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252776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Virginia | List of governors of Virginia | The following is a list of the governors of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The governor is the head of government of Virginia and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has the duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Virginia General Assembly, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment.
The first Constitution of 1776 created the office of governor, to be elected annually by the Virginia State Legislature. The governor could serve up to three years at a time, and once out of office, could not serve again for four years. The 1830 constitution changed the thrice renewable one-year term length to a non-renewable three-year term, and set the start date at the first day in January following an election. This constitution also prevented governors from succeeding themselves, a prohibition that exists to the present day. The 1851 Constitution increased terms to four years and made the office elected by the people, rather than the legislature. The commencement of the Governor's term was moved to the first day in February by the 1902 Constitution, and then to the Saturday after the second Wednesday in January by the 1971 and current Constitution.
If the office of governor is vacant due to disqualification, death, or resignation, the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia becomes Governor. The office of Lieutenant Governor was created in 1851. Prior to that a Council of State existed; it chose from among its members a President who would be "Lieutenant-Governor" and would act as governor when there was a vacancy in that office.
Officially, there have been 74 governors of Virginia; the acting governors are not counted.
Colonial governors
President of the Committee for Public Safety
Parties
List of governors
Parties
Living former governors of Virginia
, there are nine former governors of Virginia currently living, the oldest being Douglas Wilder (served 1990–1994, born 1931). The most recent governor of Virginia to die was Linwood Holton (served 1970–1974, born 1923), on October 28, 2021. The most recently serving governor of Virginia to die was Gerald Baliles (served 1986–1990, born 1940), on October 29, 2019.
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional, confederate and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Virginia except where noted.
Birth places
These numbers reflect place of residence when taking office, not birthplace
See also
List of Virginia state legislatures
References
General
Virginia State Government Website
Congressional Quarterly
Virginia governors. (2000). In Congressional Quarterly (Ed.), American political leaders 1789–2000. Washington: CQ Press. Retrieved January 10, 2006, from CQ Electronic Library, CQ Voting and Elections Collection, . Document ID: amldrs-147-7136-390228. (Requires Subscription)
National Governors Association's list of Virginia Governors
Constitutions
Specific
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors
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|
252781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Pennsylvania | List of governors of Pennsylvania | The governor of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is the head of state and head of government of the U.S. state, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and commander-in-chief of the Commonwealth's military forces.
The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to approve or veto bills passed by the Pennsylvania Legislature and to convene the legislature. The governor may grant pardons except in cases of impeachment, but only when recommended by the Board of Pardons.
There have been seven presidents and 47 governors of Pennsylvania, with two governors (Robert E. Pattison and Gifford Pinchot) serving non-consecutive terms, totaling 55 terms in both offices. The longest term was that of the first governor, Thomas Mifflin, who served three full terms as governor in addition to two years as President of the Continental Congress. The shortest term belonged to John Bell, who served only 19 days as acting governor after his predecessor, Edward Martin resigned. The current governor is Tom Wolf, a Democrat whose term began on January 20, 2015.
Governors
Pennsylvania was one of the original thirteen colonies, and was admitted as a state on December 12, 1787. Prior to declaring its independence, Pennsylvania was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain; see the list of colonial governors for the pre-statehood period.
Presidents of the Supreme Executive Council
The first Pennsylvania constitution in 1776 created the Supreme Executive Council as the state's executive branch, with the President of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as its head. The president was chosen annually by the council, though with no specific term dates.
The original 1776 constitution created the position of "vice-president", though no provision was made if the office of president became vacant, which occurred four times later. Contemporary sources continue to label the chief executive in such times as the vice president, without any notion of succeeding to the presidency. One acting president, George Bryan, was subsequently recognized later as a full-fledged governor, due to his acting as president for over six months.
Governors of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
The 1790 constitution abolished the council and replaced the president with a governor, and established a three-year term for governor commencing on the third Tuesday of the December following the election, with governors not allowed to serve more than nine out of any twelve years. The 1838 constitution moved the start of the term to the third Tuesday of the January following the election, and allowed governors to only serve six out of any nine years. The 1874 constitution lengthened the term to four years, and prohibited governors from succeeding themselves. The current constitution of 1968 changed this to allow governors to serve two consecutive terms, with no lifetime limit.
Under the earlier 1968 constitution, Milton Shapp was the first governor to serve two terms, and Tom Corbett was the first incumbent governor to lose a re-election bid.
If the office of governor becomes vacant through death, resignation, or conviction on impeachment, the lieutenant governor becomes governor for the remainder of the term; if the office is only temporarily vacant due to disability of the governor, the lieutenant governor only acts out the duties of governor. Should both offices be vacant, the president pro tempore of the state senate becomes governor. The position of a lieutenant governor was created in the 1874 constitution; prior to then, the speaker of the senate would act as governor in cases of vacancy. Originally, the lieutenant governor could only act as governor; it was not until the 1968 constitution that the lieutenant governor could actually become the sitting governor in that fashion. The office of governor has been vacant for an extended period once before, a 17-day gap in 1848 between the resignation of the previous governor and the swearing in of his acting successor. Governors and lieutenant governors are elected on the same political party ticket.
Parties
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of other governorships, congressional and other federal offices, and ranking diplomatic positions in foreign countries held by Pennsylvania governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Pennsylvania except where noted.
Living former governors of Pennsylvania
, there are four former governors of Pennsylvania who are currently living at this time, the oldest governor of Pennsylvania being Ed Rendell (served 2003-2011, born 1944). The most recent death of a former governor of Pennsylvania was that of Richard Thornburgh (served 1979–1987, born 1932), on December 31, 2020.
See also
List of Pennsylvania gubernatorial elections
List of Pennsylvania state legislatures
List of colonial governors of Pennsylvania
Notes
References
General
Constitutions
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Politicals
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors | [
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|
252784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Rhode%20Island | List of governors of Rhode Island | The governor of Rhode Island is the head of government of Rhode Island and serves as commander-in-chief of the state's Army National Guard and Air National Guard. The current governor is Dan McKee. John W. Davis, Herbert W. Ladd, and Aram J. Pothier each served two non-consecutive stints, while James Fenner served three non-consecutive stints as governor.
Party affiliation
Colonial Rhode Island, 1640–1775
List of governors of Rhode Island, 1775–present
Parties
Chafee served in prior offices as a Republican, but ran for governor as an independent. On May 30, 2013, while in office, he switched his party affiliation to Democratic.
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Rhode Island except where noted. * Denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
Living former governors of Rhode Island
, there are six former governors of Rhode Island who are currently living at this time, the oldest governor of Rhode Island being Philip W. Noel (served 1973–1977, born 1931). The most recent governor of Rhode Island to die was J. Joseph Garrahy (served 1977–1985, born 1930) on January 24, 2012. The most recently serving governor of Rhode Island to die was Bruce Sundlun (served 1991–1995, born 1920) on July 21, 2011.
See also
List of lieutenant governors of Rhode Island
References
External links
Governor's digitized records from the Rhode Island State Archives
Governor of Rhode Island: Proclamations Issued from the Rhode Island State Archives
Governor's Executive Orders from the Rhode Island State Archives
Guide to the Governor's Executive Orders from the Rhode Island State Archives
Guide to the Tavares Collection from the Rhode Island State Archives
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors
Governor | [
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|
252790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20American%20Samoa | List of governors of American Samoa | This is a list of governors, etc. of the part of the Samoan Islands (now comprising American Samoa) under United States administration since 1900.
From 1900 to 1978 governors were appointed by the Federal government of the United States. Since that time they have been elected for 4-year terms by the people of American Samoa.
History
When the Department of the Interior sent four governors in a three year period, local Samoans began advocating for choosing their own governors. In the late 1940s, a Navy Governor, as well as an Interior Governor, had expressed their beliefs that High Orator Chief Tuiasosopo would be a suitable governor. In 1956, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Peter Tali Coleman as Governor of American Samoa, the first person of Samoan descent to occupy that role. Coleman, a member of the Republican Party, was a U.S. Army officer with a law degree from Georgetown University. After his presidential appointment, local residents became increasingly aware that Samoans can do the job just as good as the federal government, which until now had appointed governors to the islands. Soon local lawmakers such as Governor Owen Aspinall and H. Rex Lee favored the idea of locals being elected governors. On the other side was Governor John Morse Haydon, who openly opposed the idea. An administrative judge criticized Haydon and following a Pago Pago hearing, the Department of the Interior began distancing itself from Haydon and soon replaced him with a new governor. The concept of an elected governor was proposed with Senate Bill 20 and a Gubernatorial Commission was created in order to consider ways to implement the concept of electing governors.
In a 1977 article from the New York Times, it describes how opposition to an appointed Governor began with the appointment of Earl B. Ruth. Within eighteen months, the congressman from North Carolina had removed several Samoans in administrative posts, who had been appointed by former Republican Governor John Morse Haydon. Governor Ruth was soon recalled to Washington, DC and was later quoted for having called Samoans "lazy, thieving liars." After having turned down the proposal to elect their own Governor in three plebiscites, American Samoans in a 1976 referendum overwhelmingly approved the measure in which allowed them to elect that official. The first popularly elected Governor was Republican Peter Tali Coleman that same year.
Republican Te'o J. Fuavai was one of the earliest proponents of the movement to elect Governors in American Samoa, as opposed to Governors being appointed by the federal government. Fuavai sponsored a resolution that proposed the Department of the Interior to permit elections.
Appointed governors (1900–1978)
Naval administrators (1900–1951)
Civilian governors (1951–1978)
Elected governors (1978–present)
Succession
Living former governors
There are two living former governor of American Samoa. The most recent governor to die was Frank Barnett (served 1976–1977), on July 15, 2016. The most recently serving governor to die was Tauese Sunia (served 1997–2003), who died in office on March 26, 2003.
Latest election
References
American Samoa
Governor
Officials of American Samoa | [
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|
252793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad%20CPC%20464 | Amstrad CPC 464 | The CPC 464 is the first personal home computer built by Amstrad in 1984. It was one of the bestselling and best produced microcomputers, with more than 2 million units sold in Europe. The British microcomputer boom had already peaked before Amstrad announced the CPC 464 (which stood for Colour Personal Computer) which they then released a mere 9 months later.
Amstrad was known for cheap hi-fi products but had not broken into the home computer market until the CPC 464. Their consumer electronic sales were starting to plateau and owner and founder Alan Sugar stated "We needed to move on and find another sector or product to bring us back to profit growth". Work started on the Amstrad home computer in 1983 with engineer Ivor Spital who concluded that Amstrad should enter the home computer market, offering a product that integrated low-cost hardware to be sold at an affordable "impulse-purchase price".
Spital wanted to offer a device that would not commandeer the family TV but instead be an all-in-one computer with its own monitor, thus freeing up the TV and allowing others to play video games at the same time.
Bill Poel, General Manager of Amsoft (Amstrad's software division), said during the launch press release that if the computers were not on the shelves by the end of June "I will be prepared to sit down and eat one in Trafalgar Square".
Technical specifications
The CPC 464 is powered by the Zilog Z80 processor after the original attempts to use the 6502 processor, being used in the Apple II amongst many other 8-bit computer families, failed. The Z80 runs at 4 MHz, has 64K of memory and runs AMSDOS, Amstrad's own OS. The unit includes a built in tape drive and the choice of a colour or green monochrome monitor.
The CPC 464 has 3 standard display modes, each using colours chosen from a palette of 27.
Mode 0 - 160×200, 16 colours
Mode 1 - 320×200, 4 colours
Mode 2 - 640x200, 2 colours
Its sound is supplied using the General Instruments AY-3-8912 sound chip that provides 3-voice, 8-octave sound capacity through a built in loudspeaker with volume control. Later versions of the 464 have a headphone jack that can also be used for external speakers.
The CPC 464's code name during development was 'Arnold'.
Reception
The 464 was popular with consumers for various reasons. Aside from the joystick port, the computer, keyboard, and tape deck were all combined into one unit that attached to the monitor via 2 cables. The monitor also contained the power supply unit which powered the whole unit via one wall plug. It did not have very many wires and was simple to install for even the most inexperienced user.
References
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|
252796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B6beln%20%28district%29 | Döbeln (district) | Döbeln is a former district in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. It was bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Torgau-Oschatz, Riesa-Großenhain, Meißen, Mittweida and Muldentalkreis.
History
The region was originally populated by Sorbic peoples. In the early Middle Ages, the Daleminzian people settled along this section of the Mulde River. They were driven away by Germans after the Battle of Jahna in 928.
The present borders of the district were established in 1952, when the government of East Germany formed the new districts. Döbeln was one of the few districts which had not been changed directly after the German reunification. In August 2008, as a part of the district reform in Saxony, the districts of Döbeln, Freiberg and Mittweida were merged into the new district Mittelsachsen.
Geography
The district was located on the banks of the Freiberger Mulde in the triangle between the cities of Dresden, Leipzig and Chemnitz.
Coat of arms
Towns and municipalities
External links
(German) | [
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|
252797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hempstead | Hempstead | Hempstead may refer to:
Places
England
Hempstead, Essex
Hempstead, Kent
Hempstead, near Holt, Norfolk
Hempstead, near Stalham, Norfolk
Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire
United States
Hempstead, New York (disambiguation), multiple places in New York named Hempstead
Hempstead, Texas
Hempstead County, Arkansas
Hempstead High School (disambiguation), several high schools
Other uses
USS Hempstead, the name of more than one proposed United States Navy ship
People with the surname
Edward Hempstead (1780–1817), American lawyer and pioneer
Harry Hempstead (1868–1938), American owner of the New York Giants from 1912 to 1919
Hessley Hempstead (1972–2021), American football player
Isaac William Hempstead (Isaac Hempstead Wright, born 1999), English actor
Stephen P. Hempstead (1812–1883), American politician
See also
Heemstede, North Holland
Hempsted, Gloucester, England
Hemsted Park, Kent, England – historically sometimes known as Hempsted Park
Hamstead (disambiguation)
Hampstead (disambiguation)
Homestead (disambiguation) | [
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252802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Butterfield | Daniel Butterfield | Daniel Adams Butterfield (October 31, 1831 – July 17, 1901) was a New York businessman, a Union General in the American Civil War, and Assistant U.S. Treasurer.
After working for American Express, co-founded by his father, Butterfield served in the Civil War, where he was soon promoted brigadier general, and wounded at Gaines' Mill. While recuperating, he either wrote or re-wrote a popular bugle-call for burials, called Taps. He commanded a division at Fredericksburg, and then became Hooker's chief of staff, sharing both the credit for improved morale and responsibility for the licentious behaviour that Hooker tolerated in camp. He also became embroiled in Hooker’s political feuds with Burnside and Meade. Wounded at Gettysburg, he served in Sherman’s Atlanta campaign, before retiring from front-line service through illness. He later received the Medal of Honor.
In Grant’s administration, he was Assistant Treasurer of the United States, abusing that position to manipulate the price of gold, and being forced to resign. He then resumed his business career. Butterfield’s extensive war archives are displayed at Cold Spring, New York.
Early life
Butterfield was born on October 31, 1831 in Utica, New York. He attended Union Academy and then graduated in 1849, from Union College in Schenectady, New York, where he became a member of the Sigma Phi Society. That same year, his father, John Warren Butterfield, founded the express company of Butterfield, Wasson, and Co., which later became the American Express Company. After graduating, Daniel studied law but as he was too young to sit the New York bar exam, he toured the country instead. Upon his return to Utica, he joined the Utica Citizen’s Corps as a private. He was employed in various businesses in New York and the South, including the American Express Company, which had been co-founded by his father, an owner of the Overland Mail Company, stage-coaches, steamships and telegraph lines.
Civil War
Butterfield went to New York City as superintendent of the eastern division of his father's company. There, he joined the Seventy-First regiment of New York militia as a captain. Shortly after the fall of Fort Sumter, Butterfield joined the Clay Guards of Washington, D.C. as a first sergeant, but subsequently transferred to the 12th New York Volunteer Infantry as a colonel.
He was commissioned brigadier and major general of the Volunteers and commanded a division of the V Corps. He fought at the First Battle of Bull Run on 21 July 1861. He wrote the 1862 Army field manual, Camp and Outpost Duty for Infantry.
Butterfield joined Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan's Army of the Potomac for the Peninsula Campaign in the V Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter. In the Seven Days Battles, at Gaines' Mill on June 27, 1862, he was wounded but demonstrated the bravery that was eventually recognized in 1892, with the Medal of Honor.
Butterfield continued in brigade command at the Second Battle of Bull Run and the Battle of Antietam, became division commander and then V Corps commander for the Battle of Fredericksburg. His corps was one of those assaulting through the city before facing an assault from Marye's Heights. After the debacles of Fredericksburg and the Mud March, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker replaced Ambrose Burnside as Army of the Potomac commander and Butterfield became Hooker's chief of staff in January 1863. Butterfield was promoted to major general of volunteers in March 1863, with a date of rank of November 29, 1862.
Hooker and Butterfield developed a close personal and political relationship. To the disgust of many army generals, their headquarters were frequented by women and liquor, being described as a combination of a "bar and brothel". Political infighting became rampant in the high command and Butterfield was widely disliked by most of his colleagues. However, in the spring of 1863, the two officers managed to turn around the poor morale of the army and greatly improved food, shelter and medical support. During this period Butterfield introduced another custom that remains in the Army today: the use of distinctive hat or shoulder patches to denote the unit to which a soldier belongs, in this case the corps. He was inspired by the division patches used earlier by Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny, but extended those to the full army; Butterfield designed most of the patches himself.
Hooker was replaced after the Battle of Chancellorsville by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, just before the Battle of Gettysburg. Meade distrusted Butterfield, but retained him as chief of staff. Butterfield was wounded at Gettysburg on July 3, 1863, and left active duty to convalesce. Meade removed him as chief of staff on July 14, 1863. On July 1, 1863, Butterfield was appointed as colonel of the 5th United States Infantry.
After Gettysburg, Butterfield actively undermined Meade in cooperation with Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles, another crony of Hooker's. Although the battle was a great Union victory, Sickles and Butterfield testified to the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War that Meade vacillated and planned as early as July 1, to retreat from Gettysburg, thus damaging his reputation. Butterfield's chief evidence for this assertion was the Pipe Creek Circular that Meade had his staff prepare before it became apparent there would be a battle at Gettysburg.
Butterfield returned to duty that fall as chief of staff once again for Hooker, now commanding two corps in the Army of the Cumberland at Chattanooga, Tennessee. When these two depleted corps (the XI and XII Corps) were combined to form the XX Corps, Butterfield was given the 3rd Division, which he led through the first half of Sherman's Atlanta Campaign. Illness prevented his continuing with Sherman, resulting in Butterfield's assuming light duties at Vicksburg, Mississippi, followed by recruiting and the command of harbor forces in New York.
Taps
While the Union Army recuperated at Harrison's Landing, Virginia, from its grueling withdrawal during the Seven Days Battles, Butterfield experimented with bugle calls and is credited with the composition of "Taps". He wrote "Taps" to replace the customary firing of three rifle volleys at the end of burials during battle. "Taps" also replaced Tattoo, the French bugle call to signal "lights out". Butterfield's bugler, Oliver W. Norton of the 83rd Pennsylvania Volunteers, was the first to sound the new call. Within months, "Taps" was played by buglers in both the Union and Confederate armies. This account has been disputed by some military and musical historians, who maintain Butterfield merely revised an earlier call known as the Scott Tattoo and did not compose an original work.
Medal of Honor
Rank and organization: Brigadier General, U.S. Volunteers. Place and date: At Gaines Mill, Va., June 27, 1862. Entered service at: Washington, D.C. Born: October 31, 1831, Utica, N.Y. Date of issue: September 26, 1892.
The 1896 Pattern Medal of Honor was awarded to Daniel Butterfield, “for distinguished gallantry in action at Gaines Mills, Va. June 27, 1862”.
Citation: "Seized the colors of the 83d Pennsylvania Volunteers at a critical moment and, under a galling fire of the enemy, encouraged the depleted ranks to renewed exertion."
Life after the Civil War
After the war, President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Butterfield Assistant Treasurer of the United States, based on a recommendation by Abel Corbin, Grant's brother-in-law. Butterfield agreed to tell Corbin and speculators Jay Gould and James Fisk when the government was planning to sell gold, a market that Fisk and Gould wanted to corner. Butterfield accepted $10,000 from Gould, which Butterfield said was "to cover expenses". Butterfield later testified to Congress that it was an unsecured real estate loan. If Butterfield tipped them off, then Fisk and Gould would sell their gold before the price dropped. The scheme was uncovered by Grant, who sold $4,000,000 of government gold without telling Butterfield resulting in the panic of collapsing gold prices known as Black Friday, on September 24, 1869.
Butterfield resigned from the Treasury Department in October, 1869. He then became active in business and banking, including an executive position with American Express. He was also active in Union College's alumni association and several veterans organizations, including the Grand Army of the Republic.
On September 21, 1886, Butterfield married Mrs. Julia Lorrilard Safford James of New York in a ceremony in London. The Butterfields built a summer residence, Craigside, across the Hudson River from West Point in Cold Spring, New York, where Daniel Butterfield died on July 17, 1901. He was buried with an ornate monument in the West Point Cemetery at the United States Military Academy, although he had not attended that institution. Taps was sounded at his funeral.
Legacy
The Butterfield Paramedic Institute in Cold Spring, New York, which was once a hospital, is named for him.
The General Daniel Butterfield Civil War Collection
The Julia L Butterfield Memorial Library in Cold Spring, New York is named for Mrs. Daniel Butterfield. The Butterfield archives are located here and include correspondence from Union generals, telegraphs from Secretary of War Stanton and Gen. Sherman as he approached Atlanta, a battle map of Gettysburg, handwritten casualty lists, a manuscript by a field officer detailing the Battle of Gettysburg, and other material.
Bequeathed to the library by his widow in 1927, the collection's historical significance was not known until April 2011 when the West Point Museum Director & Chief Curator David Reel reviewed the collection. According to Reel, "The historical importance of the collection is unquestionable as a comprehensive archive of a major figure of the American Civil War and contains documents and letters, telegrams from 1861-64 that are irreplaceable and significant in content. . . No doubt, scholars of United States History and specifically the American Civil War will find a treasure trove of original, period material within the archive."
He has also been memorialized in the novel The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara—a character in the 20th Maine claims that their brigade bugle call was written by Butterfield and is based on his own name.
He was also referenced in the movie Glory.
There is a statue of the general by Gutzon Borglum in Sakura Park in Manhattan.
Craigside
A part of the Butterfield estate, "Craigside", was purchased around 1931 by the Fathers of Mercy. Founded in France in early 19th-century, the congregation established the parish of St. Vincent de Paul Church in Manhattan in 1841 for French-speaking Catholics. The Cold Spring property was the location of St. Joseph's Novitiate. The property was later sold, and eventually acquired by the Haldane Central School District. The new high school building opened in 2005.
See also
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
Notes
References
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
Hyde, Bill. The Union Generals Speak: The Meade Hearings on the Battle of Gettysburg. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003. .
Smith, Jean Edward. Grant. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
External links
"Report of Brig. Gen. Daniel Butterfield, U. S. Army, commanding Third Brigade, of engagement May 27, 1862", United States War Dept., 1884
1831 births
1901 deaths
Businesspeople from Utica, New York
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Union College (New York) alumni
Union Army generals
People of New York (state) in the American Civil War
New York (state) Republicans
Burials at West Point Cemetery
Grant administration personnel
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Military personnel from Utica, New York | [
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252803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisville%20Bats | Louisville Bats | The Louisville Bats are a Minor League Baseball team of the Triple-A East and the Triple-A affiliate of the Cincinnati Reds. They are located in Louisville, Kentucky, and are named in dual reference to the winged mammal and baseball bats, such as those manufactured locally under the Louisville Slugger brand. The team plays their home games at Louisville Slugger Field, which opened in 2000. The Bats previously played at Cardinal Stadium from 1982 to 1999.
The club began play as the Louisville Redbirds in the Triple-A American Association (AA) in 1982. Louisville won three AA championships: in 1984, 1985, and 1995 as the top affiliate of the St. Louis Cardinals. They joined the Triple-A International League (IL) in 1998 following the dissolution of the AA after the 1997 season. The Redbirds rebranded as the Louisville RiverBats in 1999; this was shortened to Bats in 2002. Their lone IL championship was won in 2001 with Cincinnati. In conjunction with Major League Baseball's restructuring of Minor League Baseball in 2021, the Bats were shifted to the Triple-A East.
History
American Association (1982–1997)
In 1982, the St. Louis Cardinals moved their Triple-A team of the American Association (AA), the Springfield Redbirds, from Springfield, Illinois, to Louisville, Kentucky, where they became the Louisville Redbirds. They played their home games at Cardinal Stadium, which was located at the Kentucky Exposition Center and seated over 30,000 people. The stadium previously hosted the Louisville Colonels from 1957 to 1972.
During their inaugural 1982 season, the Redbirds broke the minor league attendance record by drawing 868,418 people to Cardinal Stadium. On the field, the team narrowly missed the playoffs when they finished in second place, just one-and-a-half games out of first at 73–62. In 1983, the Redbirds became the first minor league team to draw over one million fans in a single season (1,052,438). The team improved to league-best 78–57 and won the Eastern Division title, which qualified them for the postseason. Though Louisville won the semifinals versus the Oklahoma City 89ers, 3–2, they lost the AA championship to the Denver Bears, 4–0, in the finals. Manager Jim Fregosi was selected as the AA Manager of the Year. The franchise was awarded the 1983 John H. Johnson President's Award, recognizing them as the "complete baseball franchise—based on franchise stability, contributions to league stability, contributions to baseball in the community, and promotion of the baseball industry."
Fergosi led the Redbirds to win back-to-back American Association championships in 1984 and 1985. The 1984 squad won the semifinals against the Indianapolis Indians, 4–2, before winning their first league title over the Denver Zephyrs, 4–1. Their second came the next season after winning the 1985 Eastern Division title and defeating Oklahoma City, 4–1, in the only round of playoffs. Fergosi won his second Manager of the Year Award for the 1985 campaign.
The 1987 team made a return to the postseason, but they were eliminated by Indianapolis, 3–2, in the semifinals. Outfielder Lance Johnson was honored with both the AA Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award and Rookie of the Year Award. Louisville regularly finished third or fourth in their four-team division over the next six seasons. A pair of Redbirds won league awards, however, during this period. René Arocha was selected as the 1992 Most Valuable Pitcher, and catcher Todd Zeile was the 1989 Rookie of the Year. The team qualified for a playoff spot in 1994, but they were quickly swept out of the semifinals, 3–0, by Indianapolis. The Redbirds came back in 1995 to sweep Indianapolis in the semis before winning a third AA championship versus the Buffalo Bisons, 3–2, behind manager Joe Pettini.
International League (1998–2020)
Louisville experienced a number of changes around the turn of the millennium. The American Association, of which the Redbirds had been members since 1982, disbanded after the 1997 season. Its teams were absorbed by the two remaining Triple-A leagues—the International League (IL) and Pacific Coast League (PCL), with Louisville joining the IL. Their 16-year relationship with the St. Louis Cardinals also ended after the 1997 season when the Cardinals chose to move their Triple-A affiliation to the Memphis Redbirds, a PCL expansion team which was located closer to St. Louis. Louisville then became the top farm club of the Milwaukee Brewers in 1998. They started their time in the IL by winning the Western Division title, but in the Governors' Cup playoffs, they were eliminated in the semifinals by the Durham Bulls, 3–0. In 1999, the team rebranded as the Louisville RiverBats. The name was a dual reference to Louisville's location on the Ohio River and baseball bats, such as those manufactured locally under the Louisville Slugger brand. Their new logos incorporated a bat (the animal) swinging a baseball bat. After a second season with the Brewers, Louisville entered into a new affiliation with the Cincinnati Reds in 2000. They also left Cardinal Stadium for the new US$27.8 million Louisville Slugger Field. Located in downtown Louisville, the new ballpark seats 13,131 people with a more intimate setting than their previous facility.
In 2001, manager Dave Miley led the RiverBats to an 84–60 record and the Western Division title. They defeated the Norfolk Tides, 3–2, in the semifinals to advance to the final round against the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons. Louisville won the first game of the series, 2–1, before the September 11 terrorist attacks resulted in the cancellation of the rest of the playoffs. The RiverBats were declared the International League champions for 2001.
Louisville dropped "River" from its name to become simply the Louisville Bats in 2002. Outfielder Raúl González won that season's IL MVP Award. The team returned to the playoffs in 2003, with another division title, but they were ousted in the semifinals by Durham, 3–1. In 2007, first baseman Joey Votto was selected for the IL Rookie of the Year Award. The Bats made three consecutive trips to the postseason from 2008 to 2010 with back-to-back-to-back division titles, but they were eliminated by Durham each time in the semifinals. Rick Sweet won the IL Manager of the Year Award in 2008 and 2009, and Justin Lehr won the Most Valuable Pitcher Award in 2009. Typically finishing third or fourth out of four teams in the Western Division, Louisville did not again qualify for the Governors' Cup playoffs after 2010.
Right fielder Aristides Aquino was selected as the 2019 IL Rookie of the Year. The start of the 2020 season was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic before being cancelled on June 30.
Triple-A East (2021–present)
Following the 2020 season, Major League Baseball assumed control of Minor League Baseball in a move to increase player salaries, modernize facility standards, and reduce travel. The Cincinnati Reds retained Louisville as their Triple-A affiliate, but the International League disbanded, and the Bats followed the other IL teams into the Triple-A East. Louisville ended the season in sixth place in the Midwestern Division with a 51–68 record. No playoffs were held to determine a league champion; instead, the team with the best regular-season record was the declared the winner. However, 10 games that had been postponed from the start of the season were reinserted into the schedule as a postseason tournament called the Triple-A Final Stretch in which all 30 Triple-A clubs competed for the highest winning percentage over that stretch. Louisville finished the tournament tied for 18th place with a 4–5 record.
Season-by-season records
Logos and colors
The Louisville Redbirds based their original visual identity on that of their major league parent, the St. Louis Cardinals, from 1982 to 1998. The team's uniforms were of red and white, while their logo featured a cardinal preparing to swing a baseball bat. When they rebranded as the RiverBats in 1999, their color scheme became purple and green, while the logo depicted a bat swinging a baseball bat. When this moniker was shortened to "Bats" in 2002, the palate was switched to purple, black, and gold, and the logo to an abstract bat shape. The Bats' current color scheme of red, navy blue, and white was adopted in 2016. Additionally, the rebranding updated the logo to depict a flying bat in front of a moon, which resembled a baseball, while gripping a baseball bat in its talons.
Radio and television
Since 2019, Jim Kelch has been the play-by-play announcer for Bats radio broadcasts. He previously served in the role from 1989 to 2009 before leaving to work for the Cincinnati Reds broadcast team from 2010 to 2017. Other Louisville broadcasters that went on to broadcast for MLB teams include Joe Buck (1989–1990), Todd Kalas (1991), and Mark Neely (1992–1994).
As of 2019, all Bats home and road games were broadcast on WKRD 790 AM. Live audio broadcasts are also available online through the team's website and the MiLB First Pitch app. Games can be viewed through the MiLB.TV subscription feature of the official website of Minor League Baseball, with audio provided by a radio simulcast.
Roster
Achievements
Awards
The franchise has been awarded these honors by Minor League Baseball.
Seven players, two managers, and two executives have won league awards in recognition for their performance with Louisville.
Retired numbers
Louisville has honored one of its players by retiring their uniform number. Corky Miller's number 8 was retired on August 31, 2014. A catcher from 2001 to 2004 and 2009 to 2014, Miller held the franchise record for games played (548) and doubles (99) at the time of its retirement.
The Bats also retired the number 1 for Louisville native and Baseball Hall of Famer Harold "Pee Wee" Reese in a ceremony on July 28, 2018. Reese's Brooklyn Dodgers teammate Jackie Robinson, whose number 42 was retired throughout professional baseball on April 15, 1997, was honored at the same ceremony.
Managers
Louisville has had 17 managers since their inaugural 1982 season.
Notes
See also
Sports in Louisville, Kentucky
References
Specific
General
External links
Statistics from Baseball-Reference
1982 establishments in Kentucky
Baseball teams established in 1982
Cincinnati Reds minor league affiliates
Companies based in Louisville, Kentucky
Former American Association (1902–1997) teams
International League teams
Milwaukee Brewers minor league affiliates
Professional baseball teams in Kentucky
St. Louis Cardinals minor league affiliates
Triple-A East teams | [
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|
57643101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1114%20Arthur%20Currie%20Lane | 1114 Arthur Currie Lane | 1114 Arthur Currie Lane is an historic building in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
It was the pre-World War I home of General Sir Arthur William Currie . Currie became Canada's first full general in 1915, and was placed in charge of the entire Canadian Corps, independent of the British Army, by 1917. He is given credit for the success of the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917 and was knighted by King George V.
Currie was also an educator, and from 1920 until his death in 1933 he served as Principal and Vice Chancellor of McGill University in Montreal, Quebec.
His home, built in 1892, is a fine example of a small Queen Anne cottage with Italianate features. Its original fieldstone wall and mature plantings surrounding the house lend to the value. It is part of the Catherine Street Heritage Conservation Area and is highly visible from below on the pedestrian walkway, and across the Selkirk Water.
See also
List of historic places in Victoria, British Columbia
References
External links
1892 establishments in Canada
Buildings and structures completed in 1892
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|
252811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrico | Henrico | Henrico may refer to:
Henrico, North Carolina
Henrico County, Virginia
USS Henrico (APA-45)
See also
Henricus, a 17th-century colony in Virginia | [
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252812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus%20%28dental%29 | Calculus (dental) | In dentistry, calculus or tartar is a form of hardened dental plaque. It is caused by precipitation of minerals from saliva and gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) in plaque on the teeth. This process of precipitation kills the bacterial cells within dental plaque, but the rough and hardened surface that is formed provides an ideal surface for further plaque formation. This leads to calculus buildup, which compromises the health of the gingiva (gums). Calculus can form both along the gumline, where it is referred to as supragingival ("above the gum"), and within the narrow sulcus that exists between the teeth and the gingiva, where it is referred to as subgingival ("below the gum").
Calculus formation is associated with a number of clinical manifestations, including bad breath, receding gums and chronically inflamed gingiva. Brushing and flossing can remove plaque from which calculus forms; however, once formed, calculus is too hard (firmly attached) to be removed with a toothbrush. Calculus buildup can be removed with ultrasonic tools or dental hand instruments (such as a periodontal scaler).
Etymology
The word comes from Latin calculus "small stone", from calx "limestone, lime", probably related to Greek chalix "small stone, pebble, rubble", which many trace to a Proto-Indo-European root for "split, break up". Calculus was a term used for various kinds of stones. This spun off many modern words, including "calculate" (use stones for mathematical purposes), and "calculus", which came to be used, in the 18th century, for accidental or incidental mineral buildups in human and animal bodies, like kidney stones and minerals on teeth.
Tartar, on the other hand, originates in Greek as well (tartaron), but as the term for the white encrustation inside casks, aka potassium bitartrate commonly known as cream of tartar. This came to be a term used for calcium phosphate on teeth in the early 19th century.
Calculus composition
Calculus is composed of both inorganic (mineral) and organic (cellular and extracellular matrix) components. The mineral proportion of calculus ranges from approximately 40–60%, depending on its location in the dentition, and consists primarily of calcium phosphate crystals organized into four principal mineral phases, listed here in order of decreasing ratio of phosphate to calcium:
whitlockite,
hydroxyapatite,
octacalcium phosphate,
and brushite,
The organic component of calculus is approximately 85% cellular and 15% extracellular matrix. Cell density within dental plaque and calculus is very high, consisting of an estimated 200,000,000 cells per milligram. The cells within calculus are primarily bacterial, but also include at least one species of archaea (Methanobrevibacter oralis) and several species of yeast (e.g., Candida albicans). The organic extracellular matrix in calculus consists primarily of proteins and lipids (fatty acids, triglycerides, glycolipids, and phospholipids), as well as extracellular DNA. Trace amounts of host, dietary, and environmental microdebris are also found within calculus, including salivary proteins, plant DNA, milk proteins, starch granules, textile fibers, and smoke particles.
Calculus formation
The processes of calculus formation from dental plaque are not well understood. Supragingival calculus formation is most abundant on the buccal (cheek) surfaces of the maxillary (upper jaw) molars and on the lingual (tongue) surfaces of the mandibular (lower jaw) incisors. These areas experience high salivary flow because of their proximity to the parotid and sublingual salivary glands. Subgingival calculus forms below the gumline and is typically darkened in color by the presence of black-pigmented bacteria, whose cells are coated in a layer of iron obtained from heme during gingival bleeding. Dental calculus typically forms in incremental layers that are easily visible using both electron microscopy and light microscopy. These layers form during periodic calcification events of the dental plaque, but the timing and triggers of these events are poorly understood. The formation of calculus varies widely among individuals and at different locations within the mouth. Many variables have been identified that influence the formation of dental calculus, including age, gender, ethnic background, diet, location in the oral cavity, oral hygiene, bacterial plaque composition, host genetics, access to professional dental care, physical disabilities, systemic diseases, tobacco use, and drugs and medications.
Clinical significance
Plaque accumulation causes the gingiva to become irritated and inflamed, and this is referred to as gingivitis. When the gingiva become so irritated that there is a loss of the connective tissue fibers that attach the gums to the teeth and bone that surrounds the tooth, this is known as periodontitis. Dental plaque is not the sole cause of periodontitis; however it is many times referred to as a primary aetiology. Plaque that remains in the oral cavity long enough will eventually calcify and become calculus. Calculus is detrimental to gingival health because it serves as a trap for increased plaque formation and retention; thus, calculus, along with other factors that cause a localized build-up of plaque, is referred to as a secondary aetiology of periodontitis.
When plaque is supragingival, the bacterial content contains a great proportion of aerobic bacteria and yeast, or those bacteria which utilize and can survive in an environment containing oxygen. Subgingival plaque contains a higher proportion of anaerobic bacteria, or those bacteria which cannot exist in an environment containing oxygen. Several anaerobic plaque bacteria, such as Porphyromonas gingivalis, secrete antigenic proteins that trigger a strong inflammatory response in the periodontium, the specialized tissues that surround and support the teeth. Prolonged inflammation of the periodontium leads to bone loss and weakening of the gingival fibers that attach the teeth to the gums, two major hallmarks of periodontitis. Supragingival calculus formation is nearly ubiquitous in humans, but to differing degrees. Almost all individuals with periodontitis exhibit considerable subgingival calculus deposits. Dental plaque bacteria have been linked to cardiovascular disease and mothers giving birth to pre-term low weight infants, but there is no conclusive evidence yet that periodontitis is a significant risk factor for either of these two conditions.
Prevention
Toothpaste with pyrophosphates or zinc citrate has been shown to produce a statistically significant reduction in plaque accumulation, but the effect of zinc citrate is so modest that its clinical importance is questionable. Some calculus may form even without plaque deposits, by direct mineralisation of the pellicle.
Calculus in other animals
Calculus formation in other animals is less well studied than in humans, but it is known to form in a wide range of species. Domestic pets, such as dogs and cats, frequently accumulate large calculus deposits. Animals with highly abrasive diets, such as ruminants and equids, rarely form thick deposits and instead tend to form thin calculus deposits that often have a metallic or opalescent sheen. In animals, calculus should not be confused with crown cementum, a layer of calcified dental tissue that encases the tooth root underneath the gingival margin and is gradually lost through periodontal disease.
Archaeological significance
Dental calculus has been shown to contain well preserved microparticles, DNA and protein in archaeological samples. The information these molecules contain can reveal information about the oral microbiome of the host and the presence of pathogens. It is also possible to identify dietary sources as well as study dietary shifts and occasionally evidence of craft activities.
Sub-gingival calculus formation and chemical dissolution
Sub-gingival calculus is composed almost entirely of two components: fossilized anaerobic bacteria whose biological composition has been replaced by calcium phosphate salts, and calcium phosphate salts that have joined the fossilized bacteria in calculus formations. The initial attachment mechanism and the development of mature calculus formations are based on electrical charge. Unlike calcium phosphate, the primary component of teeth, calcium phosphate salts exist as electrically unstable ions. The following minerals are detectable in calculus by X-ray diffraction: brushite (), octacalcium phosphate (), magnesium-containing whitlockite (), and carbonate-containing hydroxyapatite (approximately but containing some carbonate).
The reason fossilized bacteria are initially attracted to one part of the subgingival tooth surface over another is not fully understood; once the first layer is attached, ionized calculus components are naturally attracted to the same places due to electrical charge. The fossilized bacteria pile on top of one another, in a rather haphazard manner. All the while, free-floating ionic components fill in the gaps left by the fossilized bacteria. The resultant hardened structure can be compared to concrete; with the fossilized bacteria playing the role of aggregate, and the smaller calcium phosphate salts being the cement. The once purely electrical association of fossilized bacteria then becomes mechanical, with the introduction of free-floating calcium phosphate salts. The "hardened" calculus formations are at the heart of periodontal disease and treatment.
Removal of calculus after formation
The College of Registered Dental Hygienists of Alberta defines a dental hygienist as "a health care professional whose work focuses on the oral health of an individual or community." These dental professionals aim to improve oral health by educating patients on the prevention and management of oral disease. Dental hygienists can be found performing oral health services in various settings, including private dental offices, schools, and other community settings, such as long-term care facilities. As mentioned above in the clinical significance section, plaque and calculus deposits are a major etiological factor in the development and progression of oral disease. An important part of the scope of practice of a dental hygienist is the removal of plaque and calculus deposits. This is achieved through the use of specifically designed instruments for debridement of tooth surfaces. Treatment with these types of instruments is necessary as calculus deposits cannot be removed by brushing or flossing alone. To effectively manage disease or maintain oral health, thorough removal of calculus deposits should be completed at frequent intervals. The recommended frequency of dental hygiene treatment can be made by a registered professional, and is dependent on individual patient needs. Factors that are taken into consideration include an individual's overall health status, tobacco use, amount of calculus present, and adherence to a professionally recommended home care routine.
Hand instruments are specially designed tools used by dental professionals to remove plaque and calculus deposits that have formed on the teeth. These tools include scalers, curettes, jaquettes, hoes, files and chisels. Each type of tool is designed to be used in specific areas of the mouth. Some commonly used instruments include sickle scalers which are designed with a pointed tip and are mainly used supragingivally. Curettes are mainly used to remove subgingival calculus, smooth root surfaces and to clean out periodontal pockets. Curettes can be divided into two subgroups: universals and area specific instruments. Universal curettes can be used in multiple areas, while area specific instruments are designed for select tooth surfaces. Gracey curettes are a popular type of area specific curettes. Due to their design, area specific curettes allow for better adaptation to the root surface and can be slightly more effective than universals. Hoes, chisels, and files are less widely used than scalers and curettes. These are beneficial when removing large amounts of calculus or tenacious calculus that cannot be removed with a curette or scaler alone. Chisels and hoes are used to remove bands of calculus, whereas files are used to crush burnished or tenacious calculus.
For hand instrumentation to be effective and efficient, it is important for clinicians to ensure that the instruments being used are sharp. It is also important for the clinician to understand the design of the hand instruments to be able to adapt them properly.
Ultrasonic scalers, also known as power scalers, are effective in removing calculus, stain, and plaque. These scalers are also useful for root planing, curettage, and surgical debridement. Not only is tenacious calculus and stain removed more effectively with ultrasonic scalers than with hand instrumentation alone, it is evident that the most satisfactory clinical results are when ultrasonics are used in adjunct to hand instrumentation. There are two types of ultrasonic scalers; piezoelectric and magnetostrictive. Oscillating material in both of these handpieces cause the tip of the scaler to vibrate at high speeds, between 18,000 and 50,000 Hz. The tip of each scaler uses a different vibration pattern for removal of calculus. The magnetostrictive power scaler vibration is elliptical, activating all sides of the tip, whereas the piezoelectric vibration is linear and is more active on the two sides of the tip.
Special tips for ultrasonic scalers are designed to address different areas of the mouth and varying amounts of calculus buildup. Larger tips are used for heavy subgingival or supragingival calculus deposits, whereas thinner tips are designed more for definitive subgingival debridement. As the high frequency vibrations loosen calculus and plaque, heat is generated at the tip. A water spray is directed towards the end of the tip to cool it as well as irrigate the gingiva during debridement. Only the first 1–2 mm of the tip on the ultrasonic scaler is most effective for removal, and therefore needs to come into direct contact with the calculus to fracture the deposits. Small adaptations are needed in order to keep the tip of the scaler touching the surface of the tooth, while overlapping oblique, horizontal, or vertical strokes are used for adequate calculus removal.
Current research on potentially more effective methods of subgingival calculus removal focuses on the use of near-ultraviolet and near-infrared lasers, such as Er,Cr:YSGG lasers. The use of lasers in periodontal therapy offers a unique clinical advantage over conventional hand instrumentation, as the thin and flexible fibers can deliver laser energy into periodontal pockets that are otherwise difficult to access. Near-infrared lasers, such as the Er,CR:YSGG laser, have been proposed as an effective adjunct for calculus removal as the emission wavelength is highly absorbed by water, a large component of calculus deposits. An optimal output power setting of 1.0-W with the near-infrared Er,Cr:YSGG laser has been shown to be effective for root scaling. Near-ultraviolet lasers have also shown promise as they allow the dental professional to remove calculus deposits quickly, without removing underlying healthy tooth structure, which often occurs during hand instrumentation. Additionally, near-ultraviolet lasers are effective at various irradiation angles for calculus removal. Discrepancies in the efficiency of removal are due to the physical and optical properties of the calculus deposits, not to the angle of laser use. Dental hygienists must receive additional theoretical and clinical training on the use of lasers, where legislation permits.
See also
Calculus (medicine)
Toothbrush
Dental caries
Teeth cleaning
References
Periodontal disorders
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|
252814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSL%20and%20HSV | HSL and HSV | HSL (for hue, saturation, lightness) and HSV (for hue, saturation, value; also known as HSB, for hue, saturation, brightness) are alternative representations of the RGB color model, designed in the 1970s by computer graphics researchers to more closely align with the way human vision perceives color-making attributes. In these models, colors of each hue are arranged in a radial slice, around a central axis of neutral colors which ranges from black at the bottom to white at the top.
The HSL representation models the way different paints mix together to create colour in the real world, with the lightness dimension resembling the varying amounts of black or white paint in the mixture (e.g. to create "light red", a red pigment can be mixed with white paint; this white paint corresponds to a high "lightness" value in the HSL representation). Fully saturated colors are placed around a circle at a lightness value of ½, with a lightness value of 0 or 1 corresponding to fully black or white, respectively.
Meanwhile, the HSV representation models how colors appear under light. The difference between HSL and HSV is that a color with maximum lightness in HSL is pure white, but a color with maximum value/brightness in HSV is analogous to shining a white light on a colored object (e.g. shining a bright white light on a red object causes the object to still appear red, just brighter and more intense, while shining a dim light on a red object causes the object to appear darker and less bright).
The issue with both HSV and HSL is that these approaches do not effectively separate colour into their three value components according to human perception of color. This can be seen when the saturation settings are altered — it is quite easy to notice the difference in perceptual lightness despite the "V" or "L" setting being fixed.
Basic principle
HSL and HSV are both cylindrical geometries (), with hue, their angular dimension, starting at the red primary at 0°, passing through the green primary at 120° and the blue primary at 240°, and then wrapping back to red at 360°. In each geometry, the central vertical axis comprises the neutral, achromatic, or gray colors ranging, from top to bottom, white at lightness 1 (value 1) to black at lightness 0 (value 0).
In both geometries, the additive primary and secondary colors—red, yellow, green, cyan, blue and magenta—and linear mixtures between adjacent pairs of them, sometimes called pure colors, are arranged around the outside edge of the cylinder with saturation 1. These saturated colors have lightness 0.5 in HSL, while in HSV they have value 1. Mixing these pure colors with black—producing so-called shades—leaves saturation unchanged. In HSL, saturation is also unchanged by tinting with white, and only mixtures with both black and white—called tones—have saturation less than 1. In HSV, tinting alone reduces saturation.
Because these definitions of saturation—in which very dark (in both models) or very light (in HSL) near-neutral colors are considered fully saturated (for instance, from the bottom right in the sliced HSL cylinder or from the top right)—conflict with the intuitive notion of color purity, often a conic or biconic solid is drawn instead (), with what this article calls chroma as its radial dimension (equal to the range of the RGB values), instead of saturation (where the saturation is equal to the chroma over the maximum chroma in that slice of the (bi)cone). Confusingly, such diagrams usually label this radial dimension "saturation", blurring or erasing the distinction between saturation and chroma. As described below, computing chroma is a helpful step in the derivation of each model. Because such an intermediate model—with dimensions hue, chroma, and HSV value or HSL lightness—takes the shape of a cone or bicone, HSV is often called the "hexcone model" while HSL is often called the "bi-hexcone model" ().
Motivation
The HSL color space was invented for television in 1938 by Georges Valensi as a method to add color encoding to existing monochrome (i.e. only containing the L signal) broadcasts, allowing existing receivers to receive new color broadcasts (in black and white) without modification as the luminance (black and white) signal is broadcast unmodified. It has been used in all major analog broadcast television encoding including NTSC, PAL and SECAM and all major digital broadcast systems and is the basis for composite video.
Most televisions, computer displays, and projectors produce colors by combining red, green, and blue light in varying intensities—the so-called RGB additive primary colors. The resulting mixtures in RGB color space can reproduce a wide variety of colors (called a gamut); however, the relationship between the constituent amounts of red, green, and blue light and the resulting color is unintuitive, especially for inexperienced users, and for users familiar with subtractive color mixing of paints or traditional artists' models based on tints and shades (). Furthermore, neither additive nor subtractive color models define color relationships the same way the human eye does.
For example, imagine we have an RGB display whose color is controlled by three sliders ranging from , one controlling the intensity of each of the red, green, and blue primaries. If we begin with a relatively colorful orange , with sRGB values , , , and want to reduce its colorfulness by half to a less saturated orange , we would need to drag the sliders to decrease R by 31, increase G by 24, and increase B by 59, as pictured below.
In an attempt to accommodate more traditional and intuitive color mixing models, computer graphics pioneers at PARC and NYIT introduced the HSV model for computer display technology in the mid-1970s, formally described by Alvy Ray Smith in the August 1978 issue of Computer Graphics. In the same issue, Joblove and Greenberg described the HSL model—whose dimensions they labeled hue, relative chroma, and intensity—and compared it to HSV (). Their model was based more upon how colors are organized and conceptualized in human vision in terms of other color-making attributes, such as hue, lightness, and chroma; as well as upon traditional color mixing methods—e.g., in painting—that involve mixing brightly colored pigments with black or white to achieve lighter, darker, or less colorful colors.
The following year, 1979, at SIGGRAPH, Tektronix introduced graphics terminals using HSL for color designation, and the Computer Graphics Standards Committee recommended it in their annual status report (). These models were useful not only because they were more intuitive than raw RGB values, but also because the conversions to and from RGB were extremely fast to compute: they could run in real time on the hardware of the 1970s. Consequently, these models and similar ones have become ubiquitous throughout image editing and graphics software since then. Some of their uses are described below.
Formal derivation
Color-making attributes
The dimensions of the HSL and HSV geometries—simple transformations of the not-perceptually-based RGB model—are not directly related to the photometric color-making attributes of the same names, as defined by scientists such as the CIE or ASTM. Nonetheless, it is worth reviewing those definitions before leaping into the derivation of our models. For the definitions of color-making attributes which follow, see:
Hue The "attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area appears to be similar to one of the perceived colors: red, yellow, green, and blue, or to a combination of two of them".
Radiance (Le,Ω) The radiant power of light passing through a particular surface per unit solid angle per unit projected area, measured in SI units in watt per steradian per square metre ().
Luminance (Y or Lv,Ω) The radiance weighted by the effect of each wavelength on a typical human observer, measured in SI units in candela per square meter (). Often the term luminance is used for the relative luminance, Y/Yn, where Yn is the luminance of the reference white point.
Luma (Y′) The weighted sum of gamma-corrected , , and values, and used in , for JPEG compression and video transmission.
Brightness (or value) The "attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area appears to emit more or less light".
Lightness The "brightness relative to the brightness of a similarly illuminated white".
Colorfulness The "attribute of a visual sensation according to which the perceived color of an area appears to be more or less chromatic".
Chroma The "colorfulness relative to the brightness of a similarly illuminated white".
Saturation The "colorfulness of a stimulus relative to its own brightness".
Brightness and colorfulness are absolute measures, which usually describe the spectral distribution of light entering the eye, while lightness and chroma are measured relative to some white point, and are thus often used for descriptions of surface colors, remaining roughly constant even as brightness and colorfulness change with different illumination. Saturation can be defined as either the ratio of colorfulness to brightness, or that of chroma to lightness.
General approach
HSL, HSV, and related models can be derived via geometric strategies, or can be thought of as specific instances of a "generalized LHS model". The HSL and HSV model-builders took an RGB cube—with constituent amounts of red, green, and blue light in a color denoted —and tilted it on its corner, so that black rested at the origin with white directly above it along the vertical axis, then measured the hue of the colors in the cube by their angle around that axis, starting with red at 0°. Then they came up with a characterization of brightness/value/lightness, and defined saturation to range from 0 along the axis to 1 at the most colorful point for each pair of other parameters.
Hue and chroma
In each of our models, we calculate both hue and what this article will call chroma, after Joblove and Greenberg (1978), in the same way—that is, the hue of a color has the same numerical values in all of these models, as does its chroma. If we take our tilted RGB cube, and project it onto the "chromaticity plane" perpendicular to the neutral axis, our projection takes the shape of a hexagon, with red, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and magenta at its corners (). Hue is roughly the angle of the vector to a point in the projection, with red at 0°, while chroma is roughly the distance of the point from the origin.
More precisely, both hue and chroma in this model are defined with respect to the hexagonal shape of the projection. The chroma is the proportion of the distance from the origin to the edge of the hexagon. In the lower part of the adjacent diagram, this is the ratio of lengths , or alternatively the ratio of the radii of the two hexagons. This ratio is the difference between the largest and smallest values among R, G, or B in a color. To make our definitions easier to write, we'll define these maximum, minimum, and chroma component values as M, m, and C, respectively.
To understand why chroma can be written as , notice that any neutral color, with , projects onto the origin and so has 0 chroma. Thus if we add or subtract the same amount from all three of R, G, and B, we move vertically within our tilted cube, and do not change the projection. Therefore, any two colors and project on the same point, and have the same chroma. The chroma of a color with one of its components equal to zero is simply the maximum of the other two components. This chroma is M in the particular case of a color with a zero component, and in general.
The hue is the proportion of the distance around the edge of the hexagon which passes through the projected point, originally measured on the range but now typically measured in degrees . For points which project onto the origin in the chromaticity plane (i.e., grays), hue is undefined. Mathematically, this definition of hue is written piecewise:
Sometimes, neutral colors (i.e. with ) are assigned a hue of 0° for convenience of representation.
These definitions amount to a geometric warping of hexagons into circles: each side of the hexagon is mapped linearly onto a 60° arc of the circle (). After such a transformation, hue is precisely the angle around the origin and chroma the distance from the origin: the angle and magnitude of the vector pointing to a color.
Sometimes for image analysis applications, this hexagon-to-circle transformation is skipped, and hue and chroma (we'll denote these H2 and C2) are defined by the usual cartesian-to-polar coordinate transformations (). The easiest way to derive those is via a pair of cartesian chromaticity coordinates which we'll call α and β:
(The atan2 function, a "two-argument arctangent", computes the angle from a cartesian coordinate pair.)
Notice that these two definitions of hue (H and H2) nearly coincide, with a maximum difference between them for any color of about 1.12°—which occurs at twelve particular hues, for instance , —and with for every multiple of 30°. The two definitions of chroma (C and C2) differ more substantially: they are equal at the corners of our hexagon, but at points halfway between two corners, such as , we have , but , a difference of about 13.4%.
Lightness
While the definition of hue is relatively uncontroversial—it roughly satisfies the criterion that colors of the same perceived hue should have the same numerical hue—the definition of a lightness or value dimension is less obvious: there are several possibilities depending on the purpose and goals of the representation. Here are four of the most common (; three of these are also shown in ):
The simplest definition is just the arithmetic mean, i.e. average, of the three components, in the HSI model called intensity (). This is simply the projection of a point onto the neutral axis—the vertical height of a point in our tilted cube. The advantage is that, together with Euclidean-distance calculations of hue and chroma, this representation preserves distances and angles from the geometry of the RGB cube.
In the HSV "hexcone" model, value is defined as the largest component of a color, our M above (). This places all three primaries, and also all of the "secondary colors"—cyan, yellow, and magenta—into a plane with white, forming a hexagonal pyramid out of the RGB cube.
In the HSL "bi-hexcone" model, lightness is defined as the average of the largest and smallest color components (), i.e. the mid-range of the RGB components. This definition also puts the primary and secondary colors into a plane, but a plane passing halfway between white and black. The resulting color solid is a double-cone similar to Ostwald's, shown above.
A more perceptually relevant alternative is to use luma, , as a lightness dimension (). Luma is the weighted average of gamma-corrected R, G, and B, based on their contribution to perceived lightness, long used as the monochromatic dimension in color television broadcast. For sRGB, the Rec. 709 primaries yield , digital NTSC uses according to Rec. 601 and some other primaries are also in use which result in different coefficients.
(SDTV)
(Adobe)
(HDTV)
(UHDTV, HDR)
All four of these leave the neutral axis alone. That is, for colors with , any of the four formulations yields a lightness equal to the value of R, G, or B.
For a graphical comparison, see fig. 13 below.
Saturation
When encoding colors in a hue/lightness/chroma or hue/value/chroma model (using the definitions from the previous two sections), not all combinations of lightness (or value) and chroma are meaningful: that is, half of the colors denotable using , , and fall outside the RGB gamut (the gray parts of the slices in figure 14). The creators of these models considered this a problem for some uses. For example, in a color selection interface with two of the dimensions in a rectangle and the third on a slider, half of that rectangle is made of unused space. Now imagine we have a slider for lightness: the user's intent when adjusting this slider is potentially ambiguous: how should the software deal with out-of-gamut colors? Or conversely, If the user has selected as colorful as possible a dark purple and then shifts the lightness slider upward, what should be done: would the user prefer to see a lighter purple still as colorful as possible for the given hue and lightness or a lighter purple of exactly the same chroma as the original color
To solve problems such as these, the HSL and HSV models scale the chroma so that it always fits into the range for every combination of hue and lightness or value, calling the new attribute saturation in both cases (fig. 14). To calculate either, simply divide the chroma by the maximum chroma for that value or lightness.
The HSI model commonly used for computer vision, which takes H2 as a hue dimension and the component average I ("intensity") as a lightness dimension, does not attempt to "fill" a cylinder by its definition of saturation. Instead of presenting color choice or modification interfaces to end users, the goal of HSI is to facilitate separation of shapes in an image. Saturation is therefore defined in line with the psychometric definition: chroma relative to lightness (). See the Use in image analysis section of this article.
Using the same name for these three different definitions of saturation leads to some confusion, as the three attributes describe substantially different color relationships; in HSV and HSI, the term roughly matches the psychometric definition, of a chroma of a color relative to its own lightness, but in HSL it does not come close. Even worse, the word saturation is also often used for one of the measurements we call chroma above (C or C2).
Examples
All parameter values shown below are given as percentages (interval scaled by a factor 100), except those for H and H2 which are in the interval .
Use in end-user software
The original purpose of HSL and HSV and similar models, and their most common current application, is in color selection tools. At their simplest, some such color pickers provide three sliders, one for each attribute. Most, however, show a two-dimensional slice through the model, along with a slider controlling which particular slice is shown. The latter type of GUI exhibits great variety, because of the choice of cylinders, hexagonal prisms, or cones/bicones that the models suggest (see the diagram near the top of the page). Several color choosers from the 1990s are shown to the right, most of which have remained nearly unchanged in the intervening time: today, nearly every computer color chooser uses HSL or HSV, at least as an option. Some more sophisticated variants are designed for choosing whole sets of colors, basing their suggestions of compatible colors on the HSL or HSV relationships between them.
Most web applications needing color selection also base their tools on HSL or HSV, and pre-packaged open source color choosers exist for most major web front-end frameworks. The CSS 3 specification allows web authors to specify colors for their pages directly with HSL coordinates.
HSL and HSV are sometimes used to define gradients for data visualization, as in maps or medical images. For example, the popular GIS program ArcGIS historically applied customizable HSV-based gradients to numerical geographical data.
Image editing software also commonly includes tools for adjusting colors with reference to HSL or HSV coordinates, or to coordinates in a model based on the "intensity" or luma defined above. In particular, tools with a pair of "hue" and "saturation" sliders are commonplace, dating to at least the late-1980s, but various more complicated color tools have also been implemented. For instance, the Unix image viewer and color editor xv allowed six user-definable hue (H) ranges to be rotated and resized, included a dial-like control for saturation (SHSV), and a curves-like interface for controlling value (V)—see fig. 17. The image editor Picture Window Pro includes a "color correction" tool which affords complex remapping of points in a hue/saturation plane relative to either HSL or HSV space.
Video editors also use these models. For example, both Avid and Final Cut Pro include color tools based on HSL or a similar geometry for use adjusting the color in video. With the Avid tool, users pick a vector by clicking a point within the hue/saturation circle to shift all the colors at some lightness level (shadows, mid-tones, highlights) by that vector.
Since version 4.0, Adobe Photoshop's "Luminosity", "Hue", "Saturation", and "Color" blend modes composite layers using a luma/chroma/hue color geometry. These have been copied widely, but several imitators use the HSL (e.g. PhotoImpact, Paint Shop Pro) or HSV geometries instead.
Use in image analysis
HSL, HSV, HSI, or related models are often used in computer vision and image analysis for feature detection or image segmentation. The applications of such tools include object detection, for instance in robot vision; object recognition, for instance of faces, text, or license plates; content-based image retrieval; and analysis of medical images.
For the most part, computer vision algorithms used on color images are straightforward extensions to algorithms designed for grayscale images, for instance k-means or fuzzy clustering of pixel colors, or canny edge detection. At the simplest, each color component is separately passed through the same algorithm. It is important, therefore, that the features of interest can be distinguished in the color dimensions used. Because the R, G, and B components of an object's color in a digital image are all correlated with the amount of light hitting the object, and therefore with each other, image descriptions in terms of those components make object discrimination difficult. Descriptions in terms of hue/lightness/chroma or hue/lightness/saturation are often more relevant.
Starting in the late 1970s, transformations like HSV or HSI were used as a compromise between effectiveness for segmentation and computational complexity. They can be thought of as similar in approach and intent to the neural processing used by human color vision, without agreeing in particulars: if the goal is object detection, roughly separating hue, lightness, and chroma or saturation is effective, but there is no particular reason to strictly mimic human color response. John Kender's 1976 master's thesis proposed the HSI model. Ohta et al. (1980) instead used a model made up of dimensions similar to those we have called I, α, and β. In recent years, such models have continued to see wide use, as their performance compares favorably with more complex models, and their computational simplicity remains compelling.
Disadvantages
While HSL, HSV, and related spaces serve well enough to, for instance, choose a single color, they ignore much of the complexity of color appearance. Essentially, they trade off perceptual relevance for computation speed, from a time in computing history (high-end 1970s graphics workstations, or mid-1990s consumer desktops) when more sophisticated models would have been too computationally expensive.
HSL and HSV are simple transformations of RGB which preserve symmetries in the RGB cube unrelated to human perception, such that its R, G, and B corners are equidistant from the neutral axis, and equally spaced around it. If we plot the RGB gamut in a more perceptually-uniform space, such as CIELAB (see below), it becomes immediately clear that the red, green, and blue primaries do not have the same lightness or chroma, or evenly spaced hues. Furthermore, different RGB displays use different primaries, and so have different gamuts. Because HSL and HSV are defined purely with reference to some RGB space, they are not absolute color spaces: to specify a color precisely requires reporting not only HSL or HSV values, but also the characteristics of the RGB space they are based on, including the gamma correction in use.
If we take an image and extract the hue, saturation, and lightness or value components, and then compare these to the components of the same name as defined by color scientists, we can quickly see the difference, perceptually. For example, examine the following images of a fire breather (). The original is in the sRGB colorspace. CIELAB L* is a CIE-defined achromatic lightness quantity (dependent solely on the perceptually achromatic luminance Y, but not the mixed-chromatic components X or Z, of the CIEXYZ colorspace from which the sRGB colorspace itself is derived), and it is plain that this appears similar in perceptual lightness to the original color image. Luma is roughly similar, but differs somewhat at high chroma, where it deviates most from depending solely on the true achromatic luminance (Y, or equivalently L*) and is influenced by the colorimetric chromaticity (x,y, or equivalently, a*,b* of CIELAB). HSL L and HSV V, by contrast, diverge substantially from perceptual lightness.
{{multiple image
| align = center
| image1 = Fire breathing 2 Luc Viatour.jpg
| width1 = 220
| alt1 = A full-color image shows a high-contrast and quite dramatic scene of a fire breather with a large orange-yellow flame extending from his lips. He wears dark but colorful orange-red clothing.
| caption1 = Fig. 13a. Color photograph (sRGB colorspace).
| image2 = Fire-breather CIELAB L*.jpg
| width2 = 220
| alt2 = A grayscale image showing the CIELAB lightness component of the photograph appears to be a faithful rendering of the scene: it looks roughly like a black-and-white photograph taken on panchromatic film would look, with clear detail in the flame, which is much brighter than the man's outfit or the background.
| caption2 = Fig. 13b. CIELAB L* (further transformed back to sRGB for consistent display).
| image3 = Fire-breather 601 Luma Y'.jpg
| width3 = 220
| alt3 = A grayscale image showing the luma appears roughly similar to the CIELAB lightness image, but is a bit brighter in areas which were originally very colorful.
| caption3 = Fig. 13c. Rec. 601 luma {{nobr|Y'''}}.
| footer =
}}
Though none of the dimensions in these spaces match their perceptual analogs, the value of HSV and the saturation of HSL are particular offenders. In HSV, the blue primary and white are held to have the same value, even though perceptually the blue primary has somewhere around 10% of the luminance of white (the exact fraction depends on the particular RGB primaries in use). In HSL, a mix of 100% red, 100% green, 90% blue—that is, a very light yellow —is held to have the same saturation as the green primary even though the former color has almost no chroma or saturation by the conventional psychometric definitions. Such perversities led Cynthia Brewer, expert in color scheme choices for maps and information displays, to tell the American Statistical Association:
If these problems make HSL and HSV problematic for choosing colors or color schemes, they make them much worse for image adjustment. HSL and HSV, as Brewer mentioned, confound perceptual color-making attributes, so that changing any dimension results in non-uniform changes to all three perceptual dimensions, and distorts all of the color relationships in the image. For instance, rotating the hue of a pure dark blue toward green will also reduce its perceived chroma, and increase its perceived lightness (the latter is grayer and lighter), but the same hue rotation will have the opposite impact on lightness and chroma of a lighter bluish-green— to (the latter is more colorful and slightly darker). In the example below (), the image on the left (a) is the original photograph of a green turtle. In the middle image (b), we have rotated the hue (H) of each color by , while keeping HSV value and saturation or HSL lightness and saturation constant. In the image on the right (c), we make the same rotation to the HSL/HSV hue of each color, but then we force the CIELAB lightness (L*, a decent approximation of perceived lightness) to remain constant. Notice how the hue-shifted middle version without such a correction dramatically changes the perceived lightness relationships between colors in the image. In particular, the turtle's shell is much darker and has less contrast, and the background water is much lighter.
Because hue is a circular quantity, represented numerically with a discontinuity at 360°, it is difficult to use in statistical computations or quantitative comparisons: analysis requires the use of circular statistics. Furthermore, hue is defined piecewise, in 60° chunks, where the relationship of lightness, value, and chroma to R, G, and B depends on the hue chunk in question. This definition introduces discontinuities, corners which can plainly be seen in horizontal slices of HSL or HSV.
Charles Poynton, digital video expert, lists the above problems with HSL and HSV in his Color FAQ, and concludes that:
Other cylindrical-coordinate color models
The creators of HSL and HSV were far from the first to imagine colors fitting into conic or spherical shapes, with neutrals running from black to white in a central axis, and hues corresponding to angles around that axis. Similar arrangements date back to the 18th century, and continue to be developed in the most modern and scientific models.
Color conversion formulae
To convert from HSL or HSV to RGB, we essentially invert the steps listed above (as before, ). First, we compute chroma, by multiplying saturation by the maximum chroma for a given lightness or value. Next, we find the point on one of the bottom three faces of the RGB cube which has the same hue and chroma as our color (and therefore projects onto the same point in the chromaticity plane). Finally, we add equal amounts of R, G, and B to reach the proper lightness or value.
To RGB
HSL to RGB
Given a color with hue , saturation , and lightness , we first find chroma:
Then we can find a point along the bottom three faces of the RGB cube, with the same hue and chroma as our color (using the intermediate value X for the second largest component of this color):
In the above equation, the notation refers to the remainder of the Euclidean division of by 2. is not necessarily an integer.
When is an integer, the "neighbouring" formula would yield the same result, as or , as appropriate.
Finally, we can find R, G, and B by adding the same amount to each component, to match lightness:
HSL to RGB alternative
The polygonal piecewise functions can be somewhat simplified by a clever use of minimum and maximum values as well as the remainder operation.
Given a color with hue , saturation , and lightness , we first define the function:
where and:
And output R,G,B values (from ) are:
The above alternative formulas allow for shorter implementations. In the above formulas the operation also returns the fractional part of the module e.g. , and .
The base shape is constructed as follows: is a "triangle" for which values greater or equal to −1 start from k=2 and end at k=10, and the highest point is at k=6. Then by we change values bigger than 1 to equal 1. Then by we change values less than −1 to equal −1. At this point we get something similar to the red shape from fig. 24 after a vertical flip (where the maximum is 1 and the minimum is −1). The R,G,B functions of use this shape transformed in following way: modulo-shifted on (by ) (differently for R,G,B) scaled on (by ) and shifted on (by ).
We observe following shape properties (Fig. 24 can help to get intuition about them):
HSV to RGB
Given an HSV color with hue , saturation , and value , we can use the same strategy. First, we find chroma:
Then we can, again, find a point along the bottom three faces of the RGB cube, with the same hue and chroma as our color (using the intermediate value X for the second largest component of this color):
As before, when is an integer, "neighbouring" formulas would yield the same result.
Finally, we can find R, G, and B by adding the same amount to each component, to match value:
HSV to RGB alternative
Given a color with hue , saturation , and value , first we define function :
where and:
And output R,G,B values (from ) are:
Above alternative equivalent formulas allow shorter implementation. In above formulas the returns also fractional part of module e.g. the formula . The values of . The base shape
is constructed as follows: is "triangle" for which non-negative values starts from k=0, highest point at k=2 and "ends" at k=4, then we change values bigger than one to one by , then change negative values to zero by – and we get (for ) something similar to green shape from Fig. 24 (which max value is 1 and min value is 0). The R,G,B functions of use this shape transformed in following way: modulo-shifted on (by ) (differently for R,G,B) scaled on (by ) and shifted on (by ). We observe following shape properties(Fig. 24 can help to get intuition about this):
HSI to RGB
Given an HSI color with hue , saturation , and intensity , we can use the same strategy, in a slightly different order:
Where is the chroma.
Then we can, again, find a point along the bottom three faces of the RGB cube, with the same hue and chroma as our color (using the intermediate value X for the second largest component of this color):
Overlap (when is an integer) occurs because two ways to calculate the value are equivalent: or , as appropriate.
Finally, we can find R, G, and B by adding the same amount to each component, to match lightness:
Luma, chroma and hue to RGB
Given a color with hue , chroma , and luma , we can again use the same strategy. Since we already have H and C, we can straightaway find our point along the bottom three faces of the RGB cube:
Overlap (when is an integer) occurs because two ways to calculate the value are equivalent: or , as appropriate.
Then we can find R, G, and B by adding the same amount to each component, to match luma:
Interconversion
HSV to HSL
Given a color with hue , saturation , and value ,
HSL to HSV
Given a color with hue , saturation , and luminance ,
From RGB
This is a reiteration of the previous conversion.
Value must be in range .
With maximum component (i. e. value)
and minimum component
,
range (i. e. chroma)
and mid-range (i. e. lightness)
,
we get common hue:
and distinct saturations:
Swatches
Mouse over the swatches below to see the R, G, and B'' values for each swatch in a tooltip.
HSL
HSV
See also
TSL color space
Notes
References
Bibliography
Agoston's book contains a description of HSV and HSL, and algorithms in pseudocode for converting to each from RGB, and back again.
This computer vision literature review briefly summarizes research in color image segmentation, including that using HSV and HSI representations.
This book doesn't discuss HSL or HSV specifically, but is one of the most readable and precise resources about current color science.
The standard computer graphics textbook of the 1990s, this tome has a chapter full of algorithms for converting between color models, in C.
Joblove and Greenberg's paper was the first describing the HSL model, which it compares to HSV.
This book only briefly mentions HSL and HSV, but is a comprehensive description of color order systems through history.
This paper explains how both HSL and HSV, as well as other similar models, can be thought of as specific variants of a more general "GLHS" model. Levkowitz and Herman provide pseudocode for converting from RGB to GLHS and back.
. Especially the sections about "Modern Color Models" and "Modern Color Theory". MacEvoy's extensive site about color science and paint mixing is one of the best resources on the web. On this page, he explains the color-making attributes, and the general goals and history of color order systems—including HSL and HSV—and their practical relevance to painters.
This self-published frequently asked questions page, by digital video expert Charles Poynton, explains, among other things, why in his opinion these models "are useless for the specification of accurate color", and should be abandoned in favor of more psychometrically relevant models.
This is the original paper describing the "hexcone" model, HSV. Smith was a researcher at NYIT's Computer Graphics Lab. He describes HSV's use in an early digital painting program.
External links
Demonstrative color conversion applet
HSV Colors by Hector Zenil, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
HSV to RGB by CodeBeautify.
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|
252817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollis | Hollis | Hollis may refer to:
Hollis (singer)
Hollis (name)
Places
Hollis, Alaska
Hollis, Kansas
Hollis, Maine
Hollis, Missouri
Hollis, New Hampshire
Hollis, Oklahoma
Hollis, Queens, neighborhood in New York
Hollis (LIRR station), its Long Island Railroad station
See also
HOLLIS, acronym for Harvard Library's online catalog
Holi or Holli, Hindu festival, plural: "Hollis" | [
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|
252818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly%20%28disambiguation%29 | Holly (disambiguation) | Holly is a genus of about 400 species of flowering plants in the family Aquifoliaceae.
Holly may also refer to:
Name
Holly (name), including a list of people with the name
Places in the United States
Holly, Colorado, a Statutory Town
Holly, Michigan, a village
Holly, Texas, an unincorporated community
Holly, Washington, an unincorporated community
Holly, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
Holly Lake, Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming
Holly River, Virginia
Holly Township (disambiguation), several places
Arts, entertainment, and media
Fictional characters
Holly (Red Dwarf), the talking computer on the British TV series Red Dwarf
Holly Golightly (character), lead character in Truman Capote's novella Breakfast at Tiffany's and its various adaptations
Holly Flax, Human Resources representative and Michael Scott's love interest in American TV series The Office
Holly Maddox, June Osborne's mother introduced in season 2 of the series The Handmaid's Tale
Music
Holly (DJ), Portuguese musician
Holly (album), an album by Justin Nozuka
"Holly" (song), a 1967 song performed by Andy Williams
Sirius XM Holly, a Christmas music channel on North American satellite radio which replaces various channels during the Christmas season including Sirius XM Love
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Holly (film), a 2006 drama film starring Ron Livingston and Chris Penn
"Holly" (The Handmaid's Tale), a television episode
Brands and enterprises
Holly (automobile company), a defunct American automobile manufacturer (1911–1913)
Holly Corporation, an oil company headquartered in Dallas, Texa, now known as HollyFrontier
Holly Theatre (disambiguation), several places
Education
Holly Academy, Holly, Michigan, a charter school
Holly High School, Holly, Michigan
Other uses
Tropical Storm Holly, various named tropical cyclones
, two US Navy vessels
See also
Holley (disambiguation)
Hollie (disambiguation)
Hollies (disambiguation)
Mount Holly (disambiguation) | [
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|
252819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howell | Howell | Howell may refer to:
Places
The Original Howell
Howell, Lincolnshire, England
In the United States
Howell, Georgia
Howell, Michigan
Howell, Missouri
Howell, Utah
Howell Township, Michigan
Howell Township, New Jersey
Howell Township Public Schools
Howell High School (New Jersey)
Howell Living History Farm
Howell County, Missouri
Hugh Howell Road, Georgia
Howell Mountain AVA, an American Viticultural Area located in Napa County, California
Business establishments
Böwe Bell & Howell, manufacturer and supplier of media technologies
Howells (department store), large department store in Cardiff, Wales, established by James Howell
Howell, Soskin, a defunct American publisher acquired by Crown Books
John Howell & Son, British building and engineering company based in Hastings, Sussex, England
Other
Howell (name)
Howell torpedo, an early type of U.S. Navy torpedo
Howell, a table movement system used in duplicate bridge (see Duplicate bridge#Table movements)
Howell, a locality, Northern Tablelands, NSW, Australia
See also
Howells (disambiguation)
Justice Howell (disambiguation) | [
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|
252820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HLS | HLS | HLS may refer to:
Organisations
Harlington Locomotive Society, London, England
HealthSouth, a former American hospital operator
Huntingdon Life Sciences, a British contract research organisation
HLS Ost (; ), German WWII cryptanalysis station
Education
Harvard Law School, Cambridge, Massachusetts, US
Helen Lowry Higher Secondary School, Mizoram, India
Highlands Latin School, Louisville, Kentucky, US
Technology
HTTP Live Streaming, a media streaming communications protocol
HLS color space, a representation of points in an RGB color model
High-level synthesis, an automated design process
Transportation
Human Landing System, a NASA program to choose a Moon landing system for the 2020s
Starship Human Landing System, a modified version of the SpaceX Starship
Heavy Logistics System, a USAF program to develop the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, the winner of the USAF HLS project
Haiti Air Freight (ICAO airline code HLS); see List of defunct airlines of Haiti
St Helens Airport (IATA airport code HLS), Tasmania, Australia
Hilsea railway station (station code HLS), England, UK
Other uses
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland (German: Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz)
See also
Health and life sciences; see health sciences and life sciences
HL (disambiguation)
HIS (disambiguation) | [
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|
252822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Budde | Robert Budde | Robert Budde (born September 6, 1966) is a Canadian poet and novelist.
Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, he immigrated to Canada in 1970.
MA from University of Manitoba, PhD from University of Calgary.
Budde lives in Prince George, British Columbia and is currently a professor at the University of Northern British Columbia.
Bibliography
Poetry
Catch as Catch - 1994
traffick - 1997
Finding Fort George - 2007
Declining America - 2010
Dreamland Theatre - 2014
Novels
Misshapen - 1997
The Dying Poem - 2002
Short fiction
flicker - 2004
Non-fiction
Muddy Water: Conversations with 11 Poets - 2003
Anthologies
The More Easily Kept Illusions: The Poetry of Al Purdy - 2006
The Forestry Diversification Project - 2006
1966 births
Academics in British Columbia
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male poets
21st-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
Canadian male novelists
Canadian male short story writers
Canadian non-fiction writers
Writers from British Columbia
Living people
University of Northern British Columbia faculty
21st-century Canadian short story writers
20th-century Canadian short story writers
21st-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male non-fiction writers | [
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|
252823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugeen%20Van%20Mieghem | Eugeen Van Mieghem | Eugeen Van Mieghem (; October 1, 1875 – March 24, 1930) was an artist born in the port city of Antwerp, Belgium. As a boy Van Mieghem was confronted with the harsh reality of life at the waterfront.
In honour of his work, on her launch in 2011, a bulk carrier was named after Van Mieghem. While she plies her trade successfully, complaints have been made as regards the difficulty of spelling the vessels name.
Even at primary school he showed a talent for drawing. He was introduced to the work of Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Camille Pissarro, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and others at an exhibition organised by Flemish painter and architect Henry van de Velde at the Antwerp Academy around 1892. He attended the Antwerp Academy but was sent from school because his conservative teachers disliked his subject matter and his free, spontaneous way with it. He threw his lot in with progressive political and cultural movements, and joined an anarchist group. By the early 1900s was recognized as one of the most promising young artists of the Antwerp school. He would never renounce his idealism. He became the artist of the typical harbour folk: sack porters, sack makers, emigrants, dockers, bargees, and tramps.
Van Mieghem had his first taste of real success at La Libre Esthétique in Brussels, where his pastels and drawings hung alongside works by French impressionists such as Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne, Camille Pissarro, Jean Renoir and Édouard Vuillard.
Van Mieghem married Augustine Pautre in 1902. At the end of November 1904 his young wife fell ill. Van Mieghem depicted her in an impressive series of drawings and pastels that rate alongside similar work by artists such as Rembrandt (The Series of Saskia) and Ferdinand Hodler (Valentine Godé). Grief-stricken at the death of his wife, it was not before 1910 until Van Mieghem showed his work again.
After his first individual exhibition at Antwerp's Royal Society of Fine Arts in 1912, international interest in his work mounted and group exhibitions followed in Cologne and The Hague. In March 1919 he showed his wartime work in Antwerp. This remarkable series of mainly drawings and pastels met with the wide approval of art critics, who compared this work to that of Théophile-Alexandre Steinlen, Jean-Louis Forain, and Käthe Kollwitz. After an article by his friend and Flemish author Willem Elsschot appeared, Van Mieghem was also able to show his wartime work in a gallery in Scheveningen in The Netherlands. In 1929 he became a teacher of life drawing at the Academy in Antwerp and he participated in exhibitions every year until his death in 1930.
In European social art of the turn of the century, international art critics compare his work to that of figures like Käthe Kollwitz, de Toulouse-Lautrec, and Steinlen. Van Mieghem had no equal when it came down to drawing and painting the lives of ordinary people, living and working in an international seaport. When it comes to capturing social reality, his work has much of the power and authenticity of Jean-François Millet's. Like the precursor of social art, Van Mieghem never had to leave his own environment in search of subjects. The world was on his doorstep.
In recent years Van Mieghem's work has been rediscovered internationally. In 2000 a Steinlen retrospective at the Picasso Museum in Barcelona included seven of his works and brought international recognition for his work. In 1993, the Eugeen Van Mieghem Museum opened its doors in Antwerp, with a collection of 150 of his works. In 2017 the Hugh Lane Gallery (Dublin, Ireland) exhibited several of his works.
Notes
Sources
P. & V. Berko, "Dictionary of Belgian painters born between 1750 & 1875", Knokke 1981, p. 712-713.
External links
Van Mieghem Museum (Ernest Van Dijckkaai 9, B 2000 Antwerpen, tel. 32.3.211.03.30 mail: [email protected]).
The exhibition 'Off to the New World - Emigrants by Eugeen Van Mieghem' at the Jewish Historical Museum in Amsterdam ran from 24 October 2003 until 2 February 2004.
The exhibition 'Antwerp=America, Eugeen Van Mieghem and the Emigrants of the Red Star Line' at the South Street Seaport Museum in New York ran in 2006.
Visiting The Eugeen Van Mieghem Museum and La Rade Building in Antwerp, Belgium
1875 births
1930 deaths
Belgian anarchists
Royal Academy of Fine Arts (Antwerp) faculty
20th-century Belgian painters | [
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|
252825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane%20%28disambiguation%29 | Hurricane (disambiguation) | A hurricane, also called a tropical cyclone, is a rapidly rotating storm system.
Hurricane may also refer to:
Film
Hurricane (1929 film), a film by Ralph Ince
The Hurricane (1937 film), a film by John Ford
Hurricane (1974 film), an American TV film by Jerry Jameson
Hurricane (1979 film), a film starring Mia Farrow
The Hurricane (1999 film), a film starring Denzel Washington
Hurricane (2018 film), a 2018 film starring Iwan Rheon
Literature
The Hurricane (novel) (1936), a novel by Charles Nordhoff and James Norman Hall
Hurricane (comics), various unrelated Marvel Comics characters
Military
Hawker Hurricane, a British Second World War fighter aircraft
Hurricane, nickname of the US Army's 48th Armored Division
Music
Groups
Hurricane (American band), American metal band
Hurricane (Serbian band), Serbian group group
Hurricane #1, UK pop group
The Hurricanes, British R&B band
The Hurricanes, Australian band featuring Terry Britten
Albums
Hurricane (Eric Benét album) (2005)
Hurricane (Nick Fradiani album) (2016)
Hurricane (Natalie Grant album) (2013)
Hurricane #1, a 1997 album by Hurricane #1
Hurricane (Grace Jones album) (2008)
Hurricane (Middle Class Rut album) (2011)
Hurricane, a 1996 album by Agatha Christie
Songs
"Hurricane" (Athlete song) (2007)
"Hurricane" (Lauren Bennett song) (2016)
"Hurricane" (The Click song) (1995)
"Hurricane" (Luke Combs song) (2016)
"Hurricane" (Cradle to the Grave), a 1997 song recorded by Grace Jones
"Hurricane" (Bob Dylan song) (1975)
"Hurricane" (Leon Everette song) (1981)
"Hurricane" (Natalie Grant song) (2013)
"Hurricane" (Halsey song) (2014)
"Hurricane" (Lead song) (2011)
"Hurricane" (Lifehouse song) (2015)
"Hurricane" (Bridgit Mendler song) (2012)
"Hurricane" (Puffy AmiYumi song) (1981)
"Hurricanes" (Pull Tiger Tail song) (2007)
"Hurricane" (Rebound! song) (2010)
"Hurricane" (Thirty Seconds to Mars song) (2011)
"Hurricane" (Thrice song) (2017)
"Hurricane" (Kanye West song), a song by Kanye West from Donda
"Hurricane" (Westend song), the Austrian entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 1983
"Hurricane", a song by B.A.P. from Badman EP
"Hurricane", a song by Kim Carnes from Café Racers
"Hurricane", a song by Cascada from Waterfall: The Essential Dance Remix Collection
"Hurricane", a song by Collective Soul from See What You Started by Continuing
"Hurricane", a song by Cover Drive from Bajan Style
"Hurricane", a song by Ilse DeLange
"Hurricanes", a song by Dido from Still on My Mind
"Hurricane", a song by Faker from Addicted Romantic
"Hurricane", a song by The Fray from Helios
"Hurricane", a song by The Hush Sound from Goodbye Blues
"Hurricane", a song by Natalie Imbruglia from White Lilies Island
"Hurricane", a song by Infernal
"Hurricane", a song by Kyuss from ...And the Circus Leaves Town
"Hurricane", a song by MS MR
"Hurricane", a song by Needtobreathe from The Outsiders
"Hurricane", a song by Panic! at the Disco from Vices & Virtues
"Hurricane", a song by Alyssa Reid from Time Bomb
"Hurricane", a song by The Roots, Common and Mos Def from the soundtrack for the film The Hurricane
"Hurricane", a song by Samestate
"Hurricane (The Formal Weather Pattern)", a song by Something Corporate from Audioboxer
"Hurricane", a song by Theory of a Deadman from The Truth Is...
"Hurricane", a song by The Vamps from Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day
"Hurricane", a song by Warm Jets from Future Signs
"Hurricane", a song from the musical Hamilton
Places
Australia
Hurricane, Queensland, a locality in the Shire of Mareeba
United States
Inhabited places
Hurricane, Alabama, an unincorporated community
Hurricane, Kentucky, an unincorporated community
Hurricane, Bollinger County, Missouri, an unincorporated community
Hurricane, Washington County, Missouri, an unincorporated community
Hurricane, North Carolina, an unincorporated community
Hurricane, Utah, a city
Hurricane, West Virginia, a city
Hurricane, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Natural formations
Hurricane Canal, an irrigation canal near Hurricane, Utah
Hurricane Cliffs, in Utah and Arizona
Hurricane Hill, Olympic National Park, Washington
Hurricane Lake, a lake in Minnesota
Hurricane Mesa, a landform near Hurricane, Utah
Hurricane Pass, Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming
Hurricane Plantation, near Vicksburg, Mississippi
Hurricane Ridge, Olympic National Park, Washington
Rides
Hurricane (ride), an amusement ride first manufactured by Frank Hrubrtz & Co
Hurricane: Category 5, a demolished roller coaster at the former Myrtle Beach Pavilion
Hurricane (Fun Spot America), a roller coaster located at Fun Spot America in Kissimmee, Florida
Schools
Hurricane High School (Utah)
Hurricane High School (West Virginia)
Ships
Hurricane (clipper), a clipper ship built in New Jersey in 1851
HMS Hurricane (H06), a Royal Navy destroyer built in 1940
USS Hurricane (PC-3), a US Navy patrol ship built in 1992
Sport
Canada
Guelph Hurricanes, a Canadian junior ice hockey team from Guelph, Ontario
Lethbridge Hurricanes, a Canadian junior ice hockey team from Lethbridge, Alberta
Newmarket Hurricanes, a Canadian junior ice hockey team from Newmarket, Ontario
Toronto RCAF Hurricanes, a former rugby football team in Ontario
Waterloo Hurricanes, a former junior ice hockey team based in Waterloo, Ontario,
Westfort Hurricanes, a former Canadian Junior ice hockey club from Fort William, Ontario
Denmark
Hørsholm Hurricanes, a softball club based in Denmark
Germany
Kiel Baltic Hurricanes, an American football team in Kiel, Germany
Saarland Hurricanes, an American football team in Saarbrücken, Germany
Hungary
Budapest Hurricanes, an American football team based in Budapest, Hungary
Jamaica
Hurricanes Rugby League, a Jamaican rugby league team
Japan
Hurricanes (X-League), an American football team in Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
New Zealand
Hurricanes (rugby union), a rugby union team in the Super Rugby competition based in Wellington, New Zealand
United Kingdom
Midlands Hurricanes, a semi-professional rugby league team in Coventry, England
Dundee Hurricanes, an American football team based in Dundee, Scotland
Paisley Hurricanes, an amateur rugby league team in Paisley, Scotland
United States
Carolina Hurricanes, a National Hockey League team in Raleigh, North Carolina
Harmarville Hurricanes, a former amateur soccer team in Harmarville, Pennsylvania
Hartford Hurricanes, a 1940s American Basketball League team in Hartford, Connecticut
Holyoke Hurricanes, a defunct Independent Women's Football League team, Holyoke, Massachusetts
Honolulu Hurricanes, a former professional Indoor Football League team in Honolulu, Hawaii
Houston Hurricane, a former North American Soccer League team in Houston, Texas
Houston Hurricanes, a former United Soccer Leagues team in Houston, Texas
Houston Hurricanes FC, an American soccer club based in Houston, Texas
Miami Hurricanes, the athletic teams of the University of Miami, Florida
Tulsa Golden Hurricane, the athletic teams of the University of Tulsa, Oklahoma
Television
Hurricanes (TV series), a UK TV series about a fictional soccer team
"Hurricane!" (American Dad!), a 2011 episode of American Dad!
"Hurricane!" (Nova), a 1989 episode of Nova
"The Hurricane!", a 2011 episode of The Cleveland Show
Breaux Greer or Hurricane (born 1976), gladiator on American Gladiators
Hurricane, a supervillain in the TV series Black Scorpion
Transportation
GWR Hurricane locomotive, a broad gauge locomotive of the Great Western Railway
Hurricane, a GWR 3031 Class locomotive on the Great Western Railway between 1891 and 1915
Jeep Hurricane, a 2005 concept vehicle
RAE Hurricane, a light monoplane of the 1920s
Willys Hurricane engine
Honda Hurricane (disambiguation), a number of Honda motorcycles
Hurricane, a Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway locomotive
Project Hurricane, Ford Boss engine
Other uses
Hurricane (painting), a 1944 painting by John Marin
Hurricane (cocktail), an alcoholic drink
Hurricane (nickname)
Hurricane (pinball), a pinball game by Williams Electronics
Hurricane Festival, a German rock music festival
Hurricane lamp, a type of kerosene lantern
The Hurricane and Rosey, a WWE professional wrestling tag team
ACA Hurricane, a 1970s civil defense siren made by American Signal Corporation
Gregory Helms or the Hurricane (born 1974), professional wrestler
People with the name
Al Hurricane (1936–2017), American singer-songwriter
Hurricane Ryu (born 1958), Japanese actor and manga artist
Norman Smith (record producer) or Hurricane Smith (1923–2008), English recording engineer and producer
DJ Hurricane (born 1965), American rapper and DJ
Hurricane Chris (rapper) (born 1989), American rapper
Hurricane G, American rapper
See also
Hurricane Creek (disambiguation)
Hurricane Mountain (disambiguation)
Harry Kane (disambiguation)
Hurriganes, a 1970s Finnish rock band
Operation Hurricane (disambiguation) | [
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|
252826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Fisher%20%28academic%29 | Roger Fisher (academic) | Roger D. Fisher (May 28, 1922 – August 25, 2012) was Samuel Williston Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and director of the Harvard Negotiation Project.
Background
Fisher specialized in negotiation and conflict management. He was the co-author (with William Ury) of the book Getting to Yes, about "interest-based" negotiation, as well as numerous other publications. After serving in WWII as a weather reconnaissance pilot, Fisher worked on the Marshall Plan in Paris under W. Averell Harriman. After finishing his law degree at Harvard, he worked with the Washington, DC, law firm of Covington & Burling, arguing several cases before the US Supreme Court and advising on several international disputes. He returned to Harvard Law School and became a professor there in 1958. After having lost many of his friends in the war and seeing so many costly disputes as a litigator, Fisher became intrigued with the art and science of how we manage our differences. Fisher and his students at the Harvard Negotiation Project (founded in 1979) began interviewing people who were known as skilled negotiators in order to understand what made them effective. And he started his study of conflict with the question, "What advice could I give to both parties in a dispute that would be helpful and lead to better outcomes?" This work led to the draft, "International Mediation: A Working Guide" (April, 1978), and, eventually, to the international best-seller, Getting to YES.
In the late 1960s, Fisher conceived of a court-style debate show that handled one contemporary policy issue each week. The Advocates premiered in October 1969 on WGBH-TV.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Roger Fisher and his colleagues taught courses on negotiation and conflict management at Harvard, but they also worked as advisors on real negotiations and conflicts of all types, worldwide; including peace processes, hostage crises, diplomatic negotiations, and commercial and legal negotiations and disputes. Fisher believed that keeping one foot in the real world helping people with real disputes was critical to producing theory and tools useful in the real world. This tradition at the Harvard Negotiation Project produced a community of thinkers and practitioners that now spans the globe.
Fisher continued to teach and write through his sixties, seventies and eighties. Follow-up books expanded his thinking about dealing with relationship challenges (Getting Together with Scott Brown), preparing effectively (Getting Ready to Negotiate with Danny Ertel), tools for dealing with bad actors and challenging parties (Beyond Machiavelli with Elizabeth Kopelman and Andrea Kupfer Schneider), galvanizing a group to do effective problem-solving (Getting It Done: How to Lead When You're Not in Charge with Alan Sharp and John Richardson), and the role of emotions in working relationships (Beyond Reason with Daniel Shapiro). In addition, colleagues at the Harvard Negotiation Project expanded the tradition Fisher founded and led. William Ury published Getting to Peace (1999), Getting Past No (1993), The Third Side: Why We Fight and How We Can Stop (2000) and The Power of a Positive No (2007). Douglas Stone, Bruce Patton and Sheila Heen produced Difficult Conversations: How to Talk About What Matters Most (1999).
Fisher's 2005 work, (with co-author Daniel Shapiro, a Harvard psychologist) identifies five "core concerns" that everyone cares about: autonomy, affiliation, appreciation, status, and role. The book shows how to use the core concerns to stimulate helpful emotions in negotiations ranging from the personal to international. In Beyond Reason, Fisher documents many of his first-hand experiences negotiating around the world, from his involvement in negotiating the Iran hostage crisis to his advisory role in helping Jamil Mahuad, President of Ecuador (1998–2000), resolve a long-standing international border dispute.
Fisher received his bachelor's degree from Harvard in 1943 and his law degree from Harvard Law School in 1948. He taught at Harvard from 1958 to 1992.
In 1984, Fisher founded the Conflict Management Group (CMG) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. CMG specialized in facilitating negotiations in conflicts worldwide. CMG merged with the Mercy Corps humanitarian group in 2004. He was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and of the International Editorial Board of the Cambridge Review of International Affairs.
International work
Throughout his career Fisher made significant efforts to seek peace in the Middle East. Among these efforts included his involvement in Sadat's trip to Jerusalem and the Camp David summit that led to an Israeli–Egyptian peace treaty. In this latter case, he helped devise a process called the one-text, where a facilitator shuttled back and forth between the parties, refining a proposed document until it could not satisfy the parties interests more effectively at which point the parties either approve the document or agree to start from scratch. President Carter and Secretary of State Vance created 23 drafts in 13 days before they had a proposal to which both sides could say yes.
He advised both the Iranian and United States governments in negotiations for the release of the American hostages in 1981 where his work helped lead to the breakthrough that enabled the resolution.
In the 1980s Fisher worked to bring peace to El Salvador. Later in his career, he helped resolve the longest-running war in the western hemisphere between Ecuador and Peru. Jamil Mahuad, the president of Ecuador and a former student of Fisher's asked for Fisher's advice soon after taking power in 1998. Fisher, worried that domestic hardliners could cause either President to use the negotiations to posture advised President Mahuad to avoid the typical photograph of the two presidents shaking hands and instead get a photo of the two leaders sitting side-by-side working off a common document. This photo (copy can be seen here ) helped signal to the public in each country that the presidents would not be taking an adversarial approach to the negotiation and helped lower rhetoric on both sides.
In South Africa Fisher worked on the negotiations and constitutional process that led to the end of apartheid in South Africa.
From the 1980s through mid 1990s Roger Fisher and his colleagues at the Conflict Management group, at the direction of then Archbishop Desmond Tutu and Bishop Joseph Seoka, the African National Congress, the National Party, the Dutch Reformed Church, AZAPO, and the Inkatha Freedom Party taught interest-based negotiation process to the leaders of all the factions as well as advised them and their negotiators. The lead constitutional negotiators, Cyril Ramaphosa and Roelf Meyer later stated in an interview that the cooperative interest-based negotiation process taught by Fisher and his team was the approach that they, their principals, and their constituencies used to hammer out the new constitution and democratic elections process.
Preventing nuclear war
Fisher was known for a unique idea towards nuclear deterrence. In a March 1981 article in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, while discussing the importance on reaching a "wise decision", especially in terms of nuclear arms, he suggested implanting the nuclear launch codes in a volunteer. If the President of the United States wanted to activate nuclear weapons, he would be required to kill the volunteer to retrieve the codes.
See also
Program on Negotiation
Bibliography
Fisher, Roger, ed. (1964). International Conflict and Behavioral Science: The Craigville Papers. New York: Basic.
Fisher, Roger (1969). International Conflict for Beginners (foreword by Senator Edward M. Kennedy, illustrations by Robert C. Osborn). New York: Harper & Row.
Fisher, Roger (1972). Dear Israelis, Dear Arabs: A Working Approach to Peace. New York: Harper & Row.
Fisher, Roger (1978). International Crises and the Role of Law: Points of Choice. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Fisher, Roger, and William Ury (1981). Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Fisher, Roger (1981). Improving Compliance with International Law. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
Fisher, Roger, and Scott Brown (1988). Getting Together: Building a Relationship That Gets to Yes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780395470992. (Published in 1989 as Getting Together: Building Relationships as We Negotiate. New York: Penguin. ISBN 9780140126389.)
Fisher, Roger, William Ury, and Bruce Patton (1991). Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In, 2nd ed. New York: Penguin.
Fisher, Roger, Elizabeth Kopelman, and Andrea Kupfer Schneider (1994). Beyond Machiavelli: Tools for Coping with Conflict. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Fisher, Roger and Danny Ertel (1995). Getting Ready to Negotiate: The Getting to Yes Workbook. New York: Penguin.
Fisher, Roger, Andrea Kupfer Schneider, Elizabeth Borgwardt, and Brian Ganson (1997). Coping with International Conflict: A Systematic Approach to Influence in International Negotiation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Fisher, Roger, Alan Sharp, and John Richardson (1999). Getting It Done: How to Lead When You're Not in Charge. New York: HarperBusiness.
Fisher, Roger, and Daniel Shapiro (2005). Beyond Reason: Using Emotions as You Negotiate. New York: Viking/Penguin.
Fisher, Roger, William Ury, and Bruce Patton (2011). Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In, 3rd ed. New York: Penguin.
References
External links
Faculty Directory entry
Harvard Negotiation Project
Beyond Reason website: Full of free negotiation preparation and teaching resources
The Advocates: Full length programs of Fisher's show on PBS
1922 births
2012 deaths
American instructional writers
American social sciences writers
Harvard Law School alumni
Harvard Law School faculty
Negotiation scholars
People associated with Covington & Burling
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
United States Army Air Forces officers | [
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|
252827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGBA%20color%20model | RGBA color model | RGBA stands for red green blue alpha. While it is sometimes described as a color space, it is actually a three-channel RGB color model supplemented with a fourth alpha channel. Alpha indicates how opaque each pixel is and allows an image to be combined over others using alpha compositing, with transparent areas and anti-aliasing of the edges of opaque regions.
The term does not define what RGB color space is being used. It also does not state whether or not the colors are premultiplied by the alpha value, and if they are it does not state what color space that premultiplication was done in. This means more information than just "RGBA" is needed to determine how to handle an image.
In some contexts the abbreviation "RGBA" means a specific memory layout (called RGBA8888 below), with other terms such as "BGRA" used for alternatives. In other contexts "RGBA" means any layout.
Representation
In computer graphics, pixels encoding the RGBA color space information must be stored in computer memory (or in files on disk). In most cases four equal-sized pieces of adjacent memory are used, one for each channel, and a 0 in a channel indicates black color or transparent alpha, while all-1 bits indicates white or fully opaque alpha. By far the most common format is to store 8 bits (one byte) for each channel, which is 32 bits for each pixel.
The order of these four bytes in memory can differ, which can lead to confusion when image data is exchanged. These encodings are often denoted by the four letters in some order (e.g. RGBA, ARGB, etc.). The interpretation of these 4-letter mnemonics is not well established. There are two typical ways to understand a mnemonic such as "RGBA":
In the byte-order scheme, "RGBA" is understood to mean a byte R, followed by a byte G, followed by a byte B, and followed by a byte A. This scheme is commonly used for describing file formats or network protocols, which are both byte-oriented.
In the word-order scheme, "RGBA" is understood to represent a complete 32-bit word, where R is more significant than G, which is more significant than B, which is more significant than A.
In a big-endian system, the two schemes are equivalent. This is not the case for a little-endian system, where the two mnemonics are reverses of each other. Therefore, to be unambiguous, it is important to state which ordering is used when referring to the encoding. This article will use a scheme that has some popularity, which is to add the suffix "8888" to indicate if 4 8-bit units or "32" if one 32-bit unit are being discussed.
RGBA8888
In OpenGL and Portable Network Graphics (PNG), the RGBA byte order is used, where the colors are stored in memory such that R is at the lowest address, G after it, B after that, and A last. On a little endian architecture this is equivalent to ABGR32.
In many systems when there are more than 8 bits per channel (such as 16 bits or floating-point), the channels are stored in RGBA order, even if 8-bit channels are stored in some other order.
ARGB32
The channels are arranged in memory in such manner that a single 32-bit unsigned integer has the alpha sample in the highest 8 bits, followed by the red sample, green sample and finally the blue sample in the lowest 8 bits:
ARGB values are typically expressed using 8 hexadecimal digits, with each pair of the hexadecimal digits representing the values of the Alpha, Red, Green and Blue channel, respectively. For example, 80FFFF00 represents 50.2% opaque (non-premultiplied) yellow. The 80 hex value, which is 128 in decimal, represents a 50.2% alpha value because 128 is approximately 50.2% of the maximum value of 255 (FF hex); to continue to decipher the 80FFFF00 value, the first FF represents the maximum value red can have; the second FF is like the previous but for green; the final 00 represents the minimum value blue can have (effectively – no blue). Consequently, red + green yields yellow. In cases where the alpha is not used this can be shortened to 6 digits RRGGBB, this is why it was chosen to put the alpha in the top bits. Depending on the context a 0x or a number sign (#) is put before the hex digits.
This layout became popular when 24-bit color (and 32-bit RGBA) was introduced on personal computers. At the time it was much faster and easier for programs to manipulate one 32-bit unit than four 8-bit units.
On little-endian systems, this is equivalent to BGRA byte order. On big-endian systems, this is equivalent to ARGB byte order.
RGBA32
In some software originating on big-endian machines such as Silicon Graphics, colors were stored in 32 bits similar to ARGB32, but with the alpha in the bottom 8 bits rather than the top. For example, 808000FF would be Red and Green:50.2%, Blue:0% and Alpha:100%, a brown. This is what you would get if RGBA8888 data was read as words on these machines. It is used in Portable Arbitrary Map and in FLTK, but in general it is rare.
The bytes are stored in memory on a little-endian machine in the order ABGR.
See also
Portable Network Graphics
References
External links
Alpha transparency on W3C PNG specification
RGBA Colors – Preview page with implementation info on CSS3.info
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|
252828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble%20Hill | Marble Hill | Marble Hill is the name of:
Australia
Marble Hill, South Australia, the vice-regal residence in the Adelaide Hills
Ireland
Marble Hill, County Donegal, a village in County Donegal
United Kingdom
Marble Hill House, a villa on the banks of the River Thames near London
Marble Hill Park, an English Heritage park surrounding Marble Hill House
United States
Marble Hill, Indiana
Marble Hill, Missouri
Marble Hill, Manhattan, a section of the borough of Manhattan in New York City
Marble Hill – 225th Street (IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line), a subway station serving that neighborhood via the train
Marble Hill (Metro-North station), a Metro-North Hudson Line commuter rail station serving that neighborhood
Marble Hill, Tennessee, a neighborhood in Lynchburg
Marble Hill Nuclear Power Plant, an unfinished nuclear power plant in southern Indiana, USA
See also
Marblehill, Georgia, a town in Pickens County, Georgia, U.S.
Marble Hills, a range of hills in West Antarctica | [
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|
252830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20Informix-4GL | IBM Informix-4GL | Informix-4GL is a 4GL programming language developed by Informix during the mid-1980s. At the time of its initial release in 1986, supported platforms included Microsoft Xenix (on IBM PC AT), DEC Ultrix (running on Microvax II, VAX-11/750, VAX-11/785, VAX 8600), Altos 2086, AT&T 3B2, AT&T 3B5, AT&T 3B20 and AT&T Unix PC.
Description
It includes embedded SQL, a report writer language, a form language, and a limited set of imperative capabilities (functions, if and while statements, and supports arrays etc.). The language is particularly close to a natural language and is easy to learn and use.
It has two versions of compiler which either produce 1) intermediate byte code for an interpreter (known as the rapid development system), or 2) C Programming Language code for compilation with a C compiler into machine-code (which executes faster, but compiles slower, and executables are bigger). It is specifically designed to run as a client on a network, connected to an IBM Informix database engine service. It has a mechanism for calling C Programming Language functions and conversely, to be called from executing C programs. The RDS version also features an interactive debugger for Dumb terminals. A particular feature is the comprehensive error checking which is built into the final executable and the extremely helpful error messages produced by both compilers and executables. It also features embedded modal statements for changing compiler and executable behaviour (e.g. causing the compiler to include memory structures matching database schema structures and elements, or to continue executing in spite of error conditions, which can be trapped later on).
History
The Informix-4GL project was started in 1985, with Chris Maloney as chief architect. Roy Harrington was in charge of the related Informix Turbo (later renamed Online) engine, which bypassed the "cooked" file system in favour of "raw" disk. A Rapid Application Development Tool called FourGen CASE Tools, was bundled with Informix-4GL from 1989 to 1996. Another flavor of Informix programming-tool was produced, called "NewEra", which supported object-oriented programming and a level of code-compatibility with Informix-4GL.
Informix was acquired by IBM in April 2001.
Despite its age, Informix-4GL is still widely used to develop business applications, and a sizable market exists around it due to its popularity. With accounting being an inherently text based activity, it is often chosen for its purely text-based interface to optimize data entry efficiency.
References
Fourth-generation programming languages
Informix-4GL | [
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252831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble%20Hill%2C%20Manhattan | Marble Hill, Manhattan | Marble Hill is the northernmost neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan. It is one of the few areas within the borough of Manhattan not located on Manhattan Island. Marble Hill was occupied as a Dutch colonial settlement in 1646, and gained its current name in 1891 because of marble deposits underneath the neighborhood.
Politically a part of New York County, Marble Hill became an island in the Harlem River when it was separated from the island of Manhattan by the construction of the Harlem Ship Canal in 1895. In 1914, the Harlem River on the north side of Marble Hill was fully diverted to the Canal, with landfill connecting the neighborhood to the Bronx. The boundaries of the neighborhood are approximately between Terrace View Avenue and Johnson Avenue to the west, between 228th Street and 230th Street to the north, and cutting through the Marble Hill Houses and River Plaza Shopping Center to the east.
Because of this change in topography, Marble Hill is often associated with the Bronx and is part of Bronx Community District 8. In addition, Marble Hill has a Bronx ZIP Code of 10463, and is served by the New York City Police Department's 50th Precinct, headquartered in the Bronx. Unlike the rest of Manhattan, it carries the Bronx area codes 718, 347, and 929, which are overlaid by the citywide area code 917.
History
Colonization
Marble Hill has been occupied since the Dutch colonial period. On August 18, 1646, Governor Willem Kieft, the Dutch Director of New Netherland, signed a land grant to Mattius Jansen van Keulan and Huyck Aertsen which included the whole of the present community. Johannes Verveelen petitioned the Harlem authorities to move his ferry from what is now the East River and 125th Street to Spuyten Duyvil Creek because the creek was shallow enough to wade across, thus providing a means of evading the toll. The ferry charter was granted in 1667. Many settlers circumvented the toll for the ferry by crossing the creek from northern Marble Hill to modern Kingsbridge, Bronx, a point where it was feasible to wade or swim through the waters. In 1669 Verveelen transplanted his ferry to the northern tip of Marble Hill, at today's Broadway and West 231st Street.
Bridges
Two bridges connected Marble Hill with the mainland: the King's Bridge and the Dyckman Free Bridge. In 1693 Frederick Philipse, a Dutch nobleman who had sworn allegiance to the Crown upon the British takeover of Dutch New Netherlands, built the King's Bridge at Marble Hill near what is now West 230th Street in the Bronx. Originally a merchant in New Amsterdam, Philipse had purchased vast landholdings in what was then Westchester County. Granted the title Lord of Philipse Manor, he established a plantation and provisioning depot for his shipping business upriver on the Hudson in present-day Sleepy Hollow. His toll bridge provided access and opened his land to settlement. Later, it carried the Boston Post Road.In 1758, the Free Bridge was erected by Jacob Dyckman and Benjamin Palmer. It opened on January 1, 1759. Its purpose was to serve the farmers who refused to pay the toll. Stagecoach service was later established across the span. The new bridge proceeded to take much of the traffic away from the King's Bridge.
One of the local visiting spots during this period was a tavern operated by the Dyckman family. They had a tavern called the Black Horse Inn, located just south of McGowan's Pass in what is now East Drive of Central Park, near 102nd Street. The Dyckmans sold the Black Horse to finance a new operation on the west side of Broadway and 226th Street that was to be managed by Benjamin Palmer, who owned property on City Island. It was situated to cater to the traffic from both bridges. In 1772 the Dyckmans sold the tavern to Caleb Hyatt and was known by the new owner's name as Hyatt's Tavern at the Free Bridge.
During and after the American Revolution
When hostilities broke out at the start of the American Revolution, the Continental Army constructed a fort on Marble Hill as part of a series of forts to defend the area. By November 1776, the fort had been taken over by Hessian forces and renamed Fort Prince Charles in honor of Charles, Duke of Brunswick, brother-in-law to George III. Despite contrary beliefs, the King's Bridge and the Dyckman Free Bridge served as escape routes for the retreating American forces after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16, 1776. The latter of these bridges was destroyed during the war. In January 1777, an American attack was made in the Marble Hill area against the Hessian occupiers. This particular raid was under the command of General William Heath, which, when the cannons opened up, forced the Hessians to retreat from the tavern to the fort to return fire.
Hyatt's Tavern remained in the Hyatt family until 1807, when it was leased to James Devoe. The building was eventually razed, succeeded by the Kingsbridge Hotel on the east side of Broadway at 226th Street. The hotel had a mansard roof and a central turret. It catered to the anglers and sportsman who came to the area either by the Hudson River Railroad Company or boat service up the Harlem River. One of the meals served at the hotel was turtle dinner, which became a favorite of the guests. The hotel's business declined when Broadway was widened and interest was lost in the community. The hotel eventually fell into disrepair and was torn down in 1917.
Philipse Manor was also forfeited to the state legislature after the war. Afterward, the King's Bridge was free. In 1817, Curtis and John Bolton purchased land in the area, laying a road called Bolton Road. Their home was on the south side of the community and included a marble mill.
The name of Marble Hill was conceived when Darius C. Crosby came up with the name in 1891 from the deposits of dolomite marble underlying it, a relatively soft rock that crops out in Inwood and Marble Hill, known as Inwood marble. The marble was quarried for the federal buildings in lower Manhattan when New York was the capital of the United States in the 1780s.
Saint Stephen's United Methodist Church, a community fixture since its 1898 construction, is located at 228th Street and Marble Hill Avenue. It is the third structure of the same name, as well as one of the oldest remaining buildings in Marble Hill. The congregation was founded on Mosholu Parkway in 1826 and was incorporated a decade later, making it one of the earliest religious institutions in the area. It moved to another structure in Riverdale in 1876. The church building was restored in the 1950s, and again in 2010. One of its corners, the one closest to the intersection, has a tall bell tower. There are circular stained glass windows facing both streets. Inside is an Akron Plan-inspired setup with balconies and an auditorium that is laid out like an amphitheater. One of the pastors of St. Stephen's was Reverend William Tieck, who served the church from 1946 to 1977. Tieck was the official Bronx County historian from 1989 to 1996, authoring several books about the Bronx.
Separation from Manhattan Island
After an increase in ship traffic in the 1890s, the United States Army Corps of Engineers determined that a wide canal was needed for a shipping route between the Hudson and Harlem rivers. Such a canal had been proposed since the early 19th century. In the 1810s, a narrow canal had been dug through the south end of Marble Hill at approximately 222nd Street, known as "Boltons' Canal" or "Dyckman Canal".
Construction of such a waterway, the Harlem River Ship Channel, finally started in January 1888. The canal was to be in width and had a depth of to . It would be cut directly through the rock of Dyckman's Meadow, making a straight course to the Hudson River.
The first section of the canal, the cut at Marble Hill, was completed in 1895 and opened on June 17 of that year. Several festivities including parades were held to commemorate the occasion. This rendered Marble Hill an island bounded by the canal to the south and the original course of the Harlem River to the north. The Greater New York Charter of 1897 designated Marble Hill as part of the Borough of Manhattan. A bridge opened over the former Marble Hill alignment of the creek in 1900, carrying Broadway. The bridge's superstructure was demolished shortly afterward, with the construction of the IRT subway above Broadway in 1904.
Effective January 1, 1914, by an act of the New York State Legislature, Bronx County was created, but Marble Hill remained as part of New York County. Later in 1914, the old river was filled in with of landfill, physically connecting Marble Hill to the Bronx and the rest of the North American mainland. Both the King's and Dyckman Free Bridges were covered over with landfill. The bridge carrying Broadway over the former alignment of the creek at 230th Street was destroyed in the late 1920s. At 210 West 230th Street, at the southwest corner with Broadway, is a plaque designating the area as the site of the King's Bridge. The site of the Dyckman Free Bridge is located on the grounds of today's Marble Hill Houses.
Character
Housing
Six-story apartment houses were constructed in the 20th century, and in the early 1950s urban renewal came to the area. A complex was built bounded by Broadway, Exterior Street and 225th Street and was called the Marble Hill Houses. This property was acquired by New York City on August 26, 1948. The houses were completed in 1952. Part of the acquisition became the Marble Hill Playground, which is located on Marble Hill Avenue between 228th and 230th Streets. Despite the name, only seven of the 11 towers are actually in Marble Hill; the other four are in Kingsbridge.
Out of Marble Hill's 4,000 households, only 135 lived in private houses , down from 138 such households in 1989. The majority of Marble Hill's 9,481 residents (as of the 2010 United States Census) live in the Marble Hill Houses. There are also Art Deco apartment buildings lining some streets. These buildings even boast one pedestrian alley, Marble Hill Lane, in a manner similar to in Inwood and surrounding Bronx neighborhoods.
Private residences in Marble Hill include detached single- and two-story houses. It is not uncommon to see a detached house next to a multilevel apartment building in Marble Hill. The neighborhood is described as cozy, with neighbors watching out for one another, and a sense of "community spirit." The blocks of Marble Hill with these single-story houses were described as a "well-kept secret": relatively cheap, with ample space and a backyard. In 1995 one reporter wrote of these houses, "Where else in Manhattan can you find a six-bedroom, three-story house on a quiet, tree-lined street with an attic, a basement, an enclosed front porch and a pretty facade for sale for $174,000? Or a three-family house with six bedrooms on an architecturally magnificent street with an asking price of $295,000?"
Street naming
Many of the neighborhood's streets were named for Dutch settlers to Marble Hill. For instance, Teunissen Place, a dead-end alley off Terrace View Avenue to the neighborhood's west, is named after Tobias Teunissen, a wool washer from Leyden, Holland, who came to the area in 1636. He applied for and received a land grant to live in Inwood near 213th Street. Occasionally he had worked on the De La Montagne farm, which was in what is now the Harlem section of Manhattan. Teunissen was killed in an Indian raid in 1655, and his wife and child were held hostage until they were ransomed by the Dutch authorities. The Dyckmans and the Nagles, who owned land in Inwood, purchased the Teunissen property in 1677.
Adrian Avenue is named after Adriaen van der Donck, an early lawyer in New Amsterdam. With permission, he bought a strip of land from local Native American tribes in 1646. This land stretched from Spuyten Duyvil to present-day Yonkers along the Hudson coastline.
Van Corlear Place, which comprises half of a U-shaped street curving around Marble Hill, has detached one- and two-family homes in addition to a few brick townhouses. It was named after Anthony Van Corlaer, a messenger of New Amsterdam Governor-General Peter Stuyvesant who was sent to the mainland Bronx for backup soldiers following reports of attempts by British forces to seize New Amsterdam. In Washington Irving's book A History of New York, van Corlaer is said to have drowned while crossing Spuyten Duyvil Creek. The street's name is misspelled.
Jacobus Place, the other half of the U-shape that includes Van Corlear Place, has both a large brick apartment building and freestanding private houses with diverse designs. It is named after Jacob (Jacobus) Dyckman, the owner of the Dyckman Tavern and a sponsor of the Dyckman Free Bridge.
Fort Charles Place remains as a token of the Hessian-named Fort Prince Charles.
Shopping mall
The River Plaza, a shopping mall located on 40 West 225th Street between Broadway and Exterior Street and overlooking the Harlem River, opened in August 2004. It is the commercial center for Marble Hill. It cost $90 million and has a floor area of . The mall, which has an open-air format in which the passageways between stores are outdoors, has a 640-space parking lot on the roof. In 2002, before construction, developers purchased adjacent land from six owners, with the largest building on these lots being a deteriorating, -floor, warehouse owned by NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital. Since the building could not be renovated cheaply enough, it was demolished. The mall was built on a foundation of soft soil and a shallow water table, so builders had to place 1,500 concrete-capped steel piles into the soil. The finished building was designed to retain views of landmarks like the George Washington Bridge and the Empire State Building.
Demographics
For census purposes, the New York City government classifies Marble Hill as part of a larger neighborhood tabulation area encompassing Inwood and Marble Hill. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Inwood and Marble Hill was 46,746, a change of -2,341 (-5%) from the 49,087 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of . The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 15.1% (7,060) White, 9.1% (4,239) African American, 0.1% (64) Native American, 1.9% (884) Asian, 0% (5) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (179) from other races, and 1% (458) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 72.4% (33,857) of the population.
The racial composition of Marble Hill and Inwood changed moderately from 2000 to 2010, with the most significant changes being the Black population's decrease by 13% (661) and the Hispanic / Latino population's decrease by 5% (1,880). Meanwhile, the White population grew by 5% (335) and remained a minority, as with the Asian population which grew by 11% (86); the small population of all other races decreased by 24% (221).
The entirety of Bronx Community District 8, which comprises Marble Hill as well as Kingsbridge, Riverdale, Spuyten Duyvil, Fieldston, and Van Cortlandt Village, had 102,927 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 80.9 years. This is about the slightly lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are children and middle-aged adults: 28% are between the ages of 25–44, while 25% are between 45–64, and 20% are between 0–17. The proportion of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 9% and 18% respectively.
As of 2019, the median household income in Bronx Community District 8 was $47,000 compared to $53,000 in the entire city. In 2019, an estimated 15% of residents lived in poverty, compared to 25% in all of the Bronx and 20% in all of New York City. One in eleven residents (9%) were unemployed, compared to 13% in the Bronx and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 52% in Community District 8, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 58% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, as of 2018, Community District 8 is not considered to be gentrifying: according to the Community Health Profile, the district was not low-income in 1990.
Police and crime
Marble Hill is patrolled by the 50th Precinct of the NYPD in the Bronx, located at 3450 Kingsbridge Avenue. The 50th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 79.9% between 1990 and 2020. The precinct reported 3 murders, 12 rapes, 88 robberies, 158 felony assaults, 150 burglaries, 461 grand larcenies, and 152 grand larcenies auto in 2020.
, Bronx Community District 8 has a non-fatal assault hospitalization rate of 40 per 100,000 people, compared to the Bronx's rate of 113 per 100,000 and the citywide rate of 59 per 100,000. Its incarceration rate is 225 per 100,000 people, compared to the Bronx's rate of 670 per 100,000 and the citywide rate of 425 per 100,000.
Of the five major violent felonies (murder, rape, felony assault, robbery, and burglary), the 50th Precinct had a rate of 363 crimes per 100,000 residents in 2019, compared to the Bronx's average of 851 crimes per 100,000 and the citywide average of 572 crimes per 100,000.
In 2019, the highest concentration of felony assaults in Marble Hill was on Broadway between 225th Street and 228th Street, where there were 13 felony assaults. The highest concentration of robberies was nearby, at the intersection of Broadway and 225th Street, where there were 8 robberies.
Fire safety
Marble Hill is served by a New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire station, Engine Co. 81/Ladder Co. 46, at 3025 Bailey Avenue.
Education
Schools
John F. Kennedy High School was built in the former riverbed on the western side of Marble Hill, and was opened in September 1972. Beginning in fall 2002, smaller high schools were established within the campus. Due to poor academic performance in the 2000s, as well as a series of violent crimes at the school (including the murder of a student), the New York City Department of Education made a decision in fall 2010 to close the school, phasing out one grade per year until 2014. It closed down in 2014, and six smaller, specialty high schools now occupy its campus: four public, two charter. Four of these schools were founded in 2002, while the other two were established in 2011 after the decision was made to close John F. Kennedy High School. The nearest public elementary school is PS 7 Milton Fein School in Kingsbridge, serving grades K–5.
Nearby private schools include Horace Mann School, Riverdale Country School, and Ethical Culture Fieldston School. Nearby parochial schools are Good Shepherd, in Inwood. The nearest parochial school, St. John's, in Kingsbridge was closed in 2020. The Marble Hill Nursery School, in the Marble Hill Houses, is privately operated with some funding with the city.
Library
The New York Public Library (NYPL) operates the Kingsbridge branch at 3874 Sedgwick Avenue.
Transportation
In 1905–1906, the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad built the Marble Hill station as a replacement for the former Kingsbridge Station used by an affiliate known as the Spuyten Duyvil and Port Morris Railroad. The station was relocated from the east side of Broadway to the west side in the late-1970s and is now served by the Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line, which provides commuter railroad service to Grand Central Terminal in midtown Manhattan, locations in the Bronx, and points north. The station is at the bottom of a substantial cliff.
The Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) extended their Broadway–Seventh Avenue line, now part of the New York City Subway, from 145th Street to 242nd Street in 1906. As part of the construction, the IRT built a station at 225th Street. That station is currently served by the .
The main street through Marble Hill is Broadway, part of U.S. Route 9.
Politics
The United States Census Bureau defines Marble Hill as Census Tract 309 of New York County. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 8,463 on a land area of 0.3065 km2 (0.1183 sq mi, 75.7 acres). Because Marble Hill is legally part of Manhattan, residents who serve on jury duty go to the courthouses at Foley Square in lower Manhattan.
Political representation
Politically, Marble Hill is in New York's 13th congressional district. It is in the New York State Senate's 31st district, the New York State Assembly's 72nd district, and the New York City Council's 10th district. Bronx Community Board 8 is the local community board for Marble Hill.
History of political dispute
On March 11, 1939, as a publicity stunt, Bronx Borough President James J. Lyons planted the Bronx County flag on the rocky promontory at 225th Street and Jacobus Place. Lyons proclaimed Marble Hill as a part of the Bronx and demanded the subservience of its residents to that borough, saying it was "The Bronx Sudetenland," referring to Hitler's 1938 annexation of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. The incident was met with boos and nose-thumbing by 50 residents of Marble Hill, who referred to the effort as similar to an "Anschluss". Since then, more lighthearted "annexations" have occurred.
Residents of the neighborhood wished to remain residents of Manhattan, and petitions and signatures were gathered to be sent to Governor Herbert H. Lehman to ensure that Marble Hill remain part of Manhattan. In 1984, in response to one Marble Hill resident's refusal to serve on jury duty for a murder case in Manhattan that year due to the resident claiming that she was not a resident of New York County and Manhattan, the matter was settled when the New York Legislature passed legislation declaring the neighborhood part of New York County and Manhattan. The confusion was so great that when New York City Councilman Guillermo Linares was elected as Marble Hill's representative in 1991, he originally thought the neighborhood was part of the Bronx.
Services
Marble Hill residents remain part of a political district that includes the northernmost areas of Manhattan (Washington Heights and Inwood), but city services – for example, the fire and police departments – come from and are in the Bronx for reasons of convenience and safety, since the only road connection to the rest of Manhattan is a lift bridge, the Broadway Bridge. However, medical services are provided from Manhattan Island, and medical vehicles come from Columbia University's Allen Pavilion, also known as the Allen Hospital, a satellite facility of NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital.
Marble Hill, along with Spuyten Duyvil and Kingsbridge in the Bronx, is located within ZIP Code 10463. The "104" prefix is used for Bronx localities, while "100" through "102" are reserved for Manhattan addresses – although mail can be addressed to either "New York, New York" using the USPS designator for Manhattan, or to "Bronx, New York" as long as the ZIP Code is accurate. The United States Postal Service operates the Kingsbridge Station post office at 5517 Broadway.
In 1984, area code 718 was created out of area code 212 for the boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island; the Bronx and Marble Hill were added to the 718 area code in 1992. Marble Hill residents unsuccessfully fought to retain the 212 area code, which was considered more prestigious than the 718 area code. Since then, Marble Hill has been in area code 718 (now also served by three overlay codes: 347 and 929 for the outer boroughs, and 917 for the entire city), but residents are listed in both Bronx and Manhattan telephone books.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
"Marble Hill" on Washington Heights and Inwood Online web site
Official website created by the City of New York
1891 establishments in New York (state)
Border irregularities of the United States
Harlem River
Landforms of Manhattan
Neighborhoods in Manhattan
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|
252832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Buffie | Margaret Buffie | Margaret Buffie (born March 29, 1945) is a Canadian children's author.
Buffie was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba. She attended Sparling Elementary School, Sargeant Park Junior High, and Daniel McIntyre High School. Buffie has a Bachelor of Fine Arts from the University of Manitoba.
She worked as a visual artist before beginning a writing career in 1985. Her first manuscript, a novel entitled Who is Frances Rain? (1987), was published by Kids Can Press, in Toronto. This story about a girl who has antique glasses which allow her to see ghosts is considered a "Canadian classic." Her latest novel, Winter Shadows, was published on October 12, 2010, by Tundra Books, a division of Penguin Random House.
Buffie is a recipient of the Vicky Metcalf Award Body of Work Award (For Writing Inspirational to Canadian Youth). She is also a recipient of the Young Adult Canadian Book Award; is a two-time winner of the McNally Robinson Book for Young People award and has been shortlisted for many other awards and honours.
She is married to Jim McFarlane and they have one daughter, Christine.
Bibliography
Who is Frances Rain? (1987) Kids Can Press. US Title; The Haunting of Frances Rain, Scholastic Publishing: winner of the Young Adult Canadian Book Award - The Canadian Library Association
The Warnings (1989), original title; The Guardian Circle, Kids Can Press, Canada International Youth Library Notable Book
My Mother's Ghost (1992) Kids Can Press; nominated for a Governor General's Award
The Dark Garden (1995) Kids Can Press; winner of the McNally Robinson Book for Young People
Angels Turn Their Backs (1998) Kids Can Press; New York Public Library Books for the Teenager, 1999
The Watcher (2000) Kids Can Press; shortlisted: Young Adult Canadian Book Award (Canadian Library Association)
The Seeker (2002) Kids Can Press; Voya's 18th Annual List of the Best in Science Fiction and Fantasy for the Young Adult Reader, 2003
The Finder (2004) Kids Can Press; winner of The McNally Robinson Book for Young People Award
Out of Focus (2006) Kids Can Press;Top Ten Canadian Books for Young Adults, Ontario Library Association
Winter Shadows (2010) Tundra; Penguin Random House; Winner of the Silver Nautilus Award, (USA); nominated for the Canadian Library Assoc Book of the Year Award
References
External links
1945 births
Living people
Canadian children's writers
University of Manitoba alumni
Writers from Winnipeg | [
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|
252839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20World%20porcupine | New World porcupine | The New World porcupines, family Erethizontidae, are large arboreal rodents, distinguished by their spiny coverings from which they take their name. They inhabit forests and wooded regions across North America, and into northern South America. Although both the New World and Old World porcupine families belong to the Hystricognathi branch of the vast order Rodentia, they are quite different and are not closely related.
Characteristics
New World porcupines are stout animals, with blunt, rounded heads, fleshy, mobile snouts, and coats of thick, cylindrical or flattened spines. The "quills" are mixed with long, soft hairs. They vary in size from the relatively small prehensile-tailed porcupines, which are around long, and weigh about , to the much larger North American porcupine, which has a body length of , and weighs up to .
They are distinguished from the Old World porcupines in that they have rooted molars, complete collar bones, entire upper lips, tuberculated soles, no trace of first front toes, and four teats.
They are less strictly nocturnal than Old World species in their habits, and some types live entirely in trees, while others have dens on the ground. Their long and powerful prehensile tails help them balance when they are in the tree tops. Their diets consist mainly of bark, leaves, and conifer needles, but can also include roots, stems, berries, fruits, seeds, nuts, grasses, and flowers. Some species also eat insects and small reptiles. Their teeth are similar to those of Old World porcupines, with the dental formula
Solitary offspring (or, rarely, twins) are born after a gestation period of up to 210 days, depending on the species. The young are born fully developed, with open eyes, and are able to climb trees within a few days of birth.
Genera and species
They include three genera, of which the first is represented by the North American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum), a stout, heavily built animal, with long hairs almost or quite hiding its spines, four front and five hind toes, and a short, stumpy tail. It is a native of the greater part of Canada and the United States, where any remnant of the original forest is left.
The tree porcupines (Coendou) contain 17 species. They are found throughout tropical South America, with two extending into Mexico. They are of a lighter build than the ground porcupines, with short, close, many-coloured spines, often mixed with hairs, and prehensile tails. The hind feet have only four toes, owing to the suppression of the first, in place of which they have a fleshy pad on the inner side of the foot; between this pad and the toes, branches and other objects can be firmly grasped as with a hand. These three genera are often united into a single genus Coendou.
Genus Chaetomys, distinguished by the shape of its skull and the greater complexity of its teeth, contains C. subspinosus, a native of the hottest parts of Brazil. This animal is often considered a member of Echimyidae on the basis of its premolars. However, a molecular phylogeny based on the mitochondrial gene coding for cytochrome b combined to karyological evidence actually suggests the bristle-spined rat is more closely related to the Erethizontidae than to the Echimyidae, and is the sister group of all other Erethizontidae.
Classification
Extant genera and species
Family Erethizontidae
Subfamily Chaetomyinae
Genus Chaetomys
Bristle-spined rat C. subspinosus
Subfamily Erethizontinae
Genus Coendou – prehensile-tailed porcupines
Baturite porcupine - C. baturitensis - discovered in 2013
Bicolored-spined porcupine - C. bicolor
Streaked dwarf porcupine - C. ichillus
Bahia porcupine - C. insidiosus
Black-tailed hairy dwarf porcupine - C. melanurus
Mexican hairy dwarf porcupine - C. mexicanus
Black dwarf porcupine - C. nycthemera
Brazilian porcupine - C. prehensilis
Frosted hairy dwarf porcupine - C. pruinosus
Andean porcupine - C. quichua
Rothschild's porcupine - C. rothschildi
Roosmalen's dwarf porcupine - C. roosmalenorum
Stump-tailed porcupine - C. rufescens
Santa Marta porcupine - C. sanctamartae
Coandumirim - C. speratus - discovered in 2013
Paraguaian hairy dwarf porcupine - C. spinosus
Brown hairy dwarf porcupine - C. vestitus
Genus Erethizon
North American porcupine - E. dorsatum
Fossil genera
†Branisamyopsis
†Cholamys
†Eopululo
†Hypsosteiromys
†Microsteiromys
†Neosteiromys
†Palaeosteiromys
†Paradoxomys
†Parasteiromys
†Protosteiromys
References
External links
Erethizontidae, Mammal Species of the World, 3rd edition.
Extant Chattian first appearances
Mammals described in 1845
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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|
252844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnie%20Burnard | Bonnie Burnard | Bonnie Burnard (January 15, 1945 – March 4, 2017) was a Canadian short story writer and novelist, best known for her 1999 novel, A Good House, which won the Scotiabank Giller Prize.
Born in Petrolia, Ontario, she grew up in Forest, Ontario, and moved to Regina, Saskatchewan, in the late 1970s. In the early 1990s she returned to Southwestern Ontario, and was a resident of London, Ontario, where she died on March 4, 2017.
Personal life
Born Bonita Amelia Huctwith on January 15, 1945, in Petrolia, Ontario, she grew up with her four brothers in Forest, Ontario. She was the youngest in her family. Her mother's family bred Clydesdale horses which they showcased at the annual Royal Agricultural Winter Fair in Toronto. Her father, Charles, was raised by his relatives after his parents died when he was a child. The couple sold eggs at the Toronto market and later shipped tens of thousands of cases from Ottawa to England. After World War II, the couple continued to sell eggs to Toronto and Montreal. In 1967, Burnard completed her Bachelor of Arts degree in English from the University of Western Ontario.
Burnard married Ronald Burnard, an executive at London Life Insurance in 1973 and spent more than a decade in Regina, Saskatchewan, where she raised her three children; Alexandra (known as D'Arcy) (b. Sept. 1975), Melanie (b. Feb. 1978), and David (b. Mar. 1979). She worked as a literary officer at the Saskatchewan Arts Board from 1988 to 1990. She moved back to Southwestern Ontario in 1992, living briefly in Strathroy-Caradoc and later moving to London, Ontario; her marriage had ended a few years earlier. She served as a Writer in Residence at the University of Western Ontario and was a guest lecturer at writing and literary conferences across Canada and around the world (e.g., England, Germany, Sweden, and South Africa).
She taught at the Humber School for Writers, the University of British Columbia's summer creative writing program Booming Ground, and at the University of Windsor as an adjunct professor in the writing department. Burnard worked briefly for a lawyer, the Writers' Trust of Canada, served on the Public Lending Right Commission, as a board member at Coteau Books and the Saskatchewan Writers Guild.
Burnard died on March 4, 2017, at the age of 72. She is survived by three children and four grandchildren.
Literary work
While attending classes at the University of Regina, Burnard attended one of the reading sessions by another Canadian novelist, Marian Engel, which inspired her to write. Engel had visited Regina to read from her the Governor-General's Literary Award-winning novel, Bear. Canadian poet and novelist Ken Mitchell suggested she attend the Saskatchewan Summer School of the Arts. Her first published work was a short story published simultaneously in Saskatchewan Gold and the NeWest Review. In 1983, Oberon Press published her short stories in Coming Attractions. Stories By Sharon Butala, Bonnie Burnard & Sharon Sparling. She edited the 1986 book The Old Dance: Love Stories of One Kind or Another published by Thunder Creek Publishing Co-operative. In 1988, her first individually authored short story collection Women of Influence was published. The collection was later translated into French as Femmes d'Influence by S. Brault in 1995. Her second short story collection Casino & Other Stories was published in 1994 and won several awards. In 1995, she edited another book Stag Line: Stories by Men.
Her short stories were included in many anthologies, among these: Best Canadian Stories (1984, 1989, 1992), Saskatchewan Gold (1982), Double Bond (1984), More Saskatchewan Gold (1984), Sky High (1988), Last Map (1989), Soho Square 111: Bloomsbury (1990), Canadian Short Stories (1991), Worlds Unrealized (1991), Beyond Borders (1992), Kitchen Talk (1992), Lodestone (1993), The Second Gates of Paradise: Anthology of Erotic Short Fiction (1994), Writing from Canada (1994), Spin on 2 (1995), The Oxford Book of Canadian Short Stories (1995), Arnold Anthology of Post-Colonial Literature (1996), Desde El Invierno (1996), The Best of NeWest (1996), Mothers and Daughters (1997), Penguin Anthology of Stories by Canadian Women (1997), Sunrise to Sunset (1997), Desire (1999) Oxford Stories by Canadian Women (1999), Turn of the Story (1999) Dropped Threads (2001), Donde Es Aqui? (2002), Notes from Home (2002), and Short Fiction by Oxford University (2003).
Burnard's first novel A Good House was published in 1999. The novel received wide acclaim and was an international success. It was a #1 bestseller in Canada. Four editions of the novel were published in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and in twelve other countries from 1999 to 2002. Her second novel Suddenly was published after ten years in 2009.
Awards
Burnard won several awards for her literary work. Her first individual short story collection Women of Influence received the Commonwealth Best First Book Award in 1989. Her second short story collection Casino & Other Stories won "Book of the Year" at the Saskatchewan Book Awards and was shortlisted for "Regina Book Award", both in 1994. Also that same year, this collection received the Periodical Publishers Award and was shortlisted for the Scotiabank Giller Prize. In 1995, Burnard was awarded the Marian Engel Award given to the body of work by a female Canadian writer. In 1999, she won the Scotiabank Giller Prize for her novel, A Good House. In 2000, A Good House fetched her the Canadian Booksellers Association People's Choice Award.
Burnard has also received the W. O. Mitchell Bursury at fort San in 1983, the City of Regina Writing Award in 1984, the CBC Literary Competition Award in 1992, and various Saskatchewan Writers Guild awards.
Bibliography
Burnard published the following works under her name:
Novels
A Good House (1999), published by HarperFlamingoCanada
Suddenly (2009),
Short stories
Coming Attractions. Stories By Sharon Butala, Bonnie Burnard & Sharon Sparling (1983) published by Oberon Press
Women of Influence (1988), published by Coteau Books
Casino & Other Stories (1994), published by HarperCollins
Other
The Old Dance: Love Stories of One Kind or Another (1986) published by Thunder Creek Publishing Co-operative
Stag Line: Stories by Men (1995) published by Coteau Books
References
1945 births
2017 deaths
Canadian women novelists
Canadian women short story writers
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian short story writers
21st-century Canadian short story writers
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian women writers
People from Lambton County
University of Western Ontario alumni
Writers from Ontario | [
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252846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Tonga | Operation Tonga | Operation Tonga was the codename given to the airborne operation undertaken by the British 6th Airborne Division between 5 June and 7 June 1944 as a part of Operation Overlord and the D-Day landings during World War II.
The paratroopers and glider-borne airborne troops of the division, commanded by Major-General Richard Nelson Gale, landed on the eastern flank of the invasion area, near to the city of Caen, tasked with a number of objectives. The division was to capture two strategically important bridges over the Caen Canal and Orne River which were to be used by Allied ground forces to advance once the seaborne landings had taken place, destroy several other bridges to deny their use to the Germans and secure several important villages. The division was also assigned the task of assaulting and destroying the Merville Gun Battery, an artillery battery that Allied intelligence believed housed a number of heavy artillery pieces, which could bombard the nearest invasion beach (codenamed Sword) and possibly inflict heavy casualties on the Allied troops landing on it. Having achieved these objectives, the division was then to create and secure a bridgehead focused around the captured bridges until they linked up with advancing Allied ground forces.
The division suffered from a combination of bad weather and poor pilot navigation, which caused many of the airborne troops to be dropped inaccurately throughout the divisional operational area causing a number of casualties and making conducting operations much more difficult. In particular, the 9th Parachute Battalion, which was assigned the task of destroying the Merville artillery battery, was only able to gather up a fraction of its strength before it had to attack the battery, with the result that the depleted force suffered heavy casualties. However, the battery was successfully assaulted and the guns inside it disabled. The division's other objectives were also achieved despite the problems encountered.
A small force of glider-borne troops, from the 2nd Battalion Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, secured two bridges over the Caen Canal and River Orne in a coup de main operation. The other bridges were destroyed by the division, and a number of villages were occupied. A bridgehead was formed by the division, and it successfully repulsed a number of German counter-attacks until Allied ground forces from the invasion beaches reached its positions. The actions of the division severely limited the ability of the German defenders to communicate and organise themselves, ensuring that the seaborne troops could not be attacked during the vital first few hours after landing when they were most vulnerable.
Background
Operation Tonga originated in the planning of Operation Overlord, the Allied plan for the eventual invasion and liberation of German-occupied France. Invasion planning begun in May 1943, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met during the Washington Conference. The two Allied leaders decided that all available Allied forces should be concentrated in the United Kingdom, and that planning for the invasion of North-Western Europe should begin. A provisional target date of May 1944 was set with the code-name 'Overlord' decided upon. A joint Anglo-American planning staff was created under lieutenant-general Frederick E. Morgan, who was given the title of Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC).
Early drafts of Overlord called for the commitment of airborne forces to support the ground forces and protect their landing areas. Operation Skyscraper, for example, called for the deployment of two airborne divisions to support the beach landings that would be made by five infantry divisions. One airborne division would land near Caen, and another on the east coast of the Cotentin Peninsula. "Plan C", an ambitious proposal put forward by General George C. Marshall, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, would have involved a large airborne drop on the River Seine, aiming to cut the German forces in half during D-Day itself. Morgan and his staff finally decided that the invasion should take place along a thirty-mile front from the River Orne westwards. The final plan would utilise three divisions in the first assault, with airborne forces being dropped onto the town of Caen early on the first day to seize the first breakout route.
Following the appointment of General Sir Bernard Montgomery to the command of the 21st Army Group and overall command of all ground forces to land in Normandy, the plan underwent a number of further revisions. On 21 January 1944, a revised Overlord plan was presented to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had been chosen as the Supreme Allied Commander for the invasion. Montgomery's revised plan widened the landing area to include all of the coastline between the River Orne and the eastern coast of the Cotentin Peninsula; five divisions would land on the beaches, and supported by three airborne divisions to land on either side of the landing areas to secure their flanks and protect the landing troops from counterattack. The British airborne forces were assigned to the eastern flank, and the American airborne forces the west.
Prelude
British preparation
The 6th Airborne Division, which was under the command of Major-General Richard Gale, was chosen to conduct the airborne operations on the eastern flank of the invasion area. The division was new, having been activated in April 1943, and Operation Overlord would be its first experience of combat. The division was the first to be established for the sole purpose of undertaking division-level airborne operations rather than contributing to a range of smaller operations, and there was considerable debate over what the unit should do.
As late as January 1944, Gale noted that he had "no indication as yet of a definite airborne task" for his unit and continued to keep all options open, reflecting the ongoing discussions at the strategic level over the wider plan for D-Day. On 17 February 1944, Major-General Frederick Arthur Montague Browning (commander of all British airborne forces) arrived at the 6th Airborne Division's headquarters to brief Gale on what the division was expected to achieve during the invasion; their role codenamed Operation Tonga. The original plan for Tonga did not involve the entire division, instead only called for a single parachute brigade and an anti-tank battery to be attached to the British 3rd Infantry Division. This force would be tasked with seizing bridges over the Caen Canal and the River Orne near the towns of Bénouville and Ranville. Gale objected to this small-scale operation, arguing that a single brigade would not be able to achieve these objectives with such limited manpower, and asked for the entire division to be deployed. After consultation with his superiors, Browning agreed to the request and ordered Gale to begin planning for the operation.
The division was allotted three specific tasks to achieve as a part of Tonga, apart from protecting the eastern flank of the Allied seaborne landings and taking control of the areas of strategic importance to the east of Caen. First, it was to capture intact the two bridges over the Caen Canal and the Orne River at Bénouville and Ranville. The bridges then would be defended against counterattacks. Gale knew that the capture of the bridges would be critical for the resupply and reinforcement of his division, but he did not know that the bridges were incapable of supporting tanks. Second, the division was to destroy the heavily fortified Merville coastal artillery battery located at Franceville Plage, to ensure that it could not shell the British forces landing in the area codenamed Sword. The third mission was to destroy several bridges which spanned the River Dives, located near the towns of Varaville, Robehomme, Bures and Troarn. The division would then hold the territory that it had seized, until it could be relieved by advancing British ground forces.
Detailed planning for Tonga began in February, starting with the number of transport aircraft assigned to the operation being expanded rapidly to accommodate the entire division. Two Royal Air Force (RAF) air groups were provided for the operation to ensure that the division could be deployed in just two airlifts. The pilots and crew of these transport aircraft then began formation flying training and specialised aircrew training to ensure that they were as familiar with what the operation required of them. The 6th Airborne Division carried out several large-scale airborne exercises, using them to find the most efficient way to deploy a brigade group on one or multiple landing-zones. On 6 February, the 3rd Parachute Brigade undertook an exercise in which the entire brigade was dropped by 98 transport aircraft. At the end of March, 284 aircraft were used in Exercise 'Bizz II' in which the entire division was deployed by parachute or glider. Finally, between 21 April and 26 April, Exercise 'Mush' utilised approximately 700 aircraft to deploy the British 1st Airborne Division and the Polish 1st Parachute Brigade against the 6th Airborne Division, who moved by road, in a simulation of a full-scale airborne operation.
As the date of the operation approached, training became more intensive. Glider units spent hours aloft every day circling over airfields as they practiced the manoeuvers required to land the airborne forces next to the bridges over the Orne River, the Caen canal, the Dives, and the Merville battery. Once the pilots had practiced this sufficiently during the day, they were then switched to night operations. In the landing grounds used by the division for their operations, dozens of poles similar to those in Normandy were erected, with engineering units then timed on how fast they could demolish the obstacles. The battalion assigned to neutralising Merville spent two weeks at a special camp, where they built a replica of the battery and carried out several rehearsal exercises in and around it. The force assigned to the coup-de-main operation, to capture the bridges over the Orne River and Caen canal, were transferred to Exeter. There, they conducted intensive exercises around the River Exe and the nearby canal that stood in place for their real objective. The pilots of the gliders and transport aircraft were also constantly briefed with thousands of maps and photographs of the landing zones and the surrounding areas, as well as dozens of scale models of the zones and the primary objectives, such as the bridges and the Merville battery. A coloured film was produced from aerial reconnaissance photographs which, when played at the correct speed and height over the scale models, realistically simulated the paths the glider pilots would take towards their landing-zones.
German preparation
The 6th Airborne Division would be opposed by German Army (Heer) formations stationed in the area around Caen and the River Orne. By June 1944, this consisted of the 711th and 716th Infantry Divisions; both of which were static formations whose manpower consisted of medically downgraded troops and conscripts recruited from the Soviet Union or Eastern Europe. Both divisions also had a miscellaneous collection of anti-tank guns and artillery pieces, as well as a small number of German and French tanks and self-propelled guns. Neither division was rated as being highly efficient, with Allied intelligence rating them at a forty per-cent efficiency compared to a first-class line infantry division in a static role, and fifteen percent in a counter-attack role. Allied intelligence also indicated that two companies of armour were in the area, as were a number of ad hoc infantry formations formed from training establishments. Based near Caen, in support of the static divisions, was the 21st Panzer Division. The 125th Panzergrenadier Regiment was billeted at Vimont, just east of Caen, and the 2nd Battalion, 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment was based at Cairon to the west of the Caen canal and the River Orne bridges. Although a new formation equipped with an assortment of older tanks and other armoured vehicles, the core of the division were Afrika Korps veterans. Further afield was the Panzer Lehr Division, based at Chartres, which was less than a day's march from the area. Also considered a threat to the airborne forces was the Waffen SS 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, based at Lisieux and believed capable of arriving in the vicinity of the airborne landings within twelve hours. The division possessed a large number of tanks and self-propelled guns, including the Panther.
Under the orders of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, German forces had constructed a large number of static defensive positions and obstacles. Rommel had been appointed Inspector General of Coastal Defences and commander of Army Group B, in November 1943, by order of Adolf Hitler. On his arrival he had assessed the existing defences in the region and immediately began the process of improving them, particularly those situated inland as he believed no more than thirty percent of the German defences were adequate. These anti-airborne measures consisted of planting a large number of mines to create minefields, as well as the erection of so-called Rommel's asparagus; a system of wire-braced poles up to two metres in height, a great many of which were laced with mines or other booby-traps aimed at destroying gliders and killing or wounding airborne troops. Rommel noted in his diary, following an inspection of one area, that a division had placed over 300,000 stakes in the ground to deter airborne landings, and a corps had erected over 900,000. The Merville artillery battery was a particularly heavily fortified position. From the beach, it was protected by two strongpoints that included approximately thirty bunkers as well as an observation post, and the battery itself consisted of a bunker containing the battery's command post, two blockhouses, a light flak emplacement and four casemates able to contain artillery pieces up to dimensions of 150 mm. The entire battery covered an area roughly four hundred metres in diameter and was surrounded by an inner perimeter of barbed wire, a minefield, and an outer perimeter of barbed wire as well as an anti-tank ditch.
Battle
Fly-in
Operation Tonga began at 22:56 on the night of 5 June, when six Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers took off from RAF Tarrant Rushton towing six Horsa gliders carrying the coup-de-main force; this consisted of D Company, 2nd Battalion Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry (part of the 6th Airlanding Brigade, but attached to the 5th Parachute Brigade for the initial invasion) reinforced with two extra platoons from B Company and a party of Royal Engineer sappers under the overall command of Major John Howard, who were tasked with capturing the bridges over the Caen Canal and the River Orne. A few minutes later, between 23:00 and 23:20, six Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle transports took off carrying pathfinders of the 22nd Independent Parachute Company, who were to mark the three drop-zones to be used by the airborne troops of the division. Another sixteen Albemarles followed the transports carrying the pathfinders, these transported elements of the 9th Parachute Battalion, 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion, and 3rd Parachute Brigade Headquarters.
Thirty minutes later, the remainder of the transports carrying the division began to take off. This wave was divided into three groups. The first consisted of 239 Douglas Dakota and Short Stirling transports as well as seventeen Horsa gliders, carrying the bulk of the 3rd and 5th Parachute Brigades and their heavy equipment. These forces were due to land in their respective drop-zones at 00:50. The second group was destined to land at 03:20, and consisted of sixty-five Horsa and four Hamilcar gliders transporting the divisional headquarters and an anti-tank battery. The final group was formed of three Horsa gliders carrying sappers and men from the 9th Parachute Battalion, who were to land atop Merville Battery at 04:30.
Capture of the Caen canal and Orne river bridges
The first unit of the 6th Airborne Division to land in Normandy, was Howard's coup-de-main force. The coup-de-main force landed in six gliders, over a five-minute period (00:15–00:20); three landing near the Caen canal bridge and two near the Orne River bridge and the third destined for the Orne River bridge some seven miles away due to a navigational error. Once on the ground, the troops emerged and assaulted the German positions. At the Caen canal bridge, troops assaulted German trench positions, attacked sentries, and threw grenades into a concrete bunker believed to hold the triggering equipment for the bridge demolition charges. At the Orne River bridge, a machine-gun nest was suppressed with mortar fire but no other defenders were found, and the two platoons captured the bridge before radioing Howard and informing him of their success. Both bridges had been secured within fifteen minutes, at the cost of only a small number of casualties. It was also discovered that the bridges had not been rigged with explosives as believed.
While the force waited for the rest of the division to land, and for the 7th Parachute Battalion to arrive to reinforce their position, they had to repel several spontaneous attempts by the Germans to re-take the bridges. At 01:30, two German tanks attempted to drive onto the bridge, but were repelled with the loss of one tank to a PIAT anti-tank weapon.
Pathfinders
The coup-de-main force had been followed closely by the pathfinders of the 22nd Independent Parachute Company, tasked with marking out the drop-zones and landing-zones to be used by the rest of the division. However, due to a combination of heavy cloud cover and poor navigation, only one pathfinder team was dropped correctly. The aircraft carrying the remainder had to make between two and three runs over their respective drop-zones before their teams jumped. Pathfinders assigned to DZ N were dropped wide, and did not manage to get to the drop-zone for thirty minutes. One of the teams assigned to DZ K accidentally dropped onto DZ N without realising their error, and set up radio beacons and markers that caused a number of airborne troops to drop in the wrong area. The Pathfinders 'stick' on DZ K commanded by Lt Bob Midwood were successful. A pathfinder team belonging to 9th Parachute Battalion, assigned to mark out the drop-zone area for the unit tasked with destroying the Merville artillery battery, was all but wiped out when an air-raid by RAF Avro Lancaster heavy bombers missed the artillery battery itself and bombed the area the team was in.
5th Parachute Brigade
Due to the above factors, Brigadier Nigel Poett's 5th Parachute Brigade was scattered and dropped incorrectly. The constituent units of 7th Parachute Battalion were so badly scattered that, by 03:00, the battalion's commander could only command around 40 per cent of the battalion, although more men arrived throughout the night and day. Relatively few supply containers had been found by the airborne troops, meaning that they possessed few heavy weapons or radio sets. However, the 7th Battalion managed to rendezvous with 2nd Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, and establish a defence against German counter-attacks. The first organised German responses to the capture of the bridges came between 05:00 and 07:00, and consisted of isolated and often uncoordinated attacks by tanks, armoured cars, and infantry that grew in intensity throughout the day. At 10:00, the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) attempted to destroy the Caen bridge. A lone aircraft dropped a bomb, which failed to detonate. Furthermore, two German coastal craft attempted to attack the bridge and were repelled.
As the day progressed, the 2nd Battalion, 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment counterattacked in the Bénouville area in an attempt to get through to the bridges. The coup-de-main force and the 7th Parachute Battalion held their position, knocking out 13 of the 17 tanks trying to get through. The British troops moved forward into Bénouville and cleared the Germans in house to house fighting. By midday, most of the missing men from the 7th Parachute Battalion had arrived at the bridges. Despite the ferocity of the attacks, the battalion and the coup-de-main force were able to hold the bridges until 19:00, when the leading elements of the British 3rd Infantry Division arrived and began to relieve the airborne troops, a process that was completed around 01:00 7 June.
The brigade's other two battalions, the 12th and 13th, were also badly scattered when they were dropped at 00:50. When both units moved away from their rendezvous points neither had more than sixty percent of their strength, although individual airborne troops and small groups would join the battalions throughout the day. Both of the battalions had been tasked with securing the area around DZ N and the two bridges captured by the coup-de-main force, a task which was made much more difficult by being scattered throughout the area. The 12th Parachute Battalion's mission was to secure the village of Le Bas de Ranville, which it did so by 04:00. The 13th Parachute Battalion was to capture the town of Ranville, which it achieved around the same time albeit against heavier resistance than that encountered by the other battalion. One company from 13th Parachute Battalion was detailed to remain at the battalion drop-zone in order to provide protection for a company of sappers. The latter were to demolish the poles and explosives that were present in the area, so that the 6th Airborne Division headquarters could land safely. The two battalions held their respective areas until relieved by ground forces advancing from the beaches. The 12th Parachute Battalion was bombarded with heavy mortar and artillery fire, and repelled two German counter-attacks by the 125th Panzer Grenadier Regiment; the first was defeated after destroying a tank and taking a number of prisoners, and the second was repulsed with the help of an air-landed anti-tank battery which had recently arrived.
3rd Parachute Brigade
The 3rd Parachute Brigade (Brigadier James Hill) began to land at the same time as the main elements of 5th Parachute Brigade, and suffered from the same problems. All of its constituent units were scattered throughout the area due to poor navigation, heavy cloud cover, and several of the drop-zones either not being marked correctly or marked correctly but incorrectly positioned due to pathfinder error.
The 8th Parachute Battalion, tasked with destroying two bridges near Bures and a third by Troarn, was widely scattered with a number of its paratroopers landing in the operational area of 5th Parachute Brigade. When the commanding officer, Alastair Pearson, arrived at the battalion rendezvous point at 01:20, he found only thirty paratroopers and a small group of sappers with a Jeep and trailer. By 03:30, this number had increased to just over 140 paratroopers yet there were still no sign of the sappers who would be required to demolish the bridges. Pearson therefore decided to send a small force to demolish the bridges at Bures, and lead the rest of the battalion to a crossroad north of Troarn where it would await more reinforcements before it attacked. The force sent to Bures discovered that the two bridges had already been demolished by a group of sappers, who had reached the bridges a few hours earlier, and so rejoined the battalion near Troarn that had now increased in numbers after another fifty men had arrived. A reconnaissance party, and a party of sappers, was sent into Troarn to ascertain the status of the bridge. These troops came under fire, from a German-occupied house near the bridge. After a brief fire-fight, the paratroopers captured a number of Germans from the 21st Panzer Division. The airborne troops then made their way to the bridge, which they discovered had been partially demolished already. Once the sappers had widened the length of the bridge demolished, using their explosives, the reconnaissance force withdrew back to the rest of the battalion at the crossroad. Having achieved its objective, the battalion then moved north and took up positions near Le Mesnail to widen the airborne bridgehead formed by the division.
The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was allotted, as its primary task, the demolition of two bridges: one at Varaville and another at Robehomme. Much like the rest of the units in the division, the battalion was scattered throughout the operational area. One group of paratroopers landed away from their drop-zone, and another landed only a short distance from the invasion beaches. A number were dropped in flooded areas around Varaville, and several drowned when they were dragged under the surface of the water due to the weight of their equipment. A group of paratroopers moved towards the Robehomme bridge, encountering and gathering together several other groups of airborne troops and sappers en route, before reaching the bridge where they discovered it was still intact. By 03:00, the sappers tasked with the demolition of the bridge had failed to arrive, and so the paratroopers gathered together the small amount of explosives they possessed and set them off, weakening the bridge. The sappers finally arrived at 06:00, and completed the demolition of the bridge whilst the paratroopers protected them. Meanwhile, another company of the battalion had been attempting to complete the tasks it had been ordered to fulfill; it was to clear the enemy garrison from Varaville and destroy a gun emplacement, demolish a bridge over the River Divette, and also destroy a radio transmitter near Varaville. However, the company was severely understrength, with only a fraction of its 100 men available. A small group, led by the company commander, assaulted the fortifications outside Varaville that were manned by approximately ninety-six Germans supported by several machine-gun nests and an artillery piece. The artillery piece inflicted a number of casualties on the small Canadian force, killing the company commander, and a stalemate ensued until 10:00 when the enemy garrison surrendered after being subjected to mortar bombardment. The paratroopers were then relieved by British Commandos from the 1st Special Service Brigade.
Battle of Merville Gun Battery
The 3rd Parachute Brigade's 9th Parachute Battalion was assigned a number of objectives: the destruction of the Merville artillery battery, the capture of the village of Le Plein, block the roads leading to that village, and capture a German Navy (Kriegsmarine) headquarters at Sallenelles near the River Orne. However, the battalion was scattered throughout the area with a number of paratroopers landing a considerable distance from the designated DZ. Lieutenant-Colonel Terence Otway, the commander of the battalion, landed with the rest of his stick away from the drop-zone in a farmhouse being used as a command post by a German battalion. After a brief fire-fight and helping other scattered paratroopers, Otway arrived at the drop-zone at 01:30. By 02:35, only 110 paratroopers had assembled with only a single machine-gun and a small number of Bangalore torpedoes recovered. This was a significant set-back for the battalion, as the plan to assault the artillery battery relied on having the entire battalion present with a number of sappers, as well as a large quantity of heavy equipment. Under strict orders that the battery was to be destroyed no later than 05:30, Otway felt that he could no longer wait for any more men to arrive and set off for the battery with 150 paratroopers (following the arrival of another small group of stragglers at 02:45).
The battalion arrived at the battery at 04:00. They linked up with the survivors of the pathfinder group, who had been earlier hit by an RAF raid against the battery, and began readying for an assault whilst the pathfinders marked out areas for the bangalore torpedoes to be placed. The battalion was divided into four assault groups, one for each of the casemates of the battery, and was ready by 04:30, when the gliders carrying the sappers arrived over the battery.
Of the three gliders assigned to the operation, only two arrived in Normandy; one having to abort and land in England. The remaining two were hit by anti-aircraft fire on their run-in. One landed around away, the other at the edge of the battery's minefield. The troops from this glider became involved in a fire fight with German troops heading to reinforce the battery garrison. Otway launched the assault as soon as the first glider overshot the battery, ordering the explosives to be detonated to form two paths through the outer perimeter, through which the paratroopers attacked. The defenders were alerted by the explosions and opened fire, inflicting heavy casualties. Only four men assigned to assault Casemate Four survived long enough to reach it, which they disabled by firing into apertures and throwing grenades into air vents. The other casemates were cleared with fragmentation and white phosphorus grenades as the German crews had neglected to lock the doors leading into the battery. A number of prisoners were taken by the paratroopers, and explosives were then readied to disable the artillery pieces inside the battery. It was discovered that the pieces were not modern 150 mm calibre weapons, but were instead Czechoslovakian First World War-era 100 mm field howitzers. The paratroopers did the best with the explosives they had, using Gammon bombs to disable one gun and jamming shells into the muzzles of the others. However, the job was less than thorough as at least one gun went back into action when the Germans later re-occupied the battery. Having completed the assault, the paratroopers gathered the German prisoners and their wounded and withdrew, having no wish to remain by the battery. The battalion possessed no radio and if no signal were received by the light cruiser HMS Arethusa, by 05:30, it would begin shelling the battery as a contingency.
The paratroopers had achieved their primary objective, but at a heavy cost, with fifty dead and twenty-five wounded; a casualty rate of exactly fifty percent. The battalion then attacked Le Plein, securing the village by expelling the platoon-sized German garrison. The survivors retired to a planned rendezvous point at 05:30, the battalion too understrength to achieve its other objectives.
Divisional HQ, Operation Mallard, and days end
At 03:35, the 6th Airborne Division headquarters landed by glider in the landing-zone cleared by sappers. Only a few gliders missed the landing-zone, due to the poor weather and errors in navigation. Once the headquarters staff and accompanying airborne troops had been gathered together, the headquarters was moved to the Le Bas de Ranville area and set up there. Contact was established with the headquarters of 5th Parachute Brigade at 05:00, and with the headquarters of 3rd Parachute Brigade at 12:35, and the division linked up with 1st Special Service Brigade as it advanced from the invasion beaches at 13:53.
At 21:00, Operation Mallard began. Mallard was the final wave of the 6th Airborne Division's landings and consisted of 220 Horsa and Hamilcar gliders, carrying the 6th Airlanding Brigade and other units. The gliders arrived at their landing-zone, coming under heavy small-arms and mortar fire from nearby German positions as they landed. Casualties were light and within ninety minutes the glider-borne troops had gathered at their rendezvous points. By 00:00 7 June, the entire 6th Airborne Division had been fully deployed on the eastern flank of the invasion beaches (with the exception of 12th Battalion, Devonshire Regiment – part of 6th Airlanding Brigade – that was due to arrive by sea on 7 June).
The division ended the day with the 3rd Parachute Brigade holding a front, with 9th Parachute Battalion at Le Plein, 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion at Les Mesneil, and the 8th Parachute Battalion in the southern part of the Bois de Bavent. The 5th Parachute Brigade had the 12th Parachute Battalion occupying Le Bas de Ranville, and the 13th Parachute Battalion holding Ranville while the 7th Parachute Battalion had been moved into reserve. The 6th Airlanding Brigade was poised to commit its two battalions to extend the bridgehead. The 1st Special Service Brigade, which had temporarily came under the command of the division, was holding villages to the north and north-east of DZ N.
Aftermath
Analysis
Operation Tonga was a success, with all of the tasks allotted to 6th Airborne Division being achieved within the time limits imposed on the individual units of the division. These tasks had been achieved despite the problems caused by a large number of the airborne troops being scattered throughout the operational area assigned, due to a combination of bad weather and poor navigation on the part of the pilots of the transport aircraft carrying them. Glider-borne airborne troops also suffered from navigational errors, with ten of the eighty-five gliders assigned to the division landing more than from their landing-zones. However, an unintended but beneficial result of these scattered drops was that the Germans were greatly confused as to area and extent of the airborne landings.
Casualties
The 6th Airborne Division suffered a total of 800 casualties between 5 June and 7 June, out of the 8,500 men deployed. German losses are estimated to be estimated 400 dead and a further 400 captured. In addition, fourteen tanks were lost during counterattacks around the Orne River and Caen canal bridges. Other losses include one gunboat on the Caen canal.
Subsequent role
Between 7 June and 10 June, the 6th Airborne Division repulsed a number of German attacks. The division retained control of the area between the Rivers Orne and Dives until 14 June, when the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division took over the southern part of the Orne bridgehead.
On 10 June, the decision was taken to expand the bridgehead to the east of the River Orne, with 6th Airborne Division tasked with achieving this. However, the division was deemed not to be strong enough to achieve its objective; the 3rd Parachute Brigade was reinforced with the 5th Battalion, Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment). On 11 June, the 5th Black Watch launched an attack on the town of Bréville, but was met with extremely heavy resistance and was repulsed after suffering a number of casualties. The next day, the 3rd Parachute Brigade's entire front was subjected to fierce artillery bombardment and assaults by German tanks and infantry, with the Germans particularly focusing on the positions held by 9th Parachute Battalion. Both the 9th Parachute Battalion and the remnants of the Black Watch defended Chateau Saint Come, but were gradually forced to retreat. However, after Lieutenant-Colonel Otway stated that his battalion would be unable to defend its position for much longer, Brigadier Hill gathered together a number of paratroopers from 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion and led a counter-attack that forced the Germans to withdraw.
In the weeks that followed, the 6th Airborne Division was reinforced with the Dutch Princess Irene Brigade and the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade. On 7 August, following a period of static warfare, the division began preparations for offensive operations. On the night of 16/17 August, the division began to advance against stiff German opposition. This advance continued until 26 August, when the division reached its objective – the mouth of the River Seine. In nine days of fighting, it had advanced despite, as Gale put it, the infantry units being "quite inadequately equipped for a rapid pursuit". The advanced resulted in the liberation of of German-occupied France, and the capture of over 1,000 German soldiers.
Between 6 June and 26 August, casualties amounted to 4,457 men of which 821 were killed, 2,709 wounded, and 927 were reported missing. The division was finally withdrawn from the frontline on 27 August, and embarked for England at the beginning of September.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
1944 in France
Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War II involving Canada
British airborne landings in Normandy
Conflicts in 1944
Glider Pilot Regiment operations
June 1944 events
Land battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Military history of Canada during World War II
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
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|
252852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bridge%20%28novel%29 | The Bridge (novel) | The Bridge is a novel by Scottish author Iain Banks. It was published in 1986. The book switches between three protagonists, John Orr, Alex, and the Barbarian. It is an unconventional love story.
Plot summary
"The road cleared the cutting through the hills. He could see South Queensferry, the marina at Port Edgar, the VAT 69 sign of the distillery there, the lights of Hewlett-Packard’s factory; and the rail bridge, dark in the evening’s last sky-reflected light. Behind it, more lights; the Hound Point oil terminal they’d had a sub-contract on, and, further away, the lights of Leith. The old rail bridge’s hollow metal bones looked the colour of dried blood.
You fucking beauty, he thought . . . What a gorgeous great device you are. So delicate from this distance, so massive and strong close-up. Elegance and grace; perfect form. A quality bridge; granite piers, the best ship-plate steel, and a never-ending paint job..."
The three main characters represent different elements of the protagonist. Alex (full name hinted to be Alexander Lennox, but never explicitly named), John Orr and The Barbarian are one.
Alex is a real person, born in Glasgow, who studied geology and engineering at the University of Edinburgh, fell in love with Andrea Cramond while there, and has continued their (open) relationship ever since. He is embittered by his betrayal of his working-class roots (he has become a manager and partner in his engineering firm), the Cold War, successive Thatcher governments, and the failure of his relationship under the pressure of Andrea's French lover's terminal illness. While returning from a sentimental reunion with an old friend in Fife, during which alcohol and cannabis are consumed, he becomes distracted by the power and beauty of the Forth Railway Bridge while driving on the neighbouring Forth Road Bridge and crashes his car. While in a coma in hospital, he relives his life up to the crash.
"He glanced back at the roadway of the bridge as it rose slowly to its gentle, suspended summit. The surface was a little damp, but nothing to worry about. No problems. He wasn’t going all that fast anyway, staying in the nearside lane, looking over at the rail bridge downstream. A light winked at the far end of the island under the rail bridge’s middle-section.
One day, though, even you’ll be gone. Nothing lasts. Maybe that’s what I want to tell her. Maybe I want to say, No, of course I don’t mind; you must go. I can’t grudge the man that; you’d have done the same for me and I would for you. Just a pity, that’s all. Go; we’ll all survive. Maybe some good-
He was aware of the truck in front pulling out suddenly. He looked round to see a car in front of him. It was stopped, abandoned in the nearside lane. He sucked his breath in, stamped on the brakes, tried to swerve; but it was too late."
John Orr is an amnesiac living on the Bridge, a fictional version of the rail bridge, of indeterminate length but at least hundreds of miles long and packed with people. The crash which precipitated his arrival on the bridge was semi-deliberate; as such, he is reluctant to return to the real world. That part of himself who wishes to wake is represented by Dr Joyce, Orr's psychoanalyst. Given Orr/Alex's desire to remain within the world of the Bridge, a world where he is well treated and lives a fairly pampered life, his attempts to stonewall and block the doctor's attempts to cure him are understandable. Eventually, he stows away on a train and leaves the Bridge. He finds that, in stark contrast to the very orderly, indeed totalitarian, life on The Bridge, the countryside beyond exists in militaristic chaos and warfare.
The Barbarian is an id-ish warrior with a superego-esque familiar in tow (phallic symbolism is referenced by the familiar within a few pages of their first appearance) whose hack-and slash antics through various parodies of Greek legends and fairy tales are phonetically rendered in Scots dialect (seven years before Irvine Welsh used the technique in Trainspotting). The Barbarian (along with his loquacious familiar) are a deep expression of Alex's character; when Orr's dreams are not themed around threat and opposition he dreams he is the Barbarian.
The Barbarian appears to be an expression of Alex's deepest feelings. A woman is his enemy in their first appearance (Metamorphosis, Four), showing how Andrea Cramond has made her influence felt in Alex's very core, and how his love for her has been eroded and has transmuted into anger and contempt through the rift that has opened in their relationship.
In their second appearance (Metamorphosis, Four), a female character is mentioned in passing, with a certain level of affection.
The third appearance of the Barbarian and familiar (Metamorphosis, Pliocene) sees them old, decrepit, bed-bound and heading inevitably towards death. In each successive chapter the Barbarian's Scottish accent becomes less and less pronounced, another indication of how far Alex has gone from his Glaswegian roots. The Barbarian talks of his grief over his dead wife and his memories of their life together. While comparisons have been drawn between Sigmund Freud's structural theory of personality, this is the only point where the Barbarian, Familiar and another individual get together in a three-way arrangement. If the Barbarian's wife represents Andrea Cramond, it is another example of how deeply she has penetrated his being. In a move mirroring Alex's suicide drive and anticipating the end of the book, he is placed in a situation likely to kill him, but triumphs and emerges (literally) rejuvenated and reinvigorated. His Glasgow accent also returns.
The Bridge is an unconventional love story; the characters eschew fidelity and barely see each other for years at a time, but they keep returning to each other. There is no marriage, no ring, no happy ever after, just the knowledge that their lives are so deeply entwined it would be difficult or impossible for them to break away from each other.
"You don't belong to her and she doesn't belong to you, but you're both part of each other; if she got up and left now and walked away and you never saw each other again for the rest of your lives, and you lived an ordinary waking life for another fifty years, even so on your deathbed you would know she was part of you."
The fate of Alex and Andrea is revealed in a passage in a later book, Complicity.
Literary significance & criticism
Banks said that of his novels, this was his personal favourite. "Definitely the intellectual of the family, it's the one that went away to University and got a first. I think The Bridge is the best of my books."
Kafkaesque and multi-layered, it shares elements in common with his Culture books, even including mention of a knife missile late in the book. However, Banks stated "That one knife missile mention has been enough for purists to claim that, technically, The Bridge is a Culture novel. Tenuous, I'd say." Banks said that after this book, he felt his SF and non-SF work diverged.
Allusions and symbolism
Some characters are allusions to persons involved in the construction of Forth Railway Bridge: Chief Engineer Arrol refers to the proprietor of the construction company, Sir William Arrol, whilst Engineers Baker and Fowler represent the two principal designers of the bridge, Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Fowler.
Bibliography
The Bridge, Iain Banks, London : Macmillan, 1986,
References
1986 British novels
Macmillan Publishers books
Metaphysical fiction novels
Novels about dreams
Novels by Iain Banks
Novels set in Edinburgh
Philosophical novels
Scottish novels
Steampunk novels | [
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252854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy%20landings | Normandy landings | The Normandy landings were the landing operations and associated airborne operations on Tuesday, 6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. Codenamed Operation Neptune and often referred to as D-Day, it was the largest seaborne invasion in history. The operation began the liberation of France (and later western Europe) and laid the foundations of the Allied victory on the Western Front.
Planning for the operation began in 1943. In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted a substantial military deception, codenamed Operation Bodyguard, to mislead the Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings. The weather on D-Day was far from ideal, and the operation had to be delayed 24 hours; a further postponement would have meant a delay of at least two weeks, as the invasion planners had requirements for the phase of the moon, the tides, and the time of day that meant only a few days each month were deemed suitable. Adolf Hitler placed Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in command of German forces and of developing fortifications along the Atlantic Wall in anticipation of an Allied invasion. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt placed Major General Dwight D. Eisenhower in command of Allied forces.
The amphibious landings were preceded by extensive aerial and naval bombardment and an airborne assault—the landing of 24,000 American, British, and Canadian airborne troops shortly after midnight. Allied infantry and armoured divisions began landing on the coast of France at 06:30. The target stretch of the Normandy coast was divided into five sectors: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword. Strong winds blew the landing craft east of their intended positions, particularly at Utah and Omaha. The men landed under heavy fire from gun emplacements overlooking the beaches, and the shore was mined and covered with obstacles such as wooden stakes, metal tripods, and barbed wire, making the work of the beach-clearing teams difficult and dangerous. Casualties were heaviest at Omaha, with its high cliffs. At Gold, Juno, and Sword, several fortified towns were cleared in house-to-house fighting, and two major gun emplacements at Gold were disabled using specialised tanks.
The Allies failed to achieve any of their goals on the first day. Carentan, Saint-Lô, and Bayeux remained in German hands, and Caen, a major objective, was not captured until 21 July. Only two of the beaches (Juno and Gold) were linked on the first day, and all five beachheads were not connected until 12 June; however, the operation gained a foothold that the Allies gradually expanded over the coming months. German casualties on D-Day have been estimated at 4,000 to 9,000 men. Allied casualties were documented for at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead. Museums, memorials, and war cemeteries in the area now host many visitors each year.
Background
After the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing his new allies for the creation of a second front in western Europe. In late May 1942 the Soviet Union and the United States made a joint announcement that a "... full understanding was reached with regard to the urgent tasks of creating a second front in Europe in 1942." However, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill persuaded U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to postpone the promised invasion as, even with U.S. help, the Allies did not have adequate forces for such an activity.
Instead of an immediate return to France, the western Allies staged offensives in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations, where British troops were already stationed. By mid-1943 the campaign in North Africa had been won. The Allies then launched the invasion of Sicily in July 1943 and subsequently invaded the Italian mainland in September the same year. By then, Soviet forces were on the offensive and had won a major victory at the Battle of Stalingrad. The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion within the next year was taken at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. Initial planning was constrained by the number of available landing craft, most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean and Pacific. At the Tehran Conference in November 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill promised Stalin that they would open the long-delayed second front in May 1944.
The Allies considered four sites for the landings: Brittany, the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, and the Pas-de-Calais. As Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, it would have been possible for the Germans to cut off the Allied advance at a relatively narrow isthmus, so these sites were rejected. With the Pas-de-Calais being the closest point in continental Europe to Britain, the Germans considered it to be the most likely initial landing zone, so it was the most heavily fortified region. But it offered few opportunities for expansion, as the area is bounded by numerous rivers and canals, whereas landings on a broad front in Normandy would permit simultaneous threats against the port of Cherbourg, coastal ports further west in Brittany, and an overland attack towards Paris and eventually into Germany. Normandy was hence chosen as the landing site. The most serious drawback of the Normandy coast—the lack of port facilities—would be overcome through the development of artificial Mulberry harbours. A series of modified tanks, nicknamed Hobart's Funnies, dealt with specific requirements expected for the Normandy Campaign such as mine clearing, demolishing bunkers, and mobile bridging.
The Allies planned to launch the invasion on 1 May 1944. The initial draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. General Bernard Montgomery was named commander of the 21st Army Group, which comprised all land forces involved in the invasion. On 31 December 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the plan, which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions with two more divisions in support. The two generals insisted that the scale of the initial invasion be expanded to five divisions, with airborne descents by three additional divisions, to allow operations on a wider front and to hasten the capture of Cherbourg. The need to acquire or produce extra landing craft for the expanded operation meant that the invasion had to be delayed to June. Eventually, thirty-nine Allied divisions would be committed to the Battle of Normandy: twenty-two U.S., twelve British, three Canadian, one Polish, and one French, totalling over a million troops.
Operations
Operation Overlord was the name assigned to the establishment of a large-scale lodgement on the continent. The first phase, the amphibious invasion and establishment of a secure foothold, was codenamed Operation Neptune. To gain the air superiority needed to ensure a successful invasion, the Allies undertook a bombing campaign (codenamed Operation Pointblank) that targeted German aircraft production, fuel supplies, and airfields. Elaborate deceptions, codenamed Operation Bodyguard, were undertaken in the months leading up to the invasion to prevent the Germans from learning the timing and location of the invasion.
The landings were to be preceded by airborne operations near Caen on the eastern flank to secure the Orne River bridges and north of Carentan on the western flank. The Americans, assigned to land at Utah Beach and Omaha Beach, were to attempt to capture Carentan and Saint-Lô the first day, then cut off the Cotentin Peninsula and eventually capture the port facilities at Cherbourg. The British at Sword and Gold Beaches and Canadians at Juno Beach would protect the U.S. flank and attempt to establish airfields near Caen on the first day. (A sixth beach, code-named "Band", was considered to the east of the Orne.) A secure lodgement would be established with all invading forces linked together, with an attempt to hold all territory north of the Avranches-Falaise line within the first three weeks. Montgomery envisaged a ninety-day battle, lasting until all Allied forces reached the River Seine.
Deception plans
Under the overall umbrella of Operation Bodyguard, the Allies conducted several subsidiary operations designed to mislead the Germans as to the date and location of the Allied landings. Operation Fortitude included Fortitude North, a misinformation campaign using fake radio traffic to lead the Germans into expecting an attack on Norway, and Fortitude South, a major deception involving the creation of a fictitious First United States Army Group under Lieutenant General George S. Patton, supposedly located in Kent and Sussex. Fortitude South was intended to deceive the Germans into believing that the main attack would take place at Calais. Genuine radio messages from 21st Army Group were first routed to Kent via landline and then broadcast, to give the Germans the impression that most of the Allied troops were stationed there. Patton was stationed in England until 6 July, thus continuing to deceive the Germans into believing a second attack would take place at Calais.
Many of the German radar stations on the French coast were destroyed in preparation for the landings. In addition, on the night before the invasion, a small group of Special Air Service operators deployed dummy paratroopers over Le Havre and Isigny. These dummies led the Germans to believe that an additional airborne landing had occurred. On that same night, in Operation Taxable, No. 617 Squadron RAF dropped strips of "window", metal foil that caused a radar return which was mistakenly interpreted by German radar operators as a naval convoy near Le Havre. The illusion was bolstered by a group of small vessels towing barrage balloons. A similar deception was undertaken near Boulogne-sur-Mer in the Pas de Calais area by No. 218 Squadron RAF in Operation Glimmer.
Weather
The invasion planners determined a set of conditions involving the phase of the moon, the tides, and the time of day that would be satisfactory on only a few days in each month. A full moon was desirable, as it would provide illumination for aircraft pilots and have the highest tides. The Allies wanted to schedule the landings for shortly before dawn, midway between low and high tide, with the tide coming in. This would improve the visibility of obstacles on the beach while minimising the amount of time the men would be exposed in the open. Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as the date for the assault. However, on 4 June, conditions were unsuitable for a landing: high winds and heavy seas made it impossible to launch landing craft, and low clouds would prevent aircraft from finding their targets.
Group Captain James Stagg of the Royal Air Force (RAF) met Eisenhower on the evening of 4 June. He and his meteorological team predicted that the weather would improve enough for the invasion to proceed on 6 June. The next available dates with the required tidal conditions (but without the desirable full moon) would be two weeks later, from 18 to 20 June. Postponement of the invasion would have required recalling men and ships already in position to cross the English Channel and would have increased the chance that the invasion plans would be detected. After much discussion with the other senior commanders, Eisenhower decided that the invasion should go ahead on 6 June. A major storm battered the Normandy coast from 19 to 22 June, which would have made the beach landings impossible.
Allied control of the Atlantic meant German meteorologists had less information than the Allies on incoming weather patterns. As the Luftwaffe meteorological centre in Paris was predicting two weeks of stormy weather, many Wehrmacht commanders left their posts to attend war games in Rennes, and men in many units were given leave. Field Marshal Erwin Rommel returned to Germany for his wife's birthday and to meet with Hitler to try to obtain more Panzers.
German order of battle
Nazi Germany had at its disposal fifty divisions in France and the Low Countries, with another eighteen stationed in Denmark and Norway. Fifteen divisions were in the process of formation in Germany. Combat losses throughout the war, particularly on the Eastern Front, meant that the Germans no longer had a pool of able young men from which to draw. German soldiers were now on average six years older than their Allied counterparts. Many in the Normandy area were Ostlegionen (eastern legions)—conscripts and volunteers from Russia, Mongolia, and other areas of the Soviet Union. They were provided mainly with unreliable captured equipment and lacked motorised transport. Many German units were under strength.
In early 1944, the German Western Front (OB West) was significantly weakened by personnel and materiel transfers to the Eastern Front. During the Soviet Dnieper–Carpathian offensive (24 December 1943 – 17 April 1944), the German High Command was forced to transfer the entire II SS Panzer Corps from France, consisting of the 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, as well as the 349th Infantry Division, 507th Heavy Panzer Battalion and the 311th and 322nd StuG Assault Gun Brigades. All told, the German forces stationed in France were deprived of 45,827 troops and 363 tanks, assault guns, and self-propelled anti-tank guns. It was the first major transfer of forces from France to the east since the creation of Führer Directive 51, which eased restrictions on troop transfers to the eastern front.
The 1st SS Panzer Division "Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler", 9th, 11th, 19th and 116th Panzer divisions, alongside the 2nd SS Panzer Division "Das Reich", had only arrived in March–May 1944 to France for extensive refit after being badly damaged during the Dnieper-Carpathian operation. Seven of the eleven panzer or panzergrenadier divisions stationed in France were not fully operational or only partially mobile in early June 1944.
German Supreme commander: Adolf Hitler
Oberbefehlshaber West (Supreme Commander West; OB West): Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt
(Panzer Group West: General Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg)
Army Group B: Field Marshal Erwin Rommel
7th Army: Generaloberst Friedrich Dollmann
LXXXIV Corps under General der Artillerie Erich Marcks
Cotentin Peninsula
Allied forces attacking Utah Beach faced the following German units stationed on the Cotentin Peninsula:
709th Static Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Karl-Wilhelm von Schlieben numbered 12,320 men, many of them Ostlegionen (non-German conscripts recruited from Soviet prisoners of war, Georgians and Poles).
729th Grenadier Regiment
739th Grenadier Regiment
919th Grenadier Regiment
Grandcamps Sector
Americans assaulting Omaha Beach faced the following troops:
352nd Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Dietrich Kraiss, a full-strength unit of around 12,000 brought in by Rommel on 15 March and reinforced by two additional regiments.
914th Grenadier Regiment
915th Grenadier Regiment (as reserves)
916th Grenadier Regiment
726th Infantry Regiment (from 716th Infantry Division)
352nd Artillery Regiment
Allied forces at Gold and Juno faced the following elements of the 352nd Infantry Division:
914th Grenadier Regiment
915th Grenadier Regiment
916th Grenadier Regiment
352nd Artillery Regiment
Forces around Caen
Allied forces attacking Gold, Juno, and Sword Beaches faced the following German units:
716th Static Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Wilhelm Richter. At 7,000 troops, the division was significantly understrength.
736th Infantry Regiment
1716th Artillery Regiment
21st Panzer Division, (south of Caen) under Generalmajor Edgar Feuchtinger included 146 tanks and 50 assault guns, plus supporting infantry and artillery.
100th Panzer Regiment (at Falaise under Hermann von Oppeln-Bronikowski; renamed 22nd Panzer Regiment in May 1944 to avoid confusion with 100th Panzer Battalion)
125th Panzergrenadier Regiment(under Hans von Luck from April 1944)
192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment
155th Panzer Artillery Regiment
Atlantic Wall
Alarmed by the raids on St Nazaire and Dieppe in 1942, Hitler had ordered the construction of fortifications all along the Atlantic coast, from Spain to Norway, to protect against an expected Allied invasion. He envisioned 15,000 emplacements manned by 300,000 troops, but shortages, particularly of concrete and manpower, meant that most of the strongpoints were never built. As it was expected to be the site of the invasion, the Pas de Calais was heavily defended. In the Normandy area, the best fortifications were concentrated at the port facilities at Cherbourg and Saint-Malo. Rommel was assigned to oversee the construction of further fortifications along the expected invasion front, which stretched from the Netherlands to Cherbourg, and was given command of the newly re-formed Army Group B, which included the 7th Army, the 15th Army, and the forces guarding the Netherlands. Reserves for this group included the 2nd, 21st, and 116th Panzer divisions.
Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion, so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore. In addition to concrete gun emplacements at strategic points along the coast, he ordered wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles to be placed on the beaches to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks. Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry would spend less time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high water mark. Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry. On Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled. The Allied air offensive over Germany had crippled the Luftwaffe and established air supremacy over western Europe, so Rommel knew he could not expect effective air support. The Luftwaffe could muster only 815 aircraft over Normandy in comparison to the Allies' 9,543. Rommel arranged for booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's asparagus) to be installed in meadows and fields to deter airborne landings.
German armaments minister Albert Speer notes in his 1969 autobiography that the German high command, concerned about the susceptibility of the airports and port facilities along the North Sea coast, held a conference on 6–8 June 1944 to discuss reinforcing defenses in that area. Speer wrote:
Armoured reserves
Rommel believed that Germany's best chance was to stop the invasion at the shore. He requested that the mobile reserves, especially tanks, be stationed as close to the coast as possible. Rundstedt, Geyr, and other senior commanders objected. They believed that the invasion could not be stopped on the beaches. Geyr argued for a conventional doctrine: keeping the Panzer formations concentrated in a central position around Paris and Rouen and deploying them only when the main Allied beachhead had been identified. He also noted that in the Italian Campaign, the armoured units stationed near the coast had been damaged by naval bombardment. Rommel's opinion was that because of Allied air supremacy, the large-scale movement of tanks would not be possible once the invasion was under way. Hitler made the final decision, which was to leave three Panzer divisions under Geyr's command and give Rommel operational control of three more as reserves. Hitler took personal control of four divisions as strategic reserves, not to be used without his direct orders.
Allied order of battle
Commander, SHAEF: General Dwight D. Eisenhower
Commander, 21st Army Group: General Bernard Montgomery
U.S. zones
Commander, First Army: Lieutenant General Omar Bradley
The First Army contingent totalled approximately 73,000 men, including 15,600 from the airborne divisions.
Utah Beach
VII Corps, commanded by Major General J. Lawton Collins
4th Infantry Division: Major General Raymond O. Barton
82nd Airborne Division: Major General Matthew Ridgway
90th Infantry Division: Brigadier General Jay W. MacKelvie
101st Airborne Division: Major General Maxwell D. Taylor
Omaha Beach
V Corps, commanded by Major General Leonard T. Gerow, making up 34,250 men
1st Infantry Division: Major General Clarence R. Huebner
29th Infantry Division: Major General Charles H. Gerhardt
British and Canadian zones
Commander, Second Army: Lieutenant General Sir Miles Dempsey
Overall, the Second Army contingent consisted of 83,115 men, 61,715 of them British. The nominally British air and naval support units included a large number of personnel from Allied nations, including several RAF squadrons manned almost exclusively by overseas air crew. For example, the Australian contribution to the operation included a regular Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) squadron, nine Article XV squadrons, and hundreds of personnel posted to RAF units and RN warships. The RAF supplied two-thirds of the aircraft involved in the invasion.
Gold Beach
XXX Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Gerard Bucknall
50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division: Major General D.A.H. Graham
Juno Beach
British I Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General John Crocker
3rd Canadian Division: Major General Rod Keller
Sword Beach
British I Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General John Crocker
3rd Infantry Division: Major General Tom Rennie
6th Airborne Division: Major General R.N. Gale
79th Armoured Division: Major General Percy Hobart provided specialised armoured vehicles which supported the landings on all beaches in Second Army's sector.
Coordination with the French Resistance
Through the London-based État-major des Forces Françaises de l'Intérieur (French Forces of the Interior), the British Special Operations Executive orchestrated a campaign of sabotage to be implemented by the French Resistance. The Allies developed four plans for the Resistance to execute on D-Day and the following days:
Plan Vert was a 15-day operation to sabotage the rail system.
Plan Bleu dealt with destroying electrical facilities.
Plan Tortue was a delaying operation aimed at the enemy forces that would potentially reinforce Axis forces at Normandy.
Plan Violet dealt with cutting underground telephone and teleprinter cables.
The resistance was alerted to carry out these tasks by messages personnels transmitted by the BBC's French service from London. Several hundred of these messages, which might be snippets of poetry, quotations from literature, or random sentences, were regularly transmitted, masking the few that were actually significant. In the weeks preceding the landings, lists of messages and their meanings were distributed to resistance groups. An increase in radio activity on 5 June was correctly interpreted by German intelligence to mean that an invasion was imminent or underway. However, because of the barrage of previous false warnings and misinformation, most units ignored the warning.
A 1965 report from the Counter-insurgency Information Analysis Center details the results of the French Resistance's sabotage efforts: "In the southeast, 52 locomotives were destroyed on 6 June and the railway line cut in more than 500 places. Normandy was isolated as of 7 June."
Naval activity
Naval operations for the invasion were described by historian Correlli Barnett as a "never surpassed masterpiece of planning". In overall command was British Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay, who had served as Flag officer at Dover during the Dunkirk evacuation four years earlier. He had also been responsible for the naval planning of the invasion of North Africa in 1942, and one of the two fleets carrying troops for the invasion of Sicily the following year.
The invasion fleet, which was drawn from eight different navies, comprised 6,939 vessels: 1,213 warships, 4,126 landing craft of various types, 736 ancillary craft, and 864 merchant vessels. The majority of the fleet was supplied by the UK, which provided 892 warships and 3,261 landing craft. In total there were 195,700 naval personnel involved; of these 112,824 were from the Royal Navy with another 25,000 from the Merchant Navy; 52,889 were American; and 4,998 sailors from other allied countries. The invasion fleet was split into the Western Naval Task Force (under Admiral Alan G. Kirk) supporting the U.S. sectors and the Eastern Naval Task Force (under Admiral Sir Philip Vian) in the British and Canadian sectors. Available to the fleet were five battleships, 20 cruisers, 65 destroyers, and two monitors. German ships in the area on D-Day included three torpedo boats, 29 fast attack craft, 36 R boats, and 36 minesweepers and patrol boats. The Germans also had several U-boats available, and all the approaches had been heavily mined.
Naval losses
At 05:10, four German torpedo boats reached the Eastern Task Force and launched fifteen torpedoes, sinking the Norwegian destroyer off Sword Beach but missing the British battleships and . After attacking, the German vessels turned away and fled east into a smoke screen that had been laid by the RAF to shield the fleet from the long-range battery at Le Havre. Allied losses to mines included the American destroyer off Utah and submarine chaser , a 173-foot patrol craft.
Bombardment
Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with more than 2,200 British, Canadian, and U.S. bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland. The coastal bombing attack was largely ineffective at Omaha, because low cloud cover made the assigned targets difficult to see. Concerned about inflicting casualties on their own troops, many bombers delayed their attacks too long and failed to hit the beach defences. The Germans had 570 aircraft stationed in Normandy and the Low Countries on D-Day, and another 964 in Germany.
Minesweepers began clearing channels for the invasion fleet shortly after midnight and finished just after dawn without encountering the enemy. The Western Task Force included the battleships , , and , plus eight cruisers, twenty-eight destroyers, and one monitor. The Eastern Task Force included the battleships and and the monitor , twelve cruisers, and thirty-seven destroyers. Naval bombardment of areas behind the beach commenced at 05:45, while it was still dark, with the gunners switching to pre-assigned targets on the beach as soon as it was light enough to see, at 05:50. Since troops were scheduled to land at Utah and Omaha starting at 06:30 (an hour earlier than the British beaches), these areas received only about 40 minutes of naval bombardment before the assault troops began to land on the shore.
Airborne operations
The success of the amphibious landings depended on the establishment of a secure lodgement from which to expand the beachhead to allow the build-up of a well-supplied force capable of breaking out. The amphibious forces were especially vulnerable to strong enemy counter-attacks before the arrival of sufficient forces in the beachhead could be accomplished. To slow or eliminate the enemy's ability to organise and launch counter-attacks during this critical period, airborne operations were used to seize key objectives such as bridges, road crossings, and terrain features, particularly on the eastern and western flanks of the landing areas. The airborne landings some distance behind the beaches were also intended to ease the egress of the amphibious forces off the beaches, and in some cases to neutralise German coastal defence batteries and more quickly expand the area of the beachhead.
The U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were assigned to objectives west of Utah Beach, where they hoped to capture and control the few narrow causeways through terrain that had been intentionally flooded by the Germans. Reports from Allied intelligence in mid-May of the arrival of the German 91st Infantry Division meant the intended drop zones had to be shifted eastward and to the south. The British 6th Airborne Division, on the eastern flank, was assigned to capture intact the bridges over the Caen Canal and River Orne, destroy five bridges over the Dives to the east, and destroy the Merville Gun Battery overlooking Sword Beach. Free French paratroopers from the British SAS Brigade were assigned to objectives in Brittany from 5 June until August in Operations Dingson, Samwest, and Cooney.
BBC war correspondent Robert Barr described the scene as paratroopers prepared to board their aircraft:
United States
The U.S. airborne landings began with the arrival of pathfinders at 00:15. Navigation was difficult because of a bank of thick cloud, and as a result, only one of the five paratrooper drop zones was accurately marked with radar signals and Aldis lamps. Paratroopers of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, numbering over 13,000 men, were delivered by Douglas C-47 Skytrains of the IX Troop Carrier Command. To avoid flying over the invasion fleet, the planes arrived from the west over the Cotentin Peninsula and exited over Utah Beach.
Paratroops from 101st Airborne were dropped beginning around 01:30, tasked with controlling the causeways behind Utah Beach and destroying road and rail bridges over the Douve River. The C-47s could not fly in a tight formation because of thick cloud cover, and many paratroopers were dropped far from their intended landing zones. Many planes came in so low that they were under fire from both flak and machine-gun fire. Some paratroopers were killed on impact when their parachutes did not have time to open, and others drowned in the flooded fields. Gathering together into fighting units was made difficult by a shortage of radios and by the bocage terrain, with its hedgerows, stone walls, and marshes. Some units did not arrive at their targets until afternoon, by which time several of the causeways had already been cleared by members of the 4th Infantry Division moving up from the beach.
Troops of the 82nd Airborne began arriving around 02:30, with the primary objective of capturing two bridges over the River Merderet and destroying two bridges over the Douve. On the east side of the river, 75 per cent of the paratroopers landed in or near their drop zone, and within two hours they captured the important crossroads at Sainte-Mère-Église (the first town liberated in the invasion) and began working to protect the western flank. Because of the failure of the pathfinders to accurately mark their drop zone, the two regiments dropped on the west side of the Merderet were extremely scattered, with only four per cent landing in the target area. Many landed in nearby swamps, with much loss of life. Paratroopers consolidated into small groups, usually a combination of men of various ranks from different units, and attempted to concentrate on nearby objectives. They captured but failed to hold the Merderet River bridge at La Fière, and fighting for the crossing continued for several days.
Reinforcements arrived by glider around 04:00 (Mission Chicago and Mission Detroit), and 21:00 (Mission Keokuk and Mission Elmira), bringing additional troops and heavy equipment. Like the paratroopers, many landed far from their drop zones. Even those that landed on target experienced difficulty, with heavy cargo such as Jeeps shifting during landing, crashing through the wooden fuselage, and in some cases crushing personnel on board.
After 24 hours, only 2,500 men of the 101st and 2,000 of the 82nd Airborne were under the control of their divisions, approximately a third of the force dropped. This wide dispersal had the effect of confusing the Germans and fragmenting their response. The 7th Army received notification of the parachute drops at 01:20, but Rundstedt did not initially believe that a major invasion was underway. The destruction of radar stations along the Normandy coast in the week before the invasion meant that the Germans did not detect the approaching fleet until 02:00.
British and Canadian
The first Allied action of D-Day was the capture of the Caen canal and Orne river bridges via a glider assault at 00:16 (since renamed Pegasus Bridge and Horsa Bridge). Both bridges were quickly captured intact, with light casualties by the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry Regiment. They were then reinforced by members of the 5th Parachute Brigade and the 7th (Light Infantry) Parachute Battalion. The five bridges over the Dives were destroyed with minimal difficulty by the 3rd Parachute Brigade. Meanwhile, the pathfinders tasked with setting up radar beacons and lights for further paratroopers (scheduled to begin arriving at 00:50 to clear the landing zone north of Ranville) were blown off course and had to set up the navigation aids too far east. Many paratroopers, also blown too far east, landed far from their intended drop zones; some took hours or even days to be reunited with their units. Major General Richard Gale arrived in the third wave of gliders at 03:30, along with equipment, such as antitank guns and jeeps, and more troops to help secure the area from counter-attacks, which were initially staged only by troops in the immediate vicinity of the landings. At 02:00, the commander of the German 716th Infantry Division ordered Feuchtinger to move his 21st Panzer Division into position to counter-attack. However, as the division was part of the armoured reserve, Feuchtinger was obliged to seek clearance from OKW before he could commit his formation. Feuchtinger did not receive orders until nearly 09:00, but in the meantime on his own initiative he put together a battle group (including tanks) to fight the British forces east of the Orne.
Only 160 men out of the 600 members of the 9th Battalion tasked with eliminating the enemy battery at Merville arrived at the rendezvous point. Lieutenant Colonel Terence Otway, in charge of the operation, decided to proceed regardless, as the emplacement had to be destroyed by 06:00 to prevent it firing on the invasion fleet and the troops arriving on Sword Beach. In the Battle of Merville Gun Battery, Allied forces disabled the guns with plastic explosives at a cost of 75 casualties. The emplacement was found to contain 75 mm guns rather than the expected 150 mm heavy coastal artillery. Otway's remaining force withdrew with the assistance of a few members of the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion.
With this action, the last of the D-Day goals of the British 6th Airborne Division was achieved. They were reinforced at 12:00 by commandos of the 1st Special Service Brigade, who landed on Sword Beach, and by the 6th Airlanding Brigade, who arrived in gliders at 21:00 in Operation Mallard.
Beach landings
Tanks
Some of the landing craft had been modified to provide close support fire, and self-propelled amphibious Duplex-Drive tanks (DD tanks), specially designed for the Normandy landings, were to land shortly before the infantry to provide covering fire. However, few arrived in advance of the infantry, and many sank before reaching the shore, especially at Omaha.
Utah Beach
Utah Beach was in the area defended by two battalions of the 919th Grenadier Regiment. Members of the 8th Infantry Regiment of the 4th Infantry Division were the first to land, arriving at 06:30. Their landing craft were pushed to the south by strong currents, and they found themselves about from their intended landing zone. This site turned out to be better, as there was only one strongpoint nearby rather than two, and bombers of IX Bomber Command had bombed the defences from lower than their prescribed altitude, inflicting considerable damage. In addition, the strong currents had washed ashore many of the underwater obstacles. The assistant commander of the 4th Infantry Division, Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr., the first senior officer ashore, made the decision to "start the war from right here," and ordered further landings to be re-routed.
The initial assault battalions were quickly followed by 28 DD tanks and several waves of engineer and demolition teams to remove beach obstacles and clear the area directly behind the beach of obstacles and mines. Gaps were blown in the sea wall to allow quicker access for troops and tanks. Combat teams began to exit the beach at around 09:00, with some infantry wading through the flooded fields rather than travelling on the single road. They skirmished throughout the day with elements of the 919th Grenadier Regiment, who were armed with antitank guns and rifles. The main strongpoint in the area and another to the south were disabled by noon. The 4th Infantry Division did not meet all of their D-Day objectives at Utah Beach, partly because they had arrived too far to the south, but they landed 21,000 troops at the cost of only 197 casualties.
Pointe du Hoc
Pointe du Hoc, a prominent headland situated between Utah and Omaha, was assigned to two hundred men of the 2nd Ranger Battalion, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel James Rudder. Their task was to scale the cliffs with grappling hooks, ropes, and ladders to destroy the coastal gun battery located at the top. The cliffs were defended by the German 352nd Infantry Division and French collaborators firing from above. Allied destroyers and provided fire support. After scaling the cliffs, the Rangers discovered that the guns had already been withdrawn. They located the weapons, unguarded but ready to use, in an orchard some south of the point, and disabled them with explosives.
The Rangers fended off numerous counter-attacks from the German 914th Grenadier Regiment. The men were isolated, and some were captured. By dawn on 7 June, Rudder had only 90 men able to fight. Relief did not arrive until 8 June, when members of the 743rd Tank Battalion and others arrived. By then, Rudder's men had run out of ammunition and were using captured German weapons. Several men were killed as a result, because the German weapons made a distinctive noise, and the men were mistaken for the enemy. By the end of the battle, the Rangers casualties were 135 dead and wounded, while German casualties were 50 killed and 40 captured. An unknown number of French collaborators were executed.
Omaha Beach
Omaha, the most heavily defended beach, was assigned to the 1st Infantry Division and 29th Infantry Division. They faced the 352nd Infantry Division rather than the expected single regiment. Strong currents forced many landing craft east of their intended position or caused them to be delayed. For fear of hitting the landing craft, U.S. bombers delayed releasing their loads and, as a result most of the beach obstacles at Omaha remained undamaged when the men came ashore. Many of the landing craft ran aground on sandbars, and the men had to wade 50–100m in water up to their necks while under fire to get to the beach. In spite of the rough seas, DD tanks of two companies of the 741st Tank Battalion were dropped from shore; however, 27 of the 32 flooded and sank, with the loss of 33 crew. Some tanks, disabled on the beach, continued to provide covering fire until their ammunition ran out or they were swamped by the rising tide.
Casualties were around 2,000, as the men were subjected to fire from the cliffs above. Problems clearing the beach of obstructions led to the beachmaster calling a halt to further landings of vehicles at 08:30. A group of destroyers arrived around this time to provide fire support so landings could resume. Exit from the beach was possible only via five heavily defended gullies, and by late morning barely 600 men had reached the higher ground. By noon, as the artillery fire took its toll and the Germans started to run out of ammunition, the Americans were able to clear some lanes on the beaches. They also started clearing the gullies of enemy defences so that vehicles could move off the beach. The tenuous beachhead was expanded over the following days, and the D-Day objectives for Omaha were accomplished by 9 June.
Gold Beach
The first landings on Gold Beach were set for 07:25 because of the differences in the tide between there and the U.S. beaches. High winds made conditions difficult for the landing craft, and the amphibious DD tanks were released close to shore or directly on the beach instead of further out as planned. Three of the four guns in a large emplacement at the Longues-sur-Mer battery were disabled by direct hits from the cruisers HMS and at 06:20. The fourth gun resumed firing intermittently in the afternoon, and its garrison surrendered on 7 June. Aerial attacks had failed to hit the Le Hamel strongpoint, which had its embrasure facing east to provide enfilade fire along the beach and had a thick concrete wall on the seaward side. Its 75 mm gun continued to do damage until 16:00, when an Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE) tank fired a large petard charge into its rear entrance. A second casemated emplacement at La Rivière containing an 88 mm gun was neutralised by a tank at 07:30.
Meanwhile, infantry began clearing the heavily fortified houses along the shore and advanced on targets further inland. The No. 47 (Royal Marine) Commando moved toward the small port at Port-en-Bessin and captured it the following day in the Battle of Port-en-Bessin. Company Sergeant Major Stanley Hollis received the only Victoria Cross awarded on D-Day for his actions while attacking two pillboxes at the Mont Fleury high point. On the western flank, the 1st Battalion, Royal Hampshire Regiment captured Arromanches (future site of Mulberry "B"), and contact was made on the eastern flank with the Canadian forces at Juno. Bayeux was not captured the first day because of stiff resistance from the 352nd Infantry Division. Allied casualties at Gold Beach are estimated at 1,000.
Juno Beach
The landing at Juno Beach was delayed because of choppy seas, and the men arrived ahead of their supporting armour, suffering many casualties while disembarking. Most of the offshore bombardment had missed the German defences. Several exits from the beach were created, but not without difficulty. At Mike Beach on the western flank, a large crater was filled using an abandoned AVRE tank and several rolls of fascine, which were then covered by a temporary bridge. The tank remained in place until 1972 when it was removed and restored by members of the Royal Engineers. The beach and nearby streets were clogged with traffic for most of the day, making it difficult to move inland.
Major German strongpoints with 75 mm guns, machine-gun nests, concrete fortifications, barbed wire, and mines were located at Courseulles-sur-Mer, St Aubin-sur-Mer, and Bernières-sur-Mer. The towns had to be cleared in house-to-house fighting. Soldiers on their way to Bény-sur-Mer, inland, discovered that the road was well covered by machine gun emplacements that had to be outflanked before the advance could proceed. Elements of the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade advanced to within sight of the Carpiquet airfield late in the afternoon, but by this time their supporting armour was low on ammunition so the Canadians dug in for the night. The airfield was not captured until a month later as the area became the scene of fierce fighting. By nightfall, the contiguous Juno and Gold beachheads covered an area wide and deep. Casualties at Juno were 961 men.
Sword Beach
On Sword Beach, 21 of 25 DD tanks of the first wave were successful in getting safely ashore to provide cover for the infantry, who began disembarking at 07:30. The beach was heavily mined and peppered with obstacles, making the work of the beach clearing teams difficult and dangerous. In the windy conditions, the tide came in more quickly than expected, so manoeuvring the armour was difficult. The beach quickly became congested. Brigadier Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat and his 1st Special Service Brigade arrived in the second wave, piped ashore by Private Bill Millin, Lovat's personal piper. Members of No. 4 Commando moved through Ouistreham to attack from the rear a German gun battery on the shore. A concrete observation and control tower at this emplacement had to be bypassed and was not captured until several days later. French forces under Commander Philippe Kieffer (the first French soldiers to arrive in Normandy) attacked and cleared the heavily fortified strongpoint at the casino at Riva Bella, with the aid of one of the DD tanks.
The 'Morris' strongpoint near Colleville-sur-Orne was captured after about an hour of fighting. The nearby 'Hillman' strongpoint, headquarters of the 736th Infantry Regiment, was a large complex defensive work that had come through the morning's bombardment essentially undamaged. It was not captured until 20:15. The 2nd Battalion, King's Shropshire Light Infantry began advancing to Caen on foot, coming within a few kilometres of the town, but had to withdraw due to lack of armour support. At 16:00, the 21st Panzer Division mounted a counter-attack between Sword and Juno and nearly succeeded in reaching the Channel. It met stiff resistance from the British 3rd Division and was soon recalled to assist in the area between Caen and Bayeux. Estimates of Allied casualties on Sword Beach are as high as 1,000.
Aftermath
The Normandy landings were the largest seaborne invasion in history, with nearly 5,000 landing and assault craft, 289 escort vessels, and 277 minesweepers participating. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on D-Day, with 875,000 men disembarking by the end of June. Allied casualties on the first day were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead. The Germans lost 1,000 men. The Allied invasion plans had called for the capture of Carentan, Saint-Lô, Caen, and Bayeux on the first day, with all the beaches (other than Utah) linked with a front line from the beaches; none of these objectives were achieved. The five beachheads were not connected until 12 June, by which time the Allies held a front around long and deep. Caen, a major objective, was still in German hands at the end of D-Day and would not be completely captured until 21 July. The Germans had ordered French civilians other than those deemed essential to the war effort to leave potential combat zones in Normandy. Civilian casualties on D-Day and D+1 are estimated at 3,000.
The Allied victory in Normandy stemmed from several factors. German preparations along the Atlantic Wall were only partially finished; shortly before D-Day Rommel reported that construction was only 18 per cent complete in some areas as resources were diverted elsewhere. The deceptions undertaken in Operation Fortitude were successful, leaving the Germans obliged to defend a huge stretch of coastline. The Allies achieved and maintained air supremacy, which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of the preparations underway in Britain and were unable to interfere via bomber attacks. Infrastructure for transport in France was severely disrupted by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies. Some of the opening bombardment was off-target or not concentrated enough to have any impact, but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches. Indecisiveness and an overly complicated command structure on the part of the German high command were also factors in the Allied success.
War memorials and tourism
At Omaha Beach, parts of the Mulberry harbour are still visible, and a few of the beach obstacles remain. A memorial to the U.S. National Guard sits at the location of a former German strongpoint. Pointe du Hoc is little changed from 1944, with the terrain covered with bomb craters and most of the concrete bunkers still in place. The Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial is nearby, in Colleville-sur-Mer. A museum about the Utah landings is located at Sainte-Marie-du-Mont, and there is one dedicated to the activities of the U.S. airmen at Sainte-Mère-Église. Two German military cemeteries are located nearby.
Pegasus Bridge, a target of the British 6th Airborne, was the site of some of the earliest action of the Normandy landings. The bridge was replaced in 1994 by one similar in appearance, and the original is housed on the grounds of a nearby museum complex. Sections of Mulberry Harbour B still sit in the sea at Arromanches, and the well-preserved Longues-sur-Mer battery is nearby. The Juno Beach Centre, opened in 2003, was funded by the Canadian federal and provincial governments, France, and Canadian veterans. The British Normandy Memorial above Gold Beach was designed by the architect Liam O'Connor and opened in 2021.
In popular culture
Books
The Longest Day by Cornelius Ryan (1959 book)
D-Day: The Battle for Normandy by Antony Beevor (2009 book)
Neptune: The D-Day Landings and the Allied Invasion of Europe by Craig Symonds (2014 book)
Film and television
The Longest Day (1962 film)
The Big Red One (1980 film)
Saving Private Ryan (1998 film)
Band of Brothers (2001 miniseries)
See also
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
D-Day Daily Telegraph crossword security alarm
Exercise Tiger, a rehearsal for the landings that resulted in many deaths
List of Allied warships in the Normandy landings
Martha Gellhorn, the only woman to land at Normandy on D-Day
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
The Normandy Invasion at the US Army Center of Military History
Neptune Operations Plan
Naval details for Overlord at Naval-History.Net
Documents on World War II: D-Day, The Invasion of Normandy at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home
Lt. General Omar Bradley FUSAG 12TH AG: June 6, 1944 D-Day Maps Omar Bradley D-Day Maps restored, preserved and Displayed at Historical Registry
Allied veterans remember D-Day
Naval History and Heritage Command
Complete Broadcast Day: D-Day (June 6, 1944) from CBS Radio News, available at the Internet Archive
1944 in France
Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom
Amphibious operations involving the United States
Amphibious operations involving Canada
Amphibious operations of World War II
Battle for Caen
Battles and operations of World War II involving Poland
Battles of World War II involving Canada
Battles of World War II involving France
Battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War II involving the United States
Conflicts in 1944
Invasions by the United States
June 1944 events
Landing operations
Military history of Canada during World War II
Naval battles and operations of the European theatre of World War II
Naval battles of World War II involving Canada
Naval battles of World War II involving Poland
Naval battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
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|
252856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Gambit | Operation Gambit | Operation Gambit was a part of Operation Neptune, the landing phase of the invasion of northern France (Operation Overlord) during the Second World War. Gambit involved two X class submarines (British midget submarines) marking the ends of the Anglo-Canadian invasion beaches. Using navigation lights and flags, the submarines indicated the western and eastern limits of Sword and Juno Beaches. X20 and X23 arrived in position on 4 June and due to the delay caused by bad weather, remained in position until on 6 June (D-Day) when they surfaced, erected the navigational aids, an telescopic mast with a light shining to seaward, a radio beacon and echo sounder, tapping out a message for the minelayers approaching Sword and Juno.
A similar operation had been offered to the US landing forces to mark their beaches but this was declined. The team of Captain Logan Scott-Bowden and Sergeant Bruce Ogden-Smith did investigate Omaha Beach for General Omar Bradley, returning with a sand sample. The submarines were at some risk of damage due to friendly fire and to avoid this, Lieutenant George Honour the captain of X23 flew a White Ensign of the size more normally used by capital ships.
See also
Operation Maple
Operation Postage Able
Footnotes
References
Operation Neptune
Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom | [
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|
252857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classified%20information | Classified information | Classified information is material that a government body deems to be sensitive information that must be protected. Access is restricted by law or regulation to particular groups of people with the necessary security clearance and need to know, and mishandling of the material can incur criminal penalties.
A formal security clearance is required to view or handle classified documents or to access classified data. The clearance process requires a satisfactory background investigation. Documents and other information must be properly marked "by the author" with one of several (hierarchical) levels of sensitivity—e.g. restricted, confidential, secret, and top secret. The choice of level is based on an impact assessment; governments have their own criteria, including how to determine the classification of an information asset and rules on how to protect information classified at each level. This process often includes security clearances for personnel handling the information.
Some corporations and non-government organizations also assign levels of protection to their private information, either from a desire to protect trade secrets, or because of laws and regulations governing various matters such as personal privacy, sealed legal proceedings and the timing of financial information releases.
With the passage of time much classified information can become less sensitive, and may be declassified and made public. Since the late twentieth century there has been freedom of information legislation in some countries, whereby the public is deemed to have the right to all information that is not considered to be damaging if released. Sometimes documents are released with information still considered confidential obscured (redacted), as in the adjacent example.
The question exists among some political science and legal experts, whether the definition of classified ought to be information that would cause injury to the cause of justice, human rights, etc., rather than information that would cause injury to the national interest, to distinguish when classifying information is in the collective best interest of a just society or merely the best interest of a society acting unjustly, to protect its people, government, or administrative officials from legitimate recourses consistent with a fair and just social contract.
Government classification
The purpose of classification is to protect information. Higher classifications protect information that might endanger national security. Classification formalises what constitutes a "state secret" and accords different levels of protection based on the expected damage the information might cause in the wrong hands.
However, classified information is frequently "leaked" to reporters by officials for political purposes. Several U.S. presidents have leaked sensitive information to get their point across to the public.
Typical classification levels
Although the classification systems vary from country to country, most have levels corresponding to the following British definitions (from the highest level to lowest).
Top Secret is the highest level of classified information. Information is further compartmented so that specific access using a code word after top secret is a legal way to hide collective and important information. Such material would cause "exceptionally grave damage" to national security if made publicly available. Prior to 1942, the United Kingdom and other members of the British Empire used Most Secret, but this was later changed to match the United States' category name of Top Secret in order to simplify Allied interoperability.
The Washington Post reported in an investigation entitled Top Secret America that, as of 2010, "An estimated 854,000 people ... hold top-secret security clearances" in the United States.
Secret
Secret material would cause "serious damage" to national security if it were publicly available.
In the United States, operational "Secret" information can be marked with an additional "LIMDIS", to limit distribution.
Confidential
Confidential material would cause "damage" or be prejudicial to national security if publicly available.
Restricted
Restricted material would cause "undesirable effects" if publicly available. Some countries do not have such a classification in public sectors, such as commercial industries. Such a level is also known as "Private Information".
Official
Official (Equivalent to US DOD classification FOUO – For Official Use Only) material forms the generality of government business, public service delivery and commercial activity. This includes a diverse range of information, of varying sensitivities, and with differing consequences resulting from compromise or loss. OFFICIAL information must be secured against a threat model that is broadly similar to that faced by a large private company.
The OFFICIAL SENSITIVE classification replaced the Restricted classification in April 2014 in the UK; OFFICIAL indicates the previously used UNCLASSIFIED marking.
Unclassified
Unclassified is technically not a classification level, but this is a feature of some classification schemes, used for government documents that do not merit a particular classification or which have been declassified. This is because the information is low-impact, and therefore does not require any special protection, such as vetting of personnel.
A plethora of pseudo-classifications exist under this category.
Clearance
Clearance is a general classification, that comprises a variety of rules controlling the level of permission required to view some classified information, and how it must be stored, transmitted, and destroyed. Additionally, access is restricted on a "need to know" basis. Simply possessing a clearance does not automatically authorize the individual to view all material classified at that level or below that level. The individual must present a legitimate "need to know" in addition to the proper level of clearance.
Compartmented information
In addition to the general risk-based classification levels, additional compartmented constraints on access exist, such as (in the U.S.) Special Intelligence (SI), which protects intelligence sources and methods, No Foreign dissemination (NOFORN), which restricts dissemination to U.S. nationals, and Originator Controlled dissemination (ORCON), which ensures that the originator can track possessors of the information. Information in these compartments is usually marked with specific keywords in addition to the classification level.
Government information about nuclear weapons often has an additional marking to show it contains such information (CNWDI).
International
When a government agency or group shares information between an agency or group of other country's government they will generally employ a special classification scheme that both parties have previously agreed to honour.
For example, the marking ATOMAL, is applied to U.S. RESTRICTED DATA or FORMERLY RESTRICTED DATA and United Kingdom ATOMIC information that has been released to NATO. ATOMAL information is marked COSMIC TOP SECRET ATOMAL (CTSA), NATO SECRET ATOMAL (NSAT), or NATO CONFIDENTIAL ATOMAL (NCA).
NATO classifications
For example, sensitive information shared amongst NATO allies has four levels of security classification; from most to least classified:
COSMIC TOP SECRET (CTS)
NATO SECRET (NS)
NATO CONFIDENTIAL (NC)
NATO RESTRICTED (NR)
A special case exists with regard to NATO UNCLASSIFIED (NU) information. Documents with this marking are NATO property (copyright) and must not be made public without NATO permission.
COSMIC is an abbreviation for "Control Of Secret Material in an International Command".
International organizations
The European Union has four levels: EU TOP SECRET, EU SECRET, EU CONFIDENTIAL, EU RESTRICTED. (Note that usually the French terms are used.)
TRÈS SECRET UE/EU TOP SECRET: information and material the unauthorised disclosure of which could cause exceptionally grave prejudice to the essential interests of the European Union or of one or more of the Member States;
SECRET UE/EU SECRET: information and material the unauthorised disclosure of which could seriously harm the essential interests of the European Union or of one or more of the Member States;
CONFIDENTIEL UE/EU CONFIDENTIAL: information and material the unauthorised disclosure of which could harm the essential interests of the European Union or of one or more of the Member States;
RESTREINT UE/EU RESTRICTED: information and material the unauthorised disclosure of which could be disadvantageous to the interests of the European Union or of one or more of the Member States.
Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation, a European defence organisation, has three levels of classification: OCCAR SECRET, OCCAR CONFIDENTIAL, and OCCAR RESTRICTED.
ECIPS, the European Centre for Information Policy and Security, has 4 levels of Security Information, COSMIC (TOP SECRET), EC-SECRET, EC-CONFIDENTIAL and EC-COMMITTEES.
By country
Most countries employ some sort of classification system for certain government information. For example, in Canada, information that the U.S. would classify SBU (Sensitive but Unclassified) is called "protected" and further subcategorised into levels A, B, and C.
Australia
On 19 July 2011, the National Security (NS) classification marking scheme and the Non-National Security (NNS) classification marking scheme in Australia was unified into one structure.
The Australian Government Security Classification system now comprises TOP SECRET, SECRET, CONFIDENTIAL and PROTECTED. A new dissemination limiting markers (DLMs) scheme was also introduced for information where disclosure may be limited or prohibited by legislation, or where it may otherwise require special handling. The DLM marking scheme comprises For Official Use Only (FOUO), Sensitive, Sensitive: Personal, Sensitive: Legal, and Sensitive: Cabinet.
Documents marked Sensitive Cabinet, relating to discussions in Federal Cabinet, are treated as PROTECTED at minimum due to its higher sensitivity.
Brazil
There are three levels of document classification under Brazilian Information Access Law: ultrassecreto (top secret), secreto (secret) and reservado (restricted).
A top secret (ultrassecreto) government-issued document may be classified for a period of 25 years, which may be extended up to another 25 years. Thus, no document remains classified for more than 50 years. This is mandated by the 2011 Information Access Law (Lei de Acesso à Informação), a change from the previous rule, under which documents could have their classification time length renewed indefinitely, effectively shuttering state secrets from the public. The 2011 law applies retroactively to existing documents.
Canada
Background and hierarchy
The Government of Canada employs two main types of sensitive information designation: Classified and Protected. The access and protection of both types of information is governed by the Security of Information Act, effective December 24, 2001, replacing the Official Secrets Act 1981. To access the information, a person must have the appropriate security clearance and the need to know.
In addition, the caveat "Canadian Eyes Only" is used to restrict access to Classified or Protected information only to Canadian citizens with the appropriate security clearance and need to know.
Special operational information
SOI is not a classification of data per se. It is defined under the Security of Information Act, and unauthorised release of such information constitutes a higher breach of trust, with penalty of life imprisonment.
SOIs include:
military operations in respect of a potential, imminent or present armed conflict
the identity of confidential source of information, intelligence or assistance to the Government of Canada
tools used for information gathering or intelligence
the object of a covert investigation, or a covert collection of information or intelligence
the identity of any person who is under covert surveillance
encryption and cryptographic systems
information or intelligence to, or received from, a foreign entity or terrorist group
Classified information
Classified information can be designated Top Secret, Secret or Confidential. These classifications are only used on matters of national interest.
Top Secret: applies when compromise might reasonably cause exceptionally grave injury to the national interest. The possible impact must be great, immediate and irreparable.
Secret: applies when compromise might reasonably cause serious injury to the national interest.
Confidential: disclosure might reasonably cause injury to the national interest.
Protected information
Protected information is not classified. It pertains to any sensitive information that does not relate to national security and cannot be disclosed under the access and privacy legislation because of the potential injury to particular public or private interests.
Protected C (Extremely Sensitive protected information): designates extremely sensitive information, which if compromised, could reasonably be expected to cause extremely grave injury outside the national interest. Examples include bankruptcy, identities of informants in criminal investigations, etc.
Protected B (Particularly Sensitive protected information): designates information that could cause severe injury or damage to the people or group involved if it was released. Examples include medical records, annual personnel performance reviews, income tax returns, etc.
Protected A (Low-Sensitive protected information): designates low sensitivity information that should not be disclosed to the public without authorization and could reasonably be expected to cause injury or embarrassment outside the national interest. Example of Protected A information include employee identification number, pay deposit banking information, etc.
Federal Cabinet (Queen's Privy Council for Canada) papers are either protected (e.g., overhead slides prepared to make presentations to Cabinet) or classified (e.g., draft legislation, certain memos).
People's Republic of China
The Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China (which is not operative in the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau) makes it a crime to release a state secret. Regulation and enforcement is carried out by the National Administration for the Protection of State Secrets.
Under the 1989 "Law on Guarding State Secrets," state secrets are defined as those that concern:
Major policy decisions on state affairs
The building of national defence and in the activities of the armed forces
Diplomatic activities and in activities related to foreign countries and those to be maintained as commitments to foreign countries
National economic and social development
Science and technology
Activities for preserving state security and the investigation of criminal offences
Any other matters classified as "state secrets" by the national State Secrets Bureau
Secrets can be classified into three categories:
Top secret (绝密): defined as "vital state secrets whose disclosure would cause extremely serious harm to state security and national interests"
Highly secret (机密): defined as "important state secrets whose disclosure would cause serious harm to state security and national interests"
Secret (秘密): defined as "ordinary state secrets whose disclosure would cause harm to state security and national interests"
France
In France, classified information is defined by article 413-9 of the Penal Code. The three levels of military classification are
Très Secret Défense (Very Secret Defence): Information deemed extremely harmful to national defense, and relative to governmental priorities in national defense. No service or organisation can elaborate, process, stock, transfer, display or destroy information or protected supports classified at this level without authorization from the Prime Minister or the national secretary for National Defence. Partial or exhaustive reproduction is strictly forbidden.
Secret Défense (Secret Defence): Information deemed very harmful to national defense. Such information cannot be reproduced without authorisation from the emitting authority, except in exceptional emergencies.
Confidentiel Défense (Confidential Defence): Information deemed potentially harmful to national defense, or that could lead to uncovering some information classified at a higher level of security.
Less sensitive information is "protected". The levels are
Confidentiel personnels Officiers ("Confidential officers")
Confidentiel personnels Sous-Officiers ("Confidential non-commissioned officers")
Diffusion restreinte ("restricted information")
Diffusion restreinte administrateur ("administrative restricted information")
Non Protégé (unprotected)
A further caveat, "spécial France" (reserved France) restricts the document to French citizens (in its entirety or by extracts). This is not a classification level.
Declassification of documents can be done by the Commission consultative du secret de la défense nationale (CCSDN), an independent authority. Transfer of classified information is done with double envelopes, the outer layer being plastified and numbered, and the inner in strong paper. Reception of the document involves examination of the physical integrity of the container and registration of the document. In foreign countries, the document must be transferred through specialised military mail or diplomatic bag. Transport is done by an authorised convoyer or habilitated person for mail under 20 kg. The letter must bear a seal mentioning "PAR VALISE ACCOMPAGNEE-SACOCHE". Once a year, ministers have an inventory of classified information and supports by competent authorities.
Once their usage period is expired, documents are transferred to archives, where they are either destroyed (by incineration, crushing, or overvoltage), or stored.
In case of unauthorized release of classified information, competent authorities are the Ministry of Interior, the Haut fonctionnaire de défense et de sécurité ("high civil servant for defence and security") of the relevant ministry, and the General secretary for National Defence. Violation of such secrets is an offence punishable with 7 years of imprisonment and a 100,000 Euro fine; if the offence is committed by imprudence or negligence, the penalties are 3 years of imprisonment and a 45,000 Euro fine.
Hong Kong
The Security Bureau is responsible for developing policies in regards to the protection and handling of confidential government information. In general, the system used in Hong Kong is very similar to the UK system, developed from the Colonial Hong Kong era.
Four classifications exists in Hong Kong, from highest to lowest in sensitivity:
Top Secret (絕對機密)
Secret (高度機密)
Confidential (機密)
Temporary Confidential (臨時保密)
Restricted (限閱文件/內部文件)
Restricted (staff) (限閱文件(人事))
Restricted (tender) (限閱文件 (投標))
Restricted (administration) (限閱文件 (行政))
Restricted documents are not classified per se, but only those who have a need to know will have access to such information, in accordance with the Personal Data (Privacy) Ordinance.
New Zealand
New Zealand uses the Restricted classification, which is lower than Confidential. People may be given access to Restricted information on the strength of an authorisation by their Head of department, without being subjected to the background vetting associated with Confidential, Secret and Top Secret clearances. New Zealand's security classifications and the national-harm requirements associated with their use are roughly similar to those of the United States.
In addition to national security classifications there are two additional security classifications, In Confidence and Sensitive, which are used to protect information of a policy and privacy nature. There are also a number of information markings used within ministries and departments of the government, to indicate, for example, that information should not be released outside the originating ministry.
Because of strict privacy requirements around personal information, personnel files are controlled in all parts of the public and private sectors. Information relating to the security vetting of an individual is usually classified at the In Confidence level.
Romania
In Romania, classified information is referred to as "state secrets" (secrete de stat) and is defined by the Penal Code as "documents and data that manifestly appear to have this status or have been declared or qualified as such by decision of Government". There are three levels of classification—Secret, Top Secret, and Top Secret of Particular Importance. The levels are set by the Romanian Intelligence Service and must be aligned with NATO regulations—in case of conflicting regulations, the latter are applied with priority. Dissemination of classified information to foreign agents or powers is punishable by up to life imprisonment, if such dissemination threatens Romania's national security.
Russia
In the Russian Federation, a state secret (Государственная тайна) is information protected by the state on its military, foreign policy, economic, intelligence, counterintelligence, operational and investigative and other activities, dissemination of which could harm state security.
Sweden
The Swedish classification has been updated due to increased NATO/PfP cooperation. All classified defence documents will now have both a Swedish classification (Kvalificerat hemlig, Hemlig, Konfidentiell or Begränsat Hemlig), and an English classification (Top Secret, Secret, Confidential, or Restricted). The term skyddad identitet, "protected identity", is used in the case of protection of a threatened person, basically implying "secret identity", accessible only to certain members of the police force and explicitly authorised officials.
Switzerland
At the federal level, classified information in Switzerland is assigned one of three levels, which are from lowest to highest: INTERNAL, CONFIDENTIAL, SECRET. Respectively, these are, in German, INTERN, VERTRAULICH, GEHEIM; in French, INTERNE, CONFIDENTIEL, SECRET; in Italian, AD USO INTERNO, CONFIDENZIALE, SEGRETO. As in other countries, the choice of classification depends on the potential impact that the unauthorised release of the classified document would have on Switzerland, the federal authorities or the authorities of a foreign government.
According to the Ordinance on the Protection of Federal Information, information is classified as INTERNAL if its "disclosure to unauthorised persons may be disadvantageous to national interests." Information classified as CONFIDENTIAL could, if disclosed, compromise "the free formation of opinions and decision-making of the Federal Assembly or the Federal Council," jeopardise national monetary/economic policy, put the population at risk or adversely affect the operations of the Swiss Armed Forces. Finally, the unauthorised release of SECRET information could seriously compromise the ability of either the Federal Assembly or the Federal Council to function or impede the ability of the Federal Government or the Armed Forces to act.
Turkey
According to the related regulations in Turkey, there are four levels of document classification: çok gizli (top secret), gizli (secret), özel (confidential) and hizmete özel (restricted). The fifth "inscription" is tasnif dışı, which means unclassified.
United Kingdom
Until 2013, the United Kingdom used five levels of classification—from lowest to highest, they were: PROTECT, RESTRICTED, CONFIDENTIAL, SECRET and TOP SECRET (formerly MOST SECRET). The Cabinet Office provides guidance on how to protect information, including the security clearances required for personnel. Staff may be required to sign to confirm their understanding and acceptance of the Official Secrets Acts 1911 to 1989, although the Act applies regardless of signature. PROTECT is not in itself a security protective marking level (such as RESTRICTED or greater), but is used to indicate information which should not be disclosed because, for instance, the document contains tax, national insurance, or other personal information.
Government documents without a classification may be marked as UNCLASSIFIED or NOT PROTECTIVELY MARKED.
This system was replaced by the Government Security Classifications Policy, which has a simpler model: TOP SECRET, SECRET, and OFFICIAL from April 2014. OFFICIAL SENSITIVE is a security marking which may be followed by one of three authorised descriptors: COMMERCIAL, LOCSEN (location sensitive) or PERSONAL. SECRET and TOP SECRET may include a caveat such as UK EYES ONLY.
Also useful is that scientific discoveries may be classified via the D-Notice system if they are deemed to have applications relevant to national security. These may later emerge when technology improves so for example the specialised processors and routing engines used in graphics cards are loosely based on top secret military chips designed for code breaking and image processing.
They may or may not have safeguards built in to generate errors when specific tasks are attempted and this is invariably independent of the card's operating system.
United States
The U.S. classification system is currently established under Executive Order 13526 and has three levels of classification—Confidential, Secret, and Top Secret. The U.S. had a Restricted level during World War II but no longer does. U.S. regulations state that information received from other countries at the Restricted level should be handled as Confidential. A variety of markings are used for material that is not classified, but whose distribution is limited administratively or by other laws, e.g., For Official Use Only (FOUO), or Sensitive but Unclassified (SBU). The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 provides for the protection of information related to the design of nuclear weapons. The term "Restricted Data" is used to denote certain nuclear technology. Information about the storage, use or handling of nuclear material or weapons is marked "Formerly Restricted Data". These designations are used in addition to level markings (Confidential, Secret and Top Secret). Information protected by the Atomic Energy Act is protected by law and information classified under the Executive Order is protected by Executive privilege.
The U.S. government insists it is "not appropriate" for a court to question whether any document is legally classified. In the 1973 trial of Daniel Ellsberg for releasing the Pentagon Papers, the judge did not allow any testimony from Ellsberg, claiming it was "irrelevant", because the assigned classification could not be challenged. The charges against Ellsberg were ultimately dismissed after it was revealed that the government had broken the law in secretly breaking into the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist and in tapping his telephone without a warrant. Ellsberg insists that the legal situation in the U.S. today is worse than it was in 1973, and Edward Snowden could not get a fair trial. The State Secrets Protection Act of 2008 might have given judges the authority to review such questions in camera, but the bill was not passed.
When a government agency acquires classified information through covert means, or designates a program as classified, the agency asserts "ownership" of that information and considers any public availability of it to be a violation of their ownership — even if the same information was acquired independently through "parallel reporting" by the press or others. For example, although the CIA drone program has been widely discussed in public since the early 2000s, and reporters personally observed and reported on drone missile strikes, the CIA still considers the very existence of the program to be classified in its entirety, and any public discussion of it technically constitutes exposure of classified information. "Parallel reporting" was an issue in determining what constitutes "classified" information during the Hillary Clinton email controversy when Assistant Secretary of State for Legislative Affairs Julia Frifield noted, "When policy officials obtain information from open sources, ‘think tanks,’ experts, foreign government officials, or others, the fact that some of the information may also have been available through intelligence channels does not mean that the information is necessarily classified.”
Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries
Corporate classification
Private corporations often require written confidentiality agreements and conduct background checks on candidates for sensitive positions. In the U.S. the Employee Polygraph Protection Act prohibits private employers from requiring lie detector tests, but there are a few exceptions. Policies dictating methods for marking and safeguarding company-sensitive information (e.g. "IBM Confidential") are common and some companies have more than one level. Such information is protected under trade secret laws. New product development teams are often sequestered and forbidden to share information about their efforts with un-cleared fellow employees, the original Apple Macintosh project being a famous example. Other activities, such as mergers and financial report preparation generally involve similar restrictions. However, corporate security generally lacks the elaborate hierarchical clearance and sensitivity structures and the harsh criminal sanctions that give government classification systems their particular tone.
Traffic Light Protocol
The Traffic Light Protocol was developed by the Group of Eight countries to enable the sharing of sensitive information between government agencies and corporations. This protocol has now been accepted as a model for trusted information exchange by over 30 other countries. The protocol provides for four "information sharing levels" for the handling of sensitive information.
See also
Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (U.S.)
Espionage
Espionage Act of 1917 (U.S.)
Eyes only
Five Eyes
Golden Shield Project
Government Security Classifications Policy (UK)
Illegal number
Information security
Official Secrets Act (UK, India, Ireland, Malaysia, New Zealand)
Security of Information Act (Canada)
State Secrets Privilege (US)
Wassenaar Arrangement
WikiLeaks
UKUSA Agreement
References
External links
Defence Vetting Agency. Carries out national security checks in the UK.
Peter Galison, Removing Knowledge in Critical Inquiry n°31 (Autumn 2004).
Goldman, Jan, & Susan Maret. Intelligence and information policy for national security: Key terms and concepts. Rowman & Littlefield, 2016.
Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth, & K. Lee Lerner, eds. Terrorism: Essential primary sources. Thomson Gale, 2006.
Los Alamos table of equivalent US and UK classifications
Maret, Susan. On their own terms: A lexicon with an emphasis on information-related terms produced by the U.S. federal government. , FAS, 6th ed., 2016.
Marking Classified National Security Information ISOO booklet.
The National Security Archive – a collection of declassified documents acquired through the FOIA.
Parliament of Montenegro, Law on confidentiality of data. .
Parliament of Serbia, Law on confidentiality of data. .
U.S. Department of Defense National Industrial Security Program - Operating Manual (DoD 5220.22-M), explaining rules and policies for handling classified information.
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|
252858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security%20clearance | Security clearance | A security clearance is a status granted to individuals allowing them access to classified information (state or organizational secrets) or to restricted areas, after completion of a thorough background check. The term "security clearance" is also sometimes used in private organizations that have a formal process to vet employees for access to sensitive information. A clearance by itself is normally not sufficient to gain access; the organization must also determine that the cleared individual needs to know specific information. No individual is supposed to be granted automatic access to classified information solely because of rank, position, or a security clearance.
Canada
Background
Government classified information is governed by the Treasury Board Standard on Security Screening, the Security of Information Act and Privacy Act. Only those that are deemed to be loyal and reliable, and have been cleared are allowed to access sensitive information. The policy was most recently revised on 20 October 2014.
Checks include basic demographic and fingerprint based criminal record checks for all levels, and, depending on an individual appointment's requirements, credit checks, loyalty, and field checks might be conducted by the RCMP and/or CSIS.
Clearance is granted, depending on types of appointment, by individual Federal government departments or agencies or by private company security officers. Those who have contracts with Public Works and Government Services Canada are bound by the Industrial Security Program, a sub-set of the GSP.
To access designated information, one must have at least standard reliability status (see Hierarchy below). Reliability checks and assessments are conditions of employment under the Public Service Employment Act, and, thus, all Government of Canada employees have at least reliability status screening completed prior to their appointment. However, Government employees by Order-in-council are not subjected to this policy.
Clearances at the reliability status and secret levels are valid for 10 years, whereas top secret is valid for 5 years. However, departments are free to request their employees to undergo security screening any time for cause. Because security clearances are granted by individual departments instead of one central government agency, clearances are inactivated at the end of appointment or when an individual transfers out of the department. The individual concerned can then apply to reactivate and transfer the security clearance to his/her new position.
Hierarchy
Three levels of personnel screening exist, with two sub-screening categories:
Standard screenings are completed for individuals without law enforcement, security and intelligence functions with the government, whereas Enhanced screenings are for individuals with law enforcement, security and intelligence functions, or access to those data or facilities.
Security screening
Individuals who need to have RS because of their job or access to federal government assets will be required to sign the Personnel Screening, Consent and Authorization Form (TBS/SCT 330-23e).
Reliability Status, Standard (RS)
Reliability checks are done by verifying personal data, criminal records check, credit check, educational, and professional qualifications, data on previous employment and references.
This level of clearance will grant the right to access designated documents with markings of Protected A & B information/assets on a need-to-know basis. It is mandatory for individuals when the duties or tasks of a position or contract necessitate access to protected information and assets, regardless of the duration of an assignment.
Reliability Status, Enhanced (ERS)
In addition to the Reliability Status, Standard checks, open-source checks, and security questionnaire or interview are required.
This level of clearance will grant the right to access designated documents with markings of Protected A, B & C information/assets on a need-to-know basis.
Security clearances
Individuals who require access to more sensitive information (or access to sensitive federal government sites and/or assets) because of their job will be required to sign the Security Clearance Form (TBS/SCT 330-60e). There are two levels of clearance:
Secret
Secret clearance is only granted after a reliability status is cleared, with a positive CSIS security assessment.
This level of clearance will grant the right to access designated and classified information up to Secret level on a need-to-know basis. Department Heads have the discretion to allow for an individual to access Top Secret-level information without higher-level clearance on a case-to-case basis.
Only those with a Secret clearance, with enhanced screening have access to Protected C information.
Top Secret
In addition to the checks at the Secret level, foreign travels, assets, and character references must be given. Field check will also be conducted prior to granting the clearance.
This level of clearance will grant the right to access all designated and classified information on a need-to-know basis.
Site access
Two additional categories called "Site Access Status" and "Site Access Clearance" exist not for access to information purposes but for those that require physical access to sites or facilities designated by CSIS as areas "reasonably be expected to be targeted by those who engage in activities constituting threats to the security of Canada". Designated areas include Government Houses, official residences of government officials, Parliament, nuclear facilities, airport restricted areas, maritime ports, and any large-scale events that are sponsored by the federal government (e.g., 2010 Winter Olympics).
Where reliability is the primary concern, a site access status screening (similar to a reliability status, standard screening) is conducted; where loyalty to Canada is the primary concern, a site access clearance (similar to a Secret clearance screening) is required. They are both valid for 10 years.
Legal
Prior to granting access to information, an individual who has been cleared must sign a Security Screening Certificate and Briefing Form (TBS/SCT 330–47), indicating their willingness to be bound by several Acts of Parliament during and after their appointment finishes. Anyone who has been given a security clearance and releases designated/classified information without legal authority is in breach of trust under section 18(2) of the Security of Information Act with a punishment up to 2 years in jail. Those who have access to Special Operational Information are held to a higher standard. The release of such information is punishable by law, under section 17(2) of the Security of Information Act, liable to imprisonment for life.
Section 750(3) of the Criminal Code, states that no person convicted of an offence under section 121 (frauds on the Government), section 124 (selling or purchasing office), section 380 (Fraud - if directed against Her Majesty) or section 418 (selling defective stores to Her Majesty), has, after that conviction, the capacity to contract with Her Majesty or to receive any benefits under a contract between Her Majesty and any other person or to hold office under Her Majesty unless a pardon has been granted. (This effectively prohibits granting of a Reliability Status to any such individual.)
United Kingdom
National Security Clearance Types
National Security Clearances are a hierarchy of five levels, depending on the classification of materials that can be accessed—Baseline Personnel Security Standard (BPSS), Counter-Terrorist Check (CTC), Enhanced Baseline Standard (EBS), Security Check (SC) and Developed Vetting (DV).
The BPSS is the entry-level National Security Clearance, and both CTC and EBS are effectively enhancements to the BPSS, with CTC relating to checking for susceptibility to extremist persuasion, and EBS relating to checking for susceptibility to espionage persuasion, the latter being needed for supervised access to SECRET material. The SC again is focused on susceptibility to espionage persuasion, and is required for an individual to have long-term unsupervised access to SECRET material and occasional access to TOP SECRET (TS) material, whilst for regular access to TS the DV is required.
Those with National Security Clearance are commonly required to sign a statement to the effect that they agree to abide by the restrictions of the Official Secrets Act (OSA). This is popularly referred to as "signing the Official Secrets Act". Signing this has no effect on which actions are legal, as the act is a law, not a contract, and individuals are bound by it whether or not they have signed it. Signing it is intended more as a reminder to the person that they are under such obligations. To this end, it is common to sign this statement both before and after a period of employment that involves access to secrets.
National Security Clearance history
After the United States entered into World War II, Britain changed its security classifications to match those of the U.S.. Previously, classifications had included the top classification "Most Secret", but it soon became apparent that the United States did not fully understand the UK's classifications, and classified information appeared in the U.S.'s press. This spearheaded the uniformity in classification between the United Kingdom and the United States.
Other UK Clearances
In addition to National Security Clearances, other types of roles and organisations stipulate a need for clearances, including:
Vulnerable Group Access (including children), as operated by the Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS), replacing former Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) and Independent Safeguarding Authority (ISA) checks
Law Enforcement, with a hierarchy of Police Personnel Vetting (PPV) and Non-Police Personnel Vetting (NPPV) levels, which are broadly aligned with National Security Clearance levels, but differ in focusing predominantly on susceptibility to criminality
United States
In the United States, a security clearance is an official determination that an individual may access information classified by the United States Government. Security clearances are hierarchical; each level grants the holder access to information in that level and the levels below it. The clearance process requires a background investigation and the signing of a nondisclosure agreement. Access to any particular piece of information requires "need-to-know." In some cases, this requirement is only nominal, as some classified information is widely published on secure networks. In other cases, there is a formal need-to-know determination. In addition to such a determination, Special Access Programs and Sensitive Compartmented Information may require additional investigation and adjudication of the prospective clearance holder.
Pending a full security clearance an applicant may be granted a temporary security clearance of indefinite duration, which gives the applicant access to classified information while the original application is being vetted.
The US president can declassify previously classified information.
As of 2020, the cost of obtaining a Top Secret clearance is $5,596 while a Secret is $433. These costs are paid for by revolving government funds and not by contractor companies.
Authority
The authority for classifying information and granting security clearances to access that information is found in executive orders (EOs) and US Federal law. USA's National Security Information (NSI) has been classified under EO 13526, but since 10 January 2017 the rules were modified by James Clapper as Security Executive Agent Directive 4 in the closing days of the Obama administration. Information may be classified under this Order if a classification authority determines its unauthorized release could cause damage to the national defense or foreign relations of the United States. Information concerning nuclear weapons and fissile material may be classified under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (AEA). These clearances are only granted by the US Department of Energy. The clearance process for access to NSI or AEA information is substantially aligned. Under EO 12968, the investigative and adjudicative guidelines for NSI and AEA clearances are identical. This enables reciprocity between NSI and AEA clearances, although some exceptions exist.
USA's Executive Order 12968's standards are binding on all of the USA's government agencies that handle classified information, but it allows certain agency heads to establish Special Access Programs (SAPs) with additional, but not duplicative, investigative and adjudicative requirements. The Intelligence Community's Sensitive Compartmented Information (SCI) control systems are a family of SAPs, and SCI eligibility must be granted prior to accessing any particular control system or compartment (which may require additional investigation or adjudication). SCI eligibility policy is described in Intelligence Community Directive 704 and its implementing policy guidance Within the Intelligence Community, the access to SCI information is far more common than "Collateral Top Secret information," and therefore operatives will routinely include SCI in a TS product, just to ensure they do not have to meet the "cradle-to-grave" accountability requirements of Collateral TS information. Any additional clearance measures used by SAPs must be approved by the Office of Management and Budget, which has generally limited such measures to polygraphs, exclusion of persons with non-US immediate family members, requiring more frequent reinvestigations, and requiring annual updates to security questionnaires.
Hierarchy
A security clearance is granted to an individual and generally recognizes a maximum level of clearance. Exceptions include levels above compartmentalized access or when an individual is cleared for a certain type of data. The President of the United States will be given access to any government or military information that they request, even if they would not otherwise be able to normally obtain a security clearance were they not the President. Having obtained a certain level security clearance does not mean that one automatically has access to or is given access to information cleared for that clearance level in the absence of a demonstrated "need to know". The need-to-know determination is made by a disclosure officer, who may work in the office of origin of the information. The specified need to know must be germane to the prospective user's mission, or of necessity for the integrity of a specified security apparatus.
Controlled Unclassified
Controlled Unclassified does not represent a clearance designation, but rather a clearance level at which information distribution is controlled. Controlled Unclassified designates information that may be illegal to distribute. This information is available when needed by government employees, such as the USA's Department of Defense (DoD) employees, but the designation signifies that the information should not be redistributed to users not designated to use it on an operational basis. For example, the organization and processes of an information-technology system may be designated Controlled Unclassified to users for whom the operational details of the system are non-critical.
Public Trust Position
Despite common misconception, this designation is not a security clearance, and is not the same as the confidential designation. Certain positions which require access to sensitive information, but not information which is classified, must obtain this designation through a background check. In the US, Public Trust Positions can either be moderate-risk or high-risk.
Confidential
This is hierarchically the first security clearance to get, typically requiring a few weeks to a few months of investigation. A Confidential clearance requires a NACLC investigation which dates back 7 years on the subject's record and must be renewed (with another investigation) every 15 years.
Secret
A Secret clearance, also known as Collateral Secret or Ordinary Secret, requires a few months to a year to investigate, depending on the individual's background. Some instances wherein individuals would take longer than normal to be investigated are many past residences, having residences in foreign countries, having relatives outside the United States, or significant ties with non-US citizens. Unpaid bills as well as criminal charges will more than likely disqualify an applicant for approval. However, a bankruptcy will be evaluated on a case-by-case basis and is not an automatic disqualifier. Poor financial history is the number-one cause of rejection, and foreign activities and criminal record are also common causes for disqualification. A Secret clearance requires a NACLC, and a Credit investigation; it must also be re-investigated every 10 years. Investigative requirements for DoD clearances, which apply to most civilian contractor situations, are contained in the Personnel Security Program issuance known as DoD Regulation 5200.2-R, at part C3.4.2.
Top Secret
Top Secret is a more stringent clearance. A Top Secret, or "TS", clearance, is often given as the result of a Single Scope Background Investigation, or SSBI. Top Secret clearances, in general, afford one access to data that affects national security, counterterrorism/counterintelligence, or other highly sensitive data. There are far fewer individuals with TS clearances than Secret clearances. A TS clearance can take as few as 3 to 6 months to obtain, but often it takes 6 to 18 months. In most instances, an individual with Top Secret clearance undergoes an SSBI Period Reinvestigation (SSBI-PR) every five years.
Compartmented
As with TS clearances, Sensitive Compartmented Information (SCI) clearances are assigned only after one has been through the rigors of a Single Scope Background Investigation and a special adjudication process for evaluating the investigation. SCI access, however, is assigned only in "compartments". These compartments are necessarily separated from each other with respect to organization, so that an individual with access to one compartment will not necessarily have access to another. Each compartment may include its own additional special requirements and clearance process. An individual may be granted access to, or read into, a compartment for any period of time.
Top secret clearance might be required to access:
Communications intelligence, a subset of SIGINT
Design or stockpile information about nuclear weapons
Nuclear targeting
Such compartmentalized clearances may be expressed as "John has a TS/SCI", whereby all clearance descriptors are spelled out verbally. For example, the US National Security Agency once used specialized terms such as "Umbra", This classification is reported to be a compartment within the "Special Intelligence" compartment of SCI. The various NSA compartments have been simplified; all but the most sensitive compartments are marked "CCO", meaning "handle through COMINT channels only".
The US Department of Defense establishes, separately from intelligence compartments, special access programs (SAP) when the vulnerability of specific information is considered exceptional and the normal criteria for determining eligibility for access applicable to information classified at the same level are not deemed sufficient to protect the information from unauthorized disclosure. The number of people cleared for access to such programs is typically kept low. Information about stealth technology, for example, often requires such access.
Area-specific clearances include:
L clearance (Department of Energy)
Q clearance (Department of Energy)
Yankee White (working with the President and Vice President)
Jobs that require a clearance
There are two different types of jobs that require clearance: public trust and low-risk positions, which require a Standard Form 85 application, and a positions with access to classified information, which require a Standard Form 86 application.
Anyone with access to classified data requires a clearance at or higher than the level at which the data is classified. For this reason, security clearances are required for a wide range of jobs, from senior management to janitorial. According to a 2013 Washington Post article, over 1.5 million Americans had top-secret clearances; almost one-third of them worked for private companies, rather than for the U.S. government.
Jobs that require a security clearance can be found either as positions working directly for the federal government or as authorized federal contractors. Over time, more clearance jobs are being outsourced to contractors. Due to an overall shortage in security-cleared candidates and a long time frame to obtain the credentials for an uncleared worker, those with clearance are often paid more than their non-cleared equivalent counterparts. According to one 2010 estimate, "people with security clearances are in the top 10 percent of wage earners in the country".
Requirements for a clearance
The vetting process for a security clearance is usually undertaken only when someone is hired or transferred into a position that requires access to classified information. The employee is typically fingerprinted and asked to provide information about themselves. This becomes a starting point for an investigation into the candidate's suitability. The process has been streamlined and now requires the person who needs clearance to input the information online using E-qip; five days are allowed for data input. Having the older paper form can be helpful for collecting and organizing the information in advance. The information on an investigation and its status is stored in either JPAS or Scattered Castles.
Investigative work is usually at least one of the following types:
National Agency Check with Local Agency Check and Credit Check (NACLC). An NACLC is required for a Secret, L, and CONFIDENTIAL access. (See: Background check)
Single Scope Background Investigation (SSBI). An SSBI is required for Top Secret, Q, and SCI access, and involves agents contacting employers, coworkers and other individuals. Standard elements include checks of employment; education; organization affiliations; local agencies; where the subject has lived, worked, or gone to school; and interviews with persons who know the individual. The investigation may include an NACLC on the candidate's spouse or cohabitant and any immediate family members who are U.S. citizens other than by birth or who are not U.S. citizens.
Polygraph. Some agencies may require polygraph examinations. The most common examinations are Counter Intelligence (CI) and Full-Scope (Lifestyle) polygraphs. While a positive SSBI is sufficient for access to SCI-level information, polygraphs are routinely administered for "staff-like" access to particular agencies.
If issues of concern surface during any phase of security processing, coverage is expanded to resolve those issues. At lower levels, interim clearances may be issued to individuals who are presently under investigation, but who have passed some preliminary, automatic process. Such automatic processes include things such as credit checks, felony checks, and so on. An interim clearance may be denied (although the final clearance may still be granted) for having a large amount of debt, having a foreign spouse, for having admitted to seeing a doctor for a mental health condition, or for having admitted to other items of security concern (such as a criminal record or a history of drug use.). When security concerns arise for an individual, which could bar them from holding a security clearance, adjudicators may also look at the Whole-Person Concept as a source of potential mitigation so that the person may still be granted a security clearance.
Investigations conducted by one federal agency are no longer supposed to be duplicated by another federal agency when those investigations are current within 5 years and meet the scope and standards for the level of clearance required. The high-level clearance process can be lengthy, sometimes taking a year or more. In recent years, there has been an increased backlog of cases which has been attributed to the economic climate. The long time needed for new appointees to be cleared has been cited as hindering the presidential transition process.
Security briefings
In the US, once the clearance is granted, the candidate is briefed on "the proper safeguarding of classified information and on the criminal, civil, and administrative sanctions that may be imposed on an individual who fails to protect classified information from unauthorized disclosure." They are also required to sign an approved non-disclosure agreement (e.g., form SF-312). High-level clearances are reviewed periodically and any "adverse information" reports received at any time can trigger a review. When a cleared person leaves their job, they are often "debriefed"—reminded of their ongoing obligations to protect the information they were allowed to see, and the possible consequences they would face if not behaved accordingly. According to NISPOM Chapter 3, newly cleared employees are required to receive an initial security briefing before having access to classified information. This training helps them understand the threat, risks to classified information, how to protect the classified information, security procedures and duties as they apply to their job. This training is followed up by refresher training that reinforces the initial security briefing.
Dual citizenship
Dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in the USA. If a security clearance applicant's dual citizenship is "based solely on parents' citizenship or birth in a foreign country", that can be a mitigating condition. However, exercising (taking advantage of the entitlements of) a non-U.S. citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession and/or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying from security clearance and "is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or the identity of the foreign country" as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that "any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government". This guideline has been followed in administrative rulings by the Department of Defense (DoD) Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA) office of Industrial Security Clearance Review (ISCR), which decides cases involving security clearances for Contractor personnel doing classified work for all DoD components. In one such case, an administrative judge ruled that it is not clearly consistent with U.S. national interest to grant a request for a security clearance to an applicant who was a dual national of the United States and Ireland. DOHA can rule on issues involving the granting of security clearances.
United Nations
The UN has a Security Clearance (SC) procedure and document for United Nations staff travelling to areas designated as security phase areas, with numbers ranging from one to five ("no-phase" areas are calm countries where no SC is required).
United Nations staff can apply for SC online, at the website of the Department for Safety and Security.
Individuals who have had security clearances revoked
In the post World War II era, there have been several highly publicized, and often controversial, cases of officials or scientists having their security clearances revoked, including:
John O. Brennan
Sandy Berger
John M. Deutch
Thomas Andrews Drake
Abdel-Moniem El-Ganayni
Michael T. Flynn
Wen Ho Lee
Robert Oppenheimer
Aldric Saucier
Edward Snowden
Alan Turing (UK)
Qian Xuesen
This list does not cover people whose security clearance lapsed possibly following changing their job.
See also
List of U.S. security clearance terms
Security Advisory Opinion
Notes and references
External links
Canada
Standard on Security Screening
Germany
German language official files
United Kingdom
UK MOD's Defence Vetting Agency
United States
(DoD) Factors Used for Determining Security Clearance Approval/Disapproval
Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals decisions
Security Clearance FAQs
How to get clearance
DoD Intelligence & Security Documents, directives and Instructions
DoD Security Clearances and Contracts Guidebook-What You Need to Know About Your Need to Know
Federal Suitability Security Clearance Chart
Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA) Experiencing Immense Backlog of Cases, Highlighting Need for Thorough and Effective Preparation of Clearance Applications
UN
United Nations Department of Safety and Security
Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces
Vetting and the Security Sector, published by DCAF
Espionage
National security
United States government secrecy
United Nations legislation | [
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|
252860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Maple | Operation Maple | During World War II, Operation Maple was a naval mine laying operation in support of the invasion of northern France (Operation Overlord). Operation Maple was part of Operation Neptune.
The objectives were stated as:
To impede the movement of light enemy vessels stationed inside the Channel,
To impede ingress into the Channel by enemy naval forces situated in the Atlantic and North Sea,
To compel enemy naval forces moving toward the NEPTUNE area to follow a course to seaward of the extreme range of enemy shore batteries and shore based fighter cover, in order that allied surfaces forces would be free to intercept their progress,
To disrupt enemy shipping generally during the critical period, in order to reduce seaborne movement of enemy reinforcements and supplies toward the battle areaThe mines were laid by ships and aircraft, including , , 10th, 50th, 51st and 52nd M.L. Flotillas, and the 9th, 13th, 14th, 21st, 22nd and 64th M.T.B. Flotillas. In addition, mines were laid from the air by Halifax, Stirling and Lancaster bombers of numbers 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Groups, Bomber Command, Royal Air Force.
With the exception of the field laid in the Straits of Dover, and an area mined by aircraft to the north of the Frisian Islands, all the minefields were offensive in character. The two semi-defensive minefields, referred to above, were intended primarily to counter any movement of enemy heavier forces from the east. In April and May 1944, some of the mines laid were timed to become effective at various dates so as to escape being swept before the invasion of France.
During the course of Operation MAPLE, a total of 6,850 mines were laid. Of these, 42% were laid by naval forces in 66 operations and 58% were laid by aircraft in 1,800 sorties. These operations made an effective contribution to the general immunity from surface and U-boat attack enjoyed by the assault forces. A considerable number of casualties were inflicted on the enemy, and their minesweeping organization was stretched to the limit. Minefields in the vicinity of Ushant and off the Brittany coast had the desired effect of driving U-boats into open water, where they could be dealt with by allied anti-submarine forces. The special operation in the Kiel Canal resulted in a complete dislocation of the enemy organization at an important moment. The entire operation cost the allied cause, in casualties, only one Motor Torpedo Boat 2 and 19 minelaying aircraft.
A linked operation, Bravado'' laid mines in German waters, in and around the Kiel Canal. The objective was to disrupt German naval movements.
References
Operation Neptune
Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom | [
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|
252861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppermint%20%28EP%29 | Peppermint (EP) | Peppermint EP is the debut EP released by Canadian rock band Sloan. It was released on their own label, Murderecords, in 1992. The sound of the band at this point is often described as a mix between Sonic Youth and The Beatles. Three of the songs on the EP (Marcus Said, Underwhelmed, and Sugartune) were also included on the band's first full-length album, Smeared, although Underwhelmed appears here in a different version.
The EP was recorded at Sound Market Studios in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada by Terry Pulliam, who also engineered the recording. Jennifer Pierce of the group Jale provides additional backing vocals on two selections in the recording ("Marcus Said" and "Torn").
The cover is a photo of a friend of the band's, Jason Larsen, who the band is named after. Larsen was originally called Slow One by his French-speaking boss which, with the French accent, sounded more like "Sloan". Larsen agreed they could name the band after him as long as he was on the cover of their first album.
Track listing
"Marcus Said" (Chris Murphy) – 4:34
"Underwhelmed" (Chris Murphy) – 5:25
"Pretty Voice" (Jay Ferguson) – 3:08
"Lucky for Me" (Chris Murphy) – 3:11
"Sugartune" (Patrick Pentland) – 3:37
"Torn" (Chris Murphy) – 2:55
Credits
Jay Ferguson – Guitar, vocals
Chris Murphy – Bass, vocals
Patrick Pentland – Guitar, vocals
Andrew Scott – Drums, vocals
Jennifer Pierce – vocals ("Marcus Said" and "Torn")
References
1992 debut EPs
Sloan (band) albums
Murderecords albums | [
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|
252863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donau-Ries | Donau-Ries | Donau-Ries (Danube-Ries) is a Landkreis (district) in Swabia, Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Ansbach, Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen, Eichstätt, Neuburg-Schrobenhausen, Aichach-Friedberg, Augsburg and Dillingen, and by the state of Baden-Württemberg (districts of Heidenheim and Ostalbkreis).
History
From Palaeolithic times on the Nördlinger Ries was a very attractive site for human settlement. The valley of the Danube was abounding with game, and many caves in the slopes of the crater provided shelter for Neanderthals and their successors.
The Ries was always densely populated. From 450 to 15 BC Celtic peoples built their settlements on the tops of the hills. Remains of Celtic circular forts and sanctuaries can be found all over the region. They were replaced about 90 AD by the Romans, who secured the region by building forts and the Limes (which was some km north of the present district).
The Romans were driven away about 250 AD by the Alamanni, which in turn were defeated by the Franks in 496. In the early years of the Holy Roman Empire new castles were erected, among them Schloss Oettingen, which was the centre of the county of Oettingen. This county was first mentioned in 1141, ruled over the villages of the Ries and managed to gain further territories around. In the 15th century the county was divided into the two states of Oettingen-Oettingen and Oettingen-Wallerstein. Later the former decided to become Protestant, while the latter remained Catholic. This was the reason for a bloody enmity resulting in decades of war. Even prior to the Thirty Years' War there were battles, mass executions and witchhunts in both parts. In the Thirty Years' War the Ries was almost completely devastated and depopulated. Two major battles of that war took place in the region: the Battle of Nördlingen (1634) and the Battle of Nördlingen (1645).
After the war, the Counts of the mini-states (in the meantime a third county called Oettingen-Spielberg had been founded) recruited settlers from Austria to repopulate the land. The hostilities between the counties were revived. There was fighting in the War of the Spanish Succession, with two major battles taking place in the Ries. All this came to an end, when the last Protestant ruler of Oettingen-Oettingen died without a successor. The remaining states of Oettingen-Wallerstein and Oettingen-Spielberg annexed his lands and turned them into a Catholic region.
In 1806 Napoleon dissolved both Oettingen states and awarded them to Bavaria. In the Congress of Vienna the affiliation of the region with Bavaria was confirmed, and the sovereignty of the Ries ended.
The present district was established in 1972 by merging the former districts of Nördlingen and Donauwörth.
Geography
In the south the district is crossed by the Danube, which runs from west to east. It is joined by the Lech river coming from the south. North of the river there is a hill chain, the so-called Riesalb connecting the mountain chains of the Swabian Alb in the west and the Frankish Alb in the east. Further north there is the Nördlinger Ries, a huge depression, which is in fact an ancient impact crater, caused by a meteorite some 14.8 million years ago.
Politics
Donau-Ries (electoral district)
Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
The eagle of the Holy Roman Empire symbolising the Free Imperial Cities of Donauwörth and Nördlingen
The yellow cross on red background was part of the arms of all Oettingen counties
The blue and white checkered pattern of Bavaria
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German) | [
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252864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smeared | Smeared | Smeared is the debut studio album by Canadian rock band Sloan. It was released in Canada on October 1, 1992, and in the United States in January, 1993, on Geffen Records. The album was recorded at a low cost of $1,200. The album is ranked 86th in the 2007 book The Top 100 Canadian Albums by music journalist Bob Mersereau and is widely considered a seminal album of Canada's 1990s alternative rock scene.
Overview
Like their first release, the Peppermint EP, Smeared received comparisons to Sonic Youth and Beatles. Three songs from Peppermint re-appear on Smeared; one of these ("Underwhelmed") was entirely re-recorded, while the other two ("Marcus Said" and "Sugartune") are the same recordings with new mixing. The band had originally intended to name the album Gluegun.
Music videos were produced for the tracks "Underwhelmed" and "500 Up", with both receiving moderate rotation on MuchMusic in the early 1990s. Jennifer Pierce, of fellow Halifax band Jale, sang backing vocals on "I Am the Cancer".
Commercial performance
By September 1993, the album had sold more than 150,000 copies worldwide. The album was certified Gold in Canada on July 12, 1995. By February 1997, the album had sold 60,000 units in Canada.
Track listing
All songs credited to Sloan.
Japanese Bonus Tracks
Credits
Jay Ferguson – guitar, vocals
Chris Murphy – bass, vocals, erased guitar
Patrick Pentland – guitar, vocals, bass
Andrew Scott – drums, vocals, guitar
Jennifer Pierce – backing vocals ("I Am the Cancer")
References
Sloan (band) albums
1992 debut albums
Murderecords albums | [
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252866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered%20state%20of%20consciousness | Altered state of consciousness | An altered state of consciousness (ASC), also called altered state of mind or mind alteration, is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking state. By 1892, the expression was in use in relation to hypnosis, though there is an ongoing debate as to whether hypnosis is to be identified as an ASC according to its modern definition. The next retrievable instance, by Dr Max Mailhouse from his 1904 presentation to conference, however, is unequivocally identified as such, as it was in relation to epilepsy, and is still used today. In academia, the expression was used as early as 1966 by Arnold M. Ludwig and brought into common usage from 1969 by Charles Tart. It describes induced changes in one's mental state, almost always temporary. A synonymous phrase is "altered state of awareness".
Definitions
There is no general definition of an altered state of consciousness, as any definitional attempt would firstly have to rely on a definition of a normal state of consciousness. Attempts to define the term can however be found in Philosophy, Psychology and Neuroscience. There is no final consensus what the most accurate definition for what purpose is. In the following, the best established and latest definitions are provided:
Arnold M. Ludwig attempted a first definition in 1966.
"An altered state is any mental state(s), induced by various physiological, psychological, or pharmacological maneuvers or agents, which can be recognized subjectively by the individual himself (or by an objective observer of the individual) as representing a sufficient deviation in subjective experience of psychological functioning from certain general norms for that individual during alert, waking consciousness."
Starting from this Charles Tart focuses his definition on the subjective experience of a state of consciousness and its deviation from a normal waking state.
"Altered states of consciousness are alternate patterns or configurations of experience, which differ qualitatively from a baseline state."
Farthing's definition of an altered state of consciousness (ASC) is based on Charles Tart's terminology. Charles Tart described an altered state of consciousness as a profound change in the "overall pattern of subjective experiences". In order to define an ASC, Tart focuses on the importance of subjective experience.
Farthing adds to his definition that an ASC is short-termed or at least reversible and that it might not even be recognized as an ASC at that moment. His definition relies only on subjective experience, leaving aside behavioral changes and physiological response.
"An altered state of consciousness (ASC) may be defined as a temporary change in the overall pattern of subjective experience, such that the individual believes that his or her mental functioning is distinctly different from certain general norms for his or her normal waking state of consciousness". Farthing (1992, p. 205)
He lists fourteen dimensions of changed subjective experience. To account for an ASC, multiple dimensions need to be altered.
A recent working definition for empirical research is based on these previous definitions and provided by Schmidt.
[Translated from German]:
As a working definition for neuroscientific research, it might suffice to presume that most people have a strong intuition concerning which variability in their everyday wakeful state feels normal to them. This variability of experience is considered as normal fluctuation, while any state that is experienced to diverge significantly from it can be called an ASC. From an experimental perspective, it is also reasonable to compare ASC conditions to a baseline state – a state subjectively judged as average, or normal. The comparison with a 'normal' baseline requires that the ASC under investigation is of relatively short duration (minutes to hours), which differentiates ASCs from most pathological conditions. Importantly, it has been emphasized that an ASC is not a mere quantitative change in a single cognitive function (e.g. elevated arousal). Instead, it is a multidimensional phenomenon. Thereby, the relative intensity of multiple consciousness aspects constitutes a 'phenomenological pattern' characterizing a particular state. Such 'patterns' have also been referred to as relative changes in the '(basic) dimensions of consciousness'. For empirical research, such patterns correspond to a multivariate combination of independent 'consciousness factors', which can be quantified via questionnaires. The 'phenomenological pattern' results from the factor structure of the applied psychometric assessment, i.e. the individual ratings, or factor scores, of a questionnaire.
History
History of utilization of ASCs
Altered states of consciousness might have been employed by humans as early as 30,000 years ago. Mind-altering plants and/or excessive dancing were used to attain an ecstatic or mystic state. Examples of early religious use of altered states of consciousness are the rites of Dionysos and the Eleusinian Mysteries, as well as yoga and meditation. Followers of various shamanic traditions "enter altered states of consciousness in order to serve their community." Terence McKenna has suggested that the use of psychedelic mushrooms in prehistoric times has led to the "evolution of human language and symbol use". Some theorists propose that mind-altering substances, such as Soma, might have pushed the formation of some of the world's main religions.
Meditation in its various forms is being rediscovered by modern psychology because of its therapeutic potential and its ability to "enable the activity of the mind to settle down". In Psychotherapy techniques like hypnosis, meditation, support psychological processes.
History of the science and theoretical-modelling
Due to the behaviourist paradigm in psychology altered states of consciousness were dismissed as a field of scientific inquiry during the early 20th century. They were pathologized and merely seen as symptoms of intoxication or demonic possession.
Their return into psychology began with Wiliam James' interest into a variety of altered states, such as "mystical experiences and drug-induced states". James' investigations into first-person-subjective-experience contributed to the reconsideration of introspection as a valuable research method in the academic community.
The social change of the turbulent 1960s has decisively led to a change of the scientific perspective to the point that introspection as a scientific method and ASCs as valid realms of experience became more widely accepted. Foundations for the research have been laid out by various scientists such as Abraham Maslow, Walter N. Pahnke, Stanislav Grof and Charles Tart. They focused on seemingly beneficial aspects of ASCs such as their potential to "promote creativity or treat addiction". Rather oppressive states such as dissociation from trauma were neglected.
The findings of the famous Good Friday Experiment by Pahnke suggest that mystical experiences can be triggered by psilocybin. Later investigations by Rick Doblin found that participants valued those experiences as "spiritual high points of their lives".
In the midst of the rise of new-age subculture Stanislav Grof and others formed the new field of transpersonal psychology, which emphasized "the importance of individual human experience, validity of mystical and spiritual experience, interconnectedness of self with others and the world and potential of self-transformation".
Abraham Maslow's research on peak experiences, as moments of "highest happiness and fulfillment", further contributed to the depathologization of altered states.
A first summary of the existing literature was carried out by Charles T. Tart in his book Altered the States of Consciousness, which led to a more common use of the term. Tart coined the key terms discrete and baseline states of consciousness and thought about a general classification system for ASCs. He also called for "state specific sciences" in which researchers should do science on ASCs from within such states.
Classification
A classification of Altered States of Consciousness is helpful if one wants to compare or differentiate between induced ASCs and other variations of consciousness. Various researchers have attempted the classification into a broader framework. The attempts of classification discussed in the following focus on slightly different aspects of ASCs. Several authors suggested classification schemata with regard to the genesis of altered states and with regard to the type of experiences:
A classification with five categories was suggested by Vaitl to distinguish ASCs according to how they were induced:
Pathological (Epilepsy, brain damage)
Pharmacological (psychoactive substances)
Physical and physiological (fasting and sex)
Psychological (music, meditation, hypnosis)
Spontaneous (day-dreaming and near death experience)
Vaitl further suggests four basic aspects of experiences: (1) activation (2) awareness span (3) self-awareness (4) sensory dynamics. Alternatively Roland Fischer suggests a classification along ergotropic (i.e., ecstasy) or trophotropic (i.e., meditation) properties. The work of Adolph Dittrich aimed to empirically determine common underlying dimensions of consciousness alterations induced by different methods, such as drugs or non-pharmacological methods. He suggested three basic dimensions, which were termed: (1) oceanic boundlessness (2) dread of ego dissolution (3) visionary restructuralization. Further, Ken Wilber proposes a multidimensional system and adds that the individual experience of an ASC is shaped by a person's unique psychological development.
Michael Winkelman identifies four different "modes of consciousness": (1) the waking mode (2) the deep sleep mode (3) the REM sleep / dreaming mode (4) the integrative mode. Within this framework, many ASCs (psychedelics, hypnosis, meditation, etc.) are defined as belonging to the integrative mode.
Induction methods
Pharmacological
An altered state of consciousness may be defined as a short-term change in the general configuration of one's individual experience, such that the rational functioning is clearly altered from one's usual state of consciousness. There are many ways that one's consciousness can be altered, such as by using psychoactive drugs, which are defined as chemical substances that pass through the blood brain barrier and disturb brain function, causing changes in awareness, attitude, consciousness, and behavior.
Cannabis is a psychoactive drug that is known to alter the state of consciousness. Cannabis alters mental activity, memory, and pain perception. One who is under the influence of cannabis may (or may not) experience degrees of paranoia, increased sensitivity, and delayed reactions not normal for their usual conscious state. A 2009 review of anxiety and cannabis studies concluded that "frequent cannabis users appear to have higher levels of anxiety than non-users," and that "a considerable number of subjects developed anxiety disorders before the first symptoms of cannabis dependence." That led researchers to believe that anxiety-prone people tend to use cannabis as a self-prescribed anxiety medicine, opposing the idea that cannabis is what's causing the anxiety.
MDMA (ecstasy) is a drug that also alters one's state of consciousness. The state of consciousness brought about by MDMA ingestion includes a rise in positive feelings and a reduction in negative feelings (Aldridge, D., & Fachner, J. ö. 2005). Users' emotions are increased and inhibitions lowered, often accompanied by a sensation of intimacy or connection with other people.
Opioids are a class of drugs that alter consciousness. Examples of opioids include heroin, morphine, hydrocodone, and oxycodone. Opioids produce analgesia and often feelings of euphoria in users. Opioid abuse may result in decreased production of endorphins in the brain, natural pain relievers whose effects may be heightened by drugs. If one takes a large dose of opioids to compensate for the lack of natural endorphins, the result may be death.
Cocaine alters one's state of consciousness. Cocaine affects the neurotransmitters that nerves use to communicate with each other. Cocaine inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and other neurotransmitters in the synapse, resulting in an altered state of consciousness or a "high" (Aldridge, D., & Fachner, J. ö. 2005).
Lysergic acid diethylamide, or LSD, activates serotonin receptors (the amine transmitter of nerve urges) in brain matter. LSD acts on certain serotonin receptors, and its effects are most prominent in the cerebral cortex, an area involved in attitude, thought, and insight, which obtains sensory signs from all parts of the body. LSD's main effects are emotional and psychological. The ingester's feelings may alter quickly through a range from fear to ecstasy. (Humphrey, N. 2001) This may cause one to experience many levels of altered consciousness.
Alcohol alters consciousness by shifting levels of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" cell (often another neuron). Neurotransmitters can cause inhibitory or excitatory effects on the "target" cell they are affecting. Alcohol increases the effect of the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-Aminobutyric acid) in the brain. GABA causes slow actions and inaudible verbal communication that often occur in alcoholics. Alcohol also decreases the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Suppressing this stimulant results in a similar type of physiological slowdown. In addition to increasing the GABA and decreasing the glutamate in the brain, alcohol increases the amount of the chemical dopamine in the brain, which is one of the addictive causes of alcoholism.
Non-pharmacological
Altered states of consciousness may also be induced by:
Emotional development
Hypnosis
Insight
Learning
Meditation
Mental development
Recreation
Sensitivity training
Spiritual experience
Understanding
Emotions influence behavior that alters the state of consciousness. Emotions can be influenced by various stimuli.
Pathologies/other
Pathological or accidental induction may refer to unforeseen events or illnesses. According to Dr. Jeffrey R. Avner, professor of clinical pediatrics, a crucial element to understanding accidental and pathological causes to altered states of consciousness (ASC) is that it begins with reduced self-awareness followed by reduced awareness in the environment (2006). Those with personal experience of conditions such as Depersonalisation often cite the opposite, that it is an increased awareness of the environment and the self that results in altered states of consciousness. When the reduction of self-awareness and environmental awareness take effect, they produce altered states of consciousness. The specific conditions below provide clarity on the types of conditions compromise accidental and pathological causes.
Traumatic experience
The first condition, traumatic experience, is defined as a lesion caused by an external force (Trauma. (n.d.) In Merriam-Webster Dictionary online, 2013). Examples include impact to the brain caused by blunt force (i.e., a car accident). The reason a traumatic experience causes altered states of consciousness is that it changes how the brain works. The external impact diverts the blood flow from the front of the brain to other areas. The front of the brain is known as the prefrontal cortex responsible for analytical thought (Kunsman, 2012). When the damage becomes uncontrollable, the patient experiences changes in behavior and impaired self-awareness. This is exactly when an altered state of consciousness is experienced.
Epilepsy
Another common cause is epilepsy. According to Medlineplus epilepsy can be described as a brain disorder that causes seizures (2013). During the seizure it is said that the patient will experience hallucinations and loss of mental control causing temporary dissociation from reality.
A study that was conducted with six epileptic patients and used the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) detected how the patients did indeed experience hallucinations while a seizure is occurring. This not only altered the patient's behavioral pattern but also made them dissociate from reality during that particular time frame.
Oxygen deficiency
The next item of interest is oxygen deficiency, questioning how oxygen deficiency impacts the brain is an important part of comprehending why ASC occurs when there is oxygen deprivation in an environment.
Infections
In addition to oxygen deprivation or deficiency, infections are a common pathological cause of ASC. A prime example of an infection includes meningitis. The medical website WEBMD states that meningitis is an infection that causes the coverings of the brain to swell. This particular infection occurs in children and young adults. This infection is primarily viral. Viral meningitis causes ASC and its symptoms include fevers and seizures (2010). The Impairment becomes visible the moment seizures begin to occur, this is when the patient enters the altered state of consciousness.
Sleep deprivation
Sleep deprivation is also associated with ASC, and can provoke seizures due to fatigue. Sleep deprivation can be chronic or short-term depending on the severity of the patient's condition. Many patients report hallucinations because sleep deprivation impacts the brain. An MRI study conducted at Harvard Medical school in 2007, found that a sleep-deprived brain was not capable of being in control of its sensorimotor functions, leading to an impairment to the patient's self-awareness. Patients were also prone to be a lot clumsier than if they had not been experiencing sleep deprivation.
Fasting
Coupled with deprivation of sleep and oxygen, another form of deprivation includes fasting. Fasting can occur because of religious purposes or from psychological conditions such as anorexia. Fasting refers to the ability to willingly refrain from food and possibly drinks as well. The dissociation caused by fasting is not only life-threatening but it is the reason why extended fasting periods can lead to ASC. Thus, the temporary dissociation from reality allows fasting to fall into the category of an ASC following the definition provided by Dr. Avner (2006).
Psychosis
Another pathological cause is psychosis, otherwise known as a psychotic episode. In order to comprehend psychosis, it is important to determine what symptoms it implies. Psychotic episodes often include delusions, paranoia, derealization, depersonalization, and hallucinations (Revonsuo et al., 2008). Studies have not been able to clearly identify when a person is reaching a higher level of risk for a psychotic episode (Schimmelmann, B., Walger, P., & Schultze-Lutter, F., 2013), but the earlier people are treated for psychosis the more likely they are to avoid the devastating consequences which could lead to a psychotic disorder (Schimmelmann, B., Walger, P., & Schultze-Lutter, F., 2013). Unfortunately, there are very few studies which have thoroughly investigated psychotic episodes, and the ability to predict this disorder remains unclear. (Schimmelmann, B., Walger, P., & Schultze-Lutter, F., 2013).
Reviewing the previous conditions for accidental and pathological causes, we can come to understand that all of these accidental or pathological causes share the component of reduced self-awareness. Therefore, ASCs cannot only be caused naturally but they can be induced intentionally with methods including hypnosis meditation, amongst others. There are also ASCs which are caused by less recreational purposes; people who utilize illegal substances, or heavy dosages of medications, as well as large amounts of alcohol, can indeed comply with the definition of an ASC (Revonsuo et al., 2008).
Neurobiological models of altered state experiences
Entropic brain hypothesis
The entropic brain hypothesis by Robin L. Carhart-Harris (2014) refers to a theory which is informed by neuroimaging research that uses the hallucinogen induced neurological state to make inferences about other states of consciousness.
The expression "entropy" is applied here in the context of states of consciousness and their associated neurodynamics, while high entropy is synonymous with high disorder.
It is proposed that a general distinction can be made between two fundamentally different modes of cognition: Primary and secondary consciousness.
Primary consciousness is associated with unconstrained cognition and less ordered (higher-entropy) neurodynamics that preceded the development of modern, normal waking consciousness in adults. Examples include the psychedelic state, the rapid eye movement sleep (REM) state or the onset phase of psychosis.
Secondary consciousness is associated with constrained cognition and more ordered neurodynamics. Examples include normal waking consciousness, the anesthetized or the depressed state.
The theory further proposes that via pharmacological induction of psychedelic substances psilocybin, the brain is able to enter into the primary state of consciousness (the psychedelic state) from normal waking consciousness. This "phase transition" between these two fundamentally different poles of consciousness is facilitated by a collapse of the normally highly organized activity within the default mode network (DMN) and a decoupling between the DMN and the medial temporal lobes (MTLs), which are normally significantly coupled.
The DMN is closely associated with higher-order cognitive functions such as supporting the neurological basis for the self (e.g. self-reflection, subjectivity, introspection), thinking about others (e.g. theory of mind), remembering the past and thinking about the future (e.g. episodic memory). Task-positive networks are associated with the inverse of these things e.g., focus on and scrutiny of the external world.
The entropic brain hypothesis emphasizes the great research potential of the psychedelic state of mind for gaining more insight into general human consciousness.
CSTC-loop
Extensive scientific investigation on altered states of consciousness and their relationship to drug interactions with receptors in the brain have been performed. Particularly the study of the neurotransmitter serotonin and the effects of psychedelic drugs on the brain has been intensively researched over the past sixty years. It has been hypothesized that hallucinogens act either as an antagonist or an agonist at serotonin-2A receptors and will elicit a state that shares some common phenomenological features with early acute stages of the group of schizophrenia disorders.
Findings implicate that abnormalities of serotonin function and the serotonergic system could be responsible for psychiatric disorders such as the spectrum of schizophrenia (gating) disorders and therefore, that serotonin agonist or antagonists might be useful in the treatment of e.g. schizophrenia. To investigate the underlying causative neurotransmitter mechanisms of this phenomenon, the CSTC (cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical) loop model has been formulated based on empirical neurobiological work.
It is indicated that the common hypofrontality (underactivation of frontal brain parts) and cortical activation pattern induced by serotonergic and glutamatergic hallucinogens is due to a common disruption of thalamic gating of sensory and cognitive information. The CSTC feedback loop plays a major role in gating or filtering out external and internal information to the cortex. Thereby it influences the regulation of the level of awareness and attention.
Disruption of the CSTC loop system is proposed to significantly influence information processing, e.g. the ability to screen out, inhibit filter or gate extraneous stimuli and to direct selective attention to salient features of the environment.
Failures of these attentional gating mechanisms might overload patients with the excessive processing of both sensory and cognitive stimuli, which could lead to a breakdown of cognitive integrity and difficulty in distinguishing self from non-self and failure to integrate an overwhelming flood of information. Descriptive elaboration of the mentioned effects can be found in the literature on schizophrenia as well as in descriptions of hallucinogenic drug action.
Despite strong evidence linking serotonin and psychosis, novel research indicates that some behavioral effects of drugs such as psilocybin appear to be independent of the classical 5-HT2A receptor-agonist actions, implying that the model described here is not the only underlying framework at play. Interdisciplinary research enterprises have set out to study the convergence of serotonergic and glutamatergic models of psychosis and dynamic neurotransmitter interactions, derived from the study of hallucinogenic drugs, in the future.
See also
Notes
References
Sources
"Harvard Heart Letter examines the costs of not getting enough sleep – Harvard Health Publications". Health.harvard.edu. 31 May 2012. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
Aldridge, D., & Fachner, J. ö. (2005). Chapter 7: Music and drug-induced altered states of consciousness. (pp. 82–96)
Louis Breger. (1967) Function of Dreams. Journal of Abnormal Psychology Monograph, Vol 72, No. 5, Part 2 of 2 Parts, 1–28
Meningitis - Topic Overview (December 8, 2010) from: Meningitis (Bacterial, Viral, and Fungal)
Further reading
Beyerstein, Barry. "Altered States of Consciousness," in The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, edited by Gordon Stein (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1996).
Beyerstein, Barry. "The Myth of Alpha Consciousness," Skeptical Inquirer, 10, no. 1 [1985].
Blackmore, Susan J., Dying to Live : Near-death Experiences, (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1993).
Bourguignon, Erika (1973). Religion, Altered States of Consciousness, and Social Change. Ohio State Univ. Press, Columbus. Full text
Hoffman, Kay (1998). The Trance Workbook: Understanding and Using the Power of Altered States. Translated by Elfie Homann, Clive Williams, and Dr. Christliebe El Mogharbel. Translation edited by Laurel Ornitz.
James, William (1902). The Varieties of Religious Experience
Persinger, Michael. Neuropsychological Bases of God Beliefs (Praeger Pub Text., 1987).
Roberts, T.B. "Chemical Input—Religious Output: Entheogens." Chapter 10 of Where God and Science Meet: Vol. 3: The Psychology of Religious Experience. Edited by Robert McNamara. Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood, 2006.
Roberts, T.B. (Ed.) (2001). Psychoactive Sacramentals: Essays on Entheogens and Religion. San Francisco: Council on Spiritual Practices.
Roberts, T.B. and P.J. Hruby. (1995–2002). Religion and Psychoactive Sacraments: An Entheogen Chrestomathy . Online archive
Sacks, Oliver W. A leg to stand on (New York : Summit Books, 1984).
Sacks, Oliver W. An anthropologist on Mars : seven paradoxical tales (New York : Knopf, 1995).
Sacks, Oliver W. Awakenings, [1st. ed. in the U.S.] (Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1974).
Sacks, Oliver W. The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales (New York : Summit Books, 1985).
Shear, Jonathan. (2011). "Eastern Approaches to Altered States of Consciousness". Altering consciousness. volume 1: multidisciplinary perspectives.
Spanos, Nicholas P. Multiple Identities and False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1996).
Weinel, Jonathan (2012). "Altered States of Consciousness as an Adaptive Principle for Composing Electroacoustic Music". Unpublished PhD Thesis.
Weinel, Jonathan (August 2010). "Bass Drum, Saxophone & Laptop: Real-time psychedelic performance software." eContact! 12.4 – Perspectives on the Electroacoustic Work / Perspectives sur l’œuvre électroacoustique. Montréal: Canadian Electroacoustic Community.
Wier, Dennis R. (1995) Trance: From Magic to Technology. Transmedia.
Consciousness studies
Hallucinations
Hypnosis
Metaphysics of mind
Mysteries
Mysticism
Neuroscience
Mental states
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|
252867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20River | Indian River | Indian River may refer to:
Rivers
In Barbados
Indian River (Barbados)
In Canada
Indian River (British Columbia), which enters Indian Arm to the north of North Vancouver
Indian River, a tidal flow east of Deer Island, New Brunswick
In Ontario:
Indian River (Algoma District), a right tributary of the Montreal River
Indian River (Rice Lake), in Peterborough County, which flows from Stoney Lake to Rice Lake
Indian River (Lanark County), a tributary of the Mississippi River
Indian River (Muskoka District), which flows from Lake Rosseau to Lake Muskoka
Indian River (Muskrat River watershed), in Renfrew County and Nipissing District, a left tributary of the Muskrat River
In the Yukon:
Indian River (Yukon), a tributary of the Yukon River
Dän Tàgé, formerly known as the Indian River
In Dominica
Indian River (Dominica), a river in Portsmouth
In the United States
Indian River (Alaska)
Indian River (Delaware)
Indian River (Florida)
Indian River (Maine)
Southwest Branch Indian River
In Michigan:
Indian River (Manistique River tributary), in the Upper Peninsula
Indian River (Mullett Lake), in the Lower Peninsula
Indian River (New Hampshire)
In New York:
Indian River (Black Lake), a tributary of the Oswegatchie River in far northern New York
Indian River (Hudson River tributary), in the Adirondack Mountains
Indian River (Moose River tributary), in the Adirondack Mountains, part of the Black River watershed
Indian River (West Canada Creek tributary), in the Adirondack Mountains, part of the Mohawk River watershed
Indian River (South Dakota), a tributary of the Big Sioux River
Indian River (Virginia)
Communities
In Canada
Indian River, Ontario, a community in Otonabee-South Monaghan
Indian River (reserve), a First Nations reserve in Ontario
Indian River, Prince Edward Island
In the United States
Indian River Hundred, an unincorporated subdivision of Sussex County, Delaware
Indian River County, Florida
Indian River Estates, Florida
Indian River Shores, Florida
Indian River, Michigan
Literature
"Indian River" (poem), a 1917 poem by Wallace Stevens
See also
List of rivers of India
Indian River High School (disambiguation)
Indian River School District (disambiguation)
Indian (disambiguation)
River (disambiguation)
Indian Brook (disambiguation)
Indian Creek (disambiguation)
Indian Run (disambiguation)
Indian Stream (disambiguation) | [
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|
252869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Tardi | Jacques Tardi | Jacques Tardi (; born 30 August 1946) is a French comics artist. He is often credited solely as Tardi.
Biography
Tardi was born on 30 August 1946 in Valence, Drôme. After graduating from the École nationale des beaux-arts de Lyon and the École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs in Paris, he started drawing comics in 1969, at the age of 23, in the Franco-Belgian comics magazine Pilote, initially illustrating short stories written by Jean Giraud and Serge de Beketch, before creating the political fiction story Rumeur sur le Rouergue from a scenario by Pierre Christin in 1972.
A highly versatile artist, Tardi successfully adapted novels by controversial writer Louis-Ferdinand Céline and crime novelist Léo Malet. In Malet's case, Tardi adapted his detective hero Nestor Burma into a series of critically acclaimed graphic novels, though he also wrote and drew original stories of his own.
Tardi also created one of French comics' most famous heroines, Adèle Blanc-Sec. This series recreates the Paris of early 20th century where the moody heroine encounters supernatural events, state plots, occult societies and experiments in cryogenics.
Another graphic novel was which was written by Jean-Claude Forest, best known as the creator of Barbarella. A satire, it describes the adventures of Arthur Même who lives on the walls of his family's former property.
Tardi has produced many antiwar graphic novels and comics, mainly focusing on the collective European trauma of the First World War, and the pitfalls of patriotism spawned several albums (Adieu Brindavoine, C'était la guerre des tranchées, Le trou d'obus, Putain de Guerre...). His grandfather's involvement in the day-to-day horrors of trench warfare, seems to have had a deep influence on his artistic expression. He also completed a four-volume series on the Paris Commune, Le cri du peuple.
In the English language, many of Tardi's books are published by Fantagraphics Books, edited and translated by Fantagraphics' co-founder Kim Thompson. Books published by Fantagraphics include West Coast Blues (Le Petit bleu de la côte ouest), You Are There (Ici Même), It Was the War of the Trenches (C'était la guerre des tranchées), Like a Sniper Lining Up His Shot (La Position du tireur couché) and The Arctic Marauder (Le Démon des glaces). Four books, including two albums collecting the first four Adele Blanc-Sec volumes, were previously published by NBM Publishing, the previous rightsholder to Tardi's works, in translations by Jean-Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier.
In January 2013, Tardi was nominated as a Chevalier in France's Legion of Honour, the country's highest distinction. However, he turned down the distinction, citing that he will "remain a free man and not be held hostage by any power whatsoever."
Awards
1974: Grand Prix Phénix
1975: Award for Best French Artist at the Angoulême International Comics Festival, France
– Grand Prix for Black Humor
1977: Best Foreign Artist at the Prix Saint-Michel, Belgium
1982: Award for best comic by "l'Association 813" at the Festival du Polar in Reims
1985: Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême, France
– Knighted in the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, France
1986: Adamson Award, Sweden
1990: Best German-language Comic/Comic-related Publication at the Max & Moritz Prizes, Germany
1991: Special mention at the Best Promotional Comic Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
1994: Audience Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
– Best German-language Comic/Comic-related Publication at the Max & Moritz Prizes, Germany
1998: nominated for the Award for Best Comic Book at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2002: Audience Award and Award for Artwork at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
– nominated for the Prix de la critique and the Canal BD Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2003: nominated for the Audience Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2004: nominated for Best American Edition of Foreign Material at the Harvey Awards, U.S.
2005: nominated for Award for a Series at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2006: nominated for the Award for Best Comic Book and the Audience Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2006: Special Prize for outstanding life's work at the Max & Moritz Prizes, Germany
– nominated for the Grand Prix Saint-Michel
2007: nominated for the Grand Prix Saint-Michel
2010: nominated for the Press Prize at the Prix Saint-Michel
2011: winner of two Eisner Awards
2021: winner of Einhard-Preis
Bibliography
Scenario and artwork
followed by La Fleur au fusil (Casterman, 1974)
(with characters by Léo Malet) (Casterman, 1974),
(Futuropolis, 1974)
(Yellow Submarine, 1979)
Déprime (Futuropolis, 1981)
(Imagerie Pellerin, 1984),
C'était la guerre des tranchées (Casterman, 1993),
Les Aventures extraordinaires d'Adèle Blanc-Sec (Casterman, 1976–2007)
"Adèle et la bête" (1976),
"Le Démon de la tour Eiffel" (1976),
"Le Savant fou" (1977),
"Momies en folie" (1978),
"Le Secret de la salamandre" (1981),
"Le Noyé à deux têtes" (1985),
"Tous des monstres !" (1994),
"Le Mystère des profondeurs" (1998),
"Le Labyrinthe infernal" (2007),
(Casterman, 2008),
Moi, René Tardi, Prisonnier de guerre – stalag IIB (Casterman, 2012),
Adaptations
, based on novels by Léo Malet (Casterman, 1982–2000)
(Casterman, 1982),
(Casterman, 1988),
Une gueule de bois en plomb (Casterman, 1990),
(Casterman, 1996),
(Casterman, 2000),
Jeux pour mourir based on a novel by Géo-Charles Véran (Casterman, 1992),
Le Der des Ders, based on a novel by Didier Daeninckx (Casterman, 1997),
, based on a novel by Jean Vautrin (Casterman, 2001–2004)
Les canons du 18 mars (2001),
L'espoir assassiné (2002),
Les heures sanglantes (2003),
Le testament des ruines (2004),
(Les Humanoïdes Associés, 2005), based on a novel by Jean-Patrick Manchette
(Casterman, 2006), based on a novel by Pierre Siniac
La Position du tireur couché (Futuropolis, 2010), based on a novel by Manchette
(Futuropolis, 2011), based on a novel by Manchette
Artwork
(scenario by Pierre Christin) (Gallimard, 1976)
(scenario by Philippe Picaret) (Futuropolis, 1977)
(scenario by Jean-Patrick Manchette) (Square, then Dargaud, then Casterman, 1978)
(scenario by Jean-Claude Forest) (Casterman, 1979),
(scenario by ) (Casterman, 1984),
Grange bleue (scenario by ) (Futuropolis, 1985)
Le sens de la houppelande (scenario by Daniel Pennac) (Futuropolis, 1991),
Un strapontin pour deux (scenario by Michel Boujut) (Casterman, 1995)
L'évasion du cheval gris (scenario by Claude Verrien) (Sapristi, 1996)
Sodome et Virginie (scenario by Daniel Prevost) (Casterman, 1996),
(scenario by Didier Daeninckx) (L'Association, 1999),
(scenario by Daniel Pennac) (Futuropolis, 2000),
Scenario
Le voyage d'Alphonse (artwork by Antoine Leconte) (Duculot, 2003)
Sketchbooks
Mine de plomb (Futuropolis, 1985)
Chiures de gommes (Futuropolis, 1985)
Tardi en banlieue (Casterman, 1990),
Carnet (JC Menu, 2001),
Illustrated novels
Céline adaptations:
Voyage au bout de la nuit (Futuropolis, 1988),
Casse-pipe (Futuropolis, 1989),
Mort à crédit (Futuropolis, 1991),
Jules Verne adaptations:
Un prêtre en 1839 (Cherche Midi, 1992),
San Carlos (Cherche Midi, 1993),
Novel
Rue des Rebuts (Alain Beaulet, 1990)
In English
Adèle and the Beast – Adèle et la bête (NBM Publishing 1990),
The Demon of the Eiffel Tower – Le Démon de la tour Eiffel (NBM Publishing, 1990),
The Mad Scientist and Mummies on Parade – Le Savant fou and Momies en folie (NBM Publishing, 1996),
The Secret of the Salamander – Le Secret de la salamandre (NBM Publishing, 1992)
The Bloody Streets of Paris – 120, rue de la Gare (iBooks, 2003),
West Coast Blues – Le petit bleu de la côte ouest (Fantagraphics, 2009),
You Are There – Ici Même (Fantagraphics, 2009),
It Was the War of the Trenches – C'était la guerre des tranchées (Fantagraphics, 2010)
The Extraordinary Adventures of Adèle Blanc-Sec Vol. 1: Pterror Over Paris and The Eiffel Tower Demon – Adèle et la bête and Le Démon de la tour Eiffel (Fantagraphics, 2010),
The Arctic Marauder – Le Démon des glaces (Fantagraphics, 2011)
Like a Sniper Lining Up His Shot – La Position du tireur couché (Fantagraphics, 2011),
The Extraordinary Adventures of Adèle Blanc-Sec Vol. 2: The Mad Scientist and Mummies on Parade – Le Savant fou and Momies en folie (Fantagraphics, 2011),
Goddamn This War – Putain de Guerre! (Fantagraphics, 2013),
Run Like Crazy Run Like Hell – Ô dingos, ô châteaux! (Fantagraphics, 2015),
Fog Over Tolbiac Bridge: A Nestor Burma Mystery – Brouillard au pont de Tolbiac (Fantagraphics, 2017),
I, Rene Tardi, Prisoner of War in Stalag IIB (Fantagraphics, 2018),
I, Rene Tardi, Prisoner of War in Stalag IIB Vol. 2: My Return Home (Fantagraphics, 2019),
I, Rene Tardi, Prisoner of War in Stalag IIB Vol. 3: After the War (Fantagraphics, 2020),
Streets of Paris, Streets of Murder: The Complete Noir Stories of Manchette & Tardi Vol. 1 – Collects Griffu & West Coast Blues (Fantagraphics, 2020),
Streets of Paris, Streets of Murder: The Complete Noir Stories of Manchette & Tardi Vol. 2 – Collects Like a Sniper Lining Up His Shot & Run Like Crazy Run Like Hell (Fantagraphics, 2020),
Farewell, Brindavoine (Fantagraphics, 2021),
Notes
References
Tardi publications in Pilote, (A SUIVRE) and Métal Hurlant BDoubliées
Tardi albums Bedetheque
Further reading
Olivier Maltret, Presque tout Tardi (Sapristi, 1996),
Michel Boujut, Tardi par la fenêtre (Christian Desbois, 1996)
Numa Sadoul, Tardi. Entretiens. (Niffle, 2000)
External links
Tardi official site on Casterman
Tardi biography on Lambiek Comiclopedia
Les Aventures Extraordinaires d'Adèle Blanc-Sec Fan site, dead link
1946 births
Living people
People from Valence, Drôme
French comics artists
French comics writers
French anarchists
Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême winners
Alumni of the École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs
French male writers
Légion d'honneur refusals | [
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|
252870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twice%20Removed | Twice Removed | Twice Removed is the second album by Canadian rock band Sloan, released on Geffen Records in 1994. The album took seven weeks and cost $120,000 to record. More melodic than their previous album, Smeared, Geffen gave the record little promotion because it defied the label's commercially dominant grunge rock style of the time. The band and Geffen parted ways after Twice Removeds release. After the band's trouble with the label, they took time off from touring and writing and were broken up for a brief period.
Commercial performance
Twice Removed peaked at No. 25 on the RPM Canadian Albums Chart. By February 1997, the album had sold 58,000 units in Canada. The album was certified Gold in Canada on October 20, 1998.
Legacy
In 1996, the music magazine Chart conducted a reader poll to determine the best Canadian albums of all time. Twice Removed topped that poll. When the magazine conducted a follow up poll in 2000, Twice Removed lost the top spot to Joni Mitchell's Blue, but still placed third. In the third poll, in 2005, Twice Removed reclaimed the top spot.
It was also ranked fourteenth in Bob Mersereau's 2007 book The Top 100 Canadian Albums.
In 2012, the album received a deluxe reissue on vinyl. This edition includes another three discs: one containing demo versions of the Twice Removed songs; another containing B-sides that were originally intended for the album but left off; and a 7-inch, 45 RPM disc containing songs that, in the words of guitarist Jay Ferguson, "didn't really fit anywhere else in the package". The release also includes a 12x12, 32-page colour booklet containing photos, interviews and other stories from the band's members. The reissue was made available exclusively via the band's website.
In 2015, the album was named the winner in the 1990s category of the inaugural Slaight Family Polaris Heritage Prize, an annual Canadian music award for classic albums released prior to the creation of the Polaris Music Prize.
Track listing
All songs credited to Sloan.Japanese Bonus TracksB-Sides'''
"Coax Me (Icks Nay on the Evie Stay Micks)" (Coax Me 7")
"One Professional Care" (Coax Me 7")
"I Can Feel It (demo)" (promo 7")
Trivia
Jennifer Pierce from Jale appears once again as a backup singer on "I Can Feel It".
Lyrics for the first track on the album, "Penpals", were taken from broken English fan letters to Kurt Cobain, which the band rummaged through when they were signed to Geffen in the early ’90s.
"Penpals" is referenced in the graphic novel Lost at Sea'' by Bryan Lee O'Malley when one character sings the lyrics from it.
References
1994 albums
Sloan (band) albums
Geffen Records albums | [
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|
252871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Moldavia | List of rulers of Moldavia | This is a list of rulers of Moldavia, from the first mention of the medieval polity east of the Carpathians and until its disestablishment in 1862, when it united with Wallachia, the other Danubian Principality, to form the modern-day state of Romania.
Notes
Dynastic rule is hard to ascribe, given the loose traditional definition of the ruling family (on principle, princes were chosen from any branch, including a previous ruler's bastard sons – being defined as os de domn – "of domn marrow", or as having hereghie – "heredity" (from the Latin hereditas); the institutions charged with the election, dominated by the boyars, had fluctuating degrees of influence). The system itself was challenged by usurpers, and became obsolete with the Phanariote epoch, when rulers were appointed by the Ottoman Sultans. Between 1821 and 1862, various systems combining election and appointment were put in practice. Moldavian rulers, like Wallachian and other Eastern European rulers, bore the titles of Voivode or/and Hospodar (when writing in Romanian, the term Domn (from the Latin dominus) was used).
Most rulers did not use the form of the name they are cited with, and several used more than one form of their own name; in some cases, the ruler was only mentioned in foreign sources. The full names are either modern versions or ones based on mentions in various chronicles.
The list is brought up to date for the first rulers, following the documented studies of Ștefan S. Gorovei and Constantin Rezachevici.
List
Princes of Moldavia
House of Dragoș
House of Bogdan-Mușat
Houses of Basarab (Drăculeşti line) and Bogdan-Muşat
Houses of Basarab (Drăculești line) and Movilești
Various dynasties
Phanariotes (1711–1821)
References
Constantin Rezachevici - Cronologia critică a domnilor din Țara Românească și Moldova a. 1324 - 1881, Volumul I, Editura Enciclopedică, 2001,
Rulers of Moldavia
Rulers
Moldavian rulers
Moldavia | [
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|
252873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inwood | Inwood | Inwood may refer to:
Places
In Canada:
Inwood, Manitoba
Inwood, Ontario
In the United Kingdom:
Inwood, Warleigh, Wiltshire, England
In the United States:
Inwood, Florida
Inwood, Indiana
Inwood, Iowa
Inwood, Manhattan, a neighborhood in Manhattan, New York City
Inwood Hill Park
Inwood – 207th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line), a New York City Subway station serving the A train
Inwood, Mississippi, a ghost town
Inwood, New York, in Nassau County
Inwood (LIRR station), a Long Island Rail Road station
Inwood Country Club
Inwood, Maryland
Inwood, San Antonio, a district of the city of San Antonio, Texas
Inwood, West Virginia
Inwood Forest, Houston, Texas
Inwood Township, Michigan
Other uses
Inwood (surname) | [
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252876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20Chord%20to%20Another | One Chord to Another | One Chord to Another is the third studio album by the Canadian rock band Sloan. The album was released in Canada through Murderecords in 1996 and in the United States through The Enclave in 1997. Like their previous album, One Chord to Another is a Beatles-influenced power pop record.
One Chord to Another was a few of firsts for Sloan, It was the band's first LP not to be released through Geffen Records. It was also the band's first album to win a Juno award.
Recording
Sloan began recording One Chord to Another in December, 1995. The album was recorded over a two-week period and cost $10,000 to make, $110,000 less than the cost of their previous album. It was the band's first album to feature trumpets.
Reception
Commercial performance
The album debuted at No. 15 on The Record's Canadian Albums Chart. It was certified gold in Canada on November 21, 1996. By February 1997, the album had sold 80,000 units in Canada. It remains to be Sloan's best-selling album.
Critical acclaim
The album won the award for Best Alternative Album at the 1997 Juno Awards. In a 2000 poll by music magazine Chart, One Chord to Another was voted the ninth greatest Canadian album of all time. It was also ranked 34th in Bob Mersereau's 2007 book The Top 100 Canadian Albums.
Track listing
All songs credited to Sloan.
Japanese Bonus Tracks
"Stood Up" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 3:50
"Same Old Flame" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) – 3:53
B-sides
"Stood Up" (7" single)
"Same Old Flame" (7" single)
"Autobiography" (Demo) ("The Good in Everyone" 7")
Note: Prior to the release of One Chord to Another, Sloan released "Same Old Flame" b/w "Stood Up" as a 7" single on murderecords. These songs were re-recorded for the first pressing of One Chord to Another in Japan, released on EMI. While these versions of "Stood Up" are a Chris Murphy original, the song by the same name on Recorded "Live" at a Sloan Party! is a cover of a Matthew Grimson song.
20th anniversary edition box set
LP1 – Original album
"The Good in Everyone" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) – 2:17
"Nothing Left to Make Me Want to Stay" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 2:35
"Autobiography" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 3:18
"Junior Panthers" (Jay Ferguson/Sloan) – 2:38
G Turns to D" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 3:24
A Side Wins" (Andrew Scott/Sloan) – 3:11
"Everything You've Done Wrong" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) – 3:29
"Anyone Who's Anyone" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 2:48
"The Lines You Amend" (Jay Ferguson/Sloan) – 2:32
"Take the Bench" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 3:50
"Can't Face Up" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) – 3:53
"400 Metres" (Andrew Scott/Sloan) – 4:31
LP2 – The Outtakes
"El Say" (Andrew Scott/Sloan) – 1:51
"Pictures Now" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 3:00
"Adele" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) – 3:12
"Baxter" (Andrew Scott/Sloan) – 3:39
"I'm Gonna Give It a Try" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 2:43
"Song #1" (Andrew Scott/Sloan) – 1:53
"Learn How to Play Dead" (Jay Ferguson/Sloan) – 3:37
"Imagine All the Songs" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 3:03
"Flexible Flyer" (Andrew Scott/Sloan) – 2:28
"In My Mind" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) – 2:28
"Teachers in the Bleachers" (Andrew Scott/Sloan) – 3:44
LP3 – Recorded "Live" at a Sloan Party!
"Let's Get the Party Started" (Sloan) – 2:28
"I Can Feel It" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) - 3:54
"Dignified and Old" (Jonathan Richman) - 3:12
"Glitter and Gold" (Barry Mann/Cynthia Weil) - 3:02
"Over You" (Bryan Ferry/Phil Manzanera) - 3:20
"I Am the Cancer" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 3:22
"I Can't Let Go" (Al Gorgoni/Chip Taylor) – 2:35
"Stood Up" – 3:28 (Matthew Grimson)
"On the Road Again/Transona Five" (Tim Gane/Floyd Jones/Lætitia Sadier/Alan Wilson) – 4:42
"I Wouldn't Want to Lose Your Love" (Myles Goodwyn) – 5:45
7"
"Mirror Ball" (Junior Panthers demo) (Jay Ferguson/Sloan)
"John, You Made It On" (G Turns to D demo) (Chris Murphy/Sloan)
One Chord to Another Demos (Digital Download)
"The Good in Everyone" (demo) (Patrick Pentland/Sloan)
"Billy Joel" (Nothing Left to Make Me Want to Stay demo) (Chris Murphy/Sloan)
"Autobiography" (demo) (Chris Murphy/Sloan)
"Mirror Ball" (Junior Panthers demo) (Jay Ferguson/Sloan)
"John, You Made It On" (G Turns to D demo) (Chris Murphy/Sloan)
"A Side Wins" (demo) (Andrew Scott/Sloan)
"Everything You've Done Wrong" (demo) (Patrick Pentland/Sloan)
"Everyone Who's Anyone" (Anyone Who's Anyone demo) (Chris Murphy/Sloan)
"Found a Way" (The Lines You Amend demo) (Jay Ferguson/Sloan)
"Sing Your Little Heart Out" (Take the Bench demo from Pier 21) (Chris Murphy/Sloan)
"Can't Face Up" (demo from Idea of East Recording) (Patrick Pentland/Sloan)
"400 Metres" (demo) (Andrew Scott/Sloan)
American and Japanese releases
One Chord to Another was not released until 1997 in the United States on the independent label, The Enclave. It was originally released in an LP-style cardboard gatefold jacket rather than a traditional plastic jewel box, and included a 10-track bonus CD of material entitled Recorded Live at a Sloan Party! This bonus CD consisted of cover versions and re-recordings of previous Sloan songs; it was recorded in the studio but was overdubbed with miscellaneous party-type sounds to give the impression of being recorded live at an intimate gathering of friends (somewhat akin to the Beach Boys' Party! album). To date, the "Sloan Party" CD has not been released in the band's native Canada and has only been available as an American import. In 2016, the "Sloan Party" album was released on vinyl as part of the 20th anniversary One Chord to Another box set, and featuring new album art reminiscent of the Beach Boys' Party! album.
"Let's Get the Party Started" (Sloan) – 2:28
"I Can Feel It" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) - 3:54 (new version; original version on Twice Removed)
"Dignified and Old" (Jonathan Richman) - 3:12 (originally performed by The Modern Lovers)
"Glitter and Gold" (Barry Mann/Cynthia Weil) - 3:02 (originally performed by The Turtles, and later, The Everly Brothers)
"Over You" (Bryan Ferry/Phil Manzanera) - 3:20 (originally performed by Roxy Music)
"I Am the Cancer" (Chris Murphy/Sloan) – 3:22 (new version; original version on Smeared)
"I Can't Let Go" (Al Gorgoni/Chip Taylor) – 2:35 (originally performed by Evie Sands, and later, The Hollies)
"Stood Up" (Matthew Grimson) – 3:28 (originally performed by Matthew Grimson)
"On the Road Again/Transona Five" (Tim Gane/Floyd Jones/Lætitia Sadier/Alan Wilson) – 4:42 (originally performed by Canned Heat and Stereolab, respectively)
"I Wouldn't Want to Lose Your Love" (Myles Goodwyn) – 5:45 (originally performed by April Wine)
Note: All of track 1 and the last 2:35 of track 10 consist of party sound effects only; track 8 is a cover of a song by Matthew Grimson, not the similarly-titled song released as a 1996 7" single by Sloan. Track 2 is performed by Patrick Pentland and Jennifer Pierce; track 3 is performed by Chris Murphy; track 4 is performed by Andrew Scott; track 5 is performed by Jay Ferguson; track 6 is performed by Chris Murphy; track 7 is performed by Jay Ferguson; track 8 is performed by Chris Murphy; track 9 is performed by Jay Ferguson; track 10 is performed by Patrick Pentland.
One Chord to Another was Sloan's first album to be released in Japan. They secured a distribution deal with EMI, who released the album with new recordings of "Stood Up" and "Same Old Flame". When Navy Blues was released in Canada, however, Sloan's distribution deal with Universal Canada led to new Japanese distribution with Universal Japan. Universal then released Sloan's first three albums in Japan. The new Universal Japan version of One Chord to Another was a one-disc release featuring Recorded Live at a Sloan Party! as bonus tracks, making the original Japanese release on EMI, with its two exclusive tracks, a rarity in the Sloan catalogue.
References
1996 albums
Sloan (band) albums
Murderecords albums
Juno Award for Alternative Album of the Year albums | [
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|
252877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamesville | Jamesville | Jamesville can refer to
Jamesville, New York
Jamesville, North Carolina
Jamesville, Pennsylvania
Jamesville, Virginia
Hamilton, Ontario has a neighborhood called Jamesville
Yankton County, South Dakota has a township called Jamesville
See also
Janesville (disambiguation) | [
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|
252880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janesville | Janesville | Janesville is the name of several places in the United States of America:
Janesville, California
Janesville, Iowa
Janesville, Minnesota
Janesville, Wisconsin
Janesville (town), Wisconsin
Janesville Township, Minnesota
Janesville may also refer to:
Janesville: An American Story, a book by Amy Goldstein
See also
Janeville, a community in Gloucester County, New Brunswick, Canada
Jamesville (disambiguation) | [
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252881 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Downfall | Operation Downfall | Operation Downfall was the proposed Allied plan for the invasion of the Japanese home islands near the end of World War II. The planned operation was canceled when Japan surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Soviet declaration of war, and the invasion of Manchuria. The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in November 1945, Operation Olympic was intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū, with the recently captured island of Okinawa to be used as a staging area. In early 1946 would come Operation Coronet, the planned invasion of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo, on the main Japanese island of Honshu. Airbases on Kyūshū captured in Operation Olympic would allow land-based air support for Operation Coronet. If Downfall had taken place, it would have been the largest amphibious operation in history.
Japan's geography made this invasion plan quite obvious to the Japanese as well; they were able to accurately predict the Allied invasion plans and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. Depending on the degree to which Japanese civilians would have resisted the invasion, estimates ran up into the millions for Allied casualties.
Planning
Responsibility for the planning of Operation Downfall fell to American commanders Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur and the Joint Chiefs of Staff—Fleet Admirals Ernest King and William D. Leahy, and Generals of the Army George Marshall and Hap Arnold (the latter being the commander of the U.S. Army Air Forces).
At the time, the development of the atomic bomb was a very closely guarded secret (not even then-Vice President Harry Truman knew of its existence until he became President), known only to a few top officials outside the Manhattan Project, and the initial planning for the invasion of Japan did not take its existence into consideration. Once the atomic bomb became available, General Marshall envisioned using it to support the invasion if sufficient numbers could be produced in time.
The Pacific War was not under a single Allied commander-in-chief (C-in-C). Allied command was divided into regions: by 1945, for example, Chester Nimitz was the Allied C-in-C Pacific Ocean Areas, while Douglas MacArthur was Supreme Allied Commander, South West Pacific Area, and Admiral Louis Mountbatten was the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command. A unified command was deemed necessary for an invasion of Japan. Interservice rivalry over who it should be (the United States Navy wanted Nimitz, but the United States Army wanted MacArthur) was so serious that it threatened to derail planning. Ultimately, the Navy partially conceded, and MacArthur was to be given total command of all forces if circumstances made it necessary.
Considerations
The primary considerations that the planners had to deal with were time and casualties—how they could force Japan's surrender as quickly as possible with as few Allied casualties as possible. Prior to the Quebec Conference, 1943, a joint CanadianBritishAmerican planning team produced a plan ("Appreciation and Plan for the Defeat of Japan") which did not call for an invasion of the Japanese Home Islands until 1947–48. The American Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that prolonging the war to such an extent was dangerous for national morale. Instead, at the Quebec conference, the Combined Chiefs of Staff agreed that Japan should be forced to surrender not more than one year after Germany's surrender.
The United States Navy urged the use of a blockade and airpower to bring about Japan's capitulation. They proposed operations to capture airbases in nearby Shanghai, China, and Korea, which would give the United States Army Air Forces a series of forward airbases from which to bombard Japan into submission. The Army, on the other hand, argued that such a strategy could "prolong the war indefinitely" and expend lives needlessly, and therefore that an invasion was necessary. They supported mounting a large-scale thrust directly against the Japanese homeland, with none of the side operations that the Navy had suggested. Ultimately, the Army's viewpoint prevailed.
Physically, Japan made an imposing target, distant from other landmasses and with very few beaches geographically suitable for sea-borne invasion. Only Kyūshū (the southernmost island of Japan) and the beaches of the Kantō Plain (both southwest and southeast of Tokyo) were realistic invasion zones. The Allies decided to launch a two-stage invasion. Operation Olympic would attack southern Kyūshū. Airbases would be established, which would give cover for Operation Coronet, the attack on Tokyo Bay.
Assumptions
While the geography of Japan was known, the U.S. military planners had to estimate the defending forces that they would face. Based on intelligence available early in 1945, their assumptions included the following:
"That operations in this area will be opposed not only by the available organized military forces of the Empire, but also by a fanatically hostile population."
"That approximately three (3) hostile divisions will be disposed in Southern KYUSHU and an additional three (3) in Northern KYUSHU at initiation of the OLYMPIC operation."
"That total hostile forces committed against KYUSHU operations will not exceed eight (8) to ten (10) divisions and that this level will be speedily attained."
"That approximately twenty-one (21) hostile divisions, including depot divisions, will be on HONSHU at the initiation of [Coronet] and that fourteen (14) of these divisions may be employed in the KANTO PLAIN area."
"That the enemy may withdraw his land-based air forces to the Asiatic Mainland for protection from our neutralizing attacks. That under such circumstances he can possibly amass from 2,000 to 2,500 planes in that area by exercising a rigid economy, and that this force can operate against KYUSHU landings by staging through homeland fields."
Olympic
Operation Olympic, the invasion of Kyūshū, was to begin on "X-Day", which was scheduled for 1 November 1945. The combined Allied naval armada would have been the largest ever assembled, including 42 aircraft carriers, 24 battleships, and 400 destroyers and destroyer escorts. Fourteen U.S. divisions and a "division-equivalent" (two regimental combat teams) were scheduled to take part in the initial landings. Using Okinawa as a staging base, the objective would have been to seize the southern portion of Kyūshū. This area would then be used as a further staging point to attack Honshu in Operation Coronet.
Olympic was also to include a deception plan, known as Operation Pastel. Pastel was designed to convince the Japanese that the Joint Chiefs had rejected the notion of a direct invasion and instead were going to attempt to encircle and bombard Japan. This would require capturing bases in Formosa, along the Chinese coast, and in the Yellow Sea area.
Tactical air support was to be the responsibility of the Fifth, Seventh, and Thirteenth Air Forces. These were responsible for attacking Japanese airfields and transportation arteries on Kyushu and Southern Honshu (e.g. the Kanmon Tunnel) and for gaining and maintaining air superiority over the beaches. The task of strategic bombing fell on the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific (USASTAF)—a formation which comprised the Eighth and Twentieth air forces, as well as the British Tiger Force. USASTAF and Tiger Force were to remain active through Operation Coronet. The Twentieth Air Force was to have continued its role as the main Allied strategic bomber force used against the Japanese home islands, operating from airfields in the Mariana Islands. Following the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, plans were also made to transfer some of the heavy bomber groups of the veteran Eighth Air Force to airbases on Okinawa to conduct strategic bombing raids in coordination with the Twentieth. The Eighth was to upgrade their B-17 Flying Fortresses and B-24 Liberators to B-29 Superfortresses (the group received its first B-29 on 8 August 1945).
Before the main invasion, the offshore islands of Tanegashima, Yakushima, and the Koshikijima Islands were to be taken, starting on X-5. The invasion of Okinawa had demonstrated the value of establishing secure anchorages close at hand, for ships not needed off the landing beaches and for ships damaged by air attack.
Kyūshū was to be invaded by the Sixth United States Army at three points: Miyazaki, Ariake, and Kushikino. If a clock were drawn on a map of Kyūshū, these points would roughly correspond to 4, 5, and 7 o'clock, respectively. The 35 landing beaches were all named for automobiles: Austin, Buick, Cadillac, and so on through to Stutz, Winton, and Zephyr. With one corps assigned to each landing, the invasion planners assumed that the Americans would outnumber the Japanese by roughly three to one. In early 1945, Miyazaki was virtually undefended, while Ariake, with its good nearby harbor, was heavily defended.
The invasion was not intended to conquer the entire island, just the southernmost third of it, as indicated by the dashed line on the map labeled "general limit of northern advance". Southern Kyūshū would offer a staging ground and a valuable airbase for Operation Coronet.
After the name Operation Olympic was compromised by being sent out in unsecured code, the name Operation Majestic was adopted.
Coronet
Operation Coronet, the invasion of Honshu at the Kantō Plain south of the capital, was to begin on "Y-Day", which was tentatively scheduled for 1 March 1946. Coronet would have been even larger than Olympic, with up to 45 U.S. divisions assigned for both the initial landing and follow-up. (The Overlord invasion of Normandy, by comparison, deployed 12 divisions in the initial landings.) In the initial stage, the First Army would have invaded at Kujūkuri Beach, on the Bōsō Peninsula, while the Eighth Army invaded at Hiratsuka, on Sagami Bay; these armies would have comprised 25 divisions between them. Later, a follow-up force of up to 20 additional U.S. divisions and up to 5 or more British Commonwealth divisions would have landed as reinforcements. The Allied forces would then have driven north and inland, encircling Tokyo and pressing on toward Nagano.
Redeployment
Olympic was to be mounted with resources already present in the Pacific, including the British Pacific Fleet, a Commonwealth formation that included at least eighteen aircraft carriers (providing 25% of the Allied air power) and four battleships.
Tiger Force, a joint Commonwealth long-range heavy bomber unit, was to be transferred from RAF, RAAF, RCAF and RNZAF units and personnel serving with RAF Bomber Command in Europe. In 1944, early planning proposed a force of 500–1,000 aircraft, including units dedicated to aerial refueling. Planning was later scaled back to 22 squadrons and, by the time the war ended, to 10 squadrons: between 120 and 150 Avro Lancasters/Lincolns, operating out of airbases on Okinawa. Tiger Force was to have included the elite 617 Squadron, also known as "The Dambusters", which carried out specialist bombing operations.
Initially, US planners also did not plan to use any non-US Allied ground forces in Operation Downfall. Had reinforcements been needed at an early stage of Olympic, they would have been diverted from US forces being assembled for Coronet—for which there was to be a massive redeployment of units from the US Army's Southwest Pacific, China-Burma-India and European commands, among others. These would have included spearheads of the war in Europe such as the US First Army (15 divisions) and the Eighth Air Force. These redeployments would have been complicated by the simultaneous demobilization and replacement of highly experienced, time-served personnel, which would have drastically reduced the combat effectiveness of many units. The Australian government had asked at an early stage for the inclusion of an Australian Army infantry division in the first wave (Olympic). This was rejected by U.S. commanders and even the initial plans for Coronet, according to U.S. historian John Ray Skates, did not envisage that units from Commonwealth or other Allied armies would be landed on the Kantō Plain in 1946. The first official "plans indicated that assault, followup, and reserve units would all come from US forces".
By mid-1945—when plans for Coronet were being reworked—many other Allied countries had, according to Skates, "offered ground forces, and a debate developed" amongst Western Allied political and military leaders, "over the size, mission, equipment, and support of these contingents". Following negotiations, it was decided that Coronet would include a joint Commonwealth Corps, made up of infantry divisions from the Australian, British and Canadian armies. Reinforcements would have been available from those countries, as well as other parts of the Commonwealth. However, MacArthur blocked proposals to include an Indian Army division because of differences in language, organization, composition, equipment, training and doctrine. He also recommended that the corps be organized along the lines of a U.S. corps, should use only U.S. equipment and logistics, and should train in the U.S. for six months before deployment; these suggestions were accepted. The British Government suggested that: Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Keightley should command the Commonwealth Corps, a combined Commonwealth fleet should be led by Vice-Admiral Sir William Tennant, and that—as Commonwealth air units would be dominated by the RAAF – the Air Officer Commanding should be Australian. However, the Australian government questioned the appointment of an officer with no experience in fighting the Japanese, such as Keightley and suggested that Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead, an Australian who had been carrying out the New Guinea and Borneo campaigns, should be appointed. The war ended before the details of the corps were finalized.
Projected initial commitment
Figures for Coronet exclude values for both the immediate strategic reserve of 3 divisions as well as the 17 division strategic reserve in the U.S. and any British/Commonwealth forces.
Operation Ketsugō
Meanwhile, the Japanese had their own plans. Initially, they were concerned about an invasion during the summer of 1945. However, the Battle of Okinawa went on for so long that they concluded the Allies would not be able to launch another operation before the typhoon season, during which the weather would be too risky for amphibious operations. Japanese intelligence predicted fairly closely where the invasion would take place: southern Kyūshū at Miyazaki, Ariake Bay and/or the Satsuma Peninsula.
While Japan no longer had a realistic prospect of winning the war, Japan's leaders believed they could make the cost of invading and occupying the Home Islands too high for the Allies to accept, which would lead to some sort of armistice rather than total defeat. The Japanese plan for defeating the invasion was called ("Operation Codename Decisive"). The Japanese planned to commit the entire population of Japan to resisting the invasion, and from June 1945 onward, a propaganda campaign calling for "The Glorious Death of One Hundred Million" commenced. The main message of "The Glorious Death of One Hundred Million" campaign was that it was "glorious to die for the holy emperor of Japan, and every Japanese man, woman, and child should die for the Emperor when the Allies arrived". While this was not realistic, both American and Japanese officers at the time predicted a Japanese death toll in the millions. From the Battle of Saipan onward, Japanese propaganda intensified the glory of patriotic death and depicted the Americans as merciless "white devils". During the Battle of Okinawa, Japanese officers had ordered civilians unable to fight to commit suicide rather than fall into American hands, and all available evidence suggests the same orders would have been given in the home islands. The Japanese were secretly constructing an underground headquarters in Matsushiro, Nagano Prefecture, to shelter the Emperor and the Imperial General Staff during an invasion. In planning for Operation Ketsugo, IGHQ overestimated the strength of the invading forces: while the Allied invasion plan called for fewer than 70 divisions, the Japanese expected up to 90.
Kamikaze
Admiral Matome Ugaki was recalled to Japan in February 1945 and given command of the Fifth Air Fleet on Kyūshū. The Fifth Air Fleet was assigned the task of kamikaze attacks against ships involved in the invasion of Okinawa, Operation Ten-Go, and began training pilots and assembling aircraft for the defense of Kyūshū, the first invasion target.
The Japanese defense relied heavily on kamikaze planes. In addition to fighters and bombers, they reassigned almost all of their trainers for the mission. More than 10,000 aircraft were ready for use in July (with more by October), as well as hundreds of newly built small suicide boats to attack Allied ships offshore.
Up to 2,000 kamikaze planes launched attacks during the Battle of Okinawa, achieving approximately one hit per nine attacks. At Kyūshū, because of the more favorable circumstances (such as terrain that would reduce the Allies' radar advantage), they hoped to raise that to one for six by overwhelming the US defenses with large numbers of kamikaze attacks within a period of hours. The Japanese estimated that the planes would sink more than 400 ships; since they were training the pilots to target transports rather than carriers and destroyers, the casualties would be disproportionately greater than at Okinawa. One staff study estimated that the kamikazes could destroy a third to half of the invasion force before landing.
Admiral Ernest King, the C-in-C of the U.S Navy, was so concerned about losses from kamikaze attacks that he and other senior naval officers argued for canceling Operation Downfall, and instead continuing the fire-bombing campaign against Japanese cities and the blockade of food and supplies until the Japanese surrendered. However, General George Marshall argued that forcing surrender this way might take several years, if ever. Accordingly, Marshall and United States Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox concluded the Americans would have to invade Japan to end the war, regardless of casualties.
Naval forces
Despite the shattering damage it had absorbed by this stage of the war, the Imperial Japanese Navy, by then organized under the Navy General Command, was determined to inflict as much damage on the Allies as possible. Remaining major warships numbered four battleships (all damaged), five damaged aircraft carriers, two cruisers, 23 destroyers, and 46 submarines. However, the IJN lacked enough fuel for further sorties by its capital ships, planning instead to use their anti-aircraft firepower to defend naval installations while docked in port. Despite its inability to conduct large-scale fleet operations, the IJN still maintained a fleet of thousands of warplanes and possessed nearly 2 million personnel in the Home Islands, ensuring it a large role in the coming defensive operation.
In addition, Japan had about 100 Kōryū-class midget submarines, 300 smaller Kairyū-class midget submarines, 120 Kaiten manned torpedoes, and 2,412 Shin'yō suicide motorboats. Unlike the larger ships, these, together with the destroyers and fleet submarines, were expected to see extensive action defending the shores, with a view to destroying about 60 Allied transports.
The Navy trained a unit of frogmen to serve as suicide bombers, the Fukuryu. They were to be armed with contact-fuzed mines, and to dive under landing craft and blow them up. An inventory of mines was anchored to the sea bottom off each potential invasion beach for their use by the suicide divers, with up to 10,000 mines planned. Some 1,200 suicide divers had been trained before the Japanese surrender.
Ground forces
The two defensive options against amphibious invasion are strong defense of the beaches and defense in depth. Early in the war (such as at Tarawa), the Japanese employed strong defenses on the beaches with little or no manpower in reserve, but this tactic proved vulnerable to pre-invasion shore bombardment. Later at Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa, they switched strategies and dug in their forces in the most defensible terrain.
For the defense of Kyūshū, the Japanese took an intermediate posture, with the bulk of their defensive forces a few kilometers inland, back far enough to avoid complete exposure to naval bombardment, but close enough that the Americans could not establish a secure foothold before engaging them. The counteroffensive forces were still farther back, prepared to move against the largest landing.
In March 1945, there was only one combat division in Kyūshū. Over the next four months, the Imperial Japanese Army transferred forces from Manchuria, Korea, and northern Japan, while raising other forces in place. By August, they had 14 divisions and various smaller formations, including three tank brigades, for a total of 900,000 men. Although the Japanese were able to muster new soldiers, equipping them was more difficult. By August, the Japanese Army had the equivalent of 65 divisions in the homeland but only enough equipment for 40 and ammunition for 30.
The Japanese did not formally decide to stake everything on the outcome of the Battle of Kyūshū, but they concentrated their assets to such a degree that there would be little left in reserve. By one estimate, the forces in Kyūshū had 40% of all the ammunition in the Home Islands.
In addition, the Japanese had organized the Volunteer Fighting Corps, which included all healthy men aged 15 to 60 and women 17 to 40 for a total of 28 million people, for combat support and, later, combat jobs. Weapons, training and uniforms were generally lacking: many were armed with nothing better than antiquated firearms, molotov cocktails, longbows, swords, knives, bamboo or wooden spears, and even clubs and truncheons: they were expected to make do with what they had. One mobilized high school girl, Yukiko Kasai, found herself issued an awl and told, "Even killing one American soldier will do. ... You must aim for the abdomen." They were expected to serve as a "second defense line" during the Allied invasion, and to conduct guerrilla warfare in urban areas and mountains.
The Japanese command intended to organize its Army personnel according to the following plan:
Total mobilized: 3,150,000
Kyushu – 900,000
Kanto (Tokyo) – 950,000
Korea – 247,000
For the Decisive Battle
Kyushu – 990,000
Kanto – 1,280,000
Allied re-evaluation of Operation Olympic
Air threat
US military intelligence initially estimated the number of Japanese aircraft to be around 2,500. The Okinawa experience was bad for the US—almost two fatalities and a similar number wounded per sortie—and Kyūshū was likely to be worse. To attack the ships off Okinawa, Japanese planes had to fly long distances over open water; to attack the ships off Kyūshū, they could fly overland and then short distances out to the landing fleets. Gradually, intelligence learned that the Japanese were devoting all their aircraft to the kamikaze mission and taking effective measures to conserve them until the battle. An Army estimate in May was 3,391 planes; in June, 4,862; in August, 5,911. A July Navy estimate, abandoning any distinction between training and combat aircraft, was 8,750; in August, 10,290. By the time the war ended, the Japanese actually possessed some 12,700 aircraft in the Home Islands, roughly half kamikazes.
Allied counter-kamikaze preparations were known as the Big Blue Blanket. This involved adding more fighter squadrons to the carriers in place of torpedo and dive bombers, and converting B-17s into airborne radar pickets in a manner similar to present-day AWACS. Nimitz planned a pre-invasion feint, sending a fleet to the invasion beaches a couple of weeks before the real invasion, to lure out the Japanese on their one-way flights, who would then find ships bristling with anti-aircraft guns instead of the valuable, vulnerable transports.
The main defense against Japanese air attacks would have come from the massive fighter forces being assembled in the Ryukyu Islands. The US Army Fifth and Seventh Air Forces and US Marine air units had moved into the islands immediately after the invasion, and air strength had been increasing in preparation for the all-out assault on Japan. In preparation for the invasion, an air campaign against Japanese airfields and transportation arteries had commenced before the Japanese surrender.
Ground threat
Through April, May, and June, Allied intelligence followed the buildup of Japanese ground forces, including five divisions added to Kyūshū, with great interest, but also some complacency, still projecting that in November the total for Kyūshū would be about 350,000 servicemen. That changed in July, with the discovery of four new divisions and indications of more to come. By August, the count was up to 600,000, and Magic cryptanalysis had identified nine divisions in southern Kyūshū—three times the expected number and still a serious underestimate of the actual Japanese strength.
Estimated troop strength in early July was 350,000, rising to 545,000 in early August.
By the time of surrender, the Japanese had over 735,000 military personnel either in position or in various stages of deployment on Kyushu alone. The total strength of the Japanese military in the Home Islands amounted to 4,335,500, of whom 2,372,700 were in the Army and 1,962,800 in the Navy. The buildup of Japanese troops on Kyūshū led American war planners, most importantly General George Marshall, to consider drastic changes to Olympic, or replacing it with a different invasion plan.
Chemical weapons
Fears of "an Okinawa from one end of Japan to the other" encouraged the Allies to consider unconventional weapons, including chemical warfare. Widespread chemical warfare was planned against Japan's population and food crops, and chemical weapons were stockpiled in the Marianas. Due to several factors, including its predictable wind patterns, Japan was particularly vulnerable to gas attacks. Gas attacks would also neutralize the Japanese tendency to fight from poorly ventilated caves.
While large quantities of gas munitions were manufactured and plans were drawn, it is unlikely they would have been used. Richard B. Frank states that when the proposal reached Truman in June 1945, he vetoed the use of chemical weapons against personnel; their use against crops, however, remained under consideration. According to Edward J. Drea, the strategic use of chemical weapons on a massive scale was not seriously studied or proposed by any senior American leader; rather, they debated the tactical use of chemical weapons against pockets of Japanese resistance.
Although chemical warfare had been outlawed by the Geneva Protocol, neither the United States nor Japan was a signatory at the time. While the US had promised never to initiate gas warfare, Japan had used gas against the Chinese earlier in the war.
In addition to use against people, the U.S. military considered chemical attacks to kill crops in an attempt to starve the Japanese into submission. The Army began experimenting with compounds to destroy crops in April 1944, and within one year had narrowed over 1,000 agents to nine promising ones containing phenoxyacetic acids. One compound designated LN-8 performed best in tests and went into mass production. Dropping or spraying the herbicide was deemed most effective; a July 1945 test from an SPD Mark 2 bomb, originally crafted to hold biological weapons like anthrax or ricin, had the shell burst open in the air to scatter the chemical agent. By the time the war ended, the Army was still trying to determine the optimal dispersal height to cover a wide enough area. The ingredients in LN-8 and another tested compound would later be used to create Agent Orange, used during the Vietnam War.
Nuclear weapons
On Marshall's orders, Major General John E. Hull looked into the tactical use of nuclear weapons for the invasion of the Japanese home islands, even after the dropping of two strategic atomic bombs on Japan (Marshall did not think that the Japanese would capitulate immediately). Colonel Lyle E. Seeman reported that at least seven Fat Man-type plutonium implosion bombs would be available by X-Day, which could be dropped on defending forces. Seeman advised that American troops not enter an area hit by a bomb for "at least 48 hours"; the risk of nuclear fallout was not well understood, and such a short time after detonation would have exposed American troops to substantial radiation.
Ken Nichols, the District Engineer of the Manhattan Engineer District, wrote that at the beginning of August 1945, "[p]lanning for the invasion of the main Japanese home islands had reached its final stages, and if the landings actually took place, we might supply about fifteen atomic bombs to support the troops." An air burst above the ground had been chosen for the (Hiroshima) bomb to achieve maximum blast effects, and to minimize residual radiation on the ground, as it was hoped that American troops would soon occupy the city.
Alternative targets
The Joint Staff planners, taking note of the extent to which the Japanese had concentrated on Kyūshū at the expense of the rest of Japan, considered alternate places to invade such as the island of Shikoku, northern Honshu at Sendai, or Ominato. They also considered skipping the preliminary invasion and going directly at Tokyo. Attacking northern Honshu would have the advantage of a much weaker defense but had the disadvantage of giving up land-based air support (except the B-29s) from Okinawa.
Prospects for Olympic
General Douglas MacArthur dismissed any need to change his plans:
However, Admiral Ernest King, Chief of Naval Operations, was prepared to oppose proceeding with the invasion, with Admiral Nimitz's concurrence, which would have set off a major dispute within the US government.
Soviet intentions
Unknown to the Americans, the Soviet Union also considered invading a major Japanese island, Hokkaido, by the end of August 1945, which would have put pressure on the Allies to act sooner than November.
In the early years of World War II, the Soviets had planned on building a huge navy to catch up with the Western world. However, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 forced the suspension of this plan: the Soviets had to divert most of their resources to fighting the Germans and their allies, primarily on land, throughout most of the war, leaving their navy relatively poorly equipped. As a result, in Project Hula (1945), the United States transferred about 100 naval vessels out of the 180 planned to the Soviet Union in preparation for the planned Soviet entry into the war against Japan. The transferred vessels included amphibious assault ships.
At the Yalta Conference (February 1945), the Allies had agreed that the Soviet Union would take the southern part of the island of Sakhalin, which Russia had ceded to Japan in the Treaty of Portsmouth after the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War (the Soviets already controlled the northern part), and the Kuril Islands, which had been assigned to Japan in the 1875 Treaty of St. Petersburg. On the other hand, no agreement envisaged Soviet participation in the invasion of Japan itself.
The Japanese had kamikaze aircraft in southern Honshu and Kyushu which would have opposed operations Olympic and Coronet. It is unknown to what extent they could have opposed Soviet landings in the far north of Japan. For comparative purposes, about 1,300 Western Allied ships deployed during the Battle of Okinawa (April–June 1945). In total, 368 ships, including 120 amphibious craft, were badly damaged, and another 28, including 15 landing ships and 12 destroyers, were sunk, mostly by kamikazes. The Soviets, however, had fewer than 400 ships, most of them not equipped for amphibious assault, when they declared war on Japan on 8 August 1945.
For Operation Downfall, the US military envisaged requiring more than 30 divisions for a successful invasion of the Japanese home islands. In comparison, the Soviet Union had about 11 divisions available, comparable to the 14 divisions the US that estimated it would require to invade southern Kyushu. The Soviet invasion of the Kuril Islands (18 August – 1 September 1945) took place after Japan's capitulation on 15 August. However, the Japanese forces in those islands resisted quite fiercely although some of them proved unwilling to fight after Japan's surrender on 15 August. In the Battle of Shumshu (18–23 August 1945), the Soviet Red Army had 8,821 troops that were not supported by tanks and without back-up from larger warships. The well-established Japanese garrison had 8,500 troops and fielded about 77 tanks. The battle lasted one day, with minor combat actions going on for four more after the official surrender of Japan and the garrison, during which the attacking Soviet forces lost over 516 troops and five of the 16 landing ships (many of these formerly belonged to the US Navy and were later given to the Soviet Union) to Japanese coastal artillery, and the Japanese lost over 256 troops. Soviet casualties during the Battle of Shumshu totaled up to 1,567, and the Japanese suffered 1,018 casualties, making Shumshu the only battle in the 1945 Soviet–Japanese War in which Soviet losses exceeded those of the Japanese, in stark contrast to overall Soviet-Japanese casualty rates in land-based fighting in Manchuria.
During World War II, the Japanese had a naval base at Paramushiro in the Kuril Islands and several bases in Hokkaido. Since Japan and the Soviet Union maintained a state of wary neutrality until the Soviet declaration of war on Japan in August 1945, Japanese observers based in Japanese-held territories in Manchuria, Korea, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands constantly watched the port of Vladivostok and other seaports in the Soviet Union.
According to Thomas B. Allen and Norman Polmar, the Soviets had carefully drawn up detailed plans for the Far East invasions, except that the landing for Hokkaido "existed in detail" only in Stalin's mind and that it was "unlikely that Stalin had interests in taking Manchuria and even taking on Hokkaido. Even if he wanted to grab as much territory in Asia as possible, he was too much focused on establishing a beachhead in Europe more so than Asia."
Estimated casualties
Because the U.S. military planners assumed "that operations in this area will be opposed not only by the available organized military forces of the Empire, but also by a fanatically hostile population", high casualties were thought to be inevitable, but nobody knew with certainty how high. Several estimates were made, but varied widely in numbers, assumptions and purposes, which included advocating and opposing the invasion. The estimated casualty figures later became a crucial point in postwar debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
On 15 January 1945, the U.S. Army Service Forces released a document, "Redeployment of the United States Army after the Defeat of Germany." In it, they estimate that during the 18 month period after June 1945 (that is, through December 1946), the Army would be required to furnish replacements for 43,000 dead and evacuated wounded every month. From analysis of the replacement schedule and projected strengths in overseas theaters, it suggested that Army losses alone in those categories, excluding the Navy and Marine Corps, would be approximately 863,000 through the first part of 1947, of whom 267,000 would be killed or missing. This likewise excludes wounded who would be treated in-theater during an initial window of 30 days, later to be expanded to 120 days.
In preparation for Operation Olympic, the invasion of southern Kyushu, various figures and organizations made casualty estimates based on the terrain, strength, and disposition of known Japanese forces. However, as reported Japanese strength in the Home Islands continued to climb and Japanese military performance increased, so too did the casualty estimates. In April 1945, the Joint Chiefs of Staff formally adopted a planning paper giving a range of possible casualties based on experience in both Europe and the Pacific. These ranged from 0.42 dead and missing and 2.16 total casualties per 1000 men per day under the "European Experience" to 1.95 dead and missing and 7.45 total casualties per 1000 men per day under the "Pacific Experience." This assessment included neither casualties suffered after the 90-day mark (US planners envisioned switching to the tactical defensive by X+120), nor personnel losses at sea from Japanese air attacks. In order to sustain the campaign on Kyushu, planners estimated a replacement stream of 100,000 men per month would be necessary, a figure achievable even after the partial demobilization following the defeat of Germany. As time went on, other US leaders made estimates of their own:
In a letter to General Curtis LeMay when LeMay assumed command of the B-29 force on Guam, General Lauris Norstad told LeMay that if an invasion took place, it would cost the US "half a million" dead.
In May, Admiral Nimitz's staff estimated 49,000 U.S casualties in the first 30 days of Operation Olympic, including 5,000 at sea.
A study done by General MacArthur's staff in June estimated 23,000 US casualties in the first 30 days of Olympic and 125,000 after 120 days, fighting an assumed Japanese force of 300,000 (in actuality some 917,000 Japanese troops were on Kyushu,). When these figures were questioned by General Marshall, MacArthur submitted a revised estimate of 105,000, in part by deducting wounded men able to return to duty.
In a conference with President Truman on June 18, Marshall, taking the Battle of Luzon as the best model for Olympic, thought the Americans would suffer 31,000 casualties in the first 30 days and ultimately 20% of Japanese casualties, which he estimated would include the entire Japanese force. This implied a total of 70,000 American casualties in the battle of Kyushu using the June projection of 350,000 Japanese defenders. Admiral Leahy, more impressed by the Battle of Okinawa, thought the American forces would suffer a 35% casualty rate (implying an ultimate toll of 268,000). Admiral King thought that casualties in the first 30 days would fall between Luzon and Okinawa, i.e., between 31,000 and 41,000. Of these estimates, only Nimitz's included losses of the forces at sea, though kamikazes had inflicted 1.78 fatalities and a similar number of wounded per kamikaze pilot in the Battle of Okinawa, and troop transports off Kyūshū would have been much more exposed.
In July MacArthur's Intelligence Chief, Maj. Gen. Charles A. Willoughby, warned of between 210,000 and 280,000 battle casualties in the push to the "stop line" one-third of the way up Kyushu. Even when rounded down to a conservative 200,000, this figure implied a total of nearly 500,000 all-causes losses, of whom perhaps 50,000 might return to duty after light to moderate care.
The US Sixth Army, the formation tasked with carrying out the major land fighting on Kyushu, estimated a figure of 394,859 casualties serious enough to be permanently removed from unit roll calls during the first 120 days on Kyushu, barely enough to avoid outstripping the planned replacement stream.
Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson stated "We shall in my opinion have to go through an even more bitter finish fight than in Germany. We shall incur the losses incident to such a war and we shall leave the Japanese islands even more thoroughly destroyed than was the case with Germany." From D-Day to V-E Day, the Western Allies alone suffered some 766,294 casualties.
A study done for Secretary of War Henry Stimson's staff by William Shockley estimated that invading Japan would cost 1.7–4 million American casualties, including 400,000–800,000 fatalities, and five to ten million Japanese fatalities. The key assumption was large-scale participation by civilians in the defense of Japan.
Japanese military directives ordered the execution of all POWs being held if Japan was ever invaded. Towards the end of the war about 100,000 Allied prisoners were in Japanese custody.
Outside the government, well-informed civilians were also making guesses. Kyle Palmer, war correspondent for the Los Angeles Times, said half a million to a million Americans would die by the end of the war. Herbert Hoover, in memorandums submitted to Truman and Stimson, also estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 fatalities, which were believed to be conservative estimates; however, it is not known if Hoover discussed these specific figures in his meetings with Truman. The Chief of the Army Operations Division thought them "entirely too high" under "our present plan of campaign."
The Battle of Okinawa was one of the bloodiest in the Pacific, with an estimated total of over 82,000 direct casualties on both sides: 14,009 Allied deaths and 77,417 Japanese soldiers.
Allied grave registration forces counted 110,071 dead bodies of Japanese soldiers, but this included conscripted Okinawans wearing Japanese uniforms. 149,425 Okinawans were killed, committed suicide or went missing, which was one-half of the estimated pre-war local population of 300,000.
The Battle resulted in 72,000 US casualties in 82 days, of whom 12,510 were killed or missing (this figure excludes the several thousand US soldiers who died after the battle indirectly, from their wounds). The entire island of Okinawa is . If the US casualty rate during the invasion of Japan had been only 5% as high per unit area as it was at Okinawa, the US would still have lost 297,000 soldiers (killed or missing).
In evaluating these estimates, especially those based on projected Japanese troop strength (such as General MacArthur's), it is important to consider what was known about the state of Japanese defenses at the time, as well as the actual condition of those defenses (MacArthur's staff believed Japanese manpower on Kyushu to be roughly 300,000). Nearly 500,000 Purple Heart medals (awarded for combat casualties) were manufactured in anticipation of the casualties resulting from the invasion of Japan; the number exceeded that of all American military casualties of the 65 years following the end of World War II, including the Korean and Vietnam Wars. In 2003, there were still 120,000 of these Purple Heart medals in stock. There were so many left that combat units in Iraq and Afghanistan were able to keep Purple Hearts on hand for immediate award to soldiers wounded in the field.
Available equipment for defenders
Following the surrender and demobilization of Japan, vast amounts of war matériel were turned over to the US occupation forces in the Japanese Home Islands and South Korea. While some totals (particularly for items such as swords and small arms) may be inexact because of the problems of collection and the activities of the black market, the amount of military equipment available to the Japanese in and around the Home Islands by August 1945 was roughly as follows:
See also
1945 – Alternate history novel by Robert Conroy depicting Operation Downfall
The Burning Mountain – Alternate history novel by Alfred Coppel depicting the operation in the wake of a failed Manhattan Project
Operation Sea Lion – The planned German invasion of the United Kingdom
Operation Majestic
Operation Unthinkable
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Allen, Thomas B., "Operation Downfall". Houghton Mifflin Reader's Companion to Military History.
Bauer, K. Jack, "Operation Downfall: Olympic, Coronet; World War II in the Pacific, The Invasion of Japan". ww2pacific.com.
.
Hoyt, Austin, American Experience: Victory in the Pacific; PBS documentary.
Japanese Monograph No. 23, "Waiting for the invasion" (notes on Japanese preparations for an American invasion)
Pearlman, Michael D., "Unconditional Surrender, Demobilization, and the Atomic Bomb"; Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1996.
.
Japan campaign
World War II operations and battles of the Pacific theatre
Cancelled invasions
Operation Downfall
Cancelled military operations of World War II
Cancelled military operations involving the United States
Cancelled military operations involving the United Kingdom
United States Marine Corps in World War II
Military operations of World War II | [
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|
252882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwinstowe | Edwinstowe | Edwinstowe is a large village and civil parish in the Newark and Sherwood district of Nottinghamshire, England, on the edge of Sherwood Forest. It is associated with the legends of Robin Hood and Maid Marian and known for the proximity of the former Thoresby Colliery. The civil parish population at the 2011 census was 5,188. A 2019 estimate put it at 5,261.
Heritage
The etymology of the village name, "Edwin's resting place", recalls that the body of Edwin of Northumbria, King and Saint, was hidden in the church after he was killed in the Battle of Hatfield Chase, near Doncaster, probably in AD 633. The battle against King Penda of Mercia occurred near the present-day hamlet of Cuckney, some five miles north-west of modern Edwinstowe.
Edwinstowe is referred to twice in the Domesday Book as having five households, in addition to a priest and his four bordars, living in the hamlet in 1086.
Legend has it that Robin Hood married Maid Marian in St Mary's Church. Edwinstowe is known for the presence near the village of the Major Oak, a feature in the folk tales of Robin Hood, and Robin Hood's Larder.
Edwinstowe by the turn of the 20th century consisted of a cluster of houses along Town Street, East Lane, Church Street and High Street. A hamlet called Hazel Grove was bordered by Mill Lane and the railway line, while a cluster of houses at the top of Rufford Road was another hamlet called Lidgett. Lidgett was the site of a fireworks factory owned by F. Tudsbury and Co. before George Pinder, a local wine, spirit and porter merchant who resided at Lidgett House, took over ownership by 1886. These settlements eventually merged due to infills from World War I, much of it housing for colliers and named after the largest area.
Economy
Thoresby Colliery served as Edwinstowe's main source of employment until July 2015, when the mine was permanently closed. The loss of one of the last remaining deep coal mines in the country has left tourism as the main factor in the local economy.
Nottinghamshire County Council's nearby Sherwood Forest Visitors' Centre is scheduled for redevelopment and improvement. A contract awarded to RSPB intended for completion by late 2017 had a projected cost of £5.3 million.
Centre Parcs' Sherwood Forest holiday village is a local employer established in 1987, close to the edge of the village.
There was a post windmill south of the Mansfield Road with a small box-style roundhouse. It was driven by two common and two double-patent windmill sails.
Amenities
The two schools in the village are St Mary's Primary School and King Edwin Primary School. The former Rufford School on the north side of the village closed in 2003 and has become residential housing by Barratt Developments, known as Friars Park. A skate park on the development proved controversial with concerns over noise and anti-social behaviour.
The village has a business services provider, a St John's Ambulance amenity, an antiques centre, workshops, a fun park, a youth hostel, two arts and crafts centres, a village hall, and a community pest-control centre. Leisure facilities include Thoresby Colliery Band and Youth Band, a high-wire forest adventure course, a mountain biking, cyclo cross and forest walks centre, a forest fun park, and an outdoor adventure park. It still has five pubs: the Black Swan, the Dukeries Lodge, Forest Lodge, Hammer and Wedge, and the Royal Oak. Other caterers include Smoke & Ice, Bistro Balsamico, The Cottage Tea Rooms, Fables Coffee House, The Honey Pot Cafe and Launay's Restaurant.
Environmental concerns are addressed under the Maun Valley Project Conservation Area.
Transport
Edwinstowe railway station functioned between 1897 and 1955. A goods line remains. The nearest passenger railway stations are at Mansfield Woodhouse and Mansfield, both about from Edwinstowe.
The village is served by half-hourly daytime Monday–Saturday bus services to Mansfield and Ollerton, six buses a day Monday–Saturday to Worksop, and one bus a day Monday–Friday to Nottingham. Services run twice a week to Newark and once a week to Lincoln.
Notable people
In order of birth:
King Edwin of Northumbria c. 586–632/633) gave his name to the village.
The legendary Robin Hood is said to have married Maid Marian here.
John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle (1662–1711), politician and landowner, was born here.
E. Cobham Brewer (1810–1897), lexicographer, died at the vicarage, where his son-in-law was the vicar.
Henry Morley (1852–1924), first-class cricketer, was born and died here.
Fanny Jean Turing (1864–1934), politician and activist, was probably born in the village, where her father was vicar.
Fred Kitchen (1890–1969), countryside writer and autobiographer, was born here.
Francis Woodhead (1912–1991), first-class cricketer, was born here.
Philip Brett (1937–2002), musicologist and conductor, was born here.
Brendan Clarke-Smith (born 1980), Member of Parliament for Bassetlaw, was living in the village in December 2019.
References
External links
Edwinstowe Parish Council, residents' and visitors' site
Edwinstowe Historical Society
GeoHack Edwinstowe
Villages in Nottinghamshire
Civil parishes in Nottinghamshire
Newark and Sherwood
Robin Hood | [
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|
252883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasper%20County | Jasper County | Jasper County is the name of eight counties in the United States of America. All are named in honor of Sergeant William Jasper, a hero of the Revolutionary War. Five counties share a boundary with a Newton County, named for John Newton, a similarly distinguished soldier. Two have their county seat named Newton.
The following counties are called Jasper County:
Lists of counties of the United States
United States county name disambiguation pages | [
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252884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20Thunder | Minnesota Thunder | Minnesota Thunder was an American professional soccer team based in Minnesota, United States. Founded in 1990, the team played in the USL First Division (USL-1), the second tier of the American Soccer Pyramid, until 2009. The team played its home games at the National Sports Center in nearby Blaine, Minnesota for its final two seasons. The team's colors were navy blue, light blue, silver, and white.
The team had a development team, Rochester Thunder, which independently played in USL Premier Development League for another season after the Thunder folded, and a sister organization, the Minnesota Lightning, which played in the women's USL W-League.
History
Before the Thunder
Prior to the Minnesota Thunder forming in 1990 Minnesota had two former professional soccer teams. After two seasons as the Denver Dynamos the franchise was purchased by Minnesota investors and became the Minnesota Kicks. The Minnesota Kicks played the state's first professional soccer game in May 1976 to a crowd of over 20,000 at Metropolitan Stadium. The team survived for six seasons competing in the North American Soccer League before folding after the 1981 season. After two years without a team the Fort Lauderdale Strikers were moved to Minnesota becoming the Minnesota Strikers in 1984. The team played one season in the NASL before transferring to the Major Indoor Soccer League. The team disbanded in 1988 after the 1987–1988 season.
Independent era (1990–1993)
The team was founded as an all star team in 1990. The team was composed of top amateur and former professional players who were mostly in their late 20s or early 30s. The team was coached by then Saint Paul Academy soccer coach Buzz Lagos. The team scheduled five exhibition games against teams in the A-League. At the time the goal was to eventually get a semipro soccer team for the Twin Cities.
The Thunder operated on a budget of $35,000 in their first year paying no salaries. The budget mainly supported stadium rental at the National Sports Center, office rental and promotions. In the first season the team played against the amateur Madison 56ers, professional San Francisco Bay Blackhawks and Winnipeg Fury and the indoor professional Chicago Power and Milwaukee Wave. Attendance averaged around 1,000 fans a game.
In the first season the team lost around $12,000. The next year, 1991, with the help of corporate sponsors Rainbow Foods, Kemps, and Liberty State Bank, the team played an expanded schedule with a record of eight victories and three ties losing $10,000 in the process. The following year the team added four more corporate sponsors and expected to lose about $5,000 with a budget of $45,000 By their third season the team became a model for teams in Chicago, Milwaukee, Madison, and Canada due to their competitive schedule, reasonable budget and fan base. As an amateur team, the Thunder was responsible for an opponent's hotel, food and lodging for each road trip. The team was undefeated through their first twenty games.
Buzz Lagos era (1994–2005)
On November 13, 1993 the Thunder announced its intention to join the U.S. Interregional Soccer League. The team joined the Midwest Region and retained their amateur status for the 1994 season. The team finished the year 25–2 losing in a sudden-death shootout to the Greensboro Dynamo in the championship game. The team became professional for the 1995 season.
On July 15, 2004 coach Buzz Lagos earned his 300th victory. It was his 123rd since the Thunder joined the A-League in 1997. Lagos improved his record to 300–127–31 all-time as coach of the Thunder. Five days later Lagos led the Thunder to their first victory over a MLS team in a nonexhibtion game. The Thunder defeated the Los Angeles Galaxy in fourth round U.S. Open Cup game played to 5,505 fans at the Metrodome. The 2004 season holds the highest average attendance with 4,400 over 14 home games.
The 2005 season brought many changes to the Thunder. The Thunder's A-League and the lower Pro Soccer League were reorganized. The Thunder were placed in the twelve team First Division which previously had sixteen teams. Additionally, the team was sold to an ownership led by majority owner Saeed Kadkhodaian. These changes led to Buzz Lagos announcing on August 1, 2005 that he would retire as coach after sixteen season. Lagos cited wanting to spend more time with his family as the main reason to retiring. On October 12, 2005 Amos Magee became the second head coach in the history of the Thunder. The Thunder also purchased a W-League team in 2005. The team was eventually named the Minnesota Lightning in 2006 before their opening season. 2005 was the only season the Thunder turned a profit, making $6,000 which was immediately paid in taxes to the state of Minnesota.
The Thunder defeated four MLS teams over the course of the 2004 and 2005 U.S. Open Cup competitions.
Final years (2005–2009)
Beginning in August 2007 the team spent $400,000 on a beer garden called the Thunder Lounge and started the Minnesota Thunder Academy. The team also founded the Rochester Thunder in the Premier Development League.
In November 2009 the Thunder announced their intent to leave the USL First Division to become the co-founders of a new North American Soccer League.
Minnesota's participation in this new league was, however, not to be. In early November 2009 they released all players from their contracts, partly in response to heavy debts and unpaid bills, including wages. The organization was operating with a skeleton staff of 3 people as they tried to reorganize in their final days.
In January 2010, the National Sports Center announced the formation of a new club, the NSC Minnesota Stars that functioned as a replacement for the Thunder.
Colors and badge
A new logo using the colors of navy blue, light blue, and silver was unveiled for the 2008 season. The identity was designed by the Minneapolis design firm Capsule.
The previous Thunder badge incorporated the logo of a capital 'T' and an active soccer ball on a shield reading "Minnesota Thunder". When on the team uniform, it also is adorned atop by a gold star commemorating the 1999 championship season.
The initial Thunder crest was a soccer ball with a thunderbolt crossing it followed by the text "Minnesota Thunder."
When the team became a professional organization, a new logo was created, consisting of an image of the state of Minnesota background with a soccer ball and thunderbolt imposed upon it.
In 2002, the Thunder undertook a marketing re-branding endeavor, where a new logo was created consisting of a soccer ball with movement lines and a T below the words of team's name.
In 2006, a new navy and gold "shield" logo was created by the Minneapolis design firm CAPSULE.
The official mascot of the Minnesota Thunder was Thor.
Stadiums
National Sports Center; Blaine, Minnesota (1990–2003, 2008–2009)
James Griffin Stadium; St. Paul, Minnesota (2004–2007)
Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome; Minneapolis, Minnesota 2 games (2004–2005)
Macalester Stadium at Macalester College; St. Paul, Minnesota 1 game (2004)
Stadium at Stillwater High School; Oak Park Heights, Minnesota 1 game (2004)
The Thunder's first home field was the National Sports Center in Blaine, Minnesota where they played until 2003. In 2003 the Thunder wanted to reduce the number of home games played at the National Sports Center to seven. The Minnesota Amateur Sports Commission which owns the National Sports Center was not comfortable with the idea so the Thunder decided to look elsewhere. Their three-year lease expired in 2003 leaving them open to search for other facilities for 2004. At the time revenue from the Thunder accounted for less than one percent of the National Sports Center's total revenue. Barclay Kruse, the associate director of the Minnesota Amateur Sports Commission described the situation as, "The best way to describe it is that we're disappointed."
In 2004 the Thunder played home matches at James Griffin Stadium, also known as "The Jimmy", in St Paul. The move to this stadium in central Saint Paul was made in an attempt to reduce overhead costs and market to a more urban and ethnic crowd. According to then president and general manager Jim Froslid some of the deciding were being on a bus line (mass transit does not go to Blaine) and being accessible to the ethnic community.
Fan surveys indicated that they would attend more games if the Thunder played in a more central location.
On May 12, 2008, they returned to the National Sports Center with a lease until 2011. At the time the Thunder was the only team in the USL to not play in a soccer specific stadium and the only team that played on with painted American football lines.
The Metrodome was occasionally used as a home field. Macalester Stadium at Macalester College in St. Paul was also used for games in the past. While playing at the National Sports Center the Thunder traditionally played several games a year in other locations notably Macalester College or Eastview High School in Apple Valley.
Supporters
There was a group of active fans loosely grouped under the name The Dark Clouds. The supporters would typically tailgate before the game and during halftime, sit behind the opposing bench during games, stand and chant throughout the game, and occasionally travel with the team on road games. For the 2009 season an additional supporters section was added in the North End of the stadium adjacent to the new beer garden. This section was dubbed, "Stand Du Nord" and is home to additional supporters groups including The Dale Weiler Fan Club and The Damagers.
Players
Final roster
Hall of Fame
The following people have been inducted into the Minnesota Thunder Hall of Fame:
Tony Pesznecker Inducted 1996
Tony Sanneh Inducted 1996
Manuel Lagos Inducted 1996
John Swallen Inducted 2002
Gerard Lagos Inducted 2002
Tom Engstrom Inducted 2003
Don Gramenz Inducted 2004
Buzz Lagos Inducted 2005
Amos Magee Inducted 2005
Bill George Inducted 2006
Year-by-year
Honors
USL A-League
Winners (1): 1999
Runners-up (3): 1998, 2000, 2003
Midwest Division Champions (1): 1994*
Midwest East Division Champions (1): 1995*
Central Division Champions (2): 1999, 2000
U.S. Open Cup
Semifinals (1): 2005
Quarterfinals (1): 2004
USISL Sizzling Nine Championship
Runners-up (2): 1994, 1995
Head coaches
Buzz Lagos (1990–2005)
Amos Magee (2006–2008)
Don Gramenz (2008–2009)
References
External links
Official homepage
Supporters' homepage
Dan's Soccer Zone, history of Minnesota soccer
Sports in Blaine, Minnesota
Soccer clubs in Minneapolis–Saint Paul
Defunct soccer clubs in Minnesota
Association football clubs established in 1990
A-League (1995–2004) teams
Former USL First Division teams
Association football clubs disestablished in 2009
1990 establishments in Minnesota
2009 disestablishments in Minnesota
Soccer clubs in Minnesota | [
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|
252885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy%20Blues%20%28album%29 | Navy Blues (album) | Navy Blues is the fourth studio album by Canadian rock band Sloan. Released on Murderecords in 1998, the album is slightly heavier than their two previous albums, showing an influence from 1970s rock mixed with their usual catchy, melodic, Beatles-esque sound. The album contains arguably their most popular song, "Money City Maniacs," which went on to be used in a beer commercial at the time. The song also became a top 10 hit in the band's native Canada and received heavy radio airplay. Navy Blues was certified Gold in Canada on June 12, 1998. By October 1998, the album had sold more than 70,000 copies. The album was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 1999 Juno Awards.
The album's cover art is a very direct copy of the movie poster for the 1959 Polish film Night Train (Polish: Pociąg).
Track listing
All songs credited to Sloan.
Japanese Bonus Tracks
B-sides
"Keep on Thinkin' (acoustic)" ("She Says What She Means" promo)
Trivia
"She Says What She Means" was the last song recorded for the album. Chris Murphy wanted to make a hard rock song because he was jealous of Patrick Pentland's rock songs "Money City Maniacs" and "Iggy and Angus".
Murphy took the title of his song "Chester the Molester" from a name of a character in a Hustler magazine that his cousins used to call him. Murphy was reminded of the name by Mark Gaudet, the drummer from the Canadian band Elevator To Hell.
The lyrics for "I'm Not Through With You Yet" were the original lyrics for "Worried Now" from Sloan's 1994 album, Twice Removed. Pentland originally titled the song with the words "Cotton Picking" because of its supposed "Southern feel", but changed it out of fear that it might be taken as racist.
References
1998 albums
Sloan (band) albums
Murderecords albums | [
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|
252886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnston | Johnston | Johnston may refer to the surname Johnston or people with that name. It may also refer to:
Places
Johnston Atoll, in the central Pacific Ocean
Johnston, Pembrokeshire, Wales, United Kingdom
Johnston railway station, serves the village of Johnston in Pembrokeshire, Wales
Johnston, Northern Territory, Australia
Canada
Johnston Parish, New Brunswick
United States
Johnston, Iowa
Johnston, Pennsylvania
Johnston, Rhode Island
Johnston, South Carolina
Johnston County, North Carolina
Johnston County, Oklahoma
Port Johnston Coal Docks at Constable Hook
Schools
Johnston High School, Johnston, Iowa
A.S. Johnston High School, Austin, Texas
Other uses
Johnston (typeface), the typeface used on the London Underground
Johnston Press, a newspaper publishing company in the UK
Johnston Model D1918 machine gun
USS Johnston, two ships named in honor of United States Navy officer Johnston
See also
The Johnstons, Irish band
Johnston McCulley (1883–1958), American writer best known as the creator of Zorro
Johnstone
Johnstone (surname)
Johnson
Johnstown (disambiguation)
Edward Johnston, English calligrapher | [
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|
252887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho%20I%20of%20Portugal | Sancho I of Portugal | Sancho I (), nicknamed "the Populator" (), King of Portugal (Coimbra, 11 November 115426 March 1211) was the second but only surviving legitimate son and fifth child of Afonso I of Portugal by his wife, Maud of Savoy. Sancho succeeded his father and was crowned in Coimbra when he was 31 years old on 9 December 1185. He used the title King of Silves from 1189 until he lost the territory to Almohad control in 1191.
Early life
Sancho was baptized with the name Martin (Martinho) since he was born on the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours. On 15 August 1170, he was knighted by his father, King Afonso I, and from then on he became his second in command, both administratively and militarily. At this time, the independence of Portugal (declared in 1139) was not firmly established. The kings of León and Castile were trying to re-annex the country and the Roman Catholic Church was late in giving its blessing and approval. Due to this situation Afonso I had to search for allies within the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal made an alliance with the Crown of Aragon and together they fought Castile and León. To secure the agreement, Sancho married Dulce, younger sister of King Alfonso II of Aragon, in 1174. Aragon was thus the first Iberian kingdom to recognize the independence of Portugal.
Succession
With the death of Afonso I in 1185, Sancho I became the second king of Portugal. Coimbra was the centre of his kingdom; Sancho terminated the exhausting and generally pointless wars against his neighbours for control of the Galician borderlands. Instead, he turned all his attentions to the south, towards the Moorish small kingdoms (called taifas) that still thrived. With Crusader help he took Silves in 1188. Silves was an important city of the South, an administrative and commercial town with population estimates around 20,000 people. Sancho ordered the fortification of the city and built a castle which is today an important monument of Portuguese heritage. At the time he also styled himself "By the Grace of God, King of Portugal and Silves (Dei Gratiæ, Rex Portugalliæ et Silbis).
However, military attention soon had to be turned again to the North, where León and Castile threatened again the Portuguese borders. Silves was again lost to the Moors in 1191.
Legacy
Sancho I dedicated much of his reign to political and administrative organization of the new kingdom. He accumulated a national treasure, supported new industries and the middle class of merchants. Moreover, he created several new towns and villages (like Guarda in 1199) and took great care in populating remote areas in the northern Christian regions of Portugal – hence the nickname "the Populator". The king was also known for his love of knowledge and literature. Sancho I wrote several books of poems and used the royal treasure to send Portuguese students to European universities. He died in Coimbra, aged 56.
Marriage and issue
Sancho married Dulce of Aragon, daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona and Petronilla, Queen of Aragon. Eleven children were born from this marriage, nine of whom reached adulthood:
Theresa (1175/117618 June 1250), she became the wife of King Alfonso IX of León and was beatified in 1705;
Sancha (118013 March 1229), founded the Monastery of Celas near Coimbra where she lived until her death. Her sister Theresa arranged for her burial at the Monastery of Lorvão. She was beatified by Pope Clement XI in 1705, the same year as Theresa;
Constanza (May 1182before 1186 or August 1202). According to Rodrigues Oliveira, she must have died before 1186 since her name is not registered in any of the documents of the chancellery of Sancho I which begins in that year"; However, the necrology of São Salvador de Moreira records the death "III Nonas Augusti" in 1202 of "Domna Constantia Infantula filia regis domni Sancii et reginæ domnæ Dulciæ".
Afonso (23 April 118625 March 1223), succeeded his father as the third king of Portugal;
Raymond (1187/889 March bef. 1188/89), who died in infancy;
Peter (23 February 11872 June 1258), spouse of Aurembiaix, countess of Urgell;
Ferdinand (24 March 118827 July 1233), count through his marriage to Joan, Countess of Flanders;
Henry (aft. March 11898 Dec aft. 1189), who died during infancy;
Mafalda (1195/11961 May 1256), the wife of Henry I of Castile, was beatified in 1793;
Branca (119817 November 1240), probably the twin sister of Berengaria, was raised in the court with her father and his mistress "a Ribeirinha" and, when she was eight or ten years old, was sent to live with her sisters at the Monastery of Lorvão. She was a nun at a convent in Guadalajara and was buried at the same monastery as her mother;
Berengaria (119827 March 1221), probably the twin sister of Branca, married Valdemar II of Denmark in 1214.
Children out of wedlock
With Maria Aires de Fornelos, daughter of Aires Nunes de Fornelos and Maior Pais, who was buried at the Monastery of Santo Tirso in accordance with her last will, Sancho had two children, both born before his marriage to Dulce of Aragon:
Martim Sanches (born before 1175) Count of Trastámara. Martim married Elo Pérez de Castro, daughter of Pedro Fernández de Castro, with no issue from this marriage;
Urraca Sanches (born before 1175), was married to Lourenço Soares, son of Soeiro Viegas and Sancha Bermúdez de Traba.
After Dulce's death, he had an affair with María Pais de Ribeira "a Ribeiriña" for whom he is often said to have written and dedicated a cantiga de amigo, A Ribeirinha, composed in 1199, the oldest text known in Portuguese poetry. That is contested nowadays by the Portuguese historian António de Resende Oliveira, who claims this cantiga was composed by Alfonso X of Castile or perhaps Sancho II of Portugal. At least six children were born of this relationship:
Rodrigo Sanches (died 1245), had a bastard son with Constança Afonso de Cambra called Afonso Rodrigues, a Franciscan friar and the "Guardian of the Convent of Lisbon";
Gil Sanches (died on 14 September 1236), a cleric and troubadour, his father left him 8,000 morabetinos in his will. Gil granted fueros to the settlers of Sardezas in 1213;
Nuno Sanches, he died in his childhood on a 16 December in an unknown year. He could have been the son of Maria Aires de Fornelos;
Maior Sanches, also died at an early age on 27 August of an unknown year;
Teresa Sanches, her father left her 7,000 morabetinos in his will. She was the second wife of Alfonso Téllez de Meneses whom she married before 1220 and with whom she had issue;
Constança Sanches (12048 August 1269). Her father left her 7,000 morabetinos in his will. She was the godmother of her grand-niece Infanta Sancha and left her half of Vila do Conde, Avelaneda, Pousadela, Parada and Maçãs. She also owned estates in Torres Vedras.
Sancho had a son with Maria Moniz de Ribeira, daughter of Munio Osorio, tenente of the comarca of Cabreira and Ribera,and of Maria Nunes of Grijó,:
Pedro Moniz, who married a woman whose name is not recorded, and was the father of Maria Peres de Cabreira, the wife of Martim Peres Machado, the first to use the last name Machado.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Portuguese infantes
12th-century Portuguese poets
Portuguese male poets
House of Burgundy-Portugal
1154 births
1211 deaths
People of the Reconquista
People from Coimbra
12th-century Portuguese monarchs
13th-century Portuguese monarchs
Portuguese people of Spanish descent
Portuguese people of French descent | [
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|
252891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho%20II%20of%20Portugal | Sancho II of Portugal | Sancho II (; 8 September 1209 – 4 January 1248), nicknamed the Cowled or the Capuched (), alternatively, the Pious (), was King of Portugal from 1223 to 1248. He was succeeded on the Portuguese throne by his brother, King Afonso III, in 1248.
Sancho was born in Coimbra, the eldest son of Afonso II of Portugal by his wife, Urraca of Castile.
Military career and reign
By the time of his accession to the throne, in 1223, Portugal was embroiled in a difficult diplomatic conflict with the Catholic Church. His father, Afonso II, had been excommunicated by Pope Honorius III, for his attempts at reducing the Church's power within the country. A treaty of 10 articles was signed between the Pope and Sancho II, but the king paid little attention to its fulfillment. His priority was the Reconquista, the reconquest of the southern Iberian Peninsula from the Moors. From 1236 onwards, Sancho II conquered several cities in the Algarve and Alentejo, securing the Portuguese position in the region.
Dispossession from throne
Sancho II proved a capable commander but, with regard to equally important administrative issues, he was less competent. With his total attention focused on military campaigns, the ground was open for internal disputes. The nobility was displeased by the king's conduct and started to conspire against him. Moreover, the middle class of merchants quarrelled frequently with the clergy, without any intervention from the king. As a result, the bishop of Porto made a formal complaint to the pope about this state of affairs. Since the Church was the dominant power of the 13th century, Pope Innocent IV felt free to issue bull Grandi non immerito, ordering the Portuguese to choose a new king to replace the so-called heretic.
In 1246, recalcitrant nobles invited Sancho's brother Afonso, Count of Boulogne, to take the throne. Afonso immediately abdicated from his French possessions and marched into Portugal.
Exile and death
After a civil war lasting from late 1245 to mid 1247 and a Castilian intervention by the Castilian heir, Prince Alfonso, he fled in exile to Toledo, Spain when Alfonso retreated his forces to support his father in the siege of Seville. It was in the former city where he died on 4 January 1248 and was buried in its cathedral.
Marriage
Sancho married, circa 1240, a Castilian lady, Mécia Lopes de Haro, widow of Alvaro Peres de Castro, and daughter of Lope Díaz II de Haro and Urraca Alfonso de León, an illegitimate daughter of Alfonso IX of León, but they had no legitimate sons.
References
Portuguese infantes
House of Burgundy-Portugal
Medieval child rulers
1209 births
1248 deaths
People of the Reconquista
People from Coimbra
13th-century Portuguese monarchs | [
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252892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USL%20First%20Division | USL First Division | The United Soccer Leagues First Division (usually referred to as USL-1) was a professional men's soccer league in the United States and Canada from 2005 to 2010.
During its existence, it formed the second tier of soccer in the United States soccer league system behind Major League Soccer. It was operated by United Soccer League (USL) and the successor of the A-League, which existed from 1997 until 2004.
Several teams left the league in 2009 to form the new North American Soccer League, with the intent of running their own second-tier league. Following a brief legal dispute, the two leagues operated in tandem under United States Soccer Federation (USSF) mediation as the USSF Division 2 Professional League in 2010 before the split became final. The teams that remained in the First Division were merged with the USL Second Division in 2011 to form USL Pro.
History
When the A-League became the USL First Division in 2005, the league comprised 12 teams: Atlanta Silverbacks, Charleston Battery, Minnesota Thunder, Montreal Impact, Portland Timbers, Puerto Rico Islanders, Richmond Kickers, Rochester Raging Rhinos, Seattle Sounders, Toronto Lynx, Vancouver Whitecaps, and Virginia Beach Mariners. The Calgary Mustangs, Edmonton Aviators, and Syracuse Salty Dogs, all of whom competed in the final A-League season in 2004, folded during the offseason, and did not take up their places in the new league.
The Seattle Sounders won the inaugural USL1 championship, beating Richard on penalty kicks in the championship game after a 1–1 tie in regulation time. The Vancouver Whitecaps won the first of their two USL1 titles in 2006 by beating the Rochester Raging Rhinos 3-0 in the championship game, while Seattle won their second title in 2007 by overcoming the Atlanta Silverbacks in a one-sided 4-0 final. Vancouver won their second USL1 championship in 2008 by beating the Puerto Rico Islanders 2-1 in the first USL1 final to feature no American teams; the championship went north of the border again in 2009 when Montreal Impact won their first USL1 title, beating Vancouver 6–3 on aggregate over two legs in the first all-Canadian affair.
On August 27, 2009, Nike agreed to sell its stake in the United Soccer Leagues (USL) to Rob Hoskins and Alec Papadakis of Atlanta-based NuRock Soccer Holdings, instead of to the USL Team Owner's Association (TOA), a group comprising the owners of several USL First Division clubs. In the months that followed, several prominent TOA members began to voice their concerns about the state of the league in general, its management structure and ownership model, the leadership of USL president Francisco Marcos, and about the sale of the league to NuRock, which the TOA felt was counter-productive and detrimental to the development of the league. Within several weeks, a number of TOA member clubs threatened to break away from USL and start their own league; this break away became official on November 10, 2009, when the majority of USL-1 clubs, as well as one of the expected 2010 expansion franchises, applied to the United States Soccer Federation, the Canadian Soccer Association, and FIFA for approval to create a new North American Soccer League, reducing the league's membership to just three teams.
After lawsuits were filed and heated press statements exchanged, the United States Soccer Federation (USSF) declared they would sanction neither the NASL nor the USL First Division in 2010, and ordered both "camps" to work together on a plan to temporarily allow their teams to play a 2010 season. The interim solution was announced on January 7, 2010, with the USSF running the new USSF D2 Pro League comprising clubs from both USL-1 and NASL. All 12 teams from the USL First Division and the NASL competed in the USSF D2 Pro League in 2010, which was won by the Puerto Rico Islanders.
On September 8, 2010, the USL announced the formation of USL Pro which would merge the USL First Division and USL Second Division to begin play in 2011. The merger is meant to consolidate USL's position within the American professional soccer landscape and focus on commercial growth and professional development of soccer in 4 main regions throughout the U.S., Canada, and the Caribbean. The First Division was formally dissolved following the completion of the temporary season to make way for USL Pro.
Expansion and contraction
Prior to 2010, the league had a steady rate of expansion and contraction. Richmond was voluntarily relegated to the USL Second Division in 2006 to cut costs, Toronto was voluntarily relegated to the USL Premier Development League in 2007 because of MLS expansion, and on March 30, 2007 the Virginia Beach Mariners folded just prior to the start of the 2007 season due to an ownership dispute which left the team without financing. These teams were replaced by two new teams: the Carolina RailHawks from the Triangle region of North Carolina, playing out of Cary, and California Victory, a team in Northern California under the ownership of Dmitry Piterman (chairman of Spanish team Deportivo Alavés) which folded after the end of the 2007 season, having played only one season.
In November 2008, the Atlanta Silverbacks announced that they would sit out the 2009 season to "reassess the landscape," and would possibly return at a future date.
Similarly, the Seattle Sounders left prior to the 2009 season due to the imminent entrance of Seattle Sounders FC into Major League Soccer. Their spot in the league was taken by the Cleveland City Stars, who won the USL Second Division title in 2008, and voluntarily moved up to USL-1 for the 2009 season, folded at the end of the year. On December 2, 2009, Inside Minnesota Soccer reported that the USL had asked the City Stars to terminate the contracts of all the players, as the franchise was to be dissolved. Posting an email addressed to all players under contract with the Cleveland City Stars and written by team president Jonathan Ortlip and executive director Aaron Tredway, the club executives went on to accept the decision to terminate the franchise.
On June 19, 2008, an announcement was made that an expansion slot had been awarded to a Tampa Bay, Florida-based franchise led by main investors Andrew Nestor (CEO) and Hinds Howard (Chairman) of Citrus Ventures. The plan was for the club to join the league in 2010 and be named the Tampa Bay Rowdies.
Expansion rumors
Possible cities mentioned for future campaigns included Fort Lauderdale, Florida and Syracuse, New York. Syracuse had had a highly attended team in the A-League from 2002–2004, but it folded due to stadium issues, having ground-shared with the local baseball team. Fort Lauderdale also had a history of teams from the NASL, American Soccer League, and USL First Division. There was also discussion that Argentinian team River Plate is interested in putting a second USL team in Puerto Rico, as well as discussion that recent start-up team, the San Diego Flash may also join either the USL or NASL.
Prior to the 2009 NASL split several other cities had been mentioned as being locations where future USL-1 franchises might launch, including St. Louis, Missouri (led by the current USL Premier Development League (PDL) franchise St. Louis Lions); Orlando, Florida (with Mexican side Pachuca being rumored as connected to it); Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Detroit, Michigan; Hamilton, Ontario; San Antonio, Texas; and Ottawa, Ontario. On September 1, 2009, a group from Ottawa formally applied for USL-1 team, contingent on the approval of updates to Lansdowne Park. The team would share a field with the Ottawa Redblacks football team. The Ottawa group subsequently committed to the NASL.
Structure
Unlike most other nations, there is no system of merit-based promotion and relegation in the American and Canadian pyramids, meaning that the champions of USL-1 could not move up to Major League Soccer and, similarly, the worst teams in MLS were not in danger of being demoted to USL-1. However, some USL-1 teams had in the past chosen to take voluntary relegation to a lower level of the USL system, often to reduce operating costs, while teams had also decided to move up to USL-1 after finding success at the lower levels.
Playoff format
The top seven teams advanced to the playoff tournament, with the Commissioner’s Cup winner (regular season champion) receiving a bye into the semi-finals. Each round consisted of two legs, the lower seeded team hosting the first leg, and the higher seed hosting the second. Prior to 2009, the final was played as a single leg at the higher seed's stadium. After the first legs were completed, the lowest remaining seed played the Commissioner's Cup winner, and the higher seeds played each other. The highest remaining seed hosted the penultimate game of the Finals. The playoffs started the week after the completion of the regular season, and typically ended in mid-October.
Teams
Atlanta Silverbacks (2005–08)
Austin Aztex (2008–09) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League)
California Victory (2007)
Carolina RailHawks (2007–09) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League for NASL Conference)
Charleston Battery (2005–09)
Cleveland City Stars (2009)
FC Tampa Bay (2010) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League)
Miami FC (2006–09) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League for NASL Conference)
Minnesota Thunder (2005–09)
Montreal Impact (2005–09) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League for NASL Conference)
Portland Timbers (2005–10) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League)
Puerto Rico Islanders (2005–10) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League)
Richmond Kickers (2005)
Rochester Rhinos (2005–10) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League)
Seattle Sounders (2005–08)
Toronto Lynx (2005–06)
Vancouver Whitecaps (2005–09) (2010 season played in USSF D2 Pro League for NASL Conference)
Virginia Beach Mariners (2005–06)
†The Austin Aztex have been awarded a USL Pro franchise and will begin play in 2015 in that league.
See also A-League
League champions / top goal scorer
Regular season champions (Commissioner’s Cup winners)
Most successful clubs
League average attendance
All-time USL leaders
Note: includes stats from the old A-League
See also
Sports attendances
Notes
(*) Puerto Rico can qualify for the CFU Club Championship via a domestic cup competition.
References
External links
Official site
Unofficial site created for the Fans, by the Fans
Fir
Defunct soccer leagues in the United States
Defunct soccer leagues in Canada | [
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|
252896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svea | Svea | Svea is a Swedish female name and may refer to:
Places
Svea, Florida, unincorporated community, United States
Svea, Minnesota, unincorporated community, United States
Svea Township, Kittson County, Minnesota, United States
Svea Research Station, Antarctica
Sveagruva, also called Svea, a mining settlement in Svalbard, Norway
Other uses
329 Svea, a main belt asteroid
Mother Svea, the Swedish national emblem
Rederi AB Svea, a Swedish shipping company
Slowly varying envelope approximation (SVEA), a method in optics to solve the electromagnetic wave equation
Svea 123, a model of liquid-fuel stoves
Svea-class coastal defence ship, a class of three coastal defence ships for the Swedish Navy
Svea, a J-class yacht
Any of the ships named
Svea Nord, a coal mine near Sveagruva, Norway
Svea (singer), a Swedish singer
See also
Svealand, the historical core region of Sweden, in south central Sweden
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|
252898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4%20Nights%20at%20the%20Palais%20Royale | 4 Nights at the Palais Royale | 4 Nights at the Palais Royale is a live album released by the Canadian rock band Sloan in 1999. It was mostly recorded from four live shows performed at the Palais Royale in Toronto, Ontario in 1998, although some of the songs were taken from other concerts on their 1998 Navy Blues tour. The band and fans alike consider it a fairly accurate representation of a typical Sloan concert, with a mix of old and new songs and plenty of audience participation.
Track listing
Personnel
Sloan
Chris Murphy – bass guitar, drums, vocals
Andrew Scott – drums, guitar, vocals
Patrick Pentland – guitar, vocals
Jay Ferguson – guitar, vocals
Additional musicians
Ben Gunning – guitar (on "Underwhelmed")
References
Sloan (band) albums
1999 live albums
Murderecords albums | [
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|
252901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9o%20Malet | Léo Malet | Léo Malet (7 March 1909 – 3 March 1996) was a French crime novelist and surrealist.
Biography
Leo Malet was born in Montpellier. He had little formal education and began work as a cabaret singer at "La Vache Enragee" in Montmartre, Paris in 1925.
In the 1930s, he was closely aligned with the Surrealists, and was close friends with André Breton, René Magritte and Yves Tanguy, amongst others. During this time, he published several volumes of poetry.
He died in Châtillon, a little town just south of Paris where he had lived for most of his life, four days before his 87th birthday.
Works
Though he dabbled in many genres, Malet is most famous for Nestor Burma, the anti-hero of Les Nouveaux Mystères de Paris. Burma, a cynical private detective, is an astute speaker of argot (French slang), an ex-Anarchist, a serial monogamist and an inveterate pipe smoker. Of the 33 novels detailing his adventures, eighteen each take place in a sole arrondissement of Paris, in a sub-series of his exploits that Malet dubbed the "New Mysteries of Paris" quoting Eugene Sue's seminal "feuilleton". However, Malet never completed the full 20 arrondissements as he originally planned. Apart from the novels, five short stories were also published, bringing the total of Burma's adventures to 38.
The comic artist Jacques Tardi adapted some of Malet's books, much to the author's approval. Malet claimed that Tardi was the sole person to have visually understood his books. Tardi also provided cover illustrations for the Fleuve Noir editions of the novels, which were published from the 1980s onward.
Selected bibliography
120, rue de la Gare (1943)
Le cinquième procédé (1948)
Le soleil naît derrière le Louvre (1954) (First of the "New Mysteries of Paris" series)
Des kilomètres de linceuls (1955)
Fièvre au Marais (1955)
La nuit de Saint-Germain-des-Prés (1955)
M'as-tu vu en cadavre (1956)
Brouillard au pont de Tolbiac (1956)
Casse-pipe à la Nation (1957)
Micmac moche au Boul' Mich' (1957)
Nestor Burma court la poupée (1971)
Poste restante (1983)
Comic book adaptations
Brouillard au pont de Tolbiac (Casterman, 1982); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
120, rue de la Gare (Casterman, 1988); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
Une gueule de bois en plomb (Casterman, 1990); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
Casse-pipe à la Nation (Casterman, 1996); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
M'as-tu vu en cadavre ? (Casterman, 2000); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
Filmography
120, rue de la Gare, directed by Jacques Daniel-Norman (1946), with René Dary (as Nestor Burma)
La Nuit d'Austerlitz, directed by Stellio Lorenzi (TV film, 1954), with Daniel Sorano (as Nestor Burma)
The Enigma of the Folies-Bergere, directed by Jean Mitry (1959), with Bella Darvi, Frank Villard, Dora Doll
La Nuit de Saint-Germain-des-Prés, directed by Bob Swaim (1977), with Michel Galabru (as Nestor Burma)
Nestor Burma, détective de choc, directed by Jean-Luc Miesch (1982), with Michel Serrault (as Nestor Burma), Jane Birkin
Les Rats de Montsouris, directed by Maurice Frydland (TV film, 1988), with Gérard Desarthe (as Nestor Burma)
Nestor Burma (TV series, 39 episodes, 1991–2003), with Guy Marchand (as Nestor Burma)
External links
Short biography in Italian
1909 births
1996 deaths
Writers from Montpellier
French crime fiction writers
French surrealist writers
20th-century French novelists
French male novelists
20th-century French male writers | [
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|
252902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20I%20of%20Portugal | Peter I of Portugal | Peter I (Portuguese: Pedro I, ; 8 April 1320 – 18 January 1367), called the Just (o Justo) or the Cruel (o Cruel), was King of Portugal from 1357 until his death. He was the third but only surviving son of Afonso IV of Portugal and his wife, Beatrice of Castile.
Early life
In 1328, Peter's father, Afonso IV arranged for the marriage of his eldest daughter, Maria, to Alfonso XI of Castile. However, soon after their marriage Alfonso began a long affair with the beautiful and newly widowed Leonor de Guzman. Maria bore Alfonso a son in 1334, who ultimately became Peter of Castile, but after the Castilian king refused to end his affair Maria returned home to Portugal in 1335.
Alfonso had been married once before, to his cousin's daughter, Constanza Manuel (granddaughter of James II of Aragon). Alfonso had the marriage annulled in 1327, after only two years, to clear the way for marriage to Maria. This angered his cousin Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena, a powerful Castilian aristocrat, and for two years Juan Manuel waged war against the Castilians - who had kept his daughter Constanza hostage - until Bishop John del Campo of Oviedo mediated a peace in 1329.
Afonso, now enraged by the infidelity and mistreatment of his daughter Maria, forged an alliance with Juan Manual by marrying his son and heir, Peter, to Constanza. When Constanza arrived in Portugal in 1340, Inês de Castro, the beautiful and aristocratic daughter of a prominent Galician family (with links albeit through illegitimacy, to the Portuguese and Castilian royal families), accompanied her as her lady-in-waiting.
Peter soon fell in love with Inês, and the two conducted a long love affair that lasted until Inês's murder in 1355. Constanza died in 1345, weeks after giving birth to Fernando, who eventually became the first of Peter's sons to succeed him as king of Portugal. The scandal of Peter's affair with Inês, and its political ramifications, caused Afonso to banish Inês from court after Constanza died. Peter refused to marry any of the princesses his father suggested as a second wife; and the king refused to allow his son to marry Inês as Peter wanted. The two aristocratic lovers began living together in secret. According to the chronicle of Fernão Lopes, during this period, Peter began giving Inês's brothers, exiles from the Castilian court, important positions in Portugal and they became the heir-apparent's closest advisors. This alarmed Afonso. He worried that upon his death, civil war could tear the country apart, or the Portuguese throne would fall into Castilian hands, either as Juan Manuel fought to avenge his daughter's honor, or the de Castro brothers supported their sister. Peter claimed that he had married Inês against his father's orders. In any event, in 1355, Afonso sent three men to find Inês at the Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Velha in Coimbra, where she was detained, and they decapitated her in front of one of her young children. Enraged, Peter revolted against his father. Afonso defeated his son within a year, but died shortly thereafter, and Peter succeeded to the throne in 1357. The love affair and father-son conflict inspired more than twenty operas and many writers, including: the Portuguese national epic Os Lusíadas by Luís de Camões, the Spanish "Nise lastimosa" and "Nise laureada" (1577) by Jerónimo Bermúdez and 'Reinar despues de morir' by Luís Vélez de Guevara, as well as "Inez de Castro" by Mary Russell Mitford and Henry de Montherlant's French drama La Reine morte.
King of Portugal
Peter reigned for a decade, and is often confused with his Castilian nephew because of their identical nicknames. Fernão Lopes labels Peter "the Just" and said that the Portuguese king loved justice—especially the dispensing of it, which he enjoyed doing for himself. Inês' assassins received his harshest punishment: the three had escaped to Castile, but Peter arranged for them to be exchanged for Castilian fugitives residing in Portugal with his nephew, Peter of Castile. The Portuguese king conducted a public trial of Pêro Coelho and Álvaro Gonçalves in 1361. After finding them guilty of Ines' murder, the king ripped their hearts out with his own hands, according to Lopes, because of what they had done to his own heart. Diogo Lopes Pacheco escaped and died in 1383.
According to legend, Peter later had Inês' body exhumed and placed upon a throne, dressed in rich robes and jewels, and required all of his vassals to kiss the hand of the deceased "queen". However, contemporary evidence that the event occurred is minimal; Peter did have Inês' body removed from her resting place in Coimbra and taken to Alcobaça where it was reburied in the royal monastery. Peter had two tombs constructed, one for each of them, so they would see each other when rising at the Last Judgment. The tombs show Peter and Inês facing each other, with the words "Até o fim do mundo..." ("Until the end of the world...") inscribed on the marble.
Peter was also the father of Ferdinand I of Portugal and John I of Portugal. John was the Master of the military order of Avis, and he would become the founder of the Avis dynasty after the 1383–85 Crisis.
Marriage and descendants
Before his marriage to Constance, in 1329 he was betrothed to Blanche of Castile but because of her weak mental health and incapacity, the marriage never took place.
See also
Quinta das Lágrimas
References
Bibliography
Portuguese infantes
House of Burgundy-Portugal
1320 births
1367 deaths
People from Coimbra
14th-century Portuguese monarchs
People with speech impediment
Sons of kings | [
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252903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudio%20Naranjo | Claudio Naranjo | Claudio Benjamín Naranjo Cohen (24 November 1932 – 12 July 2019) was a Chilean-born psychiatrist of Arabic/Moorish, Spanish and Jewish descent who is considered a pioneer in integrating psychotherapy and the spiritual traditions. He was one of the three successors named by Fritz Perls (founder of Gestalt Therapy), a principal developer of Enneagram of Personality theories and a founder of the Seekers After Truth Institute. He was also an elder statesman of the US and global human potential movement and the spiritual renaissance of the late 20th century. He was the author of various books.
Background and education
Naranjo was born in Valparaíso, Chile. He grew up in a musical environment and after an early start at the piano he studied musical composition. Shortly after entrance to medical school, he stopped composing as he became more involved in philosophical interests. Important influences from this time were the Chilean visionary poet and sculptor Tótila Albert Schneider, the poet David Rosenmann-Taub, and the Polish philosopher Bogumił Jasinowski.
Career
After graduating as a medical doctor in 1959, Naranjo was hired by the University of Chile medical school to form part of a pioneering studies center in medical anthropology (CEAM) founded by Franz Hoffman. At the same time, he served his psychiatry residency at the University Psychiatry Clinic under the direction of Ignacio Matte Blanco.
Involved in research on the effects of traditional medical education, Naranjo traveled briefly to the United States during a mission assigned by the University of Chile to explore the field of perceptual learning. It is at that time that he became acquainted with the work of Samuel Renshaw and Hoyt Sherman at the Ohio State University.
In 1962, Naranjo was at Harvard as a visiting Fulbright scholar at the Center for Studies of Personality and Emerson Hall, where he was a participant in Gordon Allport's Social Psychology Seminar and a student of Paul Tillich. He became Raymond Cattell's associate at the Institute of Personality and Ability Testing (IPAT) in 1963. After a brief return to his native country, he was invited to Berkeley, California, for a year and a half to participate in the activities of the Institute of Personality Assessment and Research (IPAR).
After another period at the University of Chile Medical School's Center of Medical Anthropology Studies and at the Instituto de Psicología, Naranjo returned once again to Berkeley and to IPAR, where he continued his activities as a research associate. It was during this period of time that he became an apprentice of Fritz Perls and part of the early Gestalt Therapy community, where he began conducting workshops at Esalen Institute as a visiting associate. He eventually became one of Perls' three successors, along with Jack Downing and Robert Hall.
In the years that led up to his becoming a key figure at Esalen, Naranjo also received additional training and supervision from Jim Simkin in Los Angeles and attended sensory awareness workshops with Charlotte Selver. He became Carlos Castaneda's close friend and became part of Leo Zeff's pioneering psychedelic therapy group (1965–66). These meetings resulted in Naranjo’s contribution of the use of harmaline, MDA, and ibogaine.
In the 1960s, Naranjo introduced ibogaine and harmaline into psychotherapy as a "fantasy enhancing drug."
Richard Evans Schultes allowed for Naranjo to make a special journey by canoe up the Amazon River to study yage with the South American Indians. He brought back samples of this drug and published the first scientific description of the effects of its active alkaloids.
In 1969 he was sought out as a consultant for the Education Policy Research Center, created by Willis Harman at Stanford Research Institute. His report as to what in the domain of psychological and spiritual techniques in vogue was applicable to education later became his first book, The One Quest. During this same period, he co-authored a book with Robert Ornstein on meditation. Also, an invitation from Ravenna Helson to examine the qualitative differences between books representative of the "Matriarchal" and "Patriarchal" factors lead to his writing The Divine Child and the Hero, which would be published at a much later time.
The accidental death of his only son in 1970 marked a turning-point in his life. Naranjo set off on a six-month pilgrimage under the guidance of Oscar Ichazo and a spiritual retreat in the desert near Arica, Chile, which he considered the true beginning of his spiritual experience, contemplative life and inner guidance.
After leaving Arica, he began teaching a group that included his mother, Gestalt trainees and friends. This Chilean group, which began as an improvisation, took shape as a program and originated a non-profit corporation called the SAT Institute. These early years of the SAT Institute were implemented by a series of guest teachers, including Zalman Schachter, Dhiravamsa, Ch'u Fang Chu, Sri Harish Johari, and Bob Hoffman.
In 1976, Naranjo was a visiting professor at the Santa Cruz Campus of the University of California for two semesters and later intermittently at the California Institute of Asian Studies. He also began to offer workshops in Europe, refining aspects of the mosaic of approaches in the SAT program.
In 1987, he began the reborn SAT Institute in Spain for personal and professional development, with its program that includes Gestalt therapy and its supervision, applications of the Enneagram of Personality, interpersonal meditation, music as a therapeutic resource and as an extension of meditation, guided self-insight and communication processes. Since then, the SAT program has extended to Italy, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina and more recently to France and Germany.
Since the late 1980s, Naranjo had divided each year between his activities abroad and his writing at home in Berkeley. Among his many publications, he revised an early book on Gestalt therapy and published two new ones. He published three books on the Enneagram of Personality, as well as The End of Patriarchy, which is his interpretation of social problems as the expression of a devaluation of the nurturance and human instinct and their solution in the harmonious development of our "three brained" potential. He also published a book on meditation, The Way of Silence and the Talking Cure, and Songs of Enlightenment on the interpretation of the great books of the West as expressions of "the inner journey" and variations on the "tale of the hero".
From the 1990s and onward he attended many education conferences and sought to influence the transformation of the educational system in various countries. It was his conviction that “nothing is more hopeful in terms of social evolution than the collective furthering of individual wisdom, compassion and freedom”. His book Changing Education to Change the World published in Spanish in 2004, was meant to stimulate the efforts of teachers among SAT graduates who are beginning to be involved in a SAT-in- Education project, that offers the staff of schools and the students in schools of education a "supplementary curriculum" of self-knowledge, relationship-repair and spiritual culture.
In 2006 the Foundation Claudio Naranjo was founded to implement his proposals regarding the transformation of traditional education into an education that does not neglect the human development that he believed our social evolution depends on.
His most recent book (2010), Healing Civilization: Bringing Personal Transformation into the Societal Realm through Education and the Integration of the Intra-Psychic Family, is both a continuation of and a turning point in Naranjo's lifelong work. For in this book, which has a foreword by Jean Houston, Naranjo explored what he saw as the root cause of the destruction of human civilization (as evidenced in the 2000s (decade) as war, violence, oppression of women, child abuse, environmental endangerment, etc.)—patriarchy—and brought both the problem and the solution home to an intra-psychic level. Patriarchy, he said, has taken root over millennia in the workings of our own conditioned minds. He also offered a remedy, which derives from the work of Tótila Albert regarding the "triune" being of our nature: the "Inner Father" (corresponding to the head), the "Inner Mother" (corresponding to the heart), and the "Inner Child" (corresponding to the instincts). As people learn to integrate these three "brains", Naranjo believed, they may bring about a functional, even divine, family within. And this, he believed, in addition to transforming education oriented to personal and collective evolution, could bring about the healing of civilization. In the Watkins' Mind Body Spirit Magazine he was listed as one of the 100 Most Spiritually Influential Living People of 2012.
Writings
On the Psychology of Meditation (1971)
The One Quest (1972)
The Healing Journey: New Approaches to Consciousness (1973)
Enneatypes and Psychotherapy
Enneatype Structures
Character and Neurosis
The End of Patriarchy
The Enneagram of Society
The Divine Child and the Hero
The Way of Silence and the Talking Cure
Techniques of Gestalt Therapy
Gestalt Therapy
Consciousness and Creativity
Transformation Through Insight
How To Be: Meditation in Spirit and Practice (1989)
Changing Education to Change the World
Between Meditation and Psychotherapy
Healing Civilization: Bringing Personal Transformation into the Societal Realm through Education and the Integration of the Intra-Psychic Family (2011)
also published in French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish.
References
External links
Naranjo's personal website
Fundación Claudio Naranjo website
Profile of Naranjo by Ginger Lapid-Bogda
Anthropologists of religion
Chilean psychologists
Gestalt therapists
People from Valparaíso
Ibogaine activists
1932 births
2019 deaths
Psychedelic drug researchers
Chilean psychiatrists
University of Chile faculty
Harvard University alumni
Psychedelic drug advocates
Chilean Jews | [
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|
252904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Between%20the%20Bridges | Between the Bridges | Between the Bridges is the fifth album by Canadian rock band Sloan. The album was recorded in six weeks and was released in 1999 on Murderecords. The album continued the band's progression towards 1970s-influenced rock mixed with 1960s and 70s influenced pop. The album marks a pivotal move forward for the group, expanding on their influences and featured another successful single in their native Canada, "Losing California".
The album's "quick and photocopy looking" cover art was inspired by a black-and-white photo of the movie poster for the 1969 satirical comedy Putney Swope, which band member Jay Ferguson saw in a book.
Critical reception
The A.V. Club wrote that "though many dismissed the album as creatively arrested, its suite-like construction and autobiographical structure makes it Sloan's most fully realized effort." Exclaim! called the album "a pop thrill from start to finish." The Washington Post wrote that "the fact that all four musicians both write and sing gives the sound breadth, yet at no cost to cohesiveness."
Track listing
Japanese bonus tracks
B-sides
"Glad to Be Here" (Patrick Pentland/Sloan) (MuchMusic Edgefest 99 compilation)
References
1999 albums
Sloan (band) albums
Murderecords albums | [
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252905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical%20antiquity | Classical antiquity | Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 6th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which both Greek and Roman societies flourished and wielded huge influence throughout much of Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia.
Conventionally, it is taken to begin with the earliest-recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer (8th–7th-century BC), and continues through the emergence of Christianity (1st century AD) and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th-century AD). It ends with the decline of classical culture during late antiquity (250–750), a period overlapping with the Early Middle Ages (600–1000). Such a wide span of history and territory covers many disparate cultures and periods. Classical antiquity may also refer to an idealized vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poe's words, "the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome".
The culture of the ancient Greeks, together with some influences from the ancient Near East, was the basis of European art, philosophy, society, and education, until the Roman imperial period. The Romans preserved, imitated, and spread this culture over Europe, until they themselves were able to compete with it, and the classical world began to speak Latin as well as Greek.
This Greco-Roman cultural foundation has been immensely influential on the language, politics, law, educational systems, philosophy, science, warfare, poetry, historiography, ethics, rhetoric, art and architecture of the modern world. Surviving fragments of classical culture led to a revival beginning in the 14th century which later came to be known as the Renaissance, and various neo-classical revivals occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Archaic period (c. 8th to c. 6th centuries BC)
The earliest period of classical antiquity takes place against the background of gradual re-appearance of historical sources following the Bronze Age collapse. The 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely proto-historical, with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing in the first half of the 8th century. Homer is usually assumed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC, and his lifetime is often taken as marking the beginning of classical antiquity. In the same period falls the traditional date for the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games, in 776 BC.
Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Assyrians
The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean. Carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily, Italy and Sardinia, which created conflicts of interest with Etruria. A stela found in Kition, Cyprus commemorates the victory of King Sargon II in 709 BC over the seven kings of the island, marking an important step in the transfer of Cyprus from Tyrian rule to the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
Greece
The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages, and saw significant advancements in political theory, and the rise of democracy, philosophy, theatre, poetry, as well as the revitalization of the written language (which had been lost during the Dark Ages).
In pottery, the Archaic period sees the development of the Orientalizing style, which signals a shift from the Geometric style of the later Dark Ages and the accumulation of influences derived from Egypt, Phoenicia and Syria.
Pottery styles associated with the later part of the Archaic age are the black-figure pottery, which originated in Corinth during the 7th-century BC and its successor, the red-figure style, developed by the Andokides Painter in about 530 BC.
Greek colonies
Iron Age Italy
The Etruscans had established political control in the region by the late 7th-century BC, forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late 6th-century BC, and at this point, the Italic tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.
Roman Kingdom
According to legend, Rome was founded on 21 April 753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines.
Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at the Roman Forum in the mid-8th BC, though settlements on the Palatine Hill may date back to the 10th century BC.
The seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius Tullius, Superbus was of Etruscan birth. It was during his reign that the Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock, enraging the people of Rome. The people came to object to his rule when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia, a patrician Roman, at the hands of his own son. Lucretia's kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus (ancestor to Marcus Brutus), summoned the Senate and had Superbus and the monarchy expelled from Rome in 510 BC. After Superbus' expulsion, the Senate in 509 BC voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican government.
Classical Greece (5th to 4th centuries BC)
The classical period of Ancient Greece corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, in particular, from the fall of the Athenian tyranny in 510 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos. Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras.
The Greco-Persian Wars (499–449 BC), concluded by the Peace of Callias gave way not only to the liberation of Greece, Macedon, Thrace, and Ionia from Persian rule, but also resulted in giving the dominant position of Athens in the Delian League, which led to conflict with Sparta and the Peloponnesian League, resulting in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), ending in a Spartan victory.
Greece entered the 4th century under Spartan hegemony, but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers removed Lysander from office, and Sparta lost her naval supremacy. Athens, Argos, Thebes and Corinth, the latter two of which were formerly Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the Corinthian War, which ended inconclusively in 387 BC. Later, in 371 BC, the Theban generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas won a victory at the Battle of Leuctra. The result of this battle was the end of Spartan supremacy and the establishment of Theban hegemony. Thebes sought to maintain its position until it was finally eclipsed by the rising power of Macedon in 346 BC.
Under Philip II, (359–336 BC), Macedon expanded into the territory of the Paeonians, the Thracians and the Illyrians. Philip's son, Alexander the Great, (356–323 BC) managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states but also to the Persian Empire, including Egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of India. The classical period conventionally ends at the death of Alexander in 323 BC and the fragmentation of his empire, which was at this time divided among the Diadochi.
Hellenistic period (323–146 BC)
Classical Greece entered the Hellenistic period with the rise of Macedon and the conquests of Alexander the Great. Greek became the lingua franca far beyond Greece itself, and Hellenistic culture interacted with the cultures of Persia, Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah, Central Asia and Egypt. Significant advances were made in the sciences (geography, astronomy, mathematics, etc.), notably with the followers of Aristotle (Aristotelianism).
The Hellenistic period ended with the rise of the Roman Republic to a super-regional power in the 2nd century BC and the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC.
Roman Republic (5th to 1st centuries BC)
The Republican period of Ancient Rome began with the overthrow of the Monarchy c. 509 BC and lasted over 450 years until its subversion through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period. During the half millennium of the Republic, Rome rose from a regional power of the Latium to the dominant force in Italy and beyond. The unification of Italy under Roman hegemony was a gradual process, brought about in a series of conflicts of the 4th and 3rd centuries, the Samnite Wars, Latin War, and Pyrrhic War. Roman victory in the Punic Wars and Macedonian Wars established Rome as a super-regional power by the 2nd century BC, followed up by the acquisition of Greece and Asia Minor. This tremendous increase of power was accompanied by economic instability and social unrest, leading to the Catiline conspiracy, the Social War and the First Triumvirate, and finally the transformation to the Roman Empire in the latter half of the 1st century BC.
Roman Empire (1st century BC to 5th century AD)
The precise end of the Republic is disputed by modern historians; Roman citizens of the time did not recognize that the Republic had ceased to exist. The early Julio-Claudian Emperors maintained that the res publica still existed, albeit under the protection of their extraordinary powers, and would eventually return to its full Republican form. The Roman state continued to call itself a res publica as long as it continued to use Latin as its official language.
Rome acquired imperial character de facto from the 130s BC with the acquisition of Cisalpine Gaul, Illyria, Greece and Hispania, and definitely with the addition of Iudaea, Asia Minor and Gaul in the 1st century BC. At the time of the empire's maximal extension under Trajan (AD 117), Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean as well as Gaul, parts of Germania and Britannia, the Balkans, Dacia, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, and Mesopotamia.
Culturally, the Roman Empire was significantly Hellenized, but also saw the rise of syncretic "eastern" traditions, such as Mithraism, Gnosticism, and most notably Christianity.
The empire began to decline in the crisis of the third century.
While sometimes compared with classical Greece, classical Rome had vast differences within their family life. Fathers had great power over their children, and husbands over their wives. In fact, the word family, familia in Latin, actually referred to those who were under the authority of a male head of household. This included non-related members such as slaves and servants. In marriage, both men and women were loyal to one another and shared property. Divorce was first allowed starting in the first century BC and could be done by either man or woman.
Late antiquity (4th to 6th centuries AD)
Late antiquity saw the rise of Christianity under Constantine I, finally ousting the Roman imperial cult with the Theodosian decrees of 393. Successive invasions of Germanic tribes finalized the
decline of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, while the Eastern Roman Empire persisted throughout the Middle Ages, in a state called the Roman Empire by its citizens, and labeled the Byzantine Empire by later historians.
Hellenistic philosophy was succeeded by continued developments in Platonism and Epicureanism, with Neoplatonism in due course influencing the theology of the Church Fathers.
Many writers have attempted to put a specific date on the symbolic "end" of antiquity with the most prominent dates being the deposing of the last Western Roman Emperor in 476, the closing of the last Platonic Academy in Athens by the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in 529, and the conquest of much of the Mediterranean by the new Muslim faith from 634 to 718. These Muslim conquests, of Syria (637), Egypt (639), Cyprus (654), North Africa (665), Hispania (718), Southern Gaul (720), Crete (820), and Sicily (827), Malta (870) (and the sieges of the Eastern Roman capital, First Arab Siege of Constantinople (674–78) and Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717–18)) severed the economic, cultural, and political links that had traditionally united the classical cultures around the Mediterranean, ending antiquity (see Pirenne Thesis).
The original Roman Senate continued to express decrees into the late 6th century, and the last Eastern Roman emperor to use Latin as the language of his court in Constantinople was emperor Maurice, who reigned until 602. The overthrow of Maurice by his mutinying Danube army under Phocas resulted in the Slavic invasion of the Balkans and the decline of Balkan and Greek urban culture (leading to the flight of Balkan Latin speakers to the mountains, see Origin of the Romanians), and also provoked the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 in which all the great eastern cities except Constantinople were lost. The resulting turmoil did not end until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century finalized the irreversible loss of all the largest Eastern Roman imperial cities besides the capital itself. The emperor Heraclius in Constantinople, who emerged during this period, conducted his court in Greek, not Latin, though Greek had always been an administrative language of the eastern Roman regions. Eastern-Western links weakened with the ending of the Byzantine Papacy.
The Eastern Roman empire's capital city of Constantinople was left as the only unconquered large urban center of the original Roman empire, as well as being the largest city in Europe. Yet many classical books, sculptures, and technologies survived there along with classical Roman cuisine and scholarly traditions, well into the Middle Ages, when much of it was "rediscovered" by visiting Western crusaders. Indeed, the inhabitants of Constantinople continued to refer to themselves as Romans, as did their eventual conquerors in 1453, the Ottomans. (see Rûm and Romaioi.) The classical scholarship and culture that was still preserved in Constantinople were brought by refugees fleeing its conquest in 1453 and helped to spark the Renaissance (see Greek scholars in the Renaissance).
Ultimately, it was a slow, complex, and graduated change in the socio-economic structure in European history that led to the changeover between Classical antiquity and Medieval society and no specific date can truly exemplify that.
Political revivalism
In politics, the late Roman conception of the Empire as a universal state, headed by one supreme divinely-appointed ruler, united with Christianity as a universal religion likewise headed by a supreme patriarch, proved very influential, even after the disappearance of imperial authority in the west. This tendency reached its peak when Charlemagne was crowned "Roman Emperor" in the year 800, an act which led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. The notion that an emperor is a monarch who outranks a mere king dates from this period. In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman Empire, a state whose jurisdiction extended through the entire civilized western world.
That model continued to exist in Constantinople for the entirety of the Middle Ages; the Byzantine Emperor was considered the sovereign of the entire Christian world. The Patriarch of Constantinople was the Empire's highest-ranked cleric, but even he was subordinate to the Emperor, who was "God's Vicegerent on Earth". The Greek-speaking Byzantines and their descendants continued to call themselves "Romans" until the creation of a new Greek state in 1832.
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Russian Czars (a title derived from Caesar) claimed the Byzantine mantle as the champion of Orthodoxy; Moscow was described as the "Third Rome" and the Czars ruled as divinely-appointed Emperors into the 20th century.
Despite the fact that the Western Roman secular authority disappeared entirely in Europe, it still left traces. The Papacy and the Catholic Church in particular maintained Latin language, culture, and literacy for centuries; to this day the popes are called Pontifex Maximus which in the classical period was a title belonging to the Emperor, and the ideal of Christendom carried on the legacy of a united European civilization even after its political unity had disappeared.
The political idea of an Emperor in the West to match the Emperor in the East continued after the Western Roman Empire's collapse; it was revived by the coronation of Charlemagne in 800; the self-described Holy Roman Empire ruled over central Europe until 1806.
The Renaissance idea that the classical Roman virtues had been lost under medievalism was especially powerful in European politics of the 18th and 19th centuries. Reverence for Roman republicanism was strong among the Founding Fathers of the United States and the Latin American revolutionaries; the Americans described their new government as a republic (from res publica) and gave it a Senate and a President (another Latin term), rather than make use of available English terms like commonwealth or parliament.
Similarly in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, republicanism and Roman martial virtues were upheld by the state, as can be seen in the architecture of the Panthéon, the Arc de Triomphe, and the paintings of Jacques-Louis David. During the revolution, France itself followed the transition from kingdom to republic to dictatorship to Empire (complete with Imperial Eagles) that Rome had undergone centuries earlier.
Cultural legacy
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many rather disparate cultures and periods. "Classical antiquity" often refers to an idealized vision of later people, of what was, in Edgar Allan Poe's words, the glory that was Greece, the grandeur that was Rome! In the 18th and 19th centuries AD, reverence for classical antiquity was much greater in Europe and the United States than it is today. Respect for the ancient people of Greece and Rome affected politics, philosophy, sculpture, literature, theatre, education, architecture, and sexuality.
Epic poetry in Latin continued to be written and circulated well into the 19th century. John Milton and even Arthur Rimbaud received their first poetic educations in Latin. Genres like epic poetry, pastoral verse, and the endless use of characters and themes from Greek mythology left a deep mark on Western literature. In architecture, there have been several Greek Revivals, which seem more inspired in retrospect by Roman architecture than Greek. Washington, DC is filled with large marble buildings with facades made out to look like Greek temples, with columns constructed in the classical orders of architecture.
In philosophy, the efforts of St Thomas Aquinas were derived largely from the thought of Aristotle, despite the intervening change in religion from Hellenic Polytheism to Christianity. Greek and Roman authorities such as Hippocrates and Galen formed the foundation of the practice of medicine even longer than Greek thought prevailed in philosophy. In the French theater, tragedians such as Molière and Racine wrote plays on mythological or classical historical subjects and subjected them to the strict rules of the classical unities derived from Aristotle's Poetics. The desire to dance like a latter-day vision of how the ancient Greeks did it moved Isadora Duncan to create her brand of ballet.
Timeline
See also
Classical architecture
Classical tradition
Classics (Classical education)
Outline of classical studies
Outline of ancient Egypt
Outline of ancient Greece
Outline of ancient Rome
Postclassical Era (the next period)
Regions during classical antiquity
Ancient history of Cyprus
Hellenistic Greece
History of the Balkans
Roman Britain
Roman Dacia
Troy
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Grinin L. E. Early State in the Classical World: Statehood and Ancient Democracy. In Grinin L. E. et al. (eds.) Hierarchy and Power in the History of civilizations: Ancient and Medieval Cultures 9pp.31–84). Moscow: URSS, 2008. Early State in the Classical World
Further reading
Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2004. The Romans: From village to empire. New York and Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
Bugh, Glenn. R., ed. 2006. The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Burkert, Walter. 1992. The Orientalizing revolution: The Near Eastern influence on Greek culture in the early Archaic age. Translated by Margaret E. Pinder and Walter Burkert. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Erskine, Andrew, ed. 2003. A companion to the Hellenistic world. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Green, Peter. 1990. Alexander to Actium: The historical evolution of the Hellenistic age. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
Hornblower, Simon. 1983. The Greek world 479–323 BC. London and New York: Methuen.
Kallendorf, Craig W., ed. 2007. A Companion to the Classical Tradition. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Kinzl, Konrad, ed. 2006. A Companion to the Classical Greek world. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Murray, Oswyn. 1993. Early Greece. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Potter, David S. 2006. A companion to the Roman Empire. Malden, MA: Blackwell
Rhodes, Peter J. 2006. A history of the Classical Greek world: 478–323 BC. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Rosenstein, Nathan S., and Robert Morstein-Marx, eds. 2006. A companion to the Roman Republic. Oxford: Blackwell.
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|
252907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20chess | Grid chess | Grid chess is a chess variant invented by Walter Stead in 1953. It is played on a grid board. This is a normal 64-square chessboard with a grid of lines further dividing it into larger squares. A single additional rule governs Grid chess: for a move to be legal, the piece moved must cross at least one grid line.
Grid chess is also used in chess problems.
Description
Various arrangements of the grid have been tried, but the original, and by far the most popular, is that illustrated, which divides the board into sixteen 2×2 squares.
In the sample position, White can play either a3 or a4, but cannot move the b-pawn. Black cannot play ...Bd5 but can play any other bishop move – to put the bishop on d5, it will take two moves (for example, first ...Ba8, then ...Bd5). The white king is not in check from the queen, but would be, if the queen were to take a step back with ...Qe3. The white king cannot take the queen, although the white knight can. The black king, on the other hand, is in check from the rook on c8. Black cannot escape check as in standard chess with ...Ke7 or ...Kf7, as these moves do not cross a grid line. Black can play ...Kd7, however, and also ...Kd8, bringing the king into the same large square as the rook.
Example problem
It is possible to play entire games under Grid chess conditions, and a number of chess problems using Grid chess rules have also been composed. The one shown won first prize in the first Grid chess problem tournament. It is by H. Ternblad and was published in Fairy Chess Review, 1954. It is a helpmate in four (Black moves first and cooperates with White to checkmate him within four moves). The solution:
1. Ke2 Bc4+ 2. Kd3
This brings the king into the same large square as the bishop, and so escapes the check.
2... Bxb5+
Withdrawing the bishop over a grid line gives check again.
3. Ke4 Bc6+ 4. Kd5
Two kings can coexist next to each other so long as they are in the same large square.
4... Bxb7
This problem displays attractive correspondence between the paths taken by the king and bishop. It is worth noting the zigzagging path the black king must take to reach d5: the straightforward route Kd1–d2–d3–d4–d5 is not possible because two of the moves do not cross grid lines, and Kd1–e2–e3–d4–d5 is not possible because on d4 the king is checked by White's king.
References
External links
Chess Composition Microweb Grid chess problems
Grid Chess a simple program by Ed Friedlander (Java)
Chess variants
Chess problems
Fairy chess
1953 in chess
Board games introduced in 1953 | [
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|
252908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%20Exploration%20Rover | Mars Exploration Rover | NASA's Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission was a robotic space mission involving two Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, exploring the planet Mars. It began in 2003 with the launch of the two rovers to explore the Martian surface and geology; both landed on Mars at separate locations in January 2004. Both rovers far outlived their planned missions of 90 Martian solar days: MER-A Spirit was active until March 22, 2010, while MER-B Opportunity was active until June 10, 2018.
Objectives
The mission's scientific objective was to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers: the two Viking program landers in 1976 and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997.
The total cost of building, launching, landing and operating the rovers on the surface for the initial 90-sol primary mission was US$820 million. Each rover received five mission extensions, as they continued to function past their initially planned duration. The fifth mission extension was granted in October 2007, and ran to the end of 2009. The total cost of the first four mission extensions was $104 million, and the fifth mission extension cost at least $20 million.
In July 2007, during the fourth mission extension, Martian dust storms blocked sunlight to the rovers and threatened the ability of the craft to gather energy through their solar panels, causing engineers to fear that one or both of them might be permanently disabled. However, the dust storms lifted, allowing them to resume operations.
On May 1, 2009, during its fifth mission extension, Spirit became stuck in soft soil. After nearly nine months of attempts to get the rover back on track, including using test rovers on Earth, NASA announced on January 26, 2010 that Spirit was being retasked as a stationary science platform. This mode would enable Spirit to assist scientists in ways that a mobile platform could not, such as detecting "wobbles" in the planet's rotation that would indicate a liquid core. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) lost contact with Spirit after last hearing from the rover on March 22, 2010, and continued attempts to regain communications lasted until May 25, 2011, bringing the elapsed mission time to 6 years 2 months 19 days, or over 25 times the original planned mission duration.
In recognition of the vast amount of scientific information amassed by both rovers, two asteroids have been named in their honor: 37452 Spirit and 39382 Opportunity. The mission is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which designed, built, and is operating the rovers.
On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that then current studies by the remaining rover Opportunity as well as by the newer Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity would now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars was then switched to a primary NASA objective.
The scientific objectives of the Mars Exploration Rover mission were to:
Search for and characterize a variety of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity. In particular, samples sought include those that have minerals deposited by water-related processes such as precipitation, evaporation, sedimentary cementation, or hydrothermal activity.
Determine the distribution and composition of minerals, rocks, and soils surrounding the landing sites.
Determine what geologic processes have shaped the local terrain and influenced the chemistry. Such processes could include water or wind erosion, sedimentation, hydrothermal mechanisms, volcanism, and cratering.
Perform calibration and validation of surface observations made by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter instruments. This will help determine the accuracy and effectiveness of various instruments that survey Martian geology from orbit.
Search for iron-containing minerals, and to identify and quantify relative amounts of specific mineral types that contain water or were formed in water, such as iron-bearing carbonates.
Characterize the mineralogy and textures of rocks and soils to determine the processes that created them.
Search for geological clues to the environmental conditions that existed when liquid water was present.
Assess whether those environments were conducive to life.
History
The MER-A and MER-B probes were launched on June 10, 2003 and July 7, 2003, respectively. Though both probes launched on Boeing Delta II 7925-9.5 rockets from Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 17 (CCAFS SLC-17), MER-B was on the heavy version of that launch vehicle, needing the extra energy for Trans-Mars injection. The launch vehicles were integrated onto pads right next to each other, with MER-A on CCAFS SLC-17A and MER-B on CCAFS SLC-17B. The dual pads allowed for working the 15- and 21-day planetary launch periods close together; the last possible launch day for MER-A was June 19, 2003 and the first day for MER-B was June 25, 2003. NASA's Launch Services Program managed the launch of both spacecraft.
The probes landed in January 2004 in widely separated equatorial locations on Mars.
On January 21, 2004, the Deep Space Network lost contact with Spirit, for reasons originally thought to be related to a flare shower over Australia. The rover transmitted a message with no data, but later that day missed another communications session with the Mars Global Surveyor. The next day, JPL received a beep from the rover, indicating that it was in fault mode. On January 23, the flight team succeeded in making the rover send. The fault was believed to have been caused by an error in the rover's flash memory subsystem. The rover did not perform any scientific activities for ten days, while engineers updated its software and ran tests. The problem was corrected by reformatting Spirit flash memory and using a software patch to avoid memory overload; Opportunity was also upgraded with the patch as a precaution. Spirit returned to full scientific operations by February 5.
On March 23, 2004, a news conference was held announcing "major discoveries" of evidence of past liquid water on the Martian surface. A delegation of scientists showed pictures and data revealing a stratified pattern and cross bedding in the rocks of the outcrop inside a crater in Meridiani Planum, landing site of MER-B, Opportunity. This suggested that water once flowed in the region. The irregular distribution of chlorine and bromine also suggests that the place was once the shoreline of a salty sea, now evaporated.
Mission extensions
On April 8, 2004, NASA announced that it was extending the mission life of the rovers from three to eight months. It immediately provided additional funding of US$15 million through September, and $2.8 million per month for continuing operations. Later that month, Opportunity arrived at Endurance crater, taking about five days to drive the 200 meters. NASA announced on September 22 that it was extending the mission life of the rovers for another six months. Opportunity was to leave Endurance crater, visit its discarded heat shield, and proceed to Victoria crater. Spirit was to attempt to climb to the top of the Columbia Hills.
With the two rovers still functioning well, NASA later announced another 18-month extension of the mission to September 2006. Opportunity was to visit the "Etched Terrain" and Spirit was to climb a rocky slope toward the top of Husband Hill. On August 21, 2005, Spirit reached the summit of Husband Hill after 581 sols and a journey of .
Spirit celebrated its one Martian year anniversary (669 sols or 687 Earth days) on November 20, 2005. Opportunity celebrated its anniversary on December 12, 2005. At the beginning of the mission, it was expected that the rovers would not survive much longer than 90 Martian days. The Columbia Hills were "just a dream", according to rover driver Chris Leger. Spirit explored the semicircular rock formation known as Home Plate. It is a layered rock outcrop that puzzles and excites scientists. It is thought that its rocks are explosive volcanic deposits, though other possibilities exist, including impact deposits or sediment borne by wind or water.
Spirit's front right wheel ceased working on March 13, 2006, while the rover was moving itself to McCool Hill. Its drivers attempted to drag the dead wheel behind Spirit, but this only worked until reaching an impassable sandy area on the lower slopes. Drivers directed Spirit to a smaller sloped feature, dubbed "Low Ridge Haven", where it spent the long Martian winter, waiting for spring and increased solar power levels suitable for driving. That September, Opportunity reached the rim of Victoria crater, and Spaceflight Now reported that NASA had extended mission for the two rovers through September 2007. On February 6, 2007, Opportunity became the first spacecraft to traverse on the surface of Mars.
Opportunity was poised to enter Victoria Crater from its perch on the rim of Duck Bay on June 28, 2007, but due to extensive dust storms, it was delayed until the dust had cleared and power returned to safe levels. Two months later, Spirit and Opportunity resumed driving after hunkering down during raging dust storms that limited solar power to a level that nearly caused the permanent failure of both rovers.
On October 1, 2007, both Spirit and Opportunity entered their fifth mission extension that extended operations into 2009, allowing the rovers to have spent five years exploring the Martian surface, pending their continued survival.
On August 26, 2008, Opportunity began its three-day climb out of Victoria crater amidst concerns that power spikes, similar to those seen on Spirit before the failure of its right-front wheel, might prevent it from ever being able to leave the crater if a wheel failed. Project scientist Bruce Banerdt also said, "We've done everything we entered Victoria Crater to do and more." Opportunity will return to the plains in order to characterize Meridiani Planum's vast diversity of rocks—some of which may have been blasted out of craters such as Victoria. The rover had been exploring Victoria Crater since September 11, 2007. As of January 2009, the two rovers had collectively sent back 250,000 images and traveled over .
After driving about since it left Victoria crater, Opportunity first saw the rim of Endeavour crater on March 7, 2009. It passed the mark along the way on sol 1897. Meanwhile, at Gusev crater, Spirit was dug in deep into the Martian sand, much as Opportunity was at Purgatory Dune in 2005.
In November 2009, Washington University in St. Louis Professor Raymond Arvidson was named deputy principal investigator for the MER Mission.
2010 onwards
On January 3 and 24, 2010, Spirit and Opportunity respectively marked six years on Mars. On January 26, NASA announced that Spirit will be used as a stationary research platform after several months of unsuccessful attempts to free the rover from soft sand.
NASA announced on March 24, 2010, that Opportunity, which has an estimated remaining drive distance of 12 km to Endeavour Crater, has traveled over 20 km since the start of its mission. Each rover was designed with a mission driving distance goal of just 600 meters. One week later, they announced that Spirit may have gone into hibernation for the Martian winter and might not wake up again for months.
On September 8, 2010, it was announced that Opportunity had reached the halfway point of the 19-kilometer journey between Victoria crater and Endeavour crater.
On May 22, 2011, NASA announced that it would cease attempts to contact Spirit, which had been stuck in a sand trap for two years. The last successful communication with the rover was on March 22, 2010. The final transmission to the rover was on May 25, 2011.
In April 2013, a photo sent back by one of the rovers became widely circulated on social networking and news sites such as Reddit that appeared to depict a human penis carved into the Martian dirt.
On May 16, 2013, NASA announced that Opportunity had driven further than any other NASA vehicle on a world other than Earth. After Opportunity's total odometry went over , the rover surpassed the total distance driven by the Apollo 17 Lunar Roving Vehicle.
On July 28, 2014, NASA announced that Opportunity had driven further than any other vehicle on a world other than Earth. Opportunity covered over , surpassing the total distance of driven by the Lunokhod 2 lunar rover, the previous record-holder.
On March 23, 2015, NASA announced that Opportunity had driven the full distance of a marathon, with a finish time of roughly 11 years, 2 months.
In June 2018, Opportunity was caught in a global-scale dust storm and the rover's solar panels were not able to generate enough power, with the last contact on June 10, 2018. NASA resumed sending commands after the dust storm subsided but the rover remained silent, possibly due to a catastrophic failure or a layer of dust covering its solar panels.
A press conference was held on February 13, 2019, that after numerous attempts to obtain contact with Opportunity with no response since June 2018, NASA declared
Opportunity mission over, which also drew the 16-year long Mars Exploration Rover mission to a close.
Spacecraft design
The Mars Exploration Rover was designed to be stowed atop a Delta II rocket. Each spacecraft consists of several components:
Rover:
Lander:
Backshell / Parachute:
Heat Shield:
Cruise Stage:
Propellant:
Instruments:
Total mass is .
Cruise stage
The cruise stage is the component of the spacecraft that is used for travel from Earth to Mars. It is very similar to the Mars Pathfinder in design and is approximately 2.65 meters (8.7 ft) in diameter and tall, including the entry vehicle (see below).
The primary structure is aluminium with an outer ring of ribs covered by the solar panels, which are about in diameter. Divided into five sections, the solar arrays can provide up to 600 watts of power near Earth and 300 W at Mars.
Heaters and multi-layer insulation keep the electronics "warm". A freon system removes heat from the flight computer and communications hardware inside the rover so they do not overheat. Cruise avionics systems allow the flight computer to interface with other electronics, such as the sun sensors, star scanner and heaters.
Navigation
The star scanner (without a backup system) and sun sensor allowed the spacecraft to know its orientation in space by analyzing the position of the Sun and other stars in relation to itself. Sometimes the craft could be slightly off course; this was expected, given the 500-million-kilometer (320 million mile) journey. Thus navigators planned up to six trajectory correction maneuvers, along with health checks.
To ensure the spacecraft arrived at Mars in the right place for its landing, two light-weight, aluminium-lined tanks carried about 31 kg (about 68 lb) of hydrazine propellant. Along with cruise guidance and control systems, the propellant allowed navigators to keep the spacecraft on course. Burns and pulse firings of the propellant allowed three types of maneuvers:
An axial burn uses pairs of thrusters to change spacecraft velocity;
A lateral burn uses two "thruster clusters" (four thrusters per cluster) to move the spacecraft "sideways" through seconds-long pulses;
Pulse mode firing uses coupled thruster pairs for spacecraft precession maneuvers (turns).
Communication
The spacecraft used a high-frequency X band radio wavelength to communicate, which allowed for less power and smaller antennas than many older craft, which used S band.
Navigators sent commands through two antennas on the cruise stage: a cruise low-gain antenna mounted inside the inner ring, and a cruise medium-gain antenna in the outer ring. The low-gain antenna was used close to Earth. It is omni-directional, so the transmission power that reached Earth fell faster with increasing distance. As the craft moved closer to Mars, the Sun and Earth moved closer in the sky as viewed from the craft, so less energy reached Earth. The spacecraft then switched to the medium-gain antenna, which directed the same amount of transmission power into a tighter beam toward Earth.
During flight, the spacecraft was spin-stabilized with a spin rate of two revolutions per minute (rpm). Periodic updates kept antennas pointed toward Earth and solar panels toward the Sun.
Aeroshell
The aeroshell maintained a protective covering for the lander during the seven-month voyage to Mars. Together with the lander and the rover, it constituted the "entry vehicle". Its main purpose was to protect the lander and the rover inside it from the intense heat of entry into the thin Martian atmosphere. It was based on the Mars Pathfinder and Mars Viking designs.
Parts
The aeroshell was made of two main parts: a heat shield and a backshell. The heat shield was flat and brownish, and protected the lander and rover during entry into the Martian atmosphere and acted as the first aerobrake for the spacecraft. The backshell was large, cone-shaped and painted white. It carried the parachute and several components used in later stages of entry, descent, and landing, including:
A parachute (stowed at the bottom of the backshell);
The backshell electronics and batteries that fire off pyrotechnic devices like separation nuts, rockets and the parachute mortar;
A Litton LN-200 Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), which monitors and reports the orientation of the backshell as it swings under the parachute;
Three large solid rocket motors called RAD rockets (Rocket Assisted Descent), each providing about a ton of force (10 kilonewtons) for nearly 4 seconds;
Three small solid rockets called TIRS (mounted so that they aim horizontally out the sides of the backshell) that provide a small horizontal kick to the backshell to help orient the backshell more vertically during the main RAD rocket burn.
Composition
Built by Lockheed Martin Space in Denver, Colorado, the aeroshell is made of an aluminium honeycomb structure sandwiched between graphite-epoxy face sheets. The outside of the aeroshell is covered with a layer of phenolic honeycomb. This honeycomb is filled with an ablative material (also called an "ablator"), that dissipates heat generated by atmospheric friction.
The ablator itself is a unique blend of cork wood, binder and many tiny silica glass spheres. It was invented for the heat shields flown on the Viking Mars lander missions. A similar technology was used in the first US manned space missions Mercury, Gemini and Apollo. It was specially formulated to react chemically with the Martian atmosphere during entry and carry heat away, leaving a hot wake of gas behind the vehicle. The vehicle slowed from in about a minute, producing about 60 m/s2 (6 g) of acceleration on the lander and rover.
The backshell and heat shield are made of the same materials, but the heat shield has a thicker, , layer of the ablator. Instead of being painted, the backshell was covered with a very thin aluminized PET film blanket to protect it from the cold of deep space. The blanket vaporized during entry into the Martian atmosphere.
Parachute
The parachute helped slow the spacecraft during entry, descent, and landing. It is located in the backshell.
Design
The 2003 parachute design was part of a long-term Mars parachute technology development effort and is based on the designs and experience of the Viking and Pathfinder missions. The parachute for this mission is 40% larger than Pathfinder's because the largest load for the Mars Exploration Rover is 80 to 85 kilonewtons (kN) or when the parachute fully inflates. By comparison, Pathfinder's inflation loads were approximately 35 kN (about 8,000 lbf). The parachute was designed and constructed in South Windsor, Connecticut by Pioneer Aerospace, the company that also designed the parachute for the Stardust mission.
Composition
The parachute is made of two durable, lightweight fabrics: polyester and nylon. A triple bridle made of Kevlar connects the parachute to the backshell.
The amount of space available on the spacecraft for the parachute is so small that the parachute had to be pressure-packed. Before launch, a team tightly folded the 48 suspension lines, three bridle lines, and the parachute. The parachute team loaded the parachute in a special structure that then applied a heavy weight to the parachute package several times. Before placing the parachute into the backshell, the parachute was heat set to sterilize it.
Connected systems
Zylon Bridles: After the parachute was deployed at an altitude of about above the surface, the heatshield was released using 6 separation nuts and push-off springs. The lander then separated from the backshell and "rappelled" down a metal tape on a centrifugal braking system built into one of the lander petals. The slow descent down the metal tape placed the lander in position at the end of another bridle (tether), made of a nearly long braided Zylon.
Zylon is an advanced fiber material, similar to Kevlar, that is sewn in a webbing pattern (like shoelace material) to make it stronger. The Zylon bridle provides space for airbag deployment, distance from the solid rocket motor exhaust stream, and increased stability. The bridle incorporates an electrical harness that allows the firing of the solid rockets from the backshell as well as provides data from the backshell inertial measurement unit (which measures rate and tilt of the spacecraft) to the flight computer in the rover.
Rocket assisted descent (RAD) motors: Because the atmospheric density of Mars is less than 1% of Earth's, the parachute alone could not slow down the Mars Exploration Rover enough to ensure a safe, low landing speed. The spacecraft descent was assisted by rockets that brought the spacecraft to a dead stop above the Martian surface.
Radar altimeter unit: A radar altimeter unit was used to determine the distance to the Martian surface. The radar's antenna is mounted at one of the lower corners of the lander tetrahedron. When the radar measurement showed the lander was the correct distance above the surface, the Zylon bridle was cut, releasing the lander from the parachute and backshell so that it was free and clear for landing. The radar data also enabled the timing sequence on airbag inflation and backshell RAD rocket firing.
Airbags
Airbags used in the Mars Exploration Rover mission are the same type that Mars Pathfinder used in 1997. They had to be strong enough to cushion the spacecraft if it landed on rocks or rough terrain and allow it to bounce across Mars' surface at highway speeds (about 100 km/h) after landing. The airbags had to be inflated seconds before touchdown and deflated once safely on the ground.
The airbags were made of Vectran, like those on Pathfinder. Vectran has almost twice the strength of other synthetic materials, such as Kevlar, and performs better in cold temperatures. Six 100 denier (10 mg/m) layers of Vectran protected one or two inner bladders of Vectran in 200 denier (20 mg/m). Using 100 denier (10 mg/m) leaves more fabric in the outer layers where it is needed, because there are more threads in the weave.
Each rover used four airbags with six lobes each, all of which were connected. Connection was important, since it helped abate some of the landing forces by keeping the bag system flexible and responsive to ground pressure. The airbags were not attached directly to the rover, but were held to it by ropes crisscrossing the bag structure. The ropes gave the bags shape, making inflation easier. While in flight, the bags were stowed along with three gas generators that are used for inflation.
Lander
The spacecraft lander is a protective shell that houses the rover, and together with the airbags, protects it from the forces of impact.
The lander is a tetrahedron shape, whose sides open like petals. It is strong and light, and made of beams and sheets. The beams consist of layers of graphite fiber woven into a fabric that is lighter than aluminium and more rigid than steel. Titanium fittings are glued and fitted onto the beams to allow it to be bolted together. The rover was held inside the lander by bolts and special nuts that were released after landing with small explosives.
Uprighting
After the lander stopped bouncing and rolling on the ground, it came to rest on the base of the tetrahedron or one of its sides. The sides then opened to make the base horizontal and the rover upright. The sides are connected to the base by hinges, each of which has a motor strong enough to lift the lander. The rover plus lander has a mass of about 533 kilograms (1,175 pounds). The rover alone has a mass of about . The gravity on Mars is about 38% of Earth's, so the motor does not need to be as powerful as it would on Earth.
The rover contains accelerometers to detect which way is down (toward the surface of Mars) by measuring the pull of gravity. The rover computer then commanded the correct lander petal to open to place the rover upright. Once the base petal was down and the rover was upright, the other two petals were opened.
The petals initially opened to an equally flat position, so all sides of the lander were straight and level. The petal motors are strong enough so that if two of the petals come to rest on rocks, the base with the rover would be held in place like a bridge above the ground. The base will hold at a level even with the height of the petals resting on rocks, making a straight flat surface throughout the length of the open, flattened lander. The flight team on Earth could then send commands to the rover to adjust the petals and create a safe path for the rover to drive off the lander and onto the Martian surface without dropping off a steep rock.
Moving the payload onto Mars
[[File:MER Spirit Lander Pan Sol16-A18R1 br2.jpg|thumb|Spirits lander on Mars]]
The moving of the rover off the lander is called the egress phase of the mission. The rover must avoid having its wheels caught in the airbag material or falling off a sharp incline. To help this, a retraction system on the petals slowly drags the airbags toward the lander before the petals open. Small ramps on the petals fan out to fill spaces between the petals. They cover uneven terrain, rock obstacles, and airbag material, and form a circular area from which the rover can drive off in more directions. They also lower the step that the rover must climb down. They are nicknamed "batwings", and are made of Vectran cloth.
About three hours were allotted to retract the airbags and deploy the lander petals.
Rover design
The rovers are six-wheeled, solar-powered robots that stand high, wide and long. They weigh , of which is the wheel and suspension system.
The main box-like chassis forms the Warm Electronics Box (WEB).
Drive system
Each rover has six aluminium wheels mounted on a rocker-bogie suspension system, similar to that on Sojourner, that ensures wheels remain on the ground while driving over rough terrain. The design reduces the range of motion of the rover body by half, and allows the rover to go over obstacles or through holes (depressions) that are more than a wheel diameter () in size. The rover wheels are designed with integral compliant flexures which provide shock absorption during movement. Additionally, the wheels have cleats which provide grip for climbing in soft sand and scrambling over rocks.
Each wheel has its own drive motor. The two front and two rear wheels each have individual steering motors. This allows the vehicle to turn in place, a full revolution, and to swerve and curve, making arcing turns. The motors for the rovers have been designed by the Swiss company Maxon Motor. The rover is designed to withstand a tilt of 45 degrees in any direction without overturning. However, the rover is programmed through its "fault protection limits" in its hazard avoidance software to avoid exceeding tilts of 30 degrees.
Each rover can spin one of its front wheels in place to grind deep into the terrain. It is to remain motionless while the digging wheel is spinning. The rovers have a top speed on flat hard ground of 50 mm/s (2 in/s). The average speed is 10 mm/s, because its hazard avoidance software causes it to stop every 10 seconds for 20 seconds to observe and understand the terrain into which it has driven.
Power and electronic systems
When fully illuminated, the rover triplejunction solar arrays generate about 140 watts for up to four hours per Martian day (sol). The rover needs about 100 watts to drive. Its power system includes two rechargeable lithium ion batteries weighing each, that provide energy when the sun is not shining, especially at night. Over time, the batteries will degrade and will not be able to recharge to full capacity.
For comparison, the Mars Science Laboratory's power system is composed of a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) produced by Boeing. The MMRTG is designed to provide 125W of electrical power at the start of the mission, falling to 100W after 14 years of service. It is used to power the MSL's many systems and instruments. Solar panels were also considered for the MSL, but RTGs provide constant power, regardless of the time of day, and thus the versatility to work in dark environments and high latitudes where solar energy is not readily available. The MSL generates 2.5 kilowatt hours per day, compared to the Mars Exploration Rovers, which can generate about 0.6 kilowatt hours per day.
It was thought that by the end of the 90-sol mission, the capability of the solar arrays to generate power would likely be reduced to about 50 watts. This was due to anticipated dust coverage on the solar arrays, and the change in season. Over three Earth years later, however, the rovers' power supplies hovered between 300 watt-hours and 900 watt-hours per day, depending on dust coverage. Cleaning events (dust removal by wind) have occurred more often than NASA expected, keeping the arrays relatively free of dust and extending the life of the mission. During a 2007 global dust storm on Mars, both rovers experienced some of the lowest power of the mission; Opportunity dipped to 128 watt-hours. In November 2008, Spirit had overtaken this low-energy record with a production of 89 watt-hours, due to dust storms in the region of Gusev crater.
The rovers run a VxWorks embedded operating system on a radiation-hardened 20 MHz RAD6000 CPU with 128 MB of DRAM with error detection and correction and 3 MB of EEPROM. Each rover also has 256 MB of flash memory. To survive during the various mission phases, the rover's vital instruments must stay within a temperature of −40 °C to +40 °C (−40 °F to 104 °F). At night, the rovers are heated by eight radioisotope heater units (RHU), which each continuously generate 1 W of thermal energy from the decay of radioisotopes, along with electrical heaters that operate only when necessary. A sputtered gold film and a layer of silica aerogel are used for insulation.
Communication
The rover has an X band low-gain and an X band high-gain antenna for communications to and from the Earth, as well as an ultra high frequency monopole antenna for relay communications. The low-gain antenna is omnidirectional, and transmits data at a low rate to Deep Space Network (DSN) antennas on Earth. The high-gain antenna is directional and steerable, and can transmit data to Earth at a higher rate. The rovers use the UHF monopole and its CE505 radio to communicate with spacecraft orbiting Mars, the Mars Odyssey and (before its failure) the Mars Global Surveyor (already more than 7.6 terabits of data were transferred using its Mars Relay antenna and Mars Orbiter Camera's memory buffer of 12 MB). Since MRO went into orbit around Mars, the landers have also used it as a relay asset. Most of the lander data is relayed to Earth through Odyssey and MRO. The orbiters can receive rover signals at a much higher data rate than the Deep Space Network can, due to the much shorter distances from rover to orbiter. The orbiters then quickly relay the rover data to the Earth using their large and high-powered antennas.
Each rover has nine cameras, which produce 1024-pixel by 1024-pixel images at 12 bits per pixel, but most navigation camera images and image thumbnails are truncated to 8 bits per pixel to conserve memory and transmission time. All images are then compressed using ICER before being stored and sent to Earth. Navigation, thumbnail, and many other image types are compressed to approximately 0.8 to 1.1 bits/pixel. Lower bit rates (less than 0.5-bit/pixel) are used for certain wavelengths of multi-color panoramic images.
ICER is based on wavelets, and was designed specifically for deep-space applications. It produces progressive compression, both lossless and lossy, and incorporates an error-containment scheme to limit the effects of data loss on the deep-space channel. It outperforms the lossy JPEG image compressor and the lossless Rice compressor used by the Mars Pathfinder mission.
Scientific instrumentation
The rover has various instruments. Three are mounted on the Pancam Mast Assembly (PMA):
Panoramic Cameras (Pancam), two cameras with color filter wheels for determining the texture, color, mineralogy, and structure of the local terrain.
Navigation Cameras (Navcam), two cameras that have larger fields of view but lower resolution and are monochromatic, for navigation and driving.
A periscope assembly for the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES), which identifies promising rocks and soils for closer examination, and determines the processes that formed them. The Mini-TES was built by Arizona State University. The periscope assembly features two beryllium fold mirrors, a shroud that closes to minimize dust contamination in the assembly, and stray-light rejection baffles that are strategically placed within the graphite epoxy tubes.
The cameras are mounted 1.5 meters high on the Pancam Mast Assembly. The PMA is deployed via the Mast Deployment Drive (MDD). The Azimuth Drive, mounted directly above the MDD, turns the assembly horizontally a whole revolution with signals transmitted through a rolling tape configuration. The camera drive points the cameras in elevation, almost straight up or down. A third motor points the Mini-TES fold mirrors and protective shroud, up to 30° above the horizon and 50° below. The PMA's conceptual design was done by Jason Suchman at JPL, the Cognizant Engineer who later served as Contract Technical Manager (CTM) once the assembly was built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp., Boulder, Colorado. Raul Romero served as CTM once subsystem-level testing began. Satish Krishnan did the conceptual design of the High-Gain Antenna Gimbal (HGAG), whose detailed design, assembly, and test was also performed by Ball Aerospace at which point Satish acted as the CTM.
Four monochromatic hazard cameras (Hazcams) are mounted on the rover's body, two in front and two behind.
The instrument deployment device (IDD), also called the rover arm, holds the following:
Mössbauer spectrometer (MB) MIMOS II, developed by Dr. Göstar Klingelhöfer at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany, is used for close-up investigations of the mineralogy of iron-bearing rocks and soils.
Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS), developed by the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz, Germany, is used for close-up analysis of the abundances of elements that make up rocks and soils. Universities involved in developing the APXS include the University of Guelph, University of California, and Cornell University
Magnets, for collecting magnetic dust particles, developed by Jens Martin Knudsen's group at the Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen. The particles are analyzed by the Mössbauer Spectrometer and X-ray Spectrometer to help determine the ratio of magnetic particles to non-magnetic particles and the composition of magnetic minerals in airborne dust and rocks that have been ground by the Rock Abrasion Tool. There are also magnets on the front of the rover, which are studied extensively by the Mössbauer spectrometer.
Microscopic Imager (MI) for obtaining close-up, high-resolution images of rocks and soils. Development was led by Ken Herkenhoff's team at the USGS Astrogeology Research Program.
Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT), developed by Honeybee Robotics, for removing dusty and weathered rock surfaces and exposing fresh material for examination by instruments on board.
The robotic arm is able to place instruments directly up against rock and soil targets of interest.
Naming of Spirit and Opportunity
The Spirit and Opportunity rovers were named through a student essay competition. The winning entry was by Sofi Collis, a third-grade Russian-American student from Arizona.
I used to live in an orphanage. It was dark and cold and lonely. At night, I looked up at the sparkly sky and felt better. I dreamed I could fly there. In America, I can make all my dreams come true. Thank you for the 'Spirit' and the 'Opportunity.'
— Sofi Collis, age 9
Prior to this, during the development and building of the rovers, they were known as MER-1 Rover 1 (Opportunity) and MER-2 Rover 2 (Spirit). Internally, NASA also uses the mission designations MER-A (Spirit) and MER-B (Opportunity) based on the order of landing on Mars.
Test rovers
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory maintains a pair of rovers, the Surface System Test-Beds (SSTB) at its location in Pasadena for testing and modeling of situations on Mars. One test rover, SSTB1, weighing approximately , is fully instrumented and nearly identical to Spirit and Opportunity. Another test version, SSTB-Lite, is identical in size and drive characteristics but does not include all instruments. It weighs , much closer to the weight of Spirit and Opportunity in the reduced gravity of Mars. These rovers were used in 2009 for a simulation of the incident in which Spirit became trapped in soft soil.
SAPP software for image viewing
The NASA team uses a software application called "Surface Attitude Position and Pointing" (SAPP), to view images collected from the rover, and to plan its daily activities. There is a version available to the public called Maestro.
Planetary science findings
Spirit Landing Site, Gusev Crater
Plains
Although the Gusev crater appears from orbital images to be a dry lakebed, the observations from the surface show the interior plains mostly filled with debris. The rocks on the plains of Gusev are a type of basalt. They contain the minerals olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, and magnetite, and they look like volcanic basalt as they are fine-grained with irregular holes (geologists would say they have vesicles and vugs).
Much of the soil on the plains came from the breakdown of the local rocks. Fairly high levels of nickel were found in some soils; probably from meteorites.
Analysis shows that the rocks have been slightly altered by tiny amounts of water. Outside coatings and cracks inside the rocks suggest water deposited minerals, maybe bromine compounds. All the rocks contain a fine coating of dust and one or more harder rinds of material. One type can be brushed off, while another needed to be ground off by the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT).
There are a variety of rocks in the Columbia Hills, some of which have been altered by water, but not by very much water.
These rocks can be classified in different ways. The amounts and types of minerals make the rocks primitive basalts—also called picritic basalts. The rocks are similar to ancient terrestrial rocks called basaltic komatiites. Rocks of the plains also resemble the basaltic shergottites, meteorites which came from Mars. One classification system compares the amount of alkali elements to the amount of silica on a graph; in this system, Gusev plains rocks lie near the junction of basalt, picrobasalt, and tephrite. The Irvine-Barager classification calls them basalts.
Plain's rocks have been very slightly altered, probably by thin films of water because they are softer and contain veins of light colored material that may be bromine compounds, as well as coatings or rinds. It is thought that small amounts of water may have gotten into cracks inducing mineralization processes.
Coatings on the rocks may have occurred when rocks were buried and interacted with thin films of water and dust.
One sign that they were altered was that it was easier to grind these rocks compared to the same types of rocks found on Earth.
The first rock that Spirit studied was Adirondack. It turned out to be typical of the other rocks on the plains.
Dust
The dust in Gusev Crater is the same as dust all around the planet. All the dust was found to be magnetic. Moreover, Spirit found the magnetism was caused by the mineral magnetite, especially magnetite that contained the element titanium. One magnet was able to completely divert all dust hence all Martian dust is thought to be magnetic. The spectra of the dust was similar to spectra of bright, low thermal inertia regions like Tharsis and Arabia that have been detected by orbiting satellites. A thin layer of dust, maybe less than one millimeter thick covers all surfaces. Something in it contains a small amount of chemically bound water.
Columbia Hills
As the rover climbed above the plains onto the Columbia Hills, the mineralogy that was seen changed. Scientists found a variety of rock types in the Columbia Hills, and they placed them into six different categories. The six are: Clovis, Wishbone, Peace, Watchtower, Backstay, and Independence. They are named after a prominent rock in each group. Their chemical compositions, as measured by APXS, are significantly different from each other. Most importantly, all of the rocks in Columbia Hills show various degrees of alteration due to aqueous fluids.
They are enriched in the elements phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and bromine—all of which can be carried around in water solutions. The Columbia Hills' rocks contain basaltic glass, along with varying amounts of olivine and sulfates.
The olivine abundance varies inversely with the amount of sulfates. This is exactly what is expected because water destroys olivine but helps to produce sulfates.
The Clovis group is especially interesting because the Mössbauer spectrometer (MB) detected goethite in it. Goethite forms only in the presence of water, so its discovery is the first direct evidence of past water in the Columbia Hills's rocks. In addition, the MB spectra of rocks and outcrops displayed a strong decline in olivine presence,
although the rocks probably once contained much olivine. Olivine is a marker for the lack of water because it easily decomposes in the presence of water. Sulfate was found, and it needs water to form.
Wishstone contained a great deal of plagioclase, some olivine, and anhydrate (a sulfate). Peace rocks showed sulfur and strong evidence for bound water, so hydrated sulfates are suspected. Watchtower class rocks lack olivine consequently they may have been altered by water. The Independence class showed some signs of clay (perhaps montmorillonite a member of the smectite group). Clays require fairly long term exposure to water to form.
One type of soil, called Paso Robles, from the Columbia Hills, may be an evaporate deposit because it contains large amounts of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, and iron.
Also, MB found that much of the iron in Paso Robles soil was of the oxidized, Fe3+ form.
Towards the middle of the six-year mission (a mission that was supposed to last only 90 days), large amounts of pure silica were found in the soil. The silica could have come from the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water or from water in a hot spring environment.
After Spirit stopped working scientists studied old data from the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, or Mini-TES and confirmed the presence of large amounts of carbonate-rich rocks, which means that regions of the planet may have once harbored water. The carbonates were discovered in an outcrop of rocks called "Comanche."
In summary, Spirit found evidence of slight weathering on the plains of Gusev, but no evidence that a lake was there. However, in the Columbia Hills there was clear evidence for a moderate amount of aqueous weathering. The evidence included sulfates and the minerals goethite and carbonates which only form in the presence of water. It is believed that Gusev crater may have held a lake long ago, but it has since been covered by igneous materials. All the dust contains a magnetic component which was identified as magnetite with some titanium. Furthermore, the thin coating of dust that covers everything on Mars is the same in all parts of Mars.
Opportunity Landing Site, Meridiani Planum
The Opportunity rover landed in a small crater, dubbed "Eagle", on the flat plains of Meridiani. The plains of the landing site were characterized by the presence of a large number of small spherules, spherical concretions that were tagged "blueberries" by the science team, which were found both loose on the surface, and also embedded in the rock. These proved to have a high concentration of the mineral hematite, and showed the signature of being formed in an aqueous environment. The layered bedrock revealed in the crater walls showed signs of being sedimentary in nature, and compositional and microscopic-imagery analysis showed this to be primarily with composition of Jarosite, a ferrous sulfate mineral that is characteristically an evaporite that is the residue from the evaporation of a salty pond or sea.
The mission has provided substantial evidence of past water activity on Mars. In addition to investigating the "water hypothesis", Opportunity has also obtained astronomical observations and atmospheric data.
The extended mission took the rover across the plains to a series of larger craters in the south, with the arrival at the edge of a 25-km diameter crater, Endeavour Crater, eight years after landing. The orbital spectroscopy of this crater rim show the signs of phyllosilicate rocks, indicative of older sedimentary deposits.
Landing locations
GlossaryAPXS: Alpha Particle X-Ray SpectrometerDSCC: Deep Space Communications CenterDSN: Deep Space NetworkDTS: Dead Time StartERT: Earth-received time, UTC of an eventFSW: Flight SoftwareHGA: High Gain AntennaLGA: Low Gain AntennaMER: Mars Exploration RoverMSL: Mars Science LaboratoryMini-TES: Miniature Thermal Emission SpectrometerNASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)Navcam: Navigation cameraPancam: Panoramic cameraRAT: Rock Abrasion ToolRCS''': Reaction Control System
See also
Aeolis quadrangle
Syd Lieberman (Official storyteller of the Mars Exploration Mission)
References
Notes
Portions of this article are adopted from NASA/JPL MER article.
Additional information was adapted from the MER homepage
Further reading
Roving Mars: Spirit, Opportunity, and the Exploration of the Red Planet by Steve Squyres (published August 2005; )
Postcards from Mars: The First Photographer on the Red Planet by Jim Bell (published November 2006; )
Technical papers by JPL Robotics Engineers
Interview: The driver behind NASA's Mars Rovers from Australian PC World
External links
NASA JPL's MER website
Spirit Mission Profile
Opportunity Mission Profile
Mars Exploration Rover project, NASA/JPL document NSS ISDC 2001 27 May 2001
Science, 6 August 2004 - Scientific papers from the first phase of the Spirit'' mission
Mars Rover Manual: Centralized resource for all publicly released rover technical details
MER Analysts Notebook (access to the MER scientific data set)
Scientific American Magazine (March 2004 Issue) "The Spirit of Exploration"
Li2-Rover
Official PanCam True Color Images Gallery
Rover image gallery
Nonofficial Daily PanCam Color Image Gallery
Archive of MER progress reports by A.J.S. Rayl at planetary.org
Mars Exploration Program
Mars rovers
Missions to Mars
NASA programs
NASA space probes
Space probes launched in 2003
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252911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JD%20Edwards | JD Edwards | J.D. Edwards World Solution Company or JD Edwards, abbreviated JDE, was an enterprise resource planning (ERP) software company, whose namesake ERP system is still sold under ownership by Oracle Corporation. JDE's products included World for IBM AS/400 minicomputers (the users using a computer terminal or terminal emulator), OneWorld for CNC architecture (a client–server fat client), and JD Edwards EnterpriseOne (a web-based thin client). The company was founded March 1977 in Denver, Colorado, by Jack Thompson, C.T.P. "Chuck" Hintze, Dan Gregory, and C. Edward "Ed" McVaney.
In June 2003, JD Edwards agreed to sell itself to PeopleSoft, Inc. for $1.8 billion. Within days, Oracle launched a hostile takeover bid for PeopleSoft sans JD Edwards. PeopleSoft went ahead with the JD Edwards acquisition anyway, and in 2005, Oracle Corporation finally took ownership of the combined JD Edwards-PeopleSoft organization. As of 2020, Oracle continues to sell and actively support both ERP packages, branded now as JD Edwards EnterpriseOne and JD Edwards World.
History
Formation
Ed McVaney originally trained as an engineer at the University of Nebraska, and in 1964 was employed by Western Electric, then by Peat Marwick, and moved to Denver, Colorado, in 1968, and later became a partner at Alexander Grant where he hired Jack Thompson and Dan Gregory. Around that time he was coming to the realization that, in his words, "The culture of a public accounting firm is the antithesis of developing software. The idea of spending time on something that you’re not getting paid for—software development—they just could not stomach that." McVaney felt that accounting clients did not understand what was required for software development, and decided to start his own firm.
"JD Edwards" was founded in 1977 by Jack Thompson, Dan Gregory, and Ed McVaney; the company's name drawn from the initials "J" for Jack, "D" for Dan, and "Edwards" for Ed. McVaney took a salary cut from $44,000 to $36,000 to ensure initial funding. Start-up clients included McCoy Sales, a wholesale distribution company in Denver, and Cincinnati Milacron, a maker of machine tools. The business received a $75,000 contract to develop wholesale distribution system software and a $50,000 contract with the Colorado Highway Department to develop governmental and construction cost accounting systems. The first international client was Shell Oil Company. Shell Oil implemented JD Edwards in Canada and then in Cameroon. Gregory flew to Shell Oil in Douala, Cameroon to install the company's first international, multi-national, multi-currency client software system.
Enterprise Resource Planning concept developed
As the majority of JD Edwards's customers were medium-sized companies, clients did not have large scale software implementations. There was a basic business need for all accounting to be tightly integrated. As McVaney would explain in 2002, integrated systems were created precisely because "you can’t go into a moderate-sized company and just put in a payroll. You have to put in a payroll and job cost, general ledger, inventory, fixed assets and the whole thing. SAP had the same advantage that JD Edwards had because we worked on smaller companies, we were forced to see the whole broad picture." This requirement was relevant to both JDE clients in the US and Europe and their European competitor SAP, whose typical clients were much smaller than the American Fortune 500 firms. McVaney and his company developed what would be called Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software in response to that business requirement.
World ERP System launched
The software ultimately sold was named JD Edwards WorldSoftware, popularly called World. Development began using System/34 and /36 minicomputers, changing course in the mid-1980s to the System/38, later switching to the AS/400 platform when it became available.
The company's initial focus was on developing the accounting software needed for their clients. World was server-centric as well as multi-user; the users would access the system using one of several IBM computer terminals or "green-screens". (Later on, users would run terminal emulator software on their personal computers).
As an ERP system, World comprised the three basic areas of expertise: functional/business analyst, programmer/software developer, and CNC/system administration.
OneWorld ERP System launched
By late 1996, JD Edwards delivered to its customers the result of a major corporate initiative: the software was now ported to platform-independent client–server systems. It was branded JD Edwards OneWorld, an entirely new product with a graphical user interface and a distributed computing model replacing the old server-centric model. The architecture JD Edwards had developed for this newer technology, called Configurable Network Computing or CNC, transparently shielded business applications from the servers that ran those same applications, the databases in which the data were stored, and the underlying operating system and hardware.
By first quarter 1998, JD Edwards had 26 OneWorld customers and was moving its medium-sized customers to the new client–server flavor of ERP. By second quarter 1998, JDE had 48 customers, and by 2001, the company had more than 600 customers using OneWorld, a fourfold increase over 2000.
The company became publicly listed on September 24, 1997, with vice-president Doug Massingill being promoted to chief executive officer, at an initial price of $23 per share, trading on NASDAQ under the symbol JDEC. By 1998, JD Edwards' revenue was more than $934 million and McVaney decided to retire.
Quality control issues with OneWorld
Within a year of the release of OneWorld, customers and industry analysts were discussing serious reliability, unpredictability and other bug-related issues. In user group meetings, these issues were raised with JDE management. So serious were these major quality issues with OneWorld that customers began to raise the possibility of class-action lawsuits, leading to McVaney's return from retirement as CEO. At an internal meeting in 2000, McVaney said he had decided to "wait however long it took to have OneWorld 100% reliable" and had thus delayed the release of a new version of OneWorld because he "wasn't going to let it go out on the street until it was ready for prime time." McVaney also encouraged customer feedback by supporting an independent JD Edwards user group called Quest International. After delaying the upgrade for one year and refusing all requests by marketing for what he felt was a premature release, in the fall of 2000 JD Edwards released version B7333, now rebranded as OneWorld Xe.
Despite press skepticism, Xe proved to be the most stable release to date and went a long way toward restoring customer confidence. McVaney retired again in January 2002, although remaining a director, and Robert Dutkowsky from Teradyne was appointed as the new president and CEO.
Web-based client, continued product evolution
After the release of Xe, the product began to go through more broad change and several new versions. A new web-based client, in which the user accesses the JD Edwards software through their web browser, was introduced in 2001. This web-based client was robust enough for customer use and was given application version number 8.10 in 2005. Initial issues with release 8.11 in 2005 lead to a quick service pack to version 8.11 SP1, salvaging the reputation of that product. By 2006, version 8.12 was announced. Throughout the application releases, new releases of system/foundation code called Tools Releases were announced, moving from Tools Release versions 8.94 to 8.95. Tools Release 8.96, along with the application's upgrade to version 8.12, saw the replacement of the older, often unstable proprietary object specifications (also called "specs") with a new XML-based system, proving to be much more reliable. Tools Release 8.97 shipped a new web service layer allowing the JD Edwards software to communicate with third-party systems.
Acquisition by Peoplesoft and Oracle
In June 2003, the JD Edwards board agreed to an offer in which PeopleSoft, a former competitor of JD Edwards, would acquire JD Edwards. The takeover was completed in July. OneWorld was added to PeopleSoft's software line, along with PeopleSoft's flagship product Enterprise, and was renamed JD Edwards EnterpriseOne.
Within days of the PeopleSoft announcement, Oracle Corporation mounted a hostile takeover bid of PeopleSoft. Although the first attempts to purchase the company were rebuffed by the PeopleSoft board of directors, by December 2004 the board decided to accept Oracle's offer. The final purchase went through in January 2005; Oracle now owned both PeopleSoft and JD Edwards. Most JD Edwards customers, employees, and industry analysts predicted Oracle would kill the JD Edwards products. However, Oracle saw a position for JDE in the medium-sized company space that was not filled with either its e-Business Suite or its newly acquired PeopleSoft Enterprise product.
EnterpriseOne and World software in Oracle portfolio
Oracle's JD Edwards products are known as JD Edwards EnterpriseOne and JD Edwards World. Oracle announced that JD Edwards support would continue until at least 2030.
Support for the older releases such as the Xe product were to expire by 2013, spurring the acceptance of upgrades to newer application releases. By 2015, the latest offering of EnterpriseOne was application version 9.2, released October 2015. The latest version of World (now with a web-based interface) was version A9.4, released in April 2015.
Shortly after Oracle's acquisition of PeopleSoft and JD Edwards in 2005, Oracle announced the development of a new product called Oracle Fusion Applications. Fusion was designed to co-exist or replace JD Edwards EnterpriseOne and World, as well as Oracle E-Business Applications Suite and other products acquired by Oracle, and was finally released in September 2010. Despite the release of Fusion apps, JD Edwards EnterpriseOne and World is still sold and supported by Oracle and runs numerous businesses worldwide.
See also
Oracle Corporation – The parent corporation that acquired JD Edwards and PeopleSoft in 2004
Oracle Fusion Applications – envisioned and pitched as an Enterprise resource planning suite: a combination of features and functionalities taken from Oracle E-Business Suite, JD Edwards, PeopleSoft and Siebel product lines
Configurable Network Computing – JD Edwards' CNC architecture allowing heterogeneous systems combining mixed hardware, operating systems and back-end databases to work together seamlessly.
C. Edward McVaney
Notes
Further reading
Allen Jacot, Joseph Miller, Michael Jacot and John Stern. JD Edwards EnterpriseOne: The Complete Reference (2009) McGraw-Hill. .
External links
JD Edwards on the Oracle Website
JDEList - JD Edwards' longest running free discussion forum and mailing list
JDE Source - Blog, Whitepapers and active forum for the JD Edwards community
E1 Tips - Website dedicated to those that have the responsibility of a CNC Administrator for Oracle's JD Edwards EnterpriseOne ERP
JDEdwardsERP.com - JD Edwards' knowledge sharing initiative by Partners of JD Edwards
System
JD Edwards Blog - Blog for the JD Edwards community
JD Edwards Resources at Quest Oracle Community
Case Study: "Jungles and Gardens: The Evolution of Knowledge Management at J.D. Edwards," MIS Quarterly Executive, Vol 3 No. 1 / March 2004. PDF.
Defunct software companies of the United States
ERP software companies
Oracle software
Software companies based in Colorado
Companies based in Denver
Software companies established in 1977
Software companies disestablished in 2003
1977 establishments in Colorado
2000s disestablishments in Colorado
Defunct companies based in Colorado
2003 mergers and acquisitions
Oracle acquisitions | [
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|
252913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretty%20Together | Pretty Together | Pretty Together is the sixth studio album by the Canadian rock group Sloan. While the album still has the 1960s and 1970s influences of Sloan's previous albums, it is more melancholy with fewer of the upbeat songs found on previous albums. "If It Feels Good Do It" and "The Other Man" were the two singles released from the album, with the latter being a melancholy plea by Chris Murphy which marked a departure from the usual upbeat songs Murphy provides the group with. The album entered the Canadian Albums Chart at #12, and both singles received notable radio airplay in Canada. The album was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 2002 Juno Awards.
Track listing
Japanese bonus tracks
B-sides
"Pretty Together (demo)" (Comes With a Smile vol 3 compilation)
References
2001 albums
Sloan (band) albums
Murderecords albums | [
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|
252916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Coronet | Operation Coronet | During World War II, two operations in the Pacific theater were called Operation Coronet.
An early planning name for Operation Chronicle, which was executed in June 1943
Part of Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of Japan in March 1946, made unnecessary by the Japanese surrender in August 1945
See also
Operation Coronet Nighthawk, to stop drugs entering U.S.A. from Central and South America (1990-2001) | [
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|
252917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Long%20Run%20%28album%29 | The Long Run (album) | The Long Run is the sixth studio album by American rock group the Eagles. It was released in 1979, on Asylum in the United States and the United Kingdom. This was the first Eagles album to feature Timothy B. Schmit, who had replaced founding member Randy Meisner, and the last full studio album to feature Don Felder before his termination from the band in 2001.
This was the band's final studio album for Asylum Records. It also turned out to be their last studio album as the Eagles disbanded in 1980, until 2007's Long Road Out of Eden after the band had reformed in 1994.
Three singles were released from the album, "Heartache Tonight", "The Long Run", and "I Can't Tell You Why". "Heartache Tonight" reached No. 1 on the singles chart and won a Grammy Award. The album was certified 7× Platinum by the RIAA and has sold more than eight million copies in the US.
Background
The album was originally intended to be a double album. The band could not come up with enough songs and the idea was therefore scrapped. The recording was protracted; they started recording in 1978, and the album took 18 months to record in five different studios, with the album finally released in September 1979. According to Don Henley, the band members were "completely burned out" and "physically, emotionally, spiritually and creatively exhausted" from a long tour when they started recording the album, and they had few songs. However, they managed to put together ten songs for the album, with contribution from their friends J. D. Souther and Bob Seger who co-wrote with Frey and Henley on "Heartache Tonight". (Souther also got songwriting credit on "Teenage Jail" and "The Sad Cafe".)
According to Henley, the title track was in part a response to press articles that said they were "passé" as disco was then dominant and punk emerging, which inspired lines such as "Who is gonna make it/ We'll find out in the long run". He said that the inspiration for the lyrics was also "irony", as they wrote about longevity and posterity while the group "was breaking apart, imploding under the pressure of trying to deliver a worthy follow-up to Hotel California".
Randy Meisner decided to leave the Eagles after an argument in Knoxville, Tennessee, during the Hotel California Tour in June 1977. He was replaced by Timothy B. Schmit, who brought an unfinished song to the band, "I Can't Tell You Why". Schmit wrote the song based loosely on his own experiences; both Henley and Frey liked the song and they completed the song together. Joe Walsh also contributed the song "In the City", which was first recorded by Walsh for the movie soundtrack for The Warriors, where it was credited to Walsh, not the Eagles. Don Felder wrote the tune for "The Disco Strangler" using a four-on-the-floor disco beat as the basis for the composition. Henley wrote the lyrics. Henley intended the song to be an antidote to disco as both he and the rest of the band disliked disco, which was the most popular musical genre at the time. The song "The Sad Cafe" was inspired by the Troubadour nightclub in Hollywood where the Eagles once played, and also by Dan Tana's restaurant that they frequented, while "The Greeks Don't Want No Freaks" was written as an homage to Sixties "frat rock" such as the song "96 Tears" by ? and the Mysterians.
The album was produced by Bill Szymczyk, although the Eagles were listed as co-producers.
Album pressing
The original vinyl record pressings of The Long Run (Elektra/Asylum catalog no. 5E-508) had text engraved in the run-out groove of each side, continuing an in-joke trend the band had started with their 1975 album One of These Nights:
Side one: "Never let your monster lay down"
Side two: "From the Polack who sailed north" (may be a reference to the producer of the album Bill Szymczyk)
Critical reception
Reviewing the album retrospectively in AllMusic, critic William Ruhlmann wrote that the album was a "major disappointment, even though it sold several million copies and threw off three hit singles," adding that the album "reportedly was planned as a double album before being truncated to a single disc. If these were the keepers, what could the rejects have sounded like?"
Grammys
|-
| style="width:35px; text-align:center;"|1980 || "Heartache Tonight" || Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal ||
|-
Commercial performance
When released in September 1979, The Long Run debuted at number two on Billboards Pop Albums chart and a week later hit number one. It was their last number one album of the 1970s, and stood for nine weeks in the number one slot. The Long Run was first certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on February 1, 1980, and reached 7× Platinum status on March 20, 2001. It has sold more than eight million copies in the US.
The album generated three Top 10 singles, "Heartache Tonight", the album's title cut, and "I Can't Tell You Why". Those singles reached No. 1, No. 8 and No. 8 respectively. The band also won a Grammy Award for "Heartache Tonight".
Track listing
Personnel
Eagles
Don Felder – guitars, organ, vocals
Glenn Frey – vocals, guitars, keyboards
Don Henley – vocals, drums, percussion
Timothy B. Schmit – vocals, bass guitar
Joe Walsh – vocals, guitars, keyboards
Additional personnel
Jimmy Buffett – backing vocals on "The Greeks Don't Want No Freaks"
The Monstertones – backing vocals
David Sanborn – alto saxophone on "The Sad Café"
Bob Seger – backing vocals "Heartache Tonight" (not credited in liner notes)
Joe Vitale – piano, electric piano
Production
The Eagles – co-producers
Bill Szymczyk – producer and engineer
Ed Mashal – engineer
David Crowther – assistant engineer
Mark Curry – assistant engineer
Phil Jamtaas – assistant engineer
Bob Stringer – assistant engineer
Bob Winder – assistant engineer
Ted Jensen – mixing, remastering
John Kosh – art direction, design
Jim Shea – photography
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
Eagles (band) albums
1979 albums
Elektra Records albums
Asylum Records albums
Albums produced by Bill Szymczyk
Albums recorded at Record Plant (Los Angeles) | [
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|
252919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligne%20claire | Ligne claire | Ligne claire (French for "clear line", ; ) is a style of drawing created and pioneered by Hergé, the Belgian creator of The Adventures of Tintin. It uses clear strong lines sometimes of varied width and no hatching, while contrast is downplayed as well. Cast shadows are often illuminated, and the style often features strong colours and a combination of cartoonish characters against a realistic background. The name was coined by Joost Swarte in 1977.
History
Hergé started out drawing in a much looser, rougher style which was likely influenced by American comic strip artists of the late 1920s and 1930s, such as Gluyas Williams and George McManus. However the precise lines which characterize most of his work are firmly in place early on (e.g. the colored version of The Blue Lotus (released in 1946) is based on the original black and white newspaper version from 1934–35 and not redrawn). Ligne claire was also influenced by Japan's shin-hanga style, one aspect of the Japonisme movement that swept Europe after the opening up of Japan to European influence in the 1860s.
Much of the "Brussels school" started to use this style, notably Edgar P. Jacobs, Bob de Moor, Roger Leloup, and Jacques Martin, many of whom also worked for Tintin magazine.
The ligne claire style achieved its highest popularity in the 1950s, but its influence started to wane in the 1960s and was seen as old-fashioned by the new generation of comic book artists. In the late 1970s, it experienced a resurgence of interest, largely due to Dutch artists like Joost Swarte and Theo van den Boogaard, who had come up through the Dutch underground comics scene, as well as the French artist Jacques Tardi. Henk Kuijpers was also successful in his application of the style.
Throughout the 1980s, Yves Chaland, Ted Benoit, Serge Clerc and Floc'h relaunched the ligne claire style in France. This incarnation was a very stylistic and artistic variation, which the artists also utilized for illustrating posters and LP covers etc. Swarte dubbed this variant "atoomstijl" ("atomic style").
Contemporary use of the ligne claire is often ironic or post-modern. For example, Van den Boogaard used the simple, clear style to set up a conflict with the amorality of his characters, while Tardi used it in his Adèle Blanc-Sec series to create a nostalgic atmosphere which is then ruthlessly undercut by the story. A recent serious clear line artist is the Dutchman Peter van Dongen, who created the Rampokan series about the Dutch colonisation of Indonesia.
Ligne claire is not confined to Franco-Belgian comics. It has also been popular with Italian artists such as Vittorio Giardino, Spanish artists such as Paco Roca and Francesc Capdevila Gisbert ("Max"), British artists such as Martin Handford, Bryan Talbot and Garen Ewing, Norwegian artists such as Jason, American artists such as Chris Ware, Geof Darrow, Jason Lutes, and Jason Little, and Italian-Australian artists such as Ilya Milstein.
Notable ligne claire books/series
Hergé
The Adventures of Tintin
Jo, Zette and Jocko
Quick and Flupke
Others
Jommeke – Jef Nys
The Adventures of Freddy Lombard – Yves Chaland
Alix – Jacques Martin
Barelli – Bob de Moor
Berlin – Jason Lutes
Bingo Bongo et son Combo Congolais – Ted Benoît
Blake and Mortimer – Edgar P. Jacobs
César and Jessica
Franka – Henk Kuijpers
Hector and Dexter (a.k.a. Coton et Piston and Katoen en Pinbal) – Joost Swarte
Julian Opie's Portraits – Julian Opie
Kurt Dunder
Le Monde d'Edena – Moebius
Nofret – Sussi Bech
Professor Palmboom – Dick Briel
The Rainbow Orchid – Garen Ewing
Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth – Chris Ware
Shutterbug Follies – Jason Little
Spike and Suzy (a.k.a. Bob and Bobette, Willy and Wanda, and Suske en Wiske) – Willy Vandersteen
Tintin pastiches – Yves Rodier
Where's Wally? – Martin Handford
Yoko Tsuno – Roger Leloup
How to Understand Israel in 60 Days or Less – Sarah Glidden
Sjef van Oekel – Theo van den Boogaard
The Property – Rutu Modan
Les Cités obscures – François Schuiten
Taylor Zander and the Wendigo Murders - Michael Francis
See also
Franco-Belgian comics
Marcinelle school – a contemporary, contrasting style
References
External links
Klare lijn international – News on ligne claire comics (in French)
Hergé & The Clear Line: Part 1
1977 neologisms
Comics terminology
Franco-Belgian comics
French words and phrases
Belgian comics
Belgian inventions
Hergé
Style
Japonisme | [
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|
252922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombuzal | Bombuzal | Bombuzal is a puzzle video game designed by Antony Crowther (credited as "Ratt" in the game) and David Bishop for Image Works. The game was released in 1988 for the Amiga, Atari ST and Commodore 64. It was also released in 1989 for MS-DOS and Dec, 21 1990 in Japan for the Super Famicom, with the North American version released on August, 1992 renamed as Ka-Blooey.
The game had a sequel/remake available for the Nintendo 64 called Charlie Blast's Territory. Among its notable features was the ability to play using either an overhead or isometric view.
Gameplay
To complete each of its 130 levels, the avatar has to destroy all bombs on the level. It must stand on top of the bomb to light it, then is only able to take one step away before the bomb explodes; it can also pick up and move bombs, but only the ones that are on Rail tiles. Bombs come in different sizes and it is only possible to ignite the smallest kind without dying. In most cases, the bombs have to be set off using a chain reaction to prevent the avatar from being killed in the explosion; at other times, separated small bombs can be destroyed one at a time.
Each Bomb/Mine has a reaction zone. For example, a small bomb will only destroy the tile it's on, but will affect any other Bombs/Mines one tile away in the four main directions. A Large bomb will destroy 13 tiles, and its reaction zone will be one tile farther away than the tiles destroyed in each of the four directions, and diagonally between these four points. The game featured level designs by several gaming celebrities, including Jon Ritman, Andrew Braybrook, Geoff Crammond and Jeff Minter. Jeff Minter's level blew up to leave behind a llama dropping a pile of dung.
There are also two enemies, Sinister and Dexter, appearing on some levels. These continuously travel along with the level, with Sinister always turning left and Dexter always turning right. Neither Sinister nor Dexter actively pursues the avatar, but contact with either is fatal.
Reception
The game received mixed reviews. It received 97% and 92% ratings from Zzap!64 magazine for the C64 and Amiga versions respectively, compared to a review in Commodore User magazine awarding a mere 49%. The former reviews applaud it as an addictive puzzle game with "cute" graphics, while the latter criticizes gameplay, graphics, and controls.
The game was released by Spotlight Software and distributed by Cinemaware in the compilation BrainBlaster with Xenon 2 for the Amiga. This compilation was reviewed in 1991 in Dragon #165 by Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser in "The Role of Computers" column. The reviewers gave BrainBlaster 5 out of 5 stars.
The Amiga version of Bombuzal was included as a fully working game on the cover disk of the first issue of Amiga Power.
The Super Famicom incarnation of the game was later scheduled for release on the Online service for the Nintendo Switch console in July 2021.
References
External links
Bombuzal on the Amiga at The Hall of Light (HOL)
Bombuzal at Lemon64
Remake in 3D for PC
1988 video games
Puzzle video games
Amiga games
Atari ST games
Commodore 64 games
DOS games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Cancelled ZX Spectrum games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Nintendo Switch Online SNES games | [
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|
252924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunfardo | Lunfardo | Lunfardo (; from the Italian lombardo or inhabitant of Lombardy in the local dialect) is an argot originated and developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the lower classes in Buenos Aires and from there spread to other cities nearby, such as the surrounding area Greater Buenos Aires, Rosario and Montevideo.
Originally, Lunfardo was a slang used by criminals and soon by other people of the lower and lower-middle classes. Later, many of its words and phrases were introduced in the vernacular and disseminated in the Spanish of Argentina, and Uruguay. Nevertheless, since the early 20th century, Lunfardo has spread among all social strata and classes by habitual use or because it was common in the lyrics of tango.
Today, the meaning of the term lunfardo has been extended to designate any slang or jargon used in Buenos Aires.
Origin
Lunfardo (or lunfa for short) began as prison slang in the late 19th century so guards would not understand prisoners. According to Oscar Conde, the word came from "lumbardo" (the inhabitants of the region Lombardia in Italy, the origin of most of the Italians in Argentina in the early 20th century). However, the vernacular Spanish of mid-19th century Buenos Aires as preserved in the dialogue of Esteban Echeverría's short story The Slaughter Yard (El matadero) is already a prototype of Lunfardo.
Etymology
Most sources believe that Lunfardo originated among criminals, and later became more commonly used by other classes. Circa 1870, the word lunfardo itself (originally a deformation of lombardo in several Italian dialects) was often used to mean "outlaw".
Lunfardo today
Today, many Lunfardo terms have entered the language spoken all over Argentina and Uruguay, although a great number of Lunfardo words have fallen into disuse or have been modified in the era of suburbanization. Furthermore, the term "Lunfardo" has become synonymous with "speech of Buenos Aires" or "Porteño", mainly of the inhabitants of the City of Buenos Aires, as well as its surrounding areas, Greater Buenos Aires. The Montevideo speech has almost as much "Lunfardo slang" as the Buenos Aires speech. Conde says that Lunfardo (much like Cocoliche) can be considered a kind of Italian dialect mixed with Spanish words, specifically the one spoken in Montevideo. In other words, Lunfardo is an interlanguage variety of the Italian dialects spoken by immigrants in the areas of Buenos Aires and Montevideo.
In Argentina, any neologism that reached a minimum level of acceptance is considered, by default, a Lunfardo term. The original slang has been immortalized in numerous tango lyrics.
Conde takes the view that the Lunfardo is not so much a dialect but a kind of local language of the Italian immigrants, mixed with Spanish and some French words. He believes that Lunfardo is not a criminal slang, since most Lunfardo words are not related to crime.
According to Conde, Lunfardo
Characteristics
Lunfardo words are inserted in the normal flow of Rioplatense Spanish sentences, but grammar and pronunciation do not change. Thus, an average Spanish-speaking person reading tango lyrics will need, at most, the translation of a discrete set of words.
Tango lyrics use Lunfardo sparsely, but some songs (such as El Ciruja –Lunfardo for "The Hobo" or "The Bum"– or most lyrics by Celedonio Flores) employ Lunfardo heavily. Milonga Lunfarda by Edmundo Rivero is an instructive and entertaining primer on Lunfardo usage.
A characteristic of Lunfardo is its use of word play, notably vesre (from "[al] revés"), reversing the syllables, similar to English back slang, French verlan, Croatian Šatrovački or Greek podaná. Thus, tango becomes gotán and café (coffee) becomes feca.
Lunfardo employs metaphors such as bobo ("dumb") for the heart, who "works all day long without being paid" or bufoso ("snorter") for pistol.
Finally, there are words that are derived from others in Spanish, such as the verb abarajar, which means to stop a situation or a person (such as to stop your opponent's blows with the blade of your knife) and is related to the verb "barajar", which means to cut or shuffle a deck of cards.
Examples
Nouns
buchón – "snitch", informer to the law (from the Spanish buche, in turn slang for "mouth")
chochamu – "young man" (vesre for muchacho)
facha - "face", and by extension "appearance", "looks" (from Italian faccia, "face")
fato - "affair", "business" (from the Italian fatto, lit. "done")
fiaca – "laziness", or lazy person (from the Italian fiacca, "laziness, sluggishness")
gamba - "leg" (from the Italian gamba "leg"). Also "100 pesos".
gomías – "friends" (vesre for amigos)
guita – "money", "dole"
gurí – "boy", used for young teenagers (from Guaraní)
gurisa – female for gurí
lorca – "heat", as in hot weather (vesre for calor, "heat")
luca – "1,000 pesos"
mango – "peso"
mina – "chick", "broad" (from the Italian femmina, "female")
naso - "nose" (from the Italian naso, "nose")
palo – "1,000,000 pesos"
percanta – a young woman
pibe – "kid", a common term for boy or, in more recent times, for young man. It comes from Italian word "pivello".
quilombo – "racket", "ruckus", "mess"; also slang for "brothel" (from the Kimbundu word kilombo, a Maroon settlement).
urso – a heavyset guy. It comes from the Italian "orso" (bear).
yorugua – "Uruguayan", (vesre for uruguayo) .
Verbs
cerebrar – "to think something up" (from cerebro, "brain")
engrupir – "to fool someone" (maybe from Italian ingroppare, "to fuck", but also used in modern European and Brazilian Portuguese slang)
garpar – "to pay with money" (vesre for pagar, "to pay")
junar – "to look closely", "to check out"/ "to know" (from Caló junar, "to hear")
laburar – "to work" (from Italian lavorare, "to work")
manyar – "to eat"/ "to know" (from Venetian and Lombard magnar - Italian mangiare)
morfar – "to eat" (from French argot morfer, "to eat")
pescar – "to understand", "to get a grip" (vesre from the Italian capisce?, "Do you understand?") associated to the Spanish verb pescar ("to fish")
Interjections
che - appellative to introduce a conversational intervention or to call out, translatable as "hey!", "listen to me!", "so", "as I was telling you!" and other ways of addressing someone. The expression identifies Argentinians to other Spanish speakers, thus Ernesto "Che" Guevara for the Cubans (Guaraní, Venetian and Valencian origins have been propounded).
¡guarda! - "look out!", "be careful!" (from the Italian guarda!, "look!")
Modern slang
Since the 1970s, it is a matter of debate whether newer additions to the slang of Buenos Aires qualify as lunfardo. Traditionalists argue that lunfardo must have a link to the argot of the old underworld, to tango lyrics, or to racetrack slang. Others maintain that the colloquial language of Buenos Aires is lunfardo by definition.
Some examples of modern talk:
gomas (lit. "tires") – "tits", woman's breasts
maza (lit. "mace" or "sledgehammer") – "superb"
curtir (lit. "to tan leather") – "to dig", "to be knowledgeable about", "to be involved in". Also "to fuck".
curtir fierros can mean both "to be into car mechanics" or "to be into firearms". Fierro is the Old Spanish form of hierro ("iron"). In Argentine parlance, fierro can mean a firearm or anything related to metals and mechanics (for example a racing car)
zafar – "to scrape out of", "to get off the hook", "to barely get by", etc. Zafar is a standard Spanish verb (originally meaning "to extricate oneself") that had fallen out of use and was restored to everyday Buenos Aires speech in the 1970s by students, with the meaning of "barely passing (an examination)".
trucho – "counterfeit", "fake"; trucho is from old Spanish slang truchamán, which in turn derives from the Arabic turjeman ("translator", referring specifically to a person who accosts foreigners and lures them into tourist traps). Folk etymology derives this word from trucha ("trout"), or from the Italian trucco - something made fake on purpose.
Many new terms had spread from specific areas of the dynamic Buenos Aires cultural scene: invented by screenwriters, used around the arts-and-crafts fair in Plaza Francia, culled from the vocabulary of psychoanalysis.
Influence from Cocoliche
Lunfardo was influenced by Cocoliche, a pidgin of Italian immigrants. Many Cocoliche words were transferred to Lunfardo in the first half of the 20th century. For example:
lonyipietro - "fool"
fungi - "mushroom" → in Lunfardo: "hat"
vento - "wind" → in Lunfardo: "money"
matina - "morning" (from Italian mattina)
mina - "girl" (from Lombard mina)
laburar - "to work" (from Italian lavorare and Spanish laborar)
minga - "nothing!" (from Lombard minga, negative particle like not in English or ne pas in French)
yeta - "bad luck" (from Neapolitan iettatore)
yira/gira - "to walk around (generally in circles)", "to ramble aimlessly", etc. (from Italian girare, "to turn", "to tour")
¡salute! - "cheers!" (from Italian salute!)
eccole - "exactly" (from Italian eccole)
Some Italian linguists, because of the Cocoliche influences, argue that the Lunfardo can be considered a pidgin of the Italian language.
Suffixes
A rarer feature of Porteño speech that can make it completely unintelligible is the random addition of suffixes with no particular meaning, usually making common words sound reminiscent of Italian surnames, for no particular reason, but playful language. These endings include -etti, -elli eli, -oni, -eni, -anga, -ango, -enga, -engue, -engo, -ingui, -ongo, -usi, -ula, -usa, -eta, among others. Examples: milanesa (meat dish) milanga, cuaderno ("notebook") cuadernelli, etc.
See also
Cocoliche
Germanía
Vesre
Jeringonza
Argot
Viveza criolla
Notes
Bibliography
Conde, Oscar. Lunfardo: Un estudio sobre el habla popular de los argentinos.Ediciones Taurus. Buenos Aires, 2011
External links
(English) "Lunfardo: The Slang of Buenos Aires"
(English) "Porteño Spanish – Learn Argentine Slang"
(English) "A Survivors Guide To Buenos Aires"
(English) "CheViste – Lunfardo Dictionary"
Diccionario del lunfardo
Defining Lunfardo
Lunfardo's history
Academia Porteña del Lunfardo
Buenos Aires
Italian-Argentine culture
Italian-Uruguayan culture
Geographical distribution of the Italian language
Tango
Languages of Argentina
Languages of Uruguay
Cant languages
Spanish slang
Spanish-based pidgins and creoles | [
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252926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogallo%20wing | Rogallo wing | The Rogallo wing is a flexible type of wing. In 1948, Francis Rogallo, a NASA engineer, and his wife Gertrude Rogallo, invented a self-inflating flexible wing they called the Parawing, also known after them as the "Rogallo Wing" and flexible wing. NASA considered Rogallo's flexible wing as an alternative recovery system for the Mercury and Gemini space capsules, and for possible use in other spacecraft landings, but the idea was dropped from Gemini in 1964 in favor of conventional parachutes.
History
Rogallo had been interested in the flexible wing since 1945. He and his wife built and flew kites as a hobby. They could not find official backing for the wing, including at Rogallo's employer National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), so they carried out experiments in their own time. By the end of 1948 they had two working designs using a flexible wing — a kite they called "Flexi-Kite" and a gliding parachute they later referred to as a "paraglider". Rogallo and his wife received a patent on a flexible square wing in March 1951. Selling the Flexi-kite as a toy helped to finance their work and publicize the design.
NASA research
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, U.S. aerospace manufacturers worked on parachute designs for space capsule recovery. NASA briefly considered the Rogallo wing to replace the traditional round parachute for the Project Mercury capsule during temporary development problems. Later, the Rogallo wing was the initial choice for the Project Gemini capsule, but development problems ultimately forced its replacement with the parachute.
Construction
Nowadays the term "Rogallo wing" is synonymous with one composed of two partial conic surfaces with both cones pointing forward. Slow Rogallo wings have wide, shallow cones. Fast subsonic and supersonic Rogallo wings have long, narrow cones. The Rogallo wing is a simple and inexpensive flying wing with remarkable properties. The wing itself is not a kite, nor can it be characterized as glider or powered aircraft, until the wing is tethered or arranged in a configuration that glides or is powered. In other words, how it is attached and manipulated determines what type of aircraft it becomes. The Rogallo wing is most often seen in toy kites, but has been used to construct spacecraft parachutes, sport parachutes, ultralight powered aircraft like the trike and hang gliders. Rogallo had more than one patent concerning his finding; the due-diligence expansion of his invention involved cylindrical formats, multiple lobes, various stiffenings, various nose angles, etc. The Charles Richards design and use of the Rogallo wing in the NASA Paresev project resulted in an assemblage that became the stark template for the standard Rogallo hang-glider wing that would blanket the world of the sport in the early 1970s.
Beyond that, the wing is designed to bend and flex in the wind, and so provides favorable dynamics analogous to a spring suspension. Flexibility allows the wing to be less susceptible to turbulence and provides a gentler flying experience than a similarly sized rigid-winged aircraft. The trailing edge of the wing – which is not stiffened – allows the wing to twist, and provides aerodynamic stability without the need for a tail (empennage).
Rogallo wing hang glider
In 1961–1962, aeronautical engineer Barry Palmer foot-launched several versions of a framed Rogallo wing hang glider to continue the recreational and sporting spirit of hang gliding. Another player in the continuing evolution of the Rogallo wing hang glider was James Hobson whose "Rogallo Hang Glider" was published in 1962 in the Experimental Aircraft Association's magazine Sport Aviation, as well as shown on national USA television in the Lawrence Welk Show. Later in Australia John Dickenson in mid-1963, set out to build a controllable waterskiing kite/glider as he admitted adapting from a Ryan Aeronautical flex-wing aircraft. Publicity from the Paresev tested-and-flown hang gliders and the various space contractors sparked interest in the Rogallo-promoted wing design among several tinkerers in order: Thomas H. Purcell, Jr., Barry Hill Palmer, James Hobson, Mike Burns, John Dickenson, Richard Miller, Bill Moyes, Bill Bennett, Dave Kilbourne, Dick Eipper, and hundreds of others; a renaissance in hang gliding occurred in 1960s. John Worth was early leader in the pack of four-boom hang glider builders and designers using public domain arts.
Single-point hang was an ancient art fully demonstrated at least in Breslau in 1908 as well as the triangle control frame that would later be seen in NASA's John Worth's hang gliders and powered hang gliders. Thomas Purcell and Mike Burns would use the triangle control frame. Much later Dickenson would do similarly as he fashioned an airframe to fit on the by-then standard four boom stiffened Rogallo wing. Dickenson's model made use of a single hang point and an A frame: He started with a framed Rogallo wing airfoil with a U-frame (later an A-frame control bar) to it; it was composed of a keel, leading edges, a cross-bar and a fixed control frame. Weight-shift was also used to control the glider. The flexible wing – called "Ski Wing" – was first flown in public at the Grafton Jacaranda Festival in September 1963 by Rod Fuller while towed behind a motorboat.
The Australian Self-Soar Association states that the first foot-launch of a hang glider in Australia was in 1972. In Torrance, California, Bill Moyes was assisted in a kited foot-launch by Joe Faust at a beach slope in 1971 or 1972. Moyes went on to build a company with his own trade-named Rogallo wing hang gliders that used the trapeze control frame he had seen in Dickenson's and Australian manned flat-kite ski kites. Bill Moyes and Bill Bennett exported new refinements of their own hang gliders throughout the world. The parawing hang glider was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame in 1995.
Hang gliders have been used with different forms of weight-shift control since Otto Lilienthal. The most common way to shift the center of gravity was to fly while suspended from the underarms by two parallel bars. Gottlob Espenlaub (1922), George Spratt (1929) and Barry Palmer (1962) used pendulum seats for the pilot. Interaction with the frame provided various means of control of the Rogallo winged hang glider.
Today, most Rogallo wings are also controlled by changing their pitch and roll by means of shifting its center of gravity. This is done by suspending the payload from one or more points beneath the wing and then moving the pendulumed mass of the payload (pilot and things else) left or right or forward or aft. Several control methods were studied by NASA for Rogallo wings from 1958 through the 1960s embodied in different versions of the Parawing.
On Rogallo wing hang gliders, John Dickenson used a type of weight-shift control frame composed of a mounted triangular control frame under the wing. The pilot sat on a seat and was sometimes also harnessed about the torso. The pilot was suspended behind the triangular control frame which was used as a hand support to push and pull in order to shift the pilot's weight relative to the mass and attitude of the wing above.
Rogallo skydiving canopies
After NASA discontinued its Paresev research in 1965, the concept of gliding parachutes was pursued for military and other more Earth-bound purposes. These avenues eventually introduced versions of the inflating flexible Rogallo wing to the sport of skydiving. Irvin advertised a Hawk and Eagle model in 1967, but these were only available for a very limited time before they introduced the Irvin Delta II Parawing in 1968. This was the most produced and developed of the early Rogallo wing skydiving canopies. They were manufactured by three of Irvin's factories – in the U.S., Canada and the U.K.
The Delta II had colored suspension lines to help guide the packing process, and also had a unique "Opening Shock Inhibitor" OSI strap that helped retard the high opening speeds and shocks. The packing volume of the canopy was slightly bigger than the then state-of-the-art Para-Commander. As one of the first types of gliding canopy, it received a considerable level of interest from jumpers. However, it developed a reputation for being unreliable, as it seemed prone to malfunctions on opening, possibly due to the unorthodox packing techniques for such a new design of canopy. However, when deployed successfully, the glide and performance was markedly better than a Para-Commander type canopy.
The Delta II was available until 1975 and paved the way for other Rogallo Wing skydiving canopies, such as the Handbury Para-Dactyl. This was made in both single-keel and dual-keel versions as a main parachute in the mid to late 1970s, and also as a reserve parachute version known as a Safety-Dactyl. This was a US-made canopy and featured a sail-slider to reduce opening speeds and opening forces as is normal on a modern ram air canopy. A Russian Rogallo-Wing canopy known as a PZ-81 was available as late as 1995. The Rogallo wing canopy was superseded in the late 1970s by the ram-air canopies which had improved their reliability and performance, and reduced their packed volume, compared to all other gliding and non-gliding parachutes.
Rogallo kites
Rogallo wing kites control pitch with a bridle that sets the wing's angle of attack. A bridle made of string is usually a loop reaching from the front to the end of the center strut of the A-frame. The user ties knots (usually a girth hitch) in the bridle to set the angle of attack. Mass-produced rogallo kites use a bridle that's a triangle of plastic film, with one edge heat-sealed to the central strut.
Steerable Rogallo kites usually have a pair of bridles setting a fixed pitch, and use two strings, one on each side of the kite, to change the roll.
Rogallo also developed a series of soft foil designs in the 1960s which have been modified for traction kiting. These are double keel designs with conic wings and a multiple attachment bridle which can be used with either dual line or quad line controls. They have excellent pull, but suffer from a smaller window than more modern traction designs. Normally the #5 and #9 alternatives are used.
Early Rogallo patents
Despite similar designs having appeared earlier and critical innovations such as the triangular control frame and harness for adequate weight-shift control having been developed by others, Rogallo holds several patents.
Rogallo, Gertrude et al., "Flexible Kite", US patent 2,546,078, Filed November 23, 1948
Rogallo, Gertrude et al., "Flexible Kite", US patent 2,751,172, Filed November 17, 1952
See also
Flight Dynamics Flightsail
Hang gliding
History of hang gliding
Paragliding
Wing
References
External links
Sled kites at the Virtual Kite Zoo.
Rogallo wing and kites.
Landing Gemini
Losing Rogallo from Gemini
Rogallo After Gemini
American inventions
Kites
Aircraft wing design
Hang gliding
Gliding in the United States | [
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|
252932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamo%20Thornycroft | Hamo Thornycroft | Sir William Hamo Thornycroft (9 March 185018 December 1925) was an English sculptor, responsible for some of London's best-known statues, including the statue of Oliver Cromwell outside the Palace of Westminster. He was a keen student of classical sculpture and was one of the youngest artists to be elected to the Royal Academy, in 1882, the same year the bronze cast of Teucer was purchased for the British nation under the auspices of the Chantrey Bequest.
He was a leading figure in the movement known as the New Sculpture, which provided a transition between the neoclassical styles of the 19th century and later modernist developments.
Biography
Hamo Thornycroft was born in London into the Thornycroft family of sculptors. Both of his parents, Thomas and Mary, were distinguished sculptors. As a young child, Hamo was sent to live with an uncle on a farm in Cheshire until, aged nine, he began studying at the Modern Free Grammar School in Macclesfield before, in 1863, returning to London as a pupil at the University College School. He subsequently, from 1869, studied at the Royal Academy, where his primary influence was the painter-sculptor Frederic Leighton. While a student, Thornycroft assisted his father, Thomas, on the monumental statue of Boadicea and Her Daughters beside Westminster Bridge in London. At the Royal Academy Schools, Hamo Thornycroft won two medals and obtained his first paid commission for a work, a bust of a Dr. Sharpey. In 1871, Thornycroft visited Italy and Paris and assisted his father in creating a large fountain, destroyed in World War II, for Park Lane in London, modelling several figures of poets in marble and bronze. During the first half of the 1870s he exhibited works on a regular basis at the Royal Academy, showing Fame, the Sharpey bust, a bust of Mrs Mordaunt and a model for an equestrian statue of Lord Mayo. In 1876 Thornycroft won the Gold Medal of the Royal Academy, with the statue Warrior Bearing a Wounded Youth.
In 1894 the critic Edmund Gosse, coined the term "The New Sculpture" and formulated its early principles from his friendship with Thornycroft. Thornycroft created a series of statues in the ideal genre in the late 1870s and early 1880s that sought to reanimate the format of the classical statue. These included Lot's Wife (1878) and Artemis and her Hound (1880 plaster, 1882 marble). In 1880 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and produced the Homeric bowman Teucer (1881 plaster, 1882 bronze), and the Mower (1884 plaster, 1894 bronze), arguably the first life-size freestanding statue of a contemporary labourer in 19th-century sculpture. A companion piece to the Mower, the Sower was exhibited in 1886 at the Royal Academy.
After 1884, Thornycroft's reputation was secure and he received commissions for a number of major monuments, most notably the innovative General Gordon in Trafalgar Square. He produced other significant statues including an effigy of The Bishop of Carlisle (1895; Carlisle Cathedral), Oliver Cromwell (Westminster), Dean Colet (a bronze group, early Italianate in feeling, outside St Paul's School, Hammersmith), King Alfred (Winchester), the Gladstone Monument (in the Strand, London) and Dr Mandell Creighton, Bishop of London (bronze, erected in St Paul's Cathedral). Other significant memorials were built in several cities of the then British Empire.
Thornycroft continued to be a central member of the sculptural establishment and the Royal Academy into the 20th century. He was awarded the medal of honour at the 1900 Paris Exhibition, and was knighted in 1917. He became increasingly resistant to new developments in sculpture, although his work of the early 1880s helped to catalyse sculpture in the United Kingdom towards those new directions. In sum, he provided an important transition between the neoclassical and academic styles of the 19th century and its fin-de-siècle and modernist departures.
A blue plaque commemorates Thornycroft at 2b Melbury Road, Kensington, his studio designed by his lifelong friend the architect John Belcher, c. 1892.
Family
In addition to his parents, Thornycroft's grandfather John Francis was also a distinguished sculptor. His brother, Sir John Isaac Thornycroft, became a successful naval engineer; their sister, Theresa, was the mother of the poet Siegfried Sassoon; Theresa and sisters Alyce and Helen Thornycroft were artists.
In 1884, Hamo married Agatha Cox, who was fourteen years his junior. At a dinner in 1889, Agatha was introduced to Thomas Hardy, who later described her as "the most beautiful woman in England" and admitted that she was one of the models for the title character in his novel Tess of the D'Urbervilles. Agatha and her husband were interested in the concept of "artistic dress", and a dress worn by her (presumed to be her wedding dress) is held in the costume collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, donated by their daughter, Mary Elfrida Thornycroft, who was also his biographer.
Writings
"Lecture to the Sculpture Students of the Royal Academy of Art, 1885" reprinted in the Journal of the Walpole Society, vol. 69 (2007): 211–26.
Architectural work
The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW) Council commissioned Thornycroft to produce a detailed sculpted frieze for their headquarters at Chartered Accountants Hall for a cost of £3,000.
Thornycroft's frieze, carved between 1889 and 1893, includes a series of figures representing Arts, Sciences, Crafts, Education, Commerce, Manufacture, Agriculture, Mining, Railways, Shipping, India, the Colonies, and Building. The figure of the architect is based on the Hall's architect, John Belcher and the sculptor on Thornycroft himself. The figure of the solicitor is H. Markby of Markby, Stewart & Co., who acted for ICAEW in its early years.
Selected public works
1880 to 1889
1890 to 1899
1900 to 1909
1910 to 1925
Other works
Lord Mayo, 1876, Kolkata, India, bronze equestrian statue
Thomas Clarkson, 1877, St Mary's church, Playford, Suffolk, memorial relief in marble
Thomas Gray, 1885, Chapel of Pembroke College, Cambridge, marble bust and bronze relief
Sir John Goss, 1886, St Paul's Cathedral, marble panel within a larger monument by John Belcher
Henry Bradshaw, 1887, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, marble bust
General Gordon, 1889, Melbourne, Australia, bronze statue on pedestal
Sir Steuart Bayley, 1894, Kolkata, marble statue
George Leveson-Gower, exhibited 1895, unveiled 1896, Central Lobby, Houses of Parliament, marble statue
Bishop Harvey Goodwin, 1895, Carlisle Cathedral, bronze effigy with figures
Queen Victoria, 1899, Durban, South Africa, marble statue on stone pedestal with bronze figures.
Boer War memorial, 1905, Durban, bronze figure of Peace descending on pedestal with figures and reliefs
Bishop Mandell Creighton, 1905, St Paul's Cathedral, London, bronze statue
Queen Victoria, 1906, Karachi, Pakistan, marble statue and pedestal with bronze figures and relief panels, removed 1962.
Bishop Mandell Creighton, 1909, Lambeth Palace, London, bronze bust
George V as the Prince of Wales, 1911, Kolkata, marble statue
Lord Curzon, 1912, Kolkata, bronze statue on Portland stone pedestal with figures and reliefs, partly dismantled
Thomas Hardy, 1915, National Portrait Gallery, London, bust
Edward VII, 1916, Karachi, marble statue on pedestal with bronze groups, dismantled.
Gallery
References
Further reading
Beattie, Susan. The New Sculpture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983.
Friedman, Terry, ed. The Alliance of Sculpture and Architecture. Leeds: Henry Moore Institute, 1993.
Getsy, David, "The Problem of Realism in Hamo Thornycroft's 1885 Royal Academy Lecture," The Walpole Society 69 (2007): 211–25.
Gosse, Edmund. "Our Living Artists: Hamo Thornycroft, A.R.A." Magazine of Art, 1881, pp. 328–32.
Read, Benedict. Victorian Sculpture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
White, Adam. Hamo Thornycroft and the Martyr General. Leeds: Henry Moore Institute, 1991.
External links
Papers of the Thornycroft Family, in the Archive of Sculptors Papers at the Henry Moore Institute, Leeds
Thornycroft works in the Tate Collection, London
The Victorian Web, featuring links to images of works
1850 births
1925 deaths
20th-century British sculptors
19th-century British sculptors
English male sculptors
People of the Victorian era
British architectural sculptors
Royal Academicians
Sculptors from London
Knights Bachelor
People educated at University College School
Hamo
Artists' Rifles soldiers
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|
252935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20British%20brigades%20of%20the%20Second%20World%20War | List of British brigades of the Second World War | This is a list of British Brigades in the Second World War. It is intended as a central place to access resources about formations of brigade size that served in the British Army during the Second World War.
List of British airborne brigades of the Second World War (includes airlanding and parachute brigades)
List of British anti-aircraft brigades of the Second World War
List of British infantry brigades of the Second World War (1–100)
List of British infantry brigades of the Second World War (101–308 and named)
List of British mobile brigades during the Second World War (includes armoured, cavalry, armoured reconnaissance, motor machine gun, support groups, and tank brigades)
List of British special service brigades of the Second World War
See also
British Army during the Second World War
British deception formations in World War II
British infantry brigades of the First World War
Military history of Britain during World War II
Lists of military units and formations of World War II
Brigades, World War II
Brigades | [
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252938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo%20%28carving%29 | Cameo (carving) | Cameo () is a method of carving an object such as an engraved gem, item of jewellery or vessel. It nearly always features a raised (positive) relief image; contrast with intaglio, which has a negative image. Originally, and still in discussing historical work, cameo only referred to works where the relief image was of a contrasting colour to the background; this was achieved by carefully carving a piece of material with a flat plane where two contrasting colours met, removing all the first colour except for the image to leave a contrasting background.
A variation of a carved cameo is a cameo incrustation (or sulphide). An artist, usually an engraver, carves a small portrait, then makes a cast from the carving, from which a ceramic type cameo is produced. This is then encased in a glass object, often a paperweight. These are very difficult to make but were popular from the late 18th century through the end of the 19th century. Originating in Bohemia, the finest examples were made by the French glassworks in the early to mid-nineteenth century.
Today the term may be used very loosely for objects with no colour contrast, and other, metaphorical, terms have developed, such as cameo appearance. This derives from another generalized meaning that has developed, the cameo as an image of a head in an oval frame in any medium, such as a photograph.
Technique
Ancient and Renaissance cameos were made from semi-precious gemstones, especially the various types of onyx and agate, and any other stones with a flat plane where two contrasting colours meet; these are "hardstone" cameos. In cheaper modern work, shell and glass are more common. Glass cameo vessels, such as the famous Portland Vase, were also developed by the Romans.
Modern cameos can be produced by setting a carved relief, such as a portrait, onto a background of a contrasting colour. This is called an assembled cameo. Alternatively, a cameo can be carved by the traditional, but far more difficult, method directly out of a material with integral layers or banding, such as (banded) agate or layered glass, where different layers have different colours.
Sometimes dyes are used to enhance these colours.
History
Sir Wallis Budge alleged that the noun "Cameo" apparently comes from Kame'o, a word used in kabbalistic slang to signify a "magical square", i.e. a kind of talisman whereupon magical spells was carved.
Cameos are often worn as jewelry, but in ancient times were mainly used for signet rings and large earrings, although the largest examples were probably too large for this, and were just admired as objets d'art. Stone cameos of great artistry were made in Greece dating back as far as the 5th century BC.The Farnese Tazza (a cup) is the oldest major Hellenistic piece surviving. They were very popular in Ancient Rome, especially in the family circle of Augustus. The most famous stone "state cameos" from this period are the Gemma Augustea, the Gemma Claudia made for the Emperor Claudius, and the largest flat engraved gem known from antiquity, the Great Cameo of France. Roman Cameos became less common around in the years leading up to 300AD, although production continued at a much reduced rate right through the Middle Ages.
The technique has since enjoyed periodic revivals, notably in the early Renaissance, and again in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Neoclassical revival began in France with Napoleon's support of the glyptic arts, and even his coronation crown was decorated with cameos.
In Britain, this revival first occurred during King George III's reign, and his granddaughter, Queen Victoria, was a major proponent of the cameo trend, to the extent that they would become mass-produced by the second half of the 19th century.
The visual art form of the cameo has even inspired at least one writer of more recent times, the 19th-century Russian poet Lev Mei, who composed a cycle of six poems entitled (Cameos, 1861), as reflections on each of the Roman rulers from Julius Caesar to Nero. In 1852 Théophile Gautier titled a collection of his highly polished, lapidary poems Emaux et Camées (Enamels and Cameos).
Roman glass cameos
During the Roman period the cameo technique was used on glass blanks, in imitation of objects being produced in agate or sardonyx. Cameo glass objects were produced in two periods; between around 25 BC and 50/60 AD, and in the later Empire around the mid-third and mid-fourth century. Roman glass cameos are rare objects, with only around two hundred fragments and sixteen complete pieces known, only one of which dates from the later period. During the early period they usually consisted of a blue glass base with a white overlying layer, but those made during the later period usually have a colourless background covered with a translucent coloured layer. Blanks could be produced by fusing two separately cast sheets of glass, or by dipping the base glass into a crucible of molten overlay glass during blowing. The most famous example of a cameo from the early period is the Portland Vase.
Shell cameos
Although occasionally used in Roman cameos, the earliest prevalent use of shell for cameo carving was during the Renaissance, in the 15th and 16th centuries. Before that time, cameos were carved from hardstone. The Renaissance cameos are typically white on a grayish background and were carved from the shell of a mussel or cowry, the latter a tropical mollusk.
In the mid 18th century, explorations revealed new shell varieties. Helmet shells (Cassis tuberosa) from the West Indies, and queen conch shells (Eustrombus gigas) from the Bahamas and West Indies, arrived in Europe. This sparked a big increase in the number of cameos that were carved from shells. Conch shells carve very well, but their color fades over time.
After 1850 demand for cameos grew, as they became popular souvenirs of the Grand Tour among the middle class.
Cameo subjects
Classically the designs carved onto cameo stones were either scenes of Greek or Roman mythology or portraits of rulers or important dignitaries. In history, agate portrait cameos were often gifts from royalty to their subjects. These antique cameos, some more than 2000 years old, are either displayed in museums or are in private collections.
Notable historic cameos
Gemma Augustea Cameo – Roman, after 10 AD. Two-layered onyx.
"Tazza Farnese". An ancient Hellenistic bowl made of a very large cameo and purchased by Lorenzo de' Medici during the Italian Renaissance.
Cup of the Ptolemies, a large Roman or Hellenistic vessel.
Portland Vase, the best known piece of cameo glass.
Great Cameo of France – Roman, c. 23 AD. Sardonyx.
Gemma Claudia Cameo – Roman, 49 AD. Five-layered onyx.
Herophiloska Cameo – Roman, 14 to 37 AD. This portrait of a man with laurel wreath is probably of Emperor Tiberius. The work is signed "Herophilos Dioskourid[ou]" ("Herophilus, son of Dioscorides"). The colour of the glass was intended by the artist to imitate turquoise.
"Gonzaga Cameo": Ptolemy II and Arsinoë II. Sardonyx. 3rd century BC.
Agrippina the Elder Cameo. Carved in Italy in the period of 37–41 AD. The carving is a three layer agate.
Ptolemaic double cameo-Hellenistic, 278–270/269 BC. Eleven-layered onyx.
Blacas Cameo: Roman, about 20–50 AD. This head of Augustus was carved from a four-layered sardonyx. It is a fragment of a larger portrait of the Roman emperor-Augustus.
"The head of Flora Cameo" – Benedetto Pistrucci. 1812 AD. In this cameo the top red-brown layer has been carved into roses. The face is carved from the white layer. The collector Richard Payne Knight purchased the Flora cameo from an Italian dealer, believing it to be Roman. The Italian carver Pistrucci claimed to have carved it himself. Payne challenged Pistrucci to carve a copy to prove his claim. The ensuing publicity earned Pistrucci several commissions.
Schaffhausen onyx – Roman, Augustan-era, depicting Pax Augusta or Felicitas
Modern cameos
Many modern cameos are carved into layered agates. The layers are dyed to create strong color contrasts. The most usual colors used for two-layer stones are white on black, white on blue, and white on red-brown. Three-layer stones are sometimes made. The colors are usually black on white on black. The layers are translucent; this allows the artist to create shading effects by removing material to allow the background layer to show through. This way a very realistic, lifelike quality to a figure can be achieved. For example, thinning the top black layer on a three-layer stone changes its color to shades of brown. Removing material from the white layer creates shades of blue or grey, depending on the color of the base.
Ultrasonic machine carved cameos
The majority of modern agate cameos are carved with the aid of the Ultrasonic Mill. This is a process where multiple copies of a master design can be produced very quickly by pressing a master die onto the agate cameo blank. A film of diamond slurry is used to aid cutting and the die vibrates ultrasonically in a vertical motion. The master is often hand carved by a skilled cameo artist.
The result is a cameo that has a satin surface texture described as "freshly fallen snow" (FFS) by Anna Miller. This texture and the lack of any undercutting are used by appraisers as markers to prove that the cameo is machine-made.
Hand-worked portrait cameos
These cameos are carved by hand, usually working from photographs of the subject. The fact that there is usually only one copy made means that the tooling costs involved rule out the ultrasonic carving process.
There are very few people working in this field, as this is one of the hardest challenges for any gemstone carver. The combination of a highly developed artistic ability, craft skill and many years of experience are needed to be able to create lifelike portraits.
It is quite rare, these days, for subjects other than portraits to be carved by hand as agate cameos. The traditional themes of classical scenes from mythology or a standard image of a young lady, are more likely to be made with the help of the ultrasonic carving machine as a limited collection of typically 50–200 pieces.
Shell cameos
Since the late 19th century, the species most used in good-quality cameos has been Cypraecassis rufa, the bullmouth helmet, the shell of which can be up to 6 inches long. In this species, the upper shell layer is whitish, and the lower shell layer is a rich orange-brown. Modern sources for this shell are Madagascar and South Africa. The finest hand-carving of these shells takes place in Italy.
The most highly prized shell for carving is the emperor or queen's helmet shell, Cassis madagascariensis. This shell has white and dark brown layers and is known as sardonyx shell, and looks similar to the layered agate known as sardonyx. This shell is found in the waters of the Caribbean.
The world center for cameo carving in shell is Torre del Greco, Italy. The shells are first marked with a series of ovals in a process called signing, then cut into oval blanks for the cameo carver. The actual cameo is mainly cut with a metal scraping tool called a bulino, an invention of Jewish artisan Antonio Cimeniello. A number of metal gravers are used: flat-faced, round and three-cornered. To speed production, grinding wheels are used to quickly remove excess material. When the details are completed, the shell is then soaked in olive oil, cleaned with soap and water and selectively polished with a hand brush.
Notable carvers
Giovanni Noto (1902-1985)-Torre del Greco, Italy
Tommaso Saulini (1793-1864)-Rome, Italy
Luigi Saulini (1819-1883)-Rome, Italy, (son of Tommaso)
See also
Cross of Lothair contains in its center the three-layered cameo of the Roman Emperor Augustus.
Jasperware - popular ceramic imitation of cameos
References
Bibliography
Dunlop, Paul H., The Jokelson Collection of Cameo Incrustation,
External links
Antique Cameos in the Hermitage Museum
Gareth Eckley (cameo-artist)
August Rudolf Wild 1891-1956, Gemmenschneider (cameo-artist)
Gerhard Schmidt, Gemmenschneider (cameo-artist)
Ancient Roman technology
Gemstone cutting
Glass art
Hardstone carving
Jewellery components
Types of sculpture | [
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252942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algernon%20Sidney | Algernon Sidney | Algernon Sidney or Sydney (15 January 1623 – 7 December 1683) was an English politician, republican political theorist and colonel. A member of the middle part of the Long Parliament and commissioner of the trial of King Charles I of England, he opposed the king's execution. Sidney was later charged with plotting against Charles II, in part based on his most famous work, Discourses Concerning Government, which was used by the prosecution as a witness at his trial. He was executed for treason. After his death, Sidney was revered as a "Whig patriot–hero and martyr".
The works of Algernon Sidney, along with those of contemporary John Locke, are considered a cornerstone of western thought. Discourses Concerning Government cost Sidney his life. However, the ideas it put forth survived and ultimately culminated in the Glorious Revolution in England and the founding of the United States. Sidney directly opposed the theory of divine right of kings by suggesting ideas such as limited government, voluntary consent of the people and the right of citizens to alter or abolish a corrupt government. Discourses Concerning Government has been called "the textbook of the American revolution."
Early life
Sidney's father was Robert Sidney, 2nd Earl of Leicester, a direct descendant of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland and the great-nephew of Sir Philip Sidney. His mother was Dorothy Percy, daughter of Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland. Sidney was born at Baynard's Castle, London, and was raised at Penshurst Place in Kent. His mother wrote to her husband in November 1636 that she had heard their son "much comended by all that comes from you . . . [for] a huge deall of witt and much sweetness of nature".
English Civil War and Republic
Despite having earlier vowed that only "extreme necessity shall make me thinke of bearing arms in England", Sidney served in the Army of the Eastern Association, becoming lieutenant colonel of the Earl of Manchester's regiment of horse (cavalry). He fought at the Battle of Marston Moor in 1644, where an observer wrote: "Colonel Sidney charged with much gallantry in the head of my Lord Manchester's regiment of horses, and came off with many wounds, the true badges of his honour". He was later appointed colonel of the regiment when it was transferred to the New Model Army, but relinquished the appointment due to ill health.
In 1645 Sidney was elected to the Long Parliament as Member of Parliament for Cardiff where he opposed compromising with the King, Charles I. In 1648 he opposed the purge of moderates who had formed the Rump Parliament. Despite being a commissioner for the trial of Charles, Sidney opposed the decision to execute the king, believing it to be of questionable lawfulness and wisdom. He said in explaining his view:
By 1649 Sidney had changed his opinion, declaring the king's execution as "the justest and bravest act ... that ever was done in England, or anywhere".
In 1653 when Cromwell's army entered Parliament to dissolve it after a Bill was introduced that would have made elections more free, Sidney refused to leave the House until threatened with physical removal. He regarded Cromwell as a tyrant.
In retirement, Sidney was bold enough to outrage the Lord Protector by allegedly putting on a performance of Julius Caesar, and playing the role of Brutus. He was for a time the lover of Lucy Walter, later the mistress of Charles II. Sidney regarded the Republic as vigorously pursuing England's national interests (in contrast to the Stuarts' record of military failure), writing in his Discourses Concerning Government:
Baltic ambassador
After Cromwell's death in 1658, the army abolished the Protectorate in 1659 and reconvened the Rump Parliament, with Sidney taking up his seat in the Commons. During 1659–1660 he was part of a delegation to help arbitrate peace between Denmark and Sweden, as war would threaten England's naval supplies, as well as those of the Dutch. The delegation was commanded by Edward Montagu, with Sidney and Sir Robert Honeywood. The third planned plenipotentiary, Bulstrode Whitelocke, declined because: "I knew well the overruling temper and height of Colonel Sydney".
Sidney discarded conventional diplomatic norms ("a few shots of our cannon would have made this peace") to impose a peace favourable to England. Due to the Swedish king Charles X being unable to immediately receive them, the delegation negotiated with the Dutch on forming a joint fleet to impose peace terms. Charles X complained that the English "wish to command all, as if they were masters". Sidney in person handed Charles the treaty proposal (already accepted by Denmark), threatening military action. He recorded that Charles "in great choler ... told us, that we made projects upon our fleets, and he, laying his hand upon his sword, had a project by his side". Sidney would not back down and an observer wrote: "Everyone is amazed how Sidney stood up to him". But, Montagu planned to go back to England with the fleet, leading Sidney to give "his opinion, [that] for sending away the whole fleet he thought he should deserve to lose his head".
Despite this curtailment of England's influence, Denmark, Sweden, France, England and Holland signed a treaty on 27 May 1660. It was during this period that Sidney signed the visitor's book at the University of Copenhagen with: "PHILIPPUS SIDNEY MANUS HAEC INIMICA TYRANNIS ENSE PETIT PLACIDAM CUM LIBERTATE QUIETEM" ("This hand, enemy to tyrants, by the sword seeks peace with liberty"). This expression was incorporated into the Great Seal of Massachusetts in 1780 by act of legislature during the American Revolutionary War.
Exile
Sidney was abroad when the monarchy was restored in 1660. His first reaction to the Restoration of the Stuart monarchy was to write:
Because in 1659 he had defended the execution of Charles I, Sidney thought it wise to remain in exile in Rome. While he was prepared to submit he would not, he wrote, countenance "acknowledgement of our faults, in having bin against this king, or his father. ... I shall be better contented with my fortune, when I see theare was noe way of avoiding it, that is not worse than ruine". He was saved by a stranger from an assassination attempt. In 1663 during a trip to the Calvinist academy at the University of Geneva, Sidney wrote in the visitor's book: "SIT SANGUINIS ULTOR JUSTORUM" ("Let there be revenge for the blood of the just"). In Augsburg in April 1665, he was the target of another assassination attempt.
When in Holland, Gilbert Burnet records, Sidney and other republicans:
In mid-1666 Sidney was in Paris, where he negotiated with the king, Louis XIV. Louis subsequently wrote that Sidney "promised me to produce a great uprising ... but the proposition he put to me to advance him 100,000 ecus ... was more than I wished to expose on the word of a fugitive [so] I offered him [initially] only 20,000". He remained in France until 1677, when he returned to England.
Court Maxims
During 1665–66 Sidney wrote Court Maxims, in which he argued for a reversal of the Restoration of the monarchy: " ... as death is the greatest evil that can befall a person, monarchy is the worst evil that can befall a nation". Sidney also claimed that an English republic would have a natural "unity of interest" with the Dutch Republic in "extirpat[ing] the two detested families of Stuart and Orange". This manuscript was not widely known, and Court Maxims was not published until 1996.
Restoration Crisis: 1677–1683
Sidney returned to England in early September 1677. On his father's death, Sidney inherited £5,100, but to obtain his inheritance was forced to bring a lawsuit against his brothers, who as executors of the estate had refused to pay him the money, in the Court of Chancery. Although he won the case the proceedings were lengthy and required him to remain in England for several years. He stayed at Leicester House in London. Here he became involved in politics, with the French ambassador, Paul Barillon writing on 6 October:
Due to his helping gain the fall of Danby in December 1678, Sidney received 500 guineas from the French, getting another 500 guineas the next year. Sidney wished for an alliance of English and Dutch republicans against the Stuart–Orange alliance and told Barillon "that it is an old error to believe that it is against the interest of France to suffer England to become a republic". Sidney believed that it was a "fundamental principle that the House of Stuart and that of Orange are inseparably united".
After the dissolution of Charles II's last Parliament in 1681, Sidney, according to Burnet, helped write the answer to the king's declaration, entitled A Just and Modest Vindication of the Proceedings of the Two Last Parliaments: "An answer was writ to the king's declaration with great spirit and true judgment. It was at first penned by Sidney. But a new draught was made by Somers, and corrected by Jones".
Sidney united with Lord Shaftesbury and others in plotting against the perceived royal tyranny, of a 'force without authority.' Sidney was later to be implicated in the Rye House Plot, a scheme to assassinate Charles and his brother James, who later became King James II.
Trial and execution
On 25 June 1683 Sidney's arrest warrant was issued. During his arrest his papers were confiscated, including the draft of the Discourses. He was tried on 7 November 1683. William Howard, 3rd Baron Howard of Escrick was the only witness, and since the law stated that two witnesses were necessary, the government used the Discourses as its second witness. Lord Chief Justice Jeffreys (whose conduct of the trial caused much criticism, then and later) ruled: "Scribere est agere" ("to write is to act").
Heneage Finch, the Solicitor General, described the Discourses as "An argument for the people to rise up in arms against the King". In response, Sidney said that it was easy to condemn him by quoting his words out of context: "If you take the scripture to pieces you will make all the penmen of the scripture blasphemous; you may accuse David of saying there is no God and of the Apostles that they were drunk." He argued that he was entitled to write what he chose, as long as he did not publish it. Jeffreys replied that no man has a right to curse the King, in public or in private. Sidney was found guilty of treason and sentenced to death on 26 November. Jeffreys, ill-tempered as ever, said that he hoped God would put Sidney into a proper state to enter the next world "for I see you are not fit for this one".
In The Apology of Algernon Sydney, in the Day of his Death, Sidney wrote that his life's work was to:
He petitioned the King for mercy on the grounds of Jeffreys' unprofessional conduct, and friends and relatives added their pleas: but the King was as implacable as he had been in the case of William Russell, Lord Russell. Sidney now resigned himself to death, remarking coarsely that for all he cared "the King can make a snuffbox from my arse".
On the scaffold, Sidney argued that his conviction was unlawful, disputing the quality of the evidence against him and pointing out various deviations from proper legal procedure at his trial. He also reiterated his objections to absolute monarchy from Discourses Concerning Government, arguing that these did not constitute treason. Still, he observed that he was abstaining from tackling truly "great matters" in this last speech of his, because "We live in an age that makes truth pass for treason". He concluded by declaring that he was dying for the Good Old Cause.
He was beheaded on 7 December 1683, and his remains were buried at Penshurst.
Discourses Concerning Government
For Sidney absolute monarchy was a great political evil. His Discourses Concerning Government (the text for which Sidney lost his life) was written during the Exclusion Crisis, as a response to Robert Filmer's Patriarcha, a defense of divine right monarchy, first published in 1680. The divine right of kings is a political system in which all powers of government are vested solely in the king and granted to him by God. Under this system, the king acts as God's hand on earth. His power extends beyond government into the private religious life of his subjects. Under this system, citizens were often persecuted and imprisoned for their religious beliefs. It is this divine right of kings government that Sidney strongly opposed. In 1698, his Discourses Concerning Government was published outlining what he believed constituted a valid civil government.
Sidney believed that the individuals have the right to choose their own form of government and that, if that government became corrupt, the people retained the power to abolish it and form another. In his own words, "God leaves to man the choice of forms in government ... He who institutes, may also abrogate."
Sidney also argued that for a valid civil government to exist, it must be formed by general and voluntary consent. Sidney states in his Discourses Concerning Government that, "General consent ... is the ground of all just governments."
Furthermore, Sidney believed that civil government should have limited jurisdiction. He said the, "only ends for which governments are constituted and obedience rendered to them, are the obtaining of justice and protection." This suggests a limited civil government whose primary purpose is to 1) render legal justice through its court system and 2) provide for the safety of its citizens. We can also conclude from Sidney that, if a government fails to accomplish these basic components, obedience to that government is no longer required.
Sidney's Discourses Concerning Government along with Locke's Two Treatises on Government are recognized as critical works in the founding of the United States of America. The founding fathers read and studied these works during their years as students in the early colonial universities. Thomas Jefferson in particular, is known to have heavily studied and researched the works of Locke and Sidney. The Discourses Concerning Government has been called the "textbook of the American Revolution."
Legacy
After his death, Sidney was revered as the "Whig patriot–hero and martyr". Burnet said of Sidney:
Sidney's influence on political thought in eighteenth-century Britain and Colonial America was probably second only to that of John Locke among seventeenth-century political theorists. In his study of political theory in Britain from 1689 to 1720, J. P. Kenyon said that Sidney's Discourses "were certainly much more influential than Locke's Two Treatises". The poet James Thomson, in his poem The Seasons, praised Sidney as "the British Cassius", the hero "warmed" by "ancient learning to the enlightened love/Of ancient freedom".
Sidney's reputation suffered a blow when Sir John Dalrymple published his Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland in 1771, which exposed him as a pensioner of Louis XIV. Dalrymple, who had greatly admired Sidney, wrote that he would hardly feel more shame if he had seen his own son run away from a battle.
The Whig MP Charles James Fox described Sidney and Lord Russell as "two names that will, it is hoped, be ever dear to every English heart" and predicted that "when their memory shall cease to be an object of respect and veneration ... English liberty will be fast approaching its final consummation".
Sidney had a significant effect on the American conception of liberty. He was a hero of John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, "the best-read and most widely regarded pamphleteers of prerevolutionary times." In their 1720-1723 essays Cato's Letters, they adopted Sidney's argument that "free men always have the right to resist tyrannical government"; those essays, in turn, inspired the name of the modern libertarian think tank the Cato Institute. Thomas Jefferson believed Sidney and Locke to be the two primary sources for the Founding Fathers' view of liberty.
John Adams wrote to Jefferson in 1823 on the subject of Sidney:
The Whig historian Thomas Babington Macaulay said of Sidney in 1828:
But in 1848, Macaulay wrote of the Whig opposition to Charles II:
The libertarian philosopher Friedrich Hayek quoted Sidney's Discourses on the title page of his The Constitution of Liberty: "Our inquiry is not after that which is perfect, well knowing that no such thing is found among men; but we seek that human Constitution which is attended with the least, or the most pardonable inconveniences".
Algernon Sidney is one of the namesakes for Hampden–Sydney College in Virginia. The College formerly used the original spelling of Sidney. He was chosen because of the role his ideas played in moulding the beliefs of the American Revolutionary thinkers.
Sidney became widely used as a given name in the United States after the American Revolution due to admiration for Algernon Sidney as a martyr to royal tyranny.
Works
Sidney, Algernon: Discourses Concerning Government (London, 1698, and later editions);
Sidney, Algernon: Apology in the Day of His Death;
Sidney, Algernon: The Administration and the Opposition. Addressed to the Citizens of New-Hampshire (Concord, Jacob B. Moore, 1826, ASIN B000IUQ14Q)
Sidney, Algernon: Algernon Sidneys Betrachtungen über Regierungsformen (Leipzig, Weygand, 1793: German translation of Discourses Concerning Government)
Sidney, Algernon: Discourses Concerning Government, ed. Thomas G. West (Indianapolis, 1996, )
Sidney, Algernon: Court Maxims, Cambridge University Press, in series Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought, 1996, )
Sidney, Algernon: Discourses on Government. To Which is Added, An Account of the Author's Life (The Lawbook Exchange, New York, 2002 reprint, )
See also: Published literature from and about Algernon Sidney.
Notes
Bibliography
, with...
Further reading
Everdell, Williams R. (2000). The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. University of Chicago Press.
External links
"Colonel Sidney's Speech – Delivered to the sheriff on the scaffold December 7th 1683"
William F. Campbell: Classical Republicans, Whigs, and Tories, Louisiana State University
Why did the Whigs fail to force exclusion on Charles II.?
1623 births
1683 deaths
17th-century English diplomats
17th-century philosophers
English republicans
British classical liberals
English political philosophers
Executed philosophers
Executed politicians
Executions at the Tower of London
Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports
Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for constituencies in Wales
People executed by Stuart England by hanging, drawing and quartering
Executed people from London
People of the Rye House Plot
Roundheads
Algernon
English politicians convicted of crimes
Politicians from London
Diplomats from London
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|
252943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards | 2001 Governor General's Awards | The 2001 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were presented by Adrienne Clarkson, Governor General of Canada, at a ceremony at Rideau Hall on November 14. Each winner received a cheque for $15,000.
English-language finalists
Fiction
Richard B. Wright, Clara Callan
Yann Martel, Life of Pi
Tessa McWatt, Dragons Cry
Jane Urquhart, The Stone Carvers
Thomas Wharton, Salamander
Poetry
George Elliott Clarke, Execution Poems
Anne Carson, Men in the Off Hours
Phil Hall, Trouble Sleeping
Robert Kroetsch, The Hornbooks of Rita K.
Steve McCaffery, Seven Pages Missing
Drama
Kent Stetson, The Harps of God
Mark Brownell, Monsieur d'Eon
Clem Martini, A Three Martini Lunch
Michael Redhill, Building Jerusalem
Jason Sherman, An Acre of Time: The Play
Non-fiction
Thomas Homer-Dixon, The Ingenuity Gap
Susan Crean, The Laughing One: A Journey to Emily Carr
Ross A. Laird, Grain of Truth: The Ancient Lessons of Craft
Alberto Manguel, Reading Pictures: A History of Love and Hate
Jack Todd, The Taste of Metal: A Deserter's Story
Children's literature (text)
Arthur Slade, Dust
Brian Doyle, Mary Ann Alice
Beth Goobie, Before Wings
Julie Johnston, In Spite of Killer Bees
Teresa Toten, The Game
Children's literature (illustration)
Mireille Levert, An Island in the Soup
Harvey Chan, Wild Bog Tea
Murray Kimber, The Wolf of Gubbio
Kim LaFave, We'll All Go Sailing
Cindy Revell, Mallory and the Power Boy
French-to-English translation
Fred A. Reed and David Homel, Fairy Ring (Martine Desjardins, Le Cercle de Clara)
Sheila Fischman, The Little Girl Who Was Too Fond of Matches (Gaétan Soucy, La petite fille qui aimait trop les allumettes)
Gail Scott, The Sailor's Disquiet (Michael Delisle, Le Désarroi du matelot)
French-language finalists
Fiction
Andrée A. Michaud,
Marie-Claire Blais,
Rachel Leclerc,
Poetry
Paul Chanel Malenfant,
Tania Langlais,
Hélène Monette,
Stefan Psenak,
Jean-Philippe Raîche,
Drama
Normand Chaurette,
François Archambault,
Réjane Charpentier,
Michel Ouellette, "Requiem", in
Non-fiction
Renée Dupuis,
Jacques Allard,
Michel Biron,
Madeleine Gagnon,
Jacques B. Gélinas,
Children's literature (text)
Christiane Duchesne,
Cécile Gagnon,
Ann Lamontagne,
Marthe Pelletier,
Jean-Michel Schembré,
Children's literature (illustration)
Bruce Roberts,
Marjolaine Bonenfant,
Pascale Constantin,
Stéphane Poulin,
Mylène Pratt,
English-to-French translationMichel Saint-Germain, 'Agnès Guitard, Maryse Warda, ''
References
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards | [
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252944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthmark | Birthmark | A birthmark is a congenital, benign irregularity on the skin which is present at birth or appears shortly after birth—usually in the first month. They can occur anywhere on the skin. Birthmarks are caused by overgrowth of blood vessels, melanocytes, smooth muscle, fat, fibroblasts, or keratinocytes.
Dermatologists divide birthmarks into two types: pigmented birthmarks and vascular birthmarks. Pigmented birthmarks caused by excess skin pigment cells include: moles, café au lait spots, and Mongolian spots. Vascular birthmarks, also called red birthmarks, are caused by increased blood vessels and include macular stains (salmon patches), hemangiomas, and port-wine stains. A little over 1 in 10 babies have a vascular birthmark present by age 1. Several birthmark types are part of the group of skin lesions known as nevi or naevi, which is Latin for "birthmarks".
Birthmarks occur as a result of a localized imbalance in factors controlling the development and migration of skin cells. In addition, it is known that vascular birthmarks are not hereditary.
Pigmented types
Mole
Congenital melanocytic nevus is a type of melanocytic nevus, the medical term for what is colloquially called a "mole", found in infants at birth. Occurring in about 1% of infants in the United States, it is located in the area of the head and neck 15% of the time, but may occur anywhere on the body. It may appear as light brown in fair-skinned people, to almost black in people with darker skin. Coming in a variety of sizes and appearances, they may be irregular in shape and flat, or raised and lumpy in appearance and feel. Such naevi can also manifest themselves as beauty marks, which most commonly appear on the face, neck or arms.
Café au lait spot
Café au lait spot macules may occur anywhere on the body. They are most commonly oval in shape and light brown, or milk coffee, in color. These birthmarks may be present at birth, or appear in early childhood, and do not fade much with age. One or two on an individual is common; however, four or more may be an indicator of neurofibromatosis. In the event of weight gain, the birthmark can stretch with the skin and become larger.
Mongolian spot
A Mongolian blue spot (dermal melanocytosis) is a benign flat congenital birthmark with wavy borders and irregular shape, most common among East Asians and Turkic people (excluding Turks of Asia Minor), and named after Mongolians. It is also extremely prevalent among East Africans and Native Americans. It normally disappears three to five years after birth and almost always by puberty. The most common color is blue, although they can be blue-gray, blue-black or even deep brown.
The Mongolian spot is a congenital developmental condition exclusively involving the skin. The blue colour is caused by melanocytes, melanin-containing cells, that are deep under the skin. Usually, as multiple spots or one large patch, it covers one or more of the lumbosacral area (lower back), the buttocks, sides, and shoulders. It results from the entrapment of melanocytes in the dermis during their migration from the neural crest to the epidermis during embryonic development.
Among those who are not aware of the background of the Mongolian spots, it may sometimes be mistaken for a bruise indicative of child abuse.
Vascular types
Stork bite
Colloquially called a "stork bite", "angel's kiss" or "salmon patch", telangiectatic nevus appears as a pink or tanned, flat, irregularly shaped mark on the knee, back of the neck, and/or the forehead, eyelids and, sometimes, the top lip. The skin is not thickened and feels no different from anywhere else on the body; the only difference is in appearance. Nearly half of all babies have such a birthmark.
Strawberry mark
An infantile hemangioma, colloquially called a strawberry mark, is a benign self-involuting tumor (swelling or growth) of endothelial cells, the cells that line blood vessels. It usually appears during the first weeks of life and resolves by age 10. It is the most common tumor of infancy.
PHACES Syndrome, a rare condition that often involves brain, heart, and arterial abnormalities, is generally accompanied by the presence of large facial hemangiomas. In such cases, what appears to be a small bruise or birthmark may grow rapidly and take on a puffy appearance in the first days or weeks of life.
Port-wine stain
Port-wine stains, also known as nevus flammeus and sometimes mistaken for strawberry marks, are present at birth and range from a pale pink in color, to a deep wine-red. Irregular in appearance, they are usually quite large, and caused by a deficiency or absence in the nerve supply to blood vessels. This causes vasodilation, the dilation of blood vessels, causing blood to pool or collect in the affected area. Over time, port-wine stains may become thick or develop small ridges or bumps, and do not fade with age. Such birthmarks may have emotional or social repercussions. Port-wine stains occur in 0.3% of the population, equally among males and females. They frequently express unilaterally, i.e., on only one side, not crossing the midline of the body. Often on the face, marks on the upper eyelid or forehead may be indicative of a condition called Sturge-Weber syndrome. Additionally, port-wine stains in these locations may be associated with glaucoma and seizures.
Treatment
Most birthmarks are harmless and do not require treatment. Pigmented marks can resolve on their own over time in some cases. Vascular birthmarks may require reduction or removal for cosmetic reasons. Treatments include administering oral or injected steroids, dermatological lasers to reduce size and/or color, or dermatologic surgery.
References
External links
Birthmarks via the Cleveland Clinic
Vascular Birthmarks Foundation
Birthmarks via MedlinePlus
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|
252946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy%20chess | Fairy chess | Fairy chess is the area of chess composition in which there are some changes to the rules of chess. The term was introduced by Henry Tate in 1914. Thomas R. Dawson (1889–1951), the "father of fairy chess", invented many fairy pieces and new conditions. He was also problem editor of Fairy Chess Review (1930–1951).
Although the term "fairy chess" is sometimes used for games, it is more usually applied to problems where the board, pieces, or rules are changed to express an idea or theme impossible in orthodox chess.
Types of fairy chess problems
Types of changed rules in fairy chess problems include:
New stipulations: Probably the most-used alterations are new stipulations about mate instead of a direct mate stipulation. Many of them were invented and some became established. Selfmates and helpmates are nowadays often considered to be orthodox (not fairy) stipulations. Among others are reflexmates, various types of seriesmovers or, recently, very popular helpselfmates.
New conditions: Encompassing all changes of rules including rules for captures, checks, checkmates, general movement abilities, etc. Many were invented; some became established, including Circe chess, Madrasi chess, Andernach chess, monochromatic chess, patrol chess, and Einstein chess.
New chess pieces: Conventional chess pieces are generalized in many ways (grasshopper, nightrider, cannon, etc.). See main article Fairy chess pieces.
Different boards: One can vary board size from 8×8 to other sizes (10×10, 8×10, unusual board shapes, etc.) or use different geometries: cylinder (vertical and horizontal), anchor ring or torus and others.
There are fairy chess problems that combine some of these changed rules.
All entries in the world championships and in the FIDE Albums are divided into eight sections: (, and ), endgame studies, selfmates, helpmates, fairy chess and retro and mathematical problems.
Fairy chess literature
Books and pamphlets devoted to fairy chess:
Periodicals devoted to fairy chess:
The Problemist Fairy Supplement (August 1930 – June 1936)
Fairy Chess Review (August 1936 – April 1958)
Feenschach, edited by W. Karsch
See also
Fairy chess piece
List of chess variants
References
Bibliography
External links
Fairy chess by Michael McDowell
Fairy chess glossary by Otto Janko
MetaChess, an open source fairy chess engine | [
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252948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th%20arrondissement%20of%20Paris | 16th arrondissement of Paris | The 16th arrondissement of Paris (XVIe arrondissement) is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is referred to as seizième.
The arrondissement includes part of the Arc de Triomphe, and a concentration of museums between the and the , complemented in 2014 by the Fondation Louis Vuitton.
With its ornate 19th-century buildings, large avenues, prestigious schools, museums, and various parks, the arrondissement has long been known as one of French high society's favourite places of residence (comparable to London's Kensington and Chelsea or Berlin's Charlottenburg) to such an extent that the phrase () has been associated with great wealth in French popular culture. Indeed, the 16th arrondissement of Paris is France's third richest district for average household income, following the 7th, and , both adjacent.
The 16th arrondissement hosts several large sporting venues, including: the , which is the stadium where football club plays its home matches; Stadium, where the French Open tennis championships are held; and , home to the rugby union club. The , the second-largest public park in Paris (behind only the ), is also located in this arrondissement.
Geography
The land area of this arrondissement is 16.305 km2 ( or 4,029 acres), slightly more than half of which consists of the Bois de Boulogne park. Excluding the Bois de Boulogne, its land area is 7.846 km2 ( or 1,939 acres). It is the largest arrondissement in Paris in terms of land area.
Demographics and politics
The 16th arrondissement population peaked in 1962, when it had 227,418 inhabitants. At the last census (2009), the population was 169,372. The 16th arrondissement contains a great deal of business activity; in 1999 it hosted 106,971 jobs.
The 16th arrondissement is commonly thought to be one of the richest parts of Paris (see Auteuil-Neuilly-Passy), and features some of the most expensive real estate in France including the famous Auteuil "villas", heirs to 19th century high society country houses, they are exclusive gated communities with huge houses surrounded by gardens, which is extremely rare in Paris. It is also the only arrondissement in Paris to be divided into two separate postal codes. The southern part of the arrondissement carries a postal code of 75016, while the northern part has the code of 75116.
Politics
The 16th arrondissement is one of the strongest areas in the country for the French right. In 2017, it gave over 58% of its votes in the first round to right-wing candidate François Fillon; amidst a poor national result of only 20%. It then went on to vote for Emmanuel Macron by a landslide in the runoff.
Historical population
Immigration
Economy
Four Fortune Global 500 have their head offices in this arrondissement: PSA Peugeot Citroën, Lafarge, and Veolia. In addition Lagardère and Technip have their headquarters in this arrondissement.
At one time Aérospatiale had its head office in the arrondissement.
Movies filmed in the 16th arrondissement
In one of the opening scenes of the 1965 James Bond film Thunderball, character Emilio Largo is seen arriving at the headquarters of The International Brotherhood for the Assistance of Stateless Persons. This scene was shot on Avenue d'Eylau in the 16th arrondissement.
The 1972 film Last Tango in Paris was filmed at various locations in the 16th arrondissement, with the apartment the characters stayed in being located in Passy.
Marcel Petiot
A notorious serial murder case, which generated an international media circus, centered in the 16th arrondissement during the Nazi occupation of France during World War II. The focal point of the case was French doctor Marcel Petiot, who in 1941 bought a house at 21 Rue le Sueur in "the heart of Paris's fashionable 16th arrondissement". On 11 March 1944, Petiot's neighbors complained to police of a foul stench in the area and of large amounts of smoke billowing from a chimney of the house. Fearing a chimney fire, the police summoned firemen, who entered the house and found a roaring fire in a coal stove in the basement. In the fire, and scattered in the basement, were human remains. Following an investigation, during which time Petiot attempted to evade capture, "the monster of rue Le Sueur" was ultimately arrested and went on trial on 19 March 1946, facing 135 criminal charges. He was convicted of 26 counts of murder and sentenced to death. On 25 May, Petiot was beheaded, after a stay of several days due to a problem in the release mechanism of the guillotine.
Education
Primary and secondary schools
Here is a list of domestic French sixth-form colleges/high schools in the arrondissement
Lycée Saint-Jean de Passy
Lycée Saint-Louis-de-Gonzague
Lycée Janson-de-Sailly
Lycée Claude-Bernard
Lycée Jean-Baptiste-Say
Lycée Gerson
Lycée Molière
Lycée La Fontaine (Lycée Jean-de-la-Fontaine)
Lycée Octave-Feuillet
Lycée Notre-Dame des Oiseaux
Institut de La Tour
Lycée René-Cassin
École normale israélite orientale (Paris) (fr
Cours privé Beauséjour
École d'esthétique Yves Rocher
Ipécom Paris
Lycée Moria-Diane Benvenuti
Lycée Passy-Saint-Honoré
Lycée Sainte-Thérèse
International schools:
Russian Embassy School of Paris, on the grounds of the .
Colegio Español Fecerico García Lorca, a Spanish international primary school owned by the Spanish government The Spanish secondary school, Liceo Español Luis Buñuel, is located in Neuilly sur Seine.
The two campuses of the International School of Paris
Kingsworth International School
Undergraduate and postgraduate studies
The Université Paris-Dauphine is in the arrondissement, as well as Paris Institute of Technology, part of Paris Descartes University, one of Paris biggest public universities.
The renowned "classes préparatoires" establishment Intégrale : Institut d'enseignement supérieur privé have one of their campuses in the arrondissement.
Supplementary schools
The École de langue japonaise de Paris (パリ日本語補習校 Pari Nihongo Hoshūkō), a supplementary Japanese education programme, is held at the École Maternelle et Primaire Saint Francois d'Eylau in the 16th arrondissement. The school has its offices at the Association Amicale des Ressortissants Japonais en France (AARJF) in the 8th arrondissement.
Cityscape
Places of interest
Fondation Louis Vuitton
Passy
Cimetière de Passy
Parc des Princes
Palais de Tokyo
Pavillon de l'eau
Lycée Janson-de-Sailly
Maison de Radio France
Maison de Balzac
Fondation Le Corbusier
Guimet Museum
Jardin d'Acclimatation
Jardin des Serres d'Auteuil
Mona Bismarck American Center
Musée Arménien de France
Musée d'Art Dentaire Pierre Fauchard
Musée Baccarat
Musée Clemenceau
Musée de la Contrefaçon
Musée d'Ennery
Musée Galliera
Musée Marmottan Monet
New York University's distinguished Paris campus.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Château de la Muette
International School of Paris
Tenniseum
Neuilly-Auteuil-Passy
Main streets and squares
Trocadéro
Musée national de la Marine
Musée de l'Homme
Musée national des Monuments Français
Musée du Cinéma Henri Langlois
Théâtre national de Chaillot
Avenue Foch
84 Avenue Foch
Place de l'Étoile and Arc de Triomphe (partial)
Rue Nungesser et Coli, named after the disappeared aviators of the 1927 biplane L'Oiseau Blanc (The White Bird).
See also
Notes
References
External links | [
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252950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespro%20della%20Beata%20Vergine | Vespro della Beata Vergine | Vespro della Beata Vergine (Vespers for the Blessed Virgin), SV 206, is a musical setting by Claudio Monteverdi of the evening vespers on Marian feasts, scored for soloists, choirs, and orchestra. It is an ambitious work in scope and in its variety of style and scoring, and has a duration of around 90 minutes. Published in Venice (with a dedication to Pope Paul V dated 1 September 1610) as ("Mass for the Most Holy Virgin for six voices, and Vespers for several voices with some sacred songs, suitable for chapels and ducal chambers"), it is sometimes called Monteverdi's Vespers of 1610.
Monteverdi composed the music while musician and composer for the Gonzagas, the dukes of Mantua. The libretto is compiled from several Latin Biblical and liturgical texts. The thirteen movements include the introductory Deus in adiutorium, five Psalms, four concertato motets and a vocal sonata on the "Sancta Maria" litany, several differently scored stanzas of the hymn "Ave maris stella", and a choice of two Magnificats. A church performance would have included antiphons in Gregorian chant for the specific feast day. The composition demonstrates Monteverdi's ability to assimilate both the new seconda pratica, such as in the emerging opera, and the old style of the prima pratica, building psalms and Magnificat on the traditional plainchant as a cantus firmus. The composition is scored for up to ten vocal parts and instruments including cornettos, violins, viole da braccio, and basso continuo. Monteverdi travelled to Rome to deliver the composition to the Pope in person, and a partbook is held by the Vatican Library.
No performance during the composer's lifetime can be positively identified from surviving documents, though parts of the work might have been performed at the ducal chapels in Mantua and at San Marco in Venice, where the composer became director of music in 1613. The work received renewed attention from musicologists and performers in the 20th century. They have discussed whether it is a planned composition in a modern sense or a collection of music suitable for Vespers, and have debated the role of the added movements, instrumentation, keys and other issues of historically informed performance. The first recording of excerpts from the Vespers was released in 1953; many recordings that followed presented all the music printed in 1610. In some recordings and performances, antiphons for a given occasion of the church year are added to create a liturgical vespers service, while others strictly present only the printed music. Monteverdi's Vespers are regarded as a unique milestone of music history, at the transition from Renaissance to Baroque.
History and context
Monteverdi in Mantua
Monteverdi, who was born in Cremona in 1567, was a court musician for the Gonzaga dukes of Mantua from 1590 to 1612. He began as a viol player under Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga and advanced to become maestro della musica in late 1601. He was responsible for the duke's sacred and secular music, in regular church services and soirées on Fridays, and for extraordinary events. While Monteverdi was court musician in Mantua, the opera genre emerged, first as entertainment for nobility, to become public musical theatre later. The first work now considered as an opera is Jacopo Peri's Dafne of 1597. In the new genre, a complete story was told through characters; as well as choruses and ensembles, the vocal parts included recitative, aria, and arioso. Monteverdi's first opera was L'Orfeo which premiered in 1607. The duke was quick to recognise the potential of this new musical form for bringing prestige to those willing to sponsor it.
Monteverdi wrote the movements of the Vespers piece by piece, while responsible for the ducal services which were held at the Santa Croce chapel at the palace. He completed the large-scale work in 1610. He possibly composed the Vespers aspiring to a better position, and the work demonstrates his abilities as a composer in a great variety of styles. The setting was Monteverdi's first published sacred composition after his initial publications nearly thirty years before and stands out for its assimilation of both the old and the new styles.
Vespers
The liturgical vespers is an evening prayer service according to the Catholic Officium Divinum (Divine Office). At Monteverdi's time, it was sung in Latin, as were all Catholic services then. A vespers service at the time contained five psalms, a hymn and the Magnificat (Mary's song of praise). The five psalms for Marian feasts (as well as other female saints) begin with Psalm 110 in Hebrew counting, but known to Monteverdi as Psalmus 109 in the numbering of the Vulgate:
The individual psalms and the Magnificat are concluded by the doxology Gloria Patri. The hymn for Marian feasts was "Ave maris stella". Variable elements, changing with the liturgical occasion, are antiphons, inserted before each psalm and the Magnificat, which reflect the specific feast and connect the Old Testament psalms to Christian theology. Vespers are traditionally framed by the opening versicle and response from Psalm 70, and the closing blessing.
On ordinary Sundays, the vespers service might by sung in Gregorian chant, while on high holidays, such as the feast day of a patron saint, elaborate concertante music was preferred. In his Vespers, Monteverdi may have offered such music without necessarily expecting that all of it would be performed in a given service.
Monteverdi deviated from the typical vespers liturgy by adding motets (concerti or sacri concentus) between the psalms. Scholars debate if they were meant to replace antiphons or rather as embellishments of the preceding psalm. Monteverdi also included a Marian litany, "Sancta Maria, ora pro nobis" (Holy Mary, pray for us). All liturgical texts are set using their psalm tones in Gregorian chant, often as a cantus firmus.
Graham Dixon suggests the setting is more suited for the feast of Saint Barbara, claiming, for example, that the texts from the Song of Songs are applicable to any female saint but that a dedication to fit a Marian feast made the work more "marketable". There are just two Marian songs in the whole work ("Audi coelum" and "Ave maris stella"); and the sonata could easily be rearranged to any saint's name.
First publication
The first mention of the work's publication is in a July 1610 letter by Monteverdi's assistant, Bassano Casola, to Cardinal Ferdinando Gonzaga, the duke's younger son. Casola described that two compositions were in the process to be printed, a six-part mass (Messa da Capella) on motifs from Nicolas Gombert's In illo tempore, and psalms for a vespers setting for the Virgin (Salmi del Vespro della Madonna). He described the psalms as "varying and diverse inventions and harmonies over a canto fermo" (cantus firmus), and noted that Monteverdi would travel to Rome to personally dedicate the publication to the Pope in the autumn.
The printing was completed in Venice, then an important centre for music printing. The printing of collections of sacred music in Italy at the period was described as "a fast-growing and very large and lucrative market", with around 50 collections in 1610 alone, 36 of them for offices such as Vespers. The publisher was Ricciardo Amadino, who had published Monteverdi's opera L'Orfeo in 1609. While the opera was published as a score, the Vespers music appeared as a set of partbooks. It was published together with Monteverdi's mass Missa in illo tempore. The cover describes both works: "Sanctissimae Virgini Missa senis vocibus ad ecclesiarum choros, ac Vespere pluribus decantandae cum nonnullis sacris concentibus ad Sacella sive Principum Cubicula accommodata" (Mass for the Most Holy Virgin for six voices for church choirs, and vespers for several voices with some sacred songs, suitable for chapels and ducal chambers).
One of the partbooks contains the basso continuo and provides a kind of short score for the more complicated movements: it gives the title of the Vespers as: "Vespro della Beata Vergine da concerto composta sopra canti firmi" (Vesper for the Blessed Virgin for concertos, composed on cantus firmi).
Monteverdi's notation is still in the style of Renaissance music, for example regarding the duration of notes and the absence of bar lines. There is no score, but a partbook for each voice and instrument. The corresponding continuo notes the beginnings of text lines, for example Magnificat, "Et exultauit", "Quia respexit" and "Quia fecit", and the names of instruments, for example cornetto, trombone and flauto. The initials of a title are embellished, such as the M of Magnificat, and in the voice part, the initials of a cantus firmus line begins with a larger letter, e.g. "E t exultauit..." and "Q uia respexit...". Sections where the voice or instrument is silent are marked "Tacet.". The notation poses challenges to editors adopting the current system of notation, which established about a half century after Vespers was written.
Monteverdi dedicated the work to Pope Paul V, who had recently visited Mantua, and dated the dedication 1 September 1610. The schedule seems to have resulted in some of the movements being printed in haste and some corrections had to be made. Monteverdi visited Rome, as anticipated, in October 1610 and it is likely that he delivered a copy to the Pope, given that the Papal Library holds an alto partbook. It is not clear whether he was honoured with a papal audience. The alto partbook which the Pope received, with hand-written corrections, survived in the Biblioteca Doria Pamphilij.
Monteverdi later wrote further music for vespers services, in the collection Selva morale e spirituale, published in 1641, and in another collection, Messa e Salmi (Mass and Psalms) which was published after his death in 1650. There is no indication that any of his publications of sacred music received a second edition.
Later publication
After the original print, the next time parts from the Vespers were published was in an 1834 book by Carl von Winterfeld devoted to the music of Giovanni Gabrieli. He chose the beginning of the Dixit Dominus and of the Deposuit from the Magnificat, discussing the variety of styles in detail. Luigi Torchi published the Sonata as the first complete movement from the Vespers at the turn of the 20th century. The first modern edition of the Vespers appeared in 1932 as part of Gian Francesco Malipiero's edition of Monteverdi's complete works. Two years later, Hans F. Redlich published an edition which dropped two psalms, arranged the other movements in different order, and implemented the figured bass in a complicated way. In 1966, Gottfried Wolters edited the first critical edition. Critical editions were published by, among others, Clifford Bartlett in 1986, Jerome Roche in 1994, and Uwe Wolf in 2013, while Antonio Delfino has edited the Vespers for a complete edition of the composer's works.
Performance
The historical record does not indicate whether Monteverdi actually performed the Vespers in Mantua or in Rome, where he was not offered a post. He assumed the position of maestro di cappella at the Basilica di San Marco in Venice in 1613 and a performance there seems likely. Church music in Venice is well documented and performers can draw information for historically informed performances from that knowledge, for example that Monteverdi expected a choir of all male voices.
The Vespers is monumental in scale and requires a choir of ten or more vocal parts split into separate choirs, and seven soloists. Solo instrumental parts are written for violin and cornetto. Antiphons preceding each psalm and the Magnificat, sung in plainchant, would vary with the occasion. Some scholars have argued that the Vespers was not intended as a single work but rather as a collection to choose from.
The edition by Redlich was the basis for performances in Zurich in 1935 and of parts in New York in 1937, among others. It was printed in 1949 and used for the first recording in 1953. The first recording of the work with added antiphons was conducted in 1966 by Jürgen Jürgens. Recent performances have usually aimed to provide the complete music Monteverdi published.
Music
Structure
Vespro della Beata Vergine is made up of 13 sections. The "Ave maris stella" is in seven stanzas set to different scoring, with interspersed ritornelli. The Magnificat is in twelve movements, which Monteverdi wrote in two versions.
The following table shows the section numbers according to the 2013 edition by Carus, then the function of the section within the Vespers, its text source, and the beginning of the text both in Latin and in English. The column for the voices has abbreviations SATB for soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. A repeated letter means the voice part is divided, for example TT means "tenor1 and tenor2". The column for instruments often contains only their number, because Monteverdi did not always specify the instruments. The continuo plays throughout but is listed below (as "continuo") only when it has a role independent of the other instruments or voices. The last column lists the page number of the beginning of the section in the Carus edition.
Sections
1 Deus in adjutorium meum intende/Domine ad adjuvandum me festina
The work opens with the traditional versicle and response for vespers services, the beginning of Psalm 70 (Psalm 69 in the Vulgate), (Make haste, O God, to deliver me). It is sung by a solo tenor, with the response from the same verse, (Make haste to help me, O LORD), sung by a six-part choir. The movement is accompanied by a six-part orchestra with two cornettos, three trombones (which double the lower strings), strings, and continuo.
The music is based on the opening toccata from Monteverdi's 1607 opera L'Orfeo, to which the choir sings a falsobordone (a style of recitation) on the same chord. The music has been described as "a call to attention" and "a piece whose brilliance is only matched by the audacity of its conception".
2 Dixit Dominus
The first psalm, Psalm 110, begins with (The LORD said unto my Lord). Monteverdi set it for a six-part choir with divided sopranos and tenors, and six instruments, prescribing . The first tenor begins alone with the cantus firmus. The beginnings of verses are often in falsobordone recitation, leading to six-part polyphonic settings.
3 Nigra sum
The first motet begins (I am black, but beautiful), from the Song of Songs. It is written for tenor solo in the new style of monody (a melodic solo line with accompaniment).
4 Laudate pueri
Psalm 113 begins (literally: 'Praise, children, the Lord'; in the KJV: 'Praise ye the Lord, O ye servants of the Lord'), and contains eight vocal parts and continuo. The second tenor begins alone with the cantus firmus.
5 Pulchra es
The second motet begins (You are beautiful) from the Song of Songs. Monteverdi set it for two sopranos, who often sing in third parallels.
6 Laetatus sum
The third psalm is Psalm 122, beginning (literally: 'I was glad'), a pilgrimage psalm. The music begins with a walking bass, which the first tenor enters with the cantus firmus. The movement is based on four patterns in the bass line and includes complex polyphonic settings and duets.
7 Duo Seraphim
The third motet begins (Two angels were calling one to the other), a text combined from Isaiah 6:2–3 and the First Epistle of John, 5:7. Monteverdi set it for three tenors. The first part, talking about the two angels, is a duet. When the text turns to the epistle mentioning the Trinity, the third tenor joins. They sing the text "these three are one" in unison. The vocal lines are highly ornamented.
8 Nisi Dominus
The fourth psalm, Psalm 127, opens with the words (Except the Lord [build the house]), and is for two tenors singing the cantus firmus and two four-part choirs, one echoing the other in overlapped singing.
9 Audi coelum
The fourth motet opens with the words (Hear my words, Heaven), based on an anonymous liturgical poem. It is set for two tenors, who sing in call and response (), and expands to six voices at the word (all).
10 Lauda Jerusalem
The fifth psalm, Psalm 147, begins (Praise, Jerusalem), and is set for two three-part choirs (SAB) and tenors singing the cantus firmus.
11 Sonata sopra Sancta Maria
The sonata is an instrumental movement with soprano singing of a cantus firmus from the Litany of Loreto (Holy Mary, pray for us), with rhythmic variants. The movement opens with an instrumental section comparable to a pair of pavane and galliard, the same material first in even metre, then in triple metre. The vocal line appears eleven times, while the instruments play uninterrupted virtuoso music reminiscent of vocal parts in the motets.
12 Hymnus: Ave maris stella
The penultimate section is devoted to the 8th century Marian hymn "". Its seven stanzas are set in different scoring. The melody is in the soprano in all verses except verse6, which is for tenor solo. Verse1 is a seven-part setting. Verses2 and3 are the same vocal four-part setting, verse2 for choir1, verse3 for choir3. Similarly, verses4 and5 are set for soprano, first soprano1, then soprano2. Verses1 to5 are all followed by the same ritornello for five instruments. Verse7 is the same choral setting as verse1, followed by Amen.
The hymn setting has been regarded as conservative, the chant melody in the upper voice throughout, but variety is achieved by different numbers of voices and interspersion of a ritornello. The instruments are not specified, to provide further variety. The last stanza repeats the first for formal symmetry.
13 Magnificat
The last movement of a vespers service is the Magnificat. Monteverdi devotes a movement to every verse of the canticle, and two to the doxology. Depending on the mood of the text, the Magnificat is scored for a choir of up to seven voices, in solo, duo, or trio singing. Monteverdi uses the Magnificat tone in every movement, a tone similar to the psalm tones but with an initium (beginning) which provides the possibility of more harmonic variety.
The publication contains a second setting of the Magnificat for six voices and continuo accompaniment.
Analysis
Monteverdi achieved a collection of great variety both in style and structure, which was unique at the time. Styles range from chordal falsobordone to virtuoso singing, from recitative to polyphonic setting of many voices, and from continuo accompaniment to extensive instrumental obbligato. Structurally, he demonstrated different organisation in all movements.
John Butt, who conducted a recording in 2017 with the Dunedin Consort using one voice per part, summarised the many styles:
Butt described the first three psalms as radical in style, while the other two rather follow the polychoral style of Gabrieli, suggesting that the first three may have been composed especially with the publication in mind.
The musicologist Jeffrey Kurtzman observed that the five free concertos (or motets) follow a scheme to first increase then decrease the number of singers, from one to three and back to one, but they increase the number of performers from the first to the last, adding more voices at the end of the fourth and having eight instruments play for the last. In prints by other composers, such concertos appear as a group, usually sorted by number of voices, while Monteverdi interspersed them with the psalms.
In Monteverdi's time, it was common to improvise and make adjustments during performances, depending on the acoustics and the availability and capability of performers. The print of his Vespers shows unusual detail in reducing this freedom, for example, by precise notation of embellishments and even organ registration.
Recordings
The first recording of the Vespers was arguably an American performance in 1952, featuring musicians from the University of Illinois conducted by Leopold Stokowski. The recording was released in LP format, probably in 1953, but appears not to have been commercially distributed. The work has since been recorded many times in several versions, involving both modern and period instruments. Some recordings allocate the voice parts to choirs, while others use the "one voice per part" concept.
In 1964, John Eliot Gardiner assembled a group of musicians to perform the work in King's College Chapel, Cambridge. The event became the birth of the later Monteverdi Choir. Gardiner recorded the Vespers twice, in 1974 and in 1989.
Although some musicologists argue that Monteverdi was offering a compendium of music for vespers services from which a selection could be made, most recordings present the composition as a unified work, deciding which of the two versions of scoring to perform. Recordings differ in presenting strictly what Monteverdi composed, or in liturgical context, with added antiphons for a specific feast day. In his 2005 version, Paul McCreesh also included music from other publications and changed the order of several movements.
Modern reception
Kurtzman, who edited a publication of the work for Oxford University Press, notes: "...it seems as if Monteverdi were intent in displaying his skills in virtually all contemporary styles of composition, using every modern structural technique". Monteverdi achieved overall unity by using the Gregorian plainchant as a cantus firmus, for the beginning, the psalms, the litany and the Magnificat. This "rigorous adhesion to the psalm tones" is similar to the style of Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi, who was choirmaster at the Basilica palatina di Santa Barbara at the ducal palace in Mantua. Whenham summarised about the use of chant:
Musicologists have debated topics such as the role of the sacri concentus and sonata, instrumentation, keys (chiavette), and issues of historically informed performance.
The musicologist Tim Carter summarised in his entry for the composer for Grove in 2007: "His three major collections of liturgical and devotional music transcend the merely functional, exploiting a rich panoply of text-expressive and contrapuntal-structural techniques." Kurtzmann concluded from his detailed research of Monteverdi's Vespro della Beata Vergine and contemporary sacred music:
Notes
References
Cited sources
Books
Journals
Online sources
Further reading
External links
Video of a performance of the "Nigra Sum" from the Vespers on original instruments in meantone tuning by the ensemble Voices of Music using baroque vocal ornamentation, instruments and playing techniques
Andrew Clements: "Monteverdi: Vespers of 1610 / CD reviewauthentic but incoherent" The Guardian, 19 January 2017
John Kilpatrick: Monteverdi Vespers of 1610: John Kilpatrick's Edition, for 2010
1610 works
Baroque compositions
Compositions by Claudio Monteverdi
Magnificat settings
Marian hymns
Psalm settings
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|
252951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mynga%20Futrell | Mynga Futrell | Mynga Futrell (born 1944) is an American activist who cofounded the international constituency of Brights. Her varied pursuits center around civic pluralism (boosting social acceptance, civic engagement and equity for citizens who have supernatural-free worldviews).
Early life and education
Although born in Harlan, Kentucky, Futrell grew up in Kentucky’s bluegrass region where her father chaired (1928-1966) the geography-geology department at the local college (now Eastern Kentucky University). For elementary and secondary levels, she attended the campus laboratory school and, after graduating (1962), she pursued undergraduate studies, graduating with a double major in Chemistry and Earth Science (B.S., 1966). Futrell carried out graduate studies (1970–74) at the University of Wyoming. She holds an M.S. (1972) in Natural Science and a Ph.D. (1974) in Curriculum and Instruction with a specialization in Science Education.
Career and activism
Futrell is co-founder (with husband, Paul Geisert) of the Brights movement. She authored the definition of “a bright” and established an international online registry and organizational hub. The nonprofit Brights’ Net encourages persons who have a naturalistic (free-of-supernatural) worldview to be visible and to engage constructively in civic endeavors.
Futrell’s freethought activism is marked by her co-founding several additional nonprofit organizations:
1993: Atheists and Other Freethinkers
2002: “Freethought Day” (now California Freethought Day)
2014: Reason Center
She has served on the boards of directors of the American Humanist Association and the Atheist Alliance and on the advisory board of Americans United for the Separation of Church and State.
An educator at levels of instruction from elementary classroom through university professor, Futrell was a tenured Associate Professor at Gallaudet University in Washington, DC. She has also co-authored several books including, The Well-Trained Computer: Designing Systematic Instructional Materials for the Classroom Microcomputer (1984), Teachers, Computers, and Curriculum: Microcomputers in the Classroom, and Different Drummers: Nonconforming Thinkers in History (1999).
Activism in the education field includes serving on the advisory council of the California 3Rs (rights, respect, responsibility) religious liberty project for teachers initiated by the First Amendment Center. Futrell developed Worldview Education: Teaching about Religion in Support of Civic Pluralism, a religion-neutral professional web resource for educators.
References
External links
The Brights Net
Atheists and Other Freethinkers
California Freethought Day
Reason Center
Worldview Education
American atheists
Living people
1944 births | [
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|
252953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method%20of%20Fluxions | Method of Fluxions | Method of Fluxions (latin De Methodis Serierum et Fluxionum) is a book by Isaac Newton. The book was completed in 1671, and published in 1736. Fluxion is Newton's term for a derivative. He originally developed the method at Woolsthorpe Manor during the closing of Cambridge during the Great Plague of London from 1665 to 1667, but did not choose to make his findings known (similarly, his findings which eventually became the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica were developed at this time and hidden from the world in Newton's notes for many years). Gottfried Leibniz developed his form of calculus independently around 1673, 7 years after Newton had developed the basis for differential calculus, as seen in surviving documents like “the method of fluxions and fluents..." from 1666. Leibniz however published his discovery of differential calculus in 1684, nine years before Newton formally published his fluxion notation form of calculus in part during 1693. The calculus notation in use today is mostly that of Leibniz, although Newton's dot notation for differentiation for denoting derivatives with respect to time is still in current use throughout mechanics and circuit analysis.
Newton's Method of Fluxions was formally published posthumously, but following Leibniz's publication of the calculus a bitter rivalry erupted between the two mathematicians over who had developed the calculus first, provoking Newton to reveal his work on fluxions.
Newton's development of analysis
For a period of time encompassing Newton's working life, the discipline of analysis was a subject of controversy in the mathematical community. Although analytic techniques provided solutions to long-standing problems, including problems of quadrature and the finding of tangents, the proofs of these solutions were not known to be reducible to the synthetic rules of Euclidean geometry. Instead, analysts were often forced to invoke infinitesimal, or "infinitely small", quantities to justify their algebraic manipulations. Some of Newton's mathematical contemporaries, such as Isaac Barrow, were highly skeptical of such techniques, which had no clear geometric interpretation. Although in his early work Newton also used infinitesimals in his derivations without justifying them, he later developed something akin to the modern definition of limits in order to justify his work.
See also
History of calculus
Calorimetry
George Berkeley
Leonhard Euler
Non-standard analysis
Newton's method
Calculus
Charles Hayes (mathematician)
1736 in science
John Landen
John Colson
Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy
Joseph Raphson
1736 in Great Britain
Time in physics
William Lax
List of Rees's Cyclopaedia articles
References and notes
External links
Method of Fluxions at the Internet Archive
History of mathematics
Mathematics books
Books by Isaac Newton
1671 books
1736 books
Differential calculus
Mathematics literature
1736 in science
Books published posthumously | [
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|
252955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh | Hugh | Hugh may refer to:
Hugh (given name)
Noblemen and clergy
French
Hugh the Great (died 956), Duke of the Franks
Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France under his father, Robert II
Hugh, Duke of Alsace (died 895), modern-day France
Hugh of Austrasia (7th century), Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia
Hugh I, Count of Angoulême (1183–1249)
Hugh II, Count of Angoulême (1221–1250)
Hugh III, Count of Angoulême (13th century)
Hugh IV, Count of Angoulême (1259–1303)
Hugh, Bishop of Avranches (11th century), France
Hugh I, Count of Blois (died 1248)
Hugh II, Count of Blois (died 1307)
Hugh of Brienne (1240–1296), Count of the medieval French County of Brienne
Hugh, Duke of Burgundy (d. 952)
Hugh I, Duke of Burgundy (1057–1093)
Hugh II, Duke of Burgundy (1084–1143)
Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy (1142–1192)
Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy (1213–1272)
Hugh V, Duke of Burgundy (1294–1315)
Hugh Capet (939–996), King of France
Hugh, Count of Champagne (c. 1074–1125)
Hugh of Châteauneuf (1052–1132), Bishop of Grenoble
Hugh of Cluny (1024–1109), French Abott, later canonized as Saint Hugh the Great
Hugh I of Cyprus (1195–1218)
Hugh II of Cyprus (1253–1267)
Hugh III of Cyprus and Hugh I of Jerusalem (1235–1284)
Hugh IV of Cyprus (1295–1359)
Hugh of Die (1040-1106), French papal legate, and Archbishop of Lyon
Hugh, abbot of Lagny (died 1171), France
Hugh of Lincoln (1140–1200), aka Hugh of Avalon or Hugh of Burgundy
Hugh I of Lusignan (early tenth century)
Hugh II of Lusignan (died 967)
Hugh III of Lusignan (late tenth century)
Hugh IV of Lusignan (died 1026)
Hugh V of Lusignan (died 1060)
Hugh VI of Lusignan (died 1110)
Hugh VII of Lusignan (1065–1151)
Hugh VIII of Lusignan (12th century)
Hugh IX of Lusignan (1163 or 1168 – 1219)
Hugh X of Lusignan (1195–1249)
Hugh XI of Lusignan (1221–1250)
Hugh XII of Lusignan (13th century)
Hugh XIII of Lusignan (1259–1303)
Hugh I, Count of Maine (ruled 900–933)
Hugh II, Count of Maine (ruled 950–992)
Hugh III of Maine (960–1015)
Hugh IV, Count of Maine (died 1051)
Hugh V, Count of Maine (died 1131)
Hugh I, Count of Rethel (1040–1118)
Hugh II, Count of Rethel (died 1227)
Hugh III of Rethel (1227–1242)
Hugh IV, Count of Rethel (1244–1285)
Hugh (abbot of Saint-Quentin) (802–844), France
Hugh, Count of Soissons (died 1305), France
Hugh, Count of Toulouse (died 978), France
Hugh (archbishop of Vienne) (died 1155), France
Anglo-Norman/English
Hugh (Dean of York), first Dean of York
Hugh d'Avranches, 1st Earl of Chester (died 1101)
Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk (1095–1177), second son of Roger Bigod, Sheriff of Norfolk
Hugh de Kevelioc, 3rd Earl of Chester (1147–1181)
Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk (1182–1225), eldest son of Roger Bigod, Sheriff of Norfolk
Hugh le Despencer (justiciar) (1223–1265), Baron le Despencer
Hugh le Despenser (sheriff) (died 1238), High Sheriff of Berkshire
Hugh le Despenser, 1st Earl of Winchester (1261–1326)
Hugh the younger Despenser (1286–1326), son of Hugh le Despenser, Earl of Winchester
Hugh, Baron Dacre of Glanton Trevor-Roper (1914–2003), a British historian
Hugh Percy (disambiguation)
Hugh Seymour (disambiguation)
Gaelic
Hugh of Sleat (died 1498), chieftain of Clan Donald
Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone (1540–1616), Irish chieftain who resisted the annexation of Ireland by Elizabeth I of England
Hugh Roe O'Donnell (1572–1602), Prince of Tyrconnell, led a rebellion against English government in Ireland
Hugh Dubh O'Neill (1611–1660), Irish soldier who commanded the defenders in the Siege of Clonmel and Siege of Limerick
Hugh O'Neill, 1st Baron Rathcavan (1883–1982), Ulster Unionist politician who served as Father of the House of Commons
The Gaelic name Aodh/Aedh/Aed is often translated into English as Hugh. Persons sharing this name who traditionally use the Gaelic form are listed below:
Áed Rúad, legendary High king of Ireland
Áed mac Echach (died 575), king of Connacht
Áed Dub mac Suibni (died 588), king of Dál nAraidi
Áed Dibchine (died c.595), king of Leinster
Áed mac Ainmuirech (died 598), High king of Ireland
Áed Sláine (died 604), High king of Ireland
Áed Rón mac Cathail (died 604), king in Leinster
Áed Uaridnach (died 612), High king of Ireland
Áed Bennán mac Crimthainn (died 618), king of or in Munster
Áed Dub mac Colmáin (died 639), bishop of Kildare
Áed Aired (died 698), king of Dál nAraide
Áed Róin (died 735), king of Dál Fiatach
Áed mac Colggen (died 738), king of Leinster
Áed Balb mac Indrechtaig (died 742), king of Connacht
Áed Muinderg (died 747), king of northern Uí Néill
Áed Find (died 778), king of Dál Riata
Áed Oirdnide (died 819), king of Ailech
Áed mac Boanta (died 839), probably king in Dál Riata
Áed of Scotland (died 878), king of the Picts
Áed Findliath (died 879), king of Ailech
Áed Ua Crimthainn (mid 12th century), abbot of Terryglass
Aedh mac Cathal Crobdearg Ua Conchobair (13th century), king of Connacht
Aedh Muimhnech mac Felim Ua Conchobair (13th century), king of Connacht
Aedh mac Ruaidri Ua Conchobair (13th century), king of Connacht
Aedh mac Aedh Breifneach Ua Conchobair (14th century)
Aodh, Earl of Ross (died 1333)
Other
Hugh of Arles or Hugh of Provence (10th century), King of Italy
Hugh, Margrave of Tuscany aka Hugo or Ugo (950–1001), Italy
Hugh, Count of Suio (1023–1040), Count of Suio in the Duchy of Gaeta, Italy
Hugh of Saint Victor (1078–1141), mystic philosopher
Hugh of Ibelin (12th century), noble in the Kingdom of Jerusalem
Hugh of Jabala (12th century), bishop of Jabala, Syria
Hugh (archbishop of Edessa) (died 1144), Upper Mesopotamia
Hugh (archbishop of Palermo) (died c. 1165/6)
Characters
Hugh (Kiba)
Hugh (Star Trek)
Hugh Neutron, a Jimmy Neutron character
Other uses
Hugh (hill), or Hill Under Graham Height, a category of Scottish hills
Hugh Lake
Hugh (robot), an artificial intelligence robot librarian
Hugh, Northern Territory, a locality in Australia
See also
HEW (disambiguation)
Hughes (disambiguation)
Hughs (disambiguation)
Hugo (disambiguation)
Hugues (disambiguation)
Ugo (disambiguation), the Italian form
HUW (disambiguation)
Hue (disambiguation) | [
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252957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Stephenson | Robert Stephenson | Robert Stephenson FRS HFRSE FRSA DCL (16 October 1803 – 12 October 1859) was an English civil engineer and designer of locomotives. The only son of George Stephenson, the "Father of Railways", he built on the achievements of his father. Robert has been called the greatest engineer of the 19th century.
Life
Robert was born in Willington Quay near Wallsend, Northumberland, the son of George Stephenson and his wife, Frances Henderson. The family moved to Killingworth, where Robert was taught at the local village school. Robert attended the middle-class Percy Street Academy in Newcastle and at the age of fifteen was apprenticed to the mining engineer Nicholas Wood. He left before he had completed his three years to help his father survey the Stockton and Darlington Railway.
Robert spent six months at Edinburgh University before working for three years as a mining engineer in Colombia. When he returned his father was building the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and Robert developed the steam locomotive Rocket that won the Rainhill Trials in 1829. He was appointed chief engineer of the London and Birmingham Railway in 1833 with a salary of £1,500 per annum. By 1850 Robert had been involved in the construction of a third of the country's railway system. He designed the High Level Bridge and Royal Border Bridge on the East Coast Main Line. With Eaton Hodgkinson and William Fairbairn he developed wrought-iron tubular bridges, such as the Britannia Bridge in Wales, a design he would later use for the Victoria Bridge in Montreal, for many years the longest bridge in the world. He eventually worked on 160 commissions from 60 companies, building railways in other countries such as Belgium, Norway, Egypt and France.
In 1829, Robert married Frances Sanderson; the couple had no children and he did not remarry after her death in 1842. In 1847 he was elected Member of Parliament for Whitby, and held the seat until his death. Although Stephenson declined a British knighthood, he was decorated in Belgium with the Knight of the Order of Leopold, in France with the Knight of the Legion of Honour and in Norway with the Knight Grand Cross of the order of St. Olaf. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1849, and served as President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers and Institution of Civil Engineers. Stephenson's death was widely mourned, and his funeral cortège was given permission by Queen Victoria to pass through Hyde Park, an honour previously reserved for royalty. He is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Early life
Robert Stephenson was born on 16 October 1803, at Willington Quay, east of Newcastle upon Tyne, to George Stephenson and Frances née Henderson, usually known as Fanny. She was twelve years older than George, and when they met was working as a servant where George was lodging. After marriage George and Fanny lived in an upper room of a cottage; George worked as a brakesman on the stationary winding engine on the Quay, and in his spare time cleaned and mended clocks and repaired shoes. Fanny was suffering from tuberculosis (known at the time as consumption), so George would take care of his son in the evening. Robert later recalled how he would sit on his father's left knee with his right arm wrapped around him while he watched him work or read books; his biographer Jeaffreson explained this is why Robert's left arm was the stronger. In autumn 1804 George became a brakesman at the West Moor Pit and the family moved to two rooms in a cottage at Killingworth. On 13 July 1805 Fanny gave birth to a daughter who lived for only three weeks, Fanny's health deteriorated and she died on 14 May 1806.
George employed a housekeeper to look after his son and went away for three months to look after a Watt engine in Montrose, Scotland. He returned to find his housekeeper had married his brother Robert. He moved back into the cottage with his son and briefly employed another housekeeper before his sister Eleanor moved in. Known to Robert as Aunt Nelly, Eleanor had been engaged to be married before travelling to London to work in domestic service. However, returning to get married Eleanor's ship was delayed by poor winds and she arrived to find her fiancé had already married. Eleanor attended the local Methodist church, whereas George would not regularly attend church, preferring on Sundays to work on engineering problems and meet his friends.
Robert was first sent to a village school away in Long Benton, where he was taught by Thomas (Tommy) Rutter. On his way to school, he would carry picks to the smith's at Long Benton to be sharpened. George was promoted in 1812 to be enginewright at Killingworth Colliery with a salary of £100 per annum. He built his first steam locomotive, Blücher, in 1814 and the following year was earning £200 per annum. George had received little formal education but was determined that his son would have one, and so sent the eleven-year-old Robert to be taught by John Bruce at the Percy Street Academy in Newcastle. Most of the children came from middle-class families, and it was while he was at the academy that Robert lost most of his Northumberland accent. At first Robert walked the , but was liable to catch a cold; George fearing tuberculosis bought him a donkey. Robert became a member of the Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society and borrowed books for him and his father to read. In the evening he would work with George on designs for steam engines. In 1816 they made a sundial together, which is still in place above the cottage door.
After leaving school in 1819, Robert was apprenticed to the mining engineer Nicholas Wood, who was viewer (manager) of Killingworth colliery. The following year Robert's Aunt Nelly married and George married Elizabeth Hindmarsh. George had courted Elizabeth before he had met Fanny, but the relationship had been put to an end by Elizabeth's father; Elizabeth had sworn at the time that she would not marry anyone else. As an apprentice Robert worked hard and lived frugally, and unable to afford to buy a mining compass, he made one that he would later use to survey the High Level Bridge in Newcastle. Robert learnt to play the flute, which he played during services at the local parish church.
Stockton and Darlington Railway
Ways were investigated in the early 19th century to transport coal from the mines in the Bishop Auckland area to Darlington and the quay at Stockton-on-Tees, and canals had been proposed. The Welsh engineer George Overton suggested a tramway, surveyed a route in September 1818 and the scheme was promoted by Edward Pease at a meeting in November. A private bill for a Stockton and Darlington Railway (S&DR) was presented to Parliament in 1819, but was opposed by landowners and did not pass. The route was changed, Overton carried out another survey and an Act received Royal Assent on 19 April 1821; Pease and George Stephenson met for the first time in Darlington that same day, and by 23 July George had been appointed to make a fresh survey of the line.
Robert had not completed his apprenticeship, but he was showing symptoms of tuberculosis and his work was hazardous; he was down West Moor Pit when there was an underground explosion. Wood agreed to release the 18-year-old Robert so that he could assist his father during the survey. By the end of 1821 they reported that a usable line could be built within the bounds of the Act, but another route would be shorter and avoid deep cuttings and tunnels. George was elected engineer by shareholders with a salary of £660 per annum. He advocated the use of steam locomotives, Pease visited Killingworth in the summer of 1822 and the directors visited Hetton colliery railway, on which George had also introduced locomotives. During the survey of the S&DR George had been persuaded, mainly by the Scottish engineer Robert Bald, that Robert would benefit from a university education. George could have afforded to send his son to a full degree course at Cambridge, but agreed to a short academic year as he wished that Robert should not become a gentleman, but should work for his living. Robert first helped William James to survey the route of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and then attended classes at Edinburgh University in Natural Philosophy, Natural History and Chemistry between October 1822 and April 1823.
On 23 May 1823, a second S&DR Act received Assent with the Stephensons' deviations from the original route and permission for the use of "loco-motives or moveable engines". In June 1823 the Stephensons and Pease opened Robert Stephenson and Company at Forth Street in Newcastle to build these locomotives, Pease lending Robert £500 so he could buy his share. As George was busy supervising the building of the railway, Robert was placed in charge of the works with a salary of £200 per annum. Robert also surveyed the route and designed the Hagger Leases branch, which was planned to serve the collieries at Butterknowle and Copley Bent. A new Act was required for the line, and Robert stayed in London for five weeks while the bill passed through its parliamentary process, Assent being given in May 1824. The S&DR ordered two steam locomotives and two stationary engines from Robert Stephenson & Co. on 16 September 1824, and the railway opened on 27 September 1825.
Colombian mines
On 18 June 1824, Robert sailed on the Sir William Congreve from Liverpool for Colombia with a contract for three years. The Colombian Mining Association had been formed to reopen gold and silver mines in South America and a Robert Stephenson & Co. partner, Thomas Richardson, was a promoter. Robert Stephenson & Co. received orders for steam engines from the company, and Richardson suggested to Robert that he go to South America. To prepare for the trip Robert took Spanish lessons, visited mines in Cornwall and consulted a doctor, who advised that such a change of climate would be beneficial to his health. Robert had arrived in Liverpool on 8 June, and George was with him from 12 June. In his 1960 biography of the Stephensons, L.T.C. Rolt takes issue with earlier writers' suggestions that the assignment was solely due to Robert's health. Questioning why Robert left the locomotive construction company and his other work, he suggests that there must have been a disagreement between the Stephensons over George's business dealings. Later biographers, Hunter Davies (1975) and David Ross (2010), argue that Robert was seeking to assert his independence from the control of his father. Michael Longbridge, who had agreed to take over management of Robert Stephenson & Co. in Robert's absence, understood that it would be for only a year.
After a five-week journey Robert arrived at the port of La Guayra in Venezuela on 23 July 1824. He investigated building a breakwater and pier at the harbour, and a railway to Caracas. A railway linking Caracas to its port was an ambitious project as Caracas is nearly 1000m above sea level: one was not completed until the 1880s. Robert had potential backers for his railway in London, but he concluded that while the cost of a pier, estimated at £6,000, would be sustainable, that of a breakwater or railway would not.
He travelled overland with an interpreter and a servant to Bogotá, then the capital of Greater Colombia, arriving on 19 January 1825. Travelling onward, Robert found the heavier equipment at Honda on the Magdalena River; there was no way to get it to the mines as the only route was a narrow and steep path. The mines were another from Mariquita, and Robert set up home at Santa Ana in a bungalow built from bamboo. The Mining Association sent Cornish miners to work the mine, but they proved difficult to manage and drank so heavily that only two-thirds were available for work on any given day. They refused to accept that Robert, who had not been brought up in Cornwall, could know anything about mining. One night Robert broke up a drunken party that was shouting they would not obey a bearded boy, saying that he would not fight them as he was sober. Robert felt that his reports to London were being ignored, as heavy equipment continued to be sent. He suffered from fevers, and once felt his "old complaint, a feeling of oppression in the breast."
Robert's contract ended on 16 July 1827. He travelled to Cartagena to see if he could walk across the Panama Isthmus, but this proved too difficult. While waiting for a ship to New York, he met the railway pioneer Richard Trevithick, who had been looking for South American gold and silver in the mines of Peru and Costa Rica, and gave him £50 so he could buy passage home. Robert caught a ship to New York; en route this picked up shipwrecked survivors that were so weak they had to be winched aboard, before the ship he was on sank in another storm. Everyone was saved, but Robert lost his money and luggage. He noticed that one second-class passenger was given priority over first-class passengers in the lifeboats: the captain later said privately that he and the passenger were Freemasons and had sworn an oath to show such preference to each other in times of peril. Robert was impressed and became a Freemason in New York. Wishing to see something of North America, Robert with four other Englishmen walked the to Montreal via Niagara Falls. He returned to New York, caught the packet Pacific across the Atlantic and arrived in Liverpool at the end of November.
Locomotive designer
Newcastle
George was living in Liverpool at the time, working as the chief engineer of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR), and Robert stayed briefly as a guest at his father's house. Robert travelled to London to meet the directors of the Colombian Mining Association, and then started on the business of Robert Stephenson & Co. with a visit to Brussels. He spent Christmas in London, and was impressed with the tidiness of Gurney's steam carriages, before returning to Newcastle, where he was to spend the next five years.
In 1827, George had built the Experiment with sloping cylinders instead of the vertical ones on previous locomotives built in Newcastle. Robert wanted to improve the way the wheels were driven and had a chance when an order arrived in January 1828 from the L&MR. The Lancashire Witch was built with inclined cylinders that allowed the axles to be sprung, but the L&MR withdrew the order in April; by mutual agreement the locomotive was sold to the Bolton and Leigh Railway. A number of similar locomotives with four or six wheels were built in the next two years, one being sent to the US for the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company. As well as working at the locomotive works, Robert was also surveying routes for railways and advised on a tunnel under the River Mersey.
In March 1828 Robert wrote to a friend saying he had an attraction to Broad Street in London as Frances (Fanny) Sanderson lived there. Robert and Fanny had known each other before he had gone to South America, and after calling on her soon after returning he had an invitation from her father to be a frequent visitor. He introduced her to his father in August 1828, and she accepted his proposal of marriage at the end of that year. Robert spent so much time in London the following year that his partners accused him of neglecting his business. Robert had not wished for a long engagement, but it took some time until a suitable house was found at 5 Greenfield Place in Newcastle, and Robert and Fanny married in London on 17 June 1829.
Liverpool and Manchester Railway
The L&MR directors had not decided whether to use fixed engines with ropes or steam locomotives, and resolved on 20 April 1829 to hold trials to see if a steam locomotive would meet their requirements. On the last day of August the date was set to 1 October and the location to a two-mile (3.2 km) double-track railway that was to be built at Rainhill. Robert designed the locomotive for the trials during the summer of 1829. Only two of the wheels were driven, as experience had shown wrought-iron tyres had a high rate of wear that quickly resulted in wheels of different size, and gears were provided for both forward and reverse running . The performance-enhancing idea to heat water using many small diameter tubes through the boiler was communicated to Robert via a letter from his father, George, who heard about it from Henry Booth and Marc Seguin . With both George and Booth in Liverpool, Robert was responsible for the detail design, and he fitted twenty-five diameter tubes from a separate firebox through the boiler. In September the locomotive was sent to Rainhill where it was coupled with its tender; when it was given the name Rocket is not known.
The Rainhill Trials started on Tuesday, 6 October, and between 10,000 and 15,000 people had assembled to watch. Five locomotives had arrived, but Perseverance did not compete, having been damaged on the way to Rainhill, and Cyclops, powered by two horses in a frame, was not a serious entry. Challenging Rocket was Novelty, built by John Ericsson and John Braithwaite in London, and Sans Pareil, built at the Shildon railway works by Timothy Hackworth, the locomotive supervisor of the S&DR. None of the locomotives were ready on Wednesday. The following day at 10:30 am Rocket started its journey forwards and backwards across the 1½-mile (2.4-kilometre) course. It covered the first thirty-five miles in 3 hours and 12 minutes, the coke and water were replenished for fifteen minutes, and completed the course in another 2 hours 57 minutes. It had run at an average speed of , and the highest speed reached was over . Novelty still had to run, and was the favourite, although George is recorded as saying "Eh mon, we needn't fear yon thing, her's got nae goots"; she tried to run that Saturday but a steam pressurised joint rapidly failed. Sans Pareil was found to be overweight the following Tuesday, but allowed to run. She burnt fuel at more than three times the rate of Rocket before her boiler ran dry. Novelty was tried again the following day, was withdrawn after a joint failed again, and Rocket was declared the winner.
The L&MR purchased Rocket and ordered four similar locomotives from Robert Stephenson & Co. before the end of October. Four more similar locomotives followed, before Planet was delivered on 4 October 1830 with cylinders placed horizontally under the boiler. Hackworth was building Globe at the Robert Stephenson & Co. works at the same time, and Edward Bury delivered Liverpool the same month, both with cylinders under the boiler. It has been alleged that Robert copied Hackworth or Bury; he later said he had no knowledge of Liverpool at the time he was designing Planet. John Bull, a Planet type locomotive, was shipped to the US and became the first movement by steam on a railway in New Jersey when it ran on the Camden and Amboy Railroad in 1831. So many orders for locomotives were received that Robert proposed in 1831 to open a second locomotive works. It was agreed that the Stephenson name would not be attached to any other works, and what was to become the Vulcan Foundry was developed at Newton-le-Willows.
There was still opposition to the use of steam locomotives, and before the L&MR opened George and directors hosted a number of private viewings. The actress Fanny Kemble, then famous for her recent portrayal of Juliet at Covent Garden, accompanied George for a trip on the footplate. The L&MR opened on 15 September 1830 with the Prime Minister the Duke of Wellington travelling in one of the inaugural trains. During a stop on the journey another passenger, a member of parliament, William Huskisson, stepped down from a carriage and was hit by Rocket passing on the other track. Huskisson was taken by train to Eccles and died that evening.
Civil engineer
George Stephenson and Son
George Stephenson & Son had been created on the last day of 1824, when Robert was in South America, with the same partners as Robert Stephenson & Co. Formed to carry out railway surveys and construction, George and Robert were both listed as chief engineers and responsible for Parliamentary business, and the list of assistant engineers included Joseph Locke, John Dixon, Thomas Longridge Gooch and Thomas Storey. The company took on too much work that was delegated to inexperienced and underpaid men.
Soon after he had returned from America Robert took over responsibility for overseeing the construction of the Canterbury & Whitstable Railway, and this opened on 3 May 1830 with a locomotive similar to Rocket, called Invicta, supplied by Robert Stephenson & Co. He was also responsible for two branches of the L&MR, the Bolton & Leigh and Warrington & Newton railways. The Leicester & Swannington Railway was built to take coal from the Long Lane colliery to Leicester, and Robert was appointed engineer. Robert Stephenson & Co. supplied Planet type locomotives, but these were found underpowered and were replaced in 1833. Robert thought that the coalfield could be developed further, and with two friends purchased an estate at Snibston when it came up at auction. George moved to Alton Grange in 1831 to supervise, and a seam of coal was found after digging through a layer of waterlogged mudstone over hard volcanic greenstone. George was to later say that Snibston colliery was his most profitable enterprise.
The route of Grand Junction Railway authorised on 6 May 1833 had been surveyed by Locke. Although he had been instructed by George, Locke hoped to become chief engineer as his contract with Stephenson had expired. However, George threatened to withdraw support completely and the railway company divided the contract, with George and Locke becoming responsible for half of the route. Locke divided the work into small, well-defined contracts that had been all placed by September 1834. George, delegating the work to untrained assistants, drew up specifications and estimates that were vague or inaccurate and difficult to place. In August 1835 Locke took over supervision of the entire length of line and the Grand Junction Railway opened in 1837.
London and Birmingham Railway
On 18 September 1830 George Stephenson & Son signed a contract to survey the route for the London & Birmingham Railway. George recommended the route via Coventry, rather than an alternative via Oxford, but it was Robert that did most of the work; that same year Robert joined the Institution of Civil Engineers as a member. There were two surveys in 1830–31, which met opposition from landed gentry and those who lived in market towns on the coach route that would be bypassed. Robert stood as the engineering authority when a bill was presented to Parliament in 1832 and it was suggested during cross-examination that he had allowed too steep an angle on the side of the cutting at Tring. Remembering that Thomas Telford had cut through similar ground at Dunstable, Robert left with Gooch in post-chaise that night, and arrived at the cutting at dawn to find it the same angle he had proposed. He returned and was in the company solicitor's office at 10 am. That year the bill passed through the Commons but was defeated in the Lords. After a public campaign and another survey by Robert, the necessary Act was obtained on 6 May 1833, and it was Robert, not yet 30 years old, that signed the contract on 20 September 1833 to build the railway from Camden Town to Birmingham.
Robert was awarded a salary of £1,500 plus £200 expenses per annum, and he and Fanny moved from Newcastle to London, first briefly to St John's Wood and then to a house on Haverstock Hill. Robert drew up plans and made detailed work estimates, dividing the line into 30 contracts, most of which were placed by October 1835. A drawing office with 20–30 draughtsmen was established at the empty Eyre Arms Hotel in St John's Wood; George Parker Bidder, whom Robert had first met at Edinburgh University, started working for him there. Primrose Hill Tunnel, Wolverton embankment, and Kilsby Tunnel, south of Rugby railway station, all had engineering problems and were completed using direct labour. The Grand Junction Canal opposed the railway and tried to prevent a bridge being built and this was settled in court in 1835. The line permitted by the 1833 Act terminated north of Regent's Canal at Camden (near Chalk Farm Underground station), as Baron Southampton, who owned the land to the south, had strongly opposed the railway in the Lords in 1832. Later, Southampton changed his mind and authority was gained for an extension of the line south over Regent's Canal to Euston Square. This incline, with a slope between 1 in 75 and 1 in 66, was worked by a stationary engine at Camden − trains from Euston were drawn up by rope, whereas carriages would descend under gravity. The often repeated statement that the rope-working was necessary because locomotives of the period were insufficiently powerful was denied in 1839 by Peter Lecount, one of the assistant engineers. In fact the incline was worked by locomotives from the opening date of the southern section of the line, 20 July 1837, until 14 October 1837, also whenever the stationary engine or rope were stopped for repairs, then for Mail Trains from November 1843, and entirely from 15 July 1844, without any real increase in the power of the locomotives. The reason given by Lecount for the rope working was the London and Birmingham Railway Act of Parliament, by which he said they were 'restricted ... from running locomotive engines nearer London than Camden Town.'
Robert was unable to order from Robert Stephenson & Co. due to railway company rules about conflict of interest, and so locomotives were purchased from seven other firms. Charles Wheatstone, Robert's friend, installed the first electric telegraph between Euston Square and Camden Town stations in autumn 1837. Trains started running between London and Birmingham on 24 June 1838, and the L&BR opened ceremonially on 15 September 1838. Construction had taken four years and three months, but had cost £5.5 million against the original estimate of £2.4 million.
While living at Haverstock Hill, Robert would work six days a week, rising at 5 am, when he would study the sciences and read poetry; he was a firm Tory, but avoided reading political articles in newspapers. He was respected and known as "The Chief", but told a friend that he felt that his reputation would "break under me like an eggshell"; he smoked cigars and he used calomel, a form of mercury chloride; this was commonly mixed with opium. His friend and writer, Francis Roubiliac Conder, said that if Robert was needed on site somewhere he would catch the northbound coach, sometimes sitting on the outside seat without an overcoat on a winter's evening. He did not play his flute at this time. However, Robert would be at home on Sundays attending church and spending time with his wife. Robert and Fanny had no children, but were surrounded by family. Fanny was liked by Robert's friends who would visit, such as Bidder, Gooch, John Joseph Bramah, and the company's solicitor, Charles Parker. She was said to rule "her husband without ever seeming to do so"; to please her he successfully applied to the Herald's College for a coat of arms, paying for it in November 1838, but he never liked it, calling it a "silly picture" just before his death.
Great George Street
In 1835 Robert travelled with his father to Belgium. George had been invited to advise King Leopold on the Belgian State Railway, and was decorated with the Order of Leopold; Robert returned with his father two years later to celebrate the opening of the railway between Brussels and Ghent. By agreement with the L&BR, Robert was not permitted to work on any other engineering project while the railway was being built, but he was permitted to act as consultant. Because of the demand for his services, Robert opened offices in Westminster, first in Duke Street, and in 1837 moved to Great George Street, first to No. and in 1844 he moved along the street to No. 24, next door to the Institution of Civil Engineers building; this became the headquarters for both father and son.
After Robert had moved to London, William Hutchinson filled the gap with his design and technical skills at the locomotive works in Newcastle. Longbridge left in 1836 and was replaced by Edward Cooke, Fanny's uncle; Cooke and Robert were on first name terms and Cooke was someone Robert felt he could trust. The Stephenson valve gear was developed in 1842, although whoever at Newcastle first thought of it was disputed; Robert authorised the manufacture of a full size prototype on seeing a small model. The six-coupled Stephenson long-boiler locomotive design was developed into a successful freight locomotive, but was unsuitable for sustained high speeds.
The Stanhope and Tyne Railroad Company (S&TR) had been formed on 20 April 1832 as a partnership to build a railway between the lime kilns at Lanehead Farmhouse and the coal mines at Consett in County Durham. The partners had decided to build a railway instead of upgrading the existing Pontop Waggonway, and commissioned Robert as surveyor and consulting engineer, and with Thomas Elliot Harrison as acting engineer, construction started at Stanhope in July 1832. Robert accepted five £100 shares in payment of his fee of £1,000, and the line opened in 1834. Instead of obtaining an Act of Parliament the company had agreed wayleaves with the land owners, requiring payment of rent. The company borrowed heavily and the debt grew to £440,000; by 1840 the lime kilns and the section from Stanhope to Carrhouse had closed and the remaining Stanhope to Annfield section was losing money. A creditor sent a bill to Robert that the railway company could not pay, and Robert found that as the S&TR was not a limited company, shareholders were liable for the debt. Fearing financial ruin Robert sought the advice of Parker, the insolvent railway company was dissolved on 5 February 1841 and a new limited company, the Pontop and South Shields Railway, was created on 23 May 1842 to take over the line, Robert contributing £20,000. The southern section from Stanhope to Carrhouse was sold to the Derwent Iron Company at Consett. The Great North of England Railway opened in 1841 to York with a railway connection at Darlington to London, and the Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway (N&DJR) was formed to extend this line to Newcastle using five miles of the Pontop and South Shields Railway. George Hudson, a railway financier known as the "Railway King", was the chairman of the N&DJR, and Robert was appointed engineer.
Some work still needed to be completed on the L&BR, and the North Midland Railway and lines from Ostend to Liège and Antwerp to Mons in Belgium required Robert's attention. In 1839 he visited France, Spain and Italy for three months to advise on railways, meeting the leading French railway engineer Paulin Talabot. When he returned he was in demand, travelling the country, giving evidence to Parliament and was often asked to arbitrate in disputes between railway companies and their contractors.
Robert, like his father, planned a railway line that avoided gradients as much as possible, extending the route if necessary, and proposed such a route for a line between London and Brighton, but an alternative was selected. In August 1841 Robert himself was made Knight of the Order of Leopold for his improvements to locomotive engines. In the summer of 1842 Robert was away working on the N&DJR, in September in Cardiff and then in London working on a report for the French Railways. Fanny had been diagnosed with cancer two years previously and she grew seriously ill at the end of the month. Robert stopped work to be with her for five days before she died on 4 October 1842. Her wish was that Robert remarry and have children, but he stayed single for the rest of his life. Her funeral was on 11 October, and Robert returned to work the following day, although he was to visit to her grave for many years.
Cambridge Square
Robert grew to dislike the house on Haverstock Hill after the death of his wife. He moved to Cambridge Square in Westminster to be nearer to London's gentlemen's clubs, but soon afterwards the house was damaged by fire and he lived in temporary accommodation for ten months. The Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway opened on 18 June 1844. A special train left Euston at 5:03 am, and travelling via Rugby, Leicester, Derby, Chesterfield and Normanton, reached Gateshead, south of the River Tyne, at 2:24 pm. Festivities were held in the Newcastle Assembly Rooms, where George was introduced as the man who had "constructed the first locomotive that ever went by its own spontaneous movement along iron rails", although there were people present who should have known better.
When George had built the Stockton & Darlington and Liverpool & Manchester he had placed the rails apart, as this was the gauge of the railway at the Killingworth Colliery. Isambard Kingdom Brunel, chief engineer to the Great Western Railway, had adopted the or broad gauge, arguing that this would allow for higher speeds. Railways built with the different gauges met for the first time at Gloucester in 1844, and although an inconvenience to passengers, this became a serious problem for goods, with delays and packages being lost at Gloucester. In 1845 a Royal Commission was appointed and of the forty-six witnesses that gave evidence, only Brunel and his colleagues at the Great Western supported the broad gauge. Comparisons between a Stephenson locomotive between York and Darlington and one built by Brunel between Paddington and Didcot showed the broad gauge locomotive to be superior, but the commissioners found in favour of a gauge, due in part to the greater number of route miles that had already been laid. Brunel also supported propelling trains using the atmospheric system. Robert sent assistants to the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway in Ireland to observe, but advised against its use as the failure of one pump would bring traffic to a stop.
Robert's stepmother Elizabeth had died in 1845. That year George was returning ill from a trip to Spain and suffered an attack of pleurisy in the cabin of the packet bound for Southampton. He retired to Tapton House, near Chesterfield, and married his housekeeper early in 1848. Later that year he died on 12 August following a second attack of pleurisy, and was buried in Trinity churchyard, in Chesterfield. George had been the President of the newly formed Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and Robert took over that role until 1853.
Bridge builder
The Chester & Holyhead Railway received its permission in 1845 and Robert became the chief engineer and designed an iron bridge to cross the River Dee just outside Chester. Completed in September 1846, it was inspected by the Board of Trade Inspector, Major-General Paisley, on 20 October. On 24 May 1847 the bridge gave way under a passenger train; the locomotive and driver made it across, but the tender and carriages fell into the river. Five people died. Conder attended the inquest at Chester: he recounts that Paisley was so agitated he was nearly unable to speak, Robert was pale and haggard and the foreman of the jury seemed determined to get a verdict of manslaughter. Robert had been prepared to admit liability, but was persuaded to present a defence that the cast-iron girder could only have fractured because the tender had derailed due to a broken wheel. Robert was supported by expert witnesses such Locke, Charles Vignoles, Gooch and Kennedy, and a verdict of accidental death was returned. Robert never used long cast-iron girders again and a Royal Commission was later set up to look at the use of cast iron by the railway companies.
The Britannia Bridge was built for the Chester & Holyhead Railway to cross the Menai Straits from Wales to the island of Anglesey. The bridge needed to be long, and the Admiralty insisted on a single span above the water. Problems during the launch of the wrought-iron steamship the Prince of Wales meant that she fell with her hull not supported for , but was undamaged. Robert was inspired by this and with William Fairbairn and Eaton Hodgkinson designed a wrought-iron tubular bridge large enough for a train to pass through. They experimented with models in 1845 and 1846, and decided to use similar design on the Conwy Bridge to gain experience. The first Conwy tube was floated into position in March 1848 and lifted the following month, allowing a single line railway to open on 1 May. The second tube was lifted into position that October; on these days Brunel was with Robert supporting his friend. The positioning of the first of the four tubes for the Britannia Bridge was carried out in June 1849, when both Brunel and Locke were with Robert, and this was lifted into position in October. The second tube was in lifted into place 7 January 1850, a single line was open to public traffic through these tubes 18 March 1850, and the second line was open 19 October.
The route north of Newcastle to Edinburgh along the coast, via Morpeth and Berwick, had been recommended by George in 1838, and Hudson promoted this route for the Newcastle and Berwick Railway in 1843. The required Act, which, was given Royal Assent in 1845, included a high level road and rail bridge across the Tyne at Newcastle and the Royal Border Bridge across the Tweed at Berwick. The High Level Bridge is long and high and made from cast-iron bows held taut by horizontal wrought-iron strings. The first train crossed the Tyne on a temporary wooden structure in August 1848; the iron bridge was formally opened by Queen Victoria in September 1849, Robert having been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June. The bridge across the Tweed is a 28-arch stone viaduct, and was opened by the Queen on 29 August 1850. At the celebratory dinner Robert sat beside the Queen; he had just been offered a knighthood, but had declined.
Politics
In the summer of 1847, Robert was invited to stand in the election for the Member of Parliament for Whitby and was elected unopposed; he continued as their MP for the rest of his life. He entered Parliament as a member of the Conservative Party, holding strong protectionist Tory views and opposed to free trade. His maiden speech was in favour of the Great Exhibition and, with Brunel, became one of the Commissioners. Robert spoke against educational reform, saying workmen needed only to learn how to do their jobs, although he made donations to educational organisations. In 1850, the pope appointed Bishop Wiseman as the first English Roman Catholic Cardinal since the Reformation; Robert wrote in a private letter that this was aggressive, saying that in the "battle as to the mere form in which the creator is to be worshiped the true spirit of Christianity is never allowed to appear." He later voiced strong opposition to the decision to become involved in Crimea but supported the government in January 1855, although the government lost the vote and the prime minister resigned.
Robert had become a member of the in 1846, and the following year had accompanied Talabot and Alois Negrelli to look at the feasibility of a Suez canal. He advised against a canal, saying it would quickly fill up with sand, and assisted in the building of a railway between Alexandria and Cairo, with two tubular bridges that he had designed. This opened in 1854, and was extended to Suez in 1858. He spoke in Parliament against possible involvement in a Suez canal scheme in 1857 and 1858.
The house that has no knocker
Robert had moved to 34 Gloucester Square in 1847; when in London he would socialise at the Athenaeum and Carlton clubs, delaying returning home until late. By 1850, Robert had been involved in a third of the country's railway system, and had prematurely aged and become ill with chronic nephritis, then known as Bright's Disease, a condition he had come to share with Isambard Brunel, for much the same reasons.
Robert found that he attracted the unwelcome attention of inventors and promoters; if he was too ill to be at Great George Street they visited him at home in Gloucester Square. In part to defend himself from these intrusions in 1850 he commissioned a 100-ton yacht, calling her Titania. Finding that he had no unwanted visitors when aboard, he referred to her as "the house that has no knocker"; when he went aboard, he seemed to grow younger and would behave like an excited schoolboy. He joined the Royal Yacht Squadron in 1850, becoming its first member not from an upper-class background. Titania missed the 1851 Royal Squadron Cup race, which America won and started the America's Cup challenge, but lost to America in a private race a few days later. A second yacht, also Titania but long and 184 tons, was built in 1852 after the first was destroyed by fire.
In 1850, the route for the Norwegian Trunk Railway from Oslo (then Christiania) to Lake Mjøsa was surveyed, and Robert became chief engineer. Bidder stayed on as resident engineer, Robert returning in 1851, 1852 and 1854. In August 1852 Robert travelled to Canada to advise the Grand Trunk Railway on crossing the St Lawrence River at Montreal. The Victoria Bridge had a 6,500-foot-long (2,000-metre-long) tube made up of 25 wrought iron sections, and was to become for a time the longest bridge in the world.
In 1853, he was elected a member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers and in 1854 was elected as one of the institute's vice Presidents. In 1855 Robert was decorated Knight of the Legion of Honour by the Emperor of France.
Having served as vice-president of the Institution of Civil Engineers since 1847, he was elected president in 1856, and the following year received an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law at Oxford along with Brunel and Dr Livingstone.
During his life he had become close friends with Brunel and Locke, and in 1857, although weak and ill, he responded to a plea for help from Brunel in launching the SS Great Eastern. Robert fell from the slipway into riverside mud, but continued without an overcoat until the end of his visit. The following day he was confined to his bed for two weeks with bronchitis.
In late 1858, Robert sailed with some friends to Alexandria, where he stayed on board Titania or at Shepheard's Hotel in Cairo. He dined with his friend Brunel on Christmas Day before returning to London, arriving in February 1859. He was ill that summer, but sailed to Oslo in the company of George Parker Bidder to celebrate the opening of the Norwegian Trunk railway and to receive the Knight Grand Cross of the order of St. Olaf. He fell ill at the banquet on 3 September and returned to England on board Titania in the company of a doctor, but the journey took seven days after the yacht ran into a storm. As Robert landed in Suffolk, Brunel was already seriously ill following a stroke and died the following day. Robert rallied, but died on 12 October 1859. He was three years older than Brunel.
Legacy
Robert's death was deeply mourned throughout the country, especially since it happened just a few days after the death of Brunel. His funeral cortège was given permission by the Queen to pass through Hyde Park, an honour previously reserved for royalty. Two thousand tickets were issued, but 3000 men were admitted to the service at Westminster Abbey, where he was buried beside the great civil engineer Thomas Telford. Ships on the Thames, Tyne, Wear and Tees placed their flags at half mast. Work stopped at midday on Tyneside, and the 1,500 employees of Robert Stephenson & Co. marched through the streets of Newcastle to their own memorial service. Robert left about £400,000: the Newcastle locomotive works, Snibston collieries and £50,000 went to his cousin George Robert Stephenson, the only son of George's younger brother Robert, £10,000 was left to Parker, Bidder and the Newcastle Infirmary, and the rest was left to friends or as legacies to institutions. One of the bequests, which was for £2,000, was to the fund from which the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers was anticipating the creation of its permanent Newcastle Headquarters. Robert was a member of this institute.
See also
List of British heritage and private railways
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
The Robert Stephenson Trust
Menai Heritage A community project and museum telling the story of Stephenson's Britannia Tubular Bridge
Archive of Robert Stephenson and Co Ltd held at The National Railway Museum
1803 births
1859 deaths
Locomotive builders and designers
English railway mechanical engineers
British railway pioneers
People of the Industrial Revolution
Millwrights
British bridge engineers
British steam engine engineers
English civil engineers
19th-century British inventors
Fellows of the Royal Society
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1847–1852
UK MPs 1852–1857
UK MPs 1857–1859
UK MPs 1859–1865
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
People from Willington Quay
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Presidents of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Presidents of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
19th-century British engineers
Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts | [
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|
252958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20wives%27%20tale | Old wives' tale | An old wives' tale is a supposed truth which is actually spurious or a superstition. It can be said sometimes to be a type of urban legend, said to be passed down by older women to a younger generation. Such tales are considered superstition, folklore or unverified claims with exaggerated and/or inaccurate details. Old wives' tales often centre on women's traditional concerns, such as pregnancy, puberty, social relations, health, herbalism and nutrition.
Origins
In this context, the word wife means "woman" rather than "married woman". This usage stems from Old English ("woman") and is akin to the German (also meaning "woman"). This sense of the word is still used in Modern English in constructions such as midwife and fishwife.
Old wives' tales are often invoked to discourage certain behaviours, usually of children, or to share knowledge of folk cures for ailments ranging from toothaches to dysentery.
The concept of old wives' tales has existed for centuries. In 1611, the King James Bible was published with the following translation of a verse in I Timothy: "But refuse profane and old wives' fables, and exercise thyself [rather] unto godliness" (I Timothy 4:7 KJV).
Old wives' tales originate in the oral tradition of storytelling. They were generally propagated by illiterate women, telling stories to each other or to children. The stories do not attempt to moralise, but to teach lessons and make difficult concepts like death or coming of age easy for children to understand. These stories are also used to scare children so they don't do certain things.
These tales have often been collected by literate men and turned into written works. Fairy tales by Basile, Perrault, and the Grimms have their roots in the oral tradition of women. These male writers took the stories from women, with their plucky, clever heroines and heroes, and turned them into morality tales for children.
See also
List of common misconceptions
Aphorism
Fakelore
Lies-to-children
Maxim (philosophy)
Saw (saying)
References
Urban legends
Public opinion
Superstitions
Women's culture | [
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252960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Bowen%2C%20Baron%20Bowen | Charles Bowen, Baron Bowen | Charles Synge Christopher Bowen, Baron Bowen, (1 January 1835 – 10 April 1894) was an English judge.
Early life
Bowen was born at Woolaston in Gloucestershire – his father, Rev. Christopher Bowen, originally of Hollymount, County Mayo, being then curate of the parish and his mother, Catherine Steele (1807/8–1902); his younger brother was Edward Ernest Bowen, a long-serving Harrow schoolmaster. He was educated at Lille in France, Blackheath and Rugby schools, leaving the latter in 1853 having won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. There he made good his earlier academic promise, winning the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his time. He was elected a Fellow of Balliol in 1857 while an undergraduate and became President of the Oxford Union in 1858.
Career
From Oxford, Bowen went to London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1861, and while studying law he wrote regularly for the Saturday Review, and also later for The Spectator. In 1861, he also played a single first-class match for Hampshire against the Marylebone Cricket Club: in Hampshire's first innings he was dismissed for a duck by Caleb Robinson and in their second innings he scored 30*. His brother, Edward Ernest Bowen also played first-class cricket for Hampshire County Cricket Club.
For a time he had little success at the bar, and came near to exchanging it for the career of a college tutor, but he was persuaded by his friends to persevere. Soon after he had begun to make his mark he was briefed against the claimant in the famous Tichborne Case. Bowen's services to his leader, Sir John Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior counsel to the Treasury when Sir John had died, as he did while the trial proceeded, from the office of Solicitor General to that of Attorney-General; and from this time his practice became a very large one.
The strain, however, of the Tichborne trials was great, and his physical health became unequal to the tasks which his zeal for work imposed upon it. In 1879 his acceptance of a position as a High Court judge in the Queen's Bench division, on the retirement of Mr Justice John Mellor, gave him the opportunity of comparative rest. He was knighted in June 1879.
The character of Charles Bowen's intellect hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge; but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice John Holker, he was raised to the Court of Appeal. As a Lord Justice of Appeal, he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and his courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of his failing health, he sat regularly until August 1893, when, on the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was made a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary, and a life peer with the title Baron Bowen, of Colwood in the County of Sussex. By this time, however, his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law lord to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his last public service consisted in presiding over the commission which sat in October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots.
Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who knew him professionally or privately. He had a polished and graceful wit, of which many instances might be given, although such anecdotes lose force in print. For example, when it was suggested on the occasion of an address to Queen Victoria, to be presented by her judges, that a passage in it, "conscious as we are of our shortcomings," suggested too great humility, he proposed the emendation "conscious as we are of one another's shortcomings"; and on another occasion he defined a jurist as "a person who knows a little about the laws of every country except his own". Lord Bowen's judicial reputation will rest upon the series of judgments delivered by him in the court of appeal, which are remarkable for their lucid interpretation of legal principles as applied to the facts and business of life.
Literary work
Of Lord Bowen's literary works besides those already indicated may be mentioned his translation of Virgil's Eclogues, and Aeneid, books i.-vi. and his pamphlet, The Alabama Claim and Arbitration considered from a Legal Point of View.
Some of the quotations attributed to him include
The rain it raineth on the just
And also on the unjust fella;
But chiefly on the just, because
The unjust hath the just’s umbrella.
and
When I hear of an 'equity' in a case like this, I am reminded of a blind man in a dark room - looking for a black hat - which isn't there.
Personal life
In 1862, he married Emily Frances, eldest daughter of the engineer James Meadows Rendel, by whom he had two sons and a daughter. His daughter, Ethel Kate Bowen, married Josiah Wedgwood IV (later 1st Baron Wedgwood) of the pottery dynasty.
Judgments
He is credited with coining the phrase "the man on the Clapham omnibus", which was quoted by Sir Richard Henn Collins MR many years after his death in the case of McQuire v. Western Morning News ([1903] 2 KB 100). Amongst his judgement are:
Imperial Hydropathic Hotel Co v Hampson - a UK company law, concerning the interpretation of a company's articles of association in the matter of removal of directors.
Harben v Phillips
Hutton v West Cork Rly Co - UK company law case concerning the limits of a director's discretion to spend company funds for the benefit of non-shareholders.
Speight v Gaunt - English trusts law concerning the extent of the duty of care owed by a fiduciary.
Abrath v North Eastern Railway
Thomas v Quartermaine
Smith v Land and House Property Corp - English contract law case, concerning misrepresentation and holding that a statement of opinion can represent that one knows certain facts, and can amount to misrepresentation.
Edgington v Fitzmaurice - "the state of a man's mind is as much a fact as the state of his digestion", securities-fraud case dealing with false statements of intention
Falcke v Scottish Imperial Insurance Co - an English unjust enrichment law case, also concerning English contract law, and setting out some fundamental principles of construction of obligations, as viewed to exist by the late 19th-century English judiciary.
In the Arbitration between Secretary of State for Home Department and Fletcher (1887) - upholding a Queens Bench decision supporting the authority of the Inspector of Mines to require the use of safety lamps; Bowen LJ dissenting.
The Moorcock - English contract law giving rise to the "Business Efficacy" Test for common law implied terms.
Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company - an advertisement containing certain terms to get a reward constituted a binding unilateral offer that could be accepted by anyone who performed its terms.
Vagliano v Bank of England - prepared the majority judgment of the court, held wrong in conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords
Mogul Steamship Co Ltd v McGregor, Gow & Co - English tort law case concerning the economic tort of conspiracy to injure.
Angus v Dalton
Notes
Attribution
External links
Lord Bowen, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham.
Columbia World of Quotations, 1996
Charles Bowen at Cricinfo
Charles Bowen at CricketArchive
Law lords
Queen's Bench Division judges
English judges
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
English Queen's Counsel
English barristers
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford
People from Forest of Dean District
Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at Rugby School
1835 births
1894 deaths
Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
English cricketers
Hampshire cricketers
Sportspeople from Gloucestershire
Knights Bachelor
Presidents of the Oxford Union
Lords Justices of Appeal
19th-century English lawyers
19th-century British judges
Peers of the United Kingdom created by Queen Victoria | [
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|
252963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap%20%28disambiguation%29 | Cap (disambiguation) | A cap is a form of headgear.
Cap may refer to:
Aerial warfare
CAP, Combat air patrol is a type of flying mission for fighter aircraft.
Arts and entertainment
Cap, a character in the comic strip Cap Stubbs and Tippie
The Cap, a 1984 Canadian short film
"Cap" (song), a song by KSI featuring Offset from the 2020 album Dissimulation
Health and medicine
Cervical cap, a barrier method of contraception
Crown (dentistry), a type of dental restoration
People
Cap (nickname), a list of people
Čáp, a list of people with the Czech surname
Vladislao Cap (1934–1982), Argentine footballer
Cap R. Carden (1866–1935), American politician
Places
Cap Point, Saint Lucia
Cap River, New Caledonia
El Capitan, or "El Cap", a rock formation in Yosemite National Park
Nga Ying Chau or Cap Island, a former island in Hong Kong
Science and technology
Cap set, in affine geometry
CAP theorem, related to properties of distributed data stores
Capricornus, an astronomical constellation, whose stars are abbreviated β Cap, δ Cap, etc.
Five-prime cap, a special nucleotide added to the 5′ end of some eukaryotic mRNA molecules
Pileus (mycology), the cap of a mushroom or related fungi
Cap, a piping and plumbing fitting
Armor-piercing cap (often known simply as a 'cap'), a metal cover on an armor-piercing projectile meant to protect the penetrator and improve armor-penetrating capabilities.
Sports
Cap (sport), a term for an athlete's appearance at international level
Salary cap, an agreement limiting money spent on players' salaries
Other uses
Cap (crown), the cap which fills the inner space of modern crowns
Cap, a winemaking term
Cap, or Camper shell, a covering for the rear bed of a pickup truck
Cap Radio (Morocco), a Moroccan radio station
Chipaya language, ISO 639-3 language code cap
Closure (container), often referred to as a cap
See also
CAP (disambiguation)
Caps (disambiguation)
Capp (disambiguation)
CAPPE (disambiguation)
Market capitalization (market cap), the market value of a publicly traded company's outstanding shares
Interest rate cap, a type of interest rate derivative
Blasting cap, an explosive detonator
Percussion cap, a single-use ignition device on muzzleloader firearms | [
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|
252969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological%20model%20of%20competition | Ecological model of competition | The ecological model of competition is a reassessment of the nature of competition in the economy. Traditional economics models the economy on the principles of physics (force, equilibrium, inertia, momentum, and linear relationships). This can be seen in the economics lexicon: terms like labour force, market equilibrium, capital flows, and price elasticity. This is probably due to historical coincidence. Classical Newtonian physics was the state of the art in science when Adam Smith was formulating the first principles of economics in the 18th century.
According to the ecological model, it is more appropriate to model the economy on biology (growth, change, death, evolution, survival of the fittest, complex inter-relationships, non-linear relationships). Businesses operate in a complex environment with interlinked sets of determinants. Companies co-evolve: they influence, and are influenced by, competitors, customers, governments, investors, suppliers, unions, distributors, banks, and others. We should look at this business environment as a business ecosystem that both sustains, and threatens the firm. A company that is not well matched to its environment might not survive. Companies that are able to develop a successful business model and turn a core competency into a sustainable competitive advantage will thrive and grow. Very successful firms may come to dominate their industry (referred to as category killers).
See also
Competitor analysis
Marketing
Oligopoly
Strategic management
Sustainable competitive advantage
Dominant Design
References
Moore, James (1993) "Predators and Prey : A new ecology of competition", Harvard Business Review, May/June 1993.
Economics models
Competition | [
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|
252970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyd | Oxyd | Oxyd is a 1990 puzzle game developed for the Atari ST and ported to the Amiga, Macintosh, MS-DOS, and the NeXT platform by Dongleware Verlags GmbH. It is a game of puzzles and tests to restart all the oxygen generators (called Oxyds) on the player's home planet. The Oxyds must be restarted by opening them in pairs of matching patterns, and (in colour versions) matching colours.
The Atari ST version was developed with the Megamax Modula-2 programming language.
Gameplay
The player controls a small black marble that rolls around, touches things to activate them (Oxyds are opened by touching them), and bashes things to move them. The player has an inventory and can add some items to the inventory by rolling over them. The game's playfield is called a landscape. The player must open all of the Oxyds to progress to the next landscape. Oxyds must be matched in pairs. An unpaired Oxyd will close if an Oxyd of another pattern or colour is opened.
Some landscapes also contain textual clues, which the player can place in their inventory by rolling the marble over them. They can then be selected and read. There are clues on many landscapes: some are helpful, but others are confusing or not so helpful. Other useful items include bombs, dynamite, spades, keys and computer disks. These items may be placed in the inventory, and can create or destroy blocks, create holes, fill holes, and open doors. There are other interactive blocks, including movable wooden blocks, lasers, mirrors, hidden passages. There are also dangerous areas, including bottomless pits, crumbling floors (which collapse if the marble has been rolled on them several times), slides, pools of water to drown in, quicksand (which the marble will slowly sink in), and assorted traps.
Some levels invert the player's controls, and in the sequel games, the player has to control several balls, which shatter if they touch each other.
There are two-player cooperative levels with one black and one white marble that can either be played by one player, alternating his mouse control between either marble, or by two players playing on two interconnected computers. The interconnection is accomplished by MIDI on the Atari ST, or by the serial ports on other machines.
Release
Dongleware offered for $4 shipping and handling the first ten levels of Oxyd, and the game was easily obtainable from shareware CDs or bulletin board systems. From the 11th level onward, at various intervals throughout the games, "Magic Tokens" blocked crucial parts and passageways of the landscapes, mostly rendering progress impossible. These stones could only be removed by entering a code. The Oxyd Book was sold separately for $39, with code tables matching the information given on the Magic Stone. This form of software protection used the book as a dongle or code wheel; however, unlike other games which use the code book protection approach, the game itself was free.
Legacy
Oxyd spawned a number of sequels: Oxyd Magnum, Oxyd Extra, and (also known as Oxyd 2). Additionally, Oxyd itself was a sequel to a lesser-known game, called Esprit.
In summer 2019, Dongleware announced a completely new Oxyd release and a port of the classic version to the Nintendo Switch console. In March 2021, the Steam store page for the game was removed. Around 2020, Oxydgames twitter account was suspended. Only the YouTube channel and website remain. The current status of the new release is unknown, as such it is assumed that development has been suspended.
Enigma is an Open source fangame with over a thousand different landscapes that can also read the original Oxyd level packs (they are not included for copyright reasons). Also the included "Dejavu" level packs contain levels with similar ideas to the original levels.
Mad Data, with the permission of Dongleware, has produced an official freeware game with the name "Oxyd extra v2.0".
Reception
Computer Gaming World in April 1993 called Oxyd "My favorite new shareware title ... an exceptional offering, guaranteed to provide numerous hours of enjoyment". The magazine in April 1994 said that Oxyd Magnum "will quickly pull players deeper and deeper into its 100 devilish mazes". Computer Gaming World in May 1994 said that it "is a game with very few flaws. The graphics are clean, and the mouse control is crisp", and praised the small size. The magazine concluded that "Oxyd Magnum is a top notch puzzle game that will keep players up to the early hours of the morning attempting to solve 'just one more level'".
References
External links
Oxyd at Hall of Light Amiga database
www.dongleware.com
www.oxyd-game.com archived from the original on June 15, 2006
Amiga games
Atari ST games
DOS games
Classic Mac OS games
Puzzle video games
Video games developed in Germany
1990 video games
Marble games
Video games using code wheel copy protection | [
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|
252972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards | 2000 Governor General's Awards | The 2000 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were presented by Adrienne Clarkson, Governor General of Canada, and Jean-Louis Roux, Chairman of the Canada Council for the Arts, on November 14 at Rideau Hall.
English-language finalists
Fiction
Michael Ondaatje, Anil's Ghost
Margaret Atwood, The Blind Assassin
Austin Clarke, The Question
David Adams Richards, Mercy Among the Children
Eden Robinson, Monkey Beach
Poetry
Don McKay, Another Gravity
George Bowering, His Life
A. F. Moritz, Rest on the Flight into Egypt
John Pass, Water Stair
Patricia Young, Ruin and Beauty
Drama
Timothy Findley, Elizabeth Rex
George Boyd, Consecrated Ground
Linda Griffiths, Alien Creature
Daniel MacIvor and Daniel Brooks, Monster
Jason Sherman, It's All True
Non-fiction
Nega Mezlekia, Notes from the Hyena's Belly
Robert Bringhurst, A Story as Sharp as a Knife
Trevor Herriot, River in a Dry Land
A. B. McKillop, The Spinster and the Prophet
Children's literature (text)
Deborah Ellis, Looking for X
Martha Brooks, Being with Henry
Sharon E. McKay, Charlie Wilcox
Sheldon Oberman, The Shaman's Nephew
Duncan Thornton, Kalifax
Children's literature (illustration)
Marie-Louise Gay, Yuck, A Love Story
Nelly and Ernst Hofer, The Snow Queen
Marthe Jocelyn, Hannah's Collections
Regolo Ricci, The Market Wedding
Cybèle Young, Pa's Harvest
French-to-English translation
Robert Majzels, Just Fine (France Daigle, Pas pire)
Sheila Fischman, Terra Firma (Christiane Frenette, La Terre ferme)
Linda Gaboriau, Down Dangerous Passes Road (Michel Marc Bouchard, Le chemin des Passes-dangereuses)
Bobby Theodore, 15 Seconds (François Archambault, 15 secondes)
French-language finalists
Fiction
Jean-Marc Dalpé, Un vent se lève qui éparpille
Christiane Duchesne, L'Homme des silences
Roger Magini, Styx
Pierre Samson, Il était une fois une ville
Alison Lee Strayer, Jardin et prairie
Poetry
Normand de Bellefeuille, La Marche de l'aveugle sans son chien
Martine Audet, Orbites
Joël Des Rosiers, Vétiver
Madeleine Gagnon, Rêve de pierre
Claude Paré, Exécuté en chambre
Drama
Wajdi Mouawad, Littoral
Geneviève Billette, Crime contre l'humanité
Serge Boucher, 24 Poses
Jasmine Dubé, L'Arche de Noémie
Lise Vaillancourt, Le petit dragon and La balade de Fannie et Carcassonne
Non-fiction
Gérard Bouchard, Genèse des nations et cultures du Nouveau Monde
Brian T. Fitch, À l'ombre de la littérature
Olga Hazan, Le mythe du progrès artistique
Yves Lavertu, Jean-Charles Harvey
Robert Major, Convoyages
Children's literature (text)
Charlotte Gingras, Un été de Jade
Guy Dessureault, L'homme au chat
François Gravel, L'été de la moustache
Gilles Tibo, La Planète du petit géant
Hélène Vachon, Le délire de Somerset
Children's literature (illustration)
Anne Villeneuve, L'Écharpe rouge
Marie-Louise Gay, Sur mon île
Pascale Constantin, Gloups!, Bébé-vampire
Geneviève Côté, La grande aventure d'un petit mouton noir
Gérard DuBois, Riquet à la Houppe
English-to-French translation
Lori Saint-Martin and Paul Gagné, Un parfum de cèdre
Jude Des Chênes, L'honneur du guerrier
Dominique Issenhuth, Amants
External links
The Canada Council: CUMULATIVE LIST OF FINALISTS FOR THE GOVERNOR GENERAL'S LITERARY AWARDS
References
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards | [
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252975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia%3A%20The%20Creation%20of%20a%20Nation | Utopia: The Creation of a Nation | Utopia: The Creation of a Nation is a strategy video game. It was developed by Celestial Software and published by Gremlin Graphics (later known as Gremlin Interactive), in 1991 for Amiga, Atari ST and MS-DOS. It was later released for the Super NES in 1993, by Jaleco in the USA. This release made use of the Super NES Mouse peripheral.
Gameplay
The game, taking place in the future, on a new planet, is open-ended where the player character is a planetary governor who evacuated his colony after it was hit by a biological weapon by an alien race. Instead of being reprimanded or fired, the governor is lauded for his care of colonists' lives over material gain, and promoted to a series of pioneer worlds to colonize.
It is the player's task to colonize the new planet, manage the colony and raise the quality of life for the citizen in order to reach utopia.
Initially the player has a few colonists with a lot to do. The player needs to build everything from scratch. Building takes time and free colonists, in addition to money. Buildings under construction are depicted by scaffold.
However certain buildings require personnel (hospitals, labs, mines, factories, shipyards ...) and therefore the player has to engage in population management. The player also has to micromanage features such as tax rate, birth rate and trade.
In addition, each world also has a competing alien race which is trying to colonize the same planet. There is no option to form alliances, which means that the player's population must come into conflict with the aliens. The player never actually gets to see the alien city, as it is located outside the playable map, but must instead rely on espionage to find out what the aliens and their city look like. It is possible to completely eradicate the alien race, after which the game loses its combat aspect and becomes a pure management simulation.
Scenarios
Utopia includes ten scenarios, all with a different planet and a different alien race. The scenarios are named according to the alien races in the Amiga version and according to the planets in the SNES port:
Eldorians (Rhendor IV)
Vroarscans (Alpha Ceti)
Soomanii (Vega III)
Kal-Kriken (Astoria II)
Catalytes (Benezar IV)
Squiz-Quijy (Antares III)
Pascalenes (Rukbat III)
Tilikanthua (Betazan II)
Vanacancia (Merak VI)
Lucratians (Gamma Lucra)
A data disk called Utopia: The New Worlds was later released by Gremlin. This disk required the original Utopia and could not be played as a stand-alone game. It included the following scenarios:
Foralbo
Parillatians
Chevanno
Old-Worlders
Sarturians
Sal-Kadeem
Rako-Gorda
Key-Guardians
Darjakr'Ul
Temarkians
The "Old-Worlders" were said to be humans, coming from Earth's earlier attempt to colonize the same planet. In practice, they were handled just as another hostile alien race. The terrain of the Sal-Kadeem planet was unique in that it was mostly covered with silver-colored oil that was impossible to build on. Buildings were restricted to tiny patches of habitable land.
Bugs
It is possible to build Fusion Cruisers before they have been invented. In addition, this way they are free of cost, and only take one month to build. This can be done simply by clicking the empty space (where the Fusion Cruiser will appear when it has been invented) in the ship selection menu.
If the player accesses a ship's control panel while the ship is launching, the ship will keep launching perpetually. This happens even if the player exits the panel immediately without giving the ship any orders. The ship will fly off the top of the screen and reappear at the bottom, corrupting the graphics and perhaps eventually crashing the game.
Notes
One of the four available background musics in Utopia is Johann Pachelbel's Canon in D, a classical melody.
Utopia can handle a maximum of 256 buildings, 100 tanks and 40 spaceships at one time. Trying to build any more results in a message that simply says more cannot be built "yet". However, there is no apparent limit to the number of buildings in the SNES version.
Development
The Amiga version of Utopia began development in September 1990, and was released in September 1991. British gaming magazine The One interviewed Graeme Ing and Robert Crack, the designers of Utopia, for information regarding its development in a pre-release interview. Work on Utopia began after the completion of Spacewrecked: 14 Billion Light Years From Earth, and was inspired by Sim City. According to Ing, Utopia was conceived around the idea of how Sim City could be improved upon. The main differentiating design choice was to have a 'more involved' social model, rather than center Utopia's gameplay around the city-building aspect. Ing notes Utopia's hybridized mode of gameplay, noting Utopia's combat, and greater involvement in the development of technology that the player can use, but expresses that he "[doesn't] think the actual simulation is as deep as Sim City ... All sorts of interesting factors were incorporated there. Instead, we've gone for the fun aspect." The option to automate trading was added due to Ing and Crack's belief that Utopia's trading and resource management aspect 'won't appeal to everybody'.
Utopia's alien environments were partially inspired by science fiction novels. Each alien race has differing AI routines, but the level of detail put into their development was limited by memory restrictions, with Ing expressing that "It's a trade-off really. You can't go completely overboard because the more intelligence you put in, the slower the gameplay. You've got to balance the two." A user-friendly UI was an important aspect in Utopia's development, and Ing expresses that "Nothing annoys me more than a product which is graphically good but in which it's difficult for the player to grasp the controls. That's why from the word go I'm always thinking about making everything as easy as possible to use." Utopia's graphics were created in DPaint. Expansion disks for Utopia were being considered by Gremlin prior to Utopia's release, due to the project 'seeming promising'.
Ing states that he holds a design philosophy of making lists to organize a game's design prior to its development, stating that "First we generated a massive spec. It's about 100 pages long and details absolutely everything that needs to be done. Then what I always do is make a list of every single piece of code that needs to be written to make that spec. possible and work my way slowly though the list. Eventually it gets shorter." A fully functional map screen was prioritized as the first part of Utopia to be programmed, and Ing states that "We created some temporary graphics for the buildings and then I worked on all the routines necessary to scroll around the world and select those buildings." At this stage in development, Utopia lacked an isometric perspective, and the map screen was instead in 2D graphics. Ing expresses in regards to this design change that "Halfway through what was going to be a 2D sim we decided it would look a lot better with an extra dimension." Ing expresses that the transition from 2D to 3D midway through development was a complication, stating that "There were a lot of problems when we switched to 2D to 3D. For example, the game involves a lot of ground vehicles moving behind and around the buildings and that took ages to work out." A map editor was designed for Utopia during development to 'simplify' map design, and Ing expresses that "Basically, all it is is a modified version of the game itself with the gameplay taken out and all the facilities to help us construct the scenario maps."
Reception
In 1992 and surveys of science fiction games, Computer Gaming World gave the title three-plus stars out of five.
The One gave the Amiga version of Utopia an overall score of 93%, calling it "A cross between Sim City and Populous - and a rival to both", furthermore stating that Utopia "incorporates so much more than [SimCity]" and that "each game provides a totally new challenge within the first few minutes". The One praises Utopia's difficulty and creativity, expressing that those who achieve a 'quality of life' rating of 100% should "consider a career in public office", and calls the game's alien antagonists "the spark of genius that sets this game apart from other software". The One praises Utopia's graphics and sound, noting a feature where the soundtrack changes depending on the player's performance in-game, and calls the game's isometric perspective "pleasing to the eye".
Successors
Utopia was succeeded by K240, which carried the colonization idea over to an asteroid belt. The most prominent improvement was that in K240, the alien race was no longer off the map, but its cities could be viewed the same way as the player's. K240 was in turn succeeded by Fragile Allegiance, further refining the idea of colonizing an asteroid belt.
References
External links
Utopia: The Creation of a Nation at Hall of Light
1991 video games
Amiga games
Atari ST games
City-building games
DOS games
Epic/Sony Records games
Gremlin Interactive games
Jaleco games
Real-time strategy video games
Science fiction video games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by Barry Leitch
Video games scored by Patrick Phelan
Video games with expansion packs
Video games with isometric graphics | [
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|
252980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad%20Tycoon | Railroad Tycoon | Railroad Tycoon is a business simulation game series. There are five versions; the original Railroad Tycoon (1990), Railroad Tycoon Deluxe (1993), Railroad Tycoon II (1998), Railroad Tycoon 3 (2003), and Sid Meier's Railroads! (2006).
Railroad Tycoon was written by game designer Sid Meier and published by MicroProse. Though it shares the "Tycoon" suffix, it is not related to other Microprose games such as RollerCoaster Tycoon and Transport Tycoon, which were developed by Scottish programmer Chris Sawyer.
The objective of the game is to build and manage a railroad company by laying track, building stations, and buying and scheduling trains. The railroad must be built in a certain time to win the game.
Sid Meier's Railroad Tycoon
The original version allowed the player to start companies in several settings: the U.S. West and Midwest or the Northeast, England, and (on a smaller scale including southern England) Europe.
The player manages the business as described above and may also handle individual train movement and build additional industries. The game also has other railroad companies attempting to put the player out of business with stock dealings and "Rate Wars".
The player starts with one million dollars, half as equity, half as loan. The player can get more cash by selling $500,000 bonds at various interest rates (which depend on the current economic condition in the game).
As part of the release of the new Sid Meier's Railroads, 2K Games released the full version of the original Railroad Tycoon game for free, which is available on their website.
Sid Meier's Railroad Tycoon Deluxe
An updated version of this game named Railroad Tycoon Deluxe was created and released in 1993. Despite a host of new features and graphics, Deluxe sold very poorly, due to some bugs and slow gameplay (most notoriously the F4 map screen, which brings the game to a crawl).
Deluxe is essentially the same game as Railroad Tycoon, with improved hi-resolution graphics, new sound effects, and several additions. The additions are: new maps (South America and Africa) with region-specific cargo types (e.g. troops for Africa), new time ranges and locomotives, bandits who can hijack trains, and sheriffs who will arrest them.
Although the game is called Sid Meier's Railroad Tycoon Deluxe, Sid Meier himself had nothing to do with the development of this version.
Railroad Tycoon II
A sequel featuring improved graphics and more complex gameplay was published by Gathering of Developers in 1998 after PopTop Software acquired rights to the name from MicroProse, Sid Meier's original company which he himself left a year earlier to form Firaxis.
Some features of the first version are missing in this sequel, such as the ability to build tunnels and signal towers, but many new possibilities were added, such as the ability to have unlimited money, trains, and train routes, much better control of routes, dozens of new maps, and the ability to create and modify scenarios and maps.
The Dreamcast version was in full 3D.
There are dozens of new scenarios to play including ones in Africa, North America, Germany, the Swiss Alps, the jungles of South America, and even several places around the world in a possible future where Earth's oceans have risen. Most of the ones in Railroad Tycoon 1 are in Railroad Tycoon II. There are also many more first and second century campaigns to choose from than in Railroad Tycoon.
An expansion pack Railroad Tycoon II: Second Century was later added which contained new scenarios focusing on modern and near-future times, plus added new elements to the economy. The game and its expansion were repackaged together in the Gold Edition and then, with 50 additional user-made scenarios, into the Platinum Edition.
A short lived, budget title The Next Millennium went on sale in 2000. It featured many scenarios and features of The Second Century, but no map editor. It had no instruction booklet and was sold only in a jewel case.
Railroad Tycoon 3
The second sequel, Railroad Tycoon 3, was released in 2003. It featured a full 3D environment, overpasses and tunnels, and much improved graphics. Gameplay changed significantly, with dynamic pricing of goods across the entire map and cargo that can find alternate means of transportation if no train service is provided, but the possibility to change the landscape during the game by laying tracks in an adequate way disappeared. A map editor is included but cannot be used during the game.
An expansion pack, Coast to Coast, was released for download in 2004 with new scenarios, including a map of the entire United States and eight new locomotives.
Board game
Railroad Tycoon is a railway-themed board game designed by Martin Wallace and Glenn Drover. The game, published in 2005 by Eagle Games, is derived from Wallace's earlier railway-themed game Age of Steam with more stylistic box art and simplified rules. Originally using the Railroad Tycoon license and featuring box art very similar to the third entry in the series, it has been published under the title Railways of the World since 2009. Railroad Tycoon takes place in the eastern United States in 1830. Each player takes charge of a pioneering new railway company.
Sid Meier's Railroads!
Sid Meier's Railroads! was released in October 2006. It was the first game in the Railroad Tycoon series since the original to have direct input from Sid Meier himself. Railroads! features a variety of scenarios and trains from both North America and Europe and is less industry-focused than previous versions. It has a simpler user interface for track laying, full 3D graphics, and real time gameplay.
References
External links
Take-Two Interactive franchises
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 1990
Fiction about rail transport | [
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252981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoot%20%27em%20up | Shoot 'em up | Shoot 'em ups (also known as shmups or STGs) are a sub-genre of shooter video games, which are in turn a sub-genre of action video games. There is no consensus as to which design elements compose a shoot 'em up; some restrict the definition to games featuring spacecraft and certain types of character movement, while others allow a broader definition including characters on foot and a variety of perspectives.
The genre's roots can be traced back to earlier shooting games, including target shooting electro-mechanical games of the mid-20th-century and the early mainframe game Spacewar! (1962). The shoot 'em up genre was established by the hit arcade game Space Invaders, which popularised and set the general template for the genre in 1978, and spawned many clones. The genre was then further developed by arcade hits such as Asteroids and Galaxian in 1979. Shoot 'em ups were popular throughout the 1980s to early 1990s, diversifying into a variety of subgenres such as scrolling shooters, run-and-gun games and rail shooters. In the mid-1990s, shoot 'em ups became a niche genre based on design conventions established in the 1980s, and increasingly catered to specialist enthusiasts, particularly in Japan. "Bullet hell" games are a subgenre of shooters that features overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles, often in visually impressive formations.
Definition
A "shoot 'em up", also known as a "shmup" or "STG" (the common Japanese abbreviation for "shooting games"), is a game in which the protagonist combats a large number of enemies by shooting at them while dodging their fire. The controlling player must rely primarily on reaction times to succeed. Beyond this, critics differ on exactly which design elements constitute a shoot 'em up. Some restrict the genre to games featuring some kind of craft, using fixed or scrolling movement. Others widen the scope to include games featuring such protagonists as robots or humans on foot, as well as including games featuring "on-rails" (or "into the screen") and "run and gun" movement. Mark Wolf restricts the definition to games featuring multiple antagonists ("'em" being short for "them"), calling games featuring one-on-one shooting "combat games". Formerly, critics described any game where the primary design element was shooting as a "shoot 'em up", but later shoot 'em ups became a specific, inward-looking genre based on design conventions established in those shooting games of the 1980s.
Common elements
Shoot 'em ups are a subgenre of shooter game, in turn a type of action game. These games are usually viewed from a top-down or side-view perspective, and players must use ranged weapons to take action at a distance. The player's avatar is typically a vehicle or spacecraft under constant attack. Thus, the player's goal is to shoot as quickly as possible at anything that moves or threatens them to reach the end of the level with a boss battle. In some games, the player's character can withstand some damage or a single hit will result in their destruction. The main skills required in shoot 'em ups are fast reactions and memorising enemy attack patterns. Some games feature overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and the player has to memorise their patterns to survive. These games belong to one of the fastest-paced video game genres.
Large numbers of enemy characters programmed to behave in an easily predictable manner are typically featured. These enemies may behave in a certain way dependent on their type, or attack in formations that the player can learn to predict. The basic gameplay tends to be straightforward with many varieties of weapons. Shoot 'em ups rarely have realistic physics. Characters can instantly change direction with no inertia, and projectiles move in a straight line at constant speeds. The player's character can collect "power-ups" which may afford the character's greater protection, an "extra life", health, shield, or upgraded weaponry. Different weapons are often suited to different enemies, but these games seldom keep track of ammunition. As such, players tend to fire indiscriminately, and their weapons only damage legitimate targets.
Types
Shoot 'em ups are categorized by their design elements, particularly viewpoint and movement:
Fixed shooters restrict the player along with enemies to a single screen; this can also include giving them a single axis of motion. Everything including movement is constrained to one screen. Examples include Space Invaders (1978), Galaxian (1979), Centipede (1980), Galaga (1981), Pooyan (1982), Galactix (1992), Love Hero (2019), Doughlings: Invasion (2019).
Multidirectional shooters feature 360-degree movement where the protagonist may rotate and move in any direction. Multidirectional shooters with one joystick for movement and one joystick for firing in any direction independent of movement are called twin-stick shooters.
Space shooters involve piloting spacecraft in an outer space setting. Following the success of Space Invaders, space shooters were the dominant subgenre during the late 1970s to early 1980s. These games can overlap with other subgenres as well as space combat games.
Tube shooters feature craft flying through an abstract tube, such as Tempest (1981) and Gyruss (1983). There is still a single axis of motion, making these a subset of fixed shooters.
Rail shooters limit the player to moving around the screen while following a specific route; these games often feature an "into the screen" viewpoint, with which the action is seen from behind the player character, and moves "into the screen", while the player retains control over dodging. Examples include Space Harrier (1985), Captain Skyhawk (1990), Starblade (1991), Star Fox (1993), Star Wars: Rebel Assault (1993), Panzer Dragoon (1995), and Sin and Punishment (2000). Rail shooters that use light guns are called light gun shooters, such as Virtua Cop (1994), Time Crisis (1995) and The House of the Dead (1996). Light-gun games that are "on rails" are usually not considered to be in the shoot-em-up category, but rather their own first-person light-gun shooter category.
Cute 'em ups feature brightly colored graphics depicting surreal settings and enemies. Cute 'em ups tend to have unusual, oftentimes completely bizarre opponents for the player to fight, with Twinbee and Fantasy Zone first pioneering the subgenre, along with Parodius, Cotton, and Harmful Park being additional key games. Some cute 'em ups may employ overtly sexual characters and innuendo.
Scrolling shooters
Vertically scrolling shooters or vertical scrolling shooters present the action from above and scroll up (or occasionally down) the screen.
Side-scrolling shooters or horizontal scrolling shooters present a side-on view and scroll horizontally.
Isometrically scrolling shooters or isometric shooters, such as Sega's Zaxxon (1982), use an isometric point of view.
Run 'n' gun or run and gun games have protagonists that fight on foot, often with the ability to jump. Examples include Commando, Ikari Warriors, Contra, Metal Slug and Cuphead. Run-and-gun games may use side scrolling, vertical scrolling or isometric viewpoints and may feature multidirectional movement.
Bullet hell
is a subgenre of shooters in which the entire screen is often almost completely filled with enemy bullets. This type is also known as "curtain fire", "manic shooters" or "maniac shooters". This style of game originated in the mid-1990s as an offshoot of scrolling shooters.
Trance shooters
A small subgenre of shooter games that emphasizes chaotic, reflex-based gameplay designed to put the player in a trance-like state. In trance shooters, enemy patterns usually have randomized elements, forcing the player to rely on reflexes rather than pattern memorization. Games of this type usually feature colorful, abstract visuals, and electronic music (often techno music). Jeff Minter is commonly credited with originating the style with Tempest 2000, and Minter developed a number of other notable examples, including Space Giraffe, Gridrunner++, and Polybius (2017). Other notable examples include the Geometry Wars series, Space Invaders Extreme, Super Stardust HD and Resogun.
History
Origins
The concept of shooting games existed before video games, dating back to shooting gallery carnival games in the late 19th century. Mechanical target shooting games first appeared in England's amusement arcades around the turn of the 20th century, before appearing in America by the 1920s. Shooting gallery games eventually evolved into more sophisticated target shooting electro-mechanical games (EM games) such as Sega's influential Periscope (1965). Shooting video games have roots in EM shooting games.
Video game journalist Brian Ashcraft argues that Spacewar! (1962), an early mainframe game, was the first shoot 'em up video game. It was developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1961, for the developers' amusement. It was remade four times as an arcade game during the early to mid-1970s. It featured combat between two spacecraft.
Emergence of shoot 'em up genre (late 1970s)
Space Invaders (1978) is most frequently cited as the "first" or "original" in the genre. A seminal game created by Tomohiro Nishikado of Japan's Taito, it led to shooter games becoming prolific. It pitted the player against multiple enemies descending from the top of the screen at a constantly increasing speed. Nishikado conceived the game by combining elements of Breakout (1976) with those of earlier target shooting games, and simple alien creatures inspired by H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds. The hardware was unable to render the movement of aircraft, so the game was set in space, with a black background. It had a more interactive style of play than earlier target shooting games, with multiple enemies who responded to the player-controlled cannon's movement and fired back at the player. The game ended when the player was killed by the enemies. While earlier shooting games allowed the player to shoot at targets, Space Invaders was the first where multiple enemies fired back at the player. It also introduced the idea of giving the player multiple lives and popularized the concept of achieving a high score
With these elements, Space Invaders set the general template for the shoot 'em up genre. It became one of the most widely cloned shooting games, spawning more than 100 imitators with only the most minor differences (if any) from the original. Most shooting games released since then have followed its "multiple life, progressively difficult level" paradigm, according to Eugene Jarvis.
Golden age and refinement (late 1970s to early 1980s)
Following the success of Space Invaders, shoot 'em ups became the dominant genre for much of the golden age of arcade video games, from the late 1970s up until the early 1980s, particularly the "space shooter" subgenre. In 1979, Namco's Galaxian—"the granddaddy of all top-down shooters", according to IGN—was released. Its use of colour graphics and individualised antagonists were considered "strong evolutionary concepts" among space ship games. Atari's Asteroids (1979) was a hit multi-directional shooter, allowing the player to shoot in any direction by rotating the game's spacecraft.
The Space Invaders format evolved into the vertical scrolling shooter sub-genre. SNK's debut shoot 'em up Ozma Wars (1979) featured vertical scrolling backgrounds and enemies, and it was the first action game to feature a supply of energy, similar to hit points. Namco's Xevious, released in 1982, was one of the first and most influential vertical scrolling shooters. Xevious is also the first to convincingly portray dithered/shaded organic landscapes as opposed to blocks-in-space or wireframe obstacles.
Side-scrolling shoot 'em ups emerged in the early 1980s. Defender, introduced by Williams Electronics in late 1980 and entering production in early 1981, allowed side-scrolling in both directions in a wrap-around game world, unlike most later games in the genre. The scrolling helped remove design limitations associated with the screen, and it also featured a minimap radar. Scramble, released by Konami in early 1981, had continuous scrolling in a single direction and was the first side-scrolling shooter with multiple distinct levels.
In the early 1980s, Japanese arcade developers began moving away from space shooters towards character action games, whereas American arcade developers continued to focus on space shooters during the early 1980s, up until the end of the arcade golden age. According to Eugene Jarvis, American developers were greatly influenced by Japanese space shooters but took the genre in a different direction from the "more deterministic, scripted, pattern-type" gameplay of Japanese games, towards a more "programmer-centric design culture, emphasizing algorithmic generation of backgrounds and enemy dispatch" and "an emphasis on random-event generation, particle-effect explosions and physics" as seen in arcade games such as his own Defender and Robotron: 2084 (1982) as well as Atari's Asteroids (1979). Robotron: 2084 was an influential game in the multi-directional shooter subgenre.
Some games experimented with pseudo-3D perspectives at the time. Nintendo's attempt at the genre, Radar Scope (1980), borrowed heavily from Space Invaders and Galaxian, but added a three-dimensional third-person perspective; the game was a commercial failure, however. Atari's Tempest (1981) was one of the earliest tube shooters and a more successful attempt to incorporate a 3D perspective into shooter games; Tempest went on to influence several later rail shooters. Sega's Zaxxon (1981) introduced isometric video game graphics to the genre.
The term "shmup" is believed to have been coined in 1985 by the British Commodore 64 magazine Zzap!64. In the July 1985 issue, the term was used by the editor Chris Anderson and reviewer Julian Rignall.
1985 saw the release of Konami's Gradius, which gave the player greater control over the choice of weaponry, thus introducing another element of strategy. The game also introduced the need for the player to memorise levels in order to achieve any measure of success. Gradius, with its iconic protagonist, defined the side-scrolling shoot 'em up and spawned a series spanning several sequels. The following year saw the emergence of one of Sega's forefront series with its game Fantasy Zone. The game received acclaim for its surreal graphics and setting and the protagonist, Opa-Opa, was for a time considered Sega's mascot. The game borrowed Defender's device of allowing the player to control the direction of flight and along with the earlier TwinBee (1985), is an early archetype of the "cute 'em up" subgenre. In 1986, Taito released KiKi KaiKai, an overhead multi-directional shooter. The game is notable for using a traditional fantasy setting in contrast to most shoot 'em up games filled with science fiction motifs. R-Type, an acclaimed side-scrolling shoot 'em up, was released in 1987 by Irem, employing slower paced scrolling than usual, with difficult, claustrophobic levels calling for methodical strategies. 1990's Raiden was the beginning of another acclaimed and enduring series to emerge from this period.
Run-and-gun and rail shooters (1980s to early 1990s)
Run-and-gun shoot 'em ups became popular in the mid-1980s. These games feature characters on foot, rather than spacecraft, and often have military themes. The origins of this type of shooter go back to Sheriff by Nintendo, released in 1979. SNK's Sasuke vs. Commander (1980), which had relatively detailed background graphics for its time, pit a samurai against a horde of ninjas, along with boss fights. Taito's Front Line (1982) introduced the vertical scrolling format later popularized by Capcom's Commando (1985), which established the standard formula used by later run-and-gun shooters. Sega's Ninja Princess (1985), which released slightly before Commando, was a run-and-gun shooter that was distinctive for its feudal Japan setting and female ninja protagonist who throws shuriken and knives. SNK's TNK III, released later in 1985, combined the Front Line tank shooter format with unique rotary joystick controls, which they later combined with Commando-inspired run-and-gun gameplay to develop Ikari Warriors (1986), which further popularized run-and-gun shooters. Ikari Warriors also drew inspiration from the action movie Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985), which it was originally intended to be an adaptation of. Contemporary critics considered military themes and protagonists similar to Rambo or Schwarzenegger prerequisites for a shoot 'em up, as opposed to an action-adventure game. The success of Commando and Ikari Warriors led to run-and-gun games becoming the dominant style of shoot 'em up during the late 1980s to early 1990s, with the term "shoot 'em up" itself becoming synonymous with run-and-gun shooters during this period.
Konami's Green Beret (1985), known as Rush'n Attack in North America, adapted the Commando formula to a side-scrolling format. Later notable side-scrolling run-and-gun shooters include Namco's Rolling Thunder (1986), which added cover mechanics to the formula, and Data East's RoboCop (1988). In 1987, Konami created Contra, a side-scrolling coin-op arcade game, and later a NES game, that was particularly acclaimed for its multi-directional aiming and two-player cooperative gameplay. By the early 1990s and the popularity of 16-bit consoles, the scrolling shooter genre was overcrowded, with developers struggling to make their games stand out, with exceptions such as the inventive Gunstar Heroes (1993) by Treasure.
Sega's pseudo-3D rail shooter Buck Rogers: Planet of Zoom demonstrated the potential of 3D shoot 'em up gameplay in 1982. Sega's Space Harrier, a rail shooter released in 1985, broke new ground graphically and its wide variety of settings across multiple levels gave players more to aim for than high scores. In 1986, Arsys Software released WiBArm, a shooter that switched between a 2D side-scrolling view in outdoor areas to a fully 3D polygonal third-person perspective inside buildings, while bosses were fought in an arena-style 2D battle, with the game featuring a variety of weapons and equipment. In 1987, Square's 3-D WorldRunner was an early stereoscopic 3-D shooter played from a third-person perspective, followed later that year by its sequel JJ, and the following year by Space Harrier 3-D which used the SegaScope 3-D shutter glasses. That same year, Sega's Thunder Blade switched between both a top-down view and a third-person view, and featured the use of force feedback, where the joystick vibrates.
Bullet hell and niche appeal (mid-1990s to present)
A new type of shooters up emerged in the early 1990s: variously termed "bullet hell", "manic shooters", "maniac shooters" and , these games required the player to dodge overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and called for still more consistent reactions from players. Bullet hell games arose from the need for 2D shoot 'em up developers to compete with the emerging popularity of 3D games: huge numbers of missiles on screen were intended to impress players. Toaplan's Batsugun (1993) provided the prototypical template for this new breed, with Cave (formed by former employees of Toaplan, including Batsugun's main creator Tsuneki Ikeda, after the latter company collapsed) inventing the type proper with 1995's DonPachi. Bullet hell games marked another point where the shooter genre began to cater to more dedicated players. Games such as Gradius had been more difficult than Space Invaders or Xevious, but bullet hell games were yet more inward-looking and aimed at dedicated fans of the genre looking for greater challenges. While shooter games featuring protagonists on foot largely moved to 3D-based genres, popular, long-running series such as Contra and Metal Slug continued to receive new sequels. Rail shooters have rarely been released in the new millennium, with only Rez and Panzer Dragoon Orta achieving cult recognition.
Treasure's shoot 'em up, Radiant Silvergun (1998), introduced an element of narrative to the genre. It was critically acclaimed for its refined design, though it was not released outside Japan and remains a much sought-after collector's item. Its successor Ikaruga (2001) featured improved graphics and was again acclaimed as one of the best games in the genre. Both Radiant Silvergun and Ikaruga were later released on Xbox Live Arcade. The Touhou Project series spans 23 years and 27 games as of 2019 and was listed in the Guinness World Records in October 2010 for being the "most prolific fan-made shooter series". The genre has undergone something of a resurgence with the release of the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii online services, while in Japan arcade shoot 'em ups retain a deep-rooted niche popularity. Geometry Wars: Retro Evolved was released on Xbox Live Arcade in 2005 and in particular stood out from the various re-releases and casual games available on the service. The PC has also seen its share of dōjin shoot 'em ups like Crimzon Clover, Jamestown: Legend of the Lost Colony, Xenoslaive Overdrive, and the eXceed series. However, despite the genre's continued appeal to an enthusiastic niche of players, shoot 'em up developers are increasingly embattled financially by the power of home consoles and their attendant genres.
See also
Beat 'em up
Space flight simulation game
References
Bibliography
Ashcraft, Brian, (2008) Arcade Mania! The Turbo-Charged World of Japan's Game Centers, (Kodansha International)
External links
Video game genres
Video game terminology | [
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|
252984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Running%20gag | Running gag | A running gag, or running joke, is a literary device that takes the form of an amusing joke or a comical reference and appears repeatedly throughout a work of literature or other form of storytelling. Though they are similar, catchphrases are not considered to be running gags.
Running gags can begin with an instance of unintentional humor that is repeated in variations as the joke grows familiar and audiences anticipate reappearances of the gag. The humor in a running gag may derive entirely from how often it is repeated, however the underlying statement or situation will always be some form of joke. A trivial statement will not become a running gag simply by being repeated. A running gag may also derive its humor from the (in)appropriateness of the situation in which it occurs, or by setting up the audience to expect another occurrence of the joke and then substituting something else (bait and switch). Running gags are found mostly in television shows, but also appear in other places, such as video games, films, books, and comic strips.
A running gag can be verbal or visual and may "convey social values by echoing belligerent speakers with a barrage of caricatured threats." For example, a character may present others with a proposition that is so ridiculous or outrageous it is likely to be self-mocking to the point where the original request has little or no chance of actually being carried out and results in a humorous effect.
See also
Callback (comedy)
Catchphrase
Gimmick
In-joke
Recurring character
Trademark look
References
In-jokes
Narrative techniques | [
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252986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Ancram | Michael Ancram | Michael Andrew Foster Jude Kerr, 13th Marquess of Lothian, Baron Kerr of Monteviot, (born 7 July 1945), commonly known as Michael Ancram, is a British politician and life peer who served as Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party from 2001 to 2005. He was formerly styled Earl of Ancram until he inherited the marquessate in 2004.
Born in London and educated at Ampleforth College, Ancram studied History at Christ Church, Oxford and read Law at the University of Edinburgh. After graduating from Edinburgh, he was called to the Scottish Bar and practised as an advocate before entering politics. He unsuccessfully contested West Lothian in 1970 but was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Berwick and East Lothian at the February 1974 general election and served until the election held in October of that year. He re-entered parliament in 1979, representing Edinburgh South until 1987. During this time, he served as a minister at the Scotland Office in Margaret Thatcher's government.
After being elected to represent Devizes at the 1992 general election, Ancram served at the Northern Ireland Office in John Major's government. When Major was defeated at the 1997 general election, the Conservatives entered opposition and Ancram became Chairman of the Conservative Party under William Hague in 1998, having previously covered constitutional affairs in the Shadow Cabinet. This was followed by a period as Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party under Iain Duncan Smith and Michael Howard, during which time he served in the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Foreign Secretary and Shadow Defence Secretary respectively.
Early life and career
Ancram was born in London and is the elder son and second child of Peter Kerr, 12th Marquess of Lothian and his wife Antonella. He was educated at the Roman Catholic independent school Ampleforth College in North Yorkshire. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in History from Christ Church, Oxford in 1966, later converted to Master of Arts (MA). While studying at Oxford, he was a member of the Bullingdon Club. In 1968, he gained a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) from the University of Edinburgh. He was called to the Scottish Bar in 1970 and practised as an advocate.
Political career
Member of Parliament
Ancram unsuccessfully contested the West Lothian parliamentary seat in 1970. He was first elected to Parliament in the February 1974 general election, when he contested and won the seat of Berwickshire and East Lothian, but lost the seat in the October election of the same year. After losing his seat, he again took up legal practise.
Ancram re-entered Parliament at the 1979 election as the Member of Parliament for Edinburgh South, beating future Prime Minister Gordon Brown. He was a member of the House of Commons Energy Select Committee between 1979 and 1983, and Chairman of the Scottish Conservative and Unionist Party from 1980 to 1983. He was Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Scottish Office with responsibility for Home Affairs, Housing, Local Government, Rating Reform and the Environment from 1983 until 1987. He lost his seat again at the 1987 general election, being one of several prominent Conservatives defeated in Scotland in that contest.
After losing his seat in 1987, Ancram returned to Parliament at the 1992 general election representing Devizes. He was a member of the Public Accounts Committee and Chairman of the backbench Constitutional Affairs Committee from 1992 until May 1993, when he was appointed Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Northern Ireland Office. He was promoted to Minister of State at the Northern Ireland Office in January 1994, and was sworn as a Privy Councillor in January 1996.
Shadow Cabinet and failed leadership bid
After the Conservatives' defeat at the 1997 election, Ancram served in the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Constitutional Affairs Spokesperson from June 1997 to June 1998. He then served as Chairman of the Conservative Party from December 1998 to September 2001.
In 2001, he ran against Iain Duncan Smith, Michael Portillo, Kenneth Clarke and David Davis in the election for the party leadership. In the first poll of Conservative MPs he and David Davis were tied for last place, leading to a re-run in which Ancram was placed bottom. He was eliminated, and Davis withdrew. Both swung their support behind Iain Duncan Smith, who went on to win, beating Clarke in the final vote of party members. Duncan Smith made Ancram Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party and Shadow Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs in September 2001. He remained in this position after Michael Howard took over in 2003.
In the reshuffle following the 2005 election, Ancram was moved to Shadow Secretary of State for Defence but remained deputy leader. He stood down from the Shadow Cabinet in December 2005, following the election of David Cameron as Conservative Party Leader. In January 2006 he was appointed to the Intelligence and Security Committee, replacing James Arbuthnot.
Later years as an MP
Ancram was a founding signatory in 2005 of the Henry Jackson Society principles, advocating a proactive approach to the spread of liberal democracy across the world, including when necessary by military intervention. On 21 April 2006 he became one of the first senior Conservative MPs to call for British troops to withdraw from Iraq, saying it was effectively in a state of civil war and that "It is time now for us to get out of Iraq with dignity and honour while we still can."
In 2006, Ancram set up Global Strategy Forum, a bi-partisan foreign affairs think tank based in London.
From 2008 to 2013, Ancram was chair of foreign policy forum Le Cercle.
Ancram is a founder member of the Top Level Group of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-proliferation, established in October 2009.
On 11 August 2009, Ancram announced that he was to stand down as the MP for Devizes at the 2010 general election due to heart problems. He retired when Parliament was dissolved on 12 April 2010; his successor as Conservative member for the Devizes constituency was Claire Perry.
Personal life
Ancram married Lady Jane Fitzalan-Howard, the fourth daughter of The 16th Duke of Norfolk, who on 7 April 2017 succeeded as the 16th Lady Herries of Terregles. They are both prominent Roman Catholics. She is a Patron of the Right to Life Trust and also a patroness of the Royal Caledonian Ball. The couple have three daughters and two grandchildren:
Sarah Margaret Kerr (13 June 1976 – 13 June 1976)
Lady Clare Therese Kerr (25 January 1979) married to The Right Honourable Nick Hurd, son of former Cabinet Minister, Douglas, Lord Hurd of Westwell in August 2010. Lady Clare is the heiress presumptive to her mother’s title. They have two children:
Leila Rose Hurd (17 May 2012)
Caspar Jamie Hurd (30 September 2014)
Lady Mary Kerr (28 May 1981). She married Zackary Adler on 28 May 2016.
Ancram's younger sister, Lady Cecil Cameron OBE, married Clan Chieftain, Donald Cameron of Lochiel. Another sister, the former Lady Clare Kerr, is now Dowager Countess of Euston and mother of the 12th Duke of Grafton.
Ancram is a keen country music fan and has often played acoustic guitar at Conservative Party conferences. He is a knight of Order of St John and Order of St Lazarus; he was also made a Freeman of Gibraltar in 2010.
He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant for Roxburgh, Ettrick and Lauderdale in 1990. He became a Queen's Counsel (QC) in 1996.
A member of the House of Lords since 2010, he and the Marquess of Cholmondeley (who is currently on a leave of absence) are the only marquesses in the House of Lords. Ancram is hereditary Chief of the Scottish Clan Kerr.
Name and titles
Although his family name is Kerr, Michael Ancram was known from birth by the courtesy title Earl of Ancram as elder son and heir apparent of the 12th Marquess of Lothian. He is said to have dropped the use of this title in favour of plain Mr Michael Ancram after becoming a lawyer, supposedly because he believed it might confuse the jury if any judge were to have addressed him as "My Lord".
Ancram is known to many of his friends as Crumb, a nickname attributed to a party in the sixties at which on arrival Ancram introduced himself as "Lord Ancram" and was duly announced as "Mr Norman Crumb".
Ancram became Marquess of Lothian upon his father's death in October 2004, but did not take up use of this title in public life whilst still sitting as an MP (although properly he should have ceased being styled by the courtesy title of Earl of Ancram). The House of Lords Act 1999 meant that, on acceding to the peerage, he was not disqualified from sitting in the House of Commons as hereditary peers no longer have an automatic right to sit in the House of Lords. Apart from Irish peers, he was, after the Viscount Thurso and Viscount Hailsham, the third person to have sat in the House of Commons while simultaneously being a hereditary peer.
Ancram was created a life peer on 22 November 2010 as Baron Kerr of Monteviot, of Monteviot in Roxburghshire, and was introduced in the House of Lords the same day; by custom, he is referred to by his senior title as The Marquess of Lothian during all parliamentary business and in other official records such as Hansard.
As the Kerr family titles cannot pass through the female line, the heir presumptive to his hereditary titles is his younger brother Lord Ralph Kerr. His elder daughter is her mother's heir presumptive to be Lady Herries of Terregles. Ancram is also one of the five co-heirs to the barony of Butler, abeyant since 1905. Though the most junior heir by primogeniture, he holds the strongest claim, as the other heirs have a lesser share to that title. Upon his death, assuming the barony of Butler is not called out of abeyance, his share will be subdivided between his two daughters.
Arms
Notelist
References
External links
Ask Aristotle: Michael Ancram MP Guardian Unlimited Politics
Michael Ancram MP TheyWorkForYou.com
The Public Whip – Michael Ancram MP Voting record
Michael Ancram BBC News, 17 October 2002
www.globalstrategyforum.org
Debrett's People of Today
geni.com
www.burkespeerage.com
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1945 births
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh School of Law
British Roman Catholics
Chairmen of the Conservative Party (UK)
Kerr of Monteviot
Knights of Malta
Living people
Members of the Faculty of Advocates
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Edinburgh constituencies
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Scottish Conservative Party MPs
Hereditary peers elected to the House of Commons
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Ampleforth College
Politicians from London
Recipients of the Order of Saint Lazarus (statuted 1910)
Scottish clan chiefs
Scottish Queen's Counsel
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
Lothian, Michael Ancram, 11th Marquess
Marquesses of Lothian
Northern Ireland Office junior ministers
Scottish people of Italian descent
Deputy Lieutenants in Scotland
Bullingdon Club members
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
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|
252987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour-Geddon | Armour-Geddon | Armour-Geddon is a 3D video game developed and published in 1991 by Psygnosis for the Amiga, MS-DOS and Atari ST.
In 1994, a sequel was released, titled Armour-Geddon 2: Codename Hellfire. Unlike the original Armour-Geddon, it was only released for Amiga, and it was only released in Europe.
Plot
The setting for the game is post-nuclear holocaust Earth, where a privileged group of humans have made it through the war in purpose-built shelters while rest of the humankind suffered. People outside, disapproving how they have been treated, have secretly constructed a laser cannon to even the score.
Gameplay
The player takes the side of the Sheltered ones trying to prevent the outsiders from shooting the cannon. This is possible only by collecting all five pieces of an ancient neutron bomb and dropping it on the hostile beam cannon. In addition to this, the player must defend the base from enemy attacks and gain time by destroying generators powering the beam weapon.
There is a strategic view where player can allocate scientists to develop more effective weapons and engineers to manufacture them. In the 3D vehicle simulation, the player can pilot six different vehicles in the battlefield including heavy and light tanks, hovercraft, helicopters, fighters and bombers.
Reception
Derek Godat reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "All things considered, Armour-Geddon does much to recommend itself to anyone looking for a well-balanced sim."
1992 and 1994 surveys of science fiction games in Computer Gaming World gave the title two of five stars, writing that "it can be fun, but resembles a Chinese take-out restaurant, i.e. a half-hour later, you are hungry for something with substance".
References
External links
1991 video games
Amiga games
Atari ST games
DOS games
Helicopter video games
Post-apocalyptic video games
Psygnosis games
Strategy video games
Vehicular combat games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by Tim Wright (Welsh musician) | [
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|
252988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Perfect%20General | The Perfect General | The Perfect General is a computer wargame published in 1991 by Quantum Quality Productions.
Publication
The game was designed by Peter Zaccagnino and published in 1991 for the Amiga and DOS. A sequel, The Perfect General II, was released in 1994. The original game was modified for the 3DO by Game Guild in 1996 and published by Kirin Entertainment. The 3DO version includes a few scenarios which are absent from the personal computer versions. A refurbished version is available for Windows since 2003.
The rights for the original version were purchased by Mark Kinkead in 2002, and later released in 2003 as "The Perfect General Internet Edition" by Killer Bee Software. As the name suggests, this version can be played via Internet.
Gameplay
The game is a turn-based map-oriented military simulation game. Along with Modem Wars and Populous, it was one of the early games offering an online mode for real-time-matches via telecommunication networks. The original online-game was played via modem or null modem serial connection.
Reception
The Perfect General sold 75,000 copies by June 1993. Computer Gaming World in 1992 described The Perfect General as "a wonderful game system with a mediocre AI and great two-player potential", and later named it the best wargame of the year. A 1993 survey in the magazine of wargames gave the game three-plus stars out of five, stating that it "sacrifices realism for playability". A 1994 survey gave the Greatest Battles of the 20th Century two-plus stars out of five, noting the game's ease of use and "enjoyable", but inaccurate, scenarios.
In 1996, Computer Gaming World declared The Perfect General the 107th-best computer game ever released. The magazine's wargame columnist Terry Coleman named it his pick for the 12th-best computer wargame released by late 1996.
Reviews
Casus Belli #71 (Sep 1992)
References
External links
Killer Bee Software: The Perfect General Internet Edition
1991 video games
Amiga games
Computer wargames
DOS games
Online games
Ubisoft games
Video games developed in the United States
3DO Interactive Multiplayer games | [
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252989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubens%20Barrichello | Rubens Barrichello | Rubens "Rubinho" Gonçalves Barrichello (, ; born 23 May 1972) is a Brazilian racing driver who competed in Formula One between and . He scored 11 Grand Prix wins and 68 podiums.
Barrichello drove for Ferrari from to , as Michael Schumacher's teammate, finishing as championship runner-up in and , and third in , while contributing to five constructors' titles for the team. At the end of 2005 Barrichello left Ferrari to drive for Honda. In 2009, he finished third in the Drivers' Championship for Brawn GP, as his teammate Jenson Button won the driver's championship, and the team won the constructors' title. He was also appointed chairman of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association in 2010.
After two years with the Williams F1 team, Barrichello moved to the IndyCar Series in 2012 with KV Racing Technology. After only one year and being unable to find a ride for the 2013 season, he moved back to Brazil to participate in the Brazilian Stock Car V8 Series, winning the championship in 2014 while driving for Full Time Sports.
In 2013 he started covering F1 race weekends for Brazil's TV Globo, interviewing drivers and team members on the grid and commentating during qualifying and race coverages.
Early life
The paternal side of his family comes from Veneto, Italy (from the town of Riese, in the province of Treviso). His maternal side of the family is of Portuguese origin. Both his father and paternal grandfather are also named Rubens, and Barrichello shares his father's birthday: 23 May. Therefore, Rubens Barrichello was known as Rubinho (Portuguese for "little Rubens"), which has become his nickname.
Barrichello won five karting titles in Brazil before going to Europe to race in the Formula Vauxhall Lotus series in 1990. In his first year, he won the championship, a feat he replicated the following year in the British Formula 3 Championship, beating David Coulthard. He very nearly joined Formula One, the highest category of single seater racing, at just 19 years of age. Instead he competed in Formula 3000 in 1992. He finished third in the championship, and joined the Jordan Formula One team for the 1993 Formula One season. During this time, and also early in his Formula One career, Barrichello lived in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, UK.
Formula One career
Jordan (1993–1996)
In Barrichello's third race, the , he started from 12th place in very wet conditions but was fourth by the end of the first lap. He ran as high as second and was running third, having passed the Williams of Damon Hill and Alain Prost, before encountering a fuel pressure problem. His Jordan's reliability in 1993 was poor, and he finished few races. Barrichello regularly outpaced his more experienced teammates, Ivan Capelli and Thierry Boutsen. In the , he almost scored his first Grand Prix point (and the team's first that year) but Michael Andretti passed him on the final lap for the sixth and final points-scoring position. His only points finish of the season came at the with fifth place, ahead of his new teammate Eddie Irvine. These 2 points put him in 18th place in the standings.
started with a fourth place in Brazil and a third place at Aida, which was his first podium position. These results put Barrichello in second place in the drivers' ranking, behind Michael Schumacher, who had won the two races. However, at the , he suffered a violent crash during Friday practice, hitting the wall at the Variante Bassa and flipping the car. The accident knocked him unconscious and threatened his life, with his tongue blocking his airway. Barrichello credited the on-track work of Sid Watkins for saving his life. The race weekend saw a succession of serious accidents, of which two were fatal: Roland Ratzenberger died during Saturday's qualifying session when he crashed his Simtek at the curva Villeneuve, while on Sunday, during the race, Barrichello's mentor Ayrton Senna crashed his Williams at Tamburello and also died. Barrichello was deeply affected by the deaths.
Later in the season, he took pole position at the , and led some laps at Estoril. His pole position at Spa-Francorchamps set the record for the youngest driver to secure pole position at that time. He concluded the season with fourth place in Adelaide. He finished the season sixth overall in the Drivers' Championship with 19 points, outscoring Irvine, who scored six.
During the season, Barrichello scored a second-place finish in Montreal, but the Jordan cars were less reliable than in 1994 mostly because Jordan took over the works Peugeot engine contract from the McLaren team. In three races he lost seven points on the final lap—a high-speed collision with Mark Blundell at Silverstone, and mechanical failures at Barcelona and in Hungary. Barrichello finished the season in 11th with 11 points, one ahead of Irvine.
There were high hopes for . The Benson & Hedges cigarette brand brought an infusion of sponsorship to the team. Barrichello was amongst the frontrunners in Brazil, the second race of the season, before spinning off after his brakes overheated. However, as the season progressed, Jordan became less competitive. Barrichello's relationship with team owner Eddie Jordan soured during 1996, and at the end of the year, after being linked to strong teams, including Benetton (the seat was later filled by Gerhard Berger due to the Austrian bringing in more sponsorship), he left for the newly formed Stewart Grand Prix. His final season at Jordan resulted in 14 points.
Stewart (1997–1999)
Stewart's debut season in saw frequent reliability problems, and Barrichello finished only three races. The highlight was a second-place finish in Monaco, which put him 13th in the standings. Teammate Jan Magnussen scored no points. The same year, Barrichello married Silvana Giaffone on 24 February. She is a cousin of Brazilian Indy Car driver Felipe Giaffone and a niece of the Stock Car Brasil champions, Affonso Giaffone Filho and Zeca Giaffone.
was not much better for Stewart, with two fifth places being the team's best results. Despite the poor reliability of the team, Barrichello consistently beat teammate Magnussen, which resulted in the latter being dropped at the , replaced by Jos Verstappen, another teammate beaten by Barrichello.
was a much better year for the Stewart team. Barrichello qualified third at his home race in Brazil, outpacing Michael Schumacher's Ferrari, and led some laps, until his engine blew near 'Subida dos Boxes'. He also took pole position in the wet qualifying session in France, and three podium finishes, at the San Marino, French, and European Grands Prix. The latter race was won by his teammate Johnny Herbert. Despite this, Barrichello again generally outpaced his teammate. Over the course of the year, he caught the eye of Ferrari boss Jean Todt, and he was signed for the season.
Ferrari (2000–2005)
In , Barrichello achieved his first Grand Prix victory at the at Hockenheim, when he and the team chose to stay on dry-weather tyres when it was raining on part of the circuit. This risky call saw him leap-frog the McLarens who chose to pit for wet weather tyres to win the race, having started from 18th on the grid. This was the longest any driver in Formula One history had waited for a maiden Grand Prix win at the time. Barrichello had a consistent debut season for Ferrari, finishing most races on the podium, but was outscored by Michael Schumacher, Mika Häkkinen and David Coulthard. Barrichello finished the season ranked fourth after supporting Schumacher as he battled and defeated Häkkinen for the Drivers' Championship, and helping Ferrari win the Constructors' Championship.
Barrichello finished the season in third place, achieving a total of 10 podium finishes and scoring a total of 56 championship points. He nearly achieved a win in Monza, in which the Ferrari pit crew performed badly. He finished the season winless, and again he played a major supporting role for Schumacher, helping him win his second Drivers' Championship with Ferrari and helping the team win the Constructors' Championship for the third consecutive year.
Barrichello's success at Ferrari continued in , when he won four races for the team and finished a career-best second place in the Drivers' Championship, scoring 77 championship points. The year was marked by controversy, however, when Ferrari team orders required Barrichello to allow the trailing Schumacher to pass him on the final straight of the to take victory. Schumacher exchanged podium places with Barrichello at the podium ceremony and gave Barrichello the winner's trophy. The drivers were fined for disrupting podium protocol and Ferrari's blatant team orders led to the FIA banning team orders beginning in .
Barrichello finished the season in fourth place, scoring 65 points, including wins at Silverstone and Suzuka, and again played a crucial role in helping Schumacher and Ferrari win the drivers' and Constructors' Championships. In the season, Barrichello finished second behind Schumacher in only seven of the first thirteen races, but he won both the 2004 Italian Grand Prix and the 2004 Chinese Grand Prix to clinch second place in the championship, finishing the year with 114 points and 14 podiums. Though Barrichello had good cars during his Ferrari era, his best result at his home race was a third place in 2004. He failed to finish eleven of the fifteen Brazilian Grands Prix in which he has competed.
In the season, Ferrari lacked the pace of previous years because of the changing of tyre rules. Ferrari used Bridgestone tyres, which were less effective than those of their competitors Michelin. Barrichello's best results this season were two second places in Melbourne and then at the at Indianapolis, when all the Michelin-running cars retired after the formation lap, leaving only six cars in the race. He finished the season in eighth place in the drivers' standings with 38 points, his worst season with Ferrari.
Honda (2006–2008)
In August 2005 he announced that he would be leaving Ferrari at the end of the year to join Honda. Barrichello's lucky number is "11," which was the number his kart bore when he won his first race. In , his new teammate Jenson Button gave Barrichello the number for his car in goodwill. Barrichello was initially outpaced by Button, and claimed that the car did not suit his driving style, particularly under braking. After modifications to the car he was able to be more competitive. In Monaco, he nearly got his first podium with the team, but then he was given a drive-through penalty for speeding in the pit lane and finished fourth. Though he lost a podium, it was the best result at the Monaco Grand Prix for Honda (as a team) or any Japanese team. For the race Barrichello exchanged helmet liveries with Tony Kanaan, a Brazilian Indy Car driver and one of his best friends. On the same weekend, Kanaan raced in the 2006 Indianapolis 500 race using Barrichello's helmet livery. Barrichello qualified third for the , ahead of Schumacher and Räikkönen. He finished the season seventh in the drivers' standings with 30 points, 26 behind Button.
Barrichello did not score any points during the 2007 season, because of the Honda RA107's lack of pace. Despite retiring only twice, a ninth place in the British Grand Prix was his best result of the season and he only once qualified in the top 10. Despite this, Honda confirmed on 19 July 2007, that Barrichello would remain with the team as a race driver for the season. This gave him the opportunity of making the five race starts he required to break Riccardo Patrese's record for the driver that has started the most Grands Prix, a record that had stood for 14 years.
In the first race of the 2008 season, Barrichello qualified 10th, ahead of Button. He finished 6th but was disqualified for ignoring a red light at the pit exit. He also received a stop-and-go penalty during the race for entering the pits while they were closed during a safety car period. In Malaysia, gearbox problems limited his performance and he finished 13th. In Bahrain he again finished out of the points.
The was Barrichello's 257th Grand Prix, breaking Patrese's record of 256 Grand Prix starts and becoming the most experienced driver in F1 history. The particular Grand Prix at which he broke this record has been disputed, as he technically did not start some races, such as the 2002 Spanish Grand Prix, but Barrichello and Honda chose Turkey to be the location of the official celebrations.
In Monaco, he scored his first points since 2006 and in Canada he scored consecutive points, finishing 7th after starting in 9th position. He led some laps because of the appearance of the safety car, but fell back down the order towards the end of the race. At Magny-Cours, Barrichello did not repeat his performance from the two previous races and qualified in 17th. After a gearbox change, he dropped to 20th. In the race, he finished 14th.
At Silverstone, which he said he considers to be his second home, he qualified 16th, outpacing Button. With heavy rain on race day, through good use of an extreme wet tyre he finished 3rd, achieving his first podium since 2005. However, in Germany, a collision with David Coulthard ended his hopes for points. In Hungary, he was lapped by the leader, repeating the same performance in Valencia. In Belgium he qualified 16th but had to retire because of a gearbox fault. At a wet Monza, he was second-fastest in Friday practice and started from 16th on the grid. He managed to get up to 9th but as a result of using the wrong type of tyre in his second pit stop he ended up 17th. At the first ever night race in Singapore he was in a good position to score some points after pitting before the pit lane closed for the safety car period, but shortly afterwards the engine failed and he had to retire. In Japan he started from 17th on the grid, but managed to get up to 13th by the end of the race. In China he managed to get into Q2 for the first time in ten races, and would have started 14th. But after Mark Webber had his ten place penalty for an engine change added he was moved up to 13th. On race day he had a good start, and got up to 10th early on and held a strong mid-table position all race and finished 11th, five places ahead of Button, who had struggled all weekend.
At his home Grand Prix in Brazil, he was sporting an alternative helmet design in tribute to Ingo Hoffmann, and finished 15th.
On 5 December 2008 Honda announced that they were quitting F1, because of the economic crisis. This led to months of uncertainty as to whether a buyer could be found, and whether they would retain Barrichello.
Brawn GP (2009)
Just weeks before the season opener in Melbourne, team manager Ross Brawn purchased the Honda team, renaming it Brawn GP and removing the threat of possible closure. Barrichello was the subject of persistent rumours suggesting he would lose his seat to the young Bruno Senna, nephew of his friend, idol and mentor Ayrton Senna. Ultimately Brawn elected to retain Barrichello to partner Jenson Button in 2009. At Barcelona during the final pre-season test, both Barrichello and Button surprised the paddock with extremely competitive lap times, outperforming others by as much as two seconds, and foreshadowing the performance the team would show in the early races.
In Melbourne, Barrichello topped the timesheets in the first two elements of qualifying, but qualified second on the grid behind teammate Button. Despite a poor start caused by his engine slipping into anti-stall, he did well to recover and lost only a couple of positions at the start. However, he sustained damage to the front wing and rear diffuser in the first corner incident when he was bumped from behind by Heikki Kovalainen in his McLaren that saw him hit Mark Webber in the Red Bull damaging Webber's car as well as his hopes of a good finish. Despite this, Barrichello ultimately finished the race in second place after Sebastian Vettel and Robert Kubica collided with just 2 laps remaining. He started eighth in Malaysia after getting a grid penalty for a gearbox change and finished the race in fifth place after the race was abandoned at Sepang due to heavy rain.
At Shanghai, he outpaced Button in qualifying, but struggled with his car's brakes when one of them stopped working in the first stint and finished in fourth, recording the race's fastest lap. In Bahrain, his front wing adjustor failed during his qualifying run thereby compromising his aggressive 3-pit-stop race strategy, and thus managed only fifth place. He qualified third on the grid for the , but overtook Button and second place man Vettel on the first straight, to lead the race in the first corner. He was unable to capitalise on his three-stop strategy as a result of a lack of pace caused by massive amounts of understeer on his third set of tyres in his third stint, finishing behind Button, who changed to a 2-stop strategy during the race.
At Monaco, Barrichello was pipped for pole by a late-charging Button and Ferrari's Kimi Räikkönen. A good start saw him leapfrog the Finn into Sainte Devote. Barrichello's supersoft tyres did not last as well as Button's in the first stint and he pitted earlier than planned, and Button took a commanding lead. The top three remained unchanged for the duration of the race, save some reshuffling during the pit stop windows. At the completion of lap 47, Barrichello became the driver who has completed most laps in Formula One history, surpassing Michael Schumacher's total of 13,909 laps. In Turkey, he again had gearbox problems and retired for the first time in the season, leaving Button to increase his points advantage, while in Britain, Barrichello qualified second behind Vettel, before beating Button for the first time in 2009 en route to third place.
In Germany, Barrichello took the lead at the first corner but after his first stop, he came out behind Felipe Massa who held him up. A fuel rig problem during his second stop meant that he finished the race in sixth, a place behind teammate Jenson Button. After the race he publicly blamed Brawn GP saying "It was a good show from the team in how to lose a race" and "They made me lose the race". Team principal Ross Brawn said of the incident "He had the 11th-fastest time of the race. You can't win a race with that speed". However, he refused to criticize Barrichello for his outburst. Barrichello has since admitted he overreacted, and he would not have won as the Red Bull cars were half a second a lap quicker than him.
In Hungary, the Brawn cars struggled and lacked pace because of problems with the tyres and aerodynamics. Barrichello finished 10th, his first finish outside the points in 2009, and three places behind Button. In Valencia, Barrichello took his 10th Grand Prix win, his first in five years and the 100th win by a Brazilian driver in Formula One, allowing him to move up to 2nd in the Championship. He paid tribute to injured compatriot Felipe Massa with a plaque on the top of his race helmet.
At Spa, he qualified 4th, but suffered from anti-stall for the third time in 2009 and he found himself last, but missed the first lap crash which took out four drivers including teammate Button. While the safety car was out he pitted and changed strategy which enabled him to climb back up to 7th. During the last three laps the car had an engine oil leak, but he still managed to finish, before his car caught fire in the pit lane after the race. At Monza, he qualified 5th, despite carrying more fuel to try a different strategy with only one stop. After passing Kovalainen at the start, Barrichello managed not to lose too much time, as he had the advantage of just one stop against Hamilton, Räikkönen and Sutil's two-stop strategy. By Hamilton's second pit stop, Button and Barrichello were running first and second. Hamilton tried to pressure Button by forcing his car, but on the last lap he crashed, giving third place to Räikkönen, and fourth to Sutil. Barrichello won the 11th race in his Formula One career, and gained more points on Button in their fight for the world title.
In Singapore, he had to change his gearbox and take a five place grid penalty. During qualifying he crashed his car while in fifth place. As a result of Nick Heidfeld starting from the pitlane, Barrichello would start 9th and finished sixth, while Button finished fifth. In Japan, he originally qualified 5th, but was given a five place grid penalty for failing to slow down during a yellow flag situation near the end of Q2 when Sébastien Buemi crashed. He was on course to finish fifth with Button behind, which would have been enough for Brawn GP to clinch the Constructors' Championship, but a safety car period in the closing stages of the race for Jaime Alguersuari's crash meant that Nico Rosberg and Heidfeld were able to stay out ahead and save fuel, dropping Barrichello to seventh. With Button finishing eighth, Barrichello closed the points deficit to fourteen and putting Brawn almost out of reach for the Constructors' title.
In Brazil, Barrichello claimed pole in a rain-soaked, qualifying session with title rivals Button and Vettel down the order in 14th and 16th, respectively. A puncture cost Barrichello a chance of taking the title to the final race, as he failed to secure enough of an advantage over Button to do so. Button finished fifth to become champion. In Abu Dhabi he qualified and finished 4th. With Vettel winning the race, he secured second in the standings, with Barrichello finishing third in the championship with 77 points.
Williams (2010–2011)
In 2010, Barrichello was offered a contract by McLaren. He did not accept because he had already signed a contract with Williams, and did not want to renege on his pledge to that team. The McLaren seat was ultimately filled by Barrichello's 2009 teammate Jenson Button. On 2 November 2009, Williams confirmed Barrichello and Nico Hülkenberg as their official race drivers for the season. This meant that Barrichello would be in Formula One for at least another season, and would go on to become the first driver in Formula One history to compete in over 300 Grands Prix.
In pre-season testing, Barrichello finished at the top of the timesheets once, because of rain. In some sessions, he was outpaced by his rookie teammate Hülkenberg. Williams was the second team in terms of kilometres covered and showed some reliability, but were off pace from front-runners Red Bull, Ferrari, and McLaren.
At the first race of the season in Bahrain, Barrichello qualified eleventh on the grid, and finished tenth in the race. In Australia, he went on to finish eighth, moving him to within two points of Senna's mark. He stalled on the grid in Malaysia due to an overheating clutch, but recovered to twelfth place at the finish. In China, he finished twelfth again. In Spain he benefited from Lewis Hamilton's late crash to score two points, finishing in 9th, despite starting 18th on the grid and equalling Senna's record.
In Monaco, he qualified ninth and moved up to sixth position through the first corner. Later, he had a suspension failure caused by a loose drain cover and crashed heavily. After crashing he threw the car's steering wheel out, as he was sitting in the middle of a 120 mph corner with his car on fire. This was then run over by Karun Chandhok's Hispania.
At the , he qualified fifteenth. Due to an overheating clutch at the start, he dropped down to 20th position. A poor pit stop failed to help his cause and he finished in fourteenth position. It was similar at the , when Barrichello again finished in fourteenth. He qualified eleventh, narrowly missing Q3 but his anti-stall system kicked in at the start of the race. After recovering well, he later collided with Jaime Alguersuari when Alguersuari came across too late to cover his line, the damage blocking Barrichello's left brake duct.
In Valencia, the Williams team brought big upgrades and ran their version of the F-duct. Barrichello qualified ninth with the same time as his teammate Hülkenberg. He was running seventh when the safety car was deployed at the end of lap nine, and pulled straight into the pits. When the safety car pitted he was able to fend off Kubica to finish fourth, his highest finish so far of the season. Post-race, nine cars were investigated for speeding under the safety car, and were later given a five-second penalty. This made no difference to Barrichello's position, and he became the highest-scoring Brazilian driver in Formula One history, overhauling Ayrton Senna's career tally of 614 points, that Barrichello had been tied on since the . He added further points to his total with fifth at Silverstone, and tenth in Hungary, with a twelfth at Hockenheim in between.
Barrichello celebrated his 300th Grand Prix at the , but retired in damp conditions after colliding with Fernando Alonso's Ferrari on the first lap. Before the race, he was elected as Chairman of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association to replace the outgoing Nick Heidfeld.
At Monza, he qualified in tenth, and had a rather lonely run in the race to finish in the same place to score another point. In Singapore, the FW32 sported a new front wing, and Barrichello put this to good use to set the sixth fastest time in qualifying, although Williams technical director Sam Michael reckoned the car was fast enough to be a couple of positions higher. In the race despite losing places to Robert Kubica and Nico Rosberg at the start, Barrichello had a solid run to sixth at the finish. In Japan, he qualified in a strong seventh, he raced strongly before fading to ninth as he was overtaken by the two Saubers towards the closing stages of the race.
In Korea he qualified tenth despite being blocked by Michael Schumacher. In a wet race he suffered heavy tyre wear on the intermediates that he was running on, and in the closing stages of the race he was passed by Robert Kubica and Vitantonio Liuzzi, dropping him to seventh place at the finish. At Interlagos he qualified a strong sixth in variable conditions with teammate Hülkenberg starting from pole position. After a delayed pitstop, his traditional bad luck on home soil returned when he suffered a puncture after briefly colliding with Jaime Alguersuari, costing him any chance of scoring points. In Abu Dhabi he again qualified strongly in seventh place, and maintained that position shortly after the start. However, when the safety car was deployed following Michael Schumacher's and Vitantonio Liuzzi's crash, many drivers like Robert Kubica, Vitaly Petrov and Nico Rosberg took advantage of this by pitting early. This had a negative effect as they did not need to pit again, and Barrichello finished outside of the points.
On 15 November 2010, Williams confirmed Barrichello as one of the team's drivers for the season. His teammate in 2011 was Pastor Maldonado.
In Australia he retired with a transmission problem. He retired again in Malaysia with leaking hydraulics. He finished outside the points in the next three races before a pair of ninth places in Monaco and Canada. He came twelfth in Valencia, and thirteenth in Britain, but retired in Germany because of an oil leak. After that, he finished every race outside the points, but made no further retirements. His final race at the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix was a quiet farewell where he finished 14th, ahead of former teammate Michael Schumacher.
On 17 January 2012, Williams confirmed that Bruno Senna would replace Barrichello at Williams for the season.
Planned comeback with Caterham (2014)
Former Caterham F1 team principal Manfredi Ravetto said in an interview that a contract was signed with Barrichello to replace Kamui Kobayashi for the final three races of the season, providing the car would be competitive. It was not, and the Caterham team went into administration, so Barrichello did not join the team.
IndyCar career
On 25 January 2012, American journalist Robin Miller reported that Barrichello was to test an IndyCar for KV Racing Technology with friend Tony Kanaan. The test was held at Sebring over 30–31 January and 1 February. He also tested for the team at Infineon Raceway in late February.
On 1 March 2012 Barrichello joined KV Racing Technology for the 2012 season, to drive the team's number eight entry alongside Kanaan and E. J. Viso, sponsored by Brazilian construction company, Embrase. Barrichello raced in his first Indianapolis 500 on 27 May 2012. He led a total of two laps and finished 11th, and in doing so won the 2012 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year title. During the rest of the season he took two top six finishes, and finished the year in 12th position in the championship.
South America
Barrichello joined a Peugeot team of the Brazilian racing series Stock Car Brasil for the final three races of the 2012 season as a guest driver. Since 2013 he drives a Chevrolet as a regular member of the Full Time Sports team. Since Nonô Figueiredo already used the number 11, Barrichello's lucky number, he chose 111 instead. In the 2013 season, he finished the season in 8th place overall, with a best race result was a second-place finish.
Continuing to drive a Chevrolet for Full Time Sports in 2014, Barrichello was crowned the 2014 champion, winning two races and securing a further 4 podium finishes. This was Barrichello's first championship in 23 years, dating back to his 1991 British Formula 3 title. In 2015, Barrichello finished in 4th place overall. In 2016 he claimed three wins and nine podiums, finishing second overall behind Felipe Fraga. The driver finished 5th in 2017, 4th in 2018 and 5th in 2019, earning multiple wins each year.
In 2020, Toyota sent him to Argentina to compete in the Super TC 2000 and Top Race V6 championships.
Helmet
Barrichello's helmet is white with an orange-red oval shape on the rear, an orange-red shape around the visor, an orange red line under the helmet and a blue circle on the top with azure and sky blue cylinders—similar to those on the helmet of former world champion Emerson Fittipaldi—with a golden star in the middle (usually five-pointed, although the recent designs had it six-pointed). The white part of the helmet changed to silver for some races during the 1999 season. After signing for Ferrari in 2000, teammate Michael Schumacher changed the colours of his helmet at the Monaco Grand Prix to avoid confusion, since the two drivers' original helmet colours were identical (the only real difference being that Schumacher's helmet had a red band which wrapped around its back from the visor, fading into gold and back).
At the 2001 Brazilian Grand Prix, the oval shape and the shape around the visor were painted to resemble the Brazilian flag, and at his 300th Grand Prix, his helmet once again carried the Brazilian flag colours. At the 2006 Monaco Grand Prix he had the helmet livery of fellow Brazilian and good friend Tony Kanaan, who in turn had Barrichello's helmet livery while racing in 2006 Indianapolis 500 which was held on the same day because they said it would be the closest either of them would get to competing in the biggest race of the year of the category the other raced in. At the 2008 Brazilian Grand Prix, Barrichello drove with a helmet in tribute to Ingo Hoffmann, former F1 driver and multiple Stock Car Brasil champion who was retiring that year. At the 1995 and 2011 Brazilian Grands Prix, he wore a helmet painted to include elements of his own helmet design, and the classic design of Ayrton Senna's helmet.
During the 2009 season he used the Brawn GP fluorescent colours on his helmet.
Racing record
Career summary
† As Barrichello was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score points.
* Season still in progress.
Complete International Formula 3000 results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap)
Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.
Half-points awarded as less than 75% of race distance was completed.
Complete IndyCar Series results
(key)
** Podium (Non-win) indicates 2nd- or 3rd-place finishes
*** Top 10s (Non-podium) indicates 4th- through 10th-place finishes
Indianapolis 500
Complete Stock Car Brasil results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap)
‡ Ineligible for championship points.
† Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.
* Season still in progress.
Complete IMSA SportsCar Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap)
24 Hours of Daytona
24 Hours of Le Mans
Personal life
Barrichello lives in São Paulo. For commuting between races, Barrichello owned an Embraer Legacy 600 (s/n 14500802).
Barrichello formerly held the fastest time by a Formula One driver around the Top Gear test track during the show's Star in a Reasonably Priced Car segment. His lap time of 1:44.3 put him ahead of the Stig by 0.1 seconds. This led to Jeremy Clarkson making frequent references to the Stig developing a deep-seated hatred of Barrichello.
In February 2018, Barrichello was rushed to hospital after suffering headaches where it was discovered that he had a benign tumour which was later removed.
On F1's podcast, "Beyond The Grid", he revealed he got divorced in 2019.
Barrichello's son Eduardo Barrichello is also a racing driver, currently competing in the U.S. F2000 National Championship.
References
External links
Rubens Barrichello at Driver Database
1972 births
Living people
Racing drivers from São Paulo
Brazilian racing drivers
Brazilian people of Italian descent
Brazilian Formula One drivers
Brazilian IndyCar Series drivers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
International Formula 3000 drivers
EFDA Nations Cup drivers
Brazilian expatriates in Monaco
Brazilian expatriates in Portugal
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in England
Stock Car Brasil drivers
Jordan Formula One drivers
Stewart Formula One drivers
Ferrari Formula One drivers
Honda Formula One drivers
Brawn Formula One drivers
Williams Formula One drivers
Formula One race winners
IndyCar Series drivers
Indianapolis 500 drivers
Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year
24 Hours of Daytona drivers
Rolex Sports Car Series drivers
Brazilian WeatherTech SportsCar Championship drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers | [
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|
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