consequent lists of formulas are empty is "not satisfiable". In this case, the meaning of the sequent is effectively ' ⊤ ⊢ ⊥ '. This is equivalent to the sequent ' ⊢ ⊥ ', which clearly cannot be valid.
Examples
A sequent of the form ' ⊢ α, β ', for logical formulas α and β, means that either α is true or β is true (or both). But it does not mean that either α is a tautology or β is a tautology. To clarify this, consider the example ' ⊢ B ∨ A, C ∨ ¬A '. This is a valid sequent because either B ∨ A is true or C ∨ ¬A is true. But neither of these expressions is a tautology in isolation. It is the disjunction of these two expressions which is a tautology.
Similarly, a sequent of the form ' α, β ⊢ ', for logical formulas α and β, means that either α is false or β is false. But it does not mean that either α is a contradiction or β is a contradiction. To clarify this, consider the example ' B ∧ A, C ∧ ¬A ⊢ '. This is a valid sequent because either B ∧ A is false or C ∧ ¬A is false. But neither of these expressions is a contradiction in isolation. It is the conjunction of these two expressions which is a contradiction.
Rules
Most proof systems provide ways to deduce one sequent from another. These inference rules are written with a list of sequents above and below a line. This rule indicates that if everything above the line is true, so is everything under the line.
A typical rule is:
This indicates that if we can deduce that yields , and that yields , then we can also deduce that yields . (See also the full set of sequent calculus inference rules.)
Interpretation
History of the meaning of sequent assertions
The assertion symbol in sequents originally meant exactly the same as the implication operator. But over time, its meaning has changed to signify provability within a theory rather than semantic truth in all models.
In 1934, Gentzen did not define the assertion symbol ' ⊢ ' in a sequent to signify provability. He defined it to mean exactly the same as the implication operator ' ⇒ '. Using ' → ' instead of ' ⊢ ' and ' ⊃ ' instead of ' ⇒ ', he wrote: "The sequent A1, ..., Aμ → B1, ..., Bν signifies, as regards content, exactly the same as the formula (A1 & ... & Aμ) ⊃ (B1 ∨ ... ∨ Bν)". (Gentzen employed the right-arrow symbol between the antecedents and consequents of sequents. He employed the symbol ' ⊃ ' for the logical implication operator.)
In 1939, Hilbert and Bernays stated likewise that a sequent has the same meaning as the corresponding implication formula.
In 1944, Alonzo Church emphasized that Gentzen's sequent assertions did not signify provability.
"Employment of the deduction theorem as primitive or derived rule must not, however, be confused with the use of Sequenzen by Gentzen. For Gentzen's arrow, →, is not comparable to our syntactical notation, ⊢, but belongs to his object language (as is clear from the fact that expressions containing it appear as premisses and conclusions in applications of his rules of inference)."
Numerous publications after this time have stated that the assertion symbol in sequents does signify provability within the theory where the sequents are formulated. Curry in 1963, Lemmon in 1965, and Huth and Ryan in 2004 all state that the sequent assertion symbol signifies provability. However, states that the assertion symbol in Gentzen-system sequents, which he denotes as ' ⇒ ', is part of the object language, not the metalanguage.
According to Prawitz (1965): "The calculi of sequents can be understood as meta-calculi for the deducibility relation in the corresponding systems of natural deduction." And furthermore: "A proof in a calculus of sequents can be looked upon as an instruction on how to construct a corresponding natural deduction." In other words, the assertion symbol is part of the object language for the sequent calculus, which is a kind of meta-calculus, but simultaneously signifies deducibility in an underlying natural deduction system.
Intuitive meaning
A sequent is a formalized statement of provability that is frequently used when specifying calculi for deduction. In the sequent calculus, the name sequent is used for the construct, which can be regarded as a specific kind of judgment, characteristic to this deduction system.
The intuitive meaning of the sequent is that under the assumption of Γ the conclusion of Σ is provable. Classically, the formulae on the left of the turnstile can be interpreted conjunctively while the formulae on the right can be considered as a disjunction. This means that, when all formulae in Γ hold, then at least one formula in Σ also has to be true. If the succedent is empty, this is interpreted as falsity, i.e. means that Γ proves falsity and is thus inconsistent. On the other hand an empty antecedent is assumed to be true, i.e., means that Σ follows without any assumptions, i.e., it is always true (as a disjunction). A sequent of this form, with Γ empty, is known as a logical assertion.
Of course, other intuitive explanations are possible, which are classically equivalent. For example, can be read as asserting that it cannot be the case that every formula in Γ is true and every formula in Σ is false (this is related to the double-negation interpretations of classical intuitionistic logic, such as Glivenko's theorem).
In any case, these intuitive readings are only pedagogical. Since formal proofs in proof theory are purely syntactic, the meaning of (the derivation of) a sequent is only given by the properties of the calculus that provides the actual rules of inference.
Barring any contradictions in the technically precise definition above we can describe sequents in their introductory logical form. represents a set of assumptions that we begin our logical process with, for example "Socrates is a man" and "All men are mortal". The represents a logical conclusion that follows under these premises. For example "Socrates is mortal" follows from a reasonable formalization of the above points and we could expect to see it on the side of the turnstile. In this sense, means the process of reasoning, or "therefore" in English.
Variations
The general notion of sequent introduced here can be specialized in various ways. A sequent is said to be an intuitionistic sequent if there is at most one formula in the succedent (although multi-succedent calculi for intuitionistic logic are also possible). More precisely, the restriction of the general sequent calculus to single-succedent-formula sequents, with the same inference rules as for general sequents, constitutes an intuitionistic sequent calculus. (This restricted sequent calculus is denoted LJ.)
Similarly, one can obtain calculi for dual-intuitionistic logic (a type of paraconsistent logic) by requiring that sequents be singular in the antecedent.
In many cases, sequents are also assumed to consist of multisets or sets instead of sequences. Thus one disregards the order or even the numbers of occurrences of the formulae. For classical propositional logic this does not yield a problem, since the conclusions that one can draw from a collection of premises do not depend on these data. In substructural logic, however, this may become quite important.
Natural deduction systems use single-consequence conditional assertions, but they typically do not use the same sets of inference rules as Gentzen introduced in 1934. In particular, tabular natural deduction systems, which are very convenient for practical theorem-proving in propositional calculus and predicate calculus, were applied by and for teaching introductory logic in textbooks.
Etymology
Historically, sequents have been introduced by Gerhard Gentzen in order to specify his famous sequent calculus. In his German publication he used the word "Sequenz". However, in English, the word "sequence" is already used as a translation to the German "Folge" and appears quite frequently in mathematics. The term "sequent" then has been created in search for an alternative translation of the German expression.
Kleene makes the following comment on the translation into English: "Gentzen says 'Sequenz', which we translate as 'sequent', because we have already used 'sequence' for any succession of objects, where the German is 'Folge'."
See also
Gerhard Gentzen
Intuitionistic logic
Natural deduction
Sequent calculus
Notes
References
External links
Proof theory
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252359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Vinogradoff | Paul Vinogradoff | Sir Paul Gavrilovitch Vinogradoff (, transliterated: Pavel Gavrilovich Vinogradov; 18 November 1854 (O.S.)19 December 1925) was a Russian and British historian and medievalist.
Early life
Vinogradoff was born in Kostroma and was educated at the local gymnasium and Moscow University, where he studied history under Vasily Klyuchevsky. After graduating in 1875, he obtained a scholarship to continue his studies in Berlin, where he studied under Theodor Mommsen and Heinrich Brunner.
Career
Vinogradoff became professor of history at the University of Moscow, but his zeal for the spread of education brought him into conflict with the authorities, and consequently he was obliged to leave Russia. Having settled in England, Vinogradoff brought a powerful and original mind to bear upon the social and economic conditions of early England, a subject which he had already begun to study in Moscow.
Vinogradoff visited Britain for the first time in 1883, working on records in the Public Records Office and meeting leading English scholars such as Sir Henry Maine and Sir Frederick Pollock. He also met Frederic William Maitland, who was heavily influenced by their meeting.
Vinogradoff was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1897.
In 1903 he was elected to the position of Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence at the University of Oxford, and held this position until he died in 1925. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1905. He received honorary degrees from the principal universities (including D.C.L. from the University of Oxford in October 1902, in connection with the tercentenary of the Bodleian Library.), was made a member of several foreign academies and was appointed honorary professor of history at Moscow.
Upon the death of Maitland, Vinogradoff became the literary director of the Selden Society with Sir Frederick Pollock, a position he held until 1920. During World War I he gave valuable assistance to the British Foreign Office in connection with Russian affairs. Vinogradoff was knighted in 1917, and he and his children were naturalized as British subjects in 1918.
In 1925, Vinogradoff traveled to Paris to receive an honorary degree; while in Paris, he developed pneumonia and died there on 19 December.
Books
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, published in 1911, Vinogradoff's Villainage in England (1892) was "perhaps the most important book written on the peasantry of the feudal age and the village community in England; it can only be compared for value with FW Maitland's Domesday Book and Beyond. In masterly fashion Vinogradoff here shows that the villein of Norman times was the direct descendant of the Anglo-Saxon freeman, and that the typical Anglo-Saxon settlement was a free community, not a manor, the position of the freeman having steadily deteriorated in the centuries just around the Norman Conquest. The status of the villein and the conditions of the manor in the 12th and 13th centuries are set forth with a legal precision and a wealth of detail which shows its author, not only as a very capable historian, but also as a brilliant and learned jurist."
The article considered that almost equally valuable was Vinogradoff's essay on “Folkland” in vol. viii. of the English Historical Review (1893), which proved for the first time the real nature of this kind of land. Vinogradoff followed up his Villainage in England with The Growth of the Manor (1905) and English Society in the Eleventh Century (1908), works on the lines of his earlier book.
In "Outlines in Historical Jurisprudence" (1920–22), Vinogradoff traces the development of basic themes of jurisprudence, including marriage, property, and succession, in six different types of society: the totemistic, the tribal, the ancient city state, the medieval system of feudalism and canon law, and modern industrial society.
Works
The Origins of Feudal Relations in Lombard Italy, 1880.
Villainage in England, Carendon Press, [publ. 1887; trans. to English 1892].
The Teaching of Sir Henry Maine: An Inaugural Lecture, Henry Frowde, 1904.
The Growth of the Manor, George Allen & Company, 1911 [1st Pub. 1905].
English Society in the Eleventh Century, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908.
Roman Law in Medieval Europe, Harper & Brothers, 1909.
Essays in Legal History Read Before the International Congress of Historical Studies, held in London in 1913, Oxford University Press, 1913.
Common-sense in Law, H. Holt and Company, 1914.
Self-government in Russia, Constable, 1915.
Outlines in Historical Jurisprudence (Introduction and Tribal Law), Oxford University Press, 1920.
Outlines in Historical Jurisprudence (The Jurisprudence of the Greek City), Oxford University Press, 1922.
Custom and Right, H. Aschehoug & Co., 1925.
The Collected Papers of Paul Vinogradoff, 2 Vol., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1928.
Other
"The Reforming Work of Tzar Alexander II." In Kirkpatrick, F. A., Lectures on the History of the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, 1902.
"Social and Economic Conditions of the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century." In Gwatkin, H. M. The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. I, The MacMillan Company, 1911.
"Foundations of Society (Origins of Feudalism)." In Gwatkin, H. H. The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. II, The MacMillan Company, 1913.
"Russian Culture." In Bingham, Alfred. Handbook of the European War, Vol. II, H. W. Wilson Company, 1914.
"Russia: The Psychology of a Nation," Oxford Pamphlets, Oxford University Press, 1914.
The Russian Problem, George H. Doran Co., 1914.
"The Task of Russia." In Stephens, Winifred. The Soul of Russia, Macmillan & Co., 1916.
"Magna Carta, C. 39. Nullus Liber Homo, etc." In Malden, Henry Elliot. Magna Carta Commemoration Essays, Royal Historical Society, 1917.
"The Situation in Russia." In The Reconstruction of Russia, Oxford University Press, 1919.
"Introduction." In Hübner, Rudolf. A History of Germanic Private Law, Little, Brown & Company, 1918.
"The Work of Rome." In Marvin, F. S. The Evolution of Peace, Oxford University Press, 1921.
As editor
Oxford Studies in Social and Legal History, Vol. IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1914.
Articles
"The Customs of Ragusa," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XXI, 1905.
"Magna Carta," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XXI, 1905.
"A Constitutional History of Hungary," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XXI, 1905.
"Transfer of Land in Old English Law," The Harvard Law Review, Vol. 20, No. 7, May, 1907.
"Aristotle on Legal Redress," Columbia Law Review, Vol. 8, No. 7, Nov., 1908.
"The Crisis of Modern Jurisprudence," The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 29, No. 3, Jan., 1920.
"The Meaning of Legal History," Columbia Law Review, Vol. 22, No. 8, Dec., 1922.
Notes
References
External links
Paul Govrilovitch (sic) Vinogradoff: at McMaster University Archive for the History of Economic Thought
Russian historians
Russian medievalists
Full members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
1854 births
1925 deaths
Anglo-Saxon studies scholars
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United Kingdom
Professors of Jurisprudence (University of Oxford)
Knights Bachelor
Fellows of the British Academy
British historians
Legal historians
British medievalists
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Professorships at the Imperial Moscow University
Deaths from pneumonia in France
Imperial Moscow University alumni | [
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252364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Church%20of%20Canada | United Church of Canada | The United Church of Canada () is a mainline Protestant denomination that is the largest Protestant Christian denomination in Canada and the second largest Canadian Christian denomination after the Catholic Church in Canada.
The United Church was founded in 1925 as a merger of four Protestant denominations with a total combined membership of about 600,000 members: the Methodist Church, Canada, the Congregational Union of Ontario and Quebec, two-thirds of the congregations of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, and the Association of Local Union Churches, a movement predominantly of the Canadian Prairie provinces. The Canadian Conference of the Evangelical United Brethren Church joined the United Church of Canada on January 1, 1968.
Membership peaked in 1964 at 1.1 million and has declined since that time. From 1991 to 2001, the number of people claiming an affiliation with the United Church decreased by 8%, the third largest decrease in mainstream Christian denominations in Canada. Church statistics for the end of 2018 showed 388,363 members in 317,051 households under pastoral care, of whom 120,986 attend services regularly in 2,119 communities of faith representing 2,774 congregations. In 2011, Statistics Canada reported approximately 2 million people identifying as adherents.
The United Church has a "council-based" structure, where each council (congregational, regional, or denominational) has specific responsibilities. In some areas, each of these councils has sole authority, while in others, approval of other councils is required before action is taken. (For example, a congregation requires regional council approval before a minister can be called or appointed to the congregation.) The policies of the church are inclusive and liberal: there are no restrictions of gender, sexual orientation or marital status for a person considering entering the ministry; interfaith marriages are recognized; communion is offered to all Christian adults and children, regardless of denomination or age.
History
In the early 20th century, the main Evangelical Protestant denominations in Canada were the Presbyterian, Methodist and Congregational churches. Many small towns and villages across Canada had all three, with the town's population divided among them. Especially on the prairies, it was difficult to find clergy to serve all these charges, and there were several instances where one minister would serve his congregation, but would also perform pastoral care for the other congregations that lacked a minister. On the prairies, a movement to unite all three major Protestant denominations began, resulting in the Association of Local Union Churches.
Facing a de facto union in the western provinces, the three denominations began a slow process of union talks that eventually produced a Basis for Union.
However, not all elements of the churches involved were happy with the idea of uniting under one roof; a substantial minority of Presbyterians remained unconvinced of the virtues of church union. Their threat to the entire project was resolved by giving individual Presbyterian congregations the right to vote on whether to enter or remain outside the United Church. In the end, 302 out of 4,509 congregations of the Presbyterian Church (211 from southern Ontario) chose to reconstitute themselves as a "continuing" Presbyterian Church in Canada.
Inauguration
The United Church of Canada is an amalgamation of the Union of Methodists, Presbyterian and Congregational churches.
With the three denominations now in agreement about uniting, the church leaders approached the government of Canada to pass legislation concerning transfer of property rights. The legislation passed, June 27, 1924, and was effective June 10, 1925.
The United Church of Canada was inaugurated at a large worship service at Toronto's Mutual Street Arena on June 10, 1925. Participants were handed 38-page order of service containing the full text of the liturgy, prayers, hymns, and music. Hymns from all three churches were sung: All people that on earth do dwell from the Scottish Presbyterian psalm tradition; the Methodist favourite O for a thousand tongues to sing by Charles Wesley; the Congregationalist O God of Bethel; and When I survey the wondrous cross by the British Nonconformist, Isaac Watts.
The ecumenical tone of the new church was set at this first General Council. The former Methodist General Superintendent S. D. Chown was considered the leading candidate to become the first Moderator because the Methodist Church made up the largest segment of the new United Church. However, in a surprise move, Dr. Chown graciously stepped aside in favour of George C. Pidgeon, the moderator of the Presbyterian Church and principal spokesperson for the uniting Presbyterians, in the hopes that this would strengthen the resolve of the Presbyterians who had chosen to join the new Church.
Dr. S.D. Chown, United Church was featured on an 8 cent stamp issued by Canada Post on May 30, 1975.
Crest
The crest designed for the new church is a vesica piscis, an early Christian symbol that evoked an upended fish (the initials of the phrase "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour"; in Greek: ιχθύς, ichthys, meaning "fish"). The central saltire is also the Greek letter Chi, first letter of Χριστός, Greek for "Christ". Within three of the four quadrants are symbols of the founding churches: Presbyterianism (the Burning Bush), Methodism (the dove), and Congregationalism (the open Bible). In the bottom quadrant, the alpha and omega represents the ever-living God (Revelation 1:8). The motto Ut omnes unum sint recalls Christ’s “High Priestly Prayer” in John 17:21: "That all may be one". The entire crest resembles the emblem of the Church of Scotland.
In 2012, the Mohawk phrase "Akwe Nia'tetewá:neren" ("All my relations") was added to the perimeter, and the background colours of the four quadrants of the crest were changed to reflect the traditional colours of a typical First Nations medicine wheel.
1930s
In 1930, just as mergers of the congregations, colleges and administrative offices of the various denominations were completed and the United Church Hymnary was published, Canada was hit by the Great Depression. Although membership remained stable, attendance and givings fell. In the face of overwhelming unemployment, some in the church, both clergy and laity, called for a radical Christian socialist alternative such as the Fellowship for a Christian Social Order. Other more conservative members felt drawn to the message of the Oxford Group that focussed on the wealthier members of society. The great majority of members between these two extremes simply sought to help the unemployed.
In the United States, Methodists had been ordaining women from 1880, but it was still a contentious issue in Canada, and it was not until 1936 that the Reverend Lydia Emelie Gruchy of Saskatchewan Conference became the first woman in the United Church to be ordained and, in 1953, she became the first Canadian woman to receive an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree.
1940s
The Second World War was also a divisive issue. Some who had declared themselves pacifist before the war now struggled to reconcile their philosophy with the reality around them. Others remained pacifist—some 65 clergy signed A Witness Against War in 1939. But the church as a whole, although it did not support conscription, supported the overall war effort, both on the home front and by providing chaplains for the armed forces.
Although the forced relocation of Japanese Canadians away from the West Coast was supported by most members across Canada, church leaders and missionaries in B.C. spoke out against it, and the churches on the West Coast set up an Emergency Japanese Committee to help fight for the rights of the dislocated people.
In 1943, the Anglican Church invited other denominations to union talks, and the United Church responded enthusiastically; by 1946, the two churches had issued a statement on mutual ministry. In a similar ecumenical vein, the United Church was one of the founding bodies of the Canadian Council of Churches in 1944 and the World Council of Churches in 1946.
In 1925, The United Church assumed responsibility for 12 native residential schools that were designed to assimilate native children into Canadian culture. By the 1940s, thinking had begun to change about the underlying assumptions, and in 1949, the church began to close the schools in its care. The last residential school under United Chuch stewardship closed in 1969.
1950s
The United Church continued to espouse causes that were not politically popular, issuing statements supporting universal health care and the People's Republic of China at its 15th General Council (1952-54) at a time when these were considered radical concepts in North America.
Membership and givings increased dramatically as post-war parents started to bring their young families—the Baby Boomers—to church.
Talks with the Anglican Church had not made significant headway during the decade, but in 1958, the two churches decided to continue the conversation.
1960s
In 1962, two women's auxiliary organizations, Woman's Association and Woman's Missionary Society, join together to form the United Church Women (UCW). That same year, the United and Anglican Churches jointly published Growth in Understanding, a study guide on union, and on June 1, 1965 the Principles of Union between the United Church and the Anglican Church. The spirit of ecumenism with other denominations stayed strong throughout the decade, culminating in 1968 when the Canada Conference of The Evangelical United Brethren Church joined the United Church.
The high tide mark of membership was reached in 1965 when the church recorded 1,064,000 members. However, there were already rumblings of discontent in the church: that same year, Pierre Berton wrote The Comfortable Pew, a bestseller that was highly critical of Canadian churches, and a United Church Commission on Ministry in the 20th Century was appointed in response to growing frustration from congregations, presbyteries, and ministers about the role of ministry. The church lost 2,027 members in 1966, a decline of only two-tenths of a percent, but significantly it marked the first time since amalgamation that membership had fallen.
The Vietnam War brought new controversies to the church when in 1968, the secretary of the national Evangelism and Social Service Committee, the Reverend Ray Hord, offered emergency aid to American Vietnam draft dodgers; the General Council Executive disassociated itself from the decision but within two years it became church policy.
1970s
In 1971, the ecumenical movement reached its height as a joint commission the United and Anglican Churches and the Disciples of Christ approved a Plan of Union, and The Hymn Book, a joint publication of the United and Anglican Churches was published. The tide quickly turned though, and in 1975, the Anglican House of Bishops and National Executive Council declared that the Plan of Union was unacceptable. However, the Anglican, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Catholic, and United churches did agree to recognize the validity of Christian baptisms performed in any of these denominations.
Membership continued to decline slowly throughout the decade, despite a report that lay ministry was on the increase.
1980s
In 1980, at the 29th General Council, the commissioning of diaconal ministers as a part of ordered ministry was approved.
On August 16, 1980, the 28th General Council elected the first female Moderator, the Reverend Lois Wilson.
On August 17, 1980, a United Church of Canada task force released In God's Image, its report on sexual ethics which recommended the admission of homosexuals into the ministry and tolerance of premarital sex. Although the report accepted abortion under qualified circumstances, it rejected abortion on demand.
With union talks with the Anglicans already at end, talks with the Disciples of Christ also ended in 1985.
In 1986, the 31st General Council elected a female Moderator, Anne M. Squire.
In 1988, the 32nd General Council chose to end investment in South Africa, apologize to First Nations congregations for past denials of native spirituality by the church, and elected the first Moderator of Asian descent, Sang Chul Lee. However, those events were largely overshadowed when the commissioners passed a statement called Membership, Ministry and Human Sexuality that stated "all persons, regardless of sexual orientation, who profess their faith in Jesus Christ are welcome to be or become members of The United Church of Canada" and that "all members of the United Church are eligible to be considered for ordered ministry." Taken together, these two statements opened the door for openly gay men and women to join the ministry. Many members opposed this, and over the next four years, membership fell by 78,184. In some cases, entire congregations split, with a sizeable faction—sometimes led by the minister—leaving to form an independent church. Some of those opposed to the gay ordination issue chose to stay in the church, and formed the Community of Concern, a voice of conservatism within the church.
1990s
In the 1990s, the United Church faced the legacy of cultural assimilation and child abuse in the residential schools that it had once helped to operate.
On May 24, 1992, Tim Stevenson was the first openly gay minister ordained by the United Church of Canada.
On August 17, 1992, the first Native Canadian Moderator, the Reverend Stan McKay, a Cree man, was elected at the 34th General Council. Two years later, the church established a "Healing Fund". This was followed in 1998 by an apology made by the church to former students of United Church Indian Residential Schools.
At the 35th General Council in 1994, commissioners voted to have General Councils every three years rather than every two years. This also increased the length of term of Moderators from two to three years.
The original General Council office of the church built in 1925 resided on increasingly valuable land on St. Clair Avenue in downtown Toronto, Ontario. In 1995, facing increasing financial pressure from falling donations, the church sold the building and moved out to the suburb of Etobicoke.
In 1996, a new hymnary, Voices United, replaced the joint United-Anglican The Hymn Book. Response from congregations was enthusiastic, and by 2010, over 300,000 copies had been printed.
In 1996, the Committee on Archives and History compiled the "Guide to family history research in the archival repositories of the United Church of Canada".
In 1997, the Reverend Bill Phipps was elected Moderator at the 36th General Council. Controversy again descended on the church when later the same year, Phipps stated in an interview that 'I don't believe Jesus was God' and that he did not believe that Jesus physically rose from the dead.
2000s
In the new century, membership and givings both continued to drop, and in 2001 the General Council offices were reorganized as a cost-cutting measure.
In 2005, the church urged the Canadian Parliament to vote in favour of same-sex marriage legislation; after the legislation had been passed, the church urged the government not to reopen the issue.
The church continued to deal with the consequences of the Native residential school issue. In 2005, the church welcomed the Agreement in Principle announced by the Government of Canada and the Assembly of First Nations, which outlined a comprehensive resolution package for former students of Indian Residential Schools; and the following year, the church agreed to sign the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement.
In 2006, the 39th General Council approved the use of a generous bequest to start up "Emerging Spirit", a promotional campaign aimed at drawing 30- to 40-year-olds into a conversation about faith. As part of this campaign, "Emerging Spirit" used controversial magazine advertisements featuring, among other images, a bobble-head Jesus, a marriage cake with two grooms holding hands, Jesus sitting on Santa's chair in a mall, and a can of whipped cream with the caption "How much fun can sex be before it's a sin?".
2010s
In 2012, the 41st General Council elected Gary Paterson as the first openly gay Moderator. The commissioners also voted to invite First Nations peoples to become signatories to the Basis of Union. (In 1925, several aboriginal congregations of the original founding churches were automatically made part of the new United Church although the congregations had not been asked to participate in church Union negotiations, and had not been asked to sign the Basis of Union document.) In addition, the original church crest (adopted in 1944 with French added in 1980) was modified by changing the background colours of the four quadrants of the crest, as well as adding the Mohawk phrase "Akwe Nia'Tetewá:neren" ("All my relations") to the crest's perimeter.
After much debate, Commissioners also voted to adopt the recommendations of the Report of the Working Group on Israel/Palestine Policy, which included a boycott of products from Israeli settlements and a campaign of "encouraging members of the United Church to avoid any and all products produced in the settlements." This was the church's first boycott since an anti-apartheid boycott against South Africa in the 1980s. According to the report, the authors consulted with Canadian-based Palestinian organizations, as well as "Jewish rabbis, individuals and organizations" among others. Still it incited controversy, with several groups campaigning against the decision, including protests of the decision by several Canadian Jewish groups.
In 2015, at the 42nd General Council, delegates voted in favour of several "denomination-changing" proposals, including a reorganization from a four-court structure to a three-council structure; elimination of "settlement", the practice of telling newly ordained ministers where they would first serve; reorganization of the process of finding and training ministers; and a new funding model. These changes were subsequently approved by the wider church, and ratified at the 43rd General Council in July 2018.
In 2015, a debate emerged regarding whether or not United Church minister Gretta Vosper, an avowed atheist, was suitable for ministry. The United Church instituted an ecclesiastical hearing that could have led to her dismissal as minister. However, in 2018, Vosper and Toronto Conference reached a settlement in which all outstanding matters were resolved. Vosper continues to serve at West Hill United Church. In response to this internal decision, the offices of the General Council released a statement saying, "This [decision] doesn't alter in any way the belief of the United Church of Canada in God, a God most fully revealed to us as Christians in and through Jesus Christ. Our church's statements of faith over the years have all been grounded in this understanding." A survey of 1,353 "United Church ministry personnel" published by the Vancouver Sun found that "a majority of the respondents (almost 95%) affirmed a belief in God, with a large number (almost 80%) affirming a belief in a supernatural, theistic God".
Public positions and policies
Indigenous people
Until 1969, the United Church of Canada was involved with and supported the Canadian Indian residential school system, which resulted in a painful legacy for many Aboriginal people and their communities. Of approximately 80,000 students alive today, about 10 percent attended United Church-run schools.
In the late 1990s, the United Church of Canada issued multiple apologies for its complicity in a structurally abusive program of cultural genocide:
In 2019, the United Church of Canada allocated $150,000 (of the previous year's 33.7M in donations) to initiatives aimed at ameliorating the persisting consequences of the government-sponsored, church-operated residential school system for Canada's indigenous communities.
Governance and structure
The rules for governance are set out in The Manual, first written in 1925, and updated on a regular basis.
Moderator
The voice and face of the church is the Moderator, who is elected to a three-year term at each General Council. The duties of the Moderator include:
giving leadership to the church, "quickening in the hearts of the people a sense of God as revealed in Christ, and heartening and strengthening the whole United Church".
visiting communities of faith across the country, "giving sympathetic guidance and counsel in all its affairs".
being the primary spokesperson for the United Church
presiding at the meetings of the denominational council, its Executive, and its Sub-Executive.
Currently, the Right Rev. Dr. Richard Bott holds the position following his election at the 43rd General Council in July 2018.
Governance structure
For the first 92 years of its existence, administration was shared among four courts, or levels:
pastoral charges, the primary ministry unit of the United Church, were composed of one or more congregations or preaching points.
pastoral charges were members of local area presbyteries or districts, of which there were 88.
presbyteries were gathered into regional conferences, of which there were 13.
General Council, the church's highest legislative court, was elected and met every three years.
In 2019 the church moved to a three-council model:
communities of faith, which will include all pastoral charges, congregations, and other groups who gather regularly for worship.
regional councils, of which there will be 16.
denominational council, which will continue to be referred to as the General Council.
Ministry
The clergy of the United Church are called "ministers". There are two "streams", ordered ministry and lay ministry. Ordered ministry includes ordained ministers and diaconal ministers. Lay ministry refers to licensed lay worship leaders, designated lay ministers (DLM), sacraments elders and congregational designated ministers (CDM). There are no restrictions on gender, sexual orientation, age, or marital status for any branches of ministry.
Beliefs and practices
Bible
The United Church believes that the Bible is central to the Christian faith and was written by people who were inspired by God. The church also believes that the circumstances under which the books of the Bible were written were of a particular place and time, and some things cannot be reconciled with our lives today, such as slavery and the condemnation of homosexuality. The United Church of Canada uses the historical-critical method of interpreting the bible.
Sacraments
The two sacraments of the United Church are Communion and Baptism.
Communion
Communion is the ritual sharing of the elements of bread and wine (or, more commonly, grape juice) as a remembrance of the Last Supper that Jesus shared with his followers. It is usually celebrated at a table at the front of the sanctuary, where the minister blesses the elements before they are distributed to the congregation. The Church practises open communion, with no restriction regarding age or membership, as the sacrament is open to young children and Christians from other denominations.
The actual distribution can take several forms, including passing a tray of bread cubes and another tray of small juice glasses from person to person, and then eating the bread and drinking the juice in unison; and "intinction", where each person takes a piece of bread, dips it into a cup of juice and then eats the juice-soaked bread.
There is no guideline for frequency. Some congregations celebrate communion once a month, others on a quarterly basis.
Baptism
Baptism is the first step in church membership, where the parents make a profession of faith on behalf of the infant in the hope that their child will later confirm that profession at or around the age of 13.
The United Church practices infant baptism, but in cases where a person was not baptized as an infant, baptism can be performed at any age. In the case of infant baptism, the parents of the infant, before the congregation, agree to a series of statements about the beliefs of the United Church on behalf of their child. They also promise to encourage the child to seek full membership at an appropriate time. The members of the congregation also promise the parents that they will help to raise the child in a Christian community. The minister then places water on the candidate's head three times (expressing the Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit) and traces a cross on the person's forehead with water. Baptism by immersion is also an option for adults who request it.
In the 1970s, the United Church reached an ecumenical agreement with the Presbyterian, Lutheran, Catholic, and Anglican churches in Canada that baptisms within these churches are mutually recognized as valid. Further to that, the United Church recognizes the validity of any baptism by another denomination that was performed with water and in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
Inclusiveness
The church attempts to welcome everyone, regardless of age, race, class, gender, sexual orientation, or physical ability. In the same manner, there is also no restriction on those interested in entering ministry.
Marriage
The United Church recognizes and celebrates all legal marriages, including same-sex couples, previously divorced people, and couples of different religions. The actual policy of whom to marry is left up to the church council of each community of faith. For instance, one congregation might not allow same-sex marriages to be performed in their building, while another allows all marriages regardless of sexual orientation.
Interfaith relations
The church believes that there are many paths to God. The United Church's path is through Jesus Christ, but the church also recognizes that Christians' understanding of this is limited by an incomplete comprehension of God; their belief is that the Holy Spirit is also at work through other non-Christian faiths.
Abortion
The church supports the right of women to have access to safe abortions that are covered by provincial health care, but also supports better access to contraception, sexual education, and counselling that might eventually make abortion unnecessary.
Membership
A full member is one who has been baptised, either as infant, child, youth or adult, and has made a public profession of faith before the congregation. Membership is not required in order to worship at a United Church, and many who regularly attend worship are adherents rather than members.
In order to become a full member, a person goes through a process called "confirmation". This is offered to adults (starting at around age 13) and usually involves a series of classes about the beliefs of the United Church. Following this, the candidate makes a public profession of faith before the congregation, thereby "confirming" the statements made by his or her parents during baptism. If the person is unbaptised, the minister baptises the person before the profession of faith. The new member's name is then entered on the official Roll of Members for that congregation.
Benefits of membership
Only members can be a part of a congregation's board or council, and only members can vote at congregational meetings, although members can vote to extend voting privileges to adherents.
Transfer of membership and removal from rolls
Although confirmation takes place at the congregational level, the person is a member of the entire United Church of Canada, not just one congregation; therefore membership can be transferred freely from congregation to congregation.
A congregation may remove members from its roll for non-attendance. (The Manual suggests an absence of three years, but the congregation is free to set its own period of time)
Music
The United Church has issued four hymn books:
Hymnary (1930)
The Hymn Book (jointly with the Anglican Church of Canada) in 1972
Voices United (1996) is the current hymnal, with over 300,000 copies in print. A supplement, More Voices was published in 2006
Nos voix unies (2005), the United Church's first French-language hymnal
Criticism from outside the church
A. C. Forrest, the editor of the United Church Observer in the 1960s and 1970s (and by extension the United Church itself) came under strong attack from the Canadian Jewish community for frequent editorial espousal of Palestinian rights in Israel, on the West Bank and in Gaza; many within the United Church were also uncomfortable with Forrest's position, though ultimately the church adjudged a plurality of opinion on this (and other matters) as consistent with United Church open-mindedness.
The National Post has published several articles critical of the United Church of Canada. (August 19, 2009: "United Church is blind to true suffering"; August 14, 2009: "United Church's uncertain future") An article by Charles Lewis, published on May 14, 2011, set out what Lewis sees as the issues that beset the United Church: the church's "big tent" approach to believers, accepting even atheists as members; and lack of doctrinal orthodoxy.
References
Further reading
Airhart, Phyllis D. A Church with the Soul of a Nation: Making and Remaking the United Church of Canada (MQUP, 2013) excerpt
Farris, Allan. The Fathers of 1925: The Tide of Time, edited by John S. Moir, Knox College, 1978
Flatt, Kevin N. After Evangelicalism: The Sixties and the United Church of Canada (2013)
Schweitzer, Don, Michael Bourgeois, and Robert C. Fennell. The Theology of the United Church of Canada. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2019. ISBN 978-1-77112-398-3
Schweitzer, Don ed. The United Church of Canada: A History. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2012. , electronic format and
External links
"Canada's Lead in Church Unity," The Literary Digest, July 4, 1925
Christian denominations established in the 20th century
United and uniting churches
Methodist denominations established in the 20th century
Members of the World Council of Churches
Members of the World Communion of Reformed Churches
Christian organizations established in 1925
Presbyterian denominations in Canada
1925 establishments in Canada | [
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252367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Paul%27s%20Eastern%20United%20Church | St. Paul's Eastern United Church | St. Paul's-Eastern United Church is one of the oldest congregations in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The stone Romanesque church building is located in the heart of downtown Ottawa (Sandy Hill) on the corner of Daly and Cumberland Streets, near the University of Ottawa and two blocks east of the Rideau Centre.
History
The Romanesque Revival structure was built from 1888 to 1889 for St. Paul's Presbyterian Church by S.R. Badgley, architect. It originally had a large steeple. Unfortunately the church was built on sand, and the steeple side started sinking into the ground. The steeple was therefore removed early in the 20th century, leaving the building as a relatively squat stone structure.
With the creation of the United Church of Canada in 1925, St. Paul's merged with the nearby Eastern Methodist Church and got its current name.
In the late part of the 20th century the church struggled. The growing secularization of Canadian society and the smaller number of people living downtown meant that the church was rarely more than half full and the Sunday school had only a handful of children.
St. Paul's today
More recently (2003–present), the church has experienced a revitalization in activity, membership, finances and Sunday School involvement. Most of the new people coming to St. Paul's-Eastern are young families and young singles.
St. Paul's-Eastern has a number of groups and partners who operate out of the church. They include: Jericho Road and Touch of Love. Other groups such as Girl Guides and Alcoholics Anonymous also operate out of the church.
See also
List of designated heritage properties in Ottawa
References
Ottawa: a guide to heritage structures City of Ottawa, Local Architectural Conservation Advisory Committee; managing editor, Lucy Corbin. 2001
Harold D. Kalman Exploring Ottawa: an architectural guide to the nation's capital University of Toronto Press, 1983
External links
Official webpage
United Church of Canada churches in Ottawa | [
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252372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary%20system | Planetary system | A planetary system is a set of gravitationally bound non-stellar objects in or out of orbit around a star or star system. Generally speaking, systems with one or more planets constitute a planetary system, although such systems may also consist of bodies such as dwarf planets, asteroids, natural satellites, meteoroids, comets, planetesimals and circumstellar disks. The Sun together with the planetary system revolving around it, including Earth, forms the Solar System. The term exoplanetary system is sometimes used in reference to other planetary systems.
Debris disks are also known to be common, though other objects are more difficult to observe.
Of particular interest to astrobiology is the habitable zone of planetary systems where planets could have surface liquid water, and thus the capacity to support Earth-like life.
History
Heliocentrism
Historically, heliocentrism (the doctrine that the Sun is at the centre of the universe) was opposed to geocentrism (placing Earth at the centre of the universe).
The notion of a heliocentric Solar System with the Sun at its centre is possibly first suggested in the Vedic literature of ancient India, which often refer to the Sun as the "centre of spheres". Some interpret Aryabhatta's writings in Āryabhaṭīya as implicitly heliocentric.
The idea was first proposed in Western philosophy and Greek astronomy as early as the 3rd century BC by Aristarchus of Samos, but received no support from most other ancient astronomers.
Discovery of the Solar System
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium by Nicolaus Copernicus, published in 1543, presented the first mathematically predictive heliocentric model of a planetary system. 17th-century successors Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Sir Isaac Newton developed an understanding of physics which led to the gradual acceptance of the idea that Earth moves around the Sun and that the planets are governed by the same physical laws that governed Earth.
Speculation on extrasolar planetary systems
In the 16th century the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. He was burned at the stake for his ideas by the Roman Inquisition.
In the 18th century the same possibility was mentioned by Sir Isaac Newton in the "General Scholium" that concludes his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One."
His theories gained traction through the 19th and 20th centuries despite a lack of supporting evidence. Long before their confirmation by astronomers, conjecture on the nature of planetary systems had been a focus of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence and has been a prevalent theme in fiction, particularly science fiction.
Detection of exoplanets
The first confirmed detection of an exoplanet was in 1992, with the discovery of several terrestrial-mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. The first confirmed detection of exoplanets of a main-sequence star was made in 1995, when a giant planet, 51 Pegasi b, was found in a four-day orbit around the nearby G-type star 51 Pegasi. The frequency of detections has increased since then, particularly through advancements in methods of detecting extrasolar planets and dedicated planet finding programs such as the Kepler mission.
Origin and evolution
Planetary systems come from protoplanetary disks that form around stars as part of the process of star formation.
During formation of a system, much material is gravitationally-scattered into distant orbits, and some planets are ejected completely from the system, becoming rogue planets.
Evolved systems
High-mass stars
Planets orbiting pulsars have been discovered. Pulsars are the remnants of the supernova explosions of high-mass stars, but a planetary system that existed before the supernova would likely be mostly destroyed. Planets would either evaporate, be pushed off of their orbits by the masses of gas from the exploding star, or the sudden loss of most of the mass of the central star would see them escape the gravitational hold of the star, or in some cases the supernova would kick the pulsar itself out of the system at high velocity so any planets that had survived the explosion would be left behind as free-floating objects. Planets found around pulsars may have formed as a result of pre-existing stellar companions that were almost entirely evaporated by the supernova blast, leaving behind planet-sized bodies. Alternatively, planets may form in an accretion disk of fallback matter surrounding a pulsar. Fallback disks of matter that failed to escape orbit during a supernova may also form planets around black holes.
Lower-mass stars
As stars evolve and turn into red giants, asymptotic giant branch stars, and planetary nebulae they engulf the inner planets, evaporating or partially evaporating them depending on how massive they are. As the star loses mass, planets that are not engulfed move further out from the star.
If an evolved star is in a binary or multiple system, then the mass it loses can transfer to another star, forming new protoplanetary disks and second- and third-generation planets which may differ in composition from the original planets, which may also be affected by the mass transfer.
System architectures
The Solar System consists of an inner region of small rocky planets and outer region of large gas giants. However, other planetary systems can have quite different architectures. Studies suggest that architectures of planetary systems are dependent on the conditions of their initial formation. Many systems with a hot Jupiter gas giant very close to the star have been found. Theories, such as planetary migration or scattering, have been proposed for the formation of large planets close to their parent stars.
At present, few systems have been found to be analogous to the Solar System with terrestrial planets close to the parent star. More commonly, systems consisting of multiple Super-Earths have been detected.
Components
Planets and stars
Most known exoplanets orbit stars roughly similar to the Sun: that is, main-sequence stars of spectral categories F, G, or K. One reason is that planet-search programs have tended to concentrate on such stars. In addition, statistical analyses indicate that lower-mass stars (red dwarfs, of spectral category M) are less likely to have planets massive enough to be detected by the radial-velocity method. Nevertheless, several tens of planets around red dwarfs have been discovered by the Kepler spacecraft by the transit method, which can detect smaller planets.
Circumstellar disks and dust structures
After planets, circumstellar disks are one of the most commonly-observed properties of planetary systems, particularly of young stars. The Solar System possesses at least four major circumstellar disks (the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, scattered disc, and Oort cloud) and clearly-observable disks have been detected around nearby solar analogs including Epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti. Based on observations of numerous similar disks, they are assumed to be quite common attributes of stars on the main sequence.
Interplanetary dust clouds have been studied in the Solar System and analogs are believed to be present in other planetary systems. Exozodiacal dust, an exoplanetary analog of zodiacal dust, the 1–100 micrometre-sized grains of amorphous carbon and silicate dust that fill the plane of the Solar System has been detected around the 51 Ophiuchi, Fomalhaut, Tau Ceti, and Vega systems.
Comets
there are 5,253 known Solar System comets and they are thought to be common components of planetary systems. The first exocomets were detected in 1987 around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star. There are now a total of 11 stars around which the presence of exocomets have been observed or suspected. All discovered exocometary systems (Beta Pictoris, HR 10, 51 Ophiuchi, HR 2174, 49 Ceti, 5 Vulpeculae, 2 Andromedae, HD 21620, HD 42111, HD 110411, and more recently HD 172555) are around very young A-type stars.
Other components
Computer modelling of an impact in 2013 detected around the star NGC 2547-ID8 by the Spitzer Space Telescope, and confirmed by ground observations, suggests the involvement of large asteroids or protoplanets similar to the events believed to have led to the formation of terrestrial planets like the Earth.
Based on observations of the Solar System's large collection of natural satellites, they are believed common components of planetary systems; however, the existence of exomoons has, so far, not been confirmed. The star 1SWASP J140747.93-394542.6, in the constellation Centaurus, is a strong candidate for a natural satellite. Indications suggest that the confirmed extrasolar planet WASP-12b also has at least one satellite.
Orbital configurations
Unlike the Solar System, which has orbits that are nearly circular, many of the known planetary systems display much higher orbital eccentricity. An example of such a system is 16 Cygni.
Mutual inclination
The mutual inclination between two planets is the angle between their orbital planes. Many compact systems with multiple close-in planets interior to the equivalent orbit of Venus are expected to have very low mutual inclinations, so the system (at least the close-in part) would be even flatter than the Solar System. Captured planets could be captured into any arbitrary angle to the rest of the system. there are only a few systems where mutual inclinations have actually been measured One example is the Upsilon Andromedae system: the planets c and d have a mutual inclination of about 30 degrees.
Orbital dynamics
Planetary systems can be categorized according to their orbital dynamics as resonant, non-resonant-interacting, hierarchical, or some combination of these. In resonant systems the orbital periods of the planets are in integer ratios. The Kepler-223 system contains four planets in an 8:6:4:3 orbital resonance.
Giant planets are found in mean-motion resonances more often than smaller planets.
In interacting systems the planets orbits are close enough together that they perturb the orbital parameters. The Solar System could be described as weakly interacting. In strongly interacting systems Kepler's laws do not hold.
In hierarchical systems the planets are arranged so that the system can be gravitationally considered as a nested system of two-bodies, e.g. in a star with a close-in hot jupiter with another gas giant much further out, the star and hot jupiter form a pair that appears as a single object to another planet that is far enough out.
Other, as yet unobserved, orbital possibilities include: double planets; various co-orbital planets such as quasi-satellites, trojans and exchange orbits; and interlocking orbits maintained by precessing orbital planes.
Number of planets, relative parameters and spacings
Planet capture
Free-floating planets in open clusters have similar velocities to the stars and so can be recaptured. They are typically captured into wide orbits between 100 and 105 AU. The capture efficiency decreases with increasing cluster size, and for a given cluster size it increases with the host/primary mass. It is almost independent of the planetary mass. Single and multiple planets could be captured into arbitrary unaligned orbits, non-coplanar with each other or with the stellar host spin, or pre-existing planetary system. Some planet–host metallicity correlation may still exist due to the common origin of the stars from the same cluster. Planets would be unlikely to be captured around neutron stars because these are likely to be ejected from the cluster by a pulsar kick when they form. Planets could even be captured around other planets to form free-floating planet binaries. After the cluster has dispersed some of the captured planets with orbits larger than 106 AU would be slowly disrupted by the galactic tide and likely become free-floating again through encounters with other field stars or giant molecular clouds.
Zones
Habitable zone
The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature range allows for liquid water to exist on a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star; this means the habitable zone will also vary accordingly. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet.
Habitable zones have usually been defined in terms of surface temperature; however, over half of Earth's biomass is from subsurface microbes, and temperature increases as depth underground increases, so the subsurface can be conducive for life when the surface is frozen; if this is considered, the habitable zone extends much further from the star.
Studies in 2013 indicated an estimated frequency of 22±8% of Sun-like stars having an Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone.
Venus zone
The Venus zone is the region around a star where a terrestrial planet would have runaway greenhouse conditions like Venus, but not so near the star that the atmosphere completely evaporates. As with the habitable zone, the location of the Venus zone depends on several factors, including the type of star and properties of the planets such as mass, rotation rate, and atmospheric clouds. Studies of the Kepler spacecraft data indicate that 32% of red dwarfs have potentially Venus-like planets based on planet size and distance from star, increasing to 45% for K-type and G-type stars. Several candidates have been identified, but spectroscopic follow-up studies of their atmospheres are required to determine whether they are like Venus.
Galactic distribution of planets
The Milky Way is 100,000 light-years across, but 90% of planets with known distances are within about 2000 light years of Earth, as of July 2014. One method that can detect planets much further away is microlensing. The WFIRST spacecraft could use microlensing to measure the relative frequency of planets in the galactic bulge versus the galactic disk. So far, the indications are that planets are more common in the disk than the bulge. Estimates of the distance of microlensing events is difficult: the first planet considered with high probability of being in the bulge is MOA-2011-BLG-293Lb at a distance of 7.7 kiloparsecs (about 25,000 light years).
Population I, or metal-rich stars, are those young stars whose metallicity is highest. The high metallicity of population I stars makes them more likely to possess planetary systems than older populations, because planets form by the accretion of metals. The Sun is an example of a metal-rich star. These are common in the spiral arms of the Milky Way. Generally, the youngest stars, the extreme population I, are found farther in and intermediate population I stars are farther out, etc. The Sun is considered an intermediate population I star. Population I stars have regular elliptical orbits around the Galactic Center, with a low relative velocity.
Population II, or metal-poor stars, are those with relatively low metallicity which can have hundreds (e.g. BD +17° 3248) or thousands (e.g. Sneden's Star) times less metallicity than the Sun. These objects formed during an earlier time of the universe. Intermediate population II stars are common in the bulge near the center of the Milky Way, whereas Population II stars found in the galactic halo are older and thus more metal-poor. Globular clusters also contain high numbers of population II stars.
In 2014, the first planets around a halo star were announced around Kapteyn's star, the nearest halo star to Earth, around 13 light years away. However, later research suggests that Kapteyn b is just an artefact of stellar activity and that Kapteyn c needs more study to be confirmed. The metallicity of Kapteyn's star is estimated to be about 8 times less than the Sun.
Different types of galaxies have different histories of star formation and hence planet formation. Planet formation is affected by the ages, metallicities, and orbits of stellar populations within a galaxy. Distribution of stellar populations within a galaxy varies between the different types of galaxies.
Stars in elliptical galaxies are much older than stars in spiral galaxies. Most elliptical galaxies contain mainly low-mass stars, with minimal star-formation activity. The distribution of the different types of galaxies in the universe depends on their location within galaxy clusters, with elliptical galaxies found mostly close to their centers.
See also
Protoplanetary disk
List of exoplanets
List of multiplanetary systems
List of exoplanetary host stars
Notes
References
Further reading
Concepts in astronomy | [
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252374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremona | Cremona | Cremona (, also ; ; ; ) is a city and comune in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po river in the middle of the Pianura Padana (Po Valley). It is the capital of the province of Cremona and the seat of the local city and province governments. The city of Cremona is especially noted for its musical history and traditions, including some of the earliest and most renowned luthiers, such as Giuseppe Guarneri, Antonio Stradivari, Francesco Rugeri, Vincenzo Rugeri, and several members of the Amati family.
History
Ancient
Celtic origin
Cremona is first mentioned in history as a settlement of the Cenomani, a Gallic (Celtic) tribe that arrived in the Po valley around 400 BC. However, the name Cremona most likely dates back to earlier settlers and puzzled the ancients, who gave many fanciful interpretations.
Roman military outpost
In 218 BC the Romans established on that spot their first military outpost (a colonia) north of the Po river, and kept the old name. Cremona and nearby Placentia (modern Piacenza, on the south bank of the Po), were founded in the same year, as bases for penetration into what became the Roman Province of Gallia Cisalpina (Cisalpine Gaul).
Cremona quickly grew into one of the largest towns in northern Italy, as it was on the main road connecting Genoa to Aquileia, the Via Postumia. It supplied troops to Julius Caesar and benefited from his rule, but later supported Marcus Iunius Brutus and the Senate in their conflict with Augustus, who, having won, in 40 BC confiscated Cremona's land and redistributed it to his men. The famous poet Virgil, who went to school in Cremona, had to forfeit his ancestral farm ("too close to wretched Cremona"), but later regained it.
Destruction
The city's prosperity continued to increase until 69 AD, when it was sacked and destroyed in the Second Battle of Bedriacum by the troops of Vespasian under command of Marcus Antonius Primus, fighting to install him as Emperor against his rival Vitellius.
The sacking was described by Tacitus in Histories.
Cremona was rebuilt with the help of the new emperor Vespasian, but it seems to have failed to regain its former prosperity as it disappeared from history.
Re-emergence
In the 6th century, it resurfaced as a military outpost of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire during the Gothic War.
Early Middle Ages
When the Lombards invaded much of Italy in the second half of the 6th century AD, Cremona remained a Byzantine stronghold as part of the Exarchate of Ravenna. The city expanded towards the north-west, with the creation of a great trenched camp outside the walls.
Lombard Possession
In 603 AD, Cremona was conquered by the Lombard King Agilulf and again destroyed. Its territory was divided between the two duchies of Brescia and Bergamo.
However, in 615 AD, Queen Theodelinda, a devout Roman Catholic intent on converting her people, had Cremona rebuilt and re-installed a bishop there.
Holy Roman Vassal
Control of the city fell increasingly to its bishop, who became a Holy Roman Empire vassal after Charlemagne's conquest of Italy. In this way, Cremona increased its power and its prosperity steadily and some of its bishops had important roles between the 10th and 11th centuries. Bishop Liutprand of Cremona was a member of the Imperial court under the Saxony dynasty and Olderic gained strong privileges for his city from emperor Otto III. Its economy was boosted by the creation of a river port out of the former Byzantine fortress.
However, the two bishops Lambert and Ubaldo created discord with the city's people. Emperor Conrad II settled the quarrel by entering Cremona in 1037 together with the young Pope Benedict IX.
Medieval Commune
Under Henry IV, Cremona refused to pay the oppressive taxes requested by the Empire and the bishop. According to a legend, the great gonfaloniere (mayor) Giovanni Baldesio of Cremona faced the emperor himself in a duel. As Henry was knocked from his horse, the city was saved the annual payment of the golden ball, which, for that year, was instead given to Berta, Giovanni's girlfriend, as her dowry.
Anti-Empire
The first historical news about a free Cremona is from 1093, as it entered into an anti-Empire alliance led by Mathilde of Canossa, together with Lodi, Milan and Piacenza. The conflict ended with the defeat of Henry IV and his famous humiliation of Canossa to Pope Urban II in 1098. Cremona gained the Insula Fulcheria, the area around the nearby city of Crema, as its territory.
After that time, the new commune warred against nearby cities to enlarge its territory. In 1107 Cremona conquered Tortona, but four years later its army was defeated near Bressanoro.
As in many northern Italian cities, the people were divided into two opposing parties, the Guelphs, who were stronger in the new city, and the Ghibellines, who had their base in the old city. The parties were so irreconcilable that the former built a second Communal Palace, the still existing Palazzo Cittanova ("new city's palace").
Pro-Empire
When Frederick Barbarossa descended into Italy to assert his authority, Cremona sided with him in order to gain his support against Crema, which had rebelled with the help of Milan. The subsequent victory and its loyal imperial stance earned Cremona the right to create a mint for its own coinage in 1154.
In 1162, Imperial and Cremonese forces assaulted Milan and destroyed it.
Lombard League
However, in 1167 the city changed sides and joined the Lombard League. Its troops were part of the army that, on 29 May 1176, defeated Barbarossa in the Battle of Legnano. However, the Lombard League did not survive this victory for long. In 1213, at Castelleone, the Cremonese defeated the League of Milan, Lodi, Crema, Novara, Como and Brescia.
In 1232, Cremona allied itself with Emperor Frederick II, who was again trying to reassert the Empire's authority over Northern Italy. In the Battle of Cortenuova, the Cremonese were on the winning side. Thereafter Frederick often held his court in the city.
In the Battle of Parma, however, the Ghibellines suffered a heavy defeat and up to two thousand Cremonese were made prisoners. Some years later, Cremona took its vengeance by defeating Parma's army. Its army, under the command of Umberto Pallavicino, captured Parma's carroccio and for centuries kept the enemy's trousers hanging from the Cathedral's ceiling as a sign of the rival's humiliation.
In 1301 the troubadour Luchetto Gattilusio was podestà of Cremona. During this period Cremona flourished and reached a population of up to 80,000, larger than the 69,000 of 2001.
Seignory Lords
In 1266, Pallavicino was expelled from Cremona, and the Ghibelline rule ended after his successor Buoso da Dovara relinquished control to a consortium of citizens. In 1271 the position of Capitano del Popolo ("People's Chieftain") was created.
In 1276 the Signoria passed to marquis Cavalcabò Cavalcabò; in 1305 he was succeeded by his son Guglielmo Cavalcabò, who held power until 1310. During this period many edifices were created or restored including the belfry of the Torrazzo, the Romanesque church of San Francis, the cathedral's transepts and the Loggia dei Militi. Moreover, agriculture was boosted with a new network of canals.
After some foreign invasions (notably that of Emperor Henry VII in 1311), the Cavalcabò lasted until 29 November 1322, when a more powerful family, the Visconti of Galeazzo I, came to prominence that in Cremona was to last for a century and a half. The Visconti's signoria (lordship) was interrupted in 1327 by Ludwig the Bavarian, in 1331 by John of Bohemia, and in 1403 by a short-lived return of the Cavalcabò. On 25 July 1406, captain Cabrino Fondulo killed his employer Ubaldo Cavalcabò along with all the male members of his family, and assumed control over Cremona. However, he was unable to face the task, and ceded the city back to the Visconti for a payment of 40,000 golden florins.
Thus Filippo Maria Visconti made his signoria hereditary. Cremona became part of the Duchy of Milan, following its fate until the unification of Italy. Under the Visconti and later the Sforza, Cremona underwent high cultural and religious development. In 1411 Palazzo Cittanova become the seat of the university of fustian merchants.
In 1441 the city hosted the marriage of Francesco I Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti in the temple built by the Benedictines, which today is the church of Saint Sigismund. For that occasion a new sweet was devised, which evolved into the famous torrone. Ludovico il Moro assisted in the financing of several building projects for the cathedral, the church of St. Agatha and the Communal Palace.
In 1446, Cremona was encircled by the condottieri troops of Francesco Piccinino and Luigi dal Verme. The siege was raised after the arrival of Scaramuccia da Forlì from Venice.
Foreign occupations
Republic of Venice
From 1499 to 1509 Cremona was under Venetian control.
The victory of the Italian League at Agnadello gave it back to the Duchy of Milan.
Spain
However, Cremona was assigned to Spain under the Treaty of Noyon (1513). Cremona fell to the new rulers only in 1524 when the Castle of Santa Croce surrendered. The French were finally expelled from the duchy two years later, with the Treaty of Madrid, and subsequently Cremona remained a Spanish dominion for many years. During that time several building improvements or additions were made, including the Loggia of the cathedral's Porch by Lorenzo Trotti (1550) and the new church of San Siro and Sepolcro by Antonio Gialdini (1614).
During Spanish rule, Cremona saw the famine of 1628 and the plague of 1630.
Austria
The duchy, after a short-lived French conquest in 1701 during the War of the Spanish Succession, passed to Austria on 10 April 1707.
For later history, see Lombardy
Government
Architecture
Churches
The Cathedral of Cremona with the annexed Baptistery constitutes one of the most notable sites for Romanesque-Gothic art in northern Italy.
Other churches include:
Sant'Agata
Sant'Agostino
San Facio
San Girolamo
San Luca
Santa Lucia
San Marcellino
San Michele
San Pietro al Po
Santa Rita
San Sigismondo
Buildings
The Torrazzo, the third highest brickwork bell tower in Europe
Loggia dei Militi
Palazzo Cittanova
Palazzo Fodri
Palazzo Comunale
Teatro Ponchielli
Museo Berenziano
Museo della Civiltà Contadina
Museo Civico Ala Ponzone
Museo del violino
Economy
The economy of Cremona is deeply linked to the agricultural production of the countryside. Food industries include salted meat, sweets (torrone), vegetable oils, grana padano, provolone and "mostarda" (candied fruit in spicy mustard-flavored syrup, served with meats and cheese). Heavy industries include steel, oil and one electric plant. The river-port is a base for the barges transporting goods along the Po river.
Music
Cremona has a distinguished musical history. The 12th-century cathedral was a focus of organized musical activity in the region in the late Middle Ages. By the 16th century the town had become a famous musical centre. Nowadays there are important ensembles for Renaissance and Baroque music, i.e. Choir & Consort Costanzo Porta, and festivals which maintain Cremona as one of the most important towns in Italy for music. Composer Marc'Antonio Ingegneri taught there; Claudio Monteverdi was his most famous student, before leaving for Mantua in 1591. Cremona was the birthplace of Pierre-Francisque Caroubel, a collaborator with noted German composer Michael Praetorius. The bishop of Cremona, Nicolò Sfondrati, a fervent supporter of the Counter-Reformation, became Pope Gregory XIV in 1590. Since he was an equally fervent patron of music, the renown of the town as a musical destination grew accordingly.
Beginning in the 16th century, Cremona became renowned as a centre of musical instrument manufacture, with the violins of the Amati and Rugeri families, and later the products of the Guarneri and Stradivari workshops. To the present day, their handmade work is widely considered to be the summit of achievement in string instrument making. Cremona is still renowned for producing high-quality instruments. In 2012 the "Traditional violin craftsmanship in Cremona" was declared an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO. Internationally, the city's craftsmen are renowned for the unique process used in crafting bowed stringed instruments which are assembled and moulded by hand without using any industrial materials.
Cremona had a band tradition linked to the Guardia nazionale founded under Napoleonic influence. In 1864, native son Amilcare Ponchielli became its leader and created what might be considered one of the greatest bands of all time. In his role as capobanda, Ponchielli founded a band school and a tradition that waned only at the onset of World War I.
Transport
Cremona railway station, opened in 1863, is a terminus of six railway lines, all of which are regional (semi-fast) or local services.
Main destinations are Pavia, Mantua, Milan, Treviglio, Parma, Brescia, Piacenza and Fidenza.
Sport
Cremona's favourite sport is football. The U.S. Cremonese played for several years in Serie A, its most renowned players being Aristide Guarneri, Emiliano Mondonico, Antonio Cabrini and Gianluca Vialli — all born in or near Cremona. The brightest page in the more than one-century-old history of Cremonese was written in the early 1990s, when the president of the team was Domenico Luzzara and the coach was Gigi Simoni; the team managed to stay in Serie A for three consecutive years, ending one championship at tenth place. By defeating English team Derby County in the Final to win the Anglo-Italian Cup (27 March 1993), Cremonese became the second Italian team in football history to win at Wembley.
Cremona, by the 1980s, had built a strong basketball tradition, now brought on by Vanoli Basket, a team from Soresina which however usually plays in Cremona.
Cremona has also a waterpolo club that play in the regional divisions.
There is a century-old tradition in rowing and canoe racing, with three different clubs, located along the Po river, that trained many world and Olympic champions.
Twin towns — sister cities
Cremona is twinned with:
Alaquàs, Spain, since 2004
Krasnoyarsk, Russia, since 2006
Füssen, Germany, since 2018
People
Notable people born in or associated with Cremona include:
Andrea Amati, luthier
Nicolò Amati, luthier
Sofonisba Anguissola, painter of the Renaissance
Gaspare Aselli, physician
Francesco Aureri, sculptor
Eugenio Beltrami, mathematician
Francesco Bianchi, composer
Leonida Bissolati, leading exponent of the Italian socialist movement at the turn of the nineteenth century
Antonio Cabrini, footballer and manager
Bernardino Campi, painter
Giulio Campi, painter
Giulio Calvi, Renaissance painter
Luca Cattapani, late Renaissance painter
Sergio Cofferati, member of European Parliament and former mayor of Bologna
Walter Corsanini, football player
Gerard of Cremona, translator of scientific books from Arabic into Latin
Francesco and Giuseppe Dattaro, father and son team of architects
Sandrone Dazieri, crime writer
Roberto Farinacci, fascist politician
Giacomo Gentili, world rowing champion
Arcangelo Ghisleri, geographer, writer, and politician
Luigi Guido Grandi, monk, priest, philosopher, theologian, mathematician, and engineer
Giuseppe Guarneri, luthier
Manolo Guindani, retired footballer and manager
Saint Homobonus, patron saint of Cremona, as well as business people, tailors, shoemakers, and clothworkers
Liutprand of Cremona, bishop of Cremona, historian, and author
Giovanni Lucchi, bowmaker
Filippo de Lurano, early 16th-century composer
Alessandro Magnoli Bocchi, Italian economist
Franco Mari, actor
Primo Mazzolari, priest and writer
Altobello Melone, painter
Tarquinio Merula, composer of the Baroque era
Mina, singer (nicknamed the Tiger of Cremona)
Claudio Monteverdi, composer of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras
Benedetto Pallavicino, composer of the Renaissance
Oreste Perri, sprint canoeist in the 1970s and mayor of Cremona from June 2009 to June 2014
Amilcare Ponchielli, composer
Costanzo Porta, composer of the Renaissance
Girolamo del Prato, sculptor and craftsman
Aldo Protti, opera singer
Quartetto di Cremona, Italian string quartet
Publius Quinctilius Varus, Roman general and politician
Francesco Rugeri, luthier
Vincenzo Rugeri, luthier
Sicard of Cremona, prelate, historian and writer
Antonio Stradivari, renowned luthier
Ugo Tognazzi, actor, director, and screenwriter
Juanelo Turriano, clockmaker, engineer, and mathematician
Pietro Dalle Vedove, football player
Gianluca Vialli, footballer and manager
Marco Girolamo Vida, bishop
Chiara Ferragni, influencer
References
Bibliography
External links
City's portal
218 BC
210s BC establishments
Roman towns and cities in Italy
Cities and towns in Lombardy
Territories of the Republic of Venice | [
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252376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nogi%20Maresuke | Nogi Maresuke | Count , also known as Kiten, Count Nogi (December 25, 1849September 13, 1912), was a Japanese general in the Imperial Japanese Army and a governor-general of Taiwan. He was one of the commanders during the 1894 capture of Port Arthur from China. He was a prominent figure in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, as commander of the forces which captured Port Arthur from the Russians.
He was a national hero in Imperial Japan as a model of feudal loyalty and self-sacrifice, ultimately to the point of suicide. In the Satsuma Rebellion, he lost a banner of the emperor in battle, for which he tried to atone with suicidal bravery in order to recapture it, until ordered to stop. In the Russo-Japanese War, he captured Port Arthur but he felt that he had lost too many of his soldiers, so requested permission to commit suicide, which the emperor refused. These two events, as well as his desire not to outlive his master (junshi), motivated his suicide on the day of the funeral of the Emperor Meiji. His example revitalized the samurai practice of seppuku ritual suicide.
Early life
Nogi was born as the son of a samurai at the Edo residence (present day Tokyo) of the Chōfu clan from Chōshū (present day Yamaguchi Prefecture). He was born on November 11, 1849, according to the old Japanese lunar calendar, or Christmas day, according to the new one. His childhood name was Mujin, literally "no one", to prevent evil spirits from coming to harm him. On turning 18, he was renamed Nogi Bunzō.
Early military career
In November 1869, by the order of the Nagato domain's lord, he enlisted in Fushimi Goshin Heisha (lit. the Fushimi Loyal Guard Barrack) to be trained in the French style for the domainal Army. After completing the training, he was reassigned to the Kawatō Barrack in Kyoto as an instructor, and then as Toyōra domain's Army trainer in charge of coastal defense troops.
In 1871, Nogi was commissioned as a major in the fledgling Imperial Japanese Army. Around this time, he renamed himself Maresuke taking a kanji from the name of his father. In 1875, he became the 14th Infantry Regiment's attaché. The next year (1876), Nogi was named as the Kumamoto regional troop's Staff Officer, and transferred to command the 1st Infantry Regiment, and for his service in the Satsuma Rebellion, against the forces of Saigō Takamori in Kyūshū, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on April 22, 1877. In a fierce battle at that time, he lost the 14th Infantry Regiment's regimental banner, which was considered to be the property of the Emperor, to the enemy. Its loss was an extreme disgrace. Nogi considered this such a grave mistake that he listed it as one of the reasons for his later suicide.
On August 27, 1876, Nogi married Shizuko, the fourth daughter of Satsuma samurai Yuji Sadano, who was then 20 years old. As Nogi was 28 years old, it was a very late marriage for that time, considering that the average age to marry was in the early 20s. On August 28, 1877, their first son Katsunori was born, and Nogi bought his first house at Niizakamachi, Akasaka, Tokyo. In 1879, his second son Yasunori was born. He was promoted to colonel on April 29, 1880.
Promoted major general on May 21, 1885, in 1887 Nogi went to Germany with Kawakami Soroku to study European military strategy and tactics.
In 1894, during the First Sino-Japanese War, Major-General Nogi commanded the First Infantry Brigade which penetrated the Chinese defenses and successfully occupied Port Arthur in only one day of combat. As such, he was a senior commander during the Port Arthur massacre. The following year, he was promoted to lieutenant general (April 29, 1895) and assigned to the Second Division, tasked with the invasion of Taiwan. Nogi remained with the occupation forces in Taiwan until 1898. In 1899, he was recalled to Japan, and placed in command of the newly formed 11th Infantry Brigade, based in Kagawa.
Political career
After the war, he was elevated to danshaku (baron); and he was conferred with the Order of the Golden Kite, 1st class.
Nogi was appointed as the third Japanese Governor-General of Taiwan from October 14, 1896 to February 1898. When moving to Taiwan, he moved his entire family, and during their time in Taiwan, his mother contracted malaria and died. This led Nogi to take measures to improve on the health care infrastructure of the island.
However, unlike many of his contemporaries as officers, Nogi expressed no interest in pursuing politics.
Russo-Japanese War
In 1904, Nogi was recalled to active service on the occasion of the Russo-Japanese War, and was promoted to army general in command of the Japanese Third Army, with an initial strength of approximately 90,000 men and assigned to the capture of the Russian-held Port Arthur on the southern tip of Liaodong Peninsula, Manchuria. Nogi's forces landed shortly after the Battle of Nanshan, in which his eldest son, serving with the Japanese Second Army, was killed. Advancing slowly down the Liaodong Peninsula, Nogi encountered unexpectedly strong resistance, and far more fortifications than he had experienced ten years earlier against the Chinese.
The attack against Port Arthur quickly turned into the lengthy Siege of Port Arthur, an engagement lasting from August 1, 1904 to January 2, 1905, costing the Japanese massive losses. Due to the mounting casualties and failure of Nogi to overcome Port Arthur's defenses, there was mounting pressure within the Japanese government and military to relieve him of command. However, in an unprecedented action, Emperor Meiji spoke out during the Supreme War Council (Japan) meeting, defending Nogi and demanding that he be kept in command.
After the fall of Port Arthur, Nogi was regarded as a national hero. He led his Third Army against the Russian forces at the final Battle of Mukden, ending the land combat phase of operations of the war.
British historian Richard Storry noted that Nogi imposed the best of the Japanese samurai tradition on the men under his command such that "...the conduct of the Japanese during the Russo-Japanese War towards both prisoners and Chinese civilians won the respect, and indeed admiration, of the world".
Both of Nogi's sons, who were army lieutenants during the war, were killed in action. Though Nogi's elder son Katsunori (August 28, 1879 – May 27, 1904) had been a sickly child, he had managed to enter the imperial military academy on his third try. He was hit in the abdomen at the Battle of Nanshan and died of blood loss while undergoing surgery at a field hospital. His second son Yasunori (December 16, 1881 – November 30, 1904), a second lieutenant at Port Arthur, fell on a rocky slope, striking his head and dying instantly. Yasunori received a posthumous promotion to lieutenant, and was buried by his father in the Aoyama cemetery.
At the end of the war, Nogi made a report directly to Emperor Meiji during a Gozen Kaigi. When explaining battles of the Siege of Port Arthur in detail, he broke down and wept, apologizing for the 56,000 lives lost in that campaign and asking to be allowed to kill himself in atonement. Emperor Meiji told him that suicide was unacceptable, as all responsibility for the war was due to imperial orders, and that Nogi must remain alive, at least as long as he himself lived.
Postwar career
After the war, Nogi was elevated to the title of count and awarded the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers, Grand Cordon, 1917.
As head of the Peers' School from 1908 to 1912, he was the mentor of the young Hirohito, and was, perhaps, the most important influence on the life of the future emperor of Japan.
Nogi spent most of his personal fortune on hospitals for wounded soldiers and on memorial monuments erected around the country in commemoration of those killed during the Russo-Japanese War. He also successfully petitioned the Japanese government to erect a Russian-style memorial monument in Port Arthur to the Russian dead of that campaign.
Scouting
Nogi is significant to Scouting in Japan, as in 1911, he went to England in attendance on Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito for the coronation of King George V. The General, as the "Defender of Port Arthur" was introduced to General Robert Baden-Powell, the "Defender of Mafeking", by Lord Kitchener, whose expression "Once a Scout, always a Scout" remains to this day.
Suicide
Nogi and his wife Shizuko committed suicide by seppuku shortly after the Emperor Meiji's funeral cortege left the palace. The ritual suicide was in accordance with the samurai practice of following one's master to death (junshi). In his suicide letter, he said that he wished to expiate for his disgrace in Kyūshū, and for the thousands of casualties at Port Arthur. He also donated his body to medical science.
All four members of the Nogi family are buried at Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo. Under State Shinto, Nogi was revered as a kami and Nogi Shrine, a Shinto shrine in his honor, still exists on the site of his house in Nogizaka, Tokyo. His memory is also honored in other locations such as the Nogi Shrine in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, where mausoleum of Emperor Meiji is established.
Legacy
Nogi's seppuku immediately created a sensation and a controversy. Some writers claimed that it reflected Nogi's disgust with the profligacy and decline in moral values of late Meiji Japan. Others pointed to Nogi's own suicide note, calling it an act of atonement for mistakes in his military career. In either case, Nogi's suicide marked the end of an era, and it had a profound impact on contemporary writers, such as Mori Ōgai, Kuroiwa Ruikō and Natsume Sōseki. For the public, Nogi became a symbol of loyalty and sacrifice.
The epic historical novel Saka no Ue no Kumo portrays Nogi as floundering at the Siege of Port Arthur and having to be relieved by Kodama Gentarō. Several books have been released in recent years rehabilitating Nogi's image and showing he was a competent leader.
Man of letters
Nogi is also noted in Japan as a man of letters. His Kanshi poems (poems in the Chinese language) were especially popular among the Japanese during his time. Three of his Kanshi poems are famous.
Right after the Battle of Nanshan of 1904, in which he lost his eldest son, he wrote:
After the battle of 203 Hill of 1904–05, in which he lost his second son, he lamented:
After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, he wrote:
Honors
Peerages
1895: Baron (August 20)
1907: Count (September 21)
Decorations
1897: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure (June 26; Second Class: April 29, 1894)
1906: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Golden Kite (April 1) (Third Class: August 20, 1895)
1906: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (April 1). (Second Class: August 20, 1895; Third Class: April 7, 1885)
1905: Pour le Mérite (January 10)
1907: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (April 16)
1909: Chilean Gold Medal of Merit (April 28)
1911: Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania (October 25)
1911: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)
1911: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Military Division (UK) (GCB) (January 1).
Court order of precedence
1871: Senior seventh rank (December)
1873: Sixth rank (June 25)
1879: Senior sixth rank (December 20)
1880: Fifth rank (June 8)
1885: Senior fifth rank (July 25)
1893: Senior fourth rank (April 11)
1896: Third rank (December 21)
1904: Senior third rank (June 6)
1909: Second rank (July 10)
1916: Senior second rank (posthumous)
Portrayals
Maresuke was portrayed by Tatsuya Nakadai in the 1980 Japanese war drama film The Battle of Port Arthur (sometimes referred as 203 Kochi). Directed by Toshio Masuda the film depicted the Siege of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War and starred Nakadai as General Maresuke, Tetsurō Tamba as General Kodama Gentarō, and Toshirō Mifune as Emperor Meiji.
In the NHK television adaptation of Ryōtarō Shiba's epic Saka no Ue no Kumo, which aired from 2009 to 2011, Nogi was portrayed by actor Akira Emoto.
In the NHK television adaptation of Monster, General Nogi is mentioned by the Turkish elder and community leader, Mr. Deniz, convincing the others to trust Dr. Kenzo Tenma and a local prostitute when they attempt to convince the leaders of Frankfurt's Turkish Quarter to be wary of an imminent arson attack by neo-Nazis, led by The Baby.
Notes
References
Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: HarperCollins. ;
Buruma, Ian. (2004). Inventing Japan: 1853–1964. New York: Modern Library. ;
Ching, Leo T.S. (2001). Becoming Japanese: Colonial Taiwan and the Politics of Identity Formation.. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; ;
Connaughton, Richard. (1988). The War of the Rising Sun and the Tumbling Bear: a Military History of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05.. London: Routledge. ;
Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson and David L Bongard. (1992). Encyclopedia of Military Biography. London: I. B. Tauris & Co. ;
Jukes, Geoffrey. (2002). The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ;
Keene, Donald. Emperor Of Japan: Meiji And His World, 1852-1912 New York: Columbia University Press. ;
Lyell, Thomas Reginald Guise. (1948). A Case History of Japan. London: Sheed & Ward.
Noss, John Boyer. (1949). Man's Religions. New York: MacMillan.
Storry, Richard. (1960). A History of Modern Japan. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books.
Wolferen, Karel van. (1990). The Enigma of Japanese Power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation. New York: Vintage. ;
External links
Portrait of Nogi
Nogi Shrine in Nogizaka, Tokyo. There is another in Shimonoseki and several others throughout Japan.
1849 births
1912 suicides
Governors-General of Taiwan
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Japanese generals
Japanese military personnel of the Russo-Japanese War
Japanese military personnel who committed suicide
Joint suicides
Kazoku
Mōri retainers
Scouting pioneers
People from Tokyo
People of Meiji-period Japan
People of the Boshin War
People of the First Sino-Japanese War
Recipients of the Order of the Golden Kite
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)
Scouting in Japan
Seppuku from Meiji period to present
Suicides by sharp instrument in Japan
Imperial Japanese Army officers
Emperor Meiji
Deified Japanese people
1912 deaths
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252381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada%27s%20Walk%20of%20Fame | Canada's Walk of Fame | Canada's Walk of Fame () in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, is a walk of fame that acknowledges the achievements and accomplishments of Canadians who have excelled in their respective fields. It is a series of maple leaf-like stars embedded in 13 designated blocks' worth of sidewalks in Toronto in front of Roy Thomson Hall, The Princess of Wales Theatre, and The Royal Alexandra Theatre on King Street as well as Simcoe Street.
The first group of members was inducted in 1998, and to date 173 Canadians have been inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. These inductees include: activists; scientists; philanthropists; athletes; coaches; actors, directors, writers and producers of movies, television and stage; singers, songwriters and musicians; playwrights; authors; comedians; cartoonists; models; and luminaries in other fields.
History
The Walk of Fame was first conceived in 1996 when co-founder Peter Soumalias, suggested the idea of a Walk of Fame for famous Torontonians to the board of the Toronto Entertainment District Association. They rejected his idea, but he went on to establish a Walk of Fame for Canadians in partnership with Bill Ballard, Dusty Cohl and Gary Slaight. In spite of a lack of funds, research and no media plan, the first class of inductees was inducted in 1998. Canada's Walk of Fame has become a popular tourist attraction in Toronto, and has been named the number one Canadian recognition event.
Walk of Fame
Induction process
Canada's Walk of Fame accepts nominations for inductees in five categories:
Arts & Entertainment
Business & Entrepreneurship
Philanthropy & Humanities
Science & Technology
Sports & Athletics
Nominations for potential inductees are accepted from the public year-round, culminating with their National Nomination Promotion during the month of April. In 2000, prior to the introduction of the online voting system, over 30,000 nominations were received via letters, fax and e-mail. Now submissions are accepted on the official Canada's Walk of Fame website and thousands of nominations are received every year, which are then sent to selection committee for consideration.
The committee then analyzes the nominees based on the following criteria: the nominee was born in Canada or has spent their formative or creative years in Canada; they have had a minimum of 10 years experience in their field; they have had a national or international impact on Canada's Cultural heritage. Following the Selection Committee's evaluation, the nominees that meet all of the requirements are forwarded to the board of directors, who then select the inductees.
The process differs greatly from that of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The Hollywood version allows only celebrities of the silver screen, television, radio, live theatre and singers/musicians, while Canada's Walk allows people of more diverse occupations, as listed above. While most celebrities on the Hollywood Walk of Fame are American or have achieved their fame in the United States, Canada's Walk of Fame is exclusive to Canadians. For someone to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, they must be nominated by a sponsor who must agree to field the approximately $25,000 cost of installing a star. From there, the names are submitted to a nominating committee of five people, who pick 10–15 names to award stars to annually. The only criteria for it are: "professional achievement, longevity of five years or more, contributions to the community and the guarantee that the celebrity will attend the dedication ceremony if selected."
Canadian stars are inducted in an annual group ceremony; while the Hollywood Walk of Fame rarely inducts more than two major stars at a time. Celebrities can have more than one star on the Hollywood Walk, the same celebrity can receive as many as five stars under the various categories. This does not happen with Canada's Walk of Fame, although some may have an individual star but are also included as part of a larger group, such as John Candy, Martin Short, Eugene Levy and Catherine O'Hara who have their own star but also were in Second City Television.
Induction ceremony
New inductees are inducted annually at an unveiling ceremony where their star, a stylized maple leaf, is revealed. The first was held in 1998 and only four of the twelve living inductees attended: Karen Kain, Norman Jewison, Barbara Ann Scott and Rich Little. The 2007 ceremony was held at Toronto's Hummingbird Centre, was attended by all seven inductees and was hosted by Eugene Levy.
Past hosts include Trish Stratus, Tom Green, Jann Arden, Kurt Browning and Catriona Le May Doan. The ceremony was broadcast by CTV until 2008. Beginning in 2009 the ceremony was broadcast by Global. The first ceremony on the network was hosted by Anne Murray while Howie Mandel hosted for the following two years. Paul Shaffer hosted the event in 2012.
Awards
Cineplex Legends Award
Established in 2008, the Cineplex Legends Award is posthumously awarded to "Canadian pioneers in film, music, sport, arts, and innovation." Sponsored by Cineplex Entertainment, the first recipients of the award were siblings Norma and Douglas Shearer. The award recipients are also given stars on the Walk of Fame.
Allan Slaight Honour
First awarded in 2010, the Allan Slaight Honour, named after the leading figure in the Canadian radio industry, is awarded to a young Canadian for "making a positive impact in the fields of music." Recipients receive an honorarium of $10,000 from the Slaight Foundation, but are not considered inductees of the Walk of Fame. So far, recipients of the Slaight award have been Nikki Yanofsky, Drake, Melanie Fiona, Carly Rae Jepsen, the Weeknd, Shawn Mendes, Brett Kissel, Shawn Hook, Jessie Reyez and Alessia Cara.
Initiatives and programs
In recent years, Canada's Walk of Fame undertaken several new initiatives and programs.
Canada's Walk of Fame Festival
The Canada's Walk of Fame Festival was established in 2010. The festival spans 3 days, culminating with the Canada's Walk of Fame Awards Show. Since its inaugural year, the festival has included musical performances from Canadian artists such as Sarah McLachlan, Serena Ryder, Crystal Shawanda, Tom Cochrane and Melanie Fiona. In addition to the musical performances, the festival has included both screenings of Canadian films, as well as comedy programming from Canadian comedy acts.
RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize
In 2012, in partnership with RBC, Canada's Walk of Fame launched the RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize competition. Valued at more than $100,000, the initiative aims to support the next generation of gifted Canadian musicians. Aspiring young musicians are asked to submit a 60 sec. musical audio or video performance for their chance to win the Grand Prize of $25,000 cash, recording time, performance opportunities and much more. Taylor Kurta was the competitions inaugural Grand Prize Winner. The 2014 RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize was awarded to NEFE (Sarah Felker) from Guelph, ON.
Criticism
In 1998, Laurie Brown of the CBC criticized the Walk of Fame, calling it "just an attraction to lure tourists to theatres in the area." She claimed that it would only honour Canadians with international impact, saying "if it was truly for Canadians, then I think there would be more of a national bend to the whole thing. But I doubt I'm going to see a star on the Walk of Fame that is only a known-name here in Canada."
In September 2010, William Shatner commented on Twitter regarding damage to his star on the Walk of Fame: "I hear my star on the Canadian Walk of Fame is a bit frazzled ... but, then again, so am I. I wonder if anybody hovering around that area can tell me what's wrong with it and what needs fixing." The family of Gordie Howe also commented on the damage to his star. The Canadian Press reported that "A number of celebrities' stars are looking a bit rough around the edges." The president of the Walk of Fame stated that damage was due to the freezing and thawing during Canadian winters and also sidewalk snowplows. It was announced that the city of Toronto would replace Shatner and Howe's damaged tiles, and the Walk of Fame was looking into an alternative to installing the plaques on a sidewalk where they are subjected to harsh environmental conditions.
See also
List of Canadian awards
Persons of National Historic Significance
Canada: A People's History
Canadian Newsmaker of the Year
Heritage Minutes
List of Canadian Victoria Cross recipients
List of Companions of the Order of Canada
References
External links
Awards established in 1998
1998 establishments in Ontario
Buildings and structures in Toronto
Culture of Toronto
Halls of fame in Canada
Walks of fame
Tourist attractions in Toronto | [
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252383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harve%20Bennett | Harve Bennett | Harve Bennett (born Harve Bennett Fischman; August 17, 1930 – February 25, 2015) was an American television and film producer and screenwriter.
Early years
Bennett was born to a Jewish family in Chicago, Illinois in 1930, the son of Kathryn (née Susman), a journalist, and Yale Fishman, a lawyer. As a young boy, Bennett appeared on the radio program Quiz Kids, which introduced him to show business. By the time Bennett had reached college age, the radio business was in decline, and he turned to the world of film. He entered the University of California, Los Angeles and graduated from their film school. Following his graduation from college, in 1953 Bennett joined the United States Army. He served in the Military Police Corps, based at the United States Disciplinary Barracks in Lompoc, California. He was honorably discharged in 1955 with the rank of corporal. Bennett then began his career as a production executive. He first worked at CBS in New York City and later moved to the programming department of ABC, becoming Vice President of Daytime Programming. At ABC, he rose to become Vice President of Programming for a time.
Move to production
Following his work with ABC, Bennett moved over to production. His first project was to develop a television series with producer Aaron Spelling called The Mod Squad, which Bennett produced from 1968 until 1973.
Following The Mod Squad, Bennett joined Universal Studios where he produced a variety of television series and miniseries. The best known of these series are probably The Six Million Dollar Man (1973–78) and The Bionic Woman (1976-78). Other series and miniseries he produced at Universal include Rich Man, Poor Man (1976), The Invisible Man (1975) and Gemini Man (1976).
Bennett then moved to Columbia Pictures Television where he continued as a television producer, along with MGM TV employee Harris Katleman, which was joint partner from 1977 to 1980. His projects at Columbia Pictures included the series Salvage 1 (1979) and the miniseries The Jesse Owens Story (1984).
While working at Columbia Pictures TV, Bennett was also brought to Paramount Pictures to work in their television division producing television series. One of his first productions for Paramount was a television miniseries for Paramount Domestic Television, A Woman Called Golda (1982), which was Ingrid Bergman's final role and which co-starred Leonard Nimoy.
Star Trek
In 1980, only a few weeks into his contract with Paramount, Bennett was called to a meeting with then top executives of Paramount Barry Diller and Michael Eisner, along with Charles Bluhdorn who was then head of Paramount's parent Gulf+Western. Bluhdorn, dissatisfied with the results of Star Trek: The Motion Picture, was looking for someone new to take over the next film in the series.
According to Bennett, Bluhdorn asked him what he thought of the first Star Trek film and, after Bennett said he found it boring, Bluhdorn asked him if he could make a better picture and if he could do it for less than $45 million (the eventual budget of the first film). When Bennett said that he could, Bluhdorn said "do it" and he was hired.
To prepare for the job of producing a Star Trek film, Bennett first screened all 79 episodes of the original Star Trek series in a projection room at Paramount. He was particularly drawn to the episode "Space Seed" which featured Ricardo Montalbán as the genetically enhanced supervillain Khan Noonien Singh. At the conclusion of the episode, Khan and his followers are exiled to an uninhabited planet, and James T. Kirk and Spock wonder what will become of them. This gave Bennett the 'hook' he was looking for, and led him to develop a sequel to the episode.
Bennett's idea formed the beginnings of what would become The Wrath of Khan. Bennett himself developed the original story premise, and then worked with screenwriter Jack B. Sowards on the early drafts of the screenplay. Nicholas Meyer was later introduced to Bennett and completed the final drafts of the script, in addition to directing the film with Bennett as executive producer and Robert Sallin as producer. Star Trek II proved to be an enormous success, both in terms of the box office receipts and fan response.
Following the success of Star Trek II, Bennett served as producer on the next three Star Trek films: The Search for Spock, The Voyage Home — which for a long time stood as one of the most successful of the Star Trek films — and The Final Frontier. In addition to serving as producer, Bennett also wrote Star Trek III, co-wrote the story and screenplay for Star Trek IV, and co-wrote the story for Star Trek V. Bennett also made cameo appearances in Star Trek III (as the voice of the flight recorder) and Star Trek V (as a Starfleet Chief of Staff Admiral who gives Captain Kirk his orders).
Following Star Trek V, Bennett developed an idea for a sixth Star Trek film that would take a different approach from the previous films. Titled "The Academy Years", it would have focused on the characters of Kirk and Spock when they were much younger and cadets at Starfleet Academy. It would have delved into the early relationships between these characters, and shown how they developed such a close friendship over the years. While William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy would have had cameos at the beginning and end of the film to "bookend" the story in flashback form, new actors would have portrayed most of the roles in the film, including the young Kirk and Spock.
Although Paramount was initially enthusiastic about the idea, feedback from fans was almost universally negative over a Star Trek film without the established actors that fans had come to know and love. Also, Martin Davis who at the time was the head of Gulf & Western, wanted a film featuring the original cast to mark Star Treks 25th anniversary in 1991. Paramount offered Bennett the opportunity to produce this film with the original cast, even offering to produce his academy film afterward, but Bennett declined, citing multiple reasons including a lack of story ideas for the requested film and the rushed time frame in which the film would have to be completed in order to coincide with Star Trek's 25th anniversary.
This marked the end of Bennett's association with the Star Trek franchise, and shortly thereafter he left Paramount.
Later works
After producing the Star Trek films, Bennett wrote the television movie Crash Landing: The Rescue of Flight 232 (1992). He co-created and produced the science-fiction television series Time Trax (1993–1995), and produced the animated miniseries Invasion America (1998), for which Nimoy was a voice actor.
Death
Bennett died on February 25, 2015, in Medford, Oregon, due to a burst embolism in his small intestine and a second one found in his lung. His death occurred two days before that of Leonard Nimoy.
Filmography
References
External links
Harve Bennett Biography
1930 births
2015 deaths
Film producers from Illinois
American male screenwriters
Television producers from Illinois
American television writers
Jewish American screenwriters
Writers from Chicago
UCLA Film School alumni
United States Army non-commissioned officers
American male television writers
Screenwriters from Illinois
Deaths from embolism
21st-century American Jews | [
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252385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Utah | List of governors of Utah | The governor of Utah is the head of government of Utah and the commander-in-chief of its military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws as well as the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Utah Legislature. The governor may also convene the legislature on "extraordinary occasions".
The self-proclaimed State of Deseret, precursor to the organization of the Utah Territory, had only one governor, Brigham Young. Utah Territory had 15 territorial governors from its organization in 1850 until the formation of the state of Utah in 1896, appointed by the President of the United States. John W. Dawson had the shortest term of only three weeks and Brigham Young, the first territorial governor, had the longest term at seven years.
There have been 17 governors of the State of Utah, with the longest serving being Calvin L. Rampton, who served three terms from 1965 to 1977. Olene Walker served the shortest term, the remaining 14 months of Mike Leavitt's term upon Leavitt's resignation to become head of the Environmental Protection Agency. At the age of 36, Heber Manning Wells was the youngest person to become governor. At the age of 70, Simon Bamberger became the oldest person to be elected, while Olene Walker, at age 72, was the oldest person to succeed to the office. Currently, a term of service is set at four years, and there are no overall limits (consecutive or lifetime) to the number of terms one may be elected to serve. Elections for the office of Governor of Utah are normally held in November of the same year as the United States presidential election.
The current governor is Spencer Cox, who took office on January 4, 2021. Governor Cox was elected in November 2020.
Governors
The area that became Utah was part of the Mexican Cession obtained by the United States on May 19, 1848, in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the Mexican–American War.
State of Deseret
A constitutional convention was convened in Salt Lake City on March 8, 1849, to work on a proposal for federal recognition of a state or territory. The convention resulted in the provisional State of Deseret. Deseret claimed most of present-day Utah, Nevada and Arizona, with parts of California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Oregon, and Wyoming. Brigham Young was elected governor on March 12, 1849, and the legislature first met on July 2, 1849. The state, having never been recognized by the federal government, was formally dissolved on April 5, 1851, several months after word of the creation of Utah Territory reached Salt Lake City.
Governors of the Territory of Utah
On September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, Utah Territory was organized, encompassing roughly the northern half of Deseret. The news did not reach Salt Lake City until January 1851. Governors of the Utah Territory were appointed by the president of the United States, and other than Brigham Young, they were frequently considered carpetbagger patronage appointees.
The territory initially consisted of present-day Utah, most of Nevada, and portions of Colorado and Wyoming. On February 28, 1861, the creation of Colorado Territory took land from the eastern side of Utah Territory. Nevada Territory was organized from the western section of Utah Territory on March 2, 1861. Also on that date, Nebraska Territory gained area from the northeastern part of Utah Territory. Nevada Territory gained area from Utah Territory on July 14, 1862 and again on May 5, 1866, after becoming a state. Wyoming Territory was created on July 25, 1868, from Nebraska Territory, taking more area from the northeast corner, giving Utah Territory its final borders.
Governors of the State of Utah
The State of Utah was admitted to the Union on January 4, 1896.
The governor has a four-year term, commencing on the first Monday of the January after an election. The Constitution of Utah originally stated that, should the office of governor be vacant, the power be devolved upon the Secretary of State, but the office of Lieutenant Governor was created in 1976, and a 1980 constitutional amendment added it to the constitution. If the office of governor becomes vacant during the first year of the term, the lieutenant governor becomes governor until the next general election; if it becomes vacant after the first year of the term, the lieutenant governor becomes governor for the remainder of the term. The offices of governor and lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket. The Governor of Utah was formerly limited to serving three terms, but all term limit laws were repealed by the Utah Legislature in 2003; Utah is one of the few states where gubernatorial term limits are not determined by the constitution.
Succession
Governors by time of service
Cal Rampton, Gary Herbert, and Mike Leavitt are the only Governors of Utah ever to serve more than two terms. Rampton served three full terms (12 years), while Herbert served most of Jon Huntsman's second term before being elected to two full terms of his own (11 years), and Leavitt resigned during his third term (10 years) to become Administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Olene Walker is the shortest-tenured governor excluding incumbent Cox, and the only one to serve less than one full term. She served for 425 days to complete the remainder of Leavitt's third term.
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors.
See also
List of Utah state legislatures
Notes
References
General
Groesbeck, Kathryn D. & Luke, Theron H., List and Newspaper Clippings; MSS 658; 20th Century Western & Mormon Manuscripts; L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University.
Constitution
Specific
External links
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors of Utah
Governors of Utah Territory | [
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252386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne%20Smith | Hélène Smith | Hélène Smith (real name Catherine-Elise Müller, December 9, 1861, Martigny – June 10, 1929, Geneva) was a famous late-19th century Swiss medium. She was known as "the Muse of Automatic Writing" by the Surrealists, who viewed Smith as evidence of the power of the surreal, and a symbol of surrealist knowledge. Late in life, Smith claimed to communicate with Martians, and to be a reincarnation of a Hindu princess and Marie Antoinette.
Early life
Daughter of a Hungarian merchant, Smith worked as an employee in a commercial house. She discovered spiritualism in 1891 and joined a spiritualist "development" circle. According to her fellow believers, she began to show evidence of mediumistic abilities in 1892, and claimed to communicate with Victor Hugo and Cagliostro.
Career as medium
She became well known in Geneva, and it was there that Flournoy made her acquaintance. Her channeling evolved from the usual raps and table-tipping to somnambulatory trances, of which she remembered nothing. While in this state she experienced clear images of faraway places such as a civilization on Mars, and of her own former lives. She would write out the Martian communications on paper and translate them into French, popularizing automatic writing.
In 1900, Élise Müller became famous with the publication of Des Indes à la Planete Mars ("From India to the Planet Mars") by Théodore Flournoy, Professor of Psychology at the University of Geneva. The medium and the psychologist remained very close until 1899, when "Des Indes à la planète Mars" was first published. The book documented her various series of experiences in terms of romantic cycles: the "Martian" cycle, "Ultramartian" cycle, "Hindu", "Oriental", and "royal" cycles.
In 1900, a certain Mrs. Jackson, a rich American spiritualist who was impressed by Müller, offered her a salary which would permit her to quit her job and dedicate herself to pursuing and documenting her experiences. Müller accepted and was able to continue with further cycles. She also began to paint her visions and particular religious images of Christ.
Smith is mentioned by André Breton in his book Nadja where he compares her to the eponymous character.
"A brief scene in dialogue at the end of my "Poisson Soluble," and which seems to be all she has yet read of the Manifest, a scene whose precise meaning moreover...gives her the impression of having actually participated in it and even of having played the-if anything obscure- part of Hélène."
Evaluation
Théodore Flournoy considered her "cycles" as the products of what he judged to be infantile imaginings and her Martian language as a mere constructed language. Flournoy concluded that her "Martian" language had a strong resemblance to Ms. Smith's native language of French and that her automatic writing was "romances of the subliminal imagination, derived largely from forgotten sources (for example, books read as a child)." He invented the term cryptomnesia to describe this phenomenon.
Psychologists Leonard Zusne, Warren H. Jones have written:
The case was examined in depth by psychologist Donovan Rawcliffe in 1952 who noted that Smith had suffered from a fantasy prone personality and hysterical hallucinations.
References
External links
Flournoy, From India to the Planet Mars, English translation of the 1901 edition. Entire text on line at Google Books; PDF available for download.
full text of From India to the Planet Mars at sacred-texts.com (different scan than Google).
Théodore Flournoy, Des Indes à la planète Mars, Étude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie, Éditions Alcan et Eggimann, Paris et Genève, 1900
Daniel Rosenberg, article in Cabinet magazine on Helene Smith
Huub Engels, Understanding the Glossolalia of Hélène Smith, the Famous Spiritist Medium
Huub Engels, PhD thesis (in Dutch) paying attention to the Martian language of Hélène Smith in chapter 7. Summary in English on pages 207-214
1861 births
1929 deaths
20th-century occultists
French occultists
French spiritual mediums
Drawing mediums
Surrealism | [
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252387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles%20Duceppe | Gilles Duceppe | Gilles Duceppe (; born July 22, 1947) is a Canadian retired politician, proponent of the Quebec sovereignty movement and former leader of the Bloc Québécois. He was a Member of Parliament in the House of Commons of Canada for over 20 years and was the leader of the sovereigntist Bloc Québécois for 15 years in three stints: 1996, 1997-2011 and in 2015. He was Leader of the Official Opposition in the Parliament of Canada from March 17, 1997, to June 1, 1997. He resigned as party leader after the 2011 election, in which he lost his own seat to New Democratic Party (NDP) candidate Hélène Laverdière and his party suffered a heavy defeat; however, he returned four years later to lead the party into the 2015 election. After being defeated in his own riding by Laverdière again, he resigned once more.
Early life and education
Duceppe was born in Montreal, Quebec, the son of Hélène (née Rowley) and actor Jean Duceppe. His maternal grandfather was John James Rowley, British by birth, Irish by descent, and a home child. Duceppe once joked about his British roots, saying, "I'm a bloke who turned Bloc."
Duceppe has told the story of an anglophone Grade 6 teacher slapping him after he complained about preferential treatment being given to anglophone students. Duceppe claimed he slapped the teacher back. He became a sovereigntist by the age of 20, inspired by René Lévesque and the founding of the Mouvement Souveraineté-Association.
Duceppe completed his high school studies at the Collège Mont-Saint-Louis. Duceppe then studied political science at the Université de Montréal but did not complete his program of study. While attending the Université de Montréal, he became general manager of the school's newspaper, Quartier Latin. In his youth, he advocated communism, and held membership in the Workers' Communist Party of Canada (WCP), a Maoist group. Duceppe later claimed that his three-year membership in the WCP was a mistake brought on by a search for absolute answers.
However, during this period (which lasted well into his thirties) he subscribed to militant Maoist ideology and was fired from his job as a hospital orderly for belligerent activities. Duceppe even went so far as to intentionally spoil his 1980 sovereignty-association referendum ballot arguing that Québécois should instead focus their efforts on staying united to fight capitalism.
Early career
Before becoming a member of Parliament, Duceppe worked as a hospital orderly and later became a trade union negotiator. In 1968 he became vice-president of the Union générale des étudiants du Québec (General Union of Quebec Students) and in 1970 manager of the Université de Montréal student paper, Quartier latin. In 1972 he launched his career in community and union settings, as moderator for the citizen's committee of Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, then in 1977 as a representative for the Royal Victoria Hospital employees. In 1981 he became a union organizer for the Confédération des syndicats nationaux (Confederation of National Trade Unions), where he became a negotiator in 1986.
Parliament
Election
In 1990, Duceppe was elected to the House of Commons of Canada in a by-election for the eastern Montreal riding of Laurier—Sainte-Marie. He defeated Liberal Denis Coderre, who would later serve alongside Duceppe in Parliament before becoming Mayor of Montreal. Duceppe would be handily re-elected at each election from 1993 to 2008.
Tenure
Duceppe originally sat as an independent because the Bloc had not been registered by Elections Canada as a political party. All of the Bloc's other Members of Parliament had crossed the floor from either the Progressive Conservative Party or the Liberal Party earlier that year. Duceppe's victory demonstrated — for the first time — that the party had electoral support in Quebec and could win elections. Previously, many pundits (and members of other parties) predicted that the Bloc would not gain traction with ordinary voters in Quebec.
Leadership of the Bloc Québécois
In 1996, when Lucien Bouchard stepped down as Bloc leader to become leader of the Parti Québécois, Duceppe served as interim leader of the party. Michel Gauthier eventually became the official leader later that year. However, Gauthier's lack of visibility in both Quebec and English Canada coupled with his weak leadership resulted in the party forcing him out in 1997. Duceppe won the ensuing leadership contest and became the official leader of the Bloc Québécois and Leader of the Opposition.
In the 1997 general election, the Bloc lost official opposition status, slipping to third place in the House of Commons behind Preston Manning's Reform Party. During the campaign, Duceppe visited a cheese factory where he was photographed wearing a hairnet resembling a shower cap, which was widely parodied on Canadian television.
The Bloc lost more support during the 2000 election, winning just 38 seats. Over this period, critics derided Duceppe as an ineffectual campaigner, though no serious challenge to his leadership emerged.
When Jean Chrétien stepped down as Prime Minister, to be succeeded by Paul Martin, the Bloc's fortunes improved markedly, particularly after the sponsorship scandal erupted. Duceppe strongly criticized the Liberals over the misuse and misdirection of public funds intended for government advertising in Quebec. During the election's national debates, Duceppe's lucid explanations of Bloc Québécois policies and his chastising of the other national party leaders' promises, resulted in both the French and English media ruling him the best speaker. In the 2004 election, Duceppe's Bloc won 54 seats in the Commons, nearly equalling what it had won in its 1993 breakthrough, while Martin's Liberals were reduced to a minority government.
With Chrétien's departure, Duceppe became the longest-serving leader of a major party in Canada. With the recent success of the Bloc, and his recently well-received performance as leader, speculation mounted that Duceppe might seek the leadership of the Parti Québécois – particularly when Bernard Landry stepped down as party leader on June 4, 2005. On June 13, 2005, Duceppe announced that he would not run for the leadership of the PQ.
Ducceppe's Bloc, along with the Stephen Harper's Conservatives and Jack Layton's NDP, worked together on November 28, 2005 to pass a motion of no confidence in the minority Liberal government of Prime Minister Paul Martin after findings in the Sponsorship Scandal. In the resultant 2006 federal election, many Bloc insiders believed that Duceppe's popularity, combined with the unpopularity of the federal Liberal Party in Quebec, would push the Bloc Québécois over the symbolic majority vote mark among Quebec voters. Many Quebec separatists felt that a strong performance by the Bloc in the 2006 federal election would boost the sovereignty movement and perhaps set the stage for a new referendum on secession after the anticipated Quebec provincial election expected in 2007. In actuality, a late surge in Conservative and federalist support kept the Bloc's share of the popular vote below 43% giving the Bloc only 51 seats. The Conservatives' gains in Quebec, as well as Ontario, gave the party enough seats to form a minority government with Harper as prime minister, replacing the Liberals' Paul Martin. The unimpressive and lackluster results on election night called into question the level of separatist support in Quebec.
In the March 26, 2007 Quebec provincial election, the Parti Québécois found itself reduced to third place in the National Assembly of Quebec, behind both the governing Quebec Liberal Party and the opposition Action démocratique du Québec. Following this disappointing result, the PQ leader, André Boisclair, announced his resignation on May 8, 2007. Duceppe confirmed on May 11, 2007, that he would seek the PQ leadership but the next day he withdrew from the race. After his withdrawal, Duceppe announced that he would support two-time leadership hopeful Pauline Marois.
2008 federal election
In the 2008 federal election, Duceppe led the Bloc Québécois to 49 seats, up one from its pre-dissolution standing of 48. However, the Bloc's share of the popular vote fell again, to 38%, its lowest result since 1997. After the election, Liberals and NDP reached a deal form a minority coalition government with support from the Bloc Québécois, which would have toppled the minority Conservative government, however the Governor General agreed to prorogue parliament before the vote could take place. After prorogation, the Liberals underwent a change in leadership and distanced themselves from the coalition agreement and supported the Conservatives' budget. However Duceppe's Bloc and Jack Layton's NDP remained committed to voting against the Conservatives.
2011 federal election and resignation
In 2011, the Bloc cooperated with the Liberals and NDP to find the Conservative government in Contempt of Parliament, after all three opposition parties indicated that they would not accept the Conservatives' budget, leading Prime Minister Harper to request the dissolution of parliament. The Bloc demanded $5 billion for the province, including compensation for damages from the January 1998 North American ice storm and $175 million towards a new hockey arena to bring back the Quebec Nordiques, which the Conservatives dismissed outright.
In the resultant 2011 federal election, the Bloc suffered a massive 43-seat loss—including many seats they'd held since their 1993 breakthrough—cutting them down to a rump of four seats. Much of that support bled to the NDP who ascended from fourth place to second place to become the Official Opposition, largely by winning 58 seats in Quebec which included a sweep of the Bloc's heartlands in Quebec City and eastern Montreal. The NDP, which entered the election with only one seat in the province - Tom Mulcair - had surged in the last weeks of the campaign at the expense of the Bloc due to NDP leader Jack Layton's charismatic personality and leftist nationalism policies, while Bloc "over the years defend[ed] Quebec's interests, but the sovereigntist agenda is no longer very relevant". Duceppe lost his own seat to NDP challenger Hélène Laverdière by 5,400 votes.
Accepting responsibility for the Bloc's crushing defeat, Duceppe announced his pending resignation as Bloc leader soon after the result was beyond doubt. He remained defiant, however, vowing not to rest "until Quebec becomes a country".
Spending allegations
In January 2012, Duceppe was accused of having used funds designated for his parliamentary office to pay the Bloc Québécois' general manager over a seven-year period. Duceppe denied any wrongdoing when testifying before the House of Commons Board of Internal Economy in February. In November 2012, the partisan House of Commons Board of Internal Economy found that Duceppe misused funds. However, the board cannot take disciplinary action as the money was spent before the by-laws around the issue were changed.
Retirement and brief return to politics
Duceppe has worked as a political analyst since his departure from parliament. In 2014, he denounced comments made by newly elected Bloc leader Mario Beaulieu in which he seemingly dismissed the Bloc under Duceppe as having followed a gradualist strategy for achieving sovereignty which Beaulieu characterised as defeatist and for invoking the phrase "nous vaincrons" (we will vanquish), which was a slogan employed by the paramilitary Front de libération du Québec.
After two years of further decline in the polls and internal divisions, it was announced June 10, 2015 that Duceppe would be returning to lead the Bloc into the campaign while his successor, Mario Beaulieu would relinquish the leadership but remain party president. The party executive agreed on June 9, 2015, to split the positions of president and party leader in order to facilitate Duceppe's return. The changes were ratified by the party's general council on July 1.
On August 1, 2015, it was reported that Duceppe had decided to contest his former riding of Laurier-Sainte-Marie in the upcoming federal election and that he would announce this in a press conference shortly after the election was called, which occurred on August 2. However, while leading his party to a win of 10 seats in the October 19, 2015 election, up from two, Duceppe was personally defeated in his riding and announced his resignation as leader several days later.
Duceppe's son Alexis Brunelle-Duceppe was elected to parliament in the 2019 federal election.
Electoral record
References
External links
1947 births
Leaders of the Opposition (Canada)
Bloc Québécois leaders
Bloc Québécois MPs
Canadian atheists
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian people of Irish descent
Quebec people of Irish descent
French Quebecers
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Politicians from Montreal
21st-century Canadian politicians
Workers' Communist Party (Canada) politicians | [
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252391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Georgia | List of governors of Georgia | The governor of Georgia is the head of government of Georgia and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The current officeholder is Republican Brian Kemp, who assumed office on January 14, 2019.
There have officially been 77 governors of the State of Georgia, including 11 who served more than one distinct term (John Houstoun, George Walton, Edward Telfair, George Mathews, Jared Irwin, David Brydie Mitchell, George Rockingham Gilmer, M. Hoke Smith, Joseph Mackey Brown, John M. Slaton and Eugene Talmadge, with Herman Talmadge serving two de facto distinct terms).
The longest-serving governors are George Busbee, Joe Frank Harris, Zell Miller, Sonny Perdue and Nathan Deal, each of whom served two full four-year terms; Joseph E. Brown, governor during the Civil War, was elected four times, serving seven and a half years. The shortest term of the post-revolutionary period is that of Matthew Talbot, who served 13 days after succeeding his predecessor who died in office. Eugene Talmadge died in December 1946 before taking office in his second distinct term, leading to a dispute in which three people claimed the office.
Governors
Succession
See also
First Ladies of Georgia
List of colonial governors of Georgia
Notes
References
General
A History of Georgia, second ed. Kenneth Coleman, general editor. University of Georgia Press: 1991.
Constitutions
Specific
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors | [
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252395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Nebraska | List of governors of Nebraska | The governor of Nebraska is the head of government of the U.S. state of Nebraska as provided by the fourth article of the Constitution of Nebraska. The officeholder is elected to a four-year term, with elections held two years after presidential elections. He or she may be elected any number of times, but not more than twice in a row. The current officeholder is Pete Ricketts, a Republican, who was sworn in on January 8, 2015. The current Lieutenant Governor of Nebraska is Mike Foley, who also assumed office on January 8, 2015.
Governors of Nebraska must be at least 30 years old and have been citizens and residents of the state for five years before being elected. Before 1966, the governor was elected to a two-year term. In 1962, a constitutional amendment extended the gubernatorial term to four years, effective with the 1966 election. In 1966, another amendment imposed a term limit of two consecutive terms. The lieutenant governor is subject to the same limitations and runs on a combined ticket with the governor. Charles W. Bryan is the only Governor of Nebraska to serve non-consecutive terms. Dave Heineman holds the record as Nebraska's longest-serving Governor with 10 years.
If the governor becomes incapacitated or is out of the state, the lieutenant governor acts as governor; if there is a vacancy or permanent incapacitation, the lieutenant governor becomes governor and serves the balance of the term. However, if both offices become vacant, the next person in the line of succession is the Speaker of the Nebraska Legislature.
Territorial governors
See List of governors of Missouri for the period from 1805 to 1821. Between 1821 and 1854, the land was unorganized territory.
Before statehood, governors were appointed to a four-year term by the President of the United States.
Parties
State governors
Popularly elected, beginning in 1866, to a two-year term. In 1962, the voters approved a constitutional amendment expanding terms beginning in 1966 to four years. In 1966, the voters limited the number of consecutive full terms that any one governor could serve to two (i.e. only one possible re-election while still in office after election to a full term.)
Parties
Notes
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of other governorships, congressional seats and other national public offices held by governors of Nebraska. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Nebraska except where noted.
* denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
p. = Political Party; D = Democrat; R = Republican;
the footnotes [P 1], etc., indicate the presidential administration(s) under which an unelected Federal office was held (see Appointing presidents below the table).
Appointing presidents
Living former governors of Nebraska
, 5 former U.S. governors of Nebraska are still living. The oldest of these is Kay A. Orr (born 1939; served 1987–1991). The most recent Governor to die was Charles Thone (born 1924; served 1979–1983), on March 7, 2018.
See also
List of Lieutenant Governors of Nebraska
United States congressional delegations from Nebraska
Political party strength in Nebraska
References
External links
Semi-Centennial History of Nebraska (1904)
Nebraska Blue Book
specifically (in the 2012-13 Blue Book), State Executive Branch (PDF), page 421, "Nebraska Governors, 1854–2013"
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors | [
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252400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20North%20Carolina | List of governors of North Carolina | The governor of North Carolina has a duty to enforce state laws and to convene the legislature. The Governor may grant pardons except in cases of impeachment. For about 220 years the Governor had no power to veto bills passed by the North Carolina General Assembly, but a referendum in November 1996 altered the state's constitution, so that North Carolina ceased to be the only state whose governor lacked that power.
There have been three Presidents and 69 Governors of North Carolina, with six Governors (Richard Caswell, Alexander Martin, Benjamin Williams, Zebulon Baird Vance, William Woods Holden, and Jim Hunt) serving non-consecutive terms, totaling 78 terms in both offices. The current Governor is Democrat Roy Cooper, who took office on January 1, 2017.
Presidents of the Provincial Council
North Carolina was one of the original thirteen colonies, and was admitted as a state on November 21, 1789 . Prior to declaring its independence, North Carolina was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain. The 13-member Provincial Council, renamed the Council of Safety in April 1776, was essentially the executive authority during the second year of the Revolution, and was appointed by the Provincial Congress. The Presidency of the Council and the Presidency of the Congress could each be considered the highest offices in the state during this time, but the council was supreme when the congress was not in session.
List of presidents
Terms and backgrounds of the three men who served as president of the Provincial Council:
Governors of North Carolina
After the current state constitution was ratified in 1971, North Carolina Governors are limited to two consecutive four-year terms in office; they had previously been limited to one four-year term from 1835 through 1971. Additionally prior to 1835, North Carolina Governors were not popularly elected, and were instead selected by the state's General Assembly to serve one year terms. The Governors were also subject to strict term limits, and could only hold the office for three of every six years, leading to many instances of short or nonconsecutive stints in office.
List of governors
Subsequent public office
Three former governors held U.S. federal office after serving as governor.
Living former governors of North Carolina
As of January 2022, five former U.S. governors of North Carolina are currently living, the oldest being James G. Martin (served 1985-1993, born 1935). The most recent and most recently serving U.S. governor of North Carolina to die was James Holshouser (served 1973-1977), on June 17, 2013.
Notes
References
External links
Official
General information
Governors of North Carolina at The Political Graveyard
History of NC Gubernatorial Races at OurCampaigns.com
List
Governors
Lists of state governors of the United States
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252403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Vermont | List of governors of Vermont | The governor of Vermont is the U.S. state's head of government. As of 2015, Vermont is one of only two U.S. states (New Hampshire being the other) that elects governors for two-year terms. Until 1870, Vermont elected its governors for one-year terms. Isaac Tichenor, Jonas Galusha, Erastus Fairbanks, and Richard A. Snelling each served non-consecutive terms, while Thomas Chittenden served non consecutive terms as Governor of the Vermont Republic.
List
As the independent Vermont Republic
As a U.S. state
Political party
(6)
(6)
(3)
(1)
(2)
(54)
(8)
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Vermont except where noted.* denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
Living former governors of Vermont
, there are five living former governors of Vermont. The oldest is Thomas P. Salmon (served 1973–1977, born 1932). The most recent governor of Vermont to die was Philip H. Hoff (served 1963–1969, born 1924) on April 26, 2018. The most recently serving governor of Vermont to die was Richard A. Snelling (served 1977–1985 and 1991, born 1927), who died in office on August 13, 1991.
Mountain Rule
From the founding of the Republican Party in the 1850s until the 1960s, only Republicans won general elections for Vermont's statewide offices. One method that made this possible was imposition of the "Mountain Rule." Under the provisions of the Mountain Rule, one U.S. Senator was a resident of the east side of the Green Mountains and one resided on the west side, and the governorship and lieutenant governorship alternated between residents of the east and west side. Nominees for Governor and Lieutenant Governor were allowed two one-year terms and, later, one two-year term. For nearly 100 years, likely Republican candidates for office in Vermont agreed to abide by the Mountain Rule in the interests of party unity. Several factors led to the eventual weakening of the Mountain Rule, including the long time political dispute between the Proctor (conservative) and Aiken–Gibson (liberal) wings of the party; primaries rather than conventions to select nominees; the direct election of U.S. Senators; and several active third parties, including the Progressives, the Prohibition Party, and the Local Option movement. In the 1960s, the rise of the Vermont Democratic Party and the construction of Interstate 89 also contributed to the end of the Mountain Rule. Though I-89 is a north-south route, it traverses Vermont from southeast to northwest for the majority of its length within the state and changed the way residents view how it is divided.
References
Vermont
Governors | [
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252404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual%20Aid%3A%20A%20Factor%20of%20Evolution | Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution | Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution is a 1902 collection of anthropological essays by Russian naturalist and anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin. The essays, initially published in the English periodical The Nineteenth Century between 1890 and 1896, explore the role of mutually-beneficial cooperation and reciprocity (or "mutual aid") in the animal kingdom and human societies both past and present. It is an argument against theories of social Darwinism that emphasize competition and survival of the fittest, and against the romantic depictions by writers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who thought that cooperation was motivated by universal love. Instead Kropotkin argues that mutual aid has pragmatic advantages for the survival of human and animal communities and, along with the conscience, has been promoted through natural selection.
Mutual Aid is considered a fundamental text in anarchist communism. It presents a scientific basis for communism as an alternative to the historical materialism of the Marxists. Kropotkin considers the importance of mutual aid for prosperity and survival in the animal kingdom, in indigenous and early European societies, in the Medieval free cities (especially through the guilds), and in the late 19th century village, labor movement, and poor folk. He criticizes the State for destroying historically important mutual aid institutions, particularly through the imposition of private property.
Many biologists also consider it an important catalyst in the scientific study of cooperation.
Discussion
Daniel P. Todes, in his account of Russian naturalism in the 19th century, concludes that Kropotkin's work "cannot be dismissed as the idiosyncratic product of an anarchist dabbling in biology" and that his views "were but one expression of a broad current in Russian evolutionary thought that pre-dated, indeed encouraged, his work on the subject and was by no means confined to leftist thinkers."
Kropotkin emphasizes the distinction between competitive struggle between individual organisms over limited resources and collective struggle between organisms and the environment. He drew from his first hand observations of Siberia and Northeast Asia, where he saw that animal populations were limited not by food sources, which were abundant, but rather by harsh weather. For example, predatory birds may compete by stealing food from one another while migratory birds cooperate in order to survive harsh winters by traveling long distances. He did not deny the competitive form of struggle, but argued that the cooperative counterpart has been under-emphasized: "There is an immense amount of warfare and extermination going on amidst various species; there is, at the same time, as much, or perhaps even more, of mutual support, mutual aid, and mutual defense...Sociability is as much a law of nature as mutual struggle."
As a description of biology, Kropotkin's perspective is consistent with contemporary understanding. Stephen Jay Gould admired Kropotkin's observations, noting that cooperation, if it increases individual survival, is not ruled out by natural selection, and is in fact encouraged. Kropotkin's ideas anticipate the now recognized importance of mutualism (a beneficial relationship between two different species) and altruism (when one member of a species aids another) in biology. Examples of altruism in animals include kin selection and reciprocal altruism. Douglas H. Boucher places Kropotkin's book as a precursor to the development of the biological theory of altruism.
Editions
See also
Altruism
Altruism in animals
Anarchism
Co-operation
Evolutionary psychology
Mutual aid
Mutualism (biology)
Psychological egoism
Sociobiology
List of books about anarchism
References
External links
Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution – HTML version at the Anarchy Archives
Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution – Plain PDF version at the RevoltLib
Paul Mattick, Kropotkin on Mutual Aid — Review, 1956.
Iain McKay, Mutual Aid: An Introduction and Evaluation, AK Press, Edinburgh, 2010.
Works by Peter Kropotkin
1902 non-fiction books
Books about evolution
Heinemann (publisher) books
Mutualism (biology)
Philosophy books
Works originally published in Nineteenth Century (periodical) | [
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252407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Nevada | List of governors of Nevada | The governor of Nevada is the head of government of the U.S. state of Nevada. The governor is also the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Nevada Legislature, to convene the legislature at any time, and, except in cases of treason or impeachment, to grant pardons and reprieves.
The governor serves a four-year term. They are limited to two terms, even if they are non-consecutive. If a person ascends to the governorship and serves more than two years of a previous governor's term, they are only eligible to run for one full term. Candidates for governor must be at least 25 years old, and must have been citizens of Nevada for at least two years, at the time of election. The lieutenant governor of Nevada is not elected on the same ticket as the governor.
The current governor is Democrat Steve Sisolak, who took office on January 7, 2019.
History
The first provisional governor of the proposed Territory of Nevada was Whig Isaac Roop, who was elected in September 1859 and took office on December 15 of that year in Genoa. When the territory was incorporated on March 2, 1861, Republican James W. Nye was appointed Territorial Governor by President Abraham Lincoln and served until statehood in 1864. Mark Twain's brother Orion Clemens served as Territorial Secretary to Nye. Nevada became a state on October 31, 1864, and Nye remained acting governor until the first governor, Henry G. Blasdel, took office on December 5, 1864.
There have been 30 Governors of Nevada, eight of whom were actually born within state boundaries. The longest-serving Nevada Governor was Bob Miller, who served two and a half terms from 1989 to 1999. The shortest-serving Nevada Governor was Acting Governor Frank Bell, who served the remaining four months of Charles C. Stevenson's term upon the governor's death. The current governor is Steve Sisolak, who took office on January 7, 2019.
List of governors
Prior to becoming a territory, parts of Nevada were part of Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory; see List of governors of Utah and List of governors of New Mexico.
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional and other offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Nevada.
* denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
Electoral history
References
General
"[archive.org/web/20090906035749/https://web.archive.org/web/20090906035749/http://gov.state.nv.us/ Governor Jim Gibbons]." State of Nevada. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
"[archive.org/web/20090912133456/https://web.archive.org/web/20090912133456/http://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.8fd3d12ab65b304f8a278110501010a0?submit=Submit&State=NV Governors of Nevada]." National Governors Association. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
"Nevada Governors' Biographical Information." Nevada State Library and Archives. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
"Territorial Officers." Nevada State Library and Archives. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
"[archive.org/web/20100608191224/https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092333/http://www.leg.state.nv.us/lcb/research/selectedofficersnvlegislature.pdf Selected Officers of the Nevada Legislature]." Nevada Legislature. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
Constitutions
"The Constitution of the State of Nevada" (1864). Nevada Legislature. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
Nevada
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252408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulacan | Bulacan | Bulacan, officially the Province of Bulacan (; ), is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is the city of Malolos. Bulacan was established on August 15, 1578, and part of the Metro Luzon Urban Beltway Super Region.
It has 569 barangays in 21 municipalities and three-component cities (Malolos the provincial capital, Meycauayan, and San Jose del Monte). Bulacan is located immediately north of Metro Manila. Bordering Bulacan are the provinces of Pampanga to the west, Nueva Ecija to the north, Aurora and Quezon to the east, and Metro Manila and Rizal to the south. Bulacan also lies on the north-eastern shore of Manila Bay.
In the , Bulacan had a population of people, the most populous in Central Luzon and the third most populous in the Philippines, after Cebu and Cavite. Bulacan's most populated city is San Jose del Monte, the most populated municipality is Santa Maria while the least populated is Doña Remedios Trinidad.
In 1899, the historic Barasoain Church in Malolos was the birthplace of the first constitutional democracy in Asia.
On November 7, 2018, the Provincial Government of Bulacan bagged its fourth Seal of Good Local Governance award. The SGLG award is a progressive assessment system that gives distinction to remarkable governance performance.
This province is a part of Greater Manila Area.
History
Spanish Colonization
The Conquest of Bulacan traces to the first years of the Spanish in the Philippines. Upon the defeat of the Macabebe and Hagonoy natives led by Bambalito in the Battle of Bangkusay on June 3, 1571, that caused Martin de Goiti to move up north first to Lubao in September 1571.
Two months later, on November 14, 1571, Martin de Goiti reached Malolos and Calumpit respectively and it was reported to Adelantado Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, the first Governor-General of the Philippines. Adelantado established Calumpit and Malolos as an Encomienda entrusted to Sargento Juan Moron (Morones in other documents) and Don Marcos de Herrera. These two conquistadores was one of the first group of conquerors accompanied by Legaspi who have arrived in the Islands in 1565.
On April 5, 1572, the Encomiendas of Calumpit and Malolos were unified co-administered by Moron and Herrera. Also on that year, Alcaldia de Calumpit was formed in which the areas of Macabebe, Candaba, Apalit in Pampanga, and the settlements of Meyto, Panducot, Meysulao, and Malolos. And on December 28, 1575, Governor-General Francisco Sande order to include Hagonoy in Calumpit. (NHCP Journal February 2015)
In 1575, Bulakan was established as a visita of Tondo and it is not part of Calumpit as the boundary between Tondo and Calumpit was marked in Mambog River and placed the statue of Our Lady of Visitacion (patroness of Calumpit) was erected. It was gone and recreated in 1997 upon the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Parish of Our Lady of Presentacion in Malolos.
On April 30, 1578, Bulakan town was officially established by the Augustinians with Fray Diego Vivar as its first prior and the convent was dedicated to San Agustin. (when it was changed to Our Lady of Assumption was uncertain). It was reported that the western part of the present-day Bulacan was to be very well populated and rich. No exact date and year when Alcaldia de Calumpit was dissolved and the exact foundation year of the Province of Bulacan. It was only documented that Malolos (then part of Calumpit in 1572) was first to appear as part of Alcaldia de Bulacan was in 1582. It may be assumed that the reorganization of encomiendas has occurred between 1580 and 1582 at the time of Governor-General Gonzalo Ronquillo de Penalosa.
Same document also from the 1582 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca reports that Alcaldia de Calumpit have the jurisdiction in the areas of Calumpit (capital) Capalangan, Cabangbangan and Hagonoy as its villages. Then Loarca was mentioned that Alcaldia de Bulacan have Bulakan (capital) Malolos, Caluya, Guguinto, Binto and Catanghalan (instead of Meycauayan) as it Encomiendas which formerly have one alcalde mayor but he said that Alcaldia de Bulacan was formed in 1580 at the time of Penalosa.
In the document of Governor-General Luis Perez de Dasmarinas in the Account of the Encomiendas for the King of Spain furnished on June 21, 1591. Dasmarinas mentioned that Alcaldia of Bulacan was part of La Pampanga with the Encomiendas subject to it such as the Encomiendas of Malolos (3,600 persons), Binto (2,000 persons), Guiguinto (2,000 persons), Caluya (2,800 persons), Mecabayan (2, 800 persons) and Bulacan identified as " capital" and residence of "alcalde mayor" with 4,800 persons. In the same 1591 document, it was mentioned that Calumpit y Hagonoy belongs to Juan Moron with the 12,800 persons, 2 Augustinian Convents, and One Alcalde Mayor of its own.
However, the establishment and development of the southern part of the present-day Bulacan was not simultaneous and identified with the West. It was because this part of the Province was established by another group of missionaries, the Franciscan Order who came to the islands only in 1577 in Manila. In 1578 Order of Friars Minor headed by Juan de Plasencia and Diego Oropesa arrived in the area called Toril (now part of Meycauayan) and their headquarters. Also in 1578 Plasencia established the Town of Meycauayan. Its pueblos were first only settlements of the Old Meycauayan, founded by Franciscan
Secondary sources mentioned that Meycauayan exists as a Province in 1578. It was said the Augustinians Christianized Bulacan (the town after which the province was named). were in fact Bulacan "the town" was already a visita of Tondo in 1575 and Calumpit where Malolos and Hagonoy belong in 1572. The province of Bulacan is on the island of Luzon, and is one of the most important Alcadia de Termino, Civil and politically it corresponds to the Audiencia y capitanía general de Filipinas, and spiritually belongs to the Archbishop of Manila. The Franciscan friars Juan Plasencia and Fray Diego de Oropesa founded Meycauayan in 1578, and for a time it was the capital of the Province of Meycauayan (differ from the Western Bulacan administered by Augustinian Order since 1572) Meycauayan people were able to flourish and became so rich that the sons are six of the best in the then Province of Meycauayan. It was the towns of Bocaue, Polo, San Jose del Monte, Santa Maria de Pandi, Obando and Marilao).
During the General Visitation of October 5, 1762 by, Sr. Doctor Don Simón de Anda y Salazar, the province was headed by Capitan Don Jose Pasarin, alcalde mayor of the province. 1795–96, Don Manuel Piñon was the alcalde mayor. According to the "Guia de 1839", Bulacan province in the island of Luzon, Philippines, is governed by a mayor, consists of 19 pueblos, 36,394 tributes and 181,970 souls. D. Felipe Gobantes, Alcalde of the province of Bulacan erected a stone column in the plaza of Bulacan in Memory of Fr. Manuel Blanco O.S.A. who died on April 1, 1845.
In 1848, when the boundaries of Pampanga were changed, the region, which includes the important town of San Miguel de Mayumo and neighboring places that were formerly part of Pampanga, was adjudicated to Bulacan.
In an earlier period during 1890, Malolos was a hot-spot of Liberal Ilustrados, notably the "20 Women of Malolos", who exerted pressure for education under a Filipino professor. However, the first phase of the revolution ceased in 1897 with the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato in San Miguel. Under its terms, the leaders were to go to Hong Kong and reside there. Under the illusory peace created by the pact, the end of 1897 saw the greater determination on the part of the Filipinos to carry on the revolution. In early 1898, the provinces of Zambales, Ilocos, Pampanga, Bulacan, Laguna, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac. and Camarines rose again. In Central Luzon, a revolutionary government was organized under General Francisco Macabulos, a Kapampangan revolutionary leader of La Paz, Tarlac.
The Americans established a local Philippine government in the Philippines when they held the first municipal election in the country in the town of Baliuag on May 6, 1899. At the beginning of the American rule, 1899–1900, Malolos became the headquarters of the Military Governor of the Philippines at Casa Real. On February 27, 1901, the Philippine Commission officially transferred the seat of government to Malolos, and the Casa Real de Malolos was the seat of the Provincial Governor from 1900 to 1930 until the completion of the capitol building at Barangay Guinhawa, Malolos City.
In 1942, at the height of World War II, the Japanese Imperial Army occupied Bulacan and made Casa Real de Malolos its headquarters. In 1945, combined Filipino and American forces and local guerrillas attacked the Japanese Imperial Forces and liberated Bulacan.
Through Presidential Decree № 824, Bulacan was partitioned on November 7, 1975, to form the National Capital Region. The municipality of Valenzuela was excised to form the new region, while the other 25 towns remained in Bulacan.
Issues concerning the foundation date
For a long period of time, Bulacan traced its founding as a province during the American Period at the reorganization of Philippine Provinces. To determine the tentative date of the province's foundation and to trace its roots from colonial period. Efforts and research conducted by Dr. Jaime Veneracion, Dr. Reynaldo Naguit of the Center for Bulacan Studies and Mr. Isagani Giron of the Samahang Pangkasaysayan ng Bulacan (Sampaka) shows that Bulacan was identified as a visita of Tondo in 1578. With regards to exact date of foundation of Bulacan as a province, Veneracion correlated it with the practice of Spaniard of dedicating the founding a pueblo to the feast of a patron saint. In the case of Bulacan it is the Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion, which is also the patron saint of Bulakan town, the first capital of the province. Officially, the province of Bulacan was created under Act 2711 on March 10, 1917.
Geography
Bulacan covers a total area of occupying the southeastern section of the Central Luzon region. The province is bounded by Nueva Ecija (San Isidro Gapan City, General Tinio) on the north, Aurora (Dingalan) on the northeast, Quezon (General Nakar) on the east, Rizal (Rodriguez) on the southeast, Metro Manila (Valenzuela City, Malabon, Navotas, Caloocan and Quezon City) on the south, Manila Bay on the southwest, and Pampanga (Candaba, San Luis, Pampanga, Apalit, Macabebe, Masantol) on the west.
Several rivers irrigate the province of Bulacan; the largest one is that of Angat. Angat River passes through the towns of Norzagaray, Angat, Bustos, San Rafael, Baliwag, Plaridel, Pulilan, and Calumpit. It flows thence into the Pampanga River, goes out again, washes Hagonoy, and loses itself in the mangroves. The banks of these rivers are very fertile and are covered with trees.
Terrain
Bulacan lies in the southern portion of the fertile plains of Central Luzon. The area is drained by the Angat and Pampanga rivers. The Sierra Madre mountain range forms the highlands of Bulacan in the east and is a protected area known as the Angat Watershed Forest Reserve. Angat Lake, which was formed by the Angat Dam is located in that area. The highest point in the province at 1,206 meters is Mount Oriod, part of the Sierra Madre.
On January 19, 2008, an dump site, a new landfill that would also be a tourist attraction opened in Norzagaray, Bulacan province. Ramon Angelo, Jr., president Waste Custodian Management Corp. stated: "I want them to see our system in our place which should not be abhorred because we are using the new state-of-the-art technology."
Climate
November to April is generally dry while wet for the rest of the year. The northeast monsoon (amihan) prevails from October to January bringing in moderated and light rains. From February to April, the east trade winds predominate but the Sierra Madre (Philippines) mountain range to the east disrupts the winds resulting to a dry period. From May to September, the southwest monsoon (habagat).
The hottest month is May having an average temperature of while the coldest is February with an average temperature of .
Administrative divisions
Bulacan is subdivided into 21 municipalities and 3 cities. As the population is concentrated in the southern half of the province, so are the legislative districts.
Demographics
The population of Bulacan in the was people, making it the second most populous province in the country, only behind from Cavite, which is also located in Luzon. It had a density of , the country's 4th highest for a province.
On 1 May 2010, the province had 2,924,433 inhabitants with an annual population growth rate of 2.73 from the year 2000 to 2010, There were 588,693 households in the province with an average size of 4.8 persons. Bulacan had a median age of 23 years in 2007.
Languages and ethnicity
As it is part of the Tagalog cultural sphere (Katagalugan), Tagalog is the predominant language of Bulacan. Some inhabitants also speak Kapampangan, especially in areas close to the border of Pampanga. Three municipalities (San Miguel, Remedios Trinidad, and Norzagaray) and one city (San Jose del Monte) are the homelands of the Alta Kabulowan, the first inhabitants of Bulacan whose language is also called Alta Kabulowan. Their language is currently endangered due to an influx of Tagalog speakers.
Religion
Roman Catholic (89.44%) is the predominant religion in the province. Malolos City is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Malolos, with its mother church, the Minor Basilica and Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception. On March 21, 2021, Sta. Maria Church was also granted the status of Minor Basilica by Pope Francis. It became Bulacan's second Minor Basilica and the 18th in the Philippines.
Other Christian groups include the Iglesia ni Cristo (3.29%), Evangelicals (1.53%), Jehovah's Witnesses (0.37%), Bible Baptist Church (0.30%), Muslims (0.21%), Seventh-day Adventist (0.21%), Aglipayans (0.17%) and other small number of Christians and non-Christian groups are also present.
Economy
Industries
The province of Bulacan is steadily becoming industrialized due to its proximity to Metro Manila. Many corporations put up industrial plants and site in Bulacan. Some of the businesses and industries include agribusiness; aquaculture; banking; cement bag making; ceramics; construction; courier; education; food/food processing; furniture; garments; gifts, houseware & decors; hospitals; hotels, resorts and restaurants; information and communications technology; insurance; jewelry; leather and leather tanning; manpower; manufacturing; marble; printing press; pyrotechnics and fireworks manufacturing; realty/real property development; shoe manufacturing; textile; trade; transport services; travel and tours.
Agribusiness and aquaculture
The rural areas still mostly depend on agriculture and aquaculture as a source of income. Some of the major crops are rice, corn, vegetables, and fruits such as mangoes. An orchid farm is operating at Golden Bloom Orchids at Barangay Maguinao in San Rafael, Bulacan. The fisheries of Bulacan, aside from fishponds and rivers, include Bustos Dam and waterlogged areas. Major species cultured include bangus, tilapia, prawn, and catfish. This made Bulacan a leading province in Bangus (milkfish) production based on reports of the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS).
Banking and finance
Bulacan is served by all major banks with more than 200 banks doing business in the province. The entrepreneurial culture is supported by the strong cooperative movement with total assets of over PhP 2 Billion.
Industrial estate and parks
This is a partial list of industrial sites in the province:
First Bulacan Industrial City—Malolos City
Intercity Industrial Estate—Wakas, Bocaue
Bulacan Agro-Industrial Subdivision—Calumpit
Bulacan Metro Warehouse (BMW) Center—Guiguinto
Horizon IT Park—San Jose del Monte
Meycauayan Industrial Subd. I, II, III & IV—Meycauayan
Meridian Industrial Compound—Meycauayan
Muralla Industrial Project—Meycauayan
First Valenzuela Industrial Compound—Meycauayan
Sterling Industrial Park Phase I, II, III & IV—Meycauayan
Grand Industrial Estate—Plaridel
Sapang Palay Industrial Estates—San Jose del Monte
Agus Development Corporation—Santa María
Bulacan ICT Park—Marilao
Golden City Business Park—Wakas, Bocaue
Sterling Industrial Park—Marilao
Income
Bulacan received the top place for "LGU's with Highest Gross Income" (PhP 1,717,600,000.00) and "Top Spender by LGU's" (PhP 1,349,420,000.00), and third (3rd) among the "Top Provinces with Generated Biggest Net Income" (PhP 368,180,000.00) according to the 2006 Annual Financial Report - Local Governments of the Commission of Audit. The first time to top the perennial top placer, which was the Province of Cebu.
The province received the top place for "LGU's with Highest Gross Income" (PHP 1,807,600,000.00), second (2nd) in "Top Spender by LGU's" (PHP 1,372,160,000.00), and third (3rd) among the "Top Provinces with Generated Biggest Net Income" (PHP 434,830,000.00) according to the 2007 Annual Financial Report - Local Governments of the Commission of Audit.
Based on the Commission of Audit's 2008 Annual Financial Report for Local Governments, the province's total gross income had increased to PhP 1,965,633,000.00 (including the subsidies and extra items). Its expenses had also increased to PHP 1,641,325,000.00, which brings a total net income of PHP 324,308,000.00.
This is the list of the top income earners in Bulacan from 2014 and 2017:
Local Products
"Tatak Bulakenyo Program" was launched in 2004, conceptualized to stimulate economic activity in the province and sustain the anti-poverty thrust of the government through the promotion of entrepreneurship. The program's beneficiaries are potential micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in the province.
Tatak Bulakenyo Products comprises sabutan bags, buntal hats, beverages, and even jams such as tomato jam.
Inipit
Lengua de gato
Minasa
Pandesal de Baliuag
Polvoron de Pinipig
Bibingkang kamoteng kahoy
Pinipig de leche
Garbanzos
Fish and kinds of seafood
Bagoong Alamang
Sausage Relyeno
Tahong chips
Honey bee products
Tomato jam
Chicharon
Longganisa
Mushroom meat products
Ortega's Best
Atsarang dampalit
Atsarang Indian mango
Atsarang kangkong
Atsarang papaya
Lechon sarsa
Pickled fish
Pickled jerkins
Pickled vegetables
Sukang Bulacan
TET sarsa
Tuba ng sasa
Transportation
Bulacan is dubbed as "The Gateway to the Northern Philippines". The province is linked with Metro Manila primarily through the North Luzon Expressway and Manila North Road (better known as the MacArthur Highway) which crosses the province into Pampanga and western part of Northern Luzon (western Central Luzon, Ilocos and Cordillera Administrative Region). While taking the Cagayan Valley Road in Guiguinto, the road leads to Nueva Ecija and to the eastern part of Northern Luzon (eastern Central Luzon and Cagayan Valley Region). Bulacan will be accessed by the future C-6 Road connecting the provinces of Rizal and Cavite and the cities of Taguig, Parañaque and Muntinlupa in Metro Manila.
The proposed North Luzon East Expressway (NLEE) is the future expressway link between Metro Manila and the provinces of Bulacan and Nueva Ecija. It will also serves as a new alternate route of motorists coming from Manila going to Aurora and Cagayan Valley region.
The MacArthur Highway traverses the province from north to south. Most major towns can be reached through the North Luzon Expressway. A good number of motor vehicles owned largely by private individuals provide mobility to Bulacan's populace. Aside from five main highways that traverse the province, all roads are widely dispersed throughout Bulacan.
Bus terminals of Baliwag Transit Inc., Golden Bee Transport and Logistics Corp., California Bus Line, Sampaguita Liner, and Royal Eagle are in Baliwag, Balagtas and Hagonoy. The main bus lines of Philippine Rabbit, Victory Liner, Aladdin Transit that originates from their main terminals in Manila, Pasay and Quezon City and travels northward to cities and towns in Pampanga, Tarlac, and Zambales, pass through Bulacan via the Tabang exit. Other bus companies that travel to Bulacan include ES Transport Corp. (Earth Star Transportation), Baliwag Transit, First North Luzon, Five Star, Agila Bus Transport, Sta Monica Transport Corp TSC, NSDC Buenasher Lines (Del Carmen), Shannen And Pauline Bus Co., Phil. Corinthian, Marsan, Mayamy, RJ Express. Bulacan is the home of its pride, one of the biggest bus lines in Luzon, the Baliwag Transit Inc. which headquarters in Baliwag, Bulacan hence it's named.
Public transportation within the province, like in most of the urban areas in the Philippines, is facilitated mostly using inexpensive jeepneys and buses. Tricycles are used for short distances.
A construction of Philippine National Railways (PNR) North-South Commuter Railway (NSCR) system is on track, and officials say the remnants of old PNR stations built in Bulacan province in 1892 will be preserved. The ruins of the station in Guiguinto town, Bulacan province, will be among the structures that will be preserved. The structures in the city and in the towns of Balagtas, Guiguinto, Malolos, and Calumpit would also be renovated to complement the design of the new railway stations.
Junn Magno, PNR general manager, said 10 structures left standing from the old stations would be restored to give a glimpse of the PNR's history.
The San Miguel Corporation’s proposed Bulacan Airport, dubbed as the New Manila International Airport, involves the construction of a brand-new international airport and is being positioned as an alternative to the congested NAIA in Manila. It has also been seen that the four million tourists that visit the country yearly will be tripled once the airport project proposal pushes through.
Education
The province is home to several nationally recognized public and private educational institutions such as Baliuag University (First school granted full autonomy in Region 3), the Bulacan State University (Main & Satellite Campuses), the Bulacan Polytechnic College (Malolos, Bocaue, Pandi, Angat, San Miguel, San Rafael, Obando & City of San Jose del Monte Campus), Bulacan Agricultural State College (San Ildefonso & DRT Campus), Polytechnic University of the Philippines (Santa Maria Extension Campus and Pulilan Campus), La Consolacion University Philippines and Centro Escolar University (Malolos Campus). On the other hand, National University, a non-sectarian Manila-based university, has established its first campus outside Metro Manila in the municipality of Baliwag, and Baliuag Polytechnic College, a public non-sectarian institution in the municipality of Baliwag.
Primary and intermediate
Bulacan has 475 public Elementary schools, 383 public schools under the Department of Education (DepEd) Division of Bulacan, 52 public schools under the Division of City Schools of San Jose del Monte and 38 public schools under the Division of City Schools of Malolos.
Secondary
Bulacan has 68 public high schools, national and provincial. Forty-three under the Department of Education (DepEd) Division of Bulacan, Eighteen public high schools under the Division of City Schools of San Jose del Monte, three public high schools under the Division of City Schools of Malolos and Division of City Schools of Meycauayan has four public high schools.
Private schools
There are many privately owned (by individual or group) and church-operated schools located in the province. Immaculate Heart of Mary School was established in 1992 with student enrollment less than 200 (as of 2016-17). Private schools in the province are members of the Bulacan Private Schools Association (BULPRISA) While in the City of San Jose del Monte private schools are organized by City of San Jose del Monte Private Schools Association (CSanPRISA). In Malolos, private schools are organized as Malolos City Private Schools Association (MACIPRISA). In Meycauayan, private schools are organized as Meycauayan City Private Schools Association (MEYCIPRISA). In Marilao, private schools are organized as Association of Private Schools in Marilao (APRISM).
Government
Current provincial government officials (2019–2022):
Governor: Daniel Fernando (NUP)
Vice Governor: Wilhelmino M. Sy-Alvarado (NUP)
Provincial Board Members:
First District
Allan P. Andan (PDP–Laban)
Romina "Mina" D. Fermin (NUP)
Bernardo "Jong" B. Ople, Jr. (NUP)
Second District
Erlene Luz "Pechay" V. Dela Cruz (NUP)
Ramon "Monet" R. Posadas (NUP)
Third District
Romeo "RC Nono" V. Castro, Jr. (NUP)
Emelita "Emily" I. Viceo (NUP)
Fourth District
Enrique "Jon-Jon" A. Delos Santos, Jr. (PDP–Laban)
Allan Ray A. Baluyut (NUP)
Alexis "Alex" C. Castro (NUP)
Fifth District
TBA
Sixth District
TBA
Ex-officio Board Members:
PCL President
Marie Claudette P. Quimpo-Serrano (interim)
William R. Villarica (Elected)
ABC President
Ramilito B. Capistrano
SK President
Robert Myron G. Nicolas
Congressional District Representatives:
First District: Jose Antonio "Kuya" R. Sy-Alvarado (NUP)
Second District: Gavini "Apol" C. Pancho (NUP)
Third District: Lorna Silverio (NUP)
Fourth District: Henry "Atorni Henry" R. Villarica (PDP–Laban)
Fifth District: TBA
Sixth District: TBA
Lone District of San Jose del Monte: Florida "Rida" P. Robes (NUP)
Official seal
Points of interest
Festivals
Source:
Minasa Festival: Bustos (2nd Week of January)
Halamaman Festival: Guiguinto (3rd Week of January)
Bulak Festival: San Ildefonso (Every January)
Fiesta Republica: City of Malolos (Every January)
Santo Niño Festival: City of Malolos (Last Sunday of January)
Obrero Festival: City of San Jose Del Monte (February 22)
Chicharon Festival: Santa Maria (Month of February)
Balagtasan Festival: Balagtas (April 2)
Flagellants and Lenten Rites: Paombong (Good Friday)
Lenten Procession: Baliwag (Good Friday)
Barong at Saya Festival: Pandi (April 17)
Halamang Dilaw Festival: Marilao (April 21-May 8)
Kneeling Carabao Festival: Pulilan (May 14–15)
Obando Fertility Dance: Obando (May 17–19)
Buntal Festival: Baliwag (Month of May)
Flores de Maria: Bulakan (Last Saturday of May)
Libad Festival: Calumpit (June 23–24)
Pagoda Festival: Bocaue (Sunday After July 2)
Palaisdaan Festival: Hagonoy (July 25–26)
Casay Festival: Norzagaray (August 13)
Tanglawan Festival: City of San Jose Del Monte (September 3–10)
Singkaban Festival: Province of Bulacan (September 8–15)
Mayumo Festival: San Miguel (September 28–29)
Angel Festival: San Rafael (September 29)
Suguran Festival: City of Meycauayan (October 4)
Catorse de Noviembre Festival: Bulakan (November 14)
Sayaw Sta. Isabel: City of Malolos (Sunday before November 17)
Salubong Festival: Plaridel (December 29–30)
Religious
Source:
Sta. Monica Parish in Angat
St. Lawrence, Deacon and Martir Parish in Balagtas
Parish of Augustine in Baliwag
St. Martin of Tours Parish and Diocesan Shrine of Mahal na Poong Krus sa Wawa in Bocaue
Shrine of Saint Andrew Kim Tae-gon in Bocaue
Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion Parish in Bulakan
Sto. Niño Parish in Bustos
Diocesan Shrine and Parish of St. John the Baptist in Calumpit
Nuestra Señora de Lourdes Parish in Doña Remedios Trinidad
St. Ildephonse of Toledo Parish in Guiguinto
National Shrine and Parish of Saint Anne in Hagonoy
Immaculate Conception Parish - Cathedral and Minor Basilica in City of Malolos
Our Lady of Mt. Carmel Parish - Barasoain Church in City of Malolos
St. Elizabeth of Hungary Parish in City of Malolos
St. Michael the Archangel Parish in Marilao
Parish and National Shrine of the Divine Mercy in Marilao
Parish of Saint Francis of Assisi in City of Meycauayan
St. Andrew the Apostle Parish in Norzagaray
San Pascual Baylon Parish and Diocesan Shrine of Nuestra Señora, Inmaculada Concepcion de Salambao in Obando
Immaculate Conception Parish in Pandi
Santiago Apostol Parish in Paombong
St. James the Apostle Parish in Plaridel
San Isidro Labrador Parish in Pulilan
San Ildefonso Parish in San Ildefonso
St. Joseph the Worker Parish in City of San Jose Del Monte
Grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes in City of San Jose Del Monte
San Miguel Arcangel Parish in San Miguel
Parish of Saint John of God in San Rafael
Diocesan Shrine and Parish of Sagrado Corazon de Jesus in San Rafael
La Purisima Concepcion Parish in Santa Maria
Diocesan Shrine of Mary Mother of the Eucharist and Grace in Santa Maria
Historical
Source:
Enriquez Ancestral House in Bulacan
Meyto Shrine in Calumpit
St. John the Baptist Church in Calumpit
Basilica Minore de Immaculada Concepcion in City of Malolos
Kakarong de Sili Shrine in Pandi
Battle of Quingua Monument in Plaridel
Tecson House in San Miguel
Marcelo H. del Pilar Shrine in Bulacan
Bulacan Museum in City of Malolos
Old Train Station in Guiguinto
Biak-na-Bato National Park in San Miguel
Baliuag Museum in Baliuag
Barasoain Ecclesiastical Museum in City of Malolos
Pinagrealan Cave in Norzagaray
Bagbag Bridge in Calumpit
Mercado House in Bustos
Casa Real Shrine in City of Malolos
Barasoain Church in City of Malolos
Heritages
Source:
Baliwag Clock Tower in Baliwag
Enriquez Ancestral House in Bulacan
Meyto Shrine in Calumpit
Battle of Quingua Monument in Plaridel
Simborio Chapel in Plaridel
Tecson House in San Miguel
Marcelo H. del Pilar Shrine in Bulacan
Hiyas Bulacan Museum in City of Malolos
Old Train Station in Guiguinto
Francisco Balagtas Museum/Marker Birth Place in Balagtas
Francisca Reyes Aquino Shrine in Bocaue
Baliwag Museum in Baliwag
Barasoain Ecclesiastical Museum in City of Malolos
Bautista Mansion in City of Malolos
Bagbag Bridge in Calumpit
Mercado House in Bustos
Casa Real Shrine in City of Malolos
Barasoain Church in City of Malolos
Museo San Ysidro de Pulilan in Pulilan
Ecological
Source:
Calumpit River in Calumpit
Verdivia Falls in Doña Remedios Trinidad
Pulilan Butterfly Haven and Resort in Pulilan
Angat Hydroelectric Dam in Norzagaray
C & B Orchid Farm in San Rafael
Biak-na-Bato National Park in San Miguel
Garden City in Guiguinto
Bakas in Norzagaray
Hilltop in Norzagaray
Pinagrealan Cave in Norzagaray
Grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes in San Jose del Monte City
Puning Cave in Doña Remedios Trinidad
Bustos Dam in Bustos
Tilapilon Hills in Doña Remedios Trinidad
Gallery
See also
List of people from Bulacan
List of radio stations in Bulacan
Roman Catholic Diocese of Malolos
Malolos Cathedral
References
External links
Bulacan PH
Philippine Standard Geographic Code
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252411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Kansas | List of governors of Kansas | The governor of Kansas is the head of state of Kansas and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Kansas Legislature, to convene the legislature at any time, and to grant pardons.
The governor has a 4-year term, commencing on the second Monday of January after election. The governor originally had a 2-year term; this was changed to four years by a constitutional amendment in 1974. The lieutenant governor is elected at the same time as the governor. When the office of governor becomes vacant for any reason, the lieutenant governor becomes governor for the remainder of the term.
Since becoming a state, Kansas has had 48 governors. The state's longest-serving governors were Robert Docking, John W. Carlin, and Bill Graves, each of whom served 8 years and 4 days (Docking served four two-year terms; Carlin and Graves each served 2 4-year terms). The shortest-serving governor was John McCuish, who served only 11 days after the resignation of Fred Hall.
The current governor is Democrat Laura Kelly, who took office on January 14, 2019.
History
The office was created in 1861 when Kansas was officially admitted to the United States as the 34th state. Prior to statehood in 1861, the office was preceded by a Presidential appointed Governor of Kansas Territory with similar powers.
Despite being an executive branch official, the Governor also possesses legislative and judicial powers. The Governor's responsibilities include making yearly "State of the State" addresses to the Kansas Legislature, submitting the budget, ensuring that state laws are enforced, and that the peace is preserved.
Gubernatorial term of office and requirements for running
There is no lifetime limit on the number of times he or she may be elected, but a governor who has been elected to two consecutive terms must be out of office for at least one election cycle before being eligible once again for re-election. Elections occur at the same time as the Congressional midterm elections, and each term begins on the second Monday of January following the election. The lieutenant governor is subject to the same limitations and runs on a combined ticket with the governor. From the establishment of the state in 1859 with the Wyandotte Constitution until 2018, there was neither an age requirement nor a residency requirement to run for the office; as of 2017 three Kansan teenagers were doing so. In 2018, a law was passed establishing the age to run for Governor and Lieutenant Governor at 25, beginning with the 2022 election.
If the governor becomes incapacitated, the lieutenant governor assumes the duties of the governor. However, if both offices become vacant, the line of succession is determined by the legislature. Under present law, the President of the Senate would be next in line to assume the governorship, followed by the Speaker of the House.
Residence
Since 1962, the Governor of Kansas has resided in the governor's mansion, known as Cedar Crest. It was designed by the architect firm Wight and Wight. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.
Succession
Governors
Governors of Kansas Territory
The area that became Kansas was part of Louisiana Territory, later renamed Missouri Territory, until 1821, and unorganized until it became its own territory on May 30, 1854; see List of governors of Missouri for the period from 1805 to 1821.
A small part of Kansas was once claimed as part of the Republic of Texas (see List of presidents of the Republic of Texas, and before that, was part of Mexico (see Spanish governors of New Mexico).
Governors of Kansas
The eastern bulk of Kansas Territory was admitted to the Union as Kansas on January 29, 1861; the remainder become unorganized territory which would shortly be assigned to Colorado Territory. The Kansas Constitution provided that a governor and lieutenant governor be elected every 2 years. An amendment in 1972 increased terms to four years, and provided that the governor and lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket. In the original constitution, should the office of governor be vacant, the powers would devolve upon the lieutenant governor, who nonetheless would remain in that office; an amendment in 1972 changed that so that, in such an event, the lieutenant governor becomes governor, and relies on the legislature to provide for succession after that.
See also
List of Kansas state legislatures
Notes
References
General
"Kansas Governor Mark Parkinson." State of Kansas. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
"Governors of Kansas." National Governors Association. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
"Kansas Governors by Terms in Office." Kansas State Historical Society. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
Constitutions
"Constitution of the State of Kansas" (1859). State Library of Kansas. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of Kansas website
Lists of state governors of the United States
Government of Kansas
Governors | [
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252412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis%20Gonzalez%20%28outfielder%2C%20born%201967%29 | Luis Gonzalez (outfielder, born 1967) | Luis Emilio Gonzalez (born September 3, 1967), nicknamed "Gonzo", is an American former baseball outfielder who played 19 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for seven teams. Gonzalez spent his best years with the Arizona Diamondbacks and was one of the most popular players in the organization's history. His game-winning hit in Game 7 of the 2001 World Series against New York Yankees closer Mariano Rivera clinched the Diamondbacks' first and only World Series championship to date. Gonzalez was a five-time All-Star and won a Silver Slugger Award in 2001. In addition to good power (354 career home runs), Gonzalez was known as an exceptional gap hitter. His 596 career doubles currently rank 19th on the all-time MLB list.
After retiring from baseball in 2008, Gonzalez joined the Diamondbacks' front office in 2009 as a special assistant to the president. The following year, the team retired his uniform number #20, making him the first player so honored by the Diamondbacks.
Early years
Gonzalez grew up in the West Tampa neighborhood of Tampa, Florida in a Cuban-American household. He graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School in 1985 along with childhood friend Tino Martinez. After high school, he attended the University of South Alabama, where he earned Baseball America's All-Freshman Second Team honors. He was drafted by the Houston Astros in the fourth round of the 1988 amateur draft. Gonzalez played American Legion Baseball for Post 248. Other Post 248 alumni include Lou Piniella, Tony La Russa, Tino Martinez, and Gary Sheffield.
Professional career
Houston Astros (1990–1995)
Gonzalez made his major league debut on September 4, 1990. He finished the rest of the 1990 season with four hits (two doubles). The year of 1991 became the first full season of Gonzalez's career. During 1991, he batted .254 with 13 home runs and 69 RBI. In 1992, he batted .243 with 10 home runs and 55 RBI. In 1993, he batted .300 with 15 home runs, 72 RBI, and an NL leading 10 sacrifice flies. In 1994, he batted .273 with eight homers and 67 RBI. His 1995 season began with a .258 batting average, six homers and 35 RBI.
Chicago Cubs (1995–1996)
Gonzalez along with Scott Servais were traded to the Chicago Cubs for Rick Wilkins. Gonzalez finished the 1995 season with the Cubs by batting .290 with seven homers and 34 RBI. Overall in 1995, Gonzalez had a .276 average, 13 homers and 69 RBI combined while he played with the Astros and Cubs. In 1996, Gonzalez batted .271 with 15 homers and 79 RBI.
Second stint with the Houston Astros (1997)
Gonzalez signed a one-year deal to return to the Astros in 1997. During 1997, he batted .258 with 10 homers and 68 RBI.
Detroit Tigers (1998)
Gonzalez signed a one-year deal for the Tigers in 1998. In 1998, he batted .267 with 23 homers and 71 RBI. He hit the first home run at Tropicana Field (the home stadium of the expansion Tampa Bay Devil Rays) on Opening Day.
Arizona Diamondbacks (1999–2006)
In 1999, Gonzalez was traded to the Diamondbacks for Karim García. He had a strong debut season for Arizona on his way to becoming a star during his tenure with the team, leading the NL in hits with 206 and posting a .336 batting average to help them win the National League's western division. Arizona would fall to the New York Mets in the divisional playoff series. Gonzalez was selected to his first All-Star Team in 1999. In 2000, the Diamondbacks fell to third place in their division, but Gonzalez had a fine season, blasting 31 home runs among his 192 hits, while hitting .311 and driving in 114 runs.
In 2001, Gonzalez astonished many when he hit 57 home runs, his personal best for one season and almost twice as many as he hit in any other season. This included a record nine home runs in his first 10 games (shared with Mike Schmidt in 1976). The total is the third-most in National League history for a left-handed batter (behind Barry Bonds's record 73, which also came in 2001, and Ryan Howard, who hit 58 in 2006). Gonzalez was selected to his second All-Star Team and won the Home Run Derby at the mid-season classic. He ranked second in the National League in hits with 198, while batting .325 and posting career highs in runs (128), RBI (142) and walks (100). He finished third in the 2001 NL Most Valuable Player voting.
The Diamondbacks reached the World Series that year and faced off against the New York Yankees, who featured Gonzalez's childhood friend Tino Martinez starting at first base. In a climactic moment, Gonzalez came to the plate in the bottom of the 9th inning of game 7, with the score even at 2–2, the bases loaded and one out. The Yankee pitcher was Mariano Rivera, widely regarded as one of the best closers of all time (Rivera had never blown a save chance in a World Series before, or since). Gonzalez swung at Rivera's 0–1 pitch and hit the game-winning bloop single into left field that sealed the first franchise World Series title for Arizona.
He was also selected to All-Star Teams in 2002 and 2003. During the 2002 season, Gonzalez received publicity as a piece of gum chewed by Gonzalez during a spring training game was sold for $10,000 on April 15, 2002. The buyer was Curt Mueller, owner of Mueller Sports Medicine Inc., manufacturer of the gum, Quench. In 2003, Gonzalez topped .300 (.304) for the fourth time in his first five seasons in Arizona, and eclipsed 100 RBI (104) for the fifth consecutive season.
On May 22, 2004, Gonzalez got his 2,000th career hit in a game against the Florida Marlins, though his season ended early when he had Tommy John surgery in August. In 2005, he was selected to his fifth All-Star Team. On April 18, 2006, he got his 500th career double, becoming the 20th player in Major League history to hit 500 doubles and 300 home runs. On May 13, 2006, he passed Babe Ruth for 38th place all-time for the most doubles hit in league history.
On June 15, 2006, The Arizona Republic printed an interview by columnist E. J. Montini with Diamondback managing general partner Ken Kendrick. In the interview, Kendrick mentioned whispers of alleged steroid use by Gonzalez; in the interview Kendrick never directly accused Gonzalez of using performance-enhancing drugs. The interview came eight days after Diamondback relief pitcher Jason Grimsley was released by the team after the team learned that federal agents had searched his home looking for evidence that he was a distributor of human growth hormone and other performance-enhancing drugs. On June 16, 2006, an angry Gonzalez called a press conference to deny that he had ever used steroids.
Los Angeles Dodgers (2007)
On September 14, 2006, the Diamondbacks announced that they would not pick up the team option of $10 million to re-sign Gonzalez after the 2006 season. On December 7, Gonzalez signed a one-year contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers for $7 million for the 2007 season.
Gonzalez hit his first home run as a Dodger on Sunday, April 8, 2007, versus Barry Zito of the San Francisco Giants. He hit two home runs in that game. In his only season with the Dodgers, he was productive offensively, but struggled defensively. Many times throughout the season, he was benched for a defensive replacement. Towards the end of the season, he was benched in favor of Matt Kemp, a top Dodger prospect at the time. He was upset about it and publicly said he was not interested in returning to the Dodgers before the season was even over. He hit .278 with 15 home runs and 68 RBI in 2007.
Gonzalez was the first player to hit a home run off of the touch tank on June 24, in Tropicana Field.
Florida Marlins (2008)
On February 7, 2008, he signed with the Florida Marlins. The deal was reportedly worth $2 million for one season. Gonzalez played in 136 games for the Marlins in 2008, batting .261.
Retirement
Gonzalez announced his retirement on August 29, 2009, and joined the Diamondbacks front office as a special assistant to the president. In 2010, Gonzalez's number 20 jersey was retired on August 7, making him the first player to have his number retired by the team.
Career statistics
In 2,591 games over 19 seasons, Gonzalez posted a .283 batting average (2,591-for-9,157) with 1,412 runs, 596 doubles, 68 triples, 354 home runs, 1,439 RBI, 1,155 bases on balls, 128 stolen bases, .367 on-base percentage and .479 slugging percentage. He finished his career with a .986 fielding percentage. In 24 postseason games, he hit .253 (22-for-87) with 12 runs, 3 doubles, 4 home runs, 12 RBI and 11 walks.
Other activities
With businessman and entrepreneur Anthony Conti, Gonzalez founded IsTalking, LLC, a Phoenix-based company that develops new social networking Web sites exclusively for college students. The company launched a new social network with Arizona State University called ASUIsTalking.com. He has also formed a partnership with the ASU Alumni Association to be the exclusive online social-network for its 250,000 members.
Gonzalez has served as a color commentator on ESPN Radio's broadcasts of National League Division Series games in recent years, and also worked on Fox Sports' television broadcast of the 2006 National League Championship Series.
Gonzalez formerly owned and operated a restaurant called Gonzo's, located in oldtown/downtown Gilbert, Arizona. After several name changes, it closed in 2009. In 2012, Postinos opened its 3rd Arizona location in its place. Gonzalez is a prominent member of the Republican Party. As a resident of Arizona, he wrote a letter of endorsement for Arizona's Junior Senator, Jon Kyl, who won his bid for re-election in 2006. He endorsed Arizona's other Senator, 2008 GOP Presidential Nominee John McCain, over former congressman J.D. Hayworth in 2010. Gonzalez was the Celebrity face for a cornfield maze in Queen Creek, Arizona for the Schnepf Farms' annual Celebrity Maze. Gonzalez is the first local celebrity featured; Oprah Winfrey, Larry King, and Jay Leno were previously featured.
Gonzalez serves as a member of the board of the Baseball Assistance Team, a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization dedicated to helping former Major League, Minor League, and Negro league players through financial and medical hardships.
The Diamondbacks built a Little League ballfield in his honor at Tempe Beach Park in Tempe, Arizona.
Gonzalez was inducted into the Hispanic Heritage Baseball Museum Hall of Fame on July 9, 2011, at the MLB All-Star Fan Fest in Phoenix.
Personal life
Gonzalez and his family (wife Christine and triplets Megan, Jacob, and Alyssa) are residents of Scottsdale, Arizona. Jacob was selected by the San Francisco Giants in the 2017 MLB draft.
See also
List of Arizona Diamondbacks team records
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball doubles records
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle
List of people from Tampa, Florida
References
External links
MLB All-Star Luis Gonzalez Launches Social Networking Sites for College Students – Reuters March 25, 2008
Gonzo signs deal with Dodgers – The Arizona Republic December 6, 2006
Pura Pelota – Venezuelan Winter League
1967 births
Living people
American sportspeople of Cuban descent
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Arizona Republicans
Auburn Astros players
Baseball outfielders
Baseball players from Tampa, Florida
Chicago Cubs players
Detroit Tigers players
Florida Marlins players
Houston Astros players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball broadcasters
Major League Baseball left fielders
Major League Baseball players with retired numbers
National League All-Stars
Navegantes del Magallanes players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Silver Slugger Award winners
South Alabama Jaguars baseball players
Thomas Jefferson High School (Tampa, Florida) alumni | [
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252415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20West%20Virginia | List of governors of West Virginia | The governor of West Virginia is the head of government of West Virginia and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the West Virginia Legislature, to convene the legislature at any time, and, except when prosecution has been carried out by the House of Delegates, to grant pardons and reprieves.
Since West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20, 1863, during the American Civil War, 34 men have served as governor. Two, Arch A. Moore Jr. (West Virginia's 28th and 30th governors) and Cecil H. Underwood (West Virginia's 25th and 32nd governors), served two nonconsecutive terms in office. The longest-serving governor was Moore, who served for three terms over twelve years. The state's first governor after admission into the Union, Arthur I. Boreman, served the most consecutive terms, resigning a week before the end of his third term. Before the state's admission, Francis H. Pierpont, the, "Father of West Virginia," was elected governor during the Wheeling Convention of 1861. Daniel D.T. Farnsworth was senate president at the time; he filled the last seven days of Boreman's term and remains the shortest-serving governor. Underwood has the unusual distinction of being both the youngest person to be elected as governor (age 34 upon his first term in 1957) and the oldest to both be elected and serve (age 74 upon his second term in 1997; age 78 at the end of his second term in 2001).
The current governor is Republican Jim Justice, who assumed office on January 16, 2017. West Virginia's 36th governor, Justice was elected as a Democrat, but switched to the Republican Party on August 4 of that year.
To serve as governor, a person must be at least 30 years old, and must have been a citizen of West Virginia for at least five years at the time of inauguration. Under the current Constitution of West Virginia, ratified in 1872, the governor serves a four-year term commencing on the Monday after the second Wednesday in the January following an election. The original constitution of 1863 only called for a two-year term. He may be reelected any number of times, but not more than twice in a row. Any partial term served counts toward the limit of two consecutive terms.
The constitution makes no mention of a lieutenant governor; if the governorship becomes vacant, the senate president acts as governor. If more than one year remains in the governor's term at the time of vacancy, a new election is held; otherwise, the senate president acts as governor for the remainder of the term. A bill passed in 2000 grants the senate president the honorary title of lieutenant governor, but this title is rarely used in practice and the terms of the senate president do not correspond with governorships. The same bill states that the line of succession after the senate president will be the speaker of the House of Delegates, followed by the state attorney general, the state auditor and former governors, in inverse order of term, that are in residence in the state at the time of the vacancy.
List of governors
Parties
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional offices held by governors. All representatives and senators listed represented West Virginia. No governor of West Virginia has held any other federal office.
Living former governors of West Virginia
, there are five former governors of West Virginia who are currently living at this time, the oldest of whom is Jay Rockefeller (served 1977–1985, born 1937). The most recent governor to die was Arch A. Moore Jr. (served 1969–1977 and 1985–1989, born 1923), who died on January 7, 2015. The most recently serving governor to die was Cecil H. Underwood (served 1957–1961 and 1997–2001, born 1922), who died on November 24, 2008.
Notes
References
Specific
General
Richard E. Fast. The history and government of West Virginia (1901) to 1900 online edition
Constitutions
External links
Office of the Governor of West Virginia
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors of West Virginia
Governors of West Virginia, List of | [
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252416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards | 2002 Governor General's Awards | The 2002 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were presented by Adrienne Clarkson, Governor General of Canada, at a ceremony at Rideau Hall on Tuesday, November 19. Each winner received a cheque for $15,000.
English
French
References
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards | [
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252417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-1 | 1-1 | 1-1 may refer to:
New Year's Day, a public holiday in many countries, held annually on the first of January
Schweizer SGP 1-1, an American glider design
World 1-1, the first level of Nintendo's Super Mario Bros
See also
One-to-one (disambiguation) | [
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252420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Illinois | List of governors of Illinois | The governor of Illinois is the head of government of the U.S. state of Illinois. The governor is the head of the executive branch of Illinois's state government and is charged with enforcing state laws. The governor has the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Illinois Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment. The governor is also the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces.
Since becoming a state in 1818, 43 people have served as governor of Illinois; before statehood, it had only 1 territorial governor, Ninian Edwards. The longest-serving governor was James R. Thompson, who was elected to four terms lasting 14 years, from 1977 to 1991. Only one governor, Richard J. Oglesby, has served multiple separate terms, having been elected in 1864, 1872, and 1884.
One governor, Rod Blagojevich, was impeached and removed from office in 2009. Four of Illinois' seven governors between 1961 and 2009 were imprisoned for various forms of corruption. Governor Walker was imprisoned for irregularities at a bank where he was an officer, for actions unrelated to his previous office of governor. The current governor is J. B. Pritzker, who took office on January 14, 2019.
Governors
Governor of the Territory of Illinois
Illinois Territory was formed on March 1, 1809, from Indiana Territory. It had only one governor appointed by the President of the United States before it became a state, Ninian Edwards. From March to June 1809, Territorial Secretary Nathaniel Pope served as acting governor until Edwards arrived in Illinois.
Governors of the State of Illinois
Illinois was admitted to the Union on December 3, 1818, consisting of the southern portion of Illinois Territory; the remainder was assigned to Michigan Territory.
The first Illinois Constitution, ratified in 1818, provided that a governor be elected every 4 years for a term starting on the first Monday in the December following an election. The constitution of 1848 moved the start of the term to the second Monday in January starting in 1849, thus shortening the term won in the 1844 election to 2 years. Governors were not allowed to succeed themselves until the 1870 constitution, which removed this limit.
The office of lieutenant governor was created in the first constitution, to exercise the power of governor if that office becomes vacant. The 1848 constitution changed this to say the power "devolves" upon the lieutenant governor in case of a vacancy. The current constitution of 1970 made it so that, in the event of a vacancy, the lieutenant becomes governor, and the governor and lieutenant governor are now elected on the same ticket. If the governor feels seriously impeded in performing their job, they can inform the secretary of state and the next in the line of succession, who becomes acting governor until the governor can resume office.
See also
List of Illinois state legislatures
List of commandants of the Illinois Country
Notes
References
General
Constitutions
Specific
Lists of Illinois politicians
Illinois
Political history of Illinois | [
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252421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclius%20Constantine | Heraclius Constantine | Heraclius Constantine (; , ; 3 May 612 – c. May 641), often enumerated as Constantine III, was one of the shortest reigning Byzantine emperors, ruling for three months in 641. He was the eldest son of Emperor Heraclius and his first wife Eudokia.
Reign
Constantine was crowned co-emperor by his father on 22 January 613 and shortly after was betrothed to his cousin, Gregoria, a daughter of his father's first cousin, Nicetas. As the couple were second cousins, the marriage was technically incestuous, but this consideration must have been outweighed by the advantages of the match to the family as a whole. Furthermore, its illegality paled into insignificance beside Heraclius' marriage to his niece Martina the same year. In comparison, Constantine's marriage was far less scandalous than that of his father.
Constantine became senior Emperor when his father died on 11 February 641. He reigned together with his younger half-brother Heraclonas, the son of Martina. His supporters feared action against him on the part of Martina and Heraclonas, and the treasurer Philagrius advised him to write to the army, informing them that he was dying and asking for their assistance in protecting the rights of his children. He also sent a vast sum of money, more than two million solidi (gold coins), to Valentinus, an adjutant of Philagrius, to distribute to the soldiers to persuade them to secure the succession for his sons after his death. He died of tuberculosis after only three months, on 25 May, leaving Heraclonas sole emperor. A rumor that Martina had him poisoned led first to the imposition of Constans II as co-emperor and then to the deposition, mutilation, and banishment of Martina and her sons.
Family
In 629 or 630, Constantine married Gregoria, the daughter of Niketas. They had two sons:
Constans II, who succeeded as emperor
Theodosius
Notes
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
References
Literature
612 births
641 deaths
640s in the Byzantine Empire
7th-century Byzantine emperors
7th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Heraclian Dynasty
Heraclius
Porphyrogennetoi
Tuberculosis deaths in the Byzantine Empire
Sons of Byzantine emperors | [
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] |
252426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games%20played%20with%20Go%20equipment | Games played with Go equipment | Many games can be played with Go equipment: a supply of white and black stones and a board with 19×19 intersections, other than Go and many more can be played with minor modification.
Games that can be played without modification on the intersections of a 19×19 Go board include:
Breakthrough, which can be played on just about any board shape one wishes
Gomoku, Ninuki-renju and its close relative Pente
Connect6, similar to naughts and crosses, but requires connecting six in a row, and with two stones per move
Gonnect
Tanbo
Capture Go
Alea evangelii
Pente
Games that can be played without modification on the intersections of a Go board reduced in size (perhaps by masking the unwanted sections with paper or tape) include:
Alak, a Go-like game restricted to a single spatial dimension (1×19)
Five Field Kono (5x5)
Renju (15×15)
Philosopher's football (15×19)
Some games of Gonu
Games that can be played without modification on the squares of a Go board reduced in size include:
Gess (18×18 squares—no reduction required)
Crossings (8×8 squares)
Epaminondas (12×14 squares)
Lines of Action (8×8 squares)
Connect Four (most commonly 7×6 squares)
It's also possible to use Go equipment as a low-tech interface to Conway's Game of Life; use black stones in the board's squares as 'pixels', and for each generation use white stones to indicate where new cells will be born. Then remove 'dead' black stones, replace the white stones with black ones to complete the new generation, and repeat the process.
See also
International Go Federation
Abstract strategy games
Game variants | [
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252427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20of%20Poitiers | William of Poitiers | William of Poitiers ( 10201090) (LA: Guillelmus Pictaviensis; FR: Guillaume de Poitiers) was a Frankish priest of Norman origin and chaplain of Duke William of Normandy (William the Conqueror), for whom he chronicled the Norman Conquest of England in his Gesta Willelmi ducis Normannorum et regis Anglorum ("The Deeds of William, Duke of the Normans and King of the English") or Gesta Guillelmi II ducis Normannorum. He had trained as a soldier before taking holy orders.
Life
Little is known about William of Poitiers, with most information coming from Orderic Vitalis in his Historia Ecclesiactica, written in 1114–1115 and 1125. He was apparently born in Les Préaux, France, near Pont-Audemer to an influential knightly Norman family, probably about 1020. According to Orderic, William originally trained as a knight, which gave him a much greater insight into the details of war than the typical medieval clerical writer. About 1049 he decided to enter the church, turning away from his knightly duties. Once he turned to the priesthood, William studied at the renowned school of Saint Hilaire-le-Grand in Poitiers and was said by Orderic to have returned to Normandy 'more learned than all his friends and neighbours'.
William was given positions of ecclesiastical authority, becoming chaplain to Duke William and archdeacon of Lisieux. However, he doesn't appear in any ecclesiastical or royal and ducal charters as might be expected from someone of such a position, which perhaps casts doubts over Orderic's account of William of Poitiers life.
Little is known about his old age, and he probably retired into a religious house, or possibly political disgrace. This is implied by Orderic's statement that William of Poitiers was forced to stop writing his history of William the Conqueror due to ″unfavorable circumstances″, of which we do not know the nature. Possible links between William of Poitiers and Duke William's rebellious son Robert can be found, and may therefore provide an explanation for this.
Gesta Guillelmi
William of Poitiers wrote the Gesta Guillelmi some time after 1066. It tells the story of how Duke William prepared for, and achieved, the Conquest of England. It also justifies William's succession to the English throne. The bulk of the writing probably took place between 1071 and 1077.
The Gesta Guillelmi is the earliest extended biography of any Duke of Normandy, and is an invaluable source for the Battle of Hastings in 1066. William of Poitiers was well placed to write the Gesta Guillelmi, being both trained as a military knight and serving as a chaplain within Duke William's household.
There are no surviving manuscripts of the 'Gesta Guillemi'. André Duchesne published an edition in 1619, although even his (now lost) manuscript was missing its beginning and end. Its present form covers the period from 1047 to 1068, and both starts and finishes mid-sentence. There is also some retrospective material concerning affairs in England after Cnut's death (1035). Orderic Vitalis says that it originally finished in 1071. The Gesta Guillelmi is most valuable as a source for the Battle of Hastings, probably based on first hand oral evidence.
The 'History' also serves as a panegyric to William the Conqueror. R. Allen Brown writes: "Within the panegyric there is a wealth of facts and details... most derived from personal knowledge and personal contacts, compiled and intelligently put together by a man uniquely qualified as both clerk and knight, closely connected with the court ... One may add that William of Poitiers must have known his hero from their joint youth up, and stress that as both former knight and former chaplain of the duke he is able to bring us closer to the heart of Normandy in the mid-eleventh century than any other writer of that age or later."
Critiques of the Gesta Guillelmi
William of Poitiers undoubtedly thought of himself as an historian. He mentions in the Gesta Guillelmi that the duty of a historian is to remain within the 'bounds of the truth.'; but he failed to obey this rule. Antonia Gransden in 'Historical writing in England c. 550 to c. 1307' shows that William of Poitiers was just as much a panegyrist as a historian. She summarises Gesta Guillelmi as 'biased, unreliable account of events, and unrealistic portraits of the two principle protagonists.' Moreover, Orderic Vitalis, who uses the Gesta Guillelmi as his principal source in creating his 'Ecclesiastical History', chooses to omit or contradict many of Poitiers' passages in the Guesta Guillelmi, including denial of King William's mercy to the conquered English; having been brought up in England from 1075–1085, Orderic knew better. However, the Gesta Guillelmi cannot be dismissed; most of the panegyrical passages are easy to isolate, and there is a lot of material that William of Poitiers probably reports accurately.
Importance
William of Poitier is largely known as a key figure in the study of the Norman conquest due to 'Gesta Guillelmi'. He describes his own life while also outlining the events of the Norman conquest, the greatest significance of the source is the large focus on military tactics which only a figure who has served as a knight could appreciate. William of Poitier offers an insight which is not addressed in other contemporary texts such as the Anglo-Saxon chronicle.
As a figure himself William of Poitiers offers an example of social mobility from a knight to taking holy orders. Furthermore, Poitier was so close to Duke William that he has a closer view of Norman actions, this justifies the wide usage of the source as a key factor in studying 1066 and the Norman conquest in general.
What it tells us
Anglo-Saxon society
William of Poitiers details the life of Duke William. Nonetheless, there are a few major insights into pre-Conquest Anglo-Saxon society. For example, William of Poitiers reports that a Danish raiding party returned from England with 'great booty'. Furthermore, Harold is said to have had 'abundant treasure with which to tempt dukes'. This may explain the numerous attacks England suffered during the 10thearly 11th century.
William of Poitiers believed that the pre-Conquest English 'all showed love of their country', suggesting some sort of national identity that was lacking in Normandy.
Norman society
William of Poitiers provides a picture of Norman France prior to 1066. The various rebellions Duke William faced in his early reign are detailed in what was a fractured Duchy. The local Norman lords constantly waging private wars contrasts with the relatively stable Anglo-Saxon Kingdom across the Channel. The domestic turbulence forced Duke William to confront and subdue his nobility, sometimes by co-operation than coercion; for example, despite revolting against Duke William, the Gesta Guillemi states that Guy of Burgundy was allowed to remain in his court.
William of Poitiers shows that the Norman castle was an important element of society. An effective Duke could use them as strategic power bases, stamping their authority on the rural Duchy; however, a castle could also be a rallying point for rebellious nobles. William of Poitiers reports many a ducal siege as a result.
Medieval literary tradition
As a eulogising text, William of Poitiers's history constantly highlights William's admirable qualities, for example that the Duke 'excelled in intelligence, assiduity, and strength'. For William of Poitiers, Duke William embodies the perfect ideals of knighthood, as illustrated by improbable stories scattered through his history; for example he states that William, with 50 of his knights, fought and bested a force of 1000. This represents a clear exaggeration.
William of Poitiers also relates Duke William's exploits to those of the Greek and Roman world. For example, there is a lengthy comparison between William and Caesar's conquest of Britain. Not only was this done to flatter Duke William but also shows William of Poitiers' own knowledge.
Battle of Hastings
The Gesta Guillelmi provides the traditional narrative of the Battle of Hastings. William of Poitiers gives detailed descriptions of the composition of both the Norman and Anglo Saxon armies. Furthermore, he describes the famous 'feigned flight' manoeuvre.
References
Primary sources
William of Poitiers, Gesta Guillelmi, ed. and tr. Modern edition, with English translation and commentary. Earlier editions include:
Edition, with modern French translation.
Orderic Vitalis, Historia ecclesiastica, ed. and tr.
1020s births
1090 deaths
11th-century historians
11th-century Normans
Norman conquest of England
11th-century English writers
11th-century French writers
11th-century Latin writers | [
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252429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Maine | List of governors of Maine | The governor of Maine is the head of government of Maine and the commander-in-chief of its military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Maine Legislature, to convene the legislature at any time, and, except in cases of impeachment, to grant pardons.
There have been 75 governors of Maine since statehood. 70 people have held the office; 4 of them served multiple non-consecutive terms (Edward Kent, John Fairfield, John W. Dana, and Burton M. Cross). The longest-serving governor was Joseph E. Brennan, who served two terms from 1979 to 1987. The shortest-serving governors were Nathaniel M. Haskell and Richard H. Vose, who each served only one day. John W. Dana also served for one day in 1844, after the incumbent governor resigned, but was later elected to the governorship. The current governor is Democrat Janet Mills, who took office on January 2, 2019.
Governors
Maine was admitted to the Union on March 15, 1820, as the 23rd state. Before then, it was the District of Maine, part of the state of Massachusetts. The Maine Constitution of 1820 originally established a gubernatorial term of one year, to begin on the first Wednesday of January; constitutional amendments expanded this to two years in 1879 and to four years in 1957. The 1957 amendment also prohibited governors from succeeding themselves after serving two terms. The constitution does not establish an office of lieutenant governor; a vacancy in the office of governor is filled by the president of the Maine Senate. Prior to an amendment in 1964, the president of the senate only acted as governor.
Other high offices held
24 of Maine's governors have served higher federal offices. Seventeen have represented Maine in the U.S. House of Representatives, while 2 early in the state's history represented Massachusetts. There were also nine governors who served in the U.S. Senate, 5 (marked with *) resigning their office as governor to enter the Senate. 1 governor, Hannibal Hamlin, resigned his seat in the Senate to be governor (marked with †), then resigned as governor the next month to rejoin the Senate. Hamlin was also one of three governors to be ambassadors, and the only one to be Vice President of the United States. Two other governors served in the Cabinet.
Succession
Living former governors of Maine
, six former governors are alive, the oldest being Kenneth M. Curtis (served 1967–1975, born 1931). The most recent governor to die was John H. Reed (served 1959–1967, born 1921), on October 31, 2012. The most recently serving governor to die was James B. Longley (served 1975–1979, born 1924), on August 16, 1980.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
General
Constitutions
External links
Office of the Governor of Maine
Maine
Governors | [
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] |
252431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20de%20la%20Pole | William de la Pole | William de la Pole may refer to:
Sir William de la Pole (of Mawddwy) (died bef. 1319)
Sir William de la Pole of Hull (died 1366)
William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk (died 1450)
Sir William de la Pole (1478–1539), son of John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk, incarcerated in the Tower of London for 37 years
See also
William Pole (disambiguation) | [
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252432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilsby%20Tunnel | Kilsby Tunnel | The Kilsby Tunnel is a railway tunnel on the West Coast Main Line in England, near the village of Kilsby in Northamptonshire, roughly 5 miles (8 km) southeast of Rugby. It is long.
The Kilsby Tunnel was designed and engineered by Robert Stephenson for the London & Birmingham Railway (L&BR). It was constructed by contractors Joseph Nowell & Sons and later by the L&BR. It took much longer to construct and exceeded its estimated cost, attributed to a roof collapse and consequential flooding. At the time of its opening in 1838, it was the longest railway tunnel ever constructed.
The tunnel had atypically large ventilation shafts, because of a lack of experience as to how much ventilation would be needed for steam locomotives to pass through. On opening in 1838, the tunnel was single track and in 1879, double-track was laid. In March 1987, Kilsby Tunnel portals and its two ventilation shafts were given listed status.
History
Construction
In the 1830s, Robert Stephenson developed the London & Birmingham Railway (L&BR) (later known as the West Coast Main Line). After opposition from several landowners and proprietors in Northampton in July 1832, the House of Lords rejected the original bill to authorise construction of the line. Stephenson surveyed an alternative route to the west of the town that included Kilsby Tunnel. The 2,423 yard tunnel would be the world's longest railway tunnel. In May 1835, Joseph Nowell & Sons was awarded the tunnel contract, which was valued at £98,988.
Construction proved to be less than straightforward. Within months of work commencing, the second of the working shafts was flooded because of large amounts of quicksand not revealed by trial borings into the hill. Similar problems had been encountered during the construction of Blisworth Tunnel on the Grand Union Canal a few decades earlier. Problems posed by the quicksand at tunnel level were so severe that abandoning the shaft and restarting work elsewhere was considered. Stress from the project was said to have caused Joseph Nowell's ill-health and death.
At the recommendation of George Stephenson, several steam-powered pumps were installed to extract water from the quicksand inside the tunnel. The pumps removed up to 2,000 gallons of water from a depth of 120 feet every minute of operation and took up to eight months. Seven more shafts were sunk to install timber cylinders to hold back the sand. During this time, multiple attempts were made to construct the tunnel's brick lining using a raft to float men and materials into position. As a protective measure, the lining's thickness was increased from 18 inches to in excess of two feet and straw was used to deflect and control the ingress of water to prevent wet concrete from being washed away from newly laid bricks.
An unusual feature of the tunnel is the size of its ventilation shafts, which were adapted from ten of the working shafts used during its construction. In May 1836, work started on the first of two shafts, which were 132 feet deep and 20 yards in diameter. The shafts were sunk using sequentially dug trenches around the circumference and took over a year to reach the bottom of each shaft. Its three-foot-thick walls required over one million bricks and weighed an estimated 4,034 tonnes. For aesthetic reasons both shafts are castellated.
Author Graeme Bickerdike has speculated that, while their size is excessive in regards to providing airflow, considerable importance was placed on overcoming public perceptions and worries over personal health due to insufficient ventilation, especially in regards to the use of steam locomotives inside lengthy tunnels. Several newspapers had negatively commented on the issues, and it is likely that Stephenson would have wanted to silence critics and assuage these sentiments by visibly demonstrating how much ventilation was being provided.
Completion and subsequent activities
On 21 June 1838, resident engineer Charles Lean laid the final brick of the tunnel, marking its completion. It took three years, and cost £320,000 to build, three times the original estimate.The high accident rate in the course of its construction included the deaths of 26 of the 1,250 workers. The length of time it took to build delayed the opening of the L&BR. On 20 August 1838, the directors of the L&BR conducted the first ever rail journey between Birmingham Curzon Street railway station and Euston railway station, London. On the way, the train briefly stopped at the tunnel so that they could marvel at the structure and meet some of the workmen. Regular services using the tunnel commenced soon after.
Kilsby Tunnel had been designed for double tracks, but opened with a single track. During early operations, train movements were controlled by two policeman, one at either end of the tunnel, who signalled the presence of a train to each other, and only one train was allowed to enter the tunnel at a time. In June 1852, a fatal collision occurred between a ballast train and a coal train as a result of signals that were either not issued or were not received. In 1879, the single track was doubled.
In March 1987, both the north and south portals of Kilsby Tunnel were Grade II* listed; furthermore, the two largest ventilation shafts were also listed, the north shaft being Grade II* listed while the south shaft was Grade II listed. During the tunnel's service life, there have been no major problems or difficulties with the structure. During a survey conducted during the 2010s, it was found to be in a largely good condition.
During the 2010s, Kilsby Tunnel was restored by Network Rail. Maintenance focused on inspecting the ventilation shafts and repairs to the brickwork of one shaft was carried out, sections of the tunnel's lining were replaced. While unusual means of access were used because of the listed status of the shafts, the repairs were described as routine.
At the beginning of 2020, an estimated 400 trains were using the tunnel daily. Due to the drastic reduction in rail traffic caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, Network Rail took the rare opportunity to close the tunnel for two weeks in May 2020 in order to carry out major works, including replacing much of the tunnel's drainage system, which had become clogged by heavily limed water seeping through, causing flooding problems, and also replacing much of the track and ballast. This was the longest total closure of the tunnel since it was opened, with all trains diverted temporarily via . In normal times the work would have required many short blockades, and taken months to complete. It allowed a temporary speed restriction through the tunnel of 70 mph to be lifted, enabling trains to operate at the normal line speed of 110 mph.
Notes
References
External links
Kilsby Tunnel includes the classic image of the tunnel under construction.
A short video of an air shaft by Si Horton using data collected by Colin Humphreys using a Faro Focus X330 laser scanner (on YouTube)
Rail transport in Northamptonshire
Buildings and structures in Northamptonshire
Railway tunnels in England
Tunnels in Northamptonshire
Tunnels completed in 1838
London and Birmingham Railway | [
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252436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Indiana | List of governors of Indiana | The governor of Indiana is the head of government of the U.S. state of Indiana. The governor is the head of the executive branch of Indiana's state government and is charged with enforcing state laws.
While a territory, Indiana had two governors appointed by the President of the United States. Since statehood in 1816, it has had 49 governors, serving 51 distinct terms; Isaac P. Gray and Henry F. Schricker are the only governors to have served non-consecutive terms. Four governors have served two four-year terms; territorial governor William Henry Harrison served for over 12 years. The shortest-serving governor is Henry Smith Lane, who served two days before resigning to become a U.S. Senator. The current governor is Eric Holcomb, who took office on January 9, 2017.
Governors
Governors of the Territory of Indiana
Indiana Territory was formed on July 4, 1800, from the Northwest Territory. Despite remaining a territory for nearly 16 years, it had only two governors appointed by the President of the United States before it became a state.
Governors of the State of Indiana
Indiana was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816.
The original 1816 Constitution of Indiana provided for the election of a governor and a lieutenant governor every three years, limited to six years out of any nine-year period. The second and current constitution of 1851 lengthened terms to four years and set the commencement of the governor's term on the second Monday in the January following the election. Governors were allowed to serve for four years in any eight-year period, but a 1972 amendment permitted governors to serve for eight years in any twelve-year period. Should the office of governor become vacant, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. If the office of lieutenant governor is vacant, the president pro tempore of the Indiana Senate becomes governor; this has happened once, when James B. Ray succeeded William Hendricks.
Succession
Living former governors of Indiana
As of January 2022, three former U.S. governors of Indiana are currently living, the oldest being Mitch Daniels (served 2005–2013, born 1949). The most recent and most recently serving U.S. governor of Indiana to die was Joe Kernan (served 2003-2005, born 1946), on July 29, 2020.
Notes
References
General
Constitutions
Specific
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors | [
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252440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Ferdinand%20Cori | Carl Ferdinand Cori | Carl Ferdinand Cori, ForMemRS (December 5, 1896 – October 20, 1984) was a Czech-American biochemist and pharmacologist born in Prague (then in Austria-Hungary, now Czech Republic) who, together with his wife Gerty Cori and Argentine physiologist Bernardo Houssay, received a Nobel Prize in 1947 for their discovery of how glycogen (animal starch) – a derivative of glucose – is broken down and resynthesized in the body, for use as a store and source of energy. In 2004, both Coris were designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of their work that elucidated carbohydrate metabolism.
Education and early life
Carl was the son of Carl Isidor Cori (1865, Brüx (), Bohemia, Austrian Empire1954, Vienna), a zoologist, and Maria Cori (née Lippich; 1870, Graz1922, Prague), a daughter of the Italian-Bohemian/Austrian physician Ferdinand Lippich (1838, Padova1913, Prague).
The Cori family came from the Papal State (later Republical Rome, today's Central Italy) to the Royal Bohemian Crownland, (Monarchical Austria at the end of the 17th century). Carl Ferdinand's grandfather Eduard Cori (18121889) was an administrative officer and beekeeper in Brüx, and his grandmother was Rosina Trinks (?1909). Carl Ferdinand's younger sister Margarete Cori (born 1905) was a lecturer in Prague and the wife of the Bohemian geneticist Felix Mainx (1900, Prague1983, Vienna).
He grew up in Trieste, where his father Carl Isidor was the director of the Marine Biological Station. In late 1914 the Cori family moved to Prague and Carl entered the medical school of Charles University in Prague. While studying there he met his future wife Gerty Theresa Radnitz. He was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army and served in the ski corps, and later was transferred to the sanitary corps, for which he set up a laboratory in Trieste. At the end of the war Carl completed his studies, graduating with Gerty in 1920. Carl and Gerty married that year and worked together in clinics in Vienna. Their only child, Tom, married Anne, a daughter of the American constitutional lawyer and anti-feminist Phyllis Schlafly.
Career
Carl was invited to Graz to work with Otto Loewi to study the effect of the vagus nerve on the heart (Loewi would receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1936 for this work). While Carl was in Graz, Gerty remained in Vienna. A year later Carl was offered a position at the State Institute for the Study of Malignant Diseases (now Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center) in Buffalo, New York and the Coris moved to Buffalo, New York. In 1928, they became naturalized citizens of the United States.
While at the Institute the Coris’ research focused on carbohydrate metabolism, leading to the definition of the Cori cycle in 1929. In 1931, Carl accepted a position at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, Missouri. Carl joined as professor of pharmacology and in 1942 was made professor of biochemistry. In St. Louis, the Coris continued their research on glycogen and glucose and began to describe glycogenolysis, identifying and synthesizing the important enzyme glycogen phosphorylase. For these discoveries, they received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947, making them the third ever married couple to win the Nobel Prize.
Gerty died in 1957 and Carl married Anne Fitzgerald-Jones (1909-2006) in 1960. He stayed on at Washington University until 1966, when he retired as chair of the biochemistry department. He was appointed visiting professor of Biological Chemistry at Harvard University while maintaining a laboratory space at the Massachusetts General Hospital, where he pursued research in genetics. From 1968 to 1983, he collaborated with noted geneticist Salomé Glüecksohn-Waelsch of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York, until the 1980s when illness prevented him from continuing. In 1976, Carl received the Laurea honoris causa in Medicine from the University of Trieste.
Carl shares a star with Gerty on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.
Awards and honors
In addition to winning the Nobel Prize, Cori won the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1946 and in 1959, the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art. Cori was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1950 and the Carl Cori Endowed Professorship at Washington University is named in his honor, currently held by Colin Nichols.
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture December 11, 1947 Polysaccharide Phosphorylase
1896 births
1984 deaths
20th-century Austrian people
Czech biochemists
Austrian biochemists
American biochemists
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
American Nobel laureates
Austrian Nobel laureates
Austro-Hungarian Nobel laureates
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
Nobel laureates affiliated with Missouri
Harvard University people
Charles University alumni
Austrian emigrants to the United States
Austro-Hungarian scientists
German Bohemian people
Austrian people of German Bohemian descent
Austrian people of Italian descent
Scientists from Prague
Scientists from Trieste
Scientists from Buffalo, New York
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery | [
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252442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerty%20Cori | Gerty Cori | Gerty Theresa Cori (née Radnitz; August 15, 1896 – October 26, 1957) was an Austro-Hungarian-American biochemist who in 1947 was the third woman to win a Nobel Prize in science, and the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for her significant role in the "discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen".
Cori was born in Prague (then in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now the Czech Republic). Gerty was not a nickname, but rather she was named after an Austrian warship. Growing up at a time when women were marginalized in science and allowed few educational opportunities, she gained admittance to medical school, where she met her future husband Carl Ferdinand Cori in an anatomy class; upon their graduation in 1920, they married. Because of deteriorating conditions in Europe, the couple emigrated to the United States in 1922. Gerty Cori continued her early interest in medical research, collaborating in the laboratory with Carl. She published research findings coauthored with her husband, as well as publishing singly. Unlike her husband, she had difficulty securing research positions, and the ones she obtained provided meager pay. Her husband insisted on continuing their collaboration, though he was discouraged from doing so by the institutions that employed him.
With her husband Carl and Argentine physiologist Bernardo Houssay, Gerty Cori received the Nobel Prize in 1947 for the discovery of the mechanism by which glycogen—a derivative of glucose—is broken down in muscle tissue into lactic acid and then resynthesized in the body and stored as a source of energy (known as the Cori cycle). They also identified the important catalyzing compound, the Cori ester. The Coris were the third ever married couple to win the Nobel Prize. In 2004, both Gerty and Carl Cori were designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of their work in clarifying carbohydrate metabolism.
In 1957, Gerty Cori died after a ten-year struggle with myelosclerosis. She remained active in the research laboratory until the end of her life. She received recognition for her achievements through multiple awards and honors.
Early life and education
Gerty Cori was born Gerty Theresa Radnitz into a Jewish family in Prague in 1896. Her father, Otto Radnitz, was a chemist who became manager of sugar refineries after inventing a successful method for refining sugar. Her mother, Martha, a friend of Franz Kafka, was a culturally sophisticated woman. Gerty was tutored at home before enrolling in a lyceum for girls, and at the age of 16, she decided she wanted to be a medical doctor. Pursuing the study of science, Gerty learned that she lacked the prerequisites in Latin, physics, chemistry, and mathematics. Over the course of a year, she managed to study the equivalent of eight years of Latin, five years of science, and five years of mathematics.
Her uncle, a professor of pediatrics, encouraged her to attend medical school, so she studied for and passed the university entrance examination. She was admitted to the medical school of the Karl-Ferdinands-Universität in Prague in 1914, an unusual achievement for women at that time.
Marriage and early career
While studying, she met Carl Cori, who was immediately attracted to her charm, vitality, sense of humor, and her love of the outdoors and mountain climbing. Gerty and Carl had both entered medical school at eighteen and both graduated in 1920. They married that same year. Gerty converted to Catholic Christianity, enabling her and Carl to marry in the Catholic Church. They moved to Vienna, capital of Austria, where Gerty spent the next two years at the Carolinen Children's Hospital, and her husband worked in a laboratory. While at the hospital, Gerty Cori worked on the pediatrics unit and conducted experiments in temperature regulation, comparing temperatures before and after thyroid treatment, and published papers on blood disorders.
Carl was drafted into the Austrian army and served during World War I. Life was difficult after the war, and Gerty suffered from xerophthalmia caused by severe malnutrition due to food shortages. These problems, in conjunction with the increasing anti-Semitism, contributed to the Coris' decision to leave Europe.
Working in the United States
In 1922, the Coris both immigrated to the United States (Gerty six months after Carl because of difficulty in obtaining a position) to pursue medical research at the State Institute for the Study of Malignant Diseases (now the Roswell Park Cancer Institute) in Buffalo, New York. In 1928, they became naturalized citizens. The director for the Institute threatened to dismiss Gerty if she did not cease collaborative research with her husband. She continued to work with Carl and was also kept on at the Institute.
Although the Coris were discouraged from working together at Roswell, they continued to do so, specializing in investigating carbohydrate metabolism. They were particularly interested in how glucose is metabolized in the human body and the hormones that regulate this process. They published fifty papers while at Roswell, with first author status going to the one who had done most of the research for a given paper. Gerty Cori published eleven articles as the sole author. In 1929, they proposed the theoretical cycle that later won them the Nobel Prize, the Cori cycle. The cycle describes how the human body uses chemical reactions to break some carbohydrates such as glycogen in muscle tissue into lactic acid, while synthesizing others.
Washington University
The Coris left Roswell in 1931 after publishing their work on carbohydrate metabolism. A number of universities offered Carl a position but refused to hire Gerty. Gerty was informed during one university interview that it was considered "unamerican" for a married couple to work together. Carl refused a position at the University of Buffalo because the school would not allow him to work with his wife.
In 1931, they moved to St. Louis, Missouri, as Washington University offered both Carl and Gerty positions, although Gerty's rank and salary were much lower than her husband's. Despite her research background, Gerty was only offered a position as a research associate at a salary one tenth of that received by her husband; she was warned that she might harm her husband's career. Washington University's Chancellor, Arthur Compton, made a special allowance for Gerty to hold a position there, going against the university's nepotism rules. Gerty had to wait thirteen years before she attained the same rank as her husband. In 1943, she was made an associate professor of Research Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology. Months before she won the Nobel Prize, she was promoted to full professor, a post she held until her death in 1957.
While working at Washington University, they discovered an intermediate compound in frog muscles that enabled the breakdown of glycogen, called glucose 1-phosphate, now known as the Cori ester. They established the compound's structure, identified the enzyme phosphorylase that catalyzed its chemical formation, and showed that the Cori ester is the beginning step in the conversion of the carbohydrate glycogen into glucose (breaking down energy stores into a format in which they can be used). It can also be the last step in the conversion of blood glucose to glycogen, as it is a reversible step. Gerty Cori also studied glycogen storage disease, identifying at least four forms, each related to a particular enzymatic defect. She was the first to show that a defect in an enzyme can be the cause of a human genetic disease.
Gerty and Carl Cori collaborated on most of their work, including that which won them the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen". They received one half the prize, the other half going to the Argentinian physiologist, Bernardo Houssay "for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar". Their work continued to clarify the mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism, advancing understanding of the reversible conversion of sugars and starch, findings which proved crucial in the development of treatments for diabetics.
Awards and recognitions
In 1947, Gerty Cori became the third woman—and the first American woman—to win a Nobel Prize in science, the previous recipients being Marie Curie and Irène Joliot-Curie. She was the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1953. Cori was the fourth women elected to the National Academy of Sciences. She was appointed by President Harry S. Truman as board member of the National Science Foundation, a position she held until her death.
Gerty was also a member of the American Society of Biological Chemists, the American Chemical Society and the American Philosophical Society. She and her husband were presented jointly with the Midwest Award (American Chemical Society) in 1946 and the Squibb Award in Endocrinology in 1947. In addition, Cori received the Garvan-Olin Medal (1948), the St. Louis Award (1948), the Sugar Research Prize (1950), the Borden Award (1951). She received honorary Doctor of Science degrees from Boston University (1948), Smith College (1949), Yale University (1951), Columbia University (1954), and the University of Rochester (1955).
The twenty-five square foot laboratory shared by Cori and her husband at Washington University was deemed a National Historic Landmark by the American Chemical Society in 2004. Six of the scientists mentored by Cori and her husband went on to win Nobel Prizes, which is only superseded by the mentored scientists of British physicist J.J. Thomson.
In 1949, she was awarded the Iota Sigma Pi National Honorary Member for her significant contribution. The crater Cori on the Moon is named after her, as is the Cori crater on Venus. She shares a star with her husband on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. She was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1998.
Cori was honored by the release of a US Postal Service stamp in April 2008. The 41-cent stamp was reported by the Associated Press to have a printing error in the chemical formula for glucose-1-phosphate (Cori ester), but was distributed despite the error. Her description reads: "Biochemist Gerty Cori (1896–1957), in collaboration with her husband, Carl, made important discoveries—including a new derivative of glucose—that elucidated the steps of carbohydrate metabolism and contributed to the understanding and treatment of diabetes and other metabolic diseases. In 1947, the couple was awarded a half share of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine."
The US Department of Energy named the NERSC-8 supercomputer installed at Berkeley Lab in 2015/2016 after Cori. In November 2016, NERSC's Cori ranked 5th on the TOP500 list of world's most powerful high-performance computers.
Although prejudiced against in her time for being a woman, today she is the more celebrated of the Coris as she considered a pioneer as a woman of science.
Final years
Just before winning the Nobel prize, while they were on a mountain climbing trip, the Coris learned that Gerty Cori was ill with myelosclerosis, a fatal disease of the bone marrow. During her years at the Institute for the Study of Malignant Disease, Gerty had worked with X-rays, studying their effects on the human body, which may have contributed to her illness. She struggled for ten years with the illness while continuing her scientific work; only in the final months did she let up. In 1957, she died in her home. Gerty was cremated and her ashes scattered. Later, her son erected a cenotaph for Gerty and Carl Cori in Bellefontaine Cemetery in St. Louis, Missouri.
She was survived by her husband and their only child, Tom Cori, who married the daughter of conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly.
Carl Cori remarried in 1960 to Anne Fitzgerald-Jones. The two later moved to Boston, where Carl taught at Harvard Medical School. He continued to work there until his death in 1984 at the age of eighty-eight.
See also
List of female Nobel laureates
List of Jewish Nobel laureates
Timeline of women in science
References
Further reading
External links
Carl and Gerti Cori and Carbohydrate Metabolism from American Chemical Society National Historic Chemical Landmarks
“Glories of the Human Mind” by Gerty Cori
Bernardo A. Houssay Memorial to Gerty Theresa Cori
Gerty Cori Memorabilia
including the Nobel Lecture on December 11, 1947 Polysaccharide Phosphorylase
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
1896 births
1957 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Austro-Hungarian Nobel laureates
American Nobel laureates
Women Nobel laureates
Nobel laureates affiliated with Missouri
Austrian emigrants to the United States
American women biochemists
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Jewish American scientists
Jewish chemists
Jewish women scientists
American people of Czech-Jewish descent
Scientists from Prague
People from the Kingdom of Bohemia
Charles University alumni
Scientists from Buffalo, New York
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism
American Roman Catholics
Recipients of the Garvan–Olin Medal
American women chemists
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Women physiologists
American physiologists
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
20th-century American women scientists | [
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252444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debout%20Congolais | Debout Congolais | "Debout Congolais" (; ) is the national anthem of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was originally adopted in 1960 upon independence from Belgium but was replaced by "La Zaïroise" when Congo changed its name to Zaire in 1971. It was finally reinstated when Congo was reorganised in 1997. The lyrics were written by historian and professor Joseph Lutumba, and the music was composed by Jesuit father , who also wrote and composed "La Zaïroise".
References
External links
Democratic Republic of the Congo: "Debout Congolais" - Audio of the national anthem of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with information and lyrics
- National anthems.info - "La Zaïroise" (the former national anthem)
National anthems.info - "Debout Congolaise"
MP3 file
Democratic Republic of the Congo music
African anthems
National symbols of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
National anthem compositions in C major
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252448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Congolaise | La Congolaise | "La Congolaise" (, ) is the national anthem of the Republic of the Congo. It was adopted upon independence from France in 1959, replaced in 1969 by "Les Trois Glorieuses" but reinstated in 1991. The lyrics were written by Jacques Tondra and Georges Kibanghi, and the music was composed by Jean Royer and Joseph Spadilière.
Lyrics
References
External links
Republic of the Congo: La Congolaise - Audio of the national anthem of the Republic of the Congo, with information and lyrics
African anthems
Republic of the Congo music
National symbols of the Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo songs
National anthem compositions in F major | [
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252449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic | Syllabic | Syllabic may refer to:
Syllable, a unit of speech sound, considered the building block of words
Syllabic consonant, a consonant that forms the nucleus of a syllable
Syllabary, writing system using symbols for syllables
Abugida, writing system using symbols for consonant-vowel combinations (previously called syllabic and syllabic alphabet)
Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, a family of abugidas used to write a number of Aboriginal Canadian languages
Syllabic octal, octal representation of 8-bit syllables or bytes
Syllabic verse, poetry that has a certain number of syllables per line
Syllabic text setting in music, in which each syllable is matched to a single note, as opposed to melismatic
See also
Syllable (disambiguation)
Semi-syllable (disambiguation) | [
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252451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UB40 | UB40 | UB40 are an English reggae and pop band, formed in December 1978 in Birmingham, England. The band has had more than 50 singles in the UK Singles Chart, and has also achieved considerable international success. They have been nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album four times, and in 1984 were nominated for the Brit Award for Best British Group. UB40 have sold over 70 million records worldwide. The ethnic make-up of the band's original line-up was diverse, with musicians of English, Welsh, Irish, Jamaican, Scottish, and Yemeni parentage.
Their hit singles include their debut "Food for Thought" and two Billboard Hot 100 number ones with "Red Red Wine" and "Can't Help Falling in Love". Both of these also topped the UK Singles Chart, as did the band's version of "I Got You Babe". Their two most successful albums, Labour of Love (1983) and Promises and Lies (1993), reached number one on the UK Albums Chart. UB40 and the English ska band Madness hold the record for most weeks spent by a group in the UK singles chart during the 1980s, with 214 weeks each.
The band's line-up was stable for nearly 29 years, from March 1979 until January 2008, when frontman Ali Campbell left the band, followed shortly thereafter by keyboardist Mickey Virtue. Another member, Astro, remained with the band until November 2013, when he departed the original band to team up with Campbell and Virtue in a new version of UB40. In 2014, legal advice was sought by the original band (now consisting of remaining co-founding members drummer Jimmy Brown, guitarist Robin Campbell, bassist Earl Falconer, percussionist Norman Hassan, and saxophonist Brian Travers, along with new vocalist Duncan Campbell) who took action against the group containing Campbell, Virtue, and Astro over usage of the band name, due to it being used by both parties. On 5 July 2021, it was announced that Matt Doyle (formerly of the reggae band Kioko) would become the band's new vocalist, following Duncan Campbell's retirement due to ill health. Travers died from cancer on 22 August 2021, and Astro died on 6 November 2021 following a short illness.
History
1978–1983: Formation and rise to stardom
The band members began as friends who knew each other from various schools across Birmingham, England. The name "UB40" was selected in reference to an attendance card issued to people claiming unemployment benefits from the UK government Department of Employment. The designation UB40 stood for Unemployment Benefit, Form 40.
The origins of what would become UB40 began when in mid-1978 guitarist Ali Campbell, together with the rhythm section of drummer Jimmy Brown and bassist Earl Falconer, began rehearsing charting reggae songs in addition to some of their own original compositions. They were soon joined by several of their friends, firstly percussionists Yomi Babayemi and Norman Hassan, and then saxophonist Brian Travers and keyboardist Jimmy Lynn. Robin Campbell, although initially reluctant to commit to forming a band with the others, was invited to join once again by his brother and bought a guitar with which to do so in December of that year. Once Robin had joined the others in their jamming sessions, the eight musicians formed a band, deciding on the name 'UB40' after a friend suggested it was an appropriate name given the unemployed status of all of the band members. Prior to this, Travers had work as an electrical apprentice for NG Bailey; whilst Robin Campbell had been an apprentice toolmaker.
This lineup of the band lasted long enough to play their first show at the Hare & Hounds pub in Kings Heath in February 1979 and one other, before the band underwent its first lineup change in the form of Babayemi and Lynn leaving the band and Mickey Virtue joining in place of Lynn. A month later UB40's classic lineup was rounded out with the inclusion of percussionist and vocalist Astro. Astro had previously been working for Duke Alloy's sound system attending reggae dances in Birmingham. Before some of them could play their instruments, Ali Campbell and Brian Travers travelled around Birmingham promoting the band, putting up UB40 posters. Their sound was created and honed through many long jam sessions at various locations in Birmingham.
Their first gig took place on 9 February 1979 at The Hare & Hounds Pub in Kings Heath, Birmingham for a friend's birthday party. This was commemorated in October 2011 by the unveiling of a plaque at the venue, indicating the band receiving the Performing Rights Society's Music Heritage Award. UB40 caught their first break when Chrissie Hynde saw them at a pub and gave them an opportunity as a support act to her band, The Pretenders. UB40's first single, "King"/"Food for Thought" was released on Graduate Records, a local independent label run by David Virr. It reached No. 4 on the UK Singles Chart.
The title of their first album, Signing Off, indicates the band was signing off from, or ending, their claim for unemployment benefits. It was recorded in a bedsit in Birmingham and was produced by Bob Lamb. Norman Hassan said of the recording: "if you stripped my track down, you could hear the birds in the background." This is because his tracks were recorded outside in the garden. Signing Off was released on 29 August 1980. It entered the UK Albums Chart on 2 October 1980, and spent 71 weeks in total on the chart. Signing Off is now a Platinum album. As UB40 grew in popularity, they encouraged and supported local musicians and bands from Birmingham, such as Beshara, often bringing them on tour.
After great success in the UK, UB40's popularity in the US was established when they released Labour of Love, an album of cover songs, in 1983. The album reached No. 1 on the UK Albums Chart and No. 8 on the Billboard 200 in the US. The album featured the song "Red Red Wine", a cover version of a Neil Diamond song (in an arrangement similar to that of Tony Tribe's version); it stayed on the charts for over 100 weeks. Three years later UB40 performed at the Birmingham Heart Beat Charity Concert 1986. In 1987 Ray "Pablo" Falconer, producer of UB40 music, died in a car crash. His brother, Earl Falconer, the band's bassist, was driving with nearly twice the legal limit of alcohol in his blood. Earl was sentenced to six months imprisonment in June 1988 and banned from driving for three years.
1988–2008: Continued success
On 11 June 1988, UB40 performed at the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert that took place at Wembley Stadium in London and also involved Dire Straits, George Michael, Whitney Houston, the Bee Gees and other artists.
Their most successful worldwide single release is their reggae/pop version of "(I Can't Help) Falling in Love With You", which was the main title to the 1993 Sharon Stone movie Sliver; it was a number one hit across Europe and in the US. In 1995 they covered the Stevie Wonder song "Superstition" for the Eddie Murphy movie Vampire in Brooklyn and it appears on their album The Best of UB40 – Volume Two which they released that year. The group also made a guest appearance in the 1997 feature film Speed 2: Cruise Control. UB40 are featured in the 1988 film The Yob. UB40 toured South Africa in July 2007 and headlined the Live Earth concert at the Cradle of Humankind, near Johannesburg.
In 2003, UB40 and the United Colours of Sound recorded "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" as the official anthem for the England national rugby union team. Following England's victory in the 2003 Rugby Union World Cup, it reached number 15 in the UK Singles Chart.
2008–present: Line-up changes and the current era
On 24 January 2008, it was announced that Ali Campbell would be leaving the group after 30 years. It was originally stated that this was in order for Campbell to concentrate on solo projects, but Campbell later said he was leaving due to management and business disputes. The remaining seven members released a statement saying: "Ali made a very simple decision; he chose to pursue and put his solo career over and above continuing to work with UB40 after February 2008. It’s as simple as that". Mickey Virtue departed shortly afterwards citing the same issues that Campbell had as reasons for his departure.
It was reported by some Birmingham newspapers on 13 March 2008, that Maxi Priest would be the new lead singer of UB40 and had recorded a cover of Bob Marley's "I Shot the Sheriff" with the band, based on information from an unnamed "source close to the band." Priest had joined UB40 on their arena tour in 2007, culminating in sell-out shows at the NEC Birmingham in December. Another local newspaper reporting that Maxi Priest would be the new UB40 frontman, also included a statement from band spokesman Gerard Franklyn which contradicted this claim: "Maxi is collaborating with the band to record material but no decision has been made to replace Ali Campbell with one definitive singer. The reports are half correct he will be appearing with them for this new recording." In April 2008, the BBC reported that Campbell was to be replaced in the band by his brother Duncan, with reggae singer Maxi Priest also bolstering the line-up on tour.
The band released their next album, TwentyFourSeven, UB40's last with their classic lineup, by way of a free insert in The Mail on Sundays 4 May 2008 issue. The newspaper sold nearly three million copies. This led to a backlash when the full 17-track version was released 21 June 2008, and most of the big retailers refused to stock it. It failed to reach the Top 75 in the UK, which was a first, as all their official albums had previously made the Top 50 on the UK Albums Chart. Their next release, on EMI, was a collection called Love Songs, which was a compilation of hits mainly from the Labour of Love series and all featuring Ali Campbell on vocals – it reached number 3 in the UK. The band toured the US, which included their first show at the Hollywood Bowl.
In 2009 the band released the first new album with their new lead singer Duncan Campbell; another in the Labour of Love cover series entitled Labour of Love IV. The album was in the charts for only two weeks reaching number 24. During the 2009 US Tour UB40 offered fans live concert recordings on USB wristbands. The wristbands also included the Dub Sessions remix album and photos.
UB40 announced that after completing a coast-to-coast 2010 American tour they would be playing a nationwide UK tour of theatres in October/November 2010 performing their seminal album Signing Off, in full, along with a second set of popular UB40 songs. To coincide, on 1 November 2010 a remastered 2CD+DVD of Signing Off was released as a '30th Anniversary Special Edition'.
In 2011 five founding members of the group and directors of their DEP International label, had bankruptcy proceedings started against them relating to debts of the record label. In October 2011 Travers, Wilson, Hassan and Brown were declared bankrupt. Former member Ali Campbell was also declared bankrupt. In 2013 a new album, Getting Over the Storm was announced, their first since 2010 and Labour of Love IV.
In November 2013, UB40 revealed dates in anticipation of their UK Tour in early 2014. The announcement of the tour follows the success of the band's latest Top 30 album, Getting Over The Storm, which was awarded BBC Radio 2's 'Album of the Week' accolade and received 5-star reviews from the UK's music press on its release in September 2013. On 22 November 2013 Astro announced in a statement that he had left the band, describing it as a "rudderless ship" and criticising the "serious lack of communication between the band and management" and the country-orientated direction of their latest album. Astro joined former UB40 members Ali Campbell and Mickey Virtue on stage at the indigO2 Arena in London on 6 December 2013, and on 17 January 2014 the trio announced on their website that they were in the studio recording new music. Ali Campbell was highly critical of his replacement in UB40, stating "I sat back for five years and watched my brother Duncan murdering my songs." Ali Campbell toured as UB40 with Astro and Virtue over the summer. The new album Silhouette, featuring the trio, was set for release on 6 October 2014.
In December 2014 Ali Campbell claimed that he would be prepared to go to the High Court in London over the matter rather than settle out of court.
Duncan Campbell retired from UB40 in June 2021 due to ill health, following a stroke he had suffered the previous year; he was replaced the following month by Matt Doyle of fellow Birmingham reggae band Kioko.
In August 2021, saxophonist Brian Travers died of cancer at the age of 62 in his Moseley home. In November 2021 former vocalist and founding member Astro died following a short illness.
Influences
UB40 were influenced by the many blues parties they attended as teenagers in the multicultural Balsall Heath area of Birmingham. Their love of ska, reggae and early lovers rock inspired such original tracks as "King", "Madam Medusa", "Food for Thought", "Signing Off" and "One in Ten". Their early musical style was unique, with a heavy influence of analogue synthesisers, psychedelic rock guitar, saxophone and dub producer techniques.
The Campbell brothers are the sons of the late folk musician, Ian Campbell. Their father regularly took them to folk festivals and gigs and introduced them to music and to touring. It was at his father's folk club "Jug O' Punch" that Ali Campbell made his singing debut with Dave Swarbrick's daughter, Suss, singing "Why Does It have To Be Me?".
Achievements
UB40 are one of the most commercially successful reggae acts of all time in terms of record sales (over 70 million), chart positions and touring schedule. During their three-decade long career, they have been performing sell-out shows worldwide and headlining the Reggae Sunsplash music festival in Jamaica, as well as spreading reggae to Russia, South America, etc. They have performed twice at the Night of the Proms, in 2000 and in 2006. They have been nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album four times, and in 1984 were nominated for the Brit Award for Best British Group.
In October 2011, UB40 were commemorated with a Heritage Award, a ceremonial plaque from the UK's PRS for Music. A plaque was placed at the Hare & Hounds Pub in Birmingham, England, the location where they played their first gig.
All three of their UK number one hits and four of their five US top ten hits were cover versions. UB40 collaborators include: Pato Banton, Madness, Bitty McLean, Chrissie Hynde, Maxi Priest, Robert Palmer, Hunterz, Japanese artist Mikidozan, French artist Nuttea, Lady Saw, Afrika Bambaataa, 808 State. With 214 weeks spent on the UK singles charts over the course of the 1980s, UB40 and Madness hold the record for most weeks spent by a group in the 1980s UK singles charts.
Referencing the group's longevity, Ali Campbell has said that the group was fortunate in choosing a relatively young genre, as reggae "... hasn't outlived its own cool like jazz has".
Band membersCurrent members Jimmy Brown – drums
Robin Campbell – guitar, vocals
Earl Falconer – bass guitar, vocals
Norman Hassan – percussion, trombone, vocals
Matt Doyle – lead vocals Former members Ali Campbell – guitar, vocals
Yomi Babayemi – percussion
Jimmy Lynn – keyboards
Brian Travers – saxophone
Mickey Virtue – keyboards
Astro – percussion, trumpet, vocals
Duncan Campbell - vocals
Additional membersCurrent touring members Laurence Parry – trumpet, flugelhorn, trombone
Martin Meredith – saxophone, keyboards
Tony Mullings – keyboards
Ian Thompson – saxophone Former touring members Henry Tenyue – trombone
Patrick Tenyue – trumpet
Timeline
Biographies
AstroTerence Oswald Wilson (24 June 1957 – 6 November 2021), better known by his stage name Astro, was a British musician, rapper, and toaster, who was part of UB40 from 1979 until he left the group in November 2013. His nickname comes from his childhood as he wore a pair of Dr. Martens boots with the model name "Astronaut".
He went to school with the future keyboard player of UB40, Virtue. While DJ-ing, he met the Campbell brothers, and bonded so well with them over a love of Jamaican music that they invited him to join them as their MC. He believed that reggae music was for everyone, and shouldn't just be for Jamaican Rastafarians.
In the band's 1983 version of Red Red Wine, he added his own "toasting" lyrics, which is a Jamaican forerunner to rapping. This became an integral part to the group's sound. Astro offered the band a more militant edge, rapping about social injustice and racism. He encountered racism himself when he was refused admittance to nightclubs on account of his dreadlocks, when white members of the band were welcomed.
He eventually quit the band in 2013 after they decided to record a set of country songs. He wasn't interested in this genre of music and was only interested in performing and promoting reggae. He went on to join Ali Campbell and Virtue in a Rival band to UB40.
Astro died following a short illness on 6 November 2021, at the age of 64.
Duncan CampbellDuncan Campbell (born 3 April 1958 in Birmingham) is an English musician and former lead singer of the reggae band, UB40. He joined the band in 2008 after the departure of his brother Ali Campbell, the former UB40 lead singer. Current bandmate Robin Campbell is also his brother, and he is the son of the late folk singer Ian Campbell. Campbell announced his retirement from live concert performances after suffering a seizure in August 2020. His replacement as lead singer was announced on 5 July 2021 as Matt Doyle, formerly of the band Kioko.
Campbell sang in a harmony group with his brothers as children and performed with their father on stage. He also recorded a reggae album in Jamaica for his brother Ali's record label, but it was never released. He was a professional spoon player. "I was the only professional spoon player in the country registered with the Musicians' Union – until they registered me as a vocalist," said Campbell. He also worked as a casino manager in Barbados, ran a fish and chip shop in Perth, Australia, and has worked as an actor.
On 24 January 2008, UB40 lead singer Ali Campbell announced that he was leaving the band after a dispute with the management; UB40 announced that they would carry on. On 30 April 2008, UB40 unveiled Duncan as their new lead singer.
Duncan was offered the position of lead singer in 1978, but turned it down at the time, and said that he "wouldn't get the chance in another 30 years". Ali Campbell was "disappointed but didn't object" to him joining UB40. When asked why he did not join UB40 in 1978, he joked because they were "crap" and that he "was too smart for them and he knew that they would get nowhere". In 2014, Ali formed a rival version of UB40 with Astro and Mickey Virtue. He said of his brother's singing, "I sat back for five years and watched my brother Duncan murdering my songs. We're saving the legacy". Duncan suffered a stroke in August 2020 and Duncan Campbell announced his retirement from the band in June 2021, citing ill health.
Earl FalconerEarl Acton Falconer (born 23 January 1959 in Meriden, Warwickshire) is a British bass player and singer in UB40. Falconer also co-founded the UK bass label Circus Records alongside Flux Pavilion, Doctor P and DJ Swan-E.
Falconer attended St. Benedict's junior school and Mosely Road School of Art. He was an unemployed plasterer at the time of UB40's formation.
Norman HassanNorman Lamont Hassan (born 26 January 1958) is a British musician of Yemeni and Welsh descent who is best known as being a member of UB40 since its foundation in 1978. Norman Lamont Hassan was born in Birmingham to Yemeni and Welsh parents, and attended Park Hill School and later Queensbridge School in the city. He worked as a carpet fitter before joining the band UB40 in 1978.
After starting off as percussionist in 1978, he learned the trombone in 1981, when the band decided to add a brass section. He sang his first lead vocal on Labour of Love. He is also known for his on-stage dancing. Like the rest of UB40, he still lives in the City of Birmingham. He is also a fan of the local football club Birmingham City. He has wide-ranging musical tastes, from reggae to soul to opera.
Brian TraversBrian David Travers''' was one of the founders of the band. He played the saxophone and was also an arranger and lyricist. He had suffered from cancer since 2019 and he died in August 2021.
UB40 featuring Ali Campbell and Astro
In January 2014, Astro, with other former UB40 members Ali Campbell, and Mickey Virtue, announced plans to reform and record under the UB40 name. The band released their new song, "Reggae Music" as a free download in January 2014. In February, with the current group known as UB40 and the newly formed group with Astro as a member both due to perform in Dubai within a few months of each other, the new group announced a name change to 'UB40 Reunited'. The band changed name again, settling on 'UB40 featuring Ali, Astro, and Mickey', until late 2018 when Virtue departed the band, after which they continued touring and recording as 'UB40 featuring Ali Campbell and Astro'. Astro died on 6 November 2021.
DiscographySigning Off (1980)Present Arms (1981)UB44 (1982)Labour of Love (1983)Geffery Morgan (1984)Baggariddim (1985)Rat in the Kitchen (1986)UB40 (1988)Labour of Love II (1989)Promises and Lies (1993)Guns in the Ghetto (1997)Labour of Love III (1998)Cover Up (2001)Homegrown (2003)Who You Fighting For? (2005)TwentyFourSeven (2008)Labour of Love IV (2010)Getting Over the Storm (2013)For the Many (2019)Bigga Baggariddim'' (2021)
See also
List of best-selling music artists
List of dub artists
Gary Tyler – biographical subject of a song by UB40
References
External links
UB40 official web site
UB40 featuring Ali, Astro and Mickey
UB40 at Rolling Stone
UB40 discography at Discogs
1978 establishments in England
A&M Records artists
British reggae musical groups
Musical groups established in 1978
Musical groups from Birmingham, West Midlands
Sibling musical groups
Virgin Records artists | [
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252452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constans%20II | Constans II | Constans II (, Kōnstas; 7 November 630 – 15 July 668), nicknamed "the Bearded" (ὁ Πωγωνᾶτος; ho Pogonâtos), was emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 641 to 668. He was the last attested emperor to serve as consul, in 642, although the office continued to exist until the reign of Leo VI the Wise (r. 886–912). Constans is a nickname given to the Emperor, who had been baptized Flavius Heraclius (Flavios Herakleios) and reigned officially as "Constantine". The nickname established itself in Byzantine texts and has become standard in modern historiography.
Early life and reign as co-emperor
Constans was the son of Constantine III and Gregoria. After the death of Constantine III's father Heraclius, Constantine III co-ruled with Heraklonas, his half-brother through Heraclius' second marriage to Martina, but died after three months. Constans II, then just 10, was named co-emperor due to rumors that Heraklonas and Martina poisoned Constantine III. Later that same year, Heraklonas was deposed by Valentinus, one of Heraclius’ most trusted generals, and Constans II was left as sole emperor. Constans owed his rise to the throne to a popular reaction against his uncle and to the protection of the soldiers led by Valentinus. Although the precocious emperor addressed the senate with a speech blaming Heraklonas and Martina for eliminating his father, he reigned under a regency of senators led by Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople. In 644, Valentinus attempted to seize power for himself, but failed.
As sole emperor
Under Constans, the Byzantines completely withdrew from Egypt in 642, and Caliph Uthman launched numerous attacks on the islands of the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. A Byzantine fleet under the admiral Manuel occupied Alexandria again in 645, and the Alexandrians hailed him as a liberator, since the caliphate levied heavier taxes and showed less respect for their religion. However, Manuel squandered his time and popularity in plundering the countryside, and eventually the Arab army managed to force him to embark for home. The situation was complicated by the violent opposition to Monothelitism by the clergy in the west and the related rebellion of the Exarch of Carthage, Gregory the Patrician. The latter fell in battle against the army of Caliph Uthman, and the region remained a vassal state under the Caliphate until civil war broke out and imperial rule was again restored.
Constans attempted to steer a middle line in the church dispute between Orthodoxy and Monothelitism by refusing to persecute either and prohibiting further discussion of the natures of Jesus Christ by decree in 648 (the Type of Constans). Naturally, this live-and-let-live compromise satisfied few passionate participants in the dispute.
Meanwhile, the advance of the Caliphate continued unabated. In 647 they entered Armenia and Cappadocia and sacked Caesarea Mazaca. In the same year, they raided Africa and killed Gregory. In 648, the Arabs raided into Phrygia, and in 649 they launched their first maritime expedition against Crete. A major Arab offensive into Cilicia and Isauria in 650–651 forced the Emperor to enter into negotiations with Caliph Uthman's governor of Syria, Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans to hold on to the western portions of Armenia.
In 654, however, Muawiyah renewed his raids by sea, plundering Rhodes. Constans led a fleet to attack the Muslims at Phoinike (off Lycia) in 655 at the Battle of the Masts, but he was defeated: 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and the Emperor himself was almost killed. The sea battle was so devastating that the emperor escaped only by trading clothes with one of his men. Before the battle, chronicler Theophanes the Confessor says, the Emperor dreamed of being at Thessalonika; this dream predicted his defeat against the Arabs because the word Thessalonika is similar to the sentence "thes allo niken", which means "gave victory to another (the enemy)". Caliph Uthman was preparing to attack Constantinople, but he did not carry out the plan, as the first Fitna broke out in 656.
In 658, with the eastern frontier under less pressure, Constans defeated the Slavs in the Balkans, temporarily reasserting some notion of Byzantine rule over them and resettled some of them in Anatolia (ca. 649 or 667). In 659 he campaigned far to the east, taking advantage of a rebellion against the Caliphate in Media. The same year he concluded peace with the Arabs.
Now Constans could turn to church matters once again. Pope Martin I had condemned both Monothelitism and Constans' attempt to halt debates over it in the Lateran Council of 649. The Emperor ordered the Exarch of Ravenna to arrest the Pope. Exarch Olympius excused himself from this task, but his successor, Theodore I Calliopas, carried it out in 653. Pope Martin was brought to Constantinople and condemned as a criminal, ultimately being exiled to Cherson, where he died in 655.
Constans grew increasingly fearful that his younger brother, Theodosius, could oust him from the throne; he therefore obliged Theodosius to take holy orders and later had him killed in 660. Constans' sons Constantine, Heraclius, and Tiberius had been associated on the throne since the 650s. However, having attracted the hatred of the citizens of Constantinople, Constans decided to leave the capital and to move to Syracuse in Sicily.
On his way, he stopped in Greece and fought the Slavs at Thessalonica with success. Then, in the winter of 662–663, he made his camp at Athens.
From there, in 663, he continued to Italy. He launched an assault against the Lombard Duchy of Benevento, which then encompassed most of Southern Italy. Taking advantage of the fact that Lombard king Grimoald I of Benevento was engaged against Frankish forces from Neustria, Constans disembarked at Taranto and besieged Lucera and Benevento. However, the latter resisted and Constans withdrew to Naples. During the journey from Benevento to Naples, Constans II was defeated by Mitolas, Count of Capua, near Pugna. Constans ordered Saburrus, the commander of his army, to attack the Lombards again, but he was defeated by the Beneventani at Forino, between Avellino and Salerno.
In 663 Constans visited Rome for twelve days—the only emperor to set foot in Rome for two centuries—and was received with great honor by Pope Vitalian (657–672). Although on friendly terms with Vitalian, he stripped buildings (including the Pantheon) of their ornaments and bronze to be carried back to Constantinople, and in 666 declared the Pope to have no jurisdiction over the Archbishop of Ravenna, since that city was the seat of the Exarch, his immediate representative. His subsequent moves in Calabria and Sardinia were marked by further strippings and request of tributes that enraged his Italian subjects.
According to Warren Treadgold, the first themes were created between 659 and 661, during the reign of Constans II.
Death and succession
On 15 July 668, he was assassinated in his bath by his chamberlain, according to Theophilus of Edessa, with a bucket. His son Constantine succeeded him as Constantine IV. A brief usurpation in Sicily by Mezezius was quickly suppressed by the new emperor.
Record in Chinese sources
The Chinese dynastic histories of the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang mention several embassies made by Fu lin (拂菻), which they equated with Daqin (the Roman Empire). These are recorded as having begun in the year 643 with an embassy sent by the king Boduoli (波多力, Constans II Pogonatos) to Emperor Taizong of Tang, bearing gifts such as red glass and green gemstones. Other contacts are reported taking place in 667, 701, and perhaps 719, sometimes through Central Asian intermediaries. These histories also record that the Arabs (Da shi 大食) sent their commander "Mo-yi" (Chinese: 摩拽伐之, Pinyin: Mó zhuāi fá zhī), to besiege the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, and forced the Byzantines to pay them tribute. This Arab commander "Mo-yi" was identified by historian Friedrich Hirth as Muawiyah I (r. 661–680), the governor of Syria before becoming the Umayyad caliph. The same books also described Constantinople in some detail as having massive granite walls and a water clock mounted with a golden statue of man. The Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, writing during the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), relayed information about China's geography, its capital city Khubdan (Old Turkic: Khumdan, i.e. Chang'an), its current ruler Taisson whose name meant "Son of God" (Chinese: Tianzi), and correctly pointed to its reunification by the Sui Dynasty (581–618) as occurring during the reign of Maurice, noting that China had previously been divided politically along the Yangzi River by two warring nations.
Family
By his wife Fausta, a daughter of the patrician Valentinus, Constans II had three sons:
Constantine IV, who succeeded him as Emperor
Heraclius, co-emperor from 659 to 681
Tiberius, co-emperor from 659 to 681
Ancestry
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
Notes
References
Sources
Liber Pontificalis
Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum, Book V
|-
630 births
668 deaths
7th-century Byzantine emperors
7th-century murdered monarchs
Heraclian Dynasty
Medieval child rulers
Assassinated Byzantine emperors
Imperial Roman consuls
640s in the Byzantine Empire
650s in the Byzantine Empire
660s in the Byzantine Empire
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252453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardo%20Houssay | Bernardo Houssay | Bernardo Alberto Houssay (April 10, 1887 – September 21, 1971) was an Argentine physiologist who, in 1947, was a co-recipient of a Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the role played by pituitary hormones in regulating the amount of blood sugar (glucose) in animals. He was the first Argentine Nobel laureate in the sciences. He shared the prize with Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Cori, who won for their discoveries regarding the role of glucose in carbohydrate metabolism).
Biography
Early life.
Bernardo Alberto Houssay was born in Buenos Aires, to émigrés from France, Albert and Clara Houssay. A precocious youngster, he was admitted to the Pharmacy School at the University of Buenos Aires at 14 years of age and subsequently to the Medical School of the same university from 1904 to 1910, beginning when he was only 17 years old. While a third year medical student, Houssay took up a post as a research and teaching assistant in the Chair of Physiology.
Career
After graduating, he quickly developed and presented his M.D. thesis on the physiological activities of pituitary extracts, published in 1911, a theme he would pursue for the rest of his scientific career. Since 1908 he was already an assistant lecturer in the same department, and immediately after his doctorate he took up the post of Professor of Physiology in the University's School of Veterinary Medicine. Simultaneously, he started a private practice and as assistant physician at the municipal hospital of Buenos Aires. In 1913 he became Chief Physician at the Alvear Hospital, and, in 1915, Chief of the Section of Experimental Pathology at the National Public Health Laboratories in Buenos Aires.
In 1919 Houssay was appointed to the chair of physiology at the University of Buenos Aires Medicine School, and, until 1943, he transformed and directed it into a highly respected research department in experimental physiology and medicine of international class. In that year, however, the military dictatorship deprived him of his university posts, due to his liberal political ideas and Houssay was forced to re-establish his research lines and staff at a privately funded Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental. This situation, reinforced by a second dismissal by the Peronist government in 1945, was prolonged until 1955, when Peron was ousted from power and Houssay was reinstated in the University of Buenos Aires, where he remained until he died. After this he was also director of the National Scientific and Technical Research Council, from 1957 on.
Houssay's worked in many fields of physiology, such as the nervous, digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems, but his main contribution, which was recognized by the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine of 1947, was on the experimental investigation of the role of the anterior hypophysis gland in the metabolism of carbohydrates, particularly in diabetes mellitus. Houssay demonstrated in the 1930s the diabetogenic effect anterior hypophysis extracts and the decrease in diabetes severity with anterior hypophysectomy. These discoveries stimulated the study of hormonal feedback control mechanisms which are central to all aspects of modern endocrinology.
Houssay's many disciples along his years of activity became also influential by themselves as they spread around the world; such as Eduardo Braun-Menéndez, and Miguel Rolando Covian (who went to become the "father" of Brazilian neurophysiology, as chairman of the Department of Physiology of the Medical Faculty of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo). Houssay wrote with them the most influential textbook of Human Physiology in Latin America, in Spanish and Portuguese (the latter was translated by Covian and collaborators), which, since 1950 has been published in successive editions and used in almost all medical schools of the continent. Houssay published more than 600 scientific papers and several specialized books. Besides the Nobel, Houssay won many distinctions and awards from the Universities of Harvard, Cambridge, Oxford and Paris and 15 other universities, as well as the Dale Medal of the Society for Endocrinology in 1960.
Houssay was also very active as a scientific leader and promoter of the advancement of scientific research and medical education, in Argentina as well as in Latin America. Houssay was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1943.
Legacy
In 1996, the Prefectura Naval Argentina acquired a ketch rigged research vessel from CONICET, renaming her the Dr. Bernardo Houssay (MOV1).
References
Further reading
Functions of the Pituitary Gland. Boston, 1936.
The Hypophysis and Secretion of Insulin. Journal of Experimental Medicine, New York, 1942, 75: 547–566.
Escritos y Discursos. Buenos Aires, 1942.
The Role of the Hypophysis in Carbohydrate Metabolism and in Diabetes. Nobel Prize lecture, 1947.
Fisiologia Humana. Buenos Aires, 1950.
Official site of his life and works (In Castilian)
Bernardo Alberto Houssay. WhoNamedIt.
Bernardo Alberto Houssay Biography. Nobel Foundation.
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1947 The Role of the Hypophysis in Carbohydrate Metabolism and in Diabetes
1887 births
1971 deaths
People from Buenos Aires
Argentine Nobel laureates
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Argentine diabetologists
Argentine people of French descent
University of Buenos Aires alumni
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Burials at La Chacarita Cemetery
Argentine physiologists
Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany | [
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252454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20anthem%20of%20Costa%20Rica | National anthem of Costa Rica | The "Himno Nacional de Costa Rica" (), also known by its incipit "Noble patria, tu hermosa bandera" (), is the national anthem of Costa Rica. Its music was composed by , who dedicated the score to French adventurer , and adopted in 1852. The music was created to receive delegates from the United Kingdom and the United States that year for the Webster-Crampton Treaty. It was the first Central American national anthem.
The anthem has had several lyrics; the current lyrics were written for a contest held in 1903 by the government of Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra to give the anthem lyrics that reflected the idea of being Costa Rican. The contest was won by José María Zeledón Brenes.
The anthem's lyrics were made official in 1949 by the Founding Junta of the Second Republic, led by José Figueres Ferrer. The music was made official in 1979, under President Rodrigo Carazo Odio.
History
From the period of independence within the First Mexican Empire from 1821 to the beginning of the First Costa Rican Republic in 1848, Costa Rica did not have a national anthem. After the establishment of the republic, Costa Rica began to gain more recognition from other nations. In 1852, then president, Juan Rafael Mora Porras, learnt of the arrival of diplomatic representatives from the United Kingdom and United States in order to establish embassies.
Musician and Director of the Costa Rican Military Band, , then 22 years old, was asked to compose an anthem. Professing a lack of experience and little time, Gutiérrez asked for help from French adventurer , who instructed and encouraged him. After consulting Lafond, Gutiérrez composed the anthem in three or four days in his home in central San José. An apocryphal story circulates that Gutiérrez had to compose the music for the anthem while locked in a prison cell for refusing the order the president gave him to compose the anthem, and that he composed the anthem in 24 hours.
The anthem was played in public for the first time by the (San José Band) at the welcome receptions for the delegations from the United Kingdom and United States on 11 June 1852 at the (Government House). The event was held in the Main Barracks, where the Raventós Theatre was later situated, today the Melico Salazar Theatre.
The anthem was largely forgotten after this, so much so that lyrics for it were not made official until 1949, after the civil war and the founding of the Second Republic, and the music was not made official until 1 September 1979, with decree 10471-E, during the presidency of Rodrigo Carazo Odio. The decree was intended to coincide with Gutiérrez's birthday (which is now known to be 3 September).
Lyrics
There was no intention to add lyrics at the time of the anthem's creation, as it was urgently needed for the welcome ceremonies for the foreign delegations. Some lyrics had been written in 1856 during the Filibuster War, to encourage troops on the battlefield, but they were quickly forgotten.
1873 lyrics
The first lyrics of the national anthem were written by a Colombian poet living in Costa Rica, José Manuel Lleras, and premiered in 1873. In the context of looming threats by other states to overthrow then president Tomás Guardia Gutiérrez, as well as a threat of the instrumental anthem becoming forgotten by non–military band members, Lleras wrote long lyrics that included high praise of President Guardia, intended encourage Costa Ricans in the event of war:
Lleras's lyrics were forgotten after the events regarding President Guardia.
1879 lyrics
In 1879, the anthem began to be sung with shorter lyrics written by seminarian Juan Garita y Guillén, which premiered on 24 June that year at the (Seminary College). Garita's lyrics were very simplistic:
Like Lleras's lyrics, Garita's lyrics also stopped being sung. The Lleras and Garita lyrics were never officially adopted.
1888 lyrics
In 1888, Spanish pedagogue Juan Fernández Ferraz wrote a poetic third set of lyrics for the national anthem, which were longer than the previous lyrics. After being distributed in schools and colleges, they were sung for longer and were made official:
Current lyrics
Although Fernández Ferraz's composition had literary merit, its language was somewhat too elevated to take root in the people, in addition to not adapting well to the music of the anthem, and adjustments had to be made to the original score by maestro Gutiérrez. All of this led to a decision to replace Fernández Ferraz's lyrics with new lyrics, for which a public contest was held in 1903. The contest was won by a composition by José María Zeledón Brenes, presented under the pseudonym . Zeledón Brenes was declared the winner on 24 August, and his lyrics were first sung publicly on 15 September.
Zeledón Brenes's lyrics, with minor changes, are the current lyrics of the national anthem of Costa Rica. They were officially adopted on 10 June 1949 by the Founding Junta of the Second Republic with decree number 551:
In Zeledón's original wording, the first stanza read:
And the last:
Notes
References
External links
Boletín de Cientec sobre los símbolos patrios
Himno a la Bandera de Costa Rica - MP3 File
Más que un canto, Documentary the history of the Lyric and music of the himno.
La Paz - Debajo del Canto, analysis of texts and events that inspired the national anthem.
Spanish-language songs
Costa Rica
Costa Rican songs
National symbols of Costa Rica
National anthems
National anthem compositions in E-flat major | [
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252457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Abidjanaise | L'Abidjanaise | "" () is the national anthem of Ivory Coast. Adopted under law n°60–207 on 27 July 1960, its status as national anthem is enshrined in the constitution's 29th article. It takes the form of a lyric and very patriotic poem, invoking inspiring imagery expressing the greatness of the Ivorian soil and values such as hope, peace, dignity, and the "true brotherhood".
History
Adopted in 1960 at the country's independence, "" remains the national anthem of Côte d'Ivoire, as the capital cities is now Yamoussoukro (de jure) and Abidjan (de facto). This hymn is strongly tinged with patriotism and influenced by religion. The lyrics are from ministers Mathieu Vangah Ekra and Joachim Bony. The music has been composed by abbots Pierre-Marie Coty alongside Pierre-Michel Pango, taking "La Marseillaise" as a model.
Between 2007 and 2009, and under the leadership of Laurent Gbagbo, there was a proposal to replacing "" with a different song, "" as the national anthem. This Ode has been composed in 2002 after the start of the Ivorian civil war, and was selected by contest in 2003. "" was sung by supporters of the now former head of state and broadcast on the RTI's television network instead of "" until 2007, even though the latter remained, according to the constitution, the country's national anthem. However, the proposal was eventually dropped.
Lyrics
Notes
References
Further reading
, Lumière sur l'Abidjanaise : l'hymne national, CEDA, 2000,
External links
The Republic's symbols on the Ivorian presidency's website
Video of the Song of Abidjan, sung in its entirety
African anthems
Ivorian music
National symbols of Ivory Coast
Ivorian songs
Articles containing video clips
1960 establishments in Ivory Coast
National anthem compositions in A-flat major | [
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252461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winning%20Ways%20for%20Your%20Mathematical%20Plays | Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays | Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays (Academic Press, 1982) by Elwyn R. Berlekamp, John H. Conway, and Richard K. Guy is a compendium of information on mathematical games. It was first published in 1982 in two volumes.
The first volume introduces combinatorial game theory and its foundation in the surreal numbers; partizan and impartial games; Sprague–Grundy theory and misère games. The second volume applies the theorems of the first volume to many games, including nim, sprouts, dots and boxes, Sylver coinage, philosopher's phutball, fox and geese. A final section on puzzles analyzes the Soma cube, Rubik's Cube, peg solitaire, and Conway's Game of Life.
A republication of the work by A K Peters split the content into four volumes.
Editions
1st edition, New York: Academic Press, 2 vols., 1982; vol. 1, hardback: , paperback: ; vol. 2, hardback: , paperback: .
2nd edition, Wellesley, Massachusetts: A. K. Peters Ltd., 4 vols., 2001–2004; vol. 1: ; vol. 2: ; vol. 3: ; vol. 4: .
Games mentioned in the book
This is a partial list of the games mentioned in the book.
Note: Misere games not included
Hackenbush
Blue-Red Hackenbush
Blue-Red-Green Hackenbush (Introduced as Hackenbush Hotchpotch in the book)
Childish Hackenbush
Ski-Jumps
Toads-and-Frogs
Cutcake
Maundy Cake
(2nd Unnamed Cutcake variant by Dean Hickerson)
Hotcake
Coolcakes
Baked Alaska
Eatcake
Turn-and-Eatcake
Col
Snort
Nim (Green Hackenbush)
Prim
Dim
Lasker's Nim
Seating Couples
Northcott's Game (Poker-Nim)
The White Knight
Wyt Queens (Wythoff's Game)
Kayles
Double Kayles
Quadruple Kayles
Dawson's Chess
Dawson's Kayles
Treblecross
Grundy's Game
Mrs. Grundy
Domineering
No Highway
De Bono's L-Game
Snakes-and-Ladders (Adders-and-Ladders)
Jelly Bean Game
Dividing Rulers
See also
On Numbers and Games by John H. Conway, one of the three coauthors of Winning Ways
1982 non-fiction books
Books about game theory
Combinatorial game theory
John Horton Conway | [
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252467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Bayamesa | La Bayamesa | "El Himno de Bayamo" (, ) is the national anthem of Cuba. It was first performed in 1868, during the . Perucho Figueredo, who took part in the battle, wrote and composed the song. The melody, also called "La Bayamesa" (), was composed by Figueredo in 1867.
Overview
On October 20, 1868, the Cuban forces obtained the capitulation of the Spanish colonial authorities in Bayamo, the jubilant people surrounded Figueredo and asked him to write an anthem with the melody they were humming. Right on the saddle of his horse, Figueredo wrote the lyrics of the anthem, which was longer than the current official version. Figueredo was captured and executed by the Spanish two years later. Just before the firing squad received the Fire command, Figueredo shouted the line from his song: "Morir por la Patria es vivir" ().
Officially adopted by Cuba as its national anthem in 1902, upon the foundation of the Republic, it was retained even after the revolution of 1959. The Cuban composer Antonio Rodriguez-Ferrer contributed the musical introductory notes to the Cuban national anthem.
In addition to the "Himno de Bayamo", there are two other well-known Cuban songs called "La Bayamesa". The first Bayamesa was composed in 1851 by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and José Fornaris at the request of their friend Francisco Castillo Moreno, who is sometimes also credited with the lyrics. After 1868, during the Cuban war, a "mambí" version of "La Bayamesa" became popular. It has the same melody but different lyrics. Many years later, in 1918, the composer and trovador Sindo Garay, from Santiago de Cuba, composed a song that he called "Mujer Bayamesa"; popular usage shortened the title to "La Bayamesa".
Lyrics
Originally, the song had three stanzas. The last two stanzas were excluded when the anthem was officially adopted in 1902, because the lyrics were seen to be excessively anti-Spanish and too long compared with the other stanzas.
References
External links
Cuba: La Bayamesa - Audio of the national anthem of Cuba, with information and lyrics
Cuban National Anthem Website Cuban National Anthem interpreted by Cuban artists with music and voice.
Different Mp3 files (nacion.cult.cu)
Infos about the hymn (nacion.cult.cu)
Las Bayamesas Article in Spanish on the three songs named La Bayamesa
Cuban songs
North American anthems
National symbols of Cuba
Bayamo
Spanish-language songs
1868 songs
National anthems
Songs about Cuba
National anthem compositions in E-flat major | [
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252469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Calvin%20Kendall | Edward Calvin Kendall | Edward Calvin Kendall (March 8, 1886 – May 4, 1972) was an American chemist. In 1950, Kendall was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine along with Swiss chemist Tadeusz Reichstein and Mayo Clinic physician Philip S. Hench, for their work with the hormones of the adrenal gland. Kendall did not only focus on the adrenal glands, he was also responsible for the isolation of thyroxine, a hormone of the thyroid gland and worked with the team that crystallized glutathione and identified its chemical structure.
Kendall was a biochemist at the Graduate School of the Mayo Foundation at the time of the award. He received his education at Columbia University. After retiring from his job with the Mayo Foundation, Kendall joined the faculty at Princeton University, where he remained until his death in 1972. Kendall Elementary School, in Norwalk is named for him.
Early life and education
Kendall was born in South Norwalk, Connecticut in 1886. He attended Columbia University, earning a Bachelor of Science degree in 1908, a Master of Science degree in Chemistry in 1909, and a Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1910.
Research career
After obtaining his Ph.D., his first job was in research for Parke, Davis and Company, and his first task was to isolate the hormone associated with the thyroid gland. He continued this research at St. Luke's Hospital in New York until 1914. He was appointed Head of the Biochemistry Section in the Graduate School of the Mayo Foundation, and the following year he was appointed as the Director of the Division of Biochemistry.
Kendall made several notable contributions to biochemistry and medicine. His most notable discovery was the isolation of thyroxine, although it was not the work he received the most accolades for. Along with associates, Kendall was involved with the isolation of glutathione and determining its structure. He also isolated several steroids from the adrenal gland cortex, one of which was initially called Compound E. Working with Mayo Clinic physician Philip Showalter Hench, Compound E was used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. The compound was eventually named cortisone. In 1950, Kendall and Hench, along with Swiss chemist Tadeus Reichstein were awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects." His Nobel lecture focused on the basic research that led to his award, and was titled "The Development of Cortisone As a Therapeutic Agent." As of the 2010 awards, Kendall and Hench were the only Nobel Laureates to be affiliated with Mayo Clinic.
Kendall's career at Mayo ended in 1951, when he reached mandatory retirement age. He moved on to Princeton University, where he was a Visiting Professor in the Department of Biochemistry. He remained affiliated with Princeton until his death in 1972. In addition to the Nobel Prize, Kendall received other major awards including the Lasker Award, the Passano Foundation Award and the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. Kendall received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1966. He was awarded honorary doctorates from the University of Cincinnati, Western Reserve University, Williams College, Yale University, Columbia University, National University of Ireland, and Gustavus Adolphus College.
Family life
Kendall married Rebecca Kennedy in 1915, and they had four children. He died in 1972 in Princeton, New Jersey. and his wife died in 1973.
References
External links
Edward Calvin Kendall Biography
1886 births
1972 deaths
20th-century American chemists
Columbia School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
American Nobel laureates
Mayo Clinic people
People from Norwalk, Connecticut
Recipients of the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences | [
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252474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode%20to%20Freedom | Ode to Freedom | Ode to Freedom may refer to:
An die Freiheit ("Ode to Freedom"), purported original phrase in Ode to Joy, lyrics that accompany the final movement of Symphony No. 9 by Beethoven
The 1989 recording of Symphony no 9. conducted by Leonard Bernstein
"Ode to Freedom", a song by ABBA on the 2021 album Voyage
"Ode to Freedom", a conjectured early title of Schiller's poem "Ode to Joy"
See also
Freiheit (disambiguation)
Freedom (disambiguation)
Ode (disambiguation)
Hymn to Freedom (disambiguation)
"Hymn to Liberty", an 1823 poem by Dionýsios Solomós | [
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252477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Showalter%20Hench | Philip Showalter Hench | Philip Showalter Hench (February 28, 1896 – March 30, 1965) was an American physician. Hench, along with his Mayo Clinic co-worker Edward Calvin Kendall and Swiss chemist Tadeus Reichstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1950 for the discovery of the hormone cortisone, and its application for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The Nobel Committee bestowed the award for the trio's "discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects."
Hench received his undergraduate education at Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania, and received his medical training at the United States Army Medical Corps and the University of Pittsburgh. He began working at Mayo Clinic in 1923, later serving as the head of the Department of Rheumatology. In addition to the Nobel Prize, Hench received many other awards and honors throughout his career. He also had a lifelong interest in the history and discovery of yellow fever.
Early life
He attended Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania, where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts in 1916. After serving in the Medical Corps of the U.S. Army and the reserve corps to finish his medical training, he was awarded a doctorate in medicine from the University of Pittsburgh in 1920. Immediately after finishing his medical degree, Hench spent a year as an intern at St. Francis Hospital in Pittsburgh, and then he subsequently became a Fellow of the Mayo Foundation.
In 1928 and 1929, Hench furthered his education at Freiburg University and the von Müller Clinic in Munich.
Medical career
Hench started his career at Mayo Clinic in 1923, working in the Department of Rheumatic Diseases. In 1926, he became the head of the department. While at Mayo Clinic, Hench focused his work on arthritic diseases, where his observations led him to hypothesize that steroids alleviated pain associated with the disease. During this same time, biochemist Edward Calvin Kendall has isolated several steroids from the adrenal gland cortex. After several years of work, the duo decided to try one of these steroids (dubbed Compound E at the time, later to become known as cortisone) on patients afflicted by rheumatoid arthritis. Testing of the hypothesis was delayed because the synthesis of Compound E was costly and time-consuming, and Hench served in the military during World War II. The tests were conducted successfully in 1948 and 1949.
Hench, Kendall, and Swiss chemist Tadeus Reichstein were awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects." As of the 2010 prizes, Hench and Kendall are the only two Nobel laureates affiliated with Mayo Clinic. Hench's Nobel Lecture was directly related to the research he was honored for, and titled "The Reversibility of Certain Rheumatic and Non-Rheumatic Conditions by the Use of Cortisone Or of the Pituitary Adrenocorticotropic Hormone". His speech at the banquet during the award ceremony acknowledged the connections between the study of medicine and chemistry, saying of his co-winners "Perhaps the ratio of one physician to two chemists is symbolic, since medicine is so firmly linked to chemistry by a double bond."
During his career, Hench was one of the founding members of the American Rheumatism Association, and served as its president in 1940 and 1941. In addition to the Nobel Prize, Hench has been awarded the Heberdeen Medal (1942), the Lasker Award (1949), the Passano Foundation Award (1950), and the Criss Award. Lafayette College, Washington and Jefferson College, Western Reserve University, the National University of Ireland and the University of Pittsburgh awarded Hench honorary doctorates.
In addition to his work with cortisone, Hench had a career long interest in yellow fever. Starting in 1937, Hench began to document the history behind the discovery of yellow fever. His collection of documents on this subject are at the University of Virginia in the Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection. His wife donated the collection to the university after his death.
Family
Hench married Mary Kahler (1905-1982) in 1927. His father-in-law, John Henry Kahler, was a friend of Mayo Clinic founder William J. Mayo. Hench and his wife had four children, two daughters and two sons. His son, Philip Kahler Hench also studied rheumatology. Hench died of pneumonia while on vacation in Ocho Rios, Jamaica in 1965.
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1950 The Reversibility of Certain Rheumatic and Non-Rheumatic Conditions by the Use of Cortisone Or of the Pituitary Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
Biography
University of Virginia Health Sciences Library, A Guide to the Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection
1896 births
University of Freiburg alumni
1965 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
American Nobel laureates
American endocrinologists
Physicians of the Mayo Clinic
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine alumni
United States Army Medical Corps officers
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Army personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award
Lafayette College alumni
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252487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine%20IV | Constantine IV | Constantine IV (; c. 650–685), called the Younger (Greek: ὁ νέος, ho neos) and sometimes incorrectly Pogonatos (Greek: Πωγωνᾶτος, "the Bearded") out of confusion with his father, was Byzantine Emperor from 668 to 685. His reign saw the first serious check to nearly 50 years of uninterrupted Islamic expansion, while his calling of the Sixth Ecumenical Council saw the end of the monothelitism controversy in the Byzantine Empire; for this, he is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with his feast day on September 3.
He successfully defended Constantinople from the Arabs.
Early career
The eldest son of Constans II and Fausta, daughter of patrician Valentinus, Constantine IV had been named a co-emperor with his father in 654, most likely in Easter (13 April). He became emperor on September 668, when news arrived at Constantinople that Constans II had been assassinated in Sicily.
The first task before the new Emperor was the suppression of the military revolt in Sicily under Mezezius which had led to his father's death. Within seven months of his accession, Constantine IV had dealt with the insurgency with the support of Pope Vitalian, but this success was overshadowed by troubles in the east.
As early as 668 the Caliph Muawiyah I received an invitation from Saborios, the commander of the troops in Armenia, to help overthrow the Emperor at Constantinople. He sent an army under his son Yazid against the Byzantine Empire. Yazid reached Chalcedon and took the important Byzantine center Amorion. While the city was quickly recovered, the Arabs next attacked Carthage and Sicily in 669. In 670 the Arabs captured Cyzicus and set up a base from which to launch further attacks into the heart of the Empire. Their fleet captured Smyrna and other coastal cities in 672. Finally, in 672, the Arabs sent a large fleet to attack Constantinople by sea. While Constantine was distracted by this, the Slavs laid siege to Thessalonica.
The Siege of Constantinople (674–678)
Commencing in 674, the Arabs launched the long-awaited siege of Constantinople. The great fleet that had been assembled set sail under the command of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr before the end of the year; during the winter months some of the ships anchored at Smyrna, the rest off the coast of Cilicia. Additional squadrons reinforced the forces of Abd ar-Rahman before they proceeded to the Hellespont, into which they sailed in about April 674. From April to September 674 the fleet lay moored from the promontory of Hebdomon, on the Propontis, as far as the promontory of Kyklobion, near the Golden Gate, and throughout those months continued to engage with the Byzantine fleet which defended the harbour from morning to evening.
Knowing that it was only a matter of time before Constantinople was under siege, Constantine had ensured that the city was well provisioned. He also constructed a large number of fireships and fast-sailing boats provided with tubes or siphons for squirting fire. This is the first known use of Greek fire in combat, which was one of the key advantages that the Byzantines possessed. In September the Arabs, having failed in their attempts to take the city, sailed to Cyzicus, which they made their winter quarters. Over the following five years, the Arabs returned each spring to continue the siege of Constantinople, but with the same results. The city survived, and finally in 678 the Arabs were forced to raise the siege. The Arabs withdrew and were almost simultaneously defeated on land in Lycia in Anatolia. This unexpected reverse forced Muawiyah I to seek a truce with Constantine. The terms of the concluded truce required the Arabs to evacuate the islands they had seized in the Aegean, and for the Byzantines to pay an annual tribute to the Caliphate consisting of fifty slaves, fifty horses, and 300,000 nomismata. The raising of the siege allowed Constantine to go to the relief of Thessalonica, still under siege from the Sclaveni.
Later reign
With the temporary passing of the Arab threat, Constantine turned his attention to the Church, which was torn between Monothelitism and Orthodoxy. In November 680 Constantine convened the Sixth Ecumenical Council (also known as the Third Council of Constantinople). Constantine presided in person during the formal aspects of the proceedings (the first eleven sittings and then the eighteenth), surrounded by his court officials, but he took no active role in the theological discussions. The Council reaffirmed the Orthodox doctrines of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. This solved the controversy over monothelitism; conveniently for the Empire, most monothelites were now under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate. The council closed in September 681.
Due to the ongoing conflicts with the Arabs during the 670s, Constantine had been forced to conclude treaties in the west with the Lombards, who had captured Brindisi and Taranto. Also in 680, the Bulgars under Khan Asparukh crossed the Danube into nominally Imperial territory and began to subjugate the local communities and Slavic tribes. In 680, Constantine IV led a combined land and sea operation against the invaders and besieged their fortified camp in Dobruja. Suffering from bad health, the Emperor had to leave the army, which panicked and was defeated by the Bulgars. In 681, Constantine was forced to acknowledge the Bulgar state in Moesia and to pay tribute/protection money to avoid further inroads into Byzantine Thrace. Consequently, Constantine created the Theme of Thrace.
His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius had been crowned with him as Augusti during the reign of their father, and this was confirmed by the demand of the populace, but in 681 Constantine had them mutilated by slitting their noses so they would be considered ineligible to rule. At the same time he associated on the throne his own young son Justinian II. Constantine died of dysentery on or around 10 July 685.
Family
By his wife Anastasia, Constantine IV had at least two sons:
Justinian II, who succeeded him as emperor
Heraclius, known only from an episode in which his father sent locks of his and his brother's hair to Pope Benedict II.
In art and popular culture
Constantine IV was portrayed by Iossif Surchadzhiev in the 1981 Bulgarian movie Aszparuh, directed by Ludmil Staikov.
Constantine IV is the subject of the song "Imperator" ("Emperor"), released by the Bulgarian heavy metal band Epizod in their 2012 album Moyata molitva ("My prayer").
Sources
Primary sources
Theophanes the Confessor, Chronographia.
Secondary sources
Bury, J.B., A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. II, MacMillan & Co., 1889
Garland, Lynda,
Grumel, Venance. "Quel est l'empereur Constantin le nouveau commémoré dans le Synaxaire au 3 septembre?." Analecta Bollandiana 84.1–2 (1966): 254–260.
Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society (Stanford University Press, 1997)
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
References
External links
7th-century Byzantine emperors
7th-century Christian saints
Heraclian Dynasty
Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars
Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars
652 births
685 deaths
Deaths from dysentery
Porphyrogennetoi
660s in the Byzantine Empire
670s in the Byzantine Empire
680s in the Byzantine Empire
Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles
Sons of Byzantine emperors | [
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252491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairtrade%20International | Fairtrade International | Fairtrade International, or Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International e.V. is a product-oriented multistakeholder group aimed at promoting the lives of farmers and workers through trade. Fairtrade's work is guided by a global strategy focused on ensuring that all farmers earn a living income, and agricultural workers earn a living wage. Fairtrade works with farmers and workers of more than 300 commodities. The main products promoted under the Fairtrade label are coffee, cocoa, banana, flowers, tea, and sugar.
Fairtrade is an association of three Producer Networks, 19 National Fairtrade Organizations (formerly: Fairtrade Labelling Organizations) and 8 Fairtrade Marketing Organizations that promote and market the Fairtrade Certification Mark in their countries
Producer Networks exist in Latin America and The Caribbeans; Africa and Middle East; Asia and Pacific. National Fairtrade Organizations exist in 16 European countries as well as in Canada, the United States, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. Fairtrade International also oversees Fairtrade Marketing Organizations in the Czech Republic, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, India, Philippines, and Poland.
History
Fairtrade International was established in 1997. To ensure compliance with the Fairtrade standards relating to labour standards, cooperative organization, and the governance of the Fairtrade benefits, the organization was divided in January 2004 into two independent organizations:
Fairtrade International develops and reviews Fairtrade Standards and assists producers in gaining and maintaining certification and in capitalizing on market opportunities on the Fairtrade market. To ensure the transparency of the system, the standards are developed and reviewed by the Fairtrade Standards and Policy Committee, in which Fairtrade members, producer organizations, traders and external experts participate.
FLOCERT ensures that producers and traders comply with the FLO Fairtrade Standards and that producers invest the benefits received through Fairtrade in their development. Operating independently from any other interests, it follows the international ISO standards for certification bodies (ISO 65).
Membership
The following are National Fairtrade Organizations and Fairtrade Marketing Organizations:
Fairtrade Australia and New Zealand
Fairtrade Österreich
Fairtrade Belgium
Fairtrade Canada
The Czech Fairtrade Association (Fairtrade Marketing Organization for Czech Republic and Slovakia)
Max Havelaar Danmark
Reilun kaupan edistämisyhdistys
Association Max Havelaar France
TransFair Deutschland
Fairtrade Hong Kong Foundation (Fairtrade Marketing Organization)
Fairtrade Mark Ireland
Fairtrade Italia
TransFair Japan
Fairtrade Korea (Fairtrade Marketing Organization)
TransFair-Minka Luxembourg
Stichting Max Havelaar
Fairtrade Max Havelaar Norge
Asociación del Sello de Productos de Comercio Justo (National Fairtrade Organization for Spain and Portugal)
Fairtrade Sverige
Max Havelaar Foundation
The Fairtrade Foundation
Fairtrade America
Fairtrade Taiwan
Fairtrade India
Fundacja „Koalicja Sprawiedliwego Handlu” – Fairtrade Polska (Fairtrade Marketing Organization)
These initiatives were joined in 2007 by three Producer Networks:
Network of Asian and Pacific Producers (NAPP)
Coordinadora Latinoamericana y del Caribe de Pequeños Productores de Comercio Justo (CLAC)
Fairtrade Africa
Structure
Fairtrade International is divided into six units:
Standards and Pricing—sets and maintains fair trade standards
Finance, Operations and Central Services—ensures coordinated communications, finance, human resources, fundraising, and IT services
Global Products, Programs, and Policies. Implements all the commodity facing work, as well as programs on living income, living wages, and climate change
Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning- Data governance and management, research and impact.
External Relations - In charge of resource mobilization, communications and advocacy
Brand, Trademark, and Licensing. Promotes the integrity of the Fairtrade Mark and relationships with licensees.
The coordination of all global activities is led by a Global Leadership Team, made of the CEO, the COO, and the CVO (Chief Value Officer)
Fairtrade standards
Given the development focus of fair trade, related standards contain minimum requirements that all producer organisations must meet to become certified as well as progress requirements in which producers must demonstrate improvements over time.
There are two types of fair trade standards for disadvantaged producers: standards for small farmers' organizations and for hired labor situations.
Small farmers' organization standards include requirements for democratic decision making, ensuring that producers have a say in how the fair trade premiums are invested, etc. They also include requirements for capacity building and economic strengthening of the organization.
Hired labour situation standards seek to ensure that employees receive decent wages and may join unions and bargain collectively. Fairtrade certified plantations must also ensure that there is no forced or child labour and that health and safety requirements are met. In a hired labor situation, fair trade standards require a "joint body" to be set up with representatives from both management and employees. This joint body decides on how fairtrade premiums will be spent to benefit plantation employees.
A list of hazardous materials whose use in production of Fairtrade products is prohibited is maintained by Fairtrade International, along with materials whose use is "restricted", only to be used in specified conditions, and a list of other hazardous materials which are "flagged" as being hazardous and only to be used "under extreme caution". These lists are known as the "red list", "orange list" and "yellow list" respectively.
For some products, such as coffee, only fair trade standards for small farmers' organizations are applicable. For others, such as tea, both small farmers' organizations and plantations can be certified.
Fair trade standards and procedures are approved by the FLO Standards Committee, an external committee comprising all FLO stakeholders (labeling initiatives, producers, and traders) and external experts. Fair trade standards are set in accordance to the requirements of the ISEAL Code of Good Practice in standards setting and are in addition the result of an extensive consultation process, involving a variety of stakeholders: producers, traders, external experts, inspectors, certification staff etc.
In 2020, Fairtrade issued a position statement defending their use of private standards in response to a report from The Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity (MSI Integrity).
International Fairtrade Certification Mark
The Fairtrade Mark is an international independent consumer Mark which appears on products as a guarantee that producers and traders have met fair trade standards. The Fairtrade Mark is owned and protected by Fairtrade International, on behalf of its 25-member and associate member labeling initiatives and producer networks.
For a product to carry the Fairtrade Mark, it must come from FLOCERT inspected and certified producer organizations. The crops must be grown and harvested in accordance with the International Fairtrade Standards set by Fairtrade International. The supply chain is also monitored by FLOCERT to ensure the integrity of labelled products. Only authorized licensees can use the Fairtrade Mark on their products.
References
External links
Fairtrade International Official Website
Fair trade organizations
Fair trade
International economic organizations
International organisations based in Bonn
International organisations based in Germany
Organizations established in 1997 | [
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252494 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido%20Cantelli | Guido Cantelli | Guido Cantelli (; 27 April 192024 November 1956) was an Italian orchestral conductor. Toscanini elected him his "spiritual heir" since the beginnings of his career. He was named Musical Director of La Scala, Milan in November 1956, but his promising career was cut short only one week later by his death at the age of 36 in an airplane crash in Paris, France.
Biography
Early years
Cantelli was born on 27 April 1920 in Novara, Italy, to Antonio and Angela (née Riccardone). He started studying music while still very young. From 1939 until 1941 he studied with Arrigo Pedrollo, and then, from 1941 until 1942, with Giorgio Federico Ghedini and Antonino Votto. In 1940 he started his conducting career, graduating from the Milan Conservatory in 1943.
Career
Cantelli studied at the Milan Conservatory and began a promising conducting career. In 1943, he garnered acclaim for a representation of the Traviata at the Teatro Coccia. Beside being the conductor, Cantelli was also the artistic director of the representation.
Cantelli's career was interrupted by World War II, during which he was forced to serve in the Italian army, then placed in a German labor camp because of his outspoken opposition to the Nazis. He was sent with a team of laborers to Frankfurt am Main. While in Germany, Cantelli was interned in a concentration camp in Szczecin. He fell ill and managed to escape the camp. Cantelli was repatriated to Italy in 1944, establishing himself in Turin. He resumed his musical career after the Allies liberated Italy.
After resuming his musical career in Turin, Cantelli was invited to conduct some concerts with the Symphony Orchestra of the Radio of Milan (Orchestra sinfonica della Radio di Milano). Riccardo Pick-Mangiagalli, the director of the Milan Conservatory, decided it was the moment to present the young conductor to the wide public, organizing a concert at the Rocchetta Court of the Castello Sforzesco on 27 July 1945, entrusting to Cantelli the Orchestra of La Scala. The programme was very proving, and included, among other things, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 6, or Pathétique Symphony. The performance immediately signaled Cantelli's "innate elegance of the gesture, the interpretative strength and stylistic purity, which, animated by the youthful momentum of the young conductor, made a great impression on the public."
After the success of the Castello Sforzesco's concert, a successful international career started for Cantelli. This career would bring him on the major stages of the world, where he would conduct the world's most famous orchestras. He was acclaimed by the public and the critics alike. However, in spite of all the compliments and the success, Cantelli's attention was not diverted from his studies. He kept on studying with "scrupulous commitment and professionalism," encouraged by the great Arturo Toscanini. Toscanini saw him conduct at La Scala, Milan, and remained impressed. The results of these stylistic studies by Cantelli maturated on 21 May 1948, with a concert that, in a way, "marked his definitive Scaliger consecration and at the same time his authoritative entry into the small number of great international conductors." Toscanini invited him to guest conduct the NBC Symphony Orchestra in 1949. In a note written to Cantelli's wife Iris in 1950 after four of these concerts, Toscanini said:
I am happy and moved to inform you of Guido's great success and that I introduced him to my orchestra, which loves him as I do. This is the first time in my long career that I have met a young man so gifted. He will go far, very far.
He had debuted in America on 15 January 1949, with a "most positive encounter with the New Yorker public." On 3 January 1952 he was welcomed again by the American public, conducting the New York Philharmonic. Between these two dates, he had been welcomed in Edinburgh (1950), and had completed an acclaimed tournée in London.
Cantelli, who had started his career very young in 1940, was already performing in the greatest theaters in Europe and America by 1945. In the course of his brief career, he had conducted not only in many of the most famous concert halls of Europe but also in the United States and South Africa. Besides conducting the NBC Symphony from 1949 to 1954, Cantelli also guest conducted the New York Philharmonic and the Boston Symphony Orchestra in the U.S. and the Philharmonia Orchestra in the UK.
While he was conducting in America and Europe and garnering acclaim therein, Cantelli "also continued his triumphal career in his homeland." After dedicating himself for a long time to symphonic music, Cantelli wanted to return to the "lyric repertoire." The result of such decision was a memorable Così fan tutte conducted by Cantelli at the Piccola Scala on 27 January 1956. Cantelli, beside conducting, was also the director of the opera, the cast of which included such prominent names as Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and Graziella Sciutti. The opera had a triumphal outcome, and it nothing but confirmed Cantelli's "exceptional directorial abilities." The opera was repeated in Johannesburg, where it came to an "equally sensational success."
He was named Musical Director of La Scala on 16 November 1956. Cantelli was called in the United States to conduct a series of concerts with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, but tragedy struck. He died in the crash of LAI Flight 451 at Orly Airport in Paris, France only a week after he was named director of La Scala, on 24 November. He was 36 years old. Toscanini, who was in failing health and died less than two months later, was not informed of Cantelli's death.
At the time of his death, Cantelli was being considered as the next music director of the New York Philharmonic, as successor to Dimitri Mitropoulos; instead, Leonard Bernstein (who also guest conducted the NBC Symphony) was appointed conductor of the Philharmonic in 1958.
Toscanini had elected Cantelli his "spiritual heir" since the beginning of his career. A "sensible and refined artist," Cantelli is remembered as a "living presence in the Italian music world," especially as an "admirable example of professional seriousness, whose artistic commitment was constantly aimed at achieving a severe and unquenchable stylistic perfection." Cantelli had a strong will, and characterial endowments that enhanced his communicative skills and magnetism. He had a wide repertory, that he always conducted from memory even during rehearsals. He performed "a very rigorous systematic analysis, noting the salient phrases of each composition in the margins of each score, also specifying rhythmic characteristics and interpretative aspects."
Massimo Mila stated that for Cantelli "conducting was a peremptory and absolute vocation, an inexorable determination," which allowed him, in a short time, to size "the most recondite secrets of the art of conducting, and to reach a surprising artistic maturity very soon." He studied with the greatest, learning their secrets and benefiting from their experience, yet never imitating anyone, "manifesting without hesitation his artistic personality," entering, in each execution, in an "almost supernatural state that isolated him from the surrounding world."
Cantelli had been made "one of the most representative figures in the contemporary directorial panorama" by the aforementioned gifts along with, among other things, his communicative skills with the orchestra and the public, the natural "limpidity" of his gesture, his magnetism, and his interpretative versatility. It is not a case that he was considered the living heir of Toscanini.
Performances and recordings
Cantelli left a small legacy of commercial and live recordings. Among these are recordings of Beethoven's 7th symphony (ASD 254) and 5th piano concerto (with Walter Gieseking and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in Carnegie Hall from 25 March 1956), Symphony No. 29 (Mozart) on HMV's ALP 1461, Schubert's 8th symphony (ALP 1325), Brahms' 1st (ALP 1152) and 3rd symphonies (BLP 1083), Franck's D minor symphony (ALP 1219 mono issue) (with the NBC Symphony in Carnegie Hall in stereo from 6 April 1954), Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition, Paul Hindemith's Symphony: Mathis der Maler, Liszt's 2nd piano concerto with Claudio Arrau, and shorter pieces by Ravel (ALP 1207), Rossini, and others. He recorded Vivaldi's The Four Seasons with the New York Philharmonic for Columbia Records.
His one surviving opera performance is of Così fan tutte, from La Scala in 1956. There is also a live recording of the Verdi Requiem (with Herva Nelli). He conducted the Mozart Requiem at La Scala in 1950. There are live recordings with the New York Philharmonic of Beethoven's first and fifth piano concertos, with Rudolf Serkin as soloist, from 1953 and 1954, respectively.
The Franck, Brahms 3rd, Schubert 8th, and Beethoven 7th symphonies were among his few stereo recordings. Just before his death, Cantelli recorded the final three movements of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in stereo for EMI, but did not record the first movement, due to a construction project outside London's Kingsway Hall. In recent years, many performances from broadcasts and recording sessions with the NBC Symphony, from 1949 to 1954, have been made available.
There is a film clip of Cantelli conducting the final moments of Rossini's overture to Semiramide.
Personal life
Cantelli's wife was Iris Cantelli, née Bilucaglia, the daughter of a noted Istrian Italian pediatrician and obstetrician, who had to leave his native land in the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus. They had a son together, Leonardo, who was but 5 months old at the time of his father's death.
References
External links
Database of all Guido Cantelli recordings
Brief biography
1920 births
1956 deaths
Italian male conductors (music)
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in France
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1956
20th-century Italian conductors (music)
Milan Conservatory alumni
Italian military personnel of World War II
People from Novara
20th-century Italian male musicians
Music & Arts artists
Italian escapees
Escapees from German detention | [
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